r inne i} ’ F ee. ort ‘Wedd ~~ - aytMe - Nature A WEEKLY ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL OF SCIENCE VOLUMEXXXT! MAY 1885 to OCTOBER 1885 “To the solid ground Of Nature trusts the mind which builds for aye.”—WoRDSWORTR London and Fleto Pork MACMILLAN AND €O 1885 - - oe a . ans - , 4 _ = z Es -< 4 f ; . ff ‘ | A. 2 - = > “ 4 LONDON: — ie RICHARD CLAY AND SONS, PRINTERS, aeg= ‘BREAD STREET HILL, E.C. SAGA De i X Saute oe as é Pee: eRe + : ee : 2. a oe =t ot “ig rh ae ‘St: wey. x : i X mt BUN Sp, Horna) a ¥. ; ¥ ae | “The fag ? 2, ee 2 3 ye i “8 oe : ae Sine “ oa ae hd) ti ra Ss Na'ure, Dei ’ PING Xx AA (R. van der), ‘‘ Papuans and Melanesians,” 16 D’ Abbadie (Antoine), ‘Yime—Thunderbolts—Vision—Sunglows, 2 Pian -Abakanowice, a New Integraph, 519 Abercromby (Hon. Ralph), Upper Wind Currents over the Equator, 624 Aberdeen, on the Occurrence of Lumfenus lampetriformis and Gadiculus argentens off, Francis Day, 223 Aberdeen, Meeting of the British Association at, 437 Aberystwith, Fire at University College of Wales at, 254 Abney (Capt.), Lecture Experiments on Colour Mixtures, 263 Abnormal Development: Dr. J. G. Garson on Abnormal and Arrested Development as an Induction of Evolutionary History, 589 Aboriginals, the ‘‘ Sakeis” of the Malay Peninsula, 428 Abstract Science, Sir Lyon Playfair on, 445 Academy, the Uses of an, 608 Academy of Science in Indiana, Proposed State, 633 Acland (Right Hon. Sir Thomas), Review of Agricultural Experiments by the, 362 Acta Mathematica, 302 Actiniz, on the Chromatology of, Dr. McMunn, 68 Aéronautics: Proposed Aéronautical Exhibition, 111; Aéro- nautical Society of Great Britain, 111 ; Gower’s Experiments in Aérial Navigation, 133; Supposed Loss of Mr, F. A. Gower, 329. See also Balloons. Afghan Boundary Commission, Botany of the, 35 Afghan Delimitation Commission, 164; Dr. J. E. P. Aitchison, F.R.S., 226 Afghanistan, the Electric Light in, 134 Africa : Proposal for Systematisation of Scientific Observation in, Dr. Habenicht, 64; Discovery by Major Serpa Pinto of Coal-Fields in, 164; Projected New African Expedition (Geographical Society), 184; Exploration of the Mobangi River, 281 ; Proposed New Political Map of, 356 ; Buonfanti’s Journey Across, 357; Dr. Oscar Lenz’s Expedition, 357 ; the Dutch African Expedition, 403; Portuguese Explo- rations in, 429; the African Natural History Col- lections of Dr. Nachtigal, 493; Kumoured Massacre of Massari’s Italian African Expedition, 493; Dis- covery by Lieut. Weissmann.of- Fall of Kassai River into Lake Leopold II., 495; Exploration of Kilima-njaro, 530; Weissmann’s Exploration. of the Kassai River, 581; Manners and Customs of the Bantu Tribes, 589 “ After-Glows,” 239 After-Images : on Certain Stag:s of Ocular, H. Frank New a 773; Ocular Images and, W. M. Laurin, 197; Ocular, an Lightning, Shelford Bidwell, tor ; A. S. Davis, 126 After-Sunglow at Stockholm, 635 Agamemnone (Dr.), Experiments on Density of Gases and Air, 48 Agricultural Experiments by the Right Hon. Sir Thomas Dyke Acland, 362 ‘* Agricultural Grasses of the United States,” Dr. Geo. Vasey, Prof. W. Fream, 525 iS Agricultural Note-Book, W. C. Taylor, 623 Air, Dr. Agamemnone’s Experiments on Density of, 43 Airy (Hubert), a White Swallow, 523 Aitchison (Dr, J. E. T., F.R.S.), Afghan Delimitation Com- mis-ion, 226 Alaska Glacier, Movement of, 162 Albania, on the Flint-Knappers’ Art in, A. J. Evans, F.S.A., 588 Albanian Coast, Austrian Geographical Survey of, 403 Aldebaran : Daylight-Occultation of, on May 22, 1868, 86; on July 9, 1885, 183; Occultation of, on November 22, 610 Alert Expedition to Hudson’s Bay, 114; Return of the, 611 Algze, Text-Books on, 101 Algebra for Schools, Elementary, H. S. Hall and S. R. Knight, 388 Algebra, Lessons Introductory to the Modern Higher, George Salmon, 411 Algiers, Proposed Use of Electric Light for Night-work at Harvest, 162 Algol, Minima of, 86 Algology of the Black Sea, Reinhardt, 579 Allen (Alfred H.), ‘* Commercial Organic Ana'ysis,” 410 Allen (F. J.), ‘‘ Specielle Physiologie des Embryo,” W. Preyer, 267 Alluard (M.), the ?é/e of Wind in Fertilisation, 134 Alphabet, Greek, found in Italy, Signor Barnabei, 120 Alpine and Arctic Animals, Colours of, Lorenzo Camerano, 77 ; Prof. R. Meldola, 172 Alpine Clubs, Congress of, at Turin, 460 Alsace, Waterspout in, 134 Alums, on the Specific Refraction and Dispersion of the, Dr. J. H. Gladstone, 263 America: American Journal of Science, 67, 116, 338, 567; Was Iron known in America before Columbus ?, 110 ; Aimeti- can Naturalist, 116, 568, 591 ; American Meteorolozical Jour iv INDEX -[Nature, Dec. 10, 1885 nal, 181 ; Mceting of American Association at Ann Arbor, 207, 374, 510; lectricity at, 207 ; Excursions, 207 ; Ameri- can Earthquakes, C. G. Rookwood, 300; American Journal of Mathematics, Pureand Applied, 364 ; Geology in America, 374; American Ornithologists’ Union, 401, 461; American Philosophical Society, 402 ; the Primitive Peoples of America, Alexander von Humboldt, 464; Mr. Lehmann’s Researches into the Flora of Tropical America, 514 ; Chemical Compo- sition of American Grasses, Clifford Richardson, Prof. W. Fream, 525; H. F. C. Ven Kate, ‘‘ Reizen en Onderzoekin- gen in Noord-Amerika,” Prof. E. B. Tylor, F.R.S., 593 ; Prehistoric America, Marquis de Nadaillac, Dr. E. B. Tylor, F.R.S., 593 ; Two Early Italian Adventurers in South Ame- rica, 376 Ammonia from Blast-Furnaces fed with Raw Coal, the Recovery of, Wm. Jones, 430 Amour, Proposed Russian Scientific Expedition to, 495 Anesthesia unattended with Sleep, M. Brown-Sequard, 144 Anzesthetic:, Medieval, Lagneau, 301 Analcite Crystals, S. L. Penfold, 554 Analysis, Commercial Organic, Alfred H. Allen, 410 Anatomical Method, Application of, to the Determination of the Materials of the Linnean and Old Herbaria, Prof. L. Radlkofer, 563 Anatomy, Dr, Dudgeon’s Chinese Translation of Gray’s, 514 Anatomy and Physiology, Comparative, F. Jeffrey Bell, 569 Ancestors, Our, 317, 343 Andalusian Earthquakes, on the Causes of the, A. Rzehak, 133 Andaman Islands, Aboriginal Inhabitants of the, Edward Horace Mann and A. J. Ellis, F.R.S., 409 Anderson (Alex.), a White Swallow, 523 Andreau on the Prairies of Guiana, 164 Andrée (Dr.), Was Iron known in America before Columbus ?, 110 Andrena (Wild Bees), a Colony of, 6 Andromeda, Nebula in, Lord Rosse, F.R.S., 437; the New Star in, 460, 465; Lord Rosse, F.R.S., 465; Dr. William Huggins, F.R.S., 465; W. F. Denning, 465 ; J. Edmund Clark, 499; A. A. Common, F.R.S., 522; Geo. M. Sea- broke, 523; A. Ricco, 523; Dr. Sophus Tromholt, 579 Andrusoff, Geology of the Kertch Peninsula, 580 Anemogene, Mgr. Rougerie, Bishop of Pamier, the, 519 Animal Parasites of the Sugar Cane, H. Sing Roth, 268 Animals : the Locomotion of, Dr. Miillenhoff, 496 ; Colours of Arctic and Alpine, Lorenzo Camerano, 77 ; Prof. RK. Meldola, 172 Annalen der Physik und Chemie, 44, 309, 518 Annual Congress of the Sanitary Institute of Great Britain, 523 Annual Report of the Fishery Board for Scotland, 1884, 281 Antarctic Discovery, Admiral Sir Erasmus Ommanney, F.R.S., 56 adatelints Nova of 1670, 355 Anthony’s (Prof.) Tangent Galvanometer, 634 Anthropology, 85, 168; Anthropological Institute, 46, 93, 168, 216 ; Anthropological Society of Vienna, 110 ; Summary of Anthropology for 1884, 355 ; Criminal Anthropology, 375 ; the Races of Brazil, 408 ; M. de Mortillet on ‘Tertiary Man, 494 ; Opening Address by Francis Galton, F.R.S., in Section H at the British Association, 507; Prof. W. Turner, on the Index of the Pelvic Brim as a Basis of Classification, 586; W. F. Stanley, on a Portable Scale of Proportions of the Human Body, 586; J. Theodore Bent, on Insular Greek Cus- toms, 587; Gen. Pitt-Rivers, on the Preservation of Ancient Monuments, 587; Miss A. W. Buckland, on American Shell- Work and its Affinities, 587; E. F. im Thurn, on the Red Men about Roraima in British Guiana, 587 ; J. W. Crombie, on a Game with a History, 587; George Campbell, on the “ Rule of the Road from an Anthropological Point of View, 587; Jeanie M. Laing, on the Modes of Grinding and Drying Corn in Old Times, 587; A. J. Evans, on the Flint-Knappers’ Art in Albania, 588 ; W. M. Flinders Petrie, on the Discovery of Naukratis, 588; Thomas Wilson, on a New Man of Men- tone, 588; Dr. R. Munro, on the Archzeological Importance of Ancient British Lake Dwellings, and their Relation to Analogous Remains in Europe, 588 ; Prof. D. J. Cunningham, on Certain Points of Comparison between the Chimpanzee and Man, 588; Dr. J. G. Garson, on Abnormal and Arrested Development as an Induction of Evolutionary History, 589; Dr. Robert Laws, on the Manners and Customs of the Bantu “Tribes of Lake Nyassa, 589; E. H. Man, on the Nicobar Islanders, 589; American Anthropology, Dr. E. B. Tylor, F.R.S., 593; Anthropometric Instruction for Travellers, Dr. P. Topinard, 615 ‘ Anti-Cholera Inoculations of Dr. Ferran, Dr. E. Klein, F.R.S., 617 Antigua, Geology of, Purves, 553 Antiquities of the Isle of Man, Prof. Boyd Dawkins, 579 Ants at Solothurn, Enormous Swarais of, 515 ; Antwerp International Botanical and Ilorticultural Congress, 182; Prof. W. R. McNab, F.R.S., 416 Aonuest (Violet d’), Meteoric Formations in Mexico, 376 April Meteors, W. F. Denning, 5 Aquarium at the Inventions Exhibition, the, 36 ; Re-stocking of the, 541; Additions to, 634 Aquatic Animals, Life of, at High Pressure, 399 Arabia, Glaser’s Exploration of, 88, 233 Arago (Francois), Centenary of Birth of, gor “« Araucana,”’ the Historical Value of the, H. Polakowsky, 429 Archeology in India, 634 Archer (M.), ‘‘ William Hedley, the Inventor of Railway Loco- motion on the Present Principle,”’ 595 Archer (T. A.), Prehistoric Burial-Grounds, 548 Archer, on Silk Culture in Siam, 611 Archibald (E. Douglas), Eleven-Year Meridional Oscillation of tbe Auroral Zone, 414 Archiv fiir die Naturwissenschaftliche Landesdurchforschung von Bohmen, 113 Arctic Exploration, Return of the Alert, 611 Arctic and Alpine Animals, Colours of, Lorenzo Camerano, 77 ; Prof. R. Meldola, 172 Argyll (Duke of), Iona, 413 Armstrong (G. F.), Appointed Professor of Engineering at Edinburgh, 426 Armstrong (Prof. H. E., F.R.S.), Opening Address in Section B (Chemical Science) at the British Association, 449, 467 Armstrong (H. E.), A. K. Miller on the Products of Gas Manufacture from Petroleum, 286 Arnett (Braithwaite), Euclid, Book I., 221 Aromatic Series, Thermic Studies of the, Berthelot, 592 Aronsohn (Prof.), Physiology of the Sense of Smell, 520 Artesian Well in the Sahara, the, 110 Artificial Earthquakes, 114; T. C. Lewis, 295 Aryas, the European Origin of the, M. van den Gheyn, 114 Asia (Central), the New Route to, M. Belavsky, 113 Asia (Eastern), Rainy Summer in, 461 Asiatic Birds, Hume Collection of, Dr. Albert Giinther, F.R.S., 500 Asiatic Cholera, Case of, at Cardiff, 460 Asiatic Society of Bengal, Centenary of, 427 Asiatic Society of Japan, 110 Astronomy: Our Astronomical Column, 13, 37, 86, 112, 162, 183, 231, 280, 301, 355, 402, 553, 610, 636; Astronomical Phenomena for the Week, 14, 38, 65, 86, 113, 134, 162, 183, 209, 232, 255, 281, 301, 330, 356, 377, 403, 428, 463, 495, 516, 542, 554, 581, 611, 636; McCormick Observatory, 13; the Floating Telescope Dome for Nice Observatory, 62; Prof. Zinger on the Determination of Time by Corresponding Heights of Different Stars, 63; the Proposed Change in Time for beginning the Astronomical Day, 132; Popular Education in Astronomy at Christiania, 133 ; the Question of Civil and Astronomical Time, 245 ; Belgian Observations of the Transit of Venus in 1882, 254; the Heliometer, 329; Astronomische Gesellschaft, 278, 280; Astronomical and Meteorological Observatories at Pekin, 403; Astronomy in the United States, 460; ‘Practical Astronomy,” Prof. Doolittle, 462 ; Astronomical Notes, 464; Closing of Beloit College (Wisconsin) Observatory, 514; Astronomical Asso- ciation, 516; Prof. Weiss on the Present State of Computa- tions of Orbits of Comets, 516; Proposed Change in the Astronomical Day, 523 F Astrophysical Notes, 610 Atavism in Man, Dr. R. Blanchard, 615 Atlantic, Chart of Ice in, 302 Atlas of Practical Elementary Biology, G. B. Howes, 388 Atmosphere, Sunlight and the Earth’s, S. P. Langley, 17, 40 Atmospheric Air, Extraction of Oxygen and Nitrogen from, 354 d : i Atmospheric Phenomenon, Unusual, Alex. Hodgkinson, 173 Atmospheric Phenomenon in Switzerland, a Remarkable, Prof. Calladon, 426 Wature; Dec: 10, 188 5] INDEX v Atomic Refraction of Sulphur in various Compounds, Nasini, 17 87 August Meteors, H. B. Jupp, 342; W. F. Denning, 415 ** Auk,” the, 461 Aulenine, the, R. von Lendenfeld, 639 Aurora, the, Prof. J. P. O'Reilly, 54; S. Tromholt, 274, 348; of March 15, 1885, Prof E. E. Barnard, 78 Aurora Borealis, Photographing the, Carl Siewers, 29; a Note Relating to the History of the, Dr. Sophus Tromholt, 89 Aurora-Sound, Norwegian Testimony to the, Dr. Sophus Tromholt, 499; Value of the Testimony to the, Samuel Sexton, 625 Auroral Zone, Eleven-Year Meridional E. Douglas Archibald, 414 Australia: Prof. Auwers’ Calculations of Longitude of Places in, 64; the Glacial Period in, Dr. R. von Lenden- feld, 69 ; the Supposed Glacial Epoch in, Capt. Hutton, 640 ; on the Rising of the Eastern Coast of, H. C. Russell, 2343 Linnean Society of New South Wales, 238: Australian Ex- pedition to New Guinea, 356, 403; Botany in South Austra- lia, 462; Cultivation of Useful Plants in South Australia, 462; the Australian Sponges, R. von Lendenfeld, 639 Austria : Earthquakes in, 11, 85, 460 ; Industrial Education in, 63 ; Terrible Snowstorm in, 62 ; Austrian Alpine Tourist Club, 134; the Temperature of the Austrian Alps, Dr. Hann, 580 ; Austrian Geographical Survey of Albanian Coast, 403; the Austrian ‘Vourist Club, 88 Auwers (Prof.), Calculations of Longitude of Placesin Australia, Oscillation of the, 4 Avalanche in Iceland, 230 Axes, Stone, Perak, A. Hall, 626 Ayrton (Prof. W. E., F.R.S_), Transmission of Sound, 575 Ayrton and Perry (Profs.), on the Winding of Voltmeters, 215 Azambuya (Graciano A.), Singular Case of Mimicry, 366 Bacillary Phthisis of the Lungs, Germain Sée, 341 Bacteria, Prof. Brieger on the Ptomaines, 239 Bacteriology : the Flora of Bank-Notes, 8 Baeyer (Gen. J. J.), Death of, 578 Bagshot Strata, a General Section of the, Rev. A. Irving, 23 Bailey (Major F.), the Indian Forest School, 564 Baird (Major A. W.), on Levelling Operations of the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India, 536 Baird (Prof. S. F.), ‘* Water-Birds of North America,” 521 Baker (Benjamin), Forth Bridge, 430 Baker (B.), Opening Address in Section G (Mechanical Science) at the British Association, 488 Baker (H. B.), Combustion of Phosphorus and Carbon in Oxy- gen, 87 Baker (J. G., F.R.S.), “Flora of the English Lake District,” 75 Baker (W. G.), Magnetism and Electricity, 340 Baldness among Orientals, Herr Schweiger, 36 Ballooning: Centenial Celcbration of Blanchard and Jeffries crossing the Channel in Balloon, 85; balloon Ascent for Photographic Purposes, Gaston Tissandier, 182; Proposed Air-Balloon Railway on the Gaisberg, 254; Application of Electric Ligh ing to Balloons, 278 ; Balloon Photography (see also Aéronautics), 420 Pa Mirage in the, 112; Recent Rapid Elevation of Shores of, 302 Bamboo, the Square, W. T. Thiselton Dyer, F.R.S., 391 kank-Notes, the Flora of, 8 Banner Sysiem of Drainage, Banner Brothers and 'Co., 272 Bantu Tribes, Dr. Robert Laws on. the: Manners and Customs of the, 589 Barium Sulphate, Prof. Frank Clowes: on, as'a» Cementing Material in Sandstone, 555 Bae (Dr.), Death of, 181 arley-growing, successfully attempted in Icelend Barlow (eter Win.), Death of, Sa Te. Barnabei (Signor), a Greek Alphabet found in Jtaly, 120 Barnaby (Sir Nathaniel), Resignation of the Directorship o Naval Construction, 374 Barnard (Prof. E. E.), Aurora of March 15, 1885, 78 Barnard’s Comet, 83, 301, 359 Barograph, the Markings during Thunderstorms of the, Dr. Less, .72 Barometric Variations, Forecasting of, A. N. Pearson, 574 Barrett (Jerry), Monkeys and Water, 367 Barrett (Prof. W. F.), ona New and Simple Form of Calori- meter, 538 Bart (Teisserenc de), Sahara Expedition, 164 Bartoli, the Mean Density of a Body combining all known Elements in a Solid State, 635 Basins, Great Ocean, John Murray, 581, 611 Bass (Black), at Inventions Exhibition, 375 Bastite-Serpentine, Prof. T. G. Bonney, Aberdeenshire, 556 Bat, a New Frugivorous, 374 Bath Natural History and Antiquarian Field Club, 12 Batho-Hypsographical Maps, with Special Reference to a Com- bination of the Ordnance and Admiralty Surveys, E. G. Ravenstein, 565 Batters (Edw.), Notes on Marine Algz, Iot Bayne (Dr. H. A.), the Analysis of Silk, 258 Baynes (Robert E.), Nomenclature in Elasticity, 316 Bedford College for Ladies, 278 Bedfordshire Natural History Society, 182 Bees, Wild, E. Brown, 6 Behrens (Dr. W. J.), ‘‘Guide for the Microscopical Investiga- tion of Vegetable Substances,” 193 ; Text-Book of General Botany, 193 Belavsky (M.), the New Route to Central Asia, 113 Belgian Observations of the Transit of Venus in 18382, 254 Belgian Royal Society of Pub'ic Medicine, 299 Belgium, Geological Survey of, 154, 1993 Dr. A. Geikie, F.R.S., 597 Belgium, Audletin of Royal Geographical Society of, 209; 356 Belgium, Proposed Excursion of the Geologists’ Association to, F.R.S., on, in 298 Bell (Prof. Alex. Graham), Preventing Collisions with Icebergs in a Fog, 273 Bell (Dugald), Among the Rocks round Glasgow, 624 Bell (F. Jeffery), Comparative Anatomy and Physiology, 569 Bell (I. Lowthian), on the Blast-Furnace Value of Coke, 39-5 Baronetcy Conferred on, 207 Ben Nevis Meteorological Station, 17, 54, 61, 2525 Meteoro- logical Observations on, 529; on the Meteorology’ of, A. Buchan, 536 Benda’s (Dr.), Endings, 520 Benevento, Earthquake at, 515 Bengal, Proposed Government Inquiry into Castes and Occupa- tions of People of, 36; Earthquake in, 279, 309; Century of Science in, 638 Bennett (A. W.), Flora of Canada, 294 Rent (J. Theodore), on Insular Greek Customs, 587 Bentham (George), Memorial Portrait of the Late; 513 Berdoe (Edward Robert), Browning as a Scientific Poet, 36 Bergen, Unprecedentedly Early Appearance of Floating Ice off Coast of. 515 ; Formation of Society for the Advancement of Science at, 580 Berlin ; Physiological Society, 24, 71, 119, 191, 239, 33% 496, 519, 544; Physical Society, 72, 95, 160, 311; Geographical Society of, 209 ; Meteorological Society, 239 3 International Geological Congress at, 278, 5513 International Telegraph Conference at, 353 Bias, Unconscious, in Walking, Manly Miles, 293 Biaxial Crystals, on Cases of the Production of Ohm’s (or Lang- berg’s) Ellipses by, H. G. Madan, 414 Bidwell (Shelford) : on Certain Spectral Images Produced by a Rotating Vacuum Tube, 30; the Changes Produced by Mag- netisation in Length of Metal Rods, 45 ; Ocular After- Images and Lightning, tor ; Variations Caused by Magnetisation in Metal Rods, 167; the Action of Light in Diminishing’ the Electrical Resistance of Selenium, 167; Experiments ith Sulphur Cells, 263; Solid Electrolytes; 3915 Voltat. Cell with a Solid Electrolyte, 345 Binary Stars, 162 ; 70 Ophiuchi, 402 Bingham (Chas.), Nesting of A/zcrofternus pheorrps, 52 Biology : Professorship of, at Madras, 181; the Marine’ Bio- logical Association, 278 ; Station at Christiania, 280; an Atlas of Practical Elementary Biology, G. B. Howes, 388; ‘Address on, at the British Association, Prof. W. C. MclIn- tosh, LL.D., F.R.S., 476; Prof. Edward Hull, F.R.S., on the Cause of the Extreme Dissimilarity between the Faunas of the Red Sea and the Mediterranean, notwithstanding -their Preparations of Sensory and Motory Nerve- a vi INDEX [Nature, Dec. 10, 1585 Recent Connection, 560; Prof. Struthers, on the Tay Whale (Megapt:ra longimana) and other Whales Recently Obtained in the District, 560; Prof. lurner, on Sone Points in the Anatomy of Sowerby’s Whale, 560; Prof. Struthers, on the Cervical Vertebrae-of the Greenland Kizht Whale, 560; Prof. Struthers, on the Devel»pment of the Vertebrz of the Elephant, 560: Prof. >truthers, on the Development of the F ot of the Horse, 560; Prof. Cleland, on the Viscera of Gymnotus electricus, 561 ; Prof. Cleland, on the Spiracle of Fishes in its Relat on to the Head, as Developed in the Higher Vertebrates, 561 ; D. J. Hamilton, Is the Commissural Theory of the Corpus Callosum Correct ?, 561 ; Alex. Hill, on the Evidence of Comparative Anatomy with rezard to Localisa- tion of Function in the Cortex of the Brain, 561; Prof. M’ Kendrick, on the Action of Cold on Microphytes, 561 ; J. J. Coleman, on the Action of Ovzonised Air upon Micro- Organisms and Albumen in Solution, 561 ; Prof. Bower, on the Use of Graphic Representations of Life-Histories in the Teaching of Botany, 562; Prof. J. Berry Haycraft, on a New Theory of the Sense of Taste, 562; Francis Day, on the Hybridisation of Salmonidz at Howietoun, 562; A. Hosie, on Chinese Insect White Wax, 562; Prof. O. C. Marsh, on the Size of the Brain in Extinct Animals, 562; D’Arcy W. Thompson, on the Systematic Position of the Chamezlon and its Affinities with the Dinosauria, 562; Prof. Hull, on the Origin of the Fishes of the Sea of Galilee, 563; Prof. McIntosh, on the St. Andrews Marine Laboratory, 563; Dr. Oscar Loew, on a Chemical Difference between Living and Dead Protoplasm, 563; Sidney Martin, on the Digestion of Proteids in Plants, 563; Prof. L. Radlkofer. on the Applica- fion of the Anatomical Method to the Determination of the Materials of the Linnean and Old Herbaria, 563; M. Ward, Notes on Experiments as to the Formation of Starch in Plants under the Influence of the Electric Light, 563 ; Allen Harker, on the Coloration of the Anterior Segments of the Maldanida, 564; Proposed Marine Stations on the Coast of the United Kingdom, 506 Biondi (Prof.), Investigations on the Origin of the Spermato- zoids, 544 Bird, the New, in Natal, J. E. Harting, 6 Birds, Wingless, Dr. H. Woodward, F.R.S., 46 * Birds of Lancashire,” F. S. Mitchell, 241 Birds, Migratory, Early Departure from Sweden of, 427 Birds, Asiatic, Hume Collection of, Dr. Albert Giinther, F.R.S., 500 Birds, 6n the Development of the Sternum in, Miss B. Lindsay, 540 Birkheck Institution, Opening of New Buildings, 230 Bischoffsheim’s Floating Telescope Dome for Nice Observa- tory, 62 Bickipuide Carbon, in Prisms, on the Use of, Experiments by the late Dr. Henry Draper, 272 Bituminous Deposits of the Camama Basin of Bahia, Report on the, Cameron, 182 Black (Dr. W. ].), Ozone at Sea, 416 Black Dog (the Rock), Prof. T. G. Bonney, F.R.S., on Bastite- Serpentine and Troktolite in Aberdeenshire ; with a Note on the Rock of the Black Dog, 556 Black Sea, Algology of the, Reinhardt, 570 Black and White, Col. Wm. E. Warrand, 245 Blackfoot Tribes, Report on, 531 Blanchard (Dr. R.), Atavism in Man, 615 Blanford (W. T., F.R.S.), Zoology of Dr. Riebeck’s ‘* Chitta- gong Hill Tribes *—the Gayal and Gaur, 243 B aschko (Dr.), Sensitiveness of Hair, 24 ; Microscopic Prepa- raiion showing Absence of Cementing Substance between Epidermis and Cutis, 544 Blast Furnac- Value of Coke, I. Lowthian Bell, 39 Blast Furnaces fed with New Coal, the Recovery of Tar and _ Ammonia from, Wm. |ones, 430 Blindne s, the Causes and the Prevention of, Dr. Ernst Fuchs, 623 Blumentritt (Prof.), on the Negritos of the Philippines, 232 Bochefontaine’s Experiment on the Origin of Cholera, Trécul, + 496 Bohemia, Science in, 308 3oiling- Point Data, Melting and, T. Carnelley, 364 Boisbaudran (M. Lecog de) and W. Crookes, F.R.S., Radiant Matter Spectroscopy, 283 2 Boissier (Idm of Carbon Compounds and their Absorp:ion Spectr>, 93 Hartoz (Dr.), on the New Star in Andromeila, 460 Harvard College Observatory, U.S., 37 Harvard Photometry, the, 368 Harvest in Algiers, Proposed Use of Electric Light for Night Work, 162 Ilaslem (Geo.), Measurement of Evaporation, 357 Haycraft (Prof. J. Berry), a New Theory of the Sense of Taste, 62 Hazen (H. Allen), Thunderstoms and Air-Pressure, 181 Head as Developed in the Higher Vertebrates, Spiracle of Fishes in its Relation to the, Prof. Cleland, 561 Health, Laws of, W. EH. Corfield, 221 Health Science, Manual of, Andrew Wilson, 221 Heat, Radiant Light and, Prof. Balfour Stewar:, F.R.S., 322, 389, 394, 413, 422, 550 Heaton (Margaret), Sense of Colour, 626 Hedley (William), the Inventor of Railway Lecomo‘’cn on the Present Principle, M. Archer, 595 “ Algebra for Life of, Robert Perceval Pentane XVI INDEX [Vature, Dec. 10, 1885 Heights of Clouds, 630 4 Heliometer, Investigations with the, Dr. Elkin, 329 Hell Gate, the Blowing Up of, 552, 575; and Rackarock, Dr. H. Sprengel, F.R.S., 625 Helm-Wind, the, 23 Helmersen (G. P.), Obituary Notice of, 134 Helmholtz (Prof. von, F.R.S.), Sir William Thomson’s ' **Mathematical and Physical Papers,” 25; Wernicke’s Ex- periments on the Reflection of Light, 312 Hemsley (W. Botting), Vegetation of the Earth, A. Grisebach, 315; the Forster Herbarium, 501 Henderson (J. R.), 181 Herat, Exploration of Afghan Frontier Commission of Country round, 164 Herbarium, the Forster, W. Botting Hemsley, 5or Hereditary Nature, Francis Galton, F.R.S., on, 507 Heredity, 543 Herendeen (Capt. ), Prehistoric Structures in Micronesia, 13 Heureux (Jean L’), an Ancient Sacrificial Stone of North-West Canada, 46 Heyes (J. F.), Statigrams, 597 Hick (Thomas), the Caulotaxis of British Fumariacez, 614 Hicks (Prof. W. M.), on the Constitution of the Luminiferous Ether on the Vortex Atom Theory, 537 Hickson (Dr. Sydney J.), Botanical Gardens in Java, 576 Highland Controversy : Chas, Lapworth on the Highland Con- troversy in British Geology—its Causes, Course, and Conse- quences, 558 High-Level Meteorological Stations, Dr. A. Woeikof, 54 High-Pressure, Life of Aquatic Animals at, 399 Higher Mathematics, 302 Hildebrandsson (Dr.), the Mean Direction of Cirrus Clouds over Europe, 190 Hill (Alex.), Evidence of Comparative Anatomy with regard to Localisation of Function in the Cortex of the Brain, 561 Hill (Rev. E.), on the Average Density of Meteorites compared with that of the Earth, 556 Hill Tribes, Chittagong, Dr. Emil Riebeck, 169 Hippisley (J.), Pulsation in the Veins, 389, 574 Histology, Essentials of, E. A. Schafer, Dr. E. Klein, F.R.S., 388 Hoang-Ho Journey, Prijevalsky’s, 15 Hoar Frost, Mrs. Caroline W. D. Rich, 30 Hock (Dr. L.), ‘‘ Die Nutzbaren Pflanzen und Tiere Amerikas und den alten Welt vergleichen in Bezug auf ihren Kultur- einfluss,” 413 Hodgkinson (Alex.), Unusual Atmospheric Phenomenon, 173 Hoffmann (Dr. H.), ‘‘Resultate der wichtigsten pflanzen- phanologischen Beobachtungen in Europa nebst einer Friih- lingskarte,” 146 : Holtzke (Dr.), Intra-ocular Pressure, 191; the Influence of Blood-Pressure on Intra-ocular Pressure, 336 Homersham (Collett), Notes on Deep Boring at Richmond, Surrey, 310 Homing Faculty of Hymenoptera, Dr. Geo. J. Romanes, F.R.S., 630 Hong-Kong Observatory, the, 84 Hopkinson (Dr. John, F.R.S.), Magnetisation of Iron, 68 Horse, on the Development of the Foot of the, Prof. Struthers, 560 Horsley (Victor), Motor Centres of the Brain and the Mechanism of the Will, 377 Ifosie (A.), Chinese Insect White Wax, 562; Journeyings in South-Western China, 564 7 Horticultural Congress, Antwerp International Botanical and, 182 Howden (Dr. J. C.), on the Glacial Deposits of Montrose, 555 Elowes (G. B.), “An Atlas of Practical Elementary Biology,” 3 Hudson’s Bay, A/ert Expedition to, 114, 611 Huggins (Wm., F.R.S.), the New Star in Andromea, 465 Hughes (W. R.), Fauna of the Seashore, 294 Hugo, Victor, 119 Hull (Prof. Edward, F.R.S.), Notice of an Outline Geolozical Map of Lower Egypt, Arabia Petraea, and Palestine, 556; on the Occurrence of Lower Old Red Conglomerate in the Promontory of the Fanad, North Donegal, 556 ; on the Cause of the Extreme Dissimilarity between the Faunas of the Red Sea and the Mediterranean, 560; Origin of the Fishes of the Sea of Galilee, 563 ee W. F. Stanley ona Portable Scale of Proportion ot, 5 Humble-Bees, Dead, under Lime-trees, Edward Saunders, 427 Humboldt (Alexander von), the Primitive Peoples of America, 464 Hume Collection of Asiatic Birds, 317 ; Dr. Albert Giinther, F.R.S., 500 Hunt (Arthur R.), Fauna of the Seashore, 390; Influence of Wave Currents on the Fauna of Shallow Seas, 547 Hunt (Cyril B. Holman), Larvae of Ceruravinula, 574 “‘Hunterian Oration,” John Marshall, F.R.S., 51 Hut Circles, Worthington G. Smith, 29 Hiitterott (Herr), on the Japanese Sword, 635 Hutton (Capt.), Correlations of the ‘‘Curiosity-Shop ” Beds, New Zealand, 311 ; the Supposed Glacial Epoch in Australia, 640 Huxley (Prof.), F.R.S., Honorary Degree of D.C.L. conferred on, 181; and the Normal School of Science, 327 Hybridisation of Salmonidze at Howietoun, Francis Day, 562 Hydrocarbons at High Temperatures, on the Decompositions and Genesis of, I., H. E. Armstrong and A. K. Miller, 286 Hydrographical Bureau at Washington, 110 Hydrology and Climatology Congress, the, 84 Hydromechanics, 164 Hygiene : Principles of, Albert Carey, 221 ; Hygiene, Edward F. Willoughby, 221 ; a Manual of Health Science, A. Wilson, 221; Hygiene, a Manual of Personal and Public Health, Arthur Newsholme, 221 ; the Laws of Health, Dr. W. H. Corfield, 221 Hymenoptera, Homing Faculty of, Dr. Geo. J. Romanes, F.R.S., 630 Ibbetson (W. J.), Terminology of the Mathematical Theory of Elasticity, 76 Ice in Atlantic Ocean, Chart of the, 302 Ice (Floating) off Coast of Bergen, Unprecedentedly Early Appearance of, 515 Ice, Some Experiments on the Viscosity of, Prof. C. Lloyd Morgan, 16 Icebergs, Preventing Collisions with, in a Fog, Prof. Alex. Graham Bell, 273, 353; J. Joly, 367 Iceland: Avalanche in, 230; a Lava Desert in, Th. Thor- oddsen, 403; Inclement Summer in, 427; Barley- Growing successfully attempted in, 494 ; a Lava Desert in the Interior of, Th. Thoroddsen, 554 Ichthyological Museum, the International, 5$80 ; Additions to, 634 Igneous Rocks, Prof. T. G. Bonney, F.R.S., on Bastite-Serpen- tine and Troktolite in Aberdeenshire, with a Note on the Rock of the Black Dog, 556 Illumination in a Fog, the Theory of, Lord Rayleigh, 22 Im Thurn (E. F.), on the Red Men about the Roraima in British Guiana, 587 Images, on Certain Spectral, produced by a Rotating Vacuum Tube, Shelford Bidwell, 30; Dr. Henry Muirhead, 55 Images, Ocular, and After-lmages, W. M. Laurin, 197 Imaginary and Infinite, a New Example of the Use of the, in the Service of the Finite and Real, Prof. J. J. Sylvester, FR-S., 103 Incandescent Lamps, Molecular Radiation in, Dr, J. A. Fleming, 263 India : the Zoology of the Indian Seas, 35 ; Wheat-Production in India, Prof. John Wrightson, 79; British Geographical Mission to, 87; Rains in, 218; Mr. Allan Hume’s Ornitho- logical Collection, 327: Earthquakes in Indian Archipelago, 427; Statistics of Rainfall in, 494; on Levelling Operations of the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India, Major A. W. Baird, 536; on the Development ot Cholera in, Gustave Le Bon, 543; Indian Forest School, Major F. Bailey, 564; Archzeo- logy in India, 634; Proposed Daily Synoptic Charts of the Indian Ocean from 1861, 502; on a Supposed Periodicity of the Cyclones of the Indian Ocean South of the Equator, Chas. Meldrum, F.R.S., 613; the Value of Indian Ink in Microscopy, Léo Errera, 37 India-rubber, on the Behaviour of Stretched, H, G. Madan, 625 Indiana, Proposed State Academy in, 633 Induction Machine, Wimshurst, Notes on the Action of, G. B. Buckton, F.R.S., 51 Nature, Dec. 10, 1885] INDEX Xvi Industrial Statistics, U.S., 369 Infinite and Imaginary, a New Example of the Use of the, in the Service of the Finite and Real, Prof. J. J. Sylvester, ING ey Lk} Ingleby (Dr. C. M.), Composite Portraits, 224 “In Memoriam,” William Alexander Forbes, 387 Inoculations, the Anti-Cholera, of Dr. Ferran, Dr. E. Klein, F.R.S., 617 Tnoculation for Rabies, Pasteur, 633 Inorganic Analysis, Qualitative, a Treatise on Practical Che- mistry and, Frank Clowes, 3 Insect Ravages, 524 Insect Wax, Chinese, R. McLachlan, F.R.S., 6 Insects’ Eyes, Mr. Lowne on the Morphology of, Dr. E. A, Schafer, F.R.S., 3 Insects, Fossil, Dr. H. A. Hagen, 53 Institut, Ninetieth Anniversary of the, 578 Institute of Chemistry, 609 Institution of Civil Engineers, 109 Institution of Mechanical Engineers, 20, 298, 343, 634 Instruments, Meteorological, 67 Integral Calculus, C. Carpmael, 258 Integraph, a New, D. Napoli and Abdank-Abakanowicz, 519 International Botanical and Horticultural Congress, Antwerp, 1885, Prof. W. R. McNab, F.R.S., 416 International Exhibition, Music Loan Collection, Dr. W. H. Stone, 174 International Meteorological Committee, 501 International Sanitary Conference in Rome, 217 International Telegraph Conference at Berlin, 353 Invention, an Earthquake, 222; Prof. John Milne, 573; Prof. C. Piazzi Smyth, 213, 625; D. A. Stevenson, 213 Inventions Exhibition, 8; the Aquarium at, 36; Fish-Culture at the, 63; Electricity at the, 106; Rats at, 112; Second- _ ary Generators of Messrs. Gaulard and Gibbs at the, 225 ; Breeding of Dogfish at, 254; Henry Dent Gardner on the, 296; Black Bass at, 375 ; Restocking of the Aquarium, 541 Invertebrate Animals, Effects of Odorous Matters, Herr Graber, 609 Iona, Duke of Argyll, 413 Tridescent Crystals of Potassium Chlorate, H. G. Madan, 102 ; Prof. G. G. Stokes, 224 Tron: Iron and Steel Institute, 11, 38, 429; Meeting at Glas- gow, 352; onthe Structure of, and Steel, H. C. Sorby, F.R.S., 39; the Properties of Malleable, 40; Magnetisation of Iron, Dr. John Hopkinson, F.R.S., 68; Whether Known in America before Columbus, 110; the Lines of, Prof. Thalén, 2533; Iron Trade of Scotland, J. Rowan, 429; an Experi- mental Cupola Furnace for Iron-Smelting, J. Riley, 430 Irving (Rev. A.), General Section of the Bagshot Strata, 22 Isis Scientific Society of Dresden, 111 Island of Hainan, Le Monnier on, 233 Isomerism, the Phenomena of, Prof. Butleroff on, 87 Isthmus of Panama, Piercing the, 370 ltaly: Stone-Age Articles Discovered at Breonio Veronese, 47 ; Italian Scientific Expedition to Burmah, 87 ; Greek Alphabet Found in, Signor Barnabei, 120; Italian Geographical Society, 357; Two Early Italian Adventurers in South America, 376 ; the Topography of Italy under the Romans, 376; Rumoured Massacre of Massari’s Italian African Expe- dition, 493; the Present State of Science in, 609; Italian Meteorological Society, 609 ; General Meeting at Florence, 207 Ivanoff (M.), the Pamir, 113 Ivens (Commander) and Capt. Capello,, African Explorations of, > 429 Izvestia of the Russian Geographical Society, 64, 113, 135, 163, 208 Jackdaws and the Cholera, 400 Jagnaux (Raoul), “‘ Traité de Minéralogie Appliqué aux Arts, a l’Industrie, au Commerce, et 4 l’Agriculture,” 28 Jamaica Institute, 182 Jamaica, Science in, Morris, 182 Jamieson (Prof. Andrew), Electrical Definitions, Nomenclature and Notation, 184 Janssen (Dr.), Universal Meridian, 148, 200; Experiments on the Influence of Gases in Spectrum Analysis, 400 Japan : Patent Law in, 208; Lepidoptera of Great Britain and Japan, compared, H. Pryer, 427; Earthquakes, Phenomena in, 526 ; Roman Lettering Adopted for Japanese Societies Proceedings, 494; Japanese Tattooing, 566; Japanese Me- teorological Observatory, 579 ; on the Japanese Sword, Herr Hiitterott, 635 : Java: the Recent Volcanic Eruptions in, 181 ; Meteorology in, 300 ; Volcanic Activity in, 401; Botanical Gardens in, Dr. Sydney J. Hickson, 576 : Jenkin (Prof. Fleeming, F.R.S.), Obituary Notice of, 153 Jennings (Capt.), Return of, 88 Johns Hopkins University Circular, 110 Johnston-Lavis (Dr. H. J.), the New Outburst of Lava from Vesuvius, 55, 108 Joly (J.), Preventing Collisions with Icebergs, 367 ; on a Poto- meter made with Translucent Prisms, 537 Jones (Wm.), the Recovery of Tar and Ammonia from Blast Furnaces Fed with Raw Coal, 430 Jonkoping, Remarkable Aérial Phenomenon at, 375 Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, 91, 591 Journal of Botany, 21, 189, 310, 614 Journal of Franklin Institute, 309 Journal of Physiology, 91, 59! , Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, 222 Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society, 116, 591 Journal of the Russian Chemical and Physical Society, 44, 213 Jubilee of the Statistical Society, 188 : . Judd (Prof. J. W., F.R.S.), Notes on Deep Boring at Richmond, Surrey, 310 ; Opening Address in Section C (Geology) at the British Association, 453; Presence of the Remains of Dicy- nodon in the Triassic Sandstone of Elgin, 573 July Meteors, W. F. Denning, 342 Jumbo’s Body, 541 Jump, Mechanism of the, Marey and Demeny, 432 ; Jupiter: W. F. Denning, 31; Recurrence of Markings on, W. F. Denning, 196; and Saturn, Mars, W. F. Denning, 548; Red Spot on, W. F. Denning, 626 Jupp (H.B.), August Meteors, 342 Kaiser (Dr. H.), ‘‘ Die Determinanten, fiir den ersten Unterricht in der Algebra bearbeitet,” 411 Kakké Disease, Discoveries as to Origin of, Dr. Wallace Taylor, 339 Karst, the Drainage of the, 88 Kassai River, 554 ; Discovery of Fall into Lake Leopold II. of, by Lieut. Weissmann, 495, 581 Katchin Tartars of Minusinsk, Customs of, 208 ‘ Kayser (Dr.), the Absorption of Carbonic Acid on Smooth Glass Surfaces, 72 ; Photographs of Lightning-Flashes, 111 ; the Condensation of Gases, 160; on an Advance in the Theory of Spectral Lines, 312 ; Keane (Prof. A. H.), the Lapps, 141, 168 ; Translation of Dr. Emil Riebeck’s ‘‘ Chittagong Hill Tribes,” 169 Kekip-Sesoators of North-West Canada, the, 46 < Kempe (A. B., F.R.S.), a General Theory of Mathematical Form, 237 ’ bh Kennedy (Prof. Alex. B. W.), Nomenclature in Elasticity, 269 Kent (Saville), Fish-Culture in Tasmania, 634 Kerry-Nicholls (J. H.), the Maori Race, 93 | Kertch Peninsula, Geology of the, Andrusoff, 580 Khiva, Dr. Henry Lansdell on, 194 é ; Kiessling (J.), ‘‘ Die Dammerungserscheinungen im Jahre 1883 und ihre physikalische Erklarung,” 321; Investigations into the Origin of the late Sunset-Glows, J. Edmund Clark, 637 Kilima-njaro, Exploration of, 530 : Kinahan (G. H.), on Irish Metamorphic Rocks, 555 Kinetic, Prof. Clifford’s, R. Tucker, 147 Kinetic Theory of Gases, Prof. Crum Brown, 352, 533 Klein (Dr. E., F.R.S.), Louis Pasteur—his Life and Labours, 146; Microtomist’s WVade-Mecum, Arthur Bolles, 147 3 ‘* Lehrbuch der Vergleichenden Mikroskopischen Anatomie, Dr. Herman Fol, 293; ‘‘Essentials of Histology,” E. A. Schafer, 388 ; Anti-Cholera Inoculations of Dr. Ferran, 617 Klossowki on Thunderstorms in Russia, 160 Knife-Cleaner, the ‘‘Sun,” 542 Knight (S. R.), and H. S. Hall, Elementary Algebra for Schools, 388 XVI INDEX [Nature, Dec. 10, 1885 Koch’s Microbe, on an Alkaloid extracted from Liquid used for Cultivation of, A. G. Pouchet, 432 Koetschau, the Bo ing for Scientific Purposes at, 162 Konig (Dr.), New Spectro-Photometer, 191 ; Measurement of the Modulus of Elasticity, 369 “*Konigliche Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften,” 383 Kopreinitz, Earthquake in, 23t Korea, Dr. Gottsche’s Exploration of, 164, 232 Kossel (Dr.), Nucleine, 520 Koubassoff, Transmission of Pathogenetic Microbes by Mother to Feetus and in Milk, 432 Kowalewski (W.), on the Growth of Cereals, 234 Kreischer (Prof. C. G.), Shot-Firing in Mines, 596 Krakatao, Threatening State of, 161, 601 “*Kryptogamen Flora von Schlesien,” Dr. J. Schroter, 76 Kuldja, Dr. Henry Lansdell on, 194 Kurile Islands, Prof. Milne, 209; Notes on the, Milne and Snow, 135 Labour Exhibition at Paris, 401 Lacquer, the Chemistry of Japanese, Hikorokure, Yoshida, 190 Lactic Acid in the Gastric Juice, Prof. Ewald, 24 Lady Curator, a, E. L. Layard, 30 Lagneau, Medieval Anesthetics, 301 Laing (Jeanie M.), on the Modes of Grinding and Drying Corn in Old Times, 587 Lake District, Flora of the English, J. G. Baker, F.R.S., ” ‘ Lake-Dweliings, Ancient British, Dr. R. Munro on the Archxo- logical Importance of, 588 Lake George, Rainfall of, 236 Lamp, Gas, Frederick Siemens’s, 247 Lancashire, Birds of, F. S. Mitchell, 241 Landmark (Prof. ), the Capability of Salmon to Jump Waterfalls, 329 Langley (S. P.), Sunlight and the Earth’s Atmosphere, 17 40 language of Signs used by Oriental Traders, J. Menges, 231 Lankester (Prof. E. Ray, F.R.S.), Value of a Marine Labora- tory to the Development and Regulation of our Sea Fisheries, 65; ‘‘Bronn’s Classen und Ordnungen des Thierreichs,” 145 Lansdell (Rev. Dr. Henry), Fauna of Russian Central Asia, 56; ‘‘ Russian Central Asia, including Kuldja, Bokhara, Khiva, and Merv,” 194 Laos, M. P. Neis on, 166 Lapps, the, Prof. A. H. Keane, 14; Dr. Garson and Prof. Keane, 168 Lapworth (Chas.), on the Highland Controversy in British Geology—its Causes, Course, and Consequences, 558 Larmor (J.), on Molecular Distances in Galvanic Polarisation, 536 Larve, Phytophagous, the Essential Nature of the Colouring of, I. L. Poulton, 94 Larvee of Cerura vinula, Cyril B. Holman Hunt, 574 ].assars (Dr.), Preparations of Skin of Lichen Ruber Patients, ’ 544 Last (J. T.), Projected New African Expedition, 184 Latitude of Solar Macula, &c., Distribution in, Signor Tacchini, 120 Laurin (W. M.), Ocular Images and After-Images, 197 Lava from Vesuvius, the New Outburst of, H. J. Johnston- Lavis, 55 Lava Desert in Interior of Iceland, a, Th. Thoroddsen, 403, 554 Lawton’s Method of Preventing Collisions with Icebergs, 353 Laws (Dr. Robert), on the Manners and Customs of the Bantu ‘Tribes of Lake Nyas a, 589 Laws of Health, W. H. Corfield, 221 Layard (FE. 1..), a Lady Curator, 30 Tecan (\Villiam Scarnell), Recent Earthquakes, 17 Lebanon, Expedition of Dr. Noetling to, 11 Le Bon (Gustave), on Development of Cholera in India, 543 J eboulleux (L.), ‘*Traité Elémentaire Déterminants,” 4it Y.cbour (Prof. G. A.), on Some Recent Earthquakes on the Downham Coast and their Probable Causes, 559 5 des Lectures (Science), at Victoria Hall, 514; Penny Science, 699 Lehmann (F. C.), Return to America of, 514 : Lethnitz, Observations of the Temperature of the Sea and Air made during a Voyage from England to the River Plate in the s.s., J. Y. Buchanan, 126 Leipzig, Proposed Grassi Museum at, 160 Leicester Literary and Philosophical Society, 635 “* Leitfaden bei zoologisch-zootomischen Prapaririibungen,” A. Mojsisovics Edlen von Mojsvar, 171 Lena, the Delta of the, 16; Record of Temperature at the Polar Station, 16 Lenape Stone ; orthe Indian and the Mammoth, H. C. Mercer, Dr. E. B. Tylor, F.R:S., 593 Lendenfeld (Dr. R. von), the Glacial Period in Australia, 69 ; the Phoriaspongix, 119 ; the Auleninz, 639 Lenz (Dr. Oscar), his African @xpedition, 357 Leo (Dr.), on the Formation and Conveyance of Fat in Phos- phorus-Poisoning, 120 J.epidoptera of Great Britain and Japan compared, H. Pryer, 427 Lesley (Prof. J. P.), Address to the American Association for the Advancement of Science, 511 Leslie (Robt. C.), Sky-Glows, 245 Less (Dr.), the Markings of the Barograph during Thunder- storms, 72 Lesseps (Ferdinand ce), on the Water-Supply of the Desert Tracts of Southern Tunis, 281 Lewis (Prof. H. Carvill), on the Direction of Glaciation as Ascertained by the Form of the Striz, 557; on Some Examples of Pressure-Fluxion in Pennsylvania, 559 Lewis (T. C.), Artificial Earthquakes, 295 ; Tertiary Rainbow 523, 626 : Libraries, Colonial Public, J. R. Boosé, 183 Lichen Ruber Patient, Dr. Lassar’s Preparations of Skin of, 544 Lick Observatory, the, 320 Life of Aquatic Animals at High Pressure, 399 ; Light : Sir Wm. Thomson and Maxwell’s tlectro-Magnetic Theory of, Prof. Geo, Fras. Fitzgerald, 4; M. Wolf's Mod-fi- cation of Foucault’s Apparatus for the Measurement of the Velocity of, Albert A. Michelson, 6: the Action of, in dimin- ishing the Electrical Resistance of Selenium, Shelford Bidwell, 167; as a Means of Investigation; Prof. G. G. Stokes on, Prof. P. G. Tait, 361; Radiant Light and Heat, Prof. Balfour Stewart, F.R.S., 322, 389, 394, 413, 422, 550; B. A. Report on Standards ef White Light, 529; a Standard of Light, J. Frowbridge, 568 Lightning, Ocular After-Images and, Shelford Bidwell, ror ; A. S. Davis, 126 Lightning Flashes, Photographs of, Dr. Kayser, 111 Lightning, Trees struck by, in Richmond Park, 460 Lightning, Causes of Liability of Certain Trees to be struck by, Percy Smith, 494 Lime-trees, Dead Humble bees under, Edward Saunders, 427 Lindsay (Miss Beatrice), on the Development of the Sternum in Birds, 540 : Linnzus, the Statue of, 110 Linnean Society of New South Wales, 70, 119, 287, 615, 639 Linnean and Old Herbaria, Application of Anatomical Method to the Determination of the Materials of the, Prof. L. Radlkofer, 563 Little Knott, the Diorite of, Prof. T, G. Bonney, F.R.S., 189 Lipporwans, the, Dr. Polek, 429 Liquids, Dilatation of, Prof. Mendeléet on Formule of, Syee Liquids, Determination of Some Co-efficients of Friction, &c., 18 Liquids, the Spheroidal State of, Luvini, 635 Liquid Films, Prof. A. W. Riicker, F.R.S., 210 Liquefying Oxygen, New Process of, M. L. Cailletet, 584 Liverpool Na‘uralists’ Field Club, 231 Lizards in the British Museum, Catalogue of, George Albert Boulenger, 49 . : Lloyd (J. U.), Spreading of Various Saline Solu'ions on Filter Paper, 87 Lockhart’s (Col.) Oxus Expedition, 429 Locomotion, IIuman: Mechanism of the Jump, Marey anl Demeny, 432 ; Locomotion of Animals, the, Dr. Mullenhoff, 496 Locomotive, the Compound, 197 : Lodge (Prof. Oliver), Notes for the Opening of a Discussion on Nature, Dec. 10, 1885] Electrolysis, to be held in Section B, at the British Associa- tion in Aberdeen, September, 1885, 458 Loew (Dr. scar), a Chemical Difference between Livins and Dead Protoplasm, 563 London, Teaching University for, 255 London, University of, 289 London Mathematical Society, 608 « Long (James), British Dairy Farming, Prof. John Wrightson, 571 Long Sight, A. Shaw Page, 103 Love (E. F. J.), Spectra Produced in Glass by Scratching, 270 Lovell (T.), Recent Earthquakes, 175 Lowe (H. F.), Decomposition of Carbonic Acid by Electric Spark, 287 Lowne (Mr.), on the Morphology of Insects’ Eyes, Dr. E. A. Schafer, F.R.S., 3 Lubbock (Sir John, F.R.S.), en Science, 11; Proposal for School of Forestry, 62; the Neglect of Science in Public Schouls, 552 Lueas (Ir. Robert), Electrical Phenomenon in Mid-Lothian, 343 Lumber Trade in America, 207 Luminiferous Ether, on the Constitution of the, and the Vortex- Atom Theory, Prof. W. M. Hicks, 537 Lummer (Dr.), Observations on Interference-Phenomena pro- duced by Glasses Parallel to the same Plane, 311 Lumpenus limpetriformis and Gadiculus argenteus off Aberdeen, on the Occurrence of, Francis Day, 223 Lund, University of, 112 Lungs, Bacillary Phthisis of the, Germain Sée, 348 Luvini, the Spheroidal State of Liquids, 635 Lydekker (Richard), Catalogue of Fossil Mammalia in the British Museum, Part I., 53 McCormick Observatory, the, 84 McIntosh (Prof. W. C., F.R.S.), Opening Address in Section D (Biology), at the Meeting of the British Association, 476 ; on St. Andrews Marine Laboratory, 563 M’Kendrick (Prof.), on the Action of Cold on Microphytes, 561 McLachlan (R., F.R.S.), Chinese Insect Wax, 6; Sunsets, 437 MecMunn (Dr.), on the Chromatology of Actiniz, 68; Entero- chlorophyll, 69 McNabb (Prof. W. R., F.R.S.), International Botanical and Horticultural Congress, Antwerp, 1885, 416 Macadam (W. Ivison), on Certain Diatomaceous Deposits (Diatomite) from the Peat of Aberdeenshire, 559 Machine, Notes on the Action of the Wimshurst Induction, G, B. Buckton, F.R.S., 51 Mackay (J. S.), ‘‘ Key to the Elements of Euclid,” 388 Maclay (Mikluho), Reports of Outcome of his Travels, 35 Macleay Fellowships at Sydney University, 230 Macoun (John), Catalogue of Canadian Plants, 242 Madan (H. G.) Iridescent Crystals of Potassium Chlorate, 102 ; on Cases of the Production of Ohm's (Langberg’s) Ellipses by Biaxial Crystals, 414; on the Behaviour of Stretched India- tubber, 625 Madras, Meteorology in, 541 ; Profe-sorship of Biology at, 181 Maznetisation, the Changes Produced in Length of Metal Rods by, Shelford Bidwell, 45, 167 Magnetisation of Iron, Dr. John [fopkin on, F.R.S., 68 Magnetism and Electricity, W. G. Baker, 340 Malaga, Earthquake near, 329 Malay Peninsula ; the ‘‘Sakei” Aboriginals, 428 Maldanidz, Colouratisn of the Anterior Segments of the, Allen Harker, 564 Male Sole is not Unknown, Francis Day, 78 Mammalia, Fossil, inthe British Museum, Catalogue of, Part I., Richard Lydekker, 53; the Reviewer, 78 pe cmoths an Old Drawing of a, Baron A. IE. Nordenskjold, 22 Man, Isle of, the Antiquities of, Prof. Boyd Dawkins, 579 Man, Tertiary, M. de Mortillet, 494 Man, New, of Mentone, Thomas Wilson, 588 Man: Prof. D. J. Cuningham on Certain Points of Compari- son between the Chimpanzee and, 588 Man (Edward Horace), Aboriginal Inhabitants of the Andaman Islands, 409 ; on the Nicobar Islands, 589 INDEX xx Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, 46 Manchester and District Association of Science and Teachers, 300 Manchuria, Report on, Gardner, 428 Maori Race, the, J. H. Kerry-Nicholls, 93 Marey and Demeny, the Mechanism of the Jump, 432 Marine Algze, Notes on, Edw. Batters, ror Marine Biological Association, the, 61; State Aid to, 278 Marine Fish-Culture, 609 Marine Laboratory, Value of a, to the Development and Regulation of our Sea Fisheries, Prof. E. Kay Lankester, F.R.S., 65 Marine Station, Scottish, J. P. Cunningham, 176 Marine Zoology: Proposed Exploration of the Indian Seas, Art 35 Marion (M.) and M. Saporta, ‘‘ L’ Evolution du Régne Véyétal— Les Phanérogames,” J. Starkie Gardner, 289 Markings on Jupiter, Recurrence of, W. F. Denning, 196 Marlborough College, Science at, 401 Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, W. F. Denning, 548 Marsh (Prof. O. C.), ‘* Deinocerata, a Monograph of an Extinct Order of Gigantic Mammals,” Arch. Geikie, F.R.S., 973; Size of the Brain in Extinct Animals, 562 Marshall (John, F.R.S.), ‘‘ Hunterian Oration,” 51 Martin (Sidney), Digestion of Proveids in Plants, 563 Mason (Sir Josiah), Statue ef the late, 552 Mason (Prof. O. T.), Summary of Anthropological Work for 1884, 355 Mason Science College, Birmingham, 427 Massari’s Italian African Expedition, Rumoured Massacre of, 493 Massowah, Erection of Meteorological Station of, 11 Materia Medica, Text-Book of Pharmacology, Therapeutics, &e., Dr. T. Lauder Brunt in, F.R.S., Prof. Arthur Gamgee, E.R. S.5. 337, Mathematics : a Short History of Greek, James Gow, 1; The late Prof. Clifford’s Papers on Mathematics, 4; Sir William TVhomson’s ‘‘Mathemitical and Physical Papers,” Prof. Helmholtz, F.R.S., 25; Five Mathematical lKarities, 30; Mathematical Society, 70, 118, 167; Terminology of the Mathematical Theory of Elasticity, W. J. Ibbetson, 76; William Sutherland, 391 ; Henry Muirhead, 439 ; a General The ry of Mathematical Form, A. B. Kempe, F.R.S., 237 ; Higher Mathematics, 302 ; American Journal of Mathematics, Pure and Applied, 364; Address on, at the British Associa- tion, by Prof. G. Chrystal, M.A., F.R.S.E., 446; Prof. Crum Brown, on the Kinetic Theory of Gases, 533; Sir Willian ‘thomson, on Constant Gravitational Instruments, 535; Prof. Osborne Reynolds, on the Dilatancy of Media Composed of Rigid Particles in Contact, 535; Prof. Pirie, on Calculating the Surface-lensions of Liquids by Means of Cylindrical Drops or Bubbles, 536; Prof. Pirie, on the Surface-Tension of Water which contains a Gas dissolved in it, 536; Lord Rayleigh, on the Thermodynamic Efficiency of Thermopiles, 536; J. Larmor, on Molecular Distances in Galvanic Polarisation, 536; J. T. Bottomley, on Cooling of Wires in Air and Vacuum, 536; Major A. W. Baird, on Levelling Operations of the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India, 536; Mr. A. Buchan, on the Rainfall of the British Islands, 536; W. H. Preece, on a Remarkable Occurrence during the Thunderstorm of August 6, 1885, 536; A. Buchan, on the Meteorolozy of Ben Nevis, 536; Dr. Courteney Fox, on the Sequence of Mean Temperature and Rainfall in the Climate of London, 536; W. H. Preece, on Domestic Electric Lighting, 537; Discussion on Standards of White Light, 537; A. Vernon Harcourt, on Photometry with the Pentane Standard, 537; Prof. W. M. Hicks, on the Consti- tution of the Luminiferous Ether on the Vortex Atom Theory, 537; J. Joly, on a Photometer made with Translucent Prisms, 5373 Kk. I. Glazebrook, on a Point in the Theory of Double Refraction, 538; Prof. W. F. Barrett, on a New and Simple Form of Calorimeter, 538; Vuibert’s Journal de Mathé- matiques Elementaires, 609 Matter, Properties of, Prof. Tait’s, Lord Rayleigh, F.R.S , 314 Maxim Gun, 21 Maxwell’s, Sir William Thomson and, Electro-Magn ic. cory of Light, Prof. Geo. Fras. Fitzgerald, 4 Measure of Fidget, 174 XX Measurement of Degrees in Europe, Publication of the Nor- wegian Commission of the, 547 Mechanical Engineers, Institution of, 20, 343 Mechanical Telephone, W. J. Millar, 316 Mechanism of the Will, Motor Centres of the Brain and the, Victor Horsley, 377 Mechanism of the Pump, Marey and Demeny, 432 Medicine in Dundee, Proposed School of, 254 Medicine, the Low Popular Estimate of, Dr. Quain, 608 Mediterranean Coast, Morphology of the, Dr. Fischer, 163 Mediterranean Coral Trade, the, 36 Mediterranean and the Red Sea, on the Cause of the Extreme Dissimilarity between the Faunas of the, Prof. E. Hull, F.R.S., 560 Meerens on Standard Musical Pitch, 9 Megaloglossus Woermannt, 374 Meldola (Prof. R.), Colours of Arctic and Alpine Animals, 172 Melting and Boiling-Point Data, T. Carnelley, 364 Mendenhall (Prof. T. C.), 81; a Differential Resistance-Ther- mometer, 567 Mendeleeff (Prof.), on Formulz of Dilatation of Liquids, 87 Menges (J.), Language of Signs used by Oriental Traders, 231 Mentone, a New Man of, Thomas Wilson on, 588 Mercer (H. C.), ‘‘The Lenape Stone ; or, the Indian and the Mammoth,” Dr. E. B. Tylor, F.R.S., 593 Meridian, Universal, Dr. Janssen, 148, 200 Meridional Oscillation of the Auroral Zone, Eleven-Year, E. Douglas Archibald, 414 Merriam (Dr. C. H.) and Economic Ornithology, 329 Merv Oasis, Baron Benoist-Méchin’s Travels in, 209 Mesozoic Floras of the Rocky Mountain Region of Canada, Sir William Dawson, F.R.S., 164 Metal Rods, the Changes produced by Magnetisation on Length of, S. Bidwell, 45 Metals, Action of Tidal Streams upon, Thos. Andrews, 189 Metallurgy, the Development of Technical Instruction in, Prof. Chandler Roberts, F.R.S., 608 Metamorphic Rocks, G. H. Kinahan on the Irish, 555 Metamorphism, Regional, Prof. Prestwich, F.R.S., 214 Meteorology, 252, 253; Erection of Meteorological Station at Massowah, 11; Work of the Observatory Department of South Australia, 12; High-Level Stations, 54; Meteorologi- cal Instruments, 67 ; Meteorology of the China Seas, 84; New Meteorological Station on the Tyrolese Alps, 133; Meteorological Society of Vienna, 133; the International Committee of Meteorology, 160; Meteorology of Bombay, 170; Meteorology in America, 181; the Mean Direction of Cirrus Clouds over Europe, Dr. Hildebrandsson, 190 ; General Meeting at Florence of the Italian Meteorological Society, 207; Berlin Meteorological Society, 239; Dr. Neuhauss’s Observations, 239 ; Rainfall of Southern India and Burmah, 278; Curious Phenomena at Stockholm, 279; New Station in Northern Queensland, 279 ; Stonyhurst College Observa- tory, 300; Meteorology in Java, 300; Cyclones in United States, 328; Weather of Southern Norway, 354; Cyclones in Sweden, 355 ; Remarkable Aérial Phenomenon at Jonké- ping, 375 ; Cloud-Measurement by Theodolites, 400 ; Meteoro- logical Observatories at Pekin, 403; Meteorology in Switzer- land, 426; Storms on Atlantic Coast of United States, 427 ; Congress of Meteorologistsat Munich, 460; Average Velocities of Typhoons, 453; Statistics of Rainfall in East Indian Archi- pelago, 494 ; International Meteorological Committee, 501 ; Proposed Observatory near Chepstow, 503; Observations on Ben Nevis, 529; Meteorology of Ben Nevis, A. Buchan, 536; on the Rainfall of the British Islands, A. Buchan, 536; Meteorology in Madras, 541 ; Japanese Meteorology, 579; the Jesuit Establishments near Shanghai, 579; Scottish Meteorological Society, 636 Meteors : at Soedertelje, near Stockholm, 230; W. F. Denning, 597 ; April, W. F. Denning, 5; July, W. F. Denning, 342 ; August, H. B. Jupp, 342; W. F. Denning, 415; Meteor observed at Fontainebleau, E. P. Mounier, 496 ; Meteor seen at Stockholm, 515 ; Comet 1866 and the Meteors of Novem- ber 14, 610 Meteoric Cycle and Stonehenge, R. Edmonds, 436 Meteoric Dust, B. A. Report on, 529 Meteoric Formations in Mexico, M. Violet d’Aouest, 376 Meteoric Stone found in Sweden, 36 Meteorites : Rey. E. Hill on the Average Density of Meteorites INDEX | [Nature, Dec. 10, 1885 compared with that of the Earth, 556; Theoretical Views on the Detonation of, Bombicci, 633 Mexico, Proposed Geological Survey of, 112; Bursting of a Waterspout in, 133; Meteoric Formations in, M. Violet d’ Aouest, 376 : Michelson (Albert A.), M. Wolf’s Modification of Foucault’s Apparatus for the Measurement of the Velocity of Light, 6 Microbe, Koch’s, on an Alkaloid Extracted fron: Liquid and in Cultivation of, A. G. Pouchet, 432 Microbes, Pathogenetic, on the Transmission from Mother to Foetus, and in Milk of, Koubassoff, 432 Micronesia, Prehistoric Structures in, Capt. L. U. Herendeen, 13 Micro-Organisms, the Removal from Water of, P. F. Frankland, 262 Microbe-Organisms and Albumen in Solution, Action of Ozo- nised Air upon, J. J. Coleman, 561 Microphytes, Action of Cold on, Prof. M’Kendrick, 561 Micropternus pheoceps, Nesting of, Chas. Bingham, 52 Microscopes, Theiler’s, 112 Microscopic Drawings, Rochfort Connor, 633 Microscopic.Preparations of the Skin, Drs. Blaschko and Lassar, 544 Microscopical Investigation of Vegetable Substances, Guide for the, Dr. W. J. Behrens, 193 Microscopy, the Value of Indian Ink in, Léo Errera, 37 Microtomist’s Vade-Mecum, Arthur Bolles, Dr. E. HORS9:5 047, Mid-Lothian, Electrical Phenomenon in, Dr. Robert Lucas, 343 Migratory Birds, Early Departure from Sweden of, 427 Mikroskopischen Anatomie, Lehrbuch der Vergleichenden, Dr. Herman Fol, Dr. E. Klein, 293 Miles (Manly), Unconscious Bias in Walking, 293 Milford Haven, an Encysting Myzostoma in, P. Herbert Car- penter, 391 . Mill (H. R.), on the Temperature of the Water at Firth of Forth, Klein, fo) Miller (A. K.) and H. E. Armstrong, on the Product of Gas Manufacture from Petroleum, 286 Miller (Hugh), on Some Results of a Detailed Survey of the Old Coast Lines near Trondhjem, Norway, 555 Millar (W. J.), Mechanical Telephone, 316 Milne (Prof. John), on the Observation of Earth-Tips and Earth- Tremors, 259 ; an Earthquake Invention, 573 Milne and Snow, Notes on the Kurile Islands, 135 Mimicry, Singular Case of, Graciano A, de Azambuja, 366 Mine to the Mint, History of a Lump of Gold from the, Alex. Watt, 340 Mineralogie, Lehrbuch der, Dr. Gustav Tschermak, 3 Mineralogie Appliquée aux Arts, a l’Industrie, au Commerce, et a l’Agriculture, Raoul Jagnaux, 28 Mineralogy in California, H. G. Hanks, 100 Mineralogy and Chemistry, Original Researches in, J. Lawrence Smith, 3 Minerals of British Borneo, 161 ‘*Mineral Resources of the United States,” A. Williams, 341 Mineral Products of the United States, 404 Mines, Shot-Firing in, W. Galloway, 596; Prof. C. G. Kreischer, 596 Minima of Algol, 86 Minor Planet, New, 464 Minot (Dr. Chas. Sedgwick), the New Endowment for Research, 2 Micke in the Baltic, 112; in Sweden, 231, 279, 541, 552; in Dorsetshire, Rev. M. F. Billington, 552 Mississippi, Protection against Tornadoes on the, 279 Missionary, Protestant, Educational Work in China, 35 Mitchell (F. S.), the Birds of Lancashire, 241 Mittheilungen der Wiener Geographische Gesellschaft, 581 Mobangi River Exploration, 281 Model University, a, 367 Modulus of Elasticity, Dr. Konig on, 360 Mojsvar (A. Mojsisovics Edlen von), ‘‘ Leitfaden bei zoologisch- zootomischen Prapaririibungen,” 171 Molecular Distances in Galvanic Polarisation, J. Larmor, 38 Nicene Formule, Hartley, 87 Molecular Structure of Carbon Compounds and their Absorp- tion Spectra, Researches on the Relation between the, Prof. W.N. Hartley, F.R.S., 93 Nature, Dec. 10, 1885] INDEX XXL Mollusca of the United States, 460 Natural History Museum, Additions to the, 493 Monkeys and Water, Jerry Barrett, 367 Naturalists’ Societies, Scotch Union of, 85 Monnier (Le), on the Island of Hainan, 233 **Naturalist’s Wanderings in the Eastern Archipelago,” Henry Montrose, Dr. J. C. Howden on the Glacial Deposits of, O. Forbes, Alfred R. Wallace, 218 555 Naukratis, W. M. Flinders Petrie on the Discovery of, 588 Monuments, General Pitt-Rivers on the Preservation of, 587 Morgan (Prof. C. Lloyd), Some Experiments on the Vicosity of Ice, 16 Morphology of Insects’ Eyes, Mr. Lowne on, Dr. E. A. Schafer, E:R.S:, Morphology of the Mediterranean Coasts, Dr. Fischer, 163 Morphologisches Jahrbuch, 591 Morris, on Science in Jamaica, 182 Moseley (Prof. H. N., F.R.S.), ‘Den Norske Nordhavs- Expedition, 1876-1878,” Zoologie Pennatulida, 74 ; Fauna of the Seashore, 212, 243, 417 Mosquitoes, Destruction of Young Trout by, 515 Mosso (Prof.), Respiration, 47 Motor Centres of the Brain and the Mechanism of the Will, Victor Horsley, 377 Mott (Henry A., Jun.), ‘‘ Fallacy of the Present Theory of Sound,” Dr. W. H. Stone, 75 Mouchez, Application of Photography to Mapping of Stars, 70 Mounier (E. P.), Meteor seen at Fontainebleau, 496 Mountain, the Highest, in Sweden, 404 Muir (M. M. Pattison), an Introduction to the Study of the Compounds of Carbon or Organic Chemistry, Prof. Ira Remsen, 99 Muir (Wm.), Earthquake-Proof Buildings, 245 Muirhead (Dr. Henry), Spectral Images, 55; on the Termino- logy of the Mathematical Theory of Electricity, 437 Muirhead (John), Death of, 540 Mull, Acclimatisation of Whitefish in, 515 Mullan (R. A.), Red Hail, 54 Miillenhoff (Dr.), the Locomotion of Animals, 496 Munk (Dr. J.), on the Formation of Fat in the Animal Body, 335 Munro (Dr. R.), on the Archzological Importance of Ancient British Lake-Dwellings and their Relation to Analogous Remains in Europe, 588 Murché (Vincent T.), Botany, a Specific Subject of Instruc- tion in Public Elementary Schools, 222 Murray’s (Dr.), English Dictionary, 159 Murray (John), Great Ocean Basins, 581, 611 Museums, Overcrowding of, 12 Museums, the Author of ‘‘ Museums of Natural History,” 103 Museums, North American, 381 Mushrooms, Wild Edible, Dr. Olsen, Studies of, 162 Music Loan Collection, International Exhibition, Dr. W. H. Stone, 174 Musical Pitch, Standard, 9 Mustela itatsi, H. Pryer, 110 Myzostoma, an Encysting, in: Milford Haven, Carpenter, 391 P. Herbert Nachtigal (Dr. Gustav) : Death of, 14; Proposed Monument to, 134, 184, 581; the African Natural History Collections of, 493 Nadaillac (Marquis de), Prehistoric America, Dr. E. B. Tylor, F.R.S , 593 Namaland or Namaqualand ?, Dr. Schinz, 581 Names of Places, Native, New System of Orthography for, 244 Naples, mene Table at, 506 Napoli (D.), a New Integraph, 519 Nasini, on Atomic Refraction of Sulphur in Various Compounds, 87 Natal, New Bird in, J. E. Harting, 6 National Academy of Sciences, the, 35 National Academy of Sciences, Composite Portraits of Members of the, Raphael Pumpelly, 176 National Fish Culture Association, 134 Native Names of Places, System of Orthography for, 199, 244 Natural Gas Fuel, 40 Natural History Survey of Canada, Geological and, Alfred R. C. Selwyn, F.R.S., 242 Natural History, Guide to the Universal Gallery of the British Museum, L. Fletcher, 364 Natural History Collections of Dr. Nachtigal, the African, 493 Naval Construction, the Directorship of, 374, 552 Navigation, Inland, Exhibition of Plans, &c., Connected with, at Brussels, 35 Nebula in Andromeda, Lord Rosse, F. R. S., 437 Nebulz, New, 38 Needs, Our Present, 433 Negritos of the Philippines, 232 Neis (M. P.), on Laos, 166 Neolithic Age, Prof. Pigorinion the Worship of Stone Weapons in the, 48 Neptune, Prof. Pickering’s Observation of, 12; Satellites of Uranus and, 553 Nerve-Endings, Dr. Motory, 520 Nesting of Aficropternus pheoceps, Chas. Bingham, 52 Netto (Ladislaus), the Artificial Hill of Pacoval, Brazil, 408 Neuhauss (Dr.), Meteorological Observations, 239 Neunkirchen, in Germany, Experiments with Coal-Dust at, W. Galloway, 55 Neya, Soroloff’s Analyses of Water of, 13 Nevada, Silver-Lead Deposits of Eureka, J. S. Curtis, 50 New Departure for the University of London, 265 New Guinea Exploration, Proposed Expeditions, 64 ; the Pro- posed Dutch Expedition to New Guinea, 87, 302; the Aus- tralian New Guinea Expedition, 403 5 H. O. Forbes’s Expe- dition to, 552 ; Recent Explorations in, Coutts Trotter, 611 New Nebulz, 38 New South Wales, Royal Society of, 234; Linnean Society of, Benda’s Preparations of Sensory and 238 Wee Spynie, Dr. R. H. Traquair, F.R.S., a Preliminary Note on a New Fossil Reptile Recently Discovered at, 556 New Star in Andromeda, Lord Rosse, F.R.S , 465; Dr. Wm. Huggins, F.R.S., 465; W. F. Denning, 465 ; j. Edmund Clark, 499; A. a Common, F-.R.S., 5225 Geo. M. Sea- broke, 523; A. Ricco, 523 New York, Submarine Earthquake at, 494 New Zealand, the Ruahine Range, 108 ; Central Solar Eclipses in, 86 Newall (H. Frank), on Certain Stages of Ocular After-Images, 77 Newcomb (Prof. S.), 375 Newsholme (Arthur), Hygiene—a Manual of Personal and Public Health, 221 Newton (Prof, Alfred, F.R.S.), ‘‘The Great Auk or Garefowl, its History, Archzeology, and Remains,” Symington Grieve, 545 Newton (Howard), Timbers of the Straits Settlements, 160 Niagara: Preservation of Falls of, 131; the Rate at which they Recede Southwards, Edward Wesson, 229; E. L. Gar- bett, 244 ; the International Park at, 252 Nice Floating Dome, the, 297 Nice Observatory, Bischoffsheim’s Floating Telescope Dome for, 62 Nicobar : E. H. Man on the Nicobar Islanders, 589 Nightjar, the Standard- Winged, J. E. Harting, 6 Nissen (Capt.) and Chronometer Observatories in Kiel and Hamburg, 230 Nitrates in “Human Body, Dr. Weyl, 191 Nitrogen and Oxygen, Extraction of, from Atmospheric Air, 354 Noetling (Dr.), Expedition to Lebanon, I1 Nomenclature of Tonquin, Eccentricities of European, 15 Nomenclature and Notation, Electrical Definitions, Andrew Jamieson, 184. Nomenclature in Elasticity, Prof. Alex. B. W. Kennedy, 269 ; Robert E. Baynes, 316 Nordenskjold (Baron A. E.), an Old Drawing of a Mammoth, 228 Nordland Coast, Rumoured Appearance of the Sea-Serpent off, Prof. 462 Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists’ Society, 580 Normal Metamorphism, 214 Normal School of Science, Prof. Huxley, P.R.S., Dean of, 327 XXit Norske Nordhavs-Expedition, den 1876-78, G. Armauer Hansen, 51; Zoologie Pennatulida, Prof. H. N. Moseley, Pe 5 74: North American Museums, 381 North American Water-Birds, Prof. S. F. Baird, Dr. T. M. Brewer, and R. Ridgway, 521 North Cape, Dispute as to Proprietorship of, 302 North-Norway Fjords, how the, were made, Karl Pettersen, 177 North-West England, Rainfall of, Alf. O. Walker, 271 Northern Latitude, High, a Word or Two on the Best and Safest Route by which to Attain a, John Rae, F.R.S, 565 Norway : Rainfall in, 37 ; Government Endowment of Research in, 207 ; Marked Salmon taken in, 309 ; Weather of Southern, 354; Inclement Summer in, 427 ; July Weather in Southern, 542; Pennatulida of the Norwegian North Atlantic Expedi- tion, Prof. H. N. Moseley, F.R.S., 74; Norwegian Expedi- tion to Finmarken, 114; Biological Station at Christiania, 280: Norwegian Testimony to the Aurora Sound, Dr. Sophus Tromholt, 499 ; Publication of the Norwegian Commission on the Measurement of Degrees in Europe, 547 Nova of 1572, Tycho’s, 162 Nova of 1670, Anthelm’s, 355 Nucleine, Dr. Kossel, 520 “‘Nutzbaren Pflanzen und Tiere Amerikas und den alten Welt vergleichen in Bezug auf ihren Kultureinfluss, Die,” Dr. L. Hock, 413 Numidian Marbles, Lieut.-Cal. Playfair on the Rediscovery of, in Algeria and Tunis, 556 Nuova Scienza, La, 516 Nuovo Giornale Botanico Italiano, 21 Nyassa (Lake), Dr. Robert Lawes on the Manners and Customs of the Bantu Tribes of, 589 Observation of Earth-Tips and Earth-Tremors, on the, Prof John Milne, 259 Observatories: Harvard College, U.S., 37; the Ben Nevis Meteorological, 61, 252; the Hong Kong, 84; Opening of the Leander McCormick, 84; Observatory of Paris, 112 ; Visitation of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, 138 ; Cam- bridge Observatory, 253 ; Stonyhurst College, 300; the Lick, 320 ; Cincinnati, 356 Occultation, Daylight, of Aldebaran, 86, 183, 610 Occultations of Vesta, 355 Ocean Basins, Great, John Murray, 581, 611 Oceans of Water, Air, and Etber, Wave of Translation in the, J. Scott Russell, F.R.S., 546 Fi Ocular After-Images, on Certain Stages of, H. Frank Newall, 7 Ga After-Images and Lightning, Shelford Bidwell, 1o1 ; A. S. Davis, 126 ; Ocular Images and After-Images, W. M. Laurin, 197 Odell (W.), the Three First Years of Childhood, Bernard Perez, 412 i Odorous Matters on Invertebrate Animals, Effects of, Herr Graber, 609 Ohm, Determination of the, Self Induction in Relation to Certain Experiments of Mr. Willoughby Smith and to the, Lord Rayleigh, F.R.S., 7 ; «< Ohm’s (or Langberg’s) Ellipses,” on Cases of the Production of, by Biaxial Crystals, H. G. Madan, 414 ‘ Old Red Conglomerate, Lower: Prof. Edward Hull, F.R.S., on the Occurrence of, in the Promontory of the Fanad, North Donegal, 556 Olsen’s (Dr.) Studies of Wild Edible Mushrooms, 162 mae Olsen (Herr A.), Effort at Teaching the Public of Christiania Practical Astronomy, 133 : ; Ommanney (Admiral Sir Erasmus, F.R.S,), Antarctic Dis- covery, 565 Odlogy : Collection of Birds’ Eggs at Upsala, 280 Ophiuchi, Binary-Star 70, 402 ‘ Optics : Intraocular Pressure, Dr. Holtzke, 191 ; Observations on Interference-Phenomena Produced by Glasses Parallel to the same Plane, Dr. Lummer, 311; Werricke’s Experi- ments on the Reflection of Light, Prof. von Helmholtz, 312; the Influence of Blood-Pressure on Pressure, Dr. Héltzke, 336; Experiments on Double Re- fraction, D. S, Stroumbo, 432 INDEX [Wature, Dec. 10, 188 5 | Orbits, Cometary, 162 ! Orchid Exhibition, 79 O'Reilly (Prof. J. P.), Aurora, 54 Organic Analysis, Commercial, Alfred H. Allen, 410 Organic Chemistry, Prof. Ira Remsen, M. M. Pattison Muir, 99 “*Orientalist,” the Ceylon, 208 Orientals, Baldness among, Herr Schweiger, 35 Origin of the Cereals, 116 Origin of Thunderstorm Electricity, on the, Prof. L. Sohncke, 06 Orinoco, Chaffanjon’s Mission on the, 184 ; Exploration of the, 356 Ornithology, 119; Woodpeckers Nesting in Ants’ Nests, 52; Notes on A/ustela itatsi and Corvus japorensis, H. Pryer, 110; a Query as to Swallows, 197 ; the Birds of Lancashire, F. S. Mitchell, 241; Collection of Birds’ Eggs at Upsala, 280; Allan Hume’s Indian Ornithological C ollection, 327 ; Economic Ornithology in United States, 329; Ornithology in United States, 461 ; Miss Beatrice Lindsay on the Develop- ment of the Sternum in Birds, 540 Orthography, New System of, for Native Names of Places, 199, 244 Ortolan Bunting in Scotland, Capture of, 119 Osteology, Dr. Dudgeon’s Chinese Translation of Holden’s, 514 Otago University Museum, Notes from the, Prof. T. Jeffery Parker, 586 Outburst of Lava from Vesuvius, the New, H. J. Johnston- Lavis, 55 Owen (Sir Richard, F.R.S.), on American Evidence of Eocen: Mammals of the ‘‘ Plastic Clay’ Period, 556 Oxelosund, Mirage seen at, 231 Oxus, Col. Lockhart’s Expedition, 429 Oxygen, Combustion of Phosphorus and Carbon in, H. B. Baker, 87 Oxygen, New Process of Liquefying, M. L. Cailletet, 584 Oxygen and Nitrogen, Extraction of, from Atmospheric Air, 354 Oysters out of Water, Longevity of. Prof. Verrill, 474 ; Resting Position of, J. I’. Cunningham, 597 ; Col. H. Stuart-Wortley, 625 Ozone at Sea, Dr. W. J. Black, 416 Ozonised Air, Action of, upon Micro-Organisms and Albumen in Solution, J. J. Coleman, 561 Pacific, the German Annexations in, 429 Page (A. Shaw), Long Sight, 103 Pacoyal, the Artificial Hill of, L. Netto, 408 Pagenstecher (Dr.), on a New Species of Frugivorous Bat (Wegaloglossus woermann'), 374 Palat’s (Lieut.) Mis-ion to the Sahara, 302 Palermo, Earthquake at, 609 Palestine, the Survey of, 506 Pamir, Recent Explorations of the, 59; Ivanoff, 113 ; Topo- graphy of the, Kosyakoff, 163 : Panama, I-thmus of, Piercing the, 370 ‘*Papuans and Melanesians,” Robidée van der Aa, 16 ‘*Paradise Found,” Wm. F. Warren, LL.D., 28 Parasites, Animal, of the Sugar Cane, H. Ling Roth, 268 Paraxanthine and Heteroxanthine, Dr. Salomon, 496 Paris : Academy of Sciences, 23, 47, 70, 94, 119, 144, 168, 190, Intraocular j 216, 238, 263, 288, 311, 384, 408, 432, 495, 519, 543, 568, 591, 616, 640 ; Academy of Sciences Biennial Prize Awarded to Dr. Brown-Sequard, 208 ; Geographical Society, 14, 113, 164, 302, 357, Polytechnic School, 61 ; Labour Exhibition, 401 ; Observa- tory of Paris, 112; Experiments on Cremation of Body in Common Stove, 161; Electric Lighting in, 514; Arrival of Thirteen Young Canadians for Study at, 636 Parker (Prof. T. Jeffery), Notes from the Otago University Museum, 586 Pasteur (Louis), his Life and Labours, Dr. E. Klein, F.R.S., 146 ; on Inoculation for Rabies, 633 Patent Law in Japan, 208 Patents, Report of Comptroller-General of, 253 Patriarch Joseph, Province, Lake, and Canals ascribed to the, Cope Whitehouse, 565 Paulitschke and Hardegger’s Journey to Harar, 581 Nature, Dec. 10, 1885] Peach (B. N.) and J, Horne, on the Geology of Dumess and Eriboll, with Special Reference to the Highland Controversy, 55 Pearson (A. N.), Forecasting of Barometric Variations, 574 Peat : W. Ivison Macadam on Certain Diatomaceous Deposits (Diatomite) from the Peat of Aberdeenshire, 559 Pekin, Astronomical and Meteorological Observatories at, 403 Pel Poisoning Case: Experiments as to Possibility of Burning a Body in Common Stove, 161 Pellew Islands, the, 464 Pelvic Brim, Prof. Turner on the Index of, as a Basis of Classi- fication, 586 Penfold (S. L.). Analcite Cry-tals, 554 Pennatulida of the Norwegian North Atlantic Expedition, Prof. H. N. Moseley, F.R.S., 74 Penning (W. H.), Geology of the Transvaal Gold-fields, 190 Penny Science Lectures, 609 Pentane Standard, Photometry with the, A. Vernon Harcourt, 537 Perak, Stone Axes, A. Hall, 626 Pereyaslavtseff (Miss), on the Development of Rotifers, 579 Perez (Bernard), the Three First Years of Childhood, W. Odell, 412 Periodical Comets of De Vico and Barnard, 183 Periodical Comets in 1886, 636 Periodicals, Catalogue of Scientific, H. C. Bolton, 426 Periodicity of the Cyclones of the Indian Ocean South of the Equator, ona Supposed, Chas. Meldrum, F.R.S., 613 Perkin (Dr.), on the Coal-Tar Colours, 303, 330 Perouse (La), Discovery of the Relics of the Companions of, in the Expedition of 1782, 210 Persia, Statistics of Population of, 64 Persia, South-Eastern, Capt. Jennings’ Exploration of, 88 Perthes of Gotha, the History of the Great Geographical House of, 554 Perturbations, Telegraphic, a Yearly and a Daily Period in, Dr. . Sophus Tromholt, 88 Petals, Staminody of, J. C. Costerus, 53 Petermann’s Mittheilungen, 88, 184, 356, 554 Petrie (W. M. Flinders), his Collection of Egyptian Antiquities, 353; on the Discovery of Naukratis, 588 ; Two Generalisa- tions, 597 Petroleum, Plutarch on, W. H. Deering, 29 Petroleum, Products of Gas Manufacture from, H. E. Armstrong and A. K. Miller, 286 Petroleum Gas used by Ironworks, &c., at Pittsburg for Fuel, 463 Pettersen (Karl), How the North-Norway Fjords were Made, 177 Pheenology : “‘ Resultate der wichtigsten pflanzen-phanologischen Beobachtungen in Europa nebst einer Friihlingskarte,” Dr. H. . Hoffmann, 146 Phanerogams, Evolution of the, MM. Marion and Saporta, J. Starkie Gardner, 289; Prof. W. C. Williamson, F.R.S., 364 Pharmacology, Therapeutics, and Materia Medica, Text-Book of, Dr.T. Lauder-Brunton, F.R.S., Prof. Arthur Gamgee, F.R.S., 337 Phenols of Complex Function, Berthelot, 592 Phenomenon, Electrical, J. B. A. Watt, 316 Philadelphia, Zoological Society of, 85 Philippines: the Negritos of the, 232; the Geology of the, 302 Philological Society’s English Dictionary, 159 Philosophical Society of Glasgow, 212 Phoriaspongiz, the, Dr. R. von Lendenfeld, 119 Phosphorus, Combustion of, in Oxygen, H. B. Baker, 87 Phosphorus-Poisoning, on the Formction and Conveyance of Fat in, Dr. Leo, 120 Photographing the Aurora Borealis, Carl Siewers, 29 Photography : Balloon, 420; Application of Photography to Mapping of Stars, Mouchez, 70; Photographs of Lightning- Flashes, Dr. Kayser, 111; Balloon Ascent for Photography, Gaston Tissandier, 182; Photographs of Animals in Move- ment, Dr. Miillenhoff, 496 ; Spectral Photometric Researches on some Photographic Sensitisers, 519 ; Photographic Society, 552; Photographic Action on Ebonite, Edward E. Robinson, 626 Photometer Made with Translucent Prisms, J. Joly, 537 Photometry, the IJarvard, 368 INDEX rrr nnnnEEnEEETEEEEEEEEREnENET XXUt Photo netry with the Pentane Standard, A. Vernon Harcourt, 37 Phthisis of the Lungs, Bacillary, Germain Sée, 341 Physical Society, 22, 70, 167, 191, 215, 263 Physical and Mathematical Papers, Sir Wm. Thomson’s, Prof, Helmholtz, F.R.S., 25 Physics, Lessons in Elementary Practical, Prof. Balfour Stewart, F.R.S., and W. W. Haldane Gee, 339 Physics and Engineering at University College, the Chair of, 54 Physiology : Physiological Society of Berlin, 239 ; W. Preyer, on Physiology of the Embryo, F. J. Allen, 267/53, Dieade Munk on the Formation of Fat in the Animal Body, 335; on the Influence of Cortex Cerebri on Temperature of Human Body, Prof. Eulenburg, 496; Pischelis ton the Development of the Thyroid Gland, 496; Dr. Benda’s Preparations of Sensory and Motory Nerve-Endings, 520 : Physiology of the Sense of Smell, Herr Aronsohn, 520; Dr. Biondi on the Origin of the Spermatozoids, 544 ; the Functions of the Sebaceous Glands, Prof. Fritsch, 544; ‘‘ Physiologische Pflanzenanatomie in Grundriss dargestellt,” Dr. G. Haber- landt, 594 Pickering’s (Prof.) Observations on Neptune, 12 Pigorini (Prof.), on the Stone Age Articles Discovered at Breonio Veronese, 47; the Worship of Stone Weapons in thz Neolithic Age, 48 Pilcomayo River, Col. Feilberg’s Exploration of, 64 Pinto (Major Serpa), Discovery of Coal-fields in Africa by, 164 Pirie (Prof.), on Calculating the Surface-Tensions of Liquids by Means of Cylindrical Drops or Bubbles, 536 ; on the Surfac Tension of Water which contains a Gas Dissolved in it, 536 Pischelis (Herr), on the Development of the Thyroid Gland, 496 Pisciculture, 375, 402 ; Shad-Rearing in United States, 112 in Scotland, 298; Ova of Dogfish at Royal Aquarium, 515; Acclimatisation of Whitefish in Mull, 515, Pishpek, Earthquake at, 329 Pitch, Standard, 9 Pitcher Plant, 295 ; W. Watson, 341 Pitt-Rivers (Gen.), on the Preservation of Ancient Monuments, 587 Place:, System of Orthography for Native Names of, 199, 244 Plant Anatomy, Physiological, 594 . Plant, Pitcher, 295 ; W. Watson, 341 Plants, Catalogue of Canadian, John Macoun, 242 P ants in South Australia, Culture of Useful, 462 Plants, Digestion of Proteids in, Sidney Martin, 563 Plants and Drugs, New Commercial, Thos. Christy, ¥25 “Plastic Clay” Period, Sir Richard Owen, F.R.S., on the American Evidences of Eocene Mammals of the, 556 Platinoid, Electric Resistance of, J. T. Bottomley, 166 Playfair (Sir Lyon, F. R.S.), on Science, 4333 Inaugural Address at the Meeting of the British Association at Aberdeen, 438 Playfair (Lieut.-Col.), on the Rediscovery of Lost Numidian Marbles in Algeria and Tunis, 556 Pliocene Deer, Contributions to History of, W. B. Dawkins, F.R.S., 118 Plutarch on Petroleum, W. H. Deering, 29 Poison of the Cobra di Capello, on the, Herr Gnezda, 71 Pol-Lias, Bran de, Return of, 581 Polakowsky (H.), the Historical Value of the ‘* Araucana,” 429 Polakowsky’s (Dr.) Explorations in Costa Rica, 184 Polar Temperatures, Lena, Record of, 56 Polarisation, on Molecular Distances in Galvanic, }. Larmor, 536 Polek (Dr.), the Lipporwans, 429 Port Hamilton Islands, 209 Portraits, Composite, of Members of the National Academy of Sciences, Raphael Pumpelly, 176: John Cleland, 197; Dr. C. M. Ingleby, 224 Portuguese Explorations in Africa, 429 Post-Existence, Pre-Existence and, Clarke, 102 Posthumus (N. W.), Death of, 254 Potanin’s Last Voyage to China, 135 Potash, Chlorate of Iridescent Crystals of, H. G. Ma lan, 102 ; Prof. G. G. Stokes, 224 Pouchet (A. G.), on an Alkaloid Extracted from Liquid use | in Cultivation of Koch’s Microbe, 432 of Thought, Dr. II)de XXIV INDEX [Nature, Dec. 10, 1885 Poulton (E. B.), the Essential Nature of the Colouring of Phy- tophagous Larve, 91 Pozzo (Enrico dal), ‘‘ Un Capitolo de Psicofisiologia,” 413 Practical Physics, Lessons in Elementary, Prof. Balfour Stewart, F.R.S., and W. W. Haldane Gee, 339 Pre-Existence and Post-Existence of Thought, Dr. Hyde Clarke, 102 Preece (W. H., F.R.S.), ‘‘On Charging Secondary Batteries,” 142; ona Remarkable Occurrence during the Thunderstorm of August 6, 1885, 536; on Domestic Electric Lighting, 536 Prehistoric America, Marquis de Nadaillac, Dr. E. B, Tylor, F.R.S., 593 Prehistoric Burial-Grounds, T. A. Archer, 548 Prehistoric Cemetery, 518 Prehistoric Remains in Switzerland, 84 Present Needs, Our, 433 Preservation of Niagara, 131 Pressure-Flxion, Prof. H. Carvill Lewis on some Examples of Pressure-Fluxion in Pennsylvania, 559 Prestwich (Prof., F.R.S.), on Regional Metamorphism, 214 Preyer (W.), ‘‘ Specielle Physiologie des Embryo,” F. J. Allen, 267 Prime Meridian Question, the French View of the, 159 Primitive Peoples of America, the, Alexander von Humboldt, 464 Primitive Races, on the Manifestation of the #sthetic Faculty among, Dr. D. Wilson, 259 Prisms, on the Use of Carbon Bisulphide in, Dr. Henry Draper, 67 Prisms, on a Photometer made with Translucent, J. Joly, 537 Prjevalsky (Col.), his Hoang-Ho Journey, 15, 63, 253; Thibet Expedition, 493, 635 Proceedings of the Boston Natural History Society, 519 Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales, 591 Proceedings of the Royal Society of Queensland, 495 Products, Mineral, of the United States, 404 “Properties of Matter,” Prof. Tait’s, Lord Rayleigh, F.R.S., 314 Proposed Change in the Astronomical Day, a, M. D. Downing, 523 Proteids in Plants, Digestion of, Sidney Martin, 563 Protoplasm, Chemical Difference between Living and Dead, Dr. Oscar Loew, 563 ** Protozoa,” Biitschli’s, Prof. E. Ray Lankester, F.R.S., 145 Protractor and Goniometer, a New Form of, W. F. Stanley, 402 Pryer (H.), Notes on AZustela itatst and Corvus japonensis, 110 ; Lepidoptera of Great Britain and Japan compared, 427 Psicofisiologia, un Capitolo di, Enrico dal Pozzo, 413 Ptomaines, Prof. Brieger on the, 239 Public Opinion and State Aid to Science, 497 Pulsation in the Veins, 437; J. Hippisley, 389, 574; Dr. J. W. Williams, 466 Pumpelly (Raphael), Composite Portraits of Members of the National Academy of Sciences, 176 Quain (Dr.), on the Low Popular Estimate of Medicine, 608 Qualitative Inorganic Analysis, a Practical Treatise on Practical Chemistry and, Frank Clowes, 2 Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science, 116, 591 Quatrefages (M. de), the Red Indians, 164 Queensland, Northern, Meteorological Station in, 279 Queenwood College Mutual Improvement Society, 553 Question of Civil and Astronomical Time, 245 Quinquefoliate Strawberry, E. Lewis Sturtevant, 126 Rabbits in the Western Islands, Are there ?, Herbert Ellis, 575 “*Rabenhorst’s Kryptogamen Flora von Deutschland, Oester- reich, und der Schweiz,” ror Rabies, Pasteur on Inoculation for, 633 Rackarock, the Hell Gate Explosion and, Dr. H. Sprengel, F.R.S., 625 Radau (K.), Elements of Brooks’s Comet, 543 Radiant Energy Recorder, on a, Prof. J. W. Clark, 233, 343 Radiant Light and Heat, Prof. Balfour Stewart, F.R.S., 322, 389, 394, 413, 422, 550 Radiant Matter Spectroscopy, W. Crookes, F.R.S., and M. Lecoq de Boisbaudran, 283 ; Radiation, Molecular, in Incandescent Lamp, Dr. J. A. Fleming, 263 Radlkofer (Prof. L.), Application of the Anatomical Method to the Determination of the Materials of the Linnean and Old Herbaria, 563 Rae (John, F.R.S.), a Word or Two on the Best and Safest Route by which to attain a High Northern Latitude, 565 , Railway Congress at Brussels, 401 Railway Locomotion on the Present Principle, William Hedley the Inventor of, M. Archer, 595 Railway Sleepers, the Question of Metal, 401 Rainbow, B. de Spinoza’s Work on the, 30 Rainbow Phenomenon, Chas. Croft, 30; Prof. Silvanus P. Thompson, 54 Rainbow, Tertiary, T. C. Lewis, 523, 626 Rainfall in Norway, 37 Rainfall of N.W. England, Alf. O. Walker, 271 Rainfall for 1884, British, G. J. Symons, 463 Rainfall in East Indian Archipelago, Statistics of, 494 Rainfall in the Climate of London, on the Sequence of Mean Temperature and, Dr. Courteney Fox, 536 Rainfall of the British Islands, A. Buchan, 536 Rains in Eastern Asia, Extraordinary, 461 Range, the Ruahine, New Zealand, 108 Rarities, Five Mathematical Book, 30 Rats at Inventions Exhibition, 112 Raudnitz (Dr.), a Vasomotor Centre in Cortex and Cerebrum, 119 Ravenstein (E. G.), Batho-Hypsographical Maps, with Special Reference to a Combination of the Ordnance and Admiralty Surveys, 565 Rayleigh (Lord, F.R.S.), Self-Induction in Relation to Certain Experiments of Mr. Willoughby Smith and to the Deter- mination of the Ohm, 7; the Theory of Illumination in a Fog, 22; on a Monochromatic Telescope, 22; Prof. Tait’s ‘* Properties of Matter,” 314; on the Thermodynamic Efficiency of Thermopiles, 536 Rays, Red, after Sunset, Geo. F. Burder, 466 Reactions, Chemical, Influence of Dilution and Excess on, Urech, 87 Reade (Mellard), the North Atlantic as a Geological Basin, 609 ' Reading School, Opening of Chemical Laboratory at, 328 Reale Accademia dei Lincei, 47 Recorder, Radiant Energy, Prof. J. W. Clark, 233, 343 Red Glows, Prof. Ricco, 120 Red Hail, C. Evans, 54; Prof. Théodore Schwedoff, 437 Red Indians, the, M. de Quatrefages, 164 Red Men, E. F. im Thurn on the, about the Roraima, 587 Red Rays after Sunset, Geo. F. Burder, 466 Red River Route to South-West China, 554 Red Sea and the Mediterranean, on the Cause of the Extreme Dissimilarity between the Faunas of the, Prof. E, Hull, F.R.S., 560 Red Spot on Jupiter, W. F. Denning, 626 “*Reeckening van Kanssen,” 30 Refraction, Atomic, of Sulphur in Various Compounds, Nasini, 87 Refraction, Double, Experiments on, D. S. Stroumbo, 432 ; on a Point in the Theory of, R. T. Glazebrook, F.R.S., 538 Regional Metamorphism, by Prof. Prestwich, F.R.S., 214 Reian Meeris, Projected Restoration of the, and the Province, Lake, and Canals ascribed to the Patriarch Joseph, Cope Whitehouse, 565 Reichardt (Dr. H. W.), Death of, 328 Remsen (Prof. Ira), an Introduction to the Study of the Com- pounds of Carbon on Organic Chemistry, M. M. Pattison Muir, 99 Renard (Prof. A.), on some Rock Specimens from the Islands of the Fernando Noronha Group, 556 Rendiconti della R. Accademia delle Scienze di Bologna, 1884- 85, 3 Remliconti del R. Istituto Lombardo, 45, 68, 117, 214, 237, 310, 359, 384, 568 ee : Re, Reports of the United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries for 1881-82, J. T. Cunningham, 79 Research, Zoological, 43 Research, the New Endowment for, Dr. Chas. Sedgwick Minot, 297 Nature, Dee. 10, 1885] INDEX: XXV_ Respiration. Prof, Mosso, 47 Resting Position of Oysters: J. T. Cunningham, 597; Col. H. Stuart Wortley, 625 Revue d’Anthropologie, 615 Rey (Dr. Philippe), on the Weight. of the Cerebral Lobes, 615 Reynolds (Prof. Osborne, F.R.S.), on the Steam Inilicator, 137 ; on the Dilatancy of Media Composed of Rigid Particles in Contact, 535 Rhine, the, Opening of Direct Steam Traffic between Cologne and Sea, 164 Rhodium, Three New Compounds of, 359 Ricco (Prof. R.), Red Glows, 120 ; New Star in Andromeda, 523 Rich (Mrs. Caroline W. D.), Hoar Frost, 30 Richardson (Clifford), Chemical Composition, of American Grasses, Prof. W. Fream, 525 Richmond Park, Trees Struck by Lightning in, 460 Richmond, Surrey, Notes on Deep Boring at, Prof. Judd, F.R.S., and C. Homersham, 310 Ridgway (R.), ‘* Water-Birds of North America,” 521 Riebeck (Dr. Emil), Chittagong Hill Tribes, 169 ; Death of, 180 ; ‘‘ Chittagong Hill Tribes,” Zoology of the Gayal and Gaur, W. T. Blanford, F.R.S., 243 Rigid Particles in Contact, on the Dilatancy of Media Composed of, Prof. Osborne Reynolds, 535 Riley (Prof.), on Cuada septenvieim, 253 Riley (James), Rise and Progress of the Scotch Steel Trade, 429; an Experimental Cupola Furnace, 430 Riveted Joints, Prof. Kennedy on, 21 Rivista Scientifico-Industriale, 45, 117, 189, 359, 568, 615 Roberts (Prof. Chandler, F.R.S.), on the, Development. of Technical Instruction in Metallurgy, 608 Robin (M.), Death of, 578 Robinson (Edward E.) Photographic Action on. Ebonite, 626 Rock. Round Glasgow, Among the, Dugald Bell, 624 Rocky Mountain Region of Canada, on the. Mesozoic. Floras of the, Sir W. Dawson, F.R.S., 164 Roman Sanitary Congress, the, 62 Roman Lettering adopted by Japanese Scientific Societies. for their Proceedings, 494 Romans, the Topography of Italy under the, 376 Rome: Reale Accademia dei Lincei, 95, 1203; Discovery. of Stores. of Elephants’ Tusks.and Lentils in, 279 ; International Sanitary Conference in, 217 Romanes (Dr. Geo, J., F.R.S.), Homing. Faculty of Hymeno- ptera, 630 Rookwood (Prof. C. G.), American. Earthquakes, 300 ; Recent Progress in Vulcanology and Seismology, 609 Roraima, E. F. im Thurn on the Red Men about, 587 Rosse (Lord, F.R.S.), Nebula in Andromeda, 437; the New Star in Andromeda, 465 Rotating Vacuum ‘lube, on Certain Spectral Images Produced by a, Shelford Bidwell, 30 Roth (H. Ling), Animal Parasites of the Sugar-Cane, 268 Rothamsted, Field Experiments at, Prof. J. Wrightson, 58 Rotifers, on the Development of, Miss Pereyaslaviseff, 570 Rougerie (Mgr., Bishop of Pamier), the Anemogene, 519 Rowan (F. J.), the Iron Trade of Scotland, 429 Royal Agricultural Society of England, Journal of, 222 Royal Aquarium, Dogfish Ova at, 515 Royal Archzological Institute, the, 252; W. M, Petrie’s Collection of Egyptian Antiquities at, 353 Royal Geographical Society: the New President, 11; Anni- versary of the, 136 Royal Geographical Society of Antwerp, 302 Royal Horticultural Society and the Exhibition of Colonial Plants, &c., 278 Royal Institute of British Architects, 133 Royal Institution, 85 Royal Meteorological Society, 23, 118, 190, 287, 552. Royal Observatory, Greenwich, Visitation of the, 138 Royal Society, 34, 45, 68, 91, 109, 117, 132, 142, 166, 189, 214, 237, 262; New Fellows, 10, 1323 Conversazion-, 158 Royal Society of Canada, 258 Royal Society of New South Wales, 234, 264, 432, 462 Ruahine Ranve, the, New Zealand, 108 Ricker (Prof. A. W.), on the. Self-Regulation of the Compound Dynamo, 22; Liquid Films, 210 Riidorff (F.), Solubility of Salt Mixtures, 519 Rugby School Natural History Society, 62- Flinders Rule, the Slide, C. V. Boys, 627 Rule of Road: George Campbell, M.P., on the Rule of the Road from an Anthropological Point of View, 587 Rundschau fiir Geographie und Statistik, 464 Russell (H. C.), on the Rising of the Eastern Coast of Aus- tralia, 234 Russe!l (J. Scott, F.R.S.), Wave of Translation in the Oceans of Water, Air, and Ether, 546 Russell (Dr. W. J., F.R.S.), Spectroscopic Observations on Dissolved Cobaltous Chloride, 143 Russia : Publications of the Russian Geographical Society, 15, 61, 163, 168, 495 ; Izvestia of the, 59.; Fauna of Russian Central Asia, Rev. Dr. Henry Lansdell, 56 ; Industrial Education in, 63; Thunderstorms in, Klossowki, 160 ; Female Education in, 162; ‘‘ Russian Central Asia, including Kuldja, Bokhara, Khiva, and Merv,” Dr. Henry. Lansdell, 194: Devonian System. ot Russia, 307 ; Science in Russia, 590 Russo-Afghan Boundaries, the, 88 Ryan, Prof. John, 514 Rye (E. C.), Zoological Record for 1883, 2, Rzehak (A.), on the Causes of the Andalusian Earthquakes, 133 Sacrificial Stone, an Ancient, of North-West Canada, Jean L’Heureux, 46 Sahara, the Artesian Wells in the, 110; Exploration of, Teis- serenc de Bart, 164; Lieut. Palat’s Mission to the, 302 St. Andrews Marine Laboratory, Prof. McIntosh, 563. St. John (Charles), ‘* Tour in Sutherlandshire,”’ 355, Sakcis, the, 428 Saline Solntions, Effect of Immersion of Solid Bodies in, J. Thoulet, 87 . Salmon (George), Lessons Introductory to the Modern Higher Algebra, 411 ‘ Salmon: in the Thames, Landlocked, 254; Marked, taken in Norway, 300; the C»pability of, to Jump Waterfalls, Prof. Landmark, 329; Incubation of Salmon Ova, 609 ; Hybridi- sation of Salmonid at Howietoun, Francis Day, 562 Salomon (Dr.), Xanthine Bodies in Urine, 496 “8 Salt Industry. in Cheshire, German Mission to Inquire into, Pere Mini Solubility of, F. Riidorff, 519 Salt Production in America, 207 Sand, Sonorous, Prof. Bolton, 400 Sandhills of Gascony, the, M. Cambrelent, 375 Sanitary Conference in Rome, International, 62, 85, 217 Sanitary Congress, National, 513 : : Sanitary Institute of Great Britain, 207 ; Anniversary Meeting, 230 ; Annual Congress of, 523 ; ; ~ Saporta (M.) and M. Marion, ‘‘ L’Evolution du Regne Végéetal— Les Phanérogames,” J. Starkie Gardner, 289 Sarjektjakko, the Highest Mountain in Sweden, 404 Satellites of Uranus and Neptune, 553 Saturn, Mars, Jupiter, W. F. Denning, 548 . Saunders (Edward), ‘‘ Dead Humble-Bees under Lime-Trees, 2 tess (Trelawney), Retirement of, 426 Schafer (Dr. E. A., F.R.S.), Mr. Lowne on the Morphology of Insects’ Eyes, 3; ‘‘ Essentials of Histology,” Dr. E. Klein, F.R.S., 388 Schinz (Dr.), Namaqualand or Namaland, 581 S-hlagintweit (Robert von), Death of, 133 Schlie nann (Dr. H., F S.A.), Presentation of Gold Medal of Royal Institute of British Architects to, 133 } Schmidt (Prof. Fredrich), on the Trilobites of Eastern S.beria, 208 School, Indian Forest, Major F. Bailey, 564 Schools, Public, Neglect of Science at, Sir John Lubbock, 552. Schroter (Dr. J.), ‘* Kryptogamen-Flora von Schlesien,” 76 Schunck (Edw., F.R.S.), Contributions to the Chemistry of. Chlorophyll, 117 , . Schuster (Dr. Max), on Some Results of the Crystallographic Study of Danburite, 556 : Schwedoff (Prof. Théodore), Red Hail, 437 Schweiger (Herr), Baldness among Orientals, 36 Schweinfurth (Dr.), Prehistoric Stone Implements of Eastern Egypt, 161 ; c ae Science: Col. Murdoch Smith appointed Director of the Scienc XXVvl INDEX [Nature, Dec. 10, 1885 - and Art Museum, Edinburgh, 10; Sir John Lubbock on “Science, 11 ; the National Academy of Sciences, 35 ; Robert browning as a Scientific Poet, Edward Berdoe, 36; the Com- mon Sense of the Exact Sciences, W. K. Clifford, Prof. P. G. Tait, 124; Science in Jamaica, Morris, 182 ; Report on the Scientific Results of the Voyage of the Challenger, 203, 249; Manual of Health Science, Andrew Wilson, 221 ; Year- Book of Scientific Societies, 231; Science and Art Depart- ment, 237; Manchester and District Association of Science and Art Teachers, 300; Science in Bohemia, 308; a Possible Windfall for Science, 313; Dr. Hyde Clarke, 3425; Co- ordination of the Scientific Bureaus of the U.S. Government, 317; the School of Science at South Kensington, 327 ; Science in Colorado, 330; Science at Marlborough College, 401; ‘* Scientific Culture,” Dr. J. P. Cooke, 426; Sir Lyon Playfair on Science and the State, 438; Sir Lyon Playfair on Science and Secondary Education, 439; Sir Lyon Playfair on Science and the Universities, 441; Sir Lyon Playfair on Science and Industry, 442 ; Public Opinion and State Aid to Science, 497; American Association for the Advancement of “ Science, 510; Science in Russia, 590; the Present State of Science in Italy, 609 ; Three Martyrs of Science of the Nine- teenth Century, 624 ; Century of Science in Bengal, 638 Sclater (Dr. P. L.), ‘* Torresia,” a Proposed Name for British New Guinea, 357; ‘‘ Furculum” or ‘‘ Furcula,” 466 Scoiland: Union of Scotch Naturalists’ Societies, 85 ; Rise and Progress of the Scotch Steel Trade, James Riley, 429; the Tron Trade of Scotland, F. J. Rowan, 429; Annual Report of the Fishery Board for Scotland for 1884, 281 ; Pisciculture in Scotland, 298; Geography of Scotland, What has been done for the, and’ What Remains to be done, H. A. Webster, -565; Scottish Marine Station, J. T. Cunningham, 176; Scottish Meteorological Society, 300, 636 Scratching, Spectra Produced in Glass by, 270 Sea, on the Depth to which the Sun’s Light will Penetrate into the, Fol and Sarasin, 132 Sea, Ozone at, Dr. W. J. Black, 416 Sea and Air, Observations of the Temperature of the, made during a Voyage from England to the River Plate in the s.s. Lithnitz, J. Y. Buchanan, 126 Sea-Fisheries, Value of a Marine Laboratory to the Develop- meu and Regulation of our, Prof. E. Ray Lankester, F.R.S., 5 Sea-Coasts, Erosion, 530 et off Nordland Coast, Rumoured Appearance of the, 462 Seabroke (Geo. M.), New Star in Andromeda, 523 Seashore, Fauna of the, W. R. Hughes, 294; Arthur R. Hunt, 243, 390; Frof. H. N. Moseley, F.R.S., 212, 417 Sebaceous Glands, the Functions of the, Prof. 544 Secondary Generators of Messrs. Inventions Exhibition, 225 Sée (Germain), ‘‘ Bacillary Phthisis of the Lungs,” Seismological Society of Japan, 299 Seismology, Fouque’s Electrical Propagation of Earthquakes, 254 Seismology, Recent Progress in, Prof. Rockwood, 609 Selenium, the Action of Light in Diminishing the Electrical Resistance of, Shelford Bidwell, 167, 215 Self-Induction in Relation to Certain Experiments of Mr. Willoughby Smith and to the Determination of the Ohm, Lord Rayleigh, F.R.S., 7 Selwyn (Alfred R. C., F.R.S.), Geological and Natural History Survey of Canada, 242 Senex, “‘ Speed” and ‘‘ Velocity,” 78 Sense, Common, of the Exact Sciences, W. BG. Lait, 124 Sense of Colour, Margaret Heaton, 626 Severn Tunnel, Completion of, 460 Sewers, Disinfection of, Dr. Italo Giglioli, 415 Sexton (Samuel), Value of the Testi. ony to the Aurora-Sound, 625 Shad-Rearing in United States, 112 Shallow Seas, Influence of Wave-Currents on the Fauna of, Arthur R. Hunt, 547 Shaw (Prof. H. S. Hele): a Self-Recording Stress and Strain Indicator, 70; appointed Professor of Engin-e: ing at, Uni- versity Collége, Liverpool, 279 E, Pz aomove; Fritsch, Gaulard and Gibbs at the 34t Apparatus for Registering IX. Clifford, Prof. Shell-Work: Miss A. W. Buckland on American Shell-Work and its Affinities, 587 Shot-Firing in Mines : W. Galloway, 596 ; Prof. C. G. Kreischer, F . 59 Shrubsole (W. H.), Foul Water, 223 Siam, Silk-Culture in, Archer, 611 Siberia, Eastern, Trilobites in, 208 Siemens’s (Frederick) Gas Lamps, 247 : Siewers (Carl), Photographing the Aurora Borealis, 29; Trans- - lation of Tromholt’s Aurora Borealis, 274 Sight, Long, A. Shaw Page, 103 Signs, Language of, used by Oriental Traders, J. Menges on, 231 Silesian Freshwater Fauna, Dr. O. Zacharias, 160 Silk, the Analysis of, Dr. H. A. Bayne, 258 Silk-Culture i in Siena: Archer, 611 : Silver-Lead Deposits of Eureka, Nevada, J. S. Curtis, fe) Sitzungsberichte der Naturwissenschaftlichen Gesellschaft Isis, 214 Skin, the, Dr. Blaschko, 544: Dr. Lassar’s Microscopic Pre- - parations of Skin of Lichen Ruber Patient, 544 Sky-Glows, 147; Dr. F. A. Forel, 173; Robt. C. Leslie, 245 Sleep: Do Fish Sleep?, W. A. Carter, 580 Sleepers (Metal), the Question of, 4o1 Slide Rule, C. V. Boys, 627 Smell, Physiolcgy of the Sense of, Herr Aronsohn, 520 Bean, Smith (J. Lawrence), ‘‘ Original Researches in Mineralogy and : Chemistry,” 3 Smith (Col. Murdoch), appointed Director of the Edinburgh - Science and Art Museum, fo 2 Smith (Percy), Causes of Liability of Certain Trees to be Struck _ by Lightning, 494 - Smith (Willoughby), Self-Induction in Relation to Certain Experiments of, and to the Determination of the Ohm, Lord Rayleigh, F.R.S., 7 Smith (Worthington G.), Hut Circles, 29 Smithsonian Institution, 374 ‘*Smokeless Houses and 134 Smyrna, Earthquake in, 85 . Smyth (Prof. C. Piazzi), an Earthquake Invention, 213, 625 Saawe Milne and, Notes on the Kurile Islands, ¥35 Snow-Storm in Austria, Terrible, 62 Society of Arts, 110; Medals of, 181 Sohncke (Prof. L.), on the Origin of Thunderstorm Electricity, 406 Solar Corona, P. Tacchini’s Observations on, 359 Solar Eclipses, Central, in New Zealand, 86 Solar Maculz, &c., Distribution in Latitude of, Signor Tacchini, 120 Solar Radiation, 502 Solar Spectrum, New Map of the, L. Thollon, 519 Solar Spots, on the Cyclonic Character of the, Faye, 495 Sole, Male, is not Unknown, Francis Day, 78 Solid Electrolytes, Prof. Silvanus P. Thompson, 366, Shelford Bidwell, 391 Solomon ‘Tslands, 216] Solothurn, Enormous Swarms of Ants at, 515 Solubility of Salt Mixtures, F. Rudorff, 519 Solution, B. A. Report on, 529 Sorbonne, the New, 328 - Sorby (H. C., F.R.S.), on the Structure of Iron and Steel, Manufactories,” Thos. Fletcher, — the Recording of the Direct Intensity of, Anthropological Notes on the Natives of, 39 Sorensen’s (Capt.) Visit to Spitzbergen, 113 Soret (J. L.), ‘‘ Sur le Diapason,” 9 Soroloff’s Analyses of Water of Neva, 13 Sound, Fallacy of the Present Theory of, Henry A. Mott, Jun., Dr. W. H. Stone, 75; Transmission of, Prof. W. E. Ayrton, EER-S., 575 South Kensington, the School of Science at, 327 Southern Stars, Catalogue of 1000, 636 Sowerby’s Whale, on Some Points in the Anatomy of, Prof. Turner, 560 Spaltpilze, die, Dr. W. Zopf, 364 - Spectra, Researches on the Relation between the Molecular Nature, Dic. 10, 1885] INDEX XXVil Structure of Carbon Compounds and their Absorption, Prof. W. N. Hartley, F.R.S., 93 Spectra Produced in Glass by Scratching, E. F. J. Love, 270 Spectral Images Produced by a Rotating Vacuum-Tube, on Certain, Shelford Bidwell, 30; Dr. Henry Muirhead, 55 Spectro-Photometer, a New, Dr. Konig, 191 Spectroscope, a New Stellar, C. V. Zenger, 543 Spectroscopic Observations on Dissolved Cobaltous Chloride, Dr. W. J. Russell, F.R.S., 143 Spectroscopy, Radiant Matter, W. Crookes, F.R.S., and M. Lecoq de Boisbaudran, 283 Spectrum Analysis: Prof. Thalén on the Lines of Iron, 253 ; an Advance in the Theory of Spectral Lines, Dr. Kayser, 312 ; Janssen’s Experiments on the Influence of Gases in, 400; Spectral Photometric Researches on Some Photographic Sensi- tisers, 519; Ultra-Violet Spark Spectra Emitted by Metallic Elements, 529 ; New Mapof the Solar Spectrum, L. Thollon, 519 Speed and Velocity, 29, 78 Spermatozoids, Dr. Biondi on the Origin of the, 544 Spheroidal State of Liquids, the, Luvini, 635 Spinoza (B. de), Reprint of his Work on the Rainbow, 30 Spiracle of Fishes in its Relation to the Head as Developed in the Higher Vertebrates, Prof. Cleland, 561 Spitzbergen, Capt. Sorensen’s Visit to, 113 Sponges, the Australian, R. von Lendenfeld, 639 Sporer (Dr.), on Whirlwinds, 239 Sprengel (Dr. H., F.R.S.), the Hell Gate Explosion and Racka- rock, 625 Square Bamboo, W. T. Thiselton Dyer, F.R.S., 391 Stadia of the Earth’s History, the, M. Faye, 132 Staiths, Superstitions of the Fishermen at, 541 Staminody of Petals, J, C. Costerus, 53 Standard Pitch, 9 Standards of White Light, Discussion on, 537 Stanley (Henry M.), the Congo, 154 Stanley (Sand. S.), Stonehenge, 574 Stanley (W. F.), a New Form of Protractor and Goniometer, a: ona Portable Scale of Proportions of Human Body, 5 Starch in Plants, Notes on Experiments as to the Formation of, under the Influence of the Electric Light, M. Ward, 563 Stars: Binary, 162; Binary, 70 Ophiuchi, 402; Double Stars, 86, 610; Double-Star 19 (Hev.) Camelopardi, 183; Variable, 554; J. E. Gore, 180; Variable-Star V Cygni, 610; the New Star in Andromeda, 469, 465; Lord Rosse, F.R.S., 465; Dr. William Huggins, F.R.S., 465; W. F. Den- ning, 465 ; J. Edmund Clark, 499 ; A. A. Common, F-.R.S., 522; Geo. M. Seabroke, 523; A. Ricco, 523; Dr. Sophus Tromholt, 579 ; on the Determination of Time by Correspond- ing Heights of Different Stars, Prof. Zinger, 63 ; Application of Photography to Mapping of, Mouchez, 70; Stars with Spectra of the Third Type, 610 ; Catalogue of 1000 Southern Stars, 636 State Aid to Science, Public Opinion and, 497 Statigrams, J. F. Heyes, 597 Stations, High-Level, Dr. A. Woeikof, 54 Statistical Society, Jubilee of the, 188 Statistics, U.S. Industrial, 369 Stature, Hereditary, Francis Galton, F.R.S., on, 507 Steam Indicator, Prof. Osborne Reynolds, F.R.S., on the, 137 en Traffic, Direct, between Sea and Cologne, Opening of, 164 Steel and Iron, on the Structure of, H. C. Sorby, F.R.S., 39 Steel Trade, Rise and Progress of the Scotch, James Riley, 429 Stellar Spectroscope, a New, C. V. Zenger, 543 Sternum in Birds, on the Development of the, Miss Beatrice Lindsay, 540 Stevenson (D, A.), Earthquake-Proof Buildings, 316 Steven:on (D.A.), and Prof. C. Piazzi Smyth, an Earthquake Invention, 213 Stevin (Simon), Rare Mathematical Books by, 30 Stewart (Prof, Balfour, F.R.S.), Radiant Light and Heat, 322, 389, 394, 413, 422, 550 Stewart (Prof. Balfour, F.R.S,), and W. W. Haldane Gee, Lessons in Elementary Practical Physics, 339 Stockholm : Zoological Garden in, 110; Academy of Sciences of, 192, 312, 592; Meteor near, 230, 515; Meteorological Phenomena at, 279 ; After-Sunglow in, 635 Stokes (Prof. G. G., F.R.S.), Iridescent Crystals of Chlorate of Potash, 224; on Light as a Means of Investigation, Prof. P. G. Tait, 361 Stokes-Watson Spark Apparatus, 208 Stone (Dr. W. H.), the Fallacy of the Present Theory of Sound, Henry A. Mott, Jun., 75; International Exhibition, Music Loan Collection, 174 Stone Age, Articles Discovered at Breonio Veronese, 47 ; Dis- covery of a Cemetery of the, 401 Stone Axes, Perak, A. Hall, 626 Stone Implements (Prehistoric) of Eastern Egypt, Dr. Schwein- furth, 161 Stone, Lenape ; or, the Indian and the Mammoth, H. C. Mercer, Dr. E. b. Tylor, F-R.S., 593 Stone Weapons in the Neolithic Age, the Worship of, Prof. Pigorini, 48 Stonehenge, Meteoric Cycle and, R. Edmonds, 436 Stonehenge, Sand. S. Stanley, 574 Stonyhurst College Observatory, 300 Storms on Atlantic Coast of United States, 427 Straits Settlements, Timbers of the, Howard Newton, 160 Strain Indicator, a Self-Recording, Prof. H. S. Hele Shaw, 70 Strasburg Scientific Congress, 493 Strawberry, a Quinquefoliate, E. Lewis Sturtevant, 126 Stream-Lines of Moving Vortex-Rings, Prof. Lodge, 263 Stretched India-rubber, on the Behaviour of, H. G. Madan, 625 Stroumbo (D. S.), Experiments on Double Refraction, 432 Struthers (Prof.), on the Development of the Vertebrze of the Elephant, 560 ; on the Development of the Foot of the Horse, 560; on the Cervical Vertebree of the Greenland Right- Whale, 560; on the Tay Whale (M€egaplera lonziman.) and other Whales, 560 Sturtevant (E. Lewis), a Quinquefoliate Strawberry, 126 Styria, Earthquake in, 231, 423 Sub-Lacustrine Ravines of Glacial 640 Sugar Cane, Animal Parasites of the, H. Ling Roth, 268 Sulphur, Atomic Refraction of, in Various Compounds, Nasini, Streams, F. A. Forel, 87 Sulphurous Acid M. G. Witz, 144 Sumac in South Australia, Cultivation of, 462 Sun, on the Hydrogenic Protuberances of the, Prof. Tacchini, 48 Sun, Recent Total Eclipse of the, 631 Sun’s Light, on the Depth to which it will Penetrate into the Sea, Fol and Sarasin, 132 Sun-Glows—Time—Thunderbolts—Vision, Antoine d’Abbadie, in Town Atmospheres, 29 Sunlight and the Earth’s Atmosphere, S. P. Langley, 17, 40 Sunsets, R. McLachlan, F.R.S., 437; Red Rays after, Geo. F. Burder, 466; a Remarkable, Paul A. Cobbold, 626; Prof. Kiessling’s Investigations into the Origin of the Late Sunset Glows, J. Edmund Clark, 637 Sunspots, Tacchini’s Observations of, 144 Superstitions of the Staihs Fishermen, 541 Sur l’Origine du Monde, M. Faye, 132 Surface-Vensions of Liquids, on Calculating the, by Means of Cylindrical Drops or Bubbles, Prof. Pirie, 536 Surface Tension of Water which contains a Gas Dissolved in it, Prof. Pirie, 536 Surinam, Dr. Ten Kate’s Expedition to, 164 Surinam River, Dutch Expedition to, 356 Sutherland (William), Terminology of the Mathematical Theory of Electricity, 391 Swallows : Migration of, 161 ; a Query as to, 197; Wm. Watts, 223; a White Swallow, Mary Briggs, 500 Sweden : Geographical Education in, 15; Forest Cultivation from Seeds in, 230; the Herring Fisheries of, 230; Mirage in, 231, 541, 552; Mirage on Lake Wettern, 279; Cyclones in, 3553 Fossil Forests in, 402; the Highest Mountain in, 404; Early Departure of Migratory Birds, 427 i XXVIiL INDEX [Wature, Deez 10,, 1885 Switzerland: Prehistoric Remains in, 84; Recent Earthquake in, F. A. Forel, 295 ; Meteorology in, 426 Sword, on the Japanese, Herr Hiitterott, 635 Sydney, New South Wales: Linnean Society, 238 ; MacLeay Fellowships at the University of, 230 Sylvester (Prof. J. J., F.RS.), on a New Example of the Use of the Infinite and Imaginary in the Service of the Finite | and Real, 103, 271; on Certain New Terms, or Terms used | | Thermo-Chemistry to Explanation of Geological Phenomena, in a New or Unusual Sense in Elementary Universal Geo- metry, 576 Symons (G. J., F.R.S.), on Trees Struck by Lightning in Rich- mond Park, 460; ‘‘ British Rainfall for 1884,” 463 Tacchini. (Prof. P.), on the Hydrogenic Protuberances of the Sun, 48; Distribution in Latitude of Solar Macule, 120; Observations of Sunspots, 144; Solar Observations in 1885, 359; Observations of the Solar Corona made on Mount Etna, 359 Tait (Prof. P. G), W. K. Clifford’s ‘Common Sense of the Exact Sciences,” 124, 196; Prof. Clifford, 173; ‘‘ Properties of Matter,” Lord Rayleigh, F.R.S., 314; Prof. G. G. Stokes on Light as a Means of Investigation, 361 Tar and Ammonia from Blast Furnaces Fed with Raw Coal, the Recovery of, Wm. Jones, 439 Tasmania, Fish-Culture in, Saville Kent, 634 Taste, New Theory of the Sense of, Prof. J. Berry Haycraft, 562 Tattooing, Japanese, 566 Taylor (Dr. Wallace), Discoveries. as: to. the. Origin of Kakké Disease, 330 Taylor (W. C.), an Agricultural Note-Book, 623 Teaching University for London, 255 Technology, Report of Examinations in, 328 Technical Education, 328 Teeth, Artificial, Use of, by the Ancient Romans, 13 Teeth, Human, Anomalies of Structure in, Prof. Busch, 71 Telegraph Conference, International, at Berlin, 253, 353 Telegraph Lines in Corea, Proposed. 427 Telegraphic Perturbations, a Yearly and a Daily Period in, Dr. Sophus Tromholt, 88 Telephone, a Mechanical, 298 ; W. J. Millar, 316 Telescope, on a Monochromatic, Lord Rayleigh, 22 Telescope Dome, Bischoffsheim’s Floating, tory, 62 Tempel’s Comet (1867 II.), 37, 356 Tempel-Swift Comet (1869-80), 112 Temperatures, Polar, Record of Lena, 16 Temperature of Water in Firth of Forth, H. R. Mill, 70 Temperature of the Sea and Air, Observations of the, made dering a Ve yage from England tothe River Plate in the s:s. Lebnitz, J. Y. Buchanan, 126 Temperature-Sense, Donaldson’s Observations on, 110 Temperature of Human Body, on the Influence of Cortex Cere- bri on, Prof. Eulenburg, 496 Te perature of the Austrian Alps, the, Dr. Hann, 580 Temperaiure, Underground, 503 Temperature, on the Sequence of Mean, and Rainfall in the Climate of London, Dr. Courteney Fox, 536 Temperature, Low, on Night of August 31-September 1, Un- precedented, 495 Teneriffe, Earthquake in, 300 Ten Kate (Dr. H. Z. C.), Expedition to Surinam, 164; *Reizen en Onderzcekingen in Noord-Amerika,” Dr. E, B. Tylor, F.R.S., 593 Terminology of the Mathematical Theory of Elasticity, W. J. Ibbetson, 76; William Sutherland, 391 ; Henry Muirhead, 437 Terms, on Certain New, or Terms used in a New or Unusual | Sense in Elementary Universal Geometry, Prof. J. J. Sylves- ter, F.R.S., 576 Tertiary Man, M. de Mortillet, 494 Tertiary Rainbow, T. C. Lewis, 523, 626 BES unony to the Aurora-Sound, Value of the, Samuel Sexton, 2 Thalen (Prof.), the Lines of Iron, 253 Thames, Landlocked Salmon in the, 254 ‘Uheiler’s Microscopes, 112 Theodolites, Cloud-Measurement by, 400 for Nice Observa- | Theory of Light, Electro-Magnetic, Sir Wm. Thomson and Maxwell’s, Prof. Geo. Fras. Fitzgerald, 4 Theory of Sound, Fallacy of the Present, Henry A. Mott, Jun.,. Dr. W. H. Stone, 75 Therapeutics, and Materia Medica, Text-Book of Pharmacology, Dr. T. Lauder Brunton, F.R.S., Prof. Arthur Gamgee, F.R.S., 337 J Thermic-Studies of the Aromatic Series, Berthelot, 592 Application of, Dieulafait, 592 Thermo-Electric Position of Carbon, J. Buchanan, 263 Thermometer, a Differential Resistance, T. C. Mendenhall, 567 Thermopiles, on the Thermodynamic Efficiency of, Lord Ray- leigh, F.R.S., 536 Thibet Expedition, Col. Prjevalsky’s, 493 Third International Geological Congress, 599 Thollon’s (L.) New Map of the Solar Spectrum, 519 Thomp be the external E.M.F. A=£(1+7)/(1+7) if » be the external current. It can easily be shown that the function @ has two critical values, and that the value of x, corresponding to one of these, is necess- arily negative, unless one of the inducing spirals is wound so as to diminish the magnetisation Warious cases are considered, corresponding to different relations among the magnitudes of the constants 4, B, P, and Q. The following indications of the method of treatment may suffice. If 4/B<1<,/P/,/0Q, gis positive for all positive values of .v, and the critical value of @ | occurs for a negative value of x, so that @ diminishes as « increases. Hence, if we write eeeOn Atm Bim " we must have BS es, SORE A At+mu Bt+p +9 where g is a positive quantity which will be less as the self regulation is more perfect. These equations give _ > .n-m—g(B+m) SP UGS eS INE et A I+g Garena hal tere _ 9 Bho-m—glAtmn) ~i+g (4-8) p—m) Now since 4 — & is negative, we must, if Pand Q are positive, have (B+p)B+m). g<(u—m)/(A +m), g<(u-—m)/(B+m). By similar methods inferior limits to g are found in other cases, and it is thus shown that for given values of « and m, the limit is lower as 4 is larger. It has, however, been proved above that if the maximum efficiency of the machine is high, 4 will te large or small, according as it is taken from an expres- sion that gives the external E.M.F. or the external current. Hence it is more difficult to combine high efficiency with good self-regulation if an approximately constant external current is desired than if an approximately constant external E.M.F. is aimed at. The equations do not lead to any simple rules for the relations which should hold between the various parts ofcompound dynamos ; but if some of the constants are taken as given, the values which must be assigned to the others can be calculated if a given efficiency for the usual value of x and a given deviation from perfect self-regulation between given values of x are to be attained.—On the determination of the heat-capacity of a ther- mometer, by Mr. J. W. Clark. The method consists in the estimation of the masses of the mercury and glass of the thermometer by weighing the instrument in air and in water, and again in water when immersed to the extent usual in the thermal experiment. The specific gravity of the glass and mercury being known, the absolute masses immersed can be readily calculated, and consequently their thermal capacity.—A photometer which enabled a comparison to be made between the light of a lamp emitted at any angle anda standard was exhibited by Mr. Dibdin, and the action explained by Mr, Livingstone, who stated that the maximum amount of illumina- tion took place at an angle of 45°. a Geological Society, April 15.—Prof. T. G. Bonney, F.R.S., President, in the chair.—John Rudd Leeson, M.D., was elected a Fellow of the Society.—The following communi- cations were read :—A general section of the Pagshot strata from Aldershot to Wokingham, by the Rey. A. Irving, F.G.S. The author referred to earlier papers in the Geological Magazine, in which the green colouring-matter so common in the Middle and Lower Bagshot strata of the London Basin had been attributed to the presence of vegetable débris and the materials resulting from decomposition of vegetable matter. The marked difference in this respect between these strata and the higher members of the series furnishes a clue to the conditions under which they were respectively deposited, the former being delta- and lagoon- deposits, the latter the deposits of a marine estuary. This im- plies a transgressive overlap of the upper portions of the Bagshot series upon the London clay ; and the present paper was devoted to a consideration of the stratigraphical evidence of this overlap. Sections were described in detail at Aldershot, Farnborough, Yateley, Camberley, Wellington College and the neighbourhood, and from the last-named place to Wokingham. From these a general section was constructed to exact scale, both as to thick- ness of strata and altitudes, showing a relation of the Bagshot formation to the London clay which was inconsistent with the generally received idea of their conformability and at variance with the mapping of the district as executed by the Geological Survey. The importance of the Bagshot pebble-bed as a base- ment-line of the upper division of the Bagshot strata was shown, as was suggested by the author so long ago as 1880. The syn- clinal arrangement of the London clay was shown to have been produced defore the deposition of the Bagshot series, though a and a fortior?. May 7, 1885] NATURE 23 certain amount of movement (with a resultant amount of 150 feet of tilting in thirteen miles from south to north) has since taken place.—Nutes on the Polyzoa and Foraminifera of the Cambridge greensand, by G. It. Vine. Communicated by Thomas Jesson, F.G.S. Royal Meteorological Society, April 15.—Mr.R.H. Scott, F.R.S., President, in the chair.—The foilowing papers were read :—Report of Committee on Decrease of Water-Supply. This Committee was appointed to take into consideration the question of the decrease of water in springs, streams, and rivers, and also the simultaneous rise of the flood-level in cultivated countries. As far as any inference can be drawn from the records collected by the Committee, it appears that the years 1820, 1821, 1824, 1835, 1838, 1845, 1847, 1850,1854, 1855, 1858, 1859, 1864, 1865, 1871, 1874, 1875, and 1884 have been periods of marked low water. On the other hand, the years 1817, 1825, 1830, 1836, 1841, 1842, 1853, 1860, 1861, 1866, 1873, 1877, 1879, 1881, and 1883 have been periods when there has been exceptionally high water. In 1852 the water was very low in the early part of the year, while at the end of the year it was very high. Inthe intervening periods the water has been of moderate altitude. It does not appear from existing records that there is any diminution in the water-supply of this country, and the large quantity of water which has been stored or has | flowed off the ground between 1876 and 1884 is confirmatory of this view. There appear, however, to be periods when there is exceptionally low water, and these are almost immediately fol- lowed by periods of exceptionally high water. With reference to the increase of floods, it does not appear from the records that there is any great increase in the height to which the floods rise in this country. Whether or not the height to which floods have risen in recent years has been affected by river improve- ments and the greater facility with which floods can be got rid of, or whether there is a diminution in the quantity of water, are questions upon which the Committee {have not at present sufficient information to speak positively.— Report of Committee on the occurrences of the Helm-Wind of Cross Fell, Cumberland, from 1871 to 1884. In response to a letter inserted in the Pen- rith newspapers, the Committee has received a number of com- munications bearing on the subject of the helm-wind. With the view of ascertaining as far as possible the meteorological con- ditions which exist when the helm-wind is blowing, all the recorded occurrences that have been received have been chrono- logically arranged. ‘The first systematic record commences in 1871, and in this report the Committee deals with all occurrences from that date to the end of 1884. Since that time more de- tailed records have been commenced at numerous stations in the locality at the instigation of the Royal Meteorological Society. Ninety-three instances of the helm-wind were recorded from 1871 to 1884; the months with the greatest frequency being February, March, April, and November. On examining the Daily Weather Reports it was clearly seen that, whenever the helm-wind was blowing there was an easterly wind, not only in the locality, but generally over the entire country. As the helm-wind seemed to occur so regularly with the easterly wind, the Committee further extended the inquiry with regard to the east wind. The Daily Weather Charts were consequently ex- amined for each day from January 1, 1871, to December 31, 1884, and every occurrence of east wind tabulated; the instances with general easterly conditions over the whole country being kept separate from those instances in which the easterly wind was only partial, though of sufficient intensity to occasion the helm-wind. This examination showed that, although the wind over the United Kingdom is generally easterly when the helm occurs, yet the helm by no means occurs whenever the wind is easterly. Indeed, this step in the inquiry has not at all tended to the elucidation of the phenomenon in question, for it frequently happens that the conditions are, to all appearances, precisely similar when the helm is on, and yet no such occurrence has been recorded. This may in part be due to the occasional omission to record the helm, although it cannot possibly be, in the main, attributable to such an omission ; but it points to other conditions being necessary besides absolute agreement of wind direction and isobaric lines. Possibly the different hygro- metric qualities of the air with the existing easterly winds may be an important factor in deciding whether or no the helm will be formed, but it is not readily conceived why, even in this case, the helm-wind should not blow. It must, however, be borne in mind that the surface-winds can only be examined, whilst those at a comparatively small elevation may be intimetely con- | Eury. nected with the phenomenon. From the observations made prior te those started at the beginning of 1885, no idea can be formed of the behaviour of the upper currents, even at the time of the occurrence of the helm-winds, far less with the occurrence of each east wind experienced. The Society has, however, provided for the extension of the inquiry in this direction in the records which are now being collected, the observers supplying observati ns of the upper currents by means of the clouds, as well as the direction of the winds at the surface of the earth. As soon as a sufficient number of these observations have been received, the Committee hopes to present a furtherreport, which will tend to explain the phenomenon of the helm-wind.—Results of meteorological observations made at Asuncion, Paraguay, by R. Strachan, F.R.Met.Soc, PARIS Academy of Sciences, April 27.—M. Bouley, President, in the chair.—Experimental researches regarding (1) Attacks of an epileptic character excited by the electrisation of the excito- motor regions of the brain properly so-called ; (2) the duration after death of the excitability so produced in the brain, by M. Vulpian. The main object of these experiments, made chiefly on dogs, is to confirm the conclusion already arrived at and communicated by the author in a previous paper, that the grey cortical substance of the cerebral regions known as motor centres does not play the indispensable part hitherto supposed in the production of epileptic attacks caused by the faradisation of those regions. The inference is also confirmed that amongst the higher mammals under normal conditions the cerebral substance proper loses its excitability as soon as the circulation has completely ceased in the nerve-centres.—Nebula discovered, observed, and tabulated at the Observatory of Marseilles, by M. E. Stephan. —Results of the boring recently carried out at Ricard, in the Grand’-Combe Valley, Gard, in search for coal, by M. Grand’- These borings tend to confirm the conclusion, al- ready arrived at on other grounds, that no parallelism exists between the St. Barbe and Grand’-Combe geological systems, and as the former are unquestionably the older, they must, in the normal state, necessarily underlie the latter.—Re- port on the relation between the phenomena presented by the recent earthquakes in Andalusia, and the geological constitution of: the region comprised within the area of disturbance, by M. | Fouqué.—Remarks on an instrument analogous to the sextant, by means of which angles projected on the horizon may be directly measured, by M. E. H. Amagat.—Note on the calcula- tions made to determine the solar parallax from the daguerrotypes taken by the French Commission during the transit of Venus in 1874, by M. Obrecht. The calculations have been carefully checked, and the definite result is represented by a = 881 — 0” 004d LZ £ 0'"06, where 7 is the solar parallax, and d Z the correction tu be made for the longitude of Pekin. —Elements and ephemerides of the planet 246, deduced from the observations made on March 9 at Marseilles, Vienna, and Diisseldorf, on March 18 at Marseilles and Vienna, on March 31 at Berlin, and on April 9 at Mar- seilles, by M. Andoyer.—On a general law in the theory of the partition of numbers, by MM. Bougaieff.—A short and simple demonstration of M. de Sperre’s theorem regarding Poinsot’s “herpolhodie ” curve, by M. A. de Saint-Germain.—Note on a method of regulating the velocity of electric motors, by M. M. Deprez.— Régime of combustion of explosive mixtures formed with illuminating gas, by M. A. Witz.—Description of the solar corona, the so-called ‘‘ Bishop’s ring,” observed subsequently to the Krakatoa eruption in 1883, 1884, and 1885, by M F. A. Forel.—Researches on the phosphates : a method of reproducing at pleasure a large number of crystallised phosphates and oxides, by M. H. Debray.—On the oxidation of iodine during the pro- cess of natural nitrification, by M. A. Miintz. The object of this paper is to determine the natural conditions under which were produced the extensive deposits of nitrates in certain tro- pical regions.—On the ammoniacal sulphate of copper, and on a basic sulphate of copper, by M. G. André.—On the dimor- phism of telluric anhydride and on some of its combinations, by MM. D. Klein and J. Morel.—On the chemical constitution of cocaine, by MM. G. Calmels and E. Gossin.—Studies on the inhalation of bichloruretted formene (chloride of methylene) and of tetrachloruretted formene (perchloride of carbon), by MM. J. Regnauld and Villejean.—On the effects produced on man and animals by the stomachic ingestion and hypodermic injec- tion of the microbes associated with the diarrhceic liquid of 24 NATURE |. ay 7, 1885 cholera, and cultivated in peptonised gelatine, by M. Bochefon- taine. Experiments made by the author on himself and on the guinea-pig tend to show that these preparations, when swallowed or injected in small doses, produce no morbid symptom, although large doses may give rise to more or less serious local inflamma- tion. He infers that the physiological disorders observed in cholera patients are due, not to the development of the microbe germs, but to the presence of a special substance not yet deter- mined ; further, that in its normal state the blood of man and other animals is destructive to the choleraic microbes artificially prepared in gelatine. BERLIN Physiological Society, March 27.—Prof. Ewald spoke on the occurrence of lactic acid in human gastric juices, which was now universally regarded as a pathological formation, z.e. a pro- duct of fermenting processes which did not obtain under normal conditions. In conformity with this opinion he had, in a former investigation, clearly demonstrated the absence of lactic acid, even after milk had been partaken. On the other hand, he had regularly found hydrochloric acid in the gastric juice. Two cases of hysteric vomiting, which had come under his ob- servation in the infirmary, induced him to resume this in- vestigation, one of the cases especially inviting such inquiry. The female patient was able to retain on her stomach and normally digest solid food, but whenever she swallowed anything fluid the whole contents of the stomach were at once vomited. Opportunity was, therefore, here offered at any time to examine the contents of the stomach after food had been received, Prof. Ewald mentioned the different chemical reac- tions by means of which the presence of lactic acid might be easily detected in the gastric juice, and among them he deemed car- bolic acid and chloride of iron the most trustworthy. He then described the experiments he had carried out on the female patient above referred to, which had yielded the following re- sults :—After a mixed meal (of bread, vegetables, and meat), lactic acid was found 26 times out of 31 in the contents of the stomach in the space of ro to roo minutes after the reception of the food ; in 5 cases, however, not till 120 minutes or more after that point of time. Hydrochloric acid was found in the con- ents of the stomach only in the second hour and later, after the lactic acid had disappeared. Out of 26 cases in which white bread was alone eaten, lactic acid was demonstrated in 17 Cases, occurring in fo to 100 minutes from the time of eating. Out of 15 cases in which cooked albumen was administered, lactic acid was found only in one case, within one-and- a-half hours from the time of its being taken; while, on ‘‘schabefleisch ” (scraped raw meat) being administered, lactic acid became again demonstrable ; in the majority of cases in 10 to 100 minutes’ time. From these experiments it was to be inferred that lactic acid occurred normally in the contents of the stomach, namely, in the first period of digestion. It was, however, in the opinion of Prof. Ewald, no normal constituent of the gastric juice, but in the case of a mixed and meat diet originated in the carno-lactic acid obtained from the meat and, in the case of white bread being taken, from the fermentation of the starch. On albumen being taken, lactic acid was, there- fore, not found, because it occurred in the stomach only when it was introduced with the food—in the case of meat, for ex- ample—or when it arose from a fermentive aliment. With refer- ence to the ulterior issues of the lactic acid, the speaker adopted the view of Prof. Maly, that it was employed towards the forma- tion of the free hydrochloric acid afterwards appearing in the gastric juice.—Dr. Blaschko reported some observations he had made on sensations of pressure. In the course of investigations into the development of the skin, he had found that the hair- roots were provided witha rich nerve plexus in the same manner as the touch corpuscles in the touch balls of the hands and feet, and this induced him to examine the hairs in respect of their sensibility to pressure. When he took a stiff hair a little curved at the tip, and stroked the skin with it, he had only then a sensation when he touched a lanugo hair. By this and other means he became convinced that the hair papillae possessed such a high degree of sensibility as entitled them to be placed in a series with the touch papillze. While, however, the touch cor- puscles had to be drawn hither and thither over the object to be touched, in the case of the touch hairs the body to be felt had, on the contrary, to be waved over it. Dr. Blaschko was therefore of opinion that a direct and an indirect, or a papillary and a ciliary feeling of the skin had to be distin- guished. The first performed its functions at the unhaired cutaneous spots ; the touch balls of the hand, and the foot, and at the lips ; by means of the touch corpuscles. The indirect or ciliary sensations, on the other hand, were performed by the lanugo hairs covering the whole body, which were properly, therefore, touch hairs. If at a limited spot of the skin, such as the forehead, the lanugo hairs were shaved away, then would the fine sensations of pressure likewise disappear, and on waving that part of the skin with the stiff hair above referred to, a cor- respondingly large hiatus would become perceptible, at which nothing would be felt. In the course of this investigation the speaker had failed to convince himself of the existence of special points of pressure, and controverted the doctrine set up by Dr. Goldscheider in the former sitting of the Society respecting the specific energies of the nerves of feeling, and their punctiform distribution over the surface. In the discussion which followed, Dr. Goldscheider maintained the accuracy of his former state- ments, and invited Dr. Blaschko to convince himself of their correctness according to the method prosecuted by him, VIENNA Imperial Academy of Sciences, February 5.—Contribu- tions to general nerve and muscle physiology (seventeenth com- munication) : on the electric stimulation of the sphincter of Anodonta, by W. Biedermann.—Experiments on the oxidation of albumen by potassium permanganate, by R. Maly.—On Clemmys sarmatica, noy. spec., from the Hernalstegel, near Vienna, by C. A. Purschke.—Remarks on the velocity of light in quartz, by K. Exner.—Histological and embryological re- searches on the uro-genital apparatus, by T. Tanosik.—On a new vegetable parasite of the human body, by R. von Wettstein. February 12.—On the bloodless-vessels in the tail of Batrachian larvae, by S. Mayer.—On the constitution of isutivinic acid, by T. Schreder.—On the isogyric plane of double-refracting crys- tals, by H. Pitsch.—On the geographical distribution of the Jurassic formation, by M. Neumeyr. CONTENTS PAGE Greek Mathematics). j cie eemenicr eieenn ene ij Our Book Shelf :— «The Zoological Record for 1883” ... . 2 Clowes’s ‘‘ Treatise on Practical Chemistry and Quali- tative Inorganic PASH ally SiS uals é 3 Smith’s ‘‘ Original Researches in Mineralogy and Chemistry” . : PAD fc 3 Tschermak’s «« Lehrbuch der Mineralogie” «on eeteies 3 Letters to the Editor :— Mr. Lowne on the Morphology of Insects’ Eyes.— Dr EevA. SchaterghaRIS. 0 ae face The Late Prof. Clifford’s Papers.—R. Tucker . . Sir Wm. Thomson and Maxwell’s Electro-magnetic Theory of Light.—Prot. Geo, Fras. Fitzgerald . The April Meteors.—W. F. Denning. (/¢/ustrated) Chinese Insect Wax.—R. McLachlan, F.R.S. .. The New Bird in Natal.—J. E. Harting ..... Wild Bees.x—E. Brown. . . On M, Wolf’s Modification of Foucault’s Apparatus for the Measurement of the Velocity of Light. By Albert A. Michelson ... a Self-Induction in Relation to certain Experiments of Mr, Willoughby Smith, and to the Determination of the Ohm. By Lord Rayleigh, FIRS). eee The Inventions) xhibition) 20.) =). eee The Flora of Bank-Notes. leet) + a) ae Standard Pitch. . . 2 el eee The Science and Art Museum, ‘Edinburgh +) Ayan NOtES aan os (el ee 6 se) Mentone Our Astronomical Column: — Tuttle's Comet .... AMO. eS Astronomical Phenomena ‘for the Week 1885, May ZO=26) ce ey 0 foe cele Geographical Notes... . 14 Some Experiments on the Viscosity of ‘Ice. By ‘Prof. oi Roya Motgen is: 6). aes 16 Ben Nevis ... Bip. o . Sunlight and the ‘Earth’s | Atmosphere. Bysisomee Langley.) 2 ee: Peers oO 527 fon) DA. BU ooo wm nd The Institution of Mechanical Engineers Did Oy | 20) University and Educational Intelligence ..... 21 Scientific(Serials yee =< neeel tech tes ne ean Societies and Academies |. - 1:1 ses sane ene NATORE THURSDAY, MAY 14, 1885 SIR WILLIAM THOMSON’S “MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL PAPERS” Mathematical and Physical Papers. By Sir William Thomson. Vols. I. and II. (Cambridge University Press. 1882, 1884.) VERY one interested in the study of physics of the more profound kind will welcome this collection of essays by the celebrated natural philosopher, so many of which, hitherto scattered throughout various periodicals, difficult to gather together, or even wholly inaccessible to readers out of the reach of large public libraries, are yet of decisive importance for those chapters of the science to which they refer. With the two volumes now before us, in conjunction with the late publication, “ Reprint of Papers on Electrostatics and Magnetism,” the collection is now completed down to the date of February, 1856. Vol. II. contains, besides, all that the author has written on the Transatlantic Telegraphs, which, according to the strict order of time, might have been looked for in later volumes. The first volume begins with a series of essays, for the most part of a mathe- matical nature, ranging from the year 1841 to 1850. So far as these essays relate to physical problems, their chief interest turns on the difficulties connected with the analytic method. These difficulties were, however, even at that early period, treated by the youthful author with great skill, and under comprehensive points of view. The problems are, in part, geometrical and mechanical, referring to lines of curvature, systems of orthogonal surfaces, principal axes of a rigid body, &c. Most of them, however, deal with the integration of the differen- tial equations, on which is based the doctrine of thermal conductivity and potential functions. The latter, asis well known, form the mathematical foundation of a large num- ber of chapters in physics—the doctrine of gravitation, of electrostatical distribution, of magnetic induction, of stationary currents of heat, of electricity and of ponder- able fluids. By treating all these problems collaterally and rendering concretely in some what in others appears in the highest degree abstract, the author has succeeded in overcoming the greatest difficulties, and we can only recommend every student of mathematical physics to follow his example. A field particularly favourable for the exercise of his powers was opened up to Sir W. Thomson by the phenomena, newly discovered by Fara- day, in diamagnetic and weakly magnetic bodies, crystall- ine as well as uncrystalline. These our author rapidly and easily succeeded in arranging under comprehensive points of view. One great merit in the scientific method of Sir William Thomson consists in the fact that, follow- ing the example set by Faraday, he avoids as far as possible hypotheses on unknown subjects, and by his mathematical treatment of problems endeavours to ex- press the law simply of observable processes. By this circumscription of his field the analogy between the dif- ferent processes of nature is brought out much more> distinctly than would be the case were it complicated by 29) | From the year 1848 and onwards there follows a long series of important investigations into the fundamental problems of thermo-dynamics. These start first with Saadi Carnot’s conclusions respecting the mechanical functions of heat arrived at before J. P. Joule had ex- perimentally demonstrated the equivalence of heat and mechanical energy. At the time when Carnot published his investigations heat was, by the majority of physical scientists, deemed an imponderable substance capable of flowing from one body to another, of entering occasionally into a more intimate kind of union with ponderable matter, and becoming, so to say, chemically united with it, under changes in the state of aggregation and under chemical processes. According to this older view temperature signified as much as the pressure under which the im- ponderable fluid stood in the warm bodies. In the case of a great number of thermal processes heat, in point of fact, acts entirely like a substance, showing the con- stancy of quantity, which is the most characteristic criterion of substances. In this way large sections of the doctrine of heat, embracing great bodies of facts, could very well be treated under the substantial concep- tion of this agent—such, for example, as the exchange of heat between different bodies, the confinement and libera- tion of latent heat, the chemical production of heat. Al] that was necessary to render the substantial conception of heat apparently satisfactory was but to leave out of account all cases in which other forms of work are pro- duced by heat or in which heat is produced by such. Cases of this kind then known were indeed very few, whereas the sections of the doctrine of heat already referred to were exactly those which till towards the middle of this century engaged the attention of natural philosophers. Carnot’s highly acute investigation was an attempt to bring the phe- nomena likewise of the performance of work by means of heat into harmony with the assumption of the substantial theory of heat. The result of this endeavour was remark- able enough, He showed, namely, that heat was capable of performing mechanical work only when a quantity of it passed from a body of higher temperature into another body of lower temperature. A complete analogy thus seemed to be established between heat and those gases which through their pressure are capable of performing work, expanding, as they do, and abating their pressure in a measure corresponding with their expansion. The heat of a warm body corresponds n a manner with a com- pressed gas; it diffuses itself in space, passing into neigh- bouring bodies, to the lowering of the temperature of the body in which it was originally compacted. Carnot’s deductions, although based essentially on the erroneous assumption that the quantity of heat was constant like that of a substance, proved in reality correct so far as they respected transitions of heat within very narrow limits of temperatu... They cease, however, to be strictly accurate when they are extended to wider intervals of temperature, for in that case finite parts o the transferred heat become transformed into work and no longer continue as heat. We now know through the experiments of Joule that heat does not possess the abso- lute constancy of a substance, but only the relative con- | stancy of an equivalent of work which, to be sure, can widely-diverging ideas respecting the unknown interior | mechanism of the phenomena. VOL. XXXII.—No. 815 neither be produced from nothing nor come to nothing | but is yet capable of being transferred into other forms of ¢ 26 equivalents of work which may be presented in a very diverse and hardly recognisable manner. In his first Essays, Art. XXXIX., “On an Absolute Thermometric Scale,” and Art. XLI., “An Account of Carnot’s Theory of the Motive Power of Heat,” dating from the years 1848 and 1849, our author still occupies essentially Carnot’s standpoint, but he nevertheless calls attention to the fact that the argument adduced by Carnot in support of his theorem, apparently valid though it was in all points, was yet defective if the experiments by Joule, which were just then made known, should be con- firmed, according to which heat might be generated anew by work (vol. i. p. 116). That which more immediately directed Sir William Thomson’s studies to this subject was the possibility of attaining, in accordance with Carnot’s theorem, to an absolute scale of temperature, and he endeavoured to utilise the observations which Regnault had shortly before carried out with special care in reference to the pressure and latent heat of steam for he purpose of calculating such a scale. But in doing so, he was obliged to apply the hypothesis, not perfectly exact in this case, that the density of steam was to be calcu- lated from pressure and temperature according to the laws of gases. The theory of Carnot next obtained highly surprising confirmation from the theoretical deductions drawn by Prof. James Thomson, the elder brother of Sir William, touching the alteration of the freezing-point of water in consequence of differences of pressure. The accuracy in point of fact of this deduction was experimentally demon- strated by Sir W. Thomson. This was a discovery which perhaps more than any other served to draw the attention of physical scientists to the accuracy and the importance of Carnot’s theorem. Meanwhile our author, no longer able to doubt the cor- rectness of Robert Mayer and Joule’s thesis respecting the equivalence of heat and work, devoted himself to the problem of how Joule’s and Carnot’s laws might be combined. This question he answered in his treatise of March, 1851, “On the Dynamical Theory of Heat,” Art. XLVIII. Prof. Clausius,in Germany, had, however, been busied with the same problem, and had published the results at which he arrived before Sir W. Thomson, in May, 1850. ‘The essential results of the two investi- gations coincided exactly ; only in their numerical values for the absolute scale of temperature, the two authors had started with two different hypotheses, and had therefore reached different conclusions. Sir William Thomson had, as above mentioned, calculated the density of steam from pressure and temperature, as if for complete gases, whereas Prof. Clausius had accepted the hypothesis set up by Robert Mayer, according to which the work of a gas expanding itself was exactly equivalent to its loss of heat. Later on, when his opponents set forth the un- satisfactory basis of this hypothesis, Robert Mayer pointed to an old and very little-known experiment of Gay-Lussac, according to which a gas diffusing itself in empty space without encountering any resistance suffered no diminution of heat. The same experiment was after- wards carried out by Joule without his having any know- ledge of the earlier observation of a similar nature. This form of the experiment was, however, as a whole, not fitted to yield very precise results, seeing that the mass of NATURE | Way 14, 1885 air available for it, whose consumption of heat was to be measured, was necessarily very small in comparison with the mass of water of the calorimeter. It was not till the investigations into the changes of temperature undergone by a mass of gas made to pass through a very dense porous substance—an investigation carried out in common by J. P. Joule and Sir W. Thomson, in 1852, and described in Art. XLIX., “On the Thermal Effects of Fluids in Motion ”—that it was demonstrated how, in point of fact, R. Mayer’s hypothesis was accurate to within a very close degree of approximation, although not with abso- lute precision, in respect of hydrogen and atmospheric air, whereas carbonic acid showed greater deviations. To this have to be added extended investigations into thermo-electric currents, and the equivalent of their operations (Appendix to Art. XLVIII. and Art. LI. “Experimental Researches in Thermo-electricity,” Vol. I., Art. XCI. Bakerian lecture, pp. i., ii., and iii., Vol. II.). In a thermo-electric chain which, from its conducting wire, sets magnets in motion, or generates heat in them, the heat conducted to the soldering seams is manifestly the source of the operations. We know that in such a case, according to the important observations of Peltier, heat disappears from the warmer soldering seam, and becomes developed in the colder. That is, in fact, the condition, according to Carnot’s law, under which heat becomes transferable into other forms of work. This particular process was, however, of special interest for the universal validity of the theory, seeing that the work of heat is here produced under conditions altogether different from those of the steam-engine and hot-air engine. Our author was by this investigation led to the conclusion that, contrary to the opinion hitherto entertained, it was not in the solder- ing-seams of the metals, at all events not in those alone, but in the whole length of the wires, by a process which he calls “electric convection of heat,” that the essential _ cause of the thermo-electric force was to be sought ; and, in point of fact, he succeeded by a series of very laborious and subtle experiments in demonstrating that the conduc- tion of heat in iron proceeded more rapidly in the direction of the current of negative electricity, and in copper in the direction of the positive current. In the first volume of the book which is the subject of notice, the consecutive stages may thus be followed in the development of one of the most remarkable chapters in the history of discoveries,a chapter specially remarkable also as an example of how discoveries are arrived at in a manner not always rational. The course of this discovery re- minds one in some measure of the invention of achrom- atic telescopes. Starting with the erroneous supposition that the eye of man was achromatic, Euler inferred that Newton’s assumption of the proportionality between refraction and dispersion of light was false, and that his conclusion as to the impossibility of achromatic telescopes was without foundation. Thereupon Euler gave the receipt for the making of achromatic tele- scopes—a correct conclusion from a false premiss; similar to the case of Carnot with the doctrine of heat. After all the confirmations which have been obtained in the different branches of physics for the validity of the deductions of the corrected Carnot law there can hardly longer remain any doubt that we have here found one of the most comprehensive and important laws of nature of May 14, 1885] NATURE 27 unlimited applicability. Down to the present moment we are, however, not yet ina position to derive a com- plete argument for its truth from the general principles of kinetics. Our analytic methods are inadequate even to the problem of completely determining the movement of three bodies reciprocally attracting oneanother. In thecase, however, of motion which we perceive as heat, there are myriads of atoms engaged, all in the most irregular move- ment, and influenced by forces the nature of which is still almost wholly unknown to us. It is highly probable that the peculiar difficulty of reducing thermal motion into other forms of mechanical energy, which is expressed in Carnot’s thesis, is due to the circumstance that thermal motion is a completely “unregulated” movement, that is, that there is no kind of similarity between the move- ments of atoms immediately neighbouring one another. Even in the case of the most rapid vibrations of light and sound, on the other hand, the movements and con- ditions of neighbouring atoms are so much the more similar to one another the nearer they are to one another. These, therefore, I am in the habit of calling “regulated” in antithesis to thermal motion. Sir W. Thomson has introduced for this conception the name of “dissipation of energy.” Prof. Clausius denotes the quantitatively determined measure of the same magni- tude by a more abstract name, “entropie.” The dissipa- tion of energy is capable, according to Carnot’s law, by every known process of nature in the inorganic world, only of constant increase, never of decrease, and this leads to the much-talked-of conclusion that the universe is tending towards a final state of absolute unchangeable- ness with stable equipoise of all its forces under the establishment of complete equipoise of temperature, as our author expressed it in the year 1852 (Art. LIX., “ On a Universal Tendency in Nature to the Dissipation of Mechanical Energy ”). On the other hand the ascertained laws of dynamics yield the deduction that if we were able suddenly to reverse the total movements of the total atoms of an iso- lated mechanical system the whole system would of necessity retraverse all the states which up to that point of time it had passed through. Therewith also would all the heat generated by friction, collision, conduction of electrical currents, &c., return into other forms of energy, and the energy which had been dissipated, would be all recovered. Such a reversion, however, is a postulate beyond the power of human means to fulfil. We have no agency at our disposal by which to regulate the move- ment of atoms. Whether, however, in the extraordinarily fine structure of organic tissues a mechanism capable of doing it exists or not is a question not yet to be answered, and I deem it very wise on the part of Sir W. Thomson that he has limited all his theses respecting the necessity of increasing dissipation by restricting their validity to “inanimate matter.” The recognition of this scientific law of so universal applicability and so rich in consequences is, be it repeated, due in the first place, through Carnot, to an erroneous assumption regarding the nature of heat. The universal demonstration given by him of the principle, a demon- stration which in his day appeared completely satisfactory, is based purely on this assumption. And, what is still more noteworthy, it is hardly to be supposed that the principle in question could have been deduced from the more correct view—namely, that heat is motion, seeing that we are not yet in a position to establish that view on a completely scientific basis. The two natural philoso- phers, moreover, who brought Carnot’s and Joule’s prin- ciples into harmony with each other, and whom we have to thank for our present knowledge on this subject, are able to refer their conclusions only to an axiom general- ising the experience that heat tends ever to expand, never to concentrate. Sir W. Thomson expresses this axiom in the following terms:—‘‘It is impossible by means of inanimate material agency to derive mechanical effect from any portion of matter by cooling it below the temperature of the coldest of the surrounding objects.” The reviewer has, further, succeeded in demon- strating that the peculiar limitation affecting the trans- formation of heat into other forms of work likewise applies to other classes of motions revolving on them- selves, so long as no external forces are brought into play directly opposing or accelerating the internal motion.! When by J. P. Joule’s experiment it was demonstrated that the basis of Carnot’s proof was defective, it might have been apprehended that along with the element of error the element of truth in it would also be rejected. It must therefore be regarded as a special merit on the part of Prof. Clausius and Sir W. Thomson that, while re- moving the mistakes, they brought the truth into precise expression and into universal recognition, and that the recent theory of heat has become so fruitful in discoveries respecting the most secret connections between the different physical qualities of bodies in nature. The second volume of these Reprints contains chiefly the researches having relation to the laying of the first submarine telegraph cable. The motion of electricity in these cables undergoes a peculiar retardation in conse- quence of the fact that the conducting-wire separated from the sea-water, which is likewise a tolerably good conductor, only by a thin isolating layer of gutta-percha, forms an enormous Leyden jar, which must first be charged with the electricity entering it before the current will pass with full force along the whole length of the wire to the other end. The physical laws of the processes which here come into play were generally known, but a far-searching mathematical investigation was still needed to determine the whole procedure of these currents and to ascertain the amount of influence exercised on them by the dimensions and conductivity of the wire, by the neighbourhood of other wires, and by the particular quality of the gutta-percha, as also to arrive at a know- ledge of the conditions under which the most rapid series of signals might be transmitted and received at the opposite end. All these questions our author disposed of thoroughly and exhaustively, having also to contend with opposition to his views based on observations made under restricted conditions on other cables. He was then a comparatively little-known young man, and did not enjoy that recogni- tion and authority now everywhere freely accorded him. To this were joined mechanical problems connected with the sinking or eventual raising and repairing of * H. yon Helmholtz, ‘‘Studien zur Statik monocyklischer Systeme.” Sitzungsberichte der Berliner Akademie, 1884, Marz 6, 27, und Juli ro. 28 NATURE | May 14, 1885 the cable ; further, the construction of telegraphic signal apparatuses able to utilise the first weak beginnings of the current arriving at the other end of the cable. These ultimately led to the invention of the siphon-recorder—a writing apparatus in which the tube containing the ink does not come into immediate contact with the strips of paper on which it has to write, and is therefore not hindered by friction from moving even under the least electro-magnetic impulse. By electric charges it is brought about that the ink spurts over the paper ina series of fine points. The conclusion of the second volume is formed by the Bakerian Lecture for 1856, which gathers up the results of the author’s investigations into the qualities of metals as displayed under the conduction of electric currents, and under magnetisation, and the changes they undergo in consequence of mechanical, thermal, and magnetic influences. Let us hope for an early continuation of this interesting collection. There are still nearly thirty years of scientific activity on the part of the author to be accounted for. When we think of that we cannot fail to be astonished at the fruitfulness and unweariedness of his intellect. HERMANN L., F. HELMHOLTZ OUR BOOK SHELF Paradise Found. The Cradle of the Human Race at the North Pole. A Study of the Prehistoric World. By William F. Warren, S.T.D., LL.D., President of Boston University, &c. (London: Sampson Low and Co.) It has come to be an understood thing that when geolo- gists or biologists propound theories as to past stages of life on the earth, and these theories attain to a certain popularity, some theologian shall twist the words of the Book of Genesis into a new interpretation, to show that this was what the inspired author meant all the time. A fresh musician has set Moses to dance to a new scientific tune. Since the publication of well-known modern views as to the diffusion of plants and animals from the Polar Region, it was to be expected that we should have a book proving that man was created in an Arctic Paradise with the Tree of Life at the North Pole; and here the book is. Other ancient cosmologies, such as the Greek and Indian, are made to bear their not always willing testimony. Those who take up the book should notice that the com- mendatory letters published from Professors Sayce, Tiele, and Whitney do not at all imply that these eminent scholars countenance the Polar Paradise doctrine. The President of Boston University seems to have sent them a paper some years ago on “Ancient Cosmology and Mythical Geography,” their acknowledgments of which they are now perhaps hardly delighted to find figuring as certificates in a “ Paradise Found.” Epping Forest. By Edward North Buxton, Verderer. (London: Stanford, 1885.) THE public generally, and especially the people of London, and those who take some interest in natural history, are to be congratulated on the acquisition of so charmingly complete a little itinerary of Epping Forest as that now issued in a cheaper form by one of the Committee of Conservators, who is a resident on the borders, and an enthusiast as to the attractions of the Forest. It is, as thé author observes in his preface, “hardly a desirable dtate of things” that so small a percentage of the summer visitors to the Forest “ever venture far from the point at which they are set down by train or vehicle;” and, with the choice of a score of beautiful walks, described in Mr. Buxton’s book, and the guidance of his six carefully prepared maps, five of which are on the scale of three inches to the mile, there is no longer any reason for their not venturing into those depths of the Forest in which its chief beauties are to be seen. The chapter on the history of the Forest which the author has wisely prefixed to the itinerary, that visitors may be reminded of the events which secured this magnificent playground for their enjoyment, is most complete, though it is to be regretted that the late City Solicitor, Sir Thomas Nelson, is not mentioned dy name on p.22. The practical character of the book may be gauged from the inclusion of railway time-tables, the fact that the distinctive letters of each route have been cut on trees at some points, and from such suggestions as that an east wind is, in Epping Forest, the best for views, because not smoke-laden. Personal experience has convinced the present writer of the skill with which the routes have been selected; the “objects of interest within and around the Forest,” and their historical asso- ciations, are fully described and illustrated by some excellent drawings, the latter by Mr. Heywood Sumner ; but what must render the work peculiarly gratifying to all lovers of nature, is the ample space—more than half the volume—devoted to the fauna and flora of the Forest. The mammals, reptiles, birds; the chief moths and butterflies ; the trees, flowering plants, ferns, fungi, and mosses, are all enumerated, with general, ze. not too specific, localities; and the notes on the mammals and birds will be of interest to naturalists in other districts. Such lists can, fortunately, never be complete ; insects marked as “rare” are notoriously liable at any time to prove common: even since the publication of this work evidence has been produced suggesting the addition of Sparganium neglectum to the list of flowers, and each year’s cryptogamic meeting of the Essex Field Club has as yet added several species to the catalogues of the lower plants. There may yet be room for a more pre- tentious monograph of Epping Forest, and, of course, from the naturalist’s stand-point, so rich a collecting- ground affords material for a library of expository litera- ture—the freshwater alge, for example, call for recogni- tion ;—but, for its purpose, the present work could hardly have been executed in a manner more creditable both to author and publisher. G. S. BOULGER Traité de Minéralogie appliquée aux Arts, a [ Industrie, au Commerce et & V Agriculture, &c. Par Raoul Jagnaux. Avec 468 figures dans le texte. (Paris: Octave Doin, Editeur, 1885.) THIS work of 883 pages, as is stated in a title-page of corresponding length, is intended for the use of French students in their preparation for a degree in the subjects of engineering, chemistry, metallurgy, &c. We do not think that in its purely scientific contents it is likely to be of advantage to English students. The first part, devoted to the subject of crystallography, is rather incomplete and unsatisfactory, even if regard be had to the main purpose of the work. As usual, in the figure of Wollaston’s goniometer the crystal is represented as adjusted in a way that every. practical student is immediately taught to° avoid. Nor will the chemical formule meet with the. favour of English students: though the atomic weights of oxygen and silicon are given as 16 and 28 respectively, silica appears throughout as SiOg, water is still HO, while to nitre is assigned the formula KO.AzO;. Further, the ordinary symbols for the atoms are occasionally, as in the’ forty-nine formule of pp. 423-5, used to signify equivalent proportions of the oxides; olivine, for instance, being given as (Mg.fe)Si. The classification is likewise ancient ; in the description of the species alum stone immediately follows the oriental chrysolite, a precious. stone, merely because both substances contain alumina. In its explanation of the uses which have been discovered May 14, 1885 | NATURE 29 for the various subjects of the mineral kingdom, the work, however, supplies a want which has been long felt, and it will prove convenient for purpose of reference. The amount of detail will be better appreciated if we mention that in the description of the uses of carbonate of lime even the hammers used by stonemasons are specially figured. LETTERS TO THE EDITOR [Zhe Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts. No notice is taken of anonymous communications. [The Editor urgently requests correspondents to keep their letters as short as possible. The pressure on his space is so great that it ts impossible otherwise to insure the appearance even of communications containing interesting and novel facts. ] Photographing the Aurora Borealis I SHOULD be obliged if I might be permitted to state, with reference to the negative of the aurora borealis obtained by Mr. Tromholt in Christiania on March 15 (NATURE, vol. xxxi. Pp: 479)—the first ever obtained—that he now informs me that, although the plate was exposed for eight and a half minutes, the said impression is so faint and imperfect ‘hat it cannot be repro- duce l as a positive. My object in asking to be allowed to mention this important fact is to show that the opinion expressed by Mr. Tromholt in his work just published, ‘‘ Under the Rays of the Aurora Borealis,” that it is almost impossible to photograph the aurora borealis on account of the small strength of light and its limited chemical action, may be said still to hold good in the main. CARL SIEWERS Speed and Velocity Your reviewer of Williamson and Tarleton’s ‘‘ Dynamics” (Nature, February 26, p. 385) speaks of the confusion therein of speed and velocity. Does he mean that these words should now be used in distinct senses? Ifso, would he kindly specify the distinction, which is unknown to me and my friends. [Certainly. Velocity is a directed quantity, or Vector. Speed is its Tensor.—YouR REVIEWER. ] Time.—Thunderbolts.—Vision.—Sunglows ON my return from a magnetic tour along the Red Sea, I ask leave to refer to some back numbers of NATURE. In vol. xxxi. p- 125, Latimer Clark is quite right when he says that mean and sidereal time ought to be distinguished by names. I should prefer a step farther, and use for the latter the decimal angle, thus abolishing our frequent and tiresome conversion of time into space, and vice versd. The resulting advantages would be obvious. Answering Herr Von Danckelman’s remarks in vol. xxxi. p. 127, I beg leave to quote my memoir, ‘‘ Sur le Tonnerre en Ethiopie,” published in 1858 by the French Institute, among its Mémoires des Savants érangers. Facts mentioned there do not support the opinion that fatal thunderbolts are all but unheard of in Tropical Africa. In your published remarks on vision, is it not Lord Rayleigh who says that the supposed superiority of eyesight among savages may be explained otherwise? Years ago, when reading Bergmann’s travels among the Kalmouks, I noticed his remark that when examining camels rvelurning to the fold, those natives distin- guished sexes with their naked eyes just as well as he could through his excellent field-glass. In conclusion, Bergmann says that savage eyes are superior to civilised ones, or something to that effect. I must confess that I then accepted his opinion as being admirably warranted by the quoted facts. However, some time afterwards I was travelling on foot in the Pyrenees with a Basque illiterate peasant, and a splendid refractor by Cauchoix, which I proudly carried myself. My companion having tauntingly asked me why I had not left that lumber at home, I gave him, foolishly, a lecture on optics, and wound up by saying that the glass enabled me to distinguish a cow from an ox, even from that distant hill. He said he could do as much without my lumber. I then selected a cow grazing, and asked him what that was. “ Wait till the brute walks,” said the peasant ; and at its first step he exclaimed: “it is acow.” I tried him, then, several times, and never found him in fault. He affirmed that cows and oxen do not lift their legs in the same way. May I request your rural readers to tell us whether that remark applies to English cattle? When on the Atlantic a sail was announced for the first time. I could perceive nothing, because I had not yet learnt what kind of a hazy thing I should distinguish. Having then sharp eyesight, I succeeded after a short practice, in discerning distant sails before any of my com- panions, and could turn tables on them by repeating their own saying, ‘‘ Ca créve les yeux.” To your lore on far-sightedness in vol. xxxi. p. 506, allow me to add two instances. Zach saw from Marseilles, Mount Canigou (2700 m.), at a distance of 158 English miles ; he had calculated the true azimuth beforehand, and says that the peak bursts into view at sunset. Sir W. Jones informs us that the Himalayas have been seen at the great distance of 244 miles. I quote this from Carr’s ‘‘ Synopsis,” a useful volume, which I regret to see behindhand in many cases since the death of its clever author. May I intrude here a comment on our mysterious sunglows ? My companion having a nice eye for discriminating colours, has confirmed my notion that on rising from the horizon the suc- cessive zxances of fiery red, faint red, rose, mallow, prussian blue, and green, are of the same on consecutive days, although thermometer, barometer, and wind have not changed. This suggests the hypothesis either that the lower strata of our atmo- sphere undergoes changes otherwise unperceived, or that there are maxima, minima, and perhaps regular epochs in the pheno- menon. To those who, unlike myself, remain stationary under a rainless sky like that of Egypt, I would recommend a careful record of these changes, at least during a few months. Cairo, April 22 ANTOINE D’ABBADIE Plutarch on Petroleum THERE is in “ Plutarch’s Lives,’ in the life of Alexander, an interesting notice of the petroleum of Media ; I have not found any mention of this passage in ‘‘ Plutarch ” either in encyclopzdia or chemical dictionary ; I trust, therefore, that you will give me the opportunity of reproducing it in NATURE. I transcribe the passage from the translation of John and William Langhorne (9th edition, London, 1805) :— ««, . and in the district of Ecbatana he (Alexander) was par- ticularly struck with a gulph of fire, which streamed continually as from an inexhaustible source. He admired also a flood of naptha, not far from the gulf, which flowed in such abundance that it formed a lake. The naptha in many respects resembles the bitumen, but it is much more inflammable. Before any fire touches it, it catches light from a flame at some distance, and often kindles all the intermediate air. The barbarians, to show the king its force and the subtlety of its nature, scattered some drops of it in the street which led to his lodgings ; and, stand- ing at one end, they applied their torches to some of the first drops, for it was night. The flame communicated itself swifter than thought, and the street was instantaneously all on fire.” W. H. DEERING Chemical Department, Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, May 6 Hut Circles THE remains of the ancient British habitations on the downs on both sides of Dunstable are fairly well known to archzolo- gists. I have often wished to expose the floor of one or more of these circles, as the task could be accomplished with a spade in an hour or two. It is, however, far better that the remains should be left alone, as it is not likely that anything would be found beyond a few flakes and the other simple forms, such as are abundant in the cultivated fields close to the huts. On passing some of the circles on the east side of Dunstable, in the railway, about ten days ago, I noticed that the remains were covered with whitish soil instead of the normal green of the short pasture belonging to the downs. Thinking that some persons had been digging at these antiquities, I took an early opportunity of going to the spot. On reaching the circles I found they had been undermined in every direction by a large number of moles. A great deal of the material from the actual floors had been brought to the surface, and on examining this chalk rubble—for such it was—I had no difficulty in securing two or three handfuls of flint flakes. Mingled with them were 30 a very few stones, which had been reddened and crackled by fire. No trace of burnt wood, ashes, or bone could be seen. It was remarkable that nearly all the stones found were flakes, as very few unworked pieces of flint could be lighted on. The flakes from the huts differ in condition materially from the flakes in the fields below, as all the flakes in the fields are marked with dark ferruginous strains, whilst those from the hut-floors are perfectly unstained, no iron haying ever reached them. In the immediate neighbourhood I have at different times found a large number of scapers, a lance-head, a few arrow- heads, and a few rudely-chipped celts, some broken. One small chipped celt has incurved sides, indicating, as Mr. John Evans has pointed out in his work on stone implements, that this particular form was possibly an imitation in flint of an early, flat bronze celt, It is always well to examine the earth brought out of holes by rabbits, moles, foxes, rats, and other animals, in places where prehistoric relics exist on pasture-land. I have secured a con- siderable number of my antiquities from such places. Last year I told a young niece of mine to keep a watch on such places at the spot where the five large tumuli are placed on Dunstable Downs, and where I had on previous occasions found flint flakes in the heaps made by moles, &c. It was not long before my niece lighted on two pieces belonging to the back part of a human skull. They had been scratched out of the base of the northernmost tumulus by some animal. Fortu- nately the two pieces fitted together ; they are evidently of great antiquity, and probably represent part of the person who was buried in the tumulus, quite possibly one of the old chippers of Neolithic implements. WORTHINGTON G, SMITH A Lady Curator In Nature for November 27, 1884 (p. 90) you acknowledge the receipt of the ‘‘Catalogue of the Natural History Collec- tions of the Albany Museum, Grahamstown, Cape of Good Hope,” and allude to the ‘‘zealous curator.” Are you aware that that individual is a young and accomplished lady? Here is another path opened for our daughters and ‘‘ sweet girl gradu- ates” to fame and fortune. Those who, like myself, have the pleasure and privilege of knowing and corresponding with Miss Glanville can appreciate the ardour and zeal with which she is following up her chosen vocetion. May every success attend her. E. L. LAyARD British Consulate, Noumea, February 25 Hoar Frost A COMMUNICATION in NATURE of January 8 (p. 216), in regard to frost-formations, leads me to send a word from Maine. T have seen frost-work so like the description there given, that it would answer very well for an account of frosts in this climate. These frost-formations occur when the wind is chilly and blow- ing steadily, without the compass veering, for hours. I have compared these deposits to the most delicate designs of Oriental lace-work. At one time I witnessed an accretion on a wall, where the feathery forms were from two to four inches in length, with the points towards the wind. I think this is because each added particle adhered to the very tip of the previous one. Cer- tainly no pen-description can do justice to the delicate beauty when the sun suddenly broke through the clouds and shone upon this forest of frost-ferns. CAROLINE W. D. Rich Auburn, Me., April Rainbow Phenomenon ON Saturday night, about six o’cl>ck, I observed, at Old Trafford, on the west side of Manchester, a rainbow with accom- panying phenomena, which I had never observed before. Several very heavy showers had occurred during the day. ‘The wind was within a point or two of west. At the hour above named a cloud was passing over, very dense and uniform in colour, and with that dark leaden hue so general in thunder- storms. There was, however, no thunder or lightning. Rain fell in torrents. As the cloud, which was of large area, passed off, the sun shone brightly in the north-west, and a magnificent rainbow painted itself on the dense black screen afforded by the cloud. ‘The rainbow was double, the prismatic colours, of course, occurring in reverse order in the outer bow. The most remarkable feature of the display was the sharp contrast in the NATURE [May 14, 1885. shadow of the cloud, evidently caused by the rainbow. Between the two bows it was of the densest leaden hue. Inside the inner bow it was exceedingly light coloured, with the faintest suggestion of luminosity. Outside the outer bow it was of an intermediate grey. The uniform mass of cloud was marked off by the two bows with geometrical accuracy into three regions, each perfectly homogeneous in itself, but distinctly contrasted with the two other tints. The effect was weird and startling, and was ob- served and commented upon by several spectators in whose company I was. There was another feature connected with the inner bow which I have never observed before. The green and violet colours were repeated inside the bow. Probably the whole tract from green to violet inclusive was repeated, but I could only make out those two colours distinctly. Have these peculiarities, either or both, been observed before, and, if so, how are they accounted for ? CHARLES CROFT Prestwich, near Manchester, May 11 FIVE MATHEMATICAL RARITIES A BRIEF reference to some recent reprints, &c., by Dr. Bierens de Haan, of Leyden, may not be unacceptable, though, unfortunately, ignorance of the language in which four of them are written prevents our giving more than the barest description of them. The “Stelkonstige Reeckening van den Regenboog,” or Algebraical Calculation of the Rainbow, is a rare tract, by no less distinguished an author than B.de Spinoza. It was for a long time supposed to be lost, if not burned ; it is here printed in exact facsimile from a copy published at the Hague in 1687. Bound up with it is another rarity, similarly printed, entitled “ Reeckening van Kanssen,” or Caiculation of Chances. No reference to this is made by Todhunter. There is a slight probability of this tract having proceeded from the same hand, as Dr. De Haan cites a reference to the forty-third letter in the collected works of Spinoza. The third reprint is of a very rare book by A. Girard: “Invention nouvelle en l’Algébre, tant pour la solution des equations, que pour recognoistre le nombre des solu- tions qu’elles recoivent, avec plusieurs choses qui sont neécessaires a la perfection de ceste divine science” (Amsterdam, 1629). M. Marie writes: “ Cet ouvrage est surtout remarquable par les idées justes que l’auteur émet au sujet des racines négatives des équations et de leur usage en géométrie.” The last two tracts have not been before printed: they are both the work of Simon Stevin, and are entitled “ Van de Spiegeling der Singkonst” (ze. Miroir de Art du Chant), and “Vande Molens.” There is a full account prefixed to the former of these works, and we learn that the latter contains “le calcul de 19 moulins a vent, suivant la méthode usitée et suivant une nouvelle méthode de Simon Stevin luirméme, qui consiste 4 indiquer les roues, les dents et les pignons, afin de satisfaire 4 quel- ques conditions données.” Thanks are due to Dr. de Haan for the great care with which he has brought out these facsimiles, and we think he will certainly reap the reward he seeks. We quote his words in the last of these volumes: “J’ose espérer que la réproduction de ces ouvrages d’un homme si renommé pourra intéresser ceux qui s’occupent de Vhistoire des sciences.” ON CERTAIN SPECTRAL IMAGES PRODUCED BY A ROTATING VACUUM-TUGE HE beautiful effects produced by the rotation of a vacuum-tuhe when illuminated by a series of elec- trical discharges from an induction-coil are well known. The tube is generally attached to a horizontal axis, which is turned rapidly by means of a multiplying wheel; the | images due to successive discharges which, if the tube were at rest, would be superposed, are thus caused to occupy different parts of the retina, and if the discharges May 14, 1885] NAT ORE 31 follow one another at the rate of 7 per second, the num ber of images simultaneously visible will be about 7/8) since the luminous image produced by each separate flash persists for about an eighth of a second after the flash itself has ceased. The result of these effects is the appearance of a gorgeous revolving star. If the tube is made to rotate very slowly, there occurs a different and very curious phenomenon, which, so far as I know, has never hitherto been noticed. The tube used in my experiments was thirteen inches long, and contained various devices in uranium glass ; the induc- tion-coil had a resistance of 1400 ohms, and was worked by’a single large bichromate cell. When the rotation is performed at about the rate of one turn in three seconds, the luminous images of the tube are almost superposed, forming a bunch which is slightly spread out at the ends. But about 40° behind the bunch, and separated from it by an interval of darkness, comesa ghos¢. This ghost is in shape an exact reproduction of the tube: it is very clearly defined, and distinctly shows every detail of the uranium glass devices. But the colour is entirely changed, the violet tint of the luminous bulb and the bright green fluorescence of the uranium glass being replaced by a uniform steel gray. If the rotation is stopped, the ghost still moves slowly on, and, after the lapse of about half a second, disappears in coalescing with the luminous tube. The phenomenon may be diagrammatically represented by the letter X, the thick stroke being the bunch of luminous images, and the thin stroke the spectral at- tendant. The direction of the motion is supposed to be opposite to that of the hands of a watch when seen from above. If the rate of rotation is too slow, the ghost ap- proaches the luminous bunch so closely as to be obscured by its superior brilliancy; while, if it is too fast, the image becomes blurred and ill-defined. | The strength of the inducing current should be regulated by trial. With too strong a current the effect is the same as when the rotation is too slow; with too weak a current the image is rendered feeble. Generally speaking, the best results are obtained with a somewhat weak current. The experiment has been witnessed by a dozen persons, all of whom, with the exception of one adult, and the doubtful exception of a child, at once saw the spectral image. It is almost ludicrously difficult for those who are able to see it, to understand how any one else could possibly fail to do so. This curious effect clearly belongs to the class of spectral images or “ocular spectra,” which result from looking at a bright object, persistence of vision in the ordinary sense of the term having nothing to do with it. I proved this to be the case in a very simple manner. The vacuum tube being at rest ina feebly-lighted room, I con- centrated my gaze upon a certain small portion of it while the discharge was passing. The current was then interrupted, and the luminous image was almost instantly replaced by a corresponding image which appeared to be intensely black upon a less dark background. After a period which I estimated at from a quarter to half a second (probably more nearly the latter), the black image again became luminous, assuming the characteristic steel gray colour: this luminous impression lasted but for a small fraction of a second, and the series of phenomena terminated with its disappearance. I found the effect to be most clearly marked when a narrow portion of the tube was observed ; the definition of the spectral image was then exceedingly sharp, even the striz being represented with perfect distinctness. It was also found desirable to make the preliminary illumination as short as possible, a single flash being generally sufficient to produce the phenomena. This is more easily effected by a judicious manipulation of the contact-breaker than by means of a key, or of the commutator attached to the coil. I may add that it is by no means certain that a person who is al- together new to the subiect will at first be able to ~ee the appearances last described, even when he knows exactly what to expect. They belong to a class of phenomena which in ordinary life we habitually train ourselves to disregard, and our persistent neglect makes it difficult to perceive them when we desire to do so. With a little patient attention the difficulty will probably disappear. It was probably owing to my constant habit of studying visual impressions that the appearance of the ghost attracted my notice in the first instance. The series of phenomena seem to be due to an affec- tion of the optic nerve which is of an oscillatory charac- ter. Abnormal darkness follows as a reaction after the luminosity, and again after abnormal darkness there is a rebound into a feebler luminosity. Following this idea I have endeavoured to detect the existence of a second ghost as the result of a further rebound, but hitherto without success. It is an interesting fact, as proved by these experi- ments, that the formation of a spectral image does not occur until the expiration of a measurable interval of time after the exciting cause has ceased to operate. SHELFORD BIDWELL ¥UPITER URING the present opposition of this planet, the details of the belts and spots have continued to furnish materials of great interest. Some very obvious modifications have occurred since the previous year, and several curious new features have become conspicuous. The great red spot has surprised us by its extended dura- tion. As early as 1882 it lost such a considerable depth of tone that its obliteration seemed imminent, but it has lingered on, until now its existence appears likely to be indefinitely prolonged, though under visible conditions far less imposing than at an earlier stage. All that at present remains of this remarkable formation is a dusky elliptic ring, darkest at the following end, and only well seen under good definition. Whether this ellipse is identical with similar appearances delineated by Dawes in 1857, Huggins in 1858, and Gledhill in 1869, 1870, and 1871 is involved in doubt, because of the lack of inter- mediate observations. We have no definite information as to what became of the various objects alluded to. It is very possible that they severally represent an object of considerable permanency. ‘The changes such as observed may have been induced by atmospheric interference. There is every indication that the dense vaporous en- velopes of this planet are rapidly variable, especially in the zone included by the two equatorial belts, and that the chief features undergo singular fluctuations, some of which may possibly be of periodical character. The particular objects drawn by Dawes and others suggest a close relationship to the red spot as it now appears. There is far from being an actual coincidence either in the positions or forms of the features here sought to be connected, but small differences must actually occur in results based on estimation. A sufficient likeness is established between them to show that further investiga- tion may have an interesting outcome as affirming the theory of recurrent markings of identicalform. There is, however, an inability to trace the history of these singular objects, owing to the meagre number of observations available. This is a circumstance much to be regretted. Markings of specially interesting character deserve some- thing more than mere record. They should be persistently watched during several oppositions, if possible, for it is only by this continuity of records that the really important questions affecting them admit of settlement. The red I The adult who failed to see the ghost is totally unable to perceive the subjective images in complementary colours, which generally result from gazing at brightly-coloured objects. Her general powers of vision are decidedly above the average. and she is in no degree colour-blind. The doubtful child is a daughter of this adult. A younger child can certainly see the phenomenon. 32 NATURE [May 14, 1885 spot has now been followed since 1878, and though apparently on the verge of absolute extinction, it may yet linger on a considerable time in its present feeble aspect until possibly it is again enabled to obtrude upon general notice as an object of great prominence. It may not return under precisely the same outline as formerly, or exhibit the same depth of tone or degree of colouring, for, doubtless, some new development is to be anti- cipated on this disturbed region of the planet. In case of any distinct reappearance it will be important to deter- mine that it occurred from the exact position so long tenanted by the old spot. The motion of this feature has been so thoroughly followed during the last seven years, that it will be feasible to compute its predicted place with great nicety in future months. In the mean time, and until the spot finally withdraws from reach, the same necessity exists as before of recording the times of its passages across the central meridian of Jupiter. And even assuming the total extinction of the spot, and that its place immediately south of the great equatorial south belt should resume the unbroken zonal arrangement exist- ing in other longitudes, it will be necessary to re-examine this region occasionally for traces of any subsequent out- break from the same focus. During the last three years this object has given a rota- tion period of gh. 55m. 39"1s., which has been steadily maintained throughout each opposition, subject to some minor disturbances partly due to errors of observation. The first few years of its existence it showed an increasing retardation of motion, which lengthened the period from gh. 55m. 34s. to that already quoted, but, contemporarily with the decay of the spot in 1882, the velocity ceased to slacken, and the results accumulated during the past few oppositions prove it to have been equable in a marked degree. With reference to the equatorial white spot some striking phenomena have been presented during the past winter. Between October 4, 1884, and January 13, 1885, its motion appears to have increased in an alarming ratio. The spot continued to rush on far in advance of its computed places, and all the while exhibited a more brilliant appear- ance than at any preceding epoch since the autumn of 1880, when it first came under systematic observation. The form and appearance of the spot have been so special as to prevent any confusion in mistaking it for other white spots in nearly the same latitude.. Between October 4 and January 13,1885, the rotation period was gh. 49m. 51°95s., but the great increase in velocity evidently occurred to- wards the end of November. Between November 21, 1884, and January 13, 1885, the period was only gh. 49m. 38°45s., or 34 seconds less than the mean period of gh. 50m. 12'25s. shown by the same spot during the two preceding years. When the first intimation of this great increase of speed forced itself upon my notice, I at once resolved to obtain as many observations as possible, in order to assure myself more certainly of the fact. Much cloudy, wet weather ensued, but I observed the spot on fourteen occasions between November 27 and January 13. A lengthened period of overcast skies then supervened, and I saw ncthing more of Jupiter until January 27, when the place of the spot, computed on the basis of my prior observations, appeared absolutely vacant. About 15° E. there was, however, a remarkably brilliant spot, the exact counterpart of the one previously observed. Then arose the question of identity. Could the velocity have become so much retarded in the fortnight’s interval from January 13 to 27 as to have occasioned so considerable a displace- ment in longitude? From my observation on January 13 and several preceding nights the spot had shown an increasing disposition to slacken, and, from records obtained in previous years, the motion was known to fluctuate in the most unaccountable manner. In the seventeen days from September 30 to October 17, 1881, I noted the spot underwent a sudden translation of 11°°6 in the direction of east longitude. The fact was inde- pendently confirmed by Prof. Hough at Chicago and Mr. Stanley Williams at Brighton. The most obvious de- partures from the mean rate of motion have been detected in other instances, and I am therefore led to conclude that the objects observed on January 13 and 27, 1885, were, notwithstanding their discordance of position, really identical objects. The consistent brilliancy of the marking alluded to, for several months before the cloudy period set in, is entirely opposed to the idea that it could have suddenly disappeared. And the real displacement is not so large as the limiting observations suggest. Deriving a mean from my results near January 13 and 27, I obtain the following figures :— Spot precedes Long. 88 d 2 1555 Ist ae lan (878 34) Jan. 7 to 13, mean of 7 obs. ... ... 64'0 321°0 Jan. 27 to Feb. 6, mean of 6 obs. ... 464 ... 331°4 Adopting this mean, we practically eliminate errors in single observations, and in the present case it is fortunate” I obtained so many transits just before and after the period of cloud. The real displacement is seen from this comparison to be only 10°'7, which is quite within the limits of previous experience. And if the fact of identity had not been rendered a very tenable hypothesis by past observation, I should have regarded the brilliant appear- ance of the spot and its comparative isolation as con- clusive. Moreover, during the period that this object continued moving so rapidly, I often carefully examined the place where, had no change occurred, it must have been presented, but no object having a remote like- ness to the old spot could bedetected. Having observed this feature on the central meridian on more than 200 nights, I am familiar with its usual aspect, and could not possibly have overlooked it, on the many occasions when I looked for it in vain, had the spot retained the approxi- mate place assigned to it from the observations of pre- ceding years. Let us now analyse the degree and period of the remarkable velocity alluded to. Arranging my observa- tions into short intervals, the following are the rotation- periods severally derived from them :— Spot Spot Interval gained gained Number. 1884 in cn in of Period Minutes 1st.Mer. Long. Rotations, m. 4 h. ms. Oct. 4 to Nov. 7 2 4Bj985; weer 685 ieee) 1400) ase, (BB Etec ESOS Nov. 7 to Nov. 21 ... 20,064 . (3°95 «0» 2°I «se 34 <=» 9 50 6/07 Nov. 21 to Nov. 27 ... 8838 .. I5'l we QO2 I5 «= 9 49 11°85 Noy. 27 to Dec. gw. 17,098 «+ 1I7°4 «te TOO os 29 a 9 49 36°25 Dec. 9 to Dec. 18 .. 12,970 » 1378 « 8'5 22 o- 9 49 34°61 Dec. 18 to Dec. 24 «.. 8843 «. §=69"3 ws 36. T5 se 9 49 35°05 Dec. 24 to Dec. 31 ... 10,023 95 ++ 518 we 17 oe 9 49 30°72 Dec, 31 to Jan.8 «. =11,208 46 - 28 ww. 19 oe 9 49 57°73 1885 Jan. § to Jan. 13 7078 3°5 2°2 ee I2 oe 9 49 54°75 Lost Lost Jan. 13 to Jan. 27 20,089 «+» 24°9 35°2 «= 34 we Q 50 50°19 Jan. 27 to April 19 ... 118,042 97 5°7 «© 200 = Q 50 X5:00 The period of really great acceleration extended over forty days (November 21 to December 31), and it is remarkable that in the mean time the spot had completed exactly one revolution of Jupiter relatively to the red spot. In fact, the sudden increase and diminution of velocity occurred with the white spot following the red about 2h. 44m., so that there was a difference of 100° in the longitude. The maximum speed appears to have been shown between November 21 and 27, when the rotation- period was one minute less than the mean of the two preceding years. But my observation of November 21 was considered rather late, and the interval being a very short one of only six days, would originate a rather large error. But the four short intervals, from November 27 to December 31, exhibit a singular consistency in the re- sulting periods, the mean being 9h. 49m. 36°16s., which proves the real increase of speed to have been 36’09s. in May 14, 1885] NATURE 3 = rere) each {rotation ; and, if we amalgamate the two preceding periods, from November 7 to November 27, we get a mean of gh. 49m. 38°96s., which is closely accordant. In the forty days, November 21 to December 31, the spot gained 65'1m. = 39°7° upon Mr. Marth’s central meridian obably recurrent markings on Jupiter. I. 1 IV. 1870, January 23, 8h. 2om. (Gledh identity of the spots observed on January 13 and 27; so that in the fourteen days it lost nearly 11,000 miles, which is greater than the rate of its previous excess. But since the end of January the motion has steadied down to its normal degree, and thus we find the period closely agreeing with that adopted by Mr. Marth. 57. November 27 (Dawes). V. 1872, February 2, roh. 3 | (Monthly Notices, vol. xliv. No. 9), based on the period of ee Som. 12°25s. The spot must therefore have moved 28,700 miles to the westward at the rate of 717 miles per | terrestrial day, and 294 miles per Jovian day. Then after | January 13 it suddenly retrograded if we accept the If. IIJ. 1858, March 2, oh. 12h. som. (Denning). The motion of this brilliant white spot prior to January 13 is involved in no doubt whatever, so that the question of its identity with the one observed is an entirely separate one, and cannot on January 27 ( affect the remarkable phenomena, which the increased | velocity exhibited, except as to the retrogressive motion 34 which subsequently occurred. The question of identity may be definitely settled if any observations of the spot during the interval from January 13 to 27 are forthcoming from foreign observatories. In this part of England the sky was densely overcast at night during the whole of that time. If Prof. Hough at Chicago or some other systematic student of the planet can supply the missing links for the period referred to, it will be most important to ascertain how far they corroborate the assumed identity of the markings in question. These white spots are liable to great variations in apparent brilliancy at short intervals ; so that, unless an obseryer is very careful to discriminate between objects approximately situated, he is certain to introduce compli- cations into his results. But, in regard to the conspicuous white spot which has been the ‘subject of so much com- ment during the last few years, I have never found much difficulty in following it, because of its special character. Occasionally smaller spots slightly nearer the equator are seen on each side of it, but the leading spot of the trio is so bright and almost invariably shows a bright trail running from its north-east side towards the equator, that it may be readily identified. During the observations between October 4, 1884, and January 13, 1885, of the present opposition the extreme brilliancy of the spot was very noticeable, and the observations were pursued with- out any liability to error. I fear, however, that, morning observations being rendered necessary by the position of the planet in November and December will have enabled the singular vagaries of the white spot to have generally eluded notice. It is curious that since the end of January this white spot has maintained a rate very nearly conformable to the first meridian of gh. 50m. 12°25s., computed by Mr. Marth from the observations between 1882 and 1884; but there occurred a sudden deviation between March 14 and 18, amounting to some 8°. These singular displacements cannot be induced by changes in the form of the object, and they are far too considerable to be referred to errors of observation. Between February 9 and 16, 1882, Prof. Hough noticed an acceleration of 63°. The verification and true cause of these variations can only be efficiently sought out by frequent and very accu- rate observation. Our own climate is very ill-adapted to an investigation of this kind where the most essential point consists in closely consecutive results. What we need is an almost unbroken series. It is to be earnestly hoped that some attention will be devoted to this impor- tant work at the Lick Observatory, where “the elevation is 4200 feet above the sea, and for six or seven months of the year every night is clear! The position thus com- mands natural advantages (in this work of far more im- portance than instrumental advantages) which would enable it to obtain some most valuable evidence bearing on the question of the remarkable variations affecting the white spots on Jupiter. Near the time of opposition they might be observed every night, and it is this consecutive, close treatment that is required before the phenomena will really admit of satisfactory discussion. The question arises whether the whole southern belt partakes in these erratic and apparently frequent varia- tions of speed, or whether they are confined to proper motions affecting the individual spots at different times. If several markings were made the subject of contempo- rary study it might soon be determined whether they exhibited uniform displacements, and, if so, it would have to be admitted that the whole equatorial atmospheric current is subject to the singular onrushes and alternating lulls which our recent observations have demonstrated. Of the new features presented during the last few months the most striking are :— (1) The appearance of large, bright spots indenting the north edge of the great northern equatorial belt. A pecu- liarity of these objects is that lines of light flowing from NATURE [Way 14, 1885 their west sides divide the dark belt and finally emerge near the equator, where they became indefinite. These spots show a rotation period only a few seconds less than the red spot. (2) The outbreak of dark, reddish spots, elongated in longitude, upon the narrow belt which became visible in 1882, immediately outlying the great belt. The de- pression north of the red spot was formed by the ends of this belt suddenly dipping northwards before reaching the spot where they became blended with the old belt. The spots now visible here are very plain and will probably increase until finally their material is dispersed around the planet and the belt becomes much darker than before. The individual spots should be carefully watched to ascertain whether this is their ultimate development. The rotation period they have hitherto shown is precisely the same as that of the red spot. One of the most con- spicuous of these new spots is about 10,000 miles long ; it follows the red spot th. 48m., so that its longitude is 66° east. (3) The fading away of the west shoulder of the de- pression north of the red spot. This is now very obvious, and extends along the narrow belt far to the west of the red spot. It remains to be seen whether this decadence will continue now that various other regions of the belt exhibit a confluent eruption of dark spots. The several features referred to are of extreme interest, as suggestive of peculiar forms of atmospberic disturb- ance and as affording fresh materials for students of Jovian phenomena. It will be necessary to follow each of these special features during the two ensuing months, and to recover them, if still visible, when the planet re- appears in the morning sky towards the end of October next. W. F. DENNING NOTES AT the conversazione of the Royal Society on Wednesday evening last week, the Fellows, we are sure, were all glad to see their President back again, in renewed health, after his long absence. Prof. Huxley had to welcometa very large number of guests, and some of the objects exhibited were of much interest. Prof. H. N. Moseley exhibited a collection of Pueblo Indian pottery, charms, prayer-sticks, &c., from Zini, New Mexico ; Gen. Strachey, an instrument for drawing curves of sines adapted to graphical representation of the harmonic components of periodical phenomena; Mr. W. T. Thiselton Dyer lent some beautiful flowering specimens of Himalayan rhododendrons (the small, rosy-pink RX. g/aucum and the large, velvety-white #. nuttalli), a fruiting branch of coffee, and the various vessels and implements used in the collection and preparation of Para india- rubber ; iridio-platinum weights, with a density of 21°5660, absolutely adjusted, and a piece of platinum wire ‘00075 of an inch, prepared by drawing, &c., were exhibited by Mr, G. Matthey ; the Linnean Society lent aremarkable set of drawings from the collection of Lady Impey, at Calcutta, painted by a native of Patna towards the end of the last century, and still in perfect preservation ; the Anthropological Institute contributed ethnographic photographs of various races; and there were many highly interesting philosophical instruments shown. THE Council of the British Association have nominated Prof. J. Struthers, M.D., as a Vice-President of the Association for the Aberdeen meeting, and have added the name of Prof. J. Stirling, M.D., D.Sc. (Aberdeen) to the list of those nominated for the Vice-Presidency of Section D. AT the invitation of Prof. Flower, a meeting of the Essex Field Club will be held on Saturday afternoon, May 16, at 3.30, in the Lecture Room at the Zoological Gardens, when the Pro- fessor will speak of the principal objects of interest in the May 14, 1885] NATURE 35 Gardens, and will afterwards conduct the party to visit them in order, and give a demonstration of the most remarkable species. A LETTER of Mr. Miklucho Maclay is inserted in the /svestija of the Russian Geographical Society (1834, vi.), in which he expresses his regret that he cannot yet return to Russia, and explains the plan he has adopted for the publication of his reports. He wishes-to have them published in two different parts, the first to contain (¢) a statement of the reasons for any voyage or important excursion which he has undertaken, (4) a detailed nazrative, and (c) scientific results of each of them ; the second part to contain the scientific results concerning (a) anthro- pology, (#4) ethnology, (c) zoology and comparative anatomy, (Zz) meteorology. In this manner Maclay hopes to suit both those who desire a general view of the outcome of his travels and those who wish to make themselves more particularly acquainted with the scientific results. By the way it may be mentioned that he has already described some new species, viz. (1) Dorcopsis Chalmersit, (2) D. Macklayi, (3) Macropus Jukesit, (4) M0. gracilis, (5) M. tibol, (6) Brachymelis garagassi, (7) Mus yelve. THE following, from Sczence, is a complete list of the papers read at the meeting of the National Academy of Sciences, April 21-24 :—J. S. Billings and Dr. Matthews, U.S.A., methods of measuring the cubic capacity of crania ; S. H. Scudder, winged insects from a palzontological point of view; A. S. Packard, the Syncarida, a hitherto undescribed group of extinct maloco- stracous Crustacea ; the Gampsonychide, an undescribed family of fossil schizopod Crustacea ; the Anthracaridz, a family of carboniferous macrurous decapod Crustacea, allied to the Eryonide ; Alexander Agassiz, the coral reefs of the Sandwich Islands ; the origin of the fauna and flora of the Sandwich Islands ; T. Sterry Hunt, the classification of natural silicates ; Elias Loomis, the cause of the progressive movement of areas ot low pressure ; C. B. Comstock, the ratio of the metre to the yard ; C. H. F. Peters, an account of certain stars observed by Flamsteed, supposed to have disappeared ; J. E. Hilgard and A. Lindenkohl, the submarine geology of the approaches to New York ; Theodore Gill, the orders of fishes ; J. W. Powell, the organisation of the tribe; G. W. Hill, on certain lunar in- equalities due to the action of Jupiter, and discovered by Mr. E. Neison ; E. D. Cope, the pretertiary Vertebrata of Brazil ; the phylogeny of the placental Mammalia ; C. A. Young, some recent observations upon the rotation and surface-markings of Jupiter; H. A. Rowland, on the value of the ohm; F. A. Genth and Gerhard vom Rath, on the vanadium minerals—vanadinite, endlichite, and descloizite—and on iodyrite, from the Sierra Grande mine, Lake Valley, New Mexico; A. N. Skinner (by invitation), on the total solar eclipse of August 28, 1886; Theodore Gill and John A. Ryder, the evolution and homologies of the flukes of cetaceans and sirenians; Ira Remsen, chemical action in a magnetic field ; A. Graham Bell, the measurement of hearing-power ; A. Graham Bell and F. Della Torre, on the possibility of obtaining echoes from ships and icebergs in a fog. The following biographical notices of deceased members were also presented: of Dr. J. J. Woodward, U.S.A., by J. S. Billings ; of Gen. A. A. Humphreys, U.S.A., by H. L. Abbot ; and of William Stimpson, by Theodore Gill. Borany, as well as geology, we are pleased to notice, is well represented upon the Afghan Boundary Commission. Mr. Condie Stephen, who has just arrived in London, speaking of the Penjdeh Valley or Koosh Valley, stated to a press repre- sentative that Dr. Aitchison, who has charge of the botany of the Expedition, is delighted with the country, and has made a very large and valuable collection. THE Zimes Calcutta Correspondent telegraphs that the Indian Government has at last begun to fulfil a promise made years ago to the Asiatic Society, that a systematic zoological exploration of the depths of the Indian seas should be undertaken, in con- nection with a survey of the coasts. ‘‘A skilled naturalist, Dr. Giles, has been attached to the surveying steamer Zxvestégator, which is supplied with proper appliances for deep-sea dredging. During a recent cruise in the Bay of Bengal some casts were made with very interesting results. Some of the animals found appear to be new, and have been sent home for examination. The dredgings also proved that the depression of the bottom, near the mouth of the Hooghly, known as the Swatch, regarding which much speculation had been indulged in, was merely a deep submarine valley, forming part of the original basin of the Bay of Bengal—as Sir Charles Lyall long ago suggested.” A PORTION of the work of Protestant missionaries in China, which has attracted little attention in this country, and which, nevertheless, is of great importance, is the preparation of school- and text-books in Chinese. For this purpose Protestant mis- sionaries of all nationalities and denominations have united. At a general conference held in Shanghai in 1877, a committee of eight of the leading missionaries was appointed to superintend the preparation and publication of the series. The work has now been going on for eight years, and the Committee are able to report that over forty works have been issued, and that thirty more are in various stages of progress. In addition, four num- bers have been issued of an “ outline series’ compiled with the object of supplying Chinese schools with small and simple treatises on scientific subjects at cheap rates, suitable either as elementary school-books or as popular tracts for general distri- bution. What ‘cheap rates” mean will appear from the fact that the outlines of astronomy costs rather less than a penny, that of political and physical geography and geology about two- pence each. The larger works embrace anatomy, in five volumes ; ancient religions and philosophies in three; arith- metic, charts of astronomy, birds and mammals, with accom- panying handbooks (these charts, from the prices, are obviously intended for the walls: of schools); chemistry, political economy, geology, universal history, international law (a translation of Bluntschli, it appears), zoology, and several on biblical topics. Those in preparation include treatises on various branches of elementary mathematics, botany, ethnology, hygiene, jurisprudence, logic, mathematical physics, meteorology, mineralogy, philology, and forty wall-charts with accompanying hand-books. These works, it must be remembered, have first to be compiled with a special view to the knowledge usually possessed by Chinese children, and then to be translated, repre- senting in each case two distinct tasks. That the missionaries in China and elsewhere have schools where they teach the young is well known, but it will probably be a surprise to many to find that, in addition to their ordinary labours as preachers and teachers, the missionaries in China have had to undertake a task of such magnitude as the creation of school literature on all subjects of human knowledge, from arithmetic to jurisprudence, and from anatomy to logic. The statement on this subject is taken, it should be added, from the Chinese Recorder of Shang- hai, a magazine which is itself a monument to the learning and enterprise of Protestant missionaries in China. THERE will be an Exhibition of Plans, Maps, and Models in connection with the International Congress on Inland Naviga- tion to be held in Brussels from May 24 to June 2. Those desiring to contribute are requested to send in their exhibits at once, addressed, carriage-free, to Mr. A. Gobert, 212, Rue de la Victoire, Brussels. AN interesting scheme in connection with the Bedford School is that of higher education for adults by means of evening 36 NATURE [May 14, 1885 lectures on literary and scientific subjects, at nominal fees. The lecturers are drawn for the most part from the staff of Bedford School. Among the scientific subjects included in the course are mathematics, geology, physical geography, and botany. Bedford is fortuna‘e in having amongst its residents men qualified and willing to organise and carry out an excellent plan of this nature for its benefit. THE British Consul at Leghorn in his report for the past year makes some interesting observations on coral in the Mediter- ranean. Some centuries back the Mediterranean coral fisheries were carried on exclusively by the Spaniards, and the principal establishments engaged in the manufacture of coral ornaments were in the hands of Jews residing in Spain. Towards the close of the sixteenth century, to escape the persecutions to which they were exposed, a large number of these merchants removed to Leghorn, in order to enjoy the secure asylum afforded by the liberal enactments of Ferdinando di Medici. Crews were ob- tained from the Neapolitan coast, principally from Torre del Greco; hence this place at an early period became the chief seat of the coral fishery, and most of the boats enzaged in it are still fitted out at that port, although the manufacture of coral ornaments and beads is carried on principally at Leghorn and Genoa. These ornaments are met with in almost every part of the world, and in many countries, even in Europe, coral is believed to be possessed of a peculiar charm. In Asia and Africa it is regarded with a sort of religious veneration, while in India it is largely used for the adornment of corpses when prepared for cremation. But the present situation of the coral trade is disastrous. In 1889, a coral bank several kilo- metres in length was discovered near the island of Sciacca, on the coast of Sicily, and consequently the yield of raw material has been far in excess of the demand, and the reef is still very far from being exhausted. A great depreciation in value has ensued, and as a consequence an extensive trade has sprung up in coral with Africa, where the natives now purchase coral ornaments in place of glass beads of Venetian and German manufacture. The raw coral comes from Naples, and is worked at Leghorn by women into beads, British India and Egypt being the chief customers for them. On April 24 Mr. Edward Berdoe, M.R.C.S., read a paper at University College, Gower Street, before the Browning Society, on “Browning as a Scientific Poet.” The paper, as re- ported in the Zancet, opened with an exhaustive argu- ment to prove that the progress of science need not, as some had said, tend to the destruction of the poetic art ; that, in fact, some of the greatest poets had enriched their verse by the study of natural phenomena —Lucretius, Haller, Milton, and Goethe, and in our own times Tennyson and Browning, while students of natural and physical science had not found their exact acquaintance with natural laws impede the luxuriant growth of their poetic fancy. Many of Browning’s most beautiful similes were the result of his intimate acquaint- ance with anatomy, physiology, and chemistry ; and the use he constantly makes of figures drawn from the science of optics has enabled him to illustrate his favourite optimism by much beauti- ful imagery. The poet of the future will be denied his former “‘power of dealing capriciouslv with facts,” but this restraint, Mr. Berdoe argued, would not repress the poetic spirit. Mr Berdoe, in conclusion, claimed for Mr. Browning that he is essentially the poet for the scientificman : abreast of the highest culture of his time, and in close touch with the great aims of science. HERR SCHWEIGER, writing from Widdin to the Monatsschrift fiir den Orient, refers to baldness amongst Orientals. In Europe the idea is general that baldness is the prerogative of scholars ; | in the East, on the other hand, it is the common characteristic of two races—the Spanish Jews and the Turks, whose nervous system has never been overwrought by any devotion to serious studies. In some measure to explain the origin of this pheno- menon we must commence at the cradles of the two peoples living side by side. The indolence of Oriental women is well known and is manifested in sins of omission rather than of com- mission. The Oriental mother neglects the principal duties to her offspring. During the first eight days of its earthly career the infant is sprinkled with a little tepid water once a day by some old woman, then wrapped in coloured rags to save the trouble of frequent changes, the head being wrapped in a well- wadded cap tied under the chin. This process is repeated during the succeeding weeks once every two days, until finally it has become too toilsome even for this repetition, and is abandoned altogether, through fear, it is said, that the child would catch cold from frequent washings. Superstition has added its force to laziness, for the women believe that the head of an infant should never be washed, as the scab produced by the dirt is good for the eyes. This dirt, mixed with the secretions from the sebaceous and other glands, becomes the home of numerous animal and vegetable parasites, which prevent the development of hair and destroy that already grown. The open air, which might assist in destroying these parasites, is, however, carefully excluded by the custom which is imperative among Semitic peoples of never, by day or night, or upon any occasion whatso- ever, taking off the head-covering. At night the fez is changed for a linen cap of similar shape. This perpetual covering natur- ally retards the growth of the hair, and transmission and propa- gation do their work. Herr Schweiger, who has lived in the East for many years, first noticed chronic baldness amongst the lower classes of the Turks, especially the so-called Spaniols of Salonica. THE National Fish Culture Association’s hatchery at South Kensington is now gradua'ly becoming depleted of fry, which are being transmitted to public waters gratuitously, and to the fishery at Delaford belonging to the Association. The spawning and hatching season has been very prosperous and successful, there being but a very low minimum mortality amongst the fish produced. Tue Aquarium at the International Inventions Exhibition is assuming a more complete aspect, and has been an attractive feature with visitors from the first. An Aquarium Handbook is now in the press and will be shortly published by Messrs. Clowes and Sons, containing a natural history of the fish in captivity and a series of articles upon the culture of fish, the management of aquaria, &c. On April 22 a meteor was seen descending in a straight line from the zenith at Fogelsta railway station in Ostergétland, Sweden, and fall some distance off. On the station-master pro- ceedinz to the spot he found a stone, about the size of a hand, and brown in colour, which smelt strongly of phosphorus when struck against a hard object. It was split into three pieces, each being forwarded to a museum. THE Calcutta Gazette has published a resolution of the Government directing the institution of an inquiry, under a specially selected officer, into the castes and occupations of the people of Bengal. The results of this inquiry should be of great ethnographical value. THE exceptionally heavy rainfall at Bergen on October 25, 1884, when 74mm. were registered for the twenty-four hours, was commented on at the time by the Scandinavian press as affording confirmatory evidence of the truth of the popular ee eee ———— May 14, 1885] opinion that this town is the rainiest place in Norway. This notion, however, like many other traditional beliefs, has been dissipated by the test of carefully-conducted scientific observa" tions, for we learn from Maturen that the annual mean of its rainfall is exceeded by that of two among the other seventy Norwegian meteorological stations. Thus while at Bergen 1722 mm. are measured annually, the rainfall at Domsten and Floré amounts respectively to 1951 mm. and 1873mm. It has further been shown that 105 mm. rain were registered at Holme- dal on the Séndfjord, on the same day that the rainfall at Bergen reached 74 mm., the highest recorded since rain-measurements have been made there. There are in fact eighteen instances given by the meteorological reports in which the rainfall has elsewhere exceeded the latter measure. Among these the most remarkable have been supplied by Ullensvang and Flesje, at the former of which stations there fell in one day (December 8, 1884) 113mm. rain, while at the latter 112 mm. were registered for the twenty-four hours on March 15, 1882. These downfalls, the highest recorded in Norway since the observations were begun in 1875, have been exceeded, according to Dr. Hamberg of Stockholm, at the Swedish station of Herndsand, where 118°5 mm. rain fell on August 19, 1878. Facts such as these effectually refute the opinion, alike strenuously maintained by natives and foreigners, that more rain falls at Bergen both in the year and in the course of one day than at any other place in Scandinavia. Such, however, is the character of the annual distribution of rain in this locality, that the chances are about equally in favour of a wet or a dry day. IN reporting to the Empress of China the occurrence of a violent earthquake at the town of Pu-erh on November 14 last year, the Viceroy of Yunnan observes with humility that this awful visitation is to be regarded as a penalty of Heaven for his own inefficiency and incompetency and that of his staff. They will, the memorialist promises, endeavour to take the lesson to heart and earnestly amend their ways. Pu-erh will be remembered by readers of Mr. Colquhoun’s ‘‘ Across Chrysé” as an important town on the borders of the Shan States, with a large trade in tea. The earthquake here referred to is also worth notice as showing that seismic activity during the past winter was mani- fested over a vast area, and indeed seems to have affected the greater part of the Old World. At Pu-erh the shock lasted an hour, causing the collapse of a large number of houses, temples, and public buildings, while many lives were lost, and much injury was caused to the inhabitants. M. L&o ErRERA calls attention in the Bulletin Scientifique du Département du Nord to the value of Indian ink, on account of its harmlessness and its intense coloration, for the study of certain microscopic organisms. He has succeeded in keeping infusoria, &c., alive for several days in the liquid, the carbonic matter not appearing to affect them in the slightest degree. For making durable preparations ink diluted with water should be gradually replaced by that diluted with glycerine. Many organisms which are distinguished with difficulty in water, are easily observed in water charged with Indian ink ; this is especially the case with many 4d/ge. M. Errera thinks that this new method could probably be applied with advantage to the study of the digestion of the infusoria, and to the movements of ciliated organisms. THE additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens during the past week include a Green Monkey (Cercopithecus callitrichus ? ) from West Africa, presented by Mrs. Wall; a Rhesus Monkey (Macacus rhesus 8) from India, presented by Miss Margaret Ellis ; a Getulen Ground-Squirrel (Xerus getulus) from North- West Africa, presented by Mr. W. Cook; a Grey Ichneumon (Aerpestes griseus °) from India, presented by Mrs. Dundas ; two Martinican Doves (Zenaida martinicana) from Bahamas, presented by Mrs. Blake; two Horned Lizards (Phrynosoma NATURE a cornutum) from Texas, presented by Mr. J. G. Witte ; a Dorsal Squirrel (Sciurus hypopyrrhus) from Central America, an Indian Mynah (Acridotheres ginginianus), four White-backed Pigeons (Columba leuconota), a Black Hill-Squirrel (Sczurus macrurus) from India, two Chinese Jay-Thrushes (Garridax chinensis) from China, a Sun Bittern (Zuryfyga helias) from Brazil, two Greek Partridges (Caccadis saxatilis), South European, a Double- banded Sand-Grouse (Pverocles bicinctus) from Senegal, a Talapoin Monkey (Cercopithecus talapoin) from West Africa, a Negro Tamarin (AZidas ursulus), a Humboldt’s Lagothrix (Lagothrix humboldti 8), a Rosy-billed Duck (A@etopiana peposaca 3 ) from South America, a Viscacha (Lagostomus trichodactylus), a Scorpion Mud-Terrapin (Cinosternon scorpioid s) from Buenos Ayres, a Gadwell (Chaulelasmus strefera §), nine Spotted Salamanders (Sa/amandra maculosa), European, purchased ; a Crossoptilon (Crossoptilon mantchuricum 6) from Northern China, received in exchange; a Gayal (Bibos frontalis), two Long-fronted Gerbilles (Gerbil/us Jongifrons), born in the Gardens. OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN THE HARVARD COLLEGE OBSERVATORY, U.S.—The thirty- ninth Annual Report of this Institution has been issued, and with it Prof. Pickering’s summary of observations of variable stars in 1884, made agreeably to the plan suggested by him in a communication to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (vol. xix. p. 296). Thirteen observers, private and professional, have co-operated in these observations, amongst them Mr. Knott, of Cuckfield, and Mr. T. W. Backhouse, of Sunderland. In the summary referred to, the positions of the stars for 1875, the limits of variation and the periods, as far as reliably deter- mined, are repeated from the circular of last year, and these particulars are followed by a statement of the number of obser- vations of each star, made by the various observers in the course of 1884, so that it is easy to see which objects most require attention. It is certain that in this branch of observational astronomy there is ample work for a much larger number of co- operators, which if may be hoped that Prof. Pickering will succeed in enlisting amongst our amateurs, and eventually it may be possible to particularise the objects which each one may undertake to watch effectively, so as to secure observations of the whole or the majority of the list in each year. With regard to the general proceedings of the Harvard Obser- vatory, it is stated that photometric observations of the eclipses of Jupiter’s satellites have been continued upon the system adopted in 1878, and 284 eclipses have now been thus observed, forty-seven since the end of October, 1883. The revision of the zone-observations of stars between 50! and 60’ north of the equator has been completed during the year. Selections of stars for standards of stellar magnitude have been made for regions extending four minutes (time) in right ascension, and ten minutes in declination, and additional photometric methods of measure- ment are under consideration for determining such magnitudes with satisfactory precision. Observations of comets, of the spectra and colours of stars, and a tentative revision of the magnitudes of the Durchmusteruns, have also formed a part of the year’s work. We do not learn from the report that any attempt has been made to repeat the valuable series of observa- tions on the rings of Saturn, made by the Bonds, &c., with the Harvard 15-inch refractor, when the planet was previously situated in the position it occupied in 1884; but the class of observations more especially attended to at present may have rendered this impracticable. Vol. xiv. parts 1 and 2 of the Annals have been published ; the latter part has been circulated very recently. TeMPEL’s CoMET (1867 II.).—Up to the 7th inst. it does not appear that the editor of the Astronomische Nachrichten had received any notice of the re-observation of this comet. Doubt- less, of the last degree of faintness, it could only have been commanded last month by instruments of the highest order. In the next period of absence of moonlight the theoretical bright- ness will have diminished. The comet will be due in perihelion again in the spring of 1892, a more favourable condition for the observation of this body than has existed in the present year. 38 NATURE [May 14, 1885 New Nenut&.—M. Stephan publishes positions and descrip- tions of 100 nebulz discovered at Marseilles in the years 1883- 85, in addition to the large number previously detected at that observatory. Not the least notable characteristic of M. Stephan’s catalogues is the precision of the places given in them, He mentions that on October 1 and 2, 1882, neither the nebula Dreyer-Schultz 5085 nor # 12 were perceptible in the positions assigned to them by the discoverers. ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA FOR THE WEEK, 1885, WAY 17-23 (For the reckoning of time the civil day, commencing at Greenwich mean midnight, counting the hours on to 24, is here employed.) At Greenwich on May 17 Sun rises, 4h. 7m. ; souths, rrh. 56m. ro‘Ss. ; sets, 19h. 46m. ; decl. on meridian, 19° 26’ N.: Sidereal Time at Sunset, 1th. 29m. Moon (at First Quarter May 21, 6h.) rises, 6h. 59m. ; souths, 14h. 53m. ; sets, 22h. 44m. ; decl. on meridian, 18° 7’ N. Planet Rises Souths Sets Decl. on meridian h. m. h. m. h. m. 5 hi Mercury ... 3 37 10,30 <<. | geese... eoeN. Venus 4 18 12 TO) -.. 2083, Ee MrONSSaN. WETS — ee eye Io 36 17 48 13 13 N. jipiters te Ol. LS ty I 30* 13 38 N. Saturn RAGS ee ES bE 2159) ..-8 V2 OE. * Indicates that the setting is that of the following day. Occultations of Stars by the Moon Corresponding angles from ver- May Star Mag. Disap. Reap. Peston ctetan inverted image k h. m. h. m. % o 19 ... @ Cancri... 22/152... 23 15 \o-a) ASES59 ses) Almere Zien 3407 «. Ole Ou2L 0.) OL GEah ee Taneoy6 22... 35 nextantis ....6 °.. 20 48 ... 21 18 .. 269340 t+ Is below horizon at Greenwich. Phenomena of Jupiter's Satellites May h. m. | May h. m. 17... 23 21 II. occ. disap. | 21 o 21 I. oce. disap. m9 ....20)28 JLT. jtr.iepr: 21 41 I. tr. ing. 20 2% 33 Llloce. reap. | 22... © & dk treat: 23 10 III. ecl. disap. | 22 22 I. ecl. reap. The Occultations of Stars and Phenomena of Jupiter's Satellites are such as are visible at Greenwich. May 21, 3h.—Jupiter in conjunction with and 4° 17! north of the Moon. THE IRON AND STEEL INSTITUTE ‘THE Iron and Steel Institute met on Wednesday, the 7th inst., when Dr. Percy gave the presidential address. After inviting the co-operation of the members in supplying him with materials for the new edition of his work on ‘Iron and Steel,” and referring to Mr. Lowthian Bell’s recent valuable work on the same subject, Dr. Percy drew attention to the existing uni- versal depression, due, in his opinion, to over-production. “‘Darwinianism prevails in the manufacturing world as it does in the natural world, however painful and unwelcome may be that truth—only the fittest will survive. The struggle may be severe and to many persons disastrous, but so long as supply exceeds demand, it is inevitable, and the result is not doubtful.” __ In the matter of technical education he regretted that a few of its professed friends should have indiscreetly attempted to imbue all our artisans with the notion that the one thing which at present they urgently need is technical education, and that it will be certain to benefit them all alike, whereas in some trades, such as that of the file-cutter, the marvellous skill which is alike the surprise and admiration of all is to be obtained only by the practice of his art. He referred with pleasure to the judicious and enlightened way in which Sir Bernhard Samuelson, M.P., had advocated technical education in its widest sense, and rejoiced over the liberality of the founders of the Owens College (now the Victoria University) in Manchester, the Mason College in Birmingham, and the Firth College in Sheffield, and of the Whitworth Scholarships, through whose aid scientific instruction is placed within the reach of the artisan class. The major portion of the address was devoted to the physical and chemical properties of iron and steel, and the learned President’s remarks brought out in strong relief the prevailing want of knowledge. How comes it, he inquires, that the force of cohesion should be increased by mechanical treatment, which, @ priori, might be supposed would tend in greater or less degree to produce disaggregation? Why is iron or steel wire increased in strength by wire-drawing? What is the cause of the physical | changes which some metals and ‘alloys have been observed to undergo spontaneously while at rest and under ordinary atmo- spheric conditions ? “*Tt is not many years since that we had to grope about to discover an analysis of iron ore or of pig iron, whereas now we are actually overwhelmed with such analyses. We are deluged with percentages of carbon, graphitic or combined, of silicon and manganese, of sulphur and phosphorus. We are bewildered by this vast accumulation of material. What is now wanted is the man to reduce it to law and order, to evolve from it principles for our sure guidance. But the problem is so intricate and complex that no common brain can solve it. What are the physical properties of “pure iron after fusion? What are the chemical and physical properties of compounds of pure iron and pure silicon in various proportions? What are the modes of existence of manganese, silicon, and phosphorus when present together in pig iron? What is the modus operandi of man- ganese in the manufacture of iron and steel? Why are animal matters or certain other substances rich in nitrogen, required in case-hardening iron? Is any nitrogen or any compound of it imparted to the case-hardened part of the iron? These and such like questions the metallurgist asks of the natural philo- sopher and chemist, and has failed hitherto to receive a reply.” Having concluded what may be called the technical part of his address, Dr. Percy treated the question of the extent to which the Government of a country should engage in manu- facture, and stated ‘‘that, if it could be shown that the people as a whole would be benefited by the Government’s engaging in manufacture, then the Government was bound to take that course.” Treating the various cases of armour-plates, steel for guns, and steel for ship-plates, he showed that in each case, owing to competition, co-operative management, and ‘other causes, private industry was always able to produce articles as good as and cheaper than the Government. The address was listened to with the greatest attention throughout, both on account of the inherent interest of the matter and the great oratorical skill employed in its delivery. The closing paragraphs are of such universal interest that we quote them verbatim :— ‘Everything in this world, nay, there is reason to believe everything in the universe itself, is changing from moment to moment. There is, as I have stated in print long ago, nothing constant but change, however paradoxical that statement may appear. Every drop of rain that falls, for instance, exerts a levelling action on the hills and mountains, and carries down with it in its course to the ocean a minute yet sensible portion of earthy material. In the moral world the like incessant change is going on, and no one can predict what the final result ef that change will be. Our globe may, it seems to me, be fitly compared with the laboratory of the philosopher. The one, to our finite understandings, may appear the scene of social and political experiments, just as the other is the scene of chemical and physical experiments. But of this we may be sure, that in- variable and irresistible law guides all things, immaterial as well as material. When I reflect on the intricate social problems of the day, the solution of which excites dread in the minds of many, I fancy I see the social molecules, if I may use such an expression, actively at work in rearranging and adjusting them- selves to new conditions, and producing results as surprising as they are remarkable. The mysterious forces, whatever they may be, which regulate the movements of those molecules, are as certain in their operation as those which determine the course of the planets in their orbits. Both are equally uncontrollable by the agency of man, and politicians will in vain struggle against them. “‘There is a question that must often occur to us, namely, what will Great Britain be when our vast reservoir of material force, coal, is exhausted—a result which many members of the Iron and Steel Institute are doing their utmost to accelerate? The time must come when, in consequence of that exhaustion, Great Britain will cease to be a great manufacturing nation, unless some new source of force should be discovered, which there is May 14, 1885] not the least reason to anticipate. But, as I wrote many years ago, however mournful and unwelcome this proposition may be, we have the satisfaction of knowing that we are now laying the foundations of prosperous and mighty kingdoms in various parts of the world, which we hope will be the strongholds of virtue, of order, and of freedom. When our great manufactories shall have crumbled into ruins, and their sites have become green pastures or golden corn-fields, the old country may yet be precious in the eyes of her children. Every spot of her soil will be classic, and command reverential respect. There is no other land more worthy of everlasting remembrance, whether as to its heroes, its poets, its philosophers, its statesmen, or its philan- thropists. The glory of Old England may, after all, not depart. On the sites of her soot-stained Birminghams and Manchesters, new and splendid cities may arise, where the merchant-princes of Anglo-Saxon descent, from the remotest regions of the globe, shall rejoice to dwell and end their days in peace.” After the address the President presented the Bessemer Medal to -Mr. Lowthian Bell for delivery to Prof. Akermann, after which the papers were read. The first paper read was that of Mr. Lowthian Bell, on ‘‘The Blast-Furnace Value of Coke, from which the Products of Distillation from the Coal used in its Manufacture have been collected.” |The experiments which formed the foundation of the paper were made upon the same coal coked in the beehive and Simon Carve’s oven, the total quantity of coke operated upon being 5605 tons; it was found that the beehive coke was about 10 per cent. more economical, although the other was 13°83 per cent. denser. In order to ascertain the cause of the inferiority, samples were finely ground and analysed. Similar samples were exposed for half an hour to the full heat—sufficient to soften porcelain—of a gas blast- furnace, access of air being excluded by placing the crucible containing the sample within a larger one and covering it with charcoal. From the loss of weight and the analysis of the original and residual coke, and from the previously-ascertained moisture, it was found that 5°23 per cent. of the Simon Carve’s coke was expelled by ignition, and 3°27 per cent. of the beehive. This accounts for an inferiority of 1°96 per cent. only out of about 10 percent. It is, however, a well-known fact that certain forms of carbon are less easily burnt than others, and the author sought to account for the superiority of beehive coke in this manner, and found it to be due to the less solvent action of carbonic acid upon it. t the Wednesday evening meeting Dr. H. C. Sorby, F.R.S., gave an account of his microscopical examination of the struc- ture of iron and steel. His results were based upon the examination of flat surfaces, carefully ground and polished, as the study of fractured surfaces is unsatisfactory, not only on account of optical difficulties, but because a fracture shows the line of weakness between the crystals and not their internal structure. Jn some cases the surfaces were acted upon by very dilute nitric acid to develop the structure; in others it was found best to polish with dry rouge on parchment, and not to use acid. Thin glass covers were afterwards mounted over the surface with Canada balsam. The objects thus prepared were examined by means of two special kinds of surface illumination, viz. first the side parabolic reflector now common, but which the author believes was originally made for this purpose, which gives oblique light ; and secondly, by means of a small silver reflector covering half the object-glass, which throws the light directly down on the object, from which it is reflected back through the other half of the lens. With oblique illumination a polished surface looks black, but, with direct, bright and metallic. A truly black substance looks black in both cases. A magnifying power of about sixty linear is most generally suitable, but the sections will beara higher perfectly well. The lecturer exhibited photographs and drawings of the microscopic appearance of the surfaces, the peculiarities of which he described. The following is a summary of some of the chief results :— Tron containing little or no carbon, and of uniform character, shows little, if any change, when acted upon by dilute acid, and no well-marked structure is developed. Hammered blooms show an intimate mixture of varying crystals of iron, with minute or larger portions of slag. In iron bars rolled /o/, the slag is drawn out into long thin rods, which in some cases are so humerous as to forma very considerable portion of the whole bulk, whilst the iron shows no elongation of the ultimate crystals, the metal apparently recrystallising on cooling. When hammered cold, the crystals are compressed, broken up, and elongated in the line of the bar. Many specimens of malleable iron show clearly that two constituents are present, viz. iron, and a com- NATURE | 39 pound of iron and carbon, which has a pearly structure ; one of these is like the main constituent of such bar iron as contains little or no carbon, having no trace of linear marking, after being acted upon by diluteacid, whereas the other constituent shows linear markings, varying in distance, but often about 1-20,o00th of an inch apart, which, when the acid has acted toa proper extent, gives rise to all the splendid colours of mother-of-pearl, the tints being raised when the section is seen in water, and still more so when mounted in balsam. By oblique and direct illumination the colours are nearly complementary. Swedish iron partly converted into blister steel by cementation, shows 2 mixture of well-formed crystals of free iron and of the pearly compound in the centre; around this a ring of the pearly com- pound, with colours of great variety and beauty ; whilst on the out- side is a part in which occurs a network of veins of an extremely hard substance, giving an intensely brilliant reflection and no trace of colour, which seems to contain more carbon than the pearly constituent. The three constituents just described are totally distinct from one another. There is no more passage from one to the other than there is between the mica, felspar, and quartz of granite. The varying character of ingots of soft and hard steel to a great extent depends on the varying proportion of the three principal constituents. Soft Bessemer steel is seen to be a mixture of free iron andthe pearly compound. In medium steel this latter occurs almost alone, whereas in hard steel there is little, if any, free iron, but numerous thin plates of the very hard compound. Besides these three constituents in steel, the microscope gives evidence in cast-iron of the presence of graphite and silicon. The specimen of spiegeleisen studied, consisted mainly of the intensely hard compound, crystallised in large plates, the inter-spaces being filled up with a mixture of very much smaller crystals with a little of the pearly substance, so as to have a most beautiful and fine-grained structure. Taken, then, as awhole, the various kinds of iron and steel are seen to be varying mixtures of three or four out of six or seven substances having very different properties, viz. free iron, the pearly com- pound with carbon, the intensely hard compounds, probably with more carbon; the residual, probably variable, substance ; graphite ; possibly crystallised silicon ; slag, including fused iron oxide. On the second day the attention of the meeting was occupied with the subject of the coking of coal by different processes and the recovery of bye-products. Mr. Head’s paper contained a description of a modified form of the Siemens old type gas- producer, in which the latter result is effected by dividing the gas-producer by means of a vertical wall into two compartments, one of which receives the hydrocarbons—the volatile constituents of the coal—and the other the carbonic oxide formed by the decomposition of its solid carbonaceous matter. Two other papers referred to results obtained in connection with the Simon- Carve’s coking process. Prof. Armstrong’s note with reference to the method’s proposed for coking coal and recovering volatile matter has much scientific interest, and we propose to refer to it shortly. The problem consists in as complete a recovery as possible of the matters latent in coal, in the most economical manner and advantageous forms, the treatment depending upon the class of coal acted upon. The author considers the com- pounds in coal to be mainly of two kinds—phenolic compounds, which are the primary source of the phenols (carbolic acid, &c.) contained in coal tar; and paraffinoid compounds, capable of yielding hydrocarbons such as are obtained on distilling shale ; the high-temperature tars such as are obtained at gas-works, not being primary but secondary products of distillation, may be considered final products, the quality of which it will be im- possible to improve, whereas the object should be to produce low-temperature tars, which by after-treatment might be made to produce a large proportion of benzene and other valuable products. ‘ The author’s idea of a theoretically perfect coking oven is one more or less like the present beehive, with the upper part extended. Heat should be ‘vadiated upon the surface of the charge of coal, which would soon become coked, thus forming a protecting layer, below which distillation would take place, the products of distillation being sucked away as rapidly as possible through the cool bottom of the oven. The products of combus- tion which penetrate below would carry no oxygen with them. On this account, and on account of the large volume of steam and other gases generated within the mass, and of the low tem- perature, the ammonia would probably almost entirely escape destruction. The gas would be of low illuminating quality, but 40 NATURE [May 14, 1885 aS Se would be available for carbonising, oil and ammonia being re- moved from it by efficient scrubbing. The author was of opinion that nothing was known practically of what happens when coal is distilled, and that the coking of coals and manufacture of gas were now only empirical operations, and could not be conducted scientifically, with our present imperfect knowledge, but that the interests involved were so great, the subject being one of national importance, that failure to initiate and execute the necessary systematic experiments without further loss of time would be inexcusable. On the last day of the meeting Mr. Carnegie’s paper on ‘* Natural Gas Fuel and its Application to Manufacturing Pur- poses” was read. This fuel is found in the Pittsburg district, and one of the wells is estimated as yielding 30,009,000 cubic feet of gas in the twenty-four hours ; the pressure of the gas as it issues from the mouth of the well is about 200 lbs. to the square inch, and even at the works, nine miles from the wells, it is 75 lbs. per square inch. Eleven lines of pipe convey the gas from the various wells to the manufacturing establishments in and around Pittsburg. The number of men whose labour will be dispensed with when gas is generally used is 5000. In the steel-rail mills, for instance, where before would have been seen thirty stokers, stripped to the waist, firing boilers which require a supply of about 400 tons of coal in twenty-four hours—ninety firemen in all being employed, each working eight hours—there would now be found one man walking around the boiler-house, simply watching the water-gauges, and not a particle of smoke is to be seen. Dr. Hermann Wedding’s paper on ‘‘ The Properties of Mall- eable Iron deduced from its Microscopic Structure ” draws atten- tion to the value of microscopic analysis, as, though the chemical and physical properties of iron are closely connected, the one cannot be directly deduced from a knowledge of the other, nor do either of these aid in acquiring a knowledge of the mechani- cal properties. The pieces of iron to be tested are carefully polished, and then etched with very dilute nitric acid. After etching, the section is carefully heated, whereupon the portions attacked acquire varying tints, mostly golden-yellow, purple-red, violet, or dark blue. It is the difference of colour that is cha- racteristic. As regards the formation of grains and fibres, the size of grain increases with slowness of cooling, and decreases with increase in the proportion of carbon up to 2 per cent. Each individual grain in malleable iron is ductile, the mallea- bility of the entire piece depending on that of the separate grains, which are drawn out into fibres ; the strength of fibrous iron depending on the fact that, like the individual hemp-fibres in a rope, the fibres lie with their ends in various sections. The microscope shows, further, that none of these wires or fibres is directly connected with its neighbours, either in a longitudinal or lateral direction. In fact each fibre may, by careful etching, be picked out like those of a muscle in the human body. The paper treats also of the constitution of individual iron crystals and of welding. The general result of the analysis shows that the strength of a finished piece of iron depends on the sectional area of the mass of iron it contains, the slag inclusions in weld- iron and blow-holes in ingot-iron being deducted. It was announced that the autumn meeting of the Institute would be held at Glasgow. SUNLIGHT AND THE EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE* Il. WE have been compared to creatures living at the bottom of the sea who frame their deceptive traditional notions of what the sun is like from the feeble changed rays which sift down to them. Though such creatures could not rise to the surface, they might swim up towards it, and if these rays grew hotter, brighter, and bluer as they ascended, it would be almost within the capacity of a fish’s mind to guess that they are still brighter and bluer at the top. Since we children of the earth, while dwelling on it, are always at the bottom of a sea, though of another sort, the most direct method of proof I spoke of, is merely to goup as far as we can and observe what happens, though as we are men, and not fishes, something more may fairly be expected of our intelligence than of theirs. We will not only guess, but measure and reason, and in par- ™ Lecture delivered at the Royal Institution, April 17, 1885, by S. P. Langley. Communicated by the author. Continued from p. 20. ticular we will first, while still at the bottom of the mountain, draw the light and heat out into a spectrum, and analyse every part of it by some method that will enable us to explore the invisible as well as record the visible. Then we will ascend many miles into the air, meeting the rays on the way down, before the sifting process has done its whole work, and there analyse the light all over again, so as to be able to learn the different proportions in which the different rays have been absorbed, and, by studying the action on each separate ray, to prove the state of things which must have existed before this sifting —this selective absorption—began. It may seem at first that we cannot ascend far enough to do much good, since the surface of our aérial ocean is hundreds of miles overhead; but we must remember that the air grows thinner as we ascend, the lower atmosphere being so much denser, that about one-half the whole substance or mass of it. lies: within the first four miles, which is a less height than the tops of some mountains. Every high mountain, however, will not do, for ours must not only be very high, but very steep, so that the station we choose at the bottom may be almost under the station we are afterwards to occupy at the top. Besides we are not going to climb a lofty lonely summit like tourists to spend an hour, but to spend weeks ; so that we must have fire and shelter, and above all we must have dry air to get clear skies. First I thought of the Peak of Teneriffe, but after- wards some point in the territories of the United States seemed preferable, particularly as the Government offered to give the Expedition, through the Signal Service, and under the direction of its head, General Hazen, material help in transportation and a military escort, if needed, any where in its own dominions. No summit in the eastern part of the United States rises much over 7000 feet, and though the great Rocky Mountains reach double this, their tops are the home of fog and mist, so that the desired conditions, if met at all, could only be found on the other side of the Continent in Southern California, where the summits of the Sierra Nevadas rise precipitously out of the dry air of the great wastes in lonely peaks, which look eastward down from a height of nearly 15,000 feet upon the desert lands. This remote region was, at the time I speak of, almost un- explored, and its highest peak, Mount Whitney, had been but once or twice ascended, but was represented to be all we desired could we once climb it. As there was great doubt whether our apparatus, weighing several thousand pounds, could possibly be taken to the top, and we had to travel 3000 miles even to get where the chief difficulties would begin, and make a desert journey of 150 miles after leaving the cars, it may be asked why we committed ourselves to such an immense journey to face such unknown risks of failure. The answer must be that mountains of easy ascent and 15,000 feet high are not to be found at our doors, and that these risks were involved in the nature of our novel experiment, so that we started out from no love of mere adventure, but from necessity, much into the unknown. The liberality of acitizen of Pittsburgh, to whose encouragement the enterprise was due, had furnished the costly and delicate appa- ratus for the expedition, and that of the trans-continental rail- roads, enabled us to take this precious freight along in a private car, which carried a kitchen, a steward, a cook, and an ample larder besides. In this we crossed the entire continent from ocean to ocean, stopped at San Francisco for the military escort, went 300 miles south so as to get below the mountains, and then turned east- ward again on to the desert, with the Sierras to the north of us, after a journey which would have been unalloyed pleasure except for the anticipation of what was coming as soon as we left our car. 1 do not indeed know that one feels the triumphs of civilisation over the opposing forces of Nature anywhere more than by the sharp contrasts which the marvellous luxury of recent railroad accommodation gives to the life of the desert. When one is in the centre of one of the great barren regions of the globe, and, after looking out from the windows of the flying train on its scorched wastes for lonely leagues of habitless deso- lation, turns to his well-furnished dinner-table, and the fruit and ices of his desert, he need not envy the heroes of Oriental story who were carried across dreadful solitudes in a single night on the backs of flying genii. Ours brought us over 3000 miles to the Mojave desert. It was growing hotter and hotter when the train stopped in the midst of vast sandwastes a little after midnight. Roused from our sleep, we stepped on to the brown sand and saw our luxurious car roll away in the distance, expe- riencing a transition from the conditions of civilisation to those almost of barbarism, as sharp as could well be imagined. We May 14, 1885] NATURE 41 commenced our slow toil northward with a thermometer at 110° in the shade, if any shade there be in the shadeless desert, which seemed to be chiefly inhabited by rattlesnakes of an ashen gray colour, and a peculiarly venomous bite. There is no water save at the rarest intervals, and the soil at a distance seems as though strewed with sheets of salt, which aids the delusive show of the mirage. These are, in fact, the ancient beds of dried-up salt lakes or dead seas, some of them being below the level of the ocean ; and such a one on our right, though only about twenty miles wide, has earned the name of ‘‘ Death Valley,” from the number of human beings who have perished in it. Formerly an emigrant train, when emigrants crossed the Con- tinent in caravans, had passed through the great Arizona deserts in safety until after their half-year’s journey, their eyes were gladdened by the snowy peaks of the Sierras looking delusively near. The goal of their long toil seemed before them ; only this one more valley lay between, and into this they descended, think- ing to cross it ina day—but they never crossed it. Afterwards the long line of wagons was found with the skeletons of the animals in the harness, and by them those of men, women, and little children dead of thirst, and some relics of the tragedy remained at the time of our journey. I cite this as an indirect evidence of the phenomenal dryness of the region—a dryness which, so far, served our object, which was, in part, to get rid as much as possible of that water-vapour which is so well known to be a powerful absorber of the solar heat. Everything has an end, and so had that journey, which finally brought us to the goal of our long travel, at the foot of the highest peak of the Sierras, Mount Whitney, which ruse above us in tremendous precipices, that looked hopelessly insurmount- able and wonderfully near. The whole savage mountain region in its slow rises from the west, and its descent to the desert plains in the east, is more like the chain called the Apennines, in the moon, than anything I know on the earth. The summits are jagged peaks like Alpine ‘‘needles,” looking in the thin air so delusively near, that, coming on such ascene unprepared, one would almost say they were large grey stones a few fields off, with an occasional little white patch on the top, that might be a handkerchief or a sheet of paper dropped there. But the telescope showed that the seeming stones were of the height of many Snowdons piled on one another, and the white patches occasional snow-fields, looking how invitingly cool, from the torrid heat of the desert, where we were encamped by a little rivulet that ran down from some unseen ice-lake in that upper air. Here we pitched our tents and fell to work (for you remember we must have two stations, a low anda high one, to compare the results), and here we laboured three weeks in almost in- tolerable heat, the instruments having to be constantly swept clear of the red desert dust which the hot wind brought. Close by these tents a thermometer covered by a single sheet of glass, and surrounded by wool, rose to 237° in the sun, and sometimes in the tent, which was darkened for the study of separate rays, the heat was xbsolutely beyond human endurance. Finally, our apparatus was taken apart and packed in small pieces on the backs of ules, who were to carry it bya ten days’ journey through the mountains to the other side of the rocky wall which, though only ten or twelve miles distant, arose miles above our heads ; and, leaving these mule trains to go with the escort by this longer route, I started with a guide by a nearer way to those white gleams in the upper skies, that had daily tantalised us below in the desert with suggestions of delicious, unattainable cold. That desert sun had tanned our faces to a leather-like brown, and the change to the cooler air as we ascended was at first delightful. At an altitude of 5000 feet we came to a wretched band of nearly naked savages, crouched around their camp-fire, and at 6000 found the first scattered trees ; and here the feeble suggestion of a path stopped, and we descended a ravine to the bed of a mountain stream, up which we forced our way, cutting through the fallen trees with an axe, fighting for every foot of advance, and finally pas-ing what seemed impass- able. It was interesting to speculate as to the fate of our siderostat mirrors and other precious freight, now somewhere on asimilar road, but quite useless. We were committed now, and had to make the best of it—and, besides, I had begun to have my attention directed to a more personal subject. This was, that the colder it grew the more the sun burnt the skin— quite literally burnt, I may say, so that by the end of the third day my face and hands, case-hardened, as I thought, in the desert, began to look as if they had been seared with red-hot irons, here in the cold where the thermometer had fallen to freezing at night ; and still as we ascended the paradoxical effect increased: the colder it grew about us, the hotter the sun blazed above. We have all heard probably of this curious effect of burning in the midst of cold, and some of us may have experienced it in the Alps, where it may be aided by reflection from the snow, which we did not have about us at any time except in scattered patches, but here by the end of the fourth day my face was scarcely recognisable, and it almost seemed as though sunbeams up here were different things, and contained something which the air filters out before they reach us in our customary abodes. Radia- tion here is increased by the absence of water vapour too, and on the whole this intimate personal experience fell in almost too well with our anticipations that the air is an even more elaborate trap to catch the sunbeams than had been surmised, and that this effect of selective absorption and radiation was intimately con- nected with that change of the primal energies and primal colour of the sun which we had climbed towards it to study. On the fourth day, after break-neck ascents and descents, we finally ascended by a ravine, down which leaped a cataract, till, at nightfall, we reached our upper camp, which was pitched by a little lake, one of the sources of the water-fall, at a height of about 12,000 feet, but where we seemed in the bottom of a valley, nearly surrounded as we were by an amphitheatre of rocky walls which rose perpendicularly to the height of Gibraltar from the sea, and cut off all view of the desert below or even of the peak above us. The air was wonderfully clear, so that the sun set in a yellow rather than an orange sky, which was reflected in the little ice- rimmed lakes and from occasional snow-fields on the distant waste of lonely mountain summits on the west. The mule train sent off before by another route, had not arrived when we got to the mountain camp, and we realised that we were far from the appliances of civilisation by our inability to learn about our chief apparatus, for here, without post or tele- graph, we were as completely cut off from all knowledge of what might be going on with it in the next mountain ravine as a ship at sea is of the fate of a vessel that sailed before from the same port. During the enforced idleness we ascended the peak nearly 3000 feet above us, with our lighter apparatus, leaving the question of the ultimate use of the heavy ones to be settled later. There seemed little prospect of carrying it up, as ‘we climbed where the granite walls had been split by the earth- quakes, letting a stream of great rocks, like a stone river, flow down through the interstices by which we ascended, and, in fact, the heavier apparatus was not carried above the mountain camp. The view from the very summit was over numberless peaks on the west to an horizon fifty miles away, of unknown moun- tain-tops, for, with the exception of the vast ridge of Mount Tyndall, and one or two less conspicuous ones, these summits are not known to fame, and, wonderful as the view may be, all the charm of association with human interest which we find in the mountain landscape of older lands is here lacking. It was impossible not to be impressed with the savage soli- tude of this desert of the upper air, and our remoteness from man and his works, but I turned to the study of the special things connected with my mission. Down far below the air seemed filled with reddish dust that looked like an ocean. This dust is really present everywhere (I have found it in the clear air of Etna), and though we do not realise its presence in looking up through it, to one who looks down on it, the dwellers on the earth seem indeed like creatures at the bottom of a troubled ocean. We had certainly risen towards the surface, for about us the air was of exquisite purity, and above us the sky was of such a deep violet blue, as I have never seen in Egypt or Sicily, and yet even this was not absolutely pure, for separately in- visible, the existence of fine particles could yet be inferred from their action on the light near the sun’s edge, so that even here we had not got absolutely above that dust shell which seems to encircle our whole planet. But we certainly felt ourselves not only in an upper, but a different region. We were on the ridge of the continent, and the winds which tore by had little in common with the air below, and were bearing past us (accord- ing to the geologists) dust which had once formed part of the soil of China, and been carried across the Pacific Ocean ; for here we were lifted into the great encircling currents of the globe, and, ‘‘near to the sun in lonely lands,” were in the right conditions to study the differences between his rays at the surface and at the bottom of that turbid sea where we had left the rest of mankind. We descended the peak and hailed with joy the first arrival of our mule trains with the requisite apparatus at the 42 IA T OES [Aay 14, 1885 mountain camp, and found that it had suffered less than might | tions, On the screen is the spectrum as seen in the desert, be expected, considering the pathless character of the wilderness. We went to work to build piers and mount telescopes and siderostats, in the scene shown by the next illustration on the screen, taken from a sketch of my own, where these rocks in the immediate foreground rise to thrice the height of St. Paul’s. We suffered from cold (the ice forming 3 inches deep in the tents at night) and from mountain sickness, but we were too busy to pay much attention to bodily comfort, and worked with desperate energy to utilise the remaining autumn days, which were all too short. Here, as below, the sunlight entered a darkened tent, and was spread into a spectrum, which was explored throughout by the bolometer, measuring, on the same separate rays which we had studied below in the desert, all of which were different up here, all having grown stronger, but in very different propor- ) : drawn on a conventional scale, neither prismatic nor normal, but such that the intensity of the energy shall be the same in each part, as it is represented here by these equal perpendiculars in every colour. Fix your attention on these three as types, and | you will see better what we found on the mountain, and what | We inferred as to the state of things still higher up, at the surface of the aéreal sea. You will obtain, perhaps, a clearer idea, however, from the following statement, where I use, not the exact figures used in calculation, but round numbers, to illustrate the process em- ployed. I may premise that the visible spectrum extends from H (in the extreme blue) to A (in the deepest red), or from near 40 (the ray of forty one hundredth thousandths of a millimetre in wave-length) to near 80. All below 80, to the right, is the | invisible infra-red spectrum. Now, the shaded curve above the spectrum represents the amount of energy in the sun’s rays at the foot of the mountain, and was obtained in this way :—Fix your attention for a moment on any single part of the spectrum, for instance, that whose wave-length is 60, If the heat in this ray, as represented by the bolometer at the foot of the mountain, was (let us suppose) 2°, on any arbitrary scale we draw a vertical line, 2 inches, or 2 feet high over that part of the spectrum, If the heat at another point, such as 40, were but a 4°, a line would be drawn there a quarter of an inch high, and so on, till these vertical lines mark out the shaded parts of the drawing, the gaps and depressions in whose outline correspond to the ‘‘cold bands” already spoken of. Again, if on top of the mountain we measure all these over once more, we shall find all are hotter, so that we must up there make all our lines higher, but z very different propor- vions. At 60, for instance, the heat (and light) may have grown from 2° to 3°, or increased one-half, while above 4o the heat (and light) may have grown from 2° to 1°, orjincreased five times. These mountain measurements give another spectrum, the energies in each part of which are defined by the middle dotted line, which we see indicates very much greater energy whether heat orlight inthe blue end than below. Next, the light or heat which would be observed at the surface of the atmosphere is found in this way. If the mountain top rises through one half the absorbing mass of this terrestrial atmosphere (it does not quite do so, in fact), and by getting rid of that lower half, the ray 60 has grown in brightness from two to three, or half as much again ; in going up tothe top it would gain half as much more, or become 44, while the ray near 40, which has already increased to five times what it was, would increase five times more, or to 25. Each separate ray increasing thus nearly in some geo- centric progression (though the heat, as a whole, does not), you see how we are able, by repeating this process at every Distribution of Solar Energy at Sea-level and at various Altitudes. point, to build up our outer or highest curve, which represents | the light and heat at the surface of the atmosphere. These have grown out of all proportion at the blue end, as you see by the outer dotted curve, and now we have attained, by actual measurement, that evidence which we sought, and by thus reproducing the spectrum oniside the atmosphere, and then recombining the colours by like methods to those you have seen on the screen, we finally get the true colour of the sun, which tends, broadly speaking, to blue. It is so seldom that the physical investigator meets any novel fact quite unawares, or finds anything except that in the field where he is seeking, that he must count it an unusual experience to come unexpectedly on even the smallest discovery. This experience I had on one of the last days of work on the spec- trum on the mountain. I was engaged in exploring that great invisible heat region, still but so partially known, or, rather, I was mapping in that great ‘‘dark continent” of the spectrum, and by the aid of the exquisite sky and the new instrument (the bolometer) found I could carry the survey further than any had been before. I substituted the prism for the grating, and_mea- sured on in that unknown region till I had passed the Ultima Thule of previous travellers, and finally came to what seemed the very end of the invisible heat spectrum beyond what had previously been known. ‘This was in itself a return for much | trouble, and I was about rising from my task when it occurred to me toadvance the bolometer still farther, and I shall not forget the surprise and emotion with which I found new and yet un- recognised regions below,—a new invisible spectrum beyond the farthest limits of the old one. I will anticipate here by saying that after we got down to | lower earth again the explorations and mapping of this new | region was continued. The amount of solar energy included in this new extension of the invisible region is much less than that of the visible spectrum, while its length upon the wave-length NATURE 43 May 14, 1885 | scale is equal to all that previously xnown, visible and invisible, as you willsee better by this view, naving the same thing on the normal as well as the prismatic scale. If it be asked which of these is correct, the answer is “both of them.” Both rightly interpreted mean just the same thing, but in the lower one we can more conveniently compare the ground of the researches of others with these. ‘These great gaps I was at first in doubt about, but more recent researches at Alleghany make it probable that they are caused by absorption in our own atmosphere, and not in that of the sun. We would gladly have stayed longer, in spite of physical dis- comfort, but the formidable descent and the ensuing desert jour- ney were before us, and certainly the reign of perpetual winter around us grew as hard to bear as the heats of the desert sum- mer had been. On September 10 we sent our instruments and the escort back by the former route, and, ourselves unencum- bered, started on the adventurous descent of the eastern precipices by a downward climb, which, if successful, would carry us to the plains in a single day. I at least shall never forget that day, nor the scenery of more than Alpine grandeur which we passed in our descent, after first climbing by frozen lakes in the northern shadow of the great peak, till we crossed the eastern ridges, through a door so narrow that only one could pass it at a time, by clinging with hands and feet as he swung round the shoulder of the rocks—to find that he had passed in a single minute from the view of winter to summer, the prospect of the snowy peaks behind shut out, and instantly exchanged for that below of the glowing valley and the little oasis where the tents of the lower camp were still pitched, the tents themselves invisible, but the oasis looking like a green scarf dropped on the broad floor of the desert. We climbed still downward by scenery unique in my recollection. This view of the ravine on the screen is little more than a memorandum made by one of the party in a few minutes’ halt part-way down, as we followed the ice-stream between the tremendous walls of the defile which rose 2000 feet, and between which we still descended, till, toward night, the ice-brook had grown into a mountain torrent, and, looking up the long vista of our day’s descent, we saw it terminated by the Peak of Whitney, once more lonely in the fading light of the upper sky. This site, in some respects unequalled for a physical observa- tory, is likely, I am glad to say, to be utilised, the President of the United States having, on the proper representation of its value to science, ordered the reservation for such purposes of an area of 100 square miles about and inclusive of Mount Whitney. There is little more to add about the journey back to civilisa- tion, where we began to gather the results of our observation, and to reduce them—to smelt, so to speak, the metal from the ore we had brought home—a slow but necessary process, which has occupied a large part of two years. The results stated in the broadest way mean that the sun is blue—but mean a great deal more than that; this blueness in itself being perhaps a curious fact only, but in what it implies, of practical moment. We deduce in connection with it a new value of the solar heat, so far altering tbe old estimates that we now find it capable of melting a shell of ice sixty yards thick annually over the whole earth, or, what may seem more intelligible on its practical bear- ings, of exerting over one horse power for each square yard of the normally exposed surface. We have studied the distribution of this heat in a spectrum whose limits on the normal scale our explorations haye carried {o an extent of rather more than twice what was previously known, and we have found that the total loss by absorption from atmosphere is nearly double what has been heretofore supposed. We have found it probable that the human race owes its existence and preservation even more to the heatstoring action of the atmosphere than has been believed. The direct determination of the effect of water-vapour in this did not come within our scope; but that the importance of the blanketing action of our atmospheric constituents has been inno way overstated, may be inferred when I add that we have found by our experiments that if the planet were allowed to radiate freely into space without any protecting veil, its sunlit surface would probably fall, even in the tropics, below the tem- perature of freezing mercury. I will not go on enumerating the results of these investiga- tions, but they all flow from the fact, which they in turn confirm, that this apparently limpid sea above our heads, and about us, is carrying on a wonderfully intricate work on the sunbeam, and on the heat returned from the soil, picking out selected parts in hundreds of places, sorting out incessantly at a task which would keep the sorting demons of Maxwell busy, and as one result, changing the sunbeam on its way down to us in the way we have seen. I have alluded to the practical utilities of these researches, but practical or not, I hope we may feel that such facts as we have been considering about sunlight and the earth’s atmosphere may he stones useful in the future edifice of science, and that if not in our own hands then in those of others, when our day is over, they may find the best justification for the trouble of their search, in the fact that they prove of some use to man. May I add an expression of my personal gratification in the opportunity with which you have honoured me of bringing these researches before the Royal Institution, and of my thanks for the kindness with which you have associated yourselves for an hour, in retrospect at least, with that climb toward the stars which we have made together, to find, from light in its fullness, what unsuspected agencies are at work to produce for us the light of common day. ZOOLOGICAL RESEARCH * HE Vettor Pzrsanz is soon expected in our port, on her return from a long voyage of no little scientific importance. We think we cannot better hail her arrival than by publishing that portion of Prof. Dohrn’s report in which he speaks of the scientific mission fulfilled by this vessel—a mission which, besides meeting with a success far surpassing the highest expectations, has redounded not a little to the benefit of our ‘ Stazione Zoologica.” The time has now arrived, writes the illustrious Professor, for me to speak of an event which took place towards the end of 1881, and which has since borne no inconsiderable fruit. And this, in its turn, takes me back to a conversation which I had in 1878 with the Italian Minister of Marine. I had already pro- posed that, instead of sending out a young naturalist on board the frigates which sail around the world, a young naval officer should be sent to the ‘‘ Stazione Zoologica,” where, in about four months, he might pick up so much knowledge as would enable him to collect and preserve specimens of marine animals. Owing to a change in the Ministry, my proposition, though accepted in the main, was forgotten ; and I only succeeded in getting it put into execution in 1881. On December 27, 1881, a young naval lieutenant, Signor Gaetano Chierchia, a Neapolitan by birth, introduced himself to me with these words: “I have been sent by the Ministry to learn under your direction at the ‘ Stazione Zoologica’ how to collect and preserve specimens of marine animals. I present myself accordingly, and beg to be allowed to begin work at once.” These few words, modest, yet full of energy, made a deep impression on me ; for they not only marked the beginning of a new epoch in the active life of the Zoological Station, but also promised a more intimate connection between it and the officers of the Italian navy—an intimacy to which I had looked forward from the very day in which I conceived the idea of the future floating Zoological Station. With the same modest energy which characterised his first interview with me, Signor Chierchia continued for four months his studies under the special direction of the Curator, Salvatore Lobianco; and all the employes and naturalists of the Zoological Station were astounded at the rapid progress he made in a field so entirely new to him. And when the moment came for establishing my laboratory on board the corvette Vector Pisani (which came most appositely to Naples), and there had been put on board all the fishing apparatus, chemical reagents, alcohol, glass vessels, &c., we accompanied him as a dear friend, and looked forward to results which should mark a distinct advance in the culture of our science. And our expectations, far from being disappointed, were widely surpassed. After only five months there arrived the first consignment—the product of deep-sea work, of dredging and coast-fishery along the shores of Gibraltar, Brazil, and Montevideo. The whole collection was in excellent preservation, carefully labelled and packed, and accompanied by a minute report as to the place and circum- stances of each find. And I do not for a moment hesitate to affirm that never has so important a collection of oceanic * From the Pumgolo, April 23, 1885. Naples, Italy. 44 NATURE | May 14, 1885 animals before reached Europe. Scarce four months had elapsed when there arrived a second consignment, still more extensive than the first, and the result of collections made during a voyage from Montevideo to Cape Horn, around the islands of the Pata- gonian archipelago (a course which the obliging commander of the corvette, Capt. Palumbo, had followed at my especial desire). This collection, too, contained most interesting specimens, among which are especially worthy of mention a vast number of tubes filled with the produce of deep-sea fishing (pelagic pro- ducts). In the same way there have come to hand two other consignments from the Peruvian coast, from the Galapagos Isles, from the coast of Panama; and also some most interesting animals found in small pools and rivers in Peru. Among these, of special importance are two complete series of embryonic forms—first, of a Peruvian ray, and secondly of a toad, which Lieut. Chierchia, at my desire, and to aid my studies in the history of the origin of vertebrate animals, reared with great care, and kept in an excellent state of preservation. In this he was assisted by Dionigi Franzese, who had been trained in the Zoological Station, and had embarked as a sailor on board the Vettor Pisant. The Vettor Pisani continued its course from Peru across the ocean towards the Philippine Islands and China, and we may look for a new shipment of specimens. In this we have a striking confirmation of my opinion that zoology might receive material aid in its work from naval officers trained for the purpose, rather than from the employment of young naturalists. The example thus presented has been followed by other individuals, and already three more naval cfficers, Lieuts. Cercone, Orsini, and Colombo, have been trained in the same way at the Zoological Station. It is a matter for regret that the first-mentioned has made but one voyage, a short one towards the West Indies, in which violent gales were encountered. The result of his researches may be seen at the ‘* Station.” Lieut. Orsini is in the colony of Assab, at the mouth of the Red Sea, and has despatched thence a valuable and well-preserved collec- tion. Lieut. Colombo is the only one of the three whose studies have been of a more extensive and continuous nature, and for them opportunitp has on several occasions been given him by the Minister of Marine. On board the vessel attached to the Hydrographical Survey, com- manded by Capt. Magnaghi (equally well known as a man of science and an officer), he has made excellent collections in the Mediterranean itself, and has now returned once more to the “Stazione” to further prosecute his studies there. From the very first it has been my intention to invite the naval services of other nations to join us in this line of research, and accordingly, in the autumn of 1882, I proposed to the German Minister of Marine that he should send a naval officer or surgeon to Naples to receive a training such as I have indi- catel. The head of the Admiralty then, Herr Von Stosch, accepted my proposal, and sent a naval surgeon, Dr. Sander, for four months to Naples. In the autumn of the following year Dr. Sander embarked on board the frigate Prinz Adalber? for Eastern Asia. We still await its arrival, and hope for valuable results from the expedition. A preliminary conversation which I had last summer at St. Petersburg with the head of the staff of the Russian Marine Admiral Tchichatchoff, leaves room for hope that Russia too will consent to join us in the matter, and that so in the course of a few years we may look for a still further and wider development of this connection between the ‘‘Stazione Zoologica” and the various marine war services of the world. From such a connection great advantages would accrue, not only to science in general, but also to the naturalists of those several countries, which in their turn would be the richer for the collections made by their respective navies. UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE CAMBRIDGE.—There will be an examination in certain branches of natural science for minor scholarships at Downing College, on Tuesday, June 2 next, and following days. Persons who have not entered at any college in the University are eligible to the minor scholarships, which will be of the value of from 40/. to 70/. per annum, and tenable until their holders are of standing to compete for a Foundation Scholarship. Further information will be given by Dr. Perkins or the Rev. J. C. Saunders, tutors of the College. SCIENTIFIC SERIALS Annalen der Physik und Chimie, No. 3, March, 1885.—Prof. R. W. Bunsen, on capillary absorption of gas. Shows a direct dependence between the capillary pressures and the volumes of gas absorbed. This discovery, doubtless, has important rela- tions in physiological processes. Prof. G. Quincke, electric researches (No. 10), on the measurement of magnetic forces by hydrostatic pressure. The author adopts the formula é = R H;/8 TT, where H, is the intensity of the magnetic field, and Q, a ‘‘di- magnetisation constant” analogous to the dielectric constant in the analogous formula for the pressure in the electric field. Ob- servations have been made on many magnetic liquids to ascer- tain the numerical values of this constant.—O. Lummer, on the theory and form of some newly-observed interference curves. These relate to certain phenomena of thick plates. —C. Christian sen, researches on the optical properties of finely-divided bodies. —W. Moller, on Wild’s photometer.—E. and L. Natanson, on the dissociation of the vapour of hyponitrous acid.—M. Thiesen, researches on the equation of state ; a discussion of the laws of gaseous pressure.—Prof. L. Pfaundler, on the action of strongly- compressed carbonic acid on glass under the influence of light. W. Voigt, reply to Prof. Wiillner’s remarks respecting Jamin’s observations on metallic reflection. Fournal of the Russian Chemical and Physical Society, vol. xvi. fasc. 9.—On the oxidation of acetones (second memoir), by G. Wagner. The behaviour of ketones to chromic acid mixture are described, and the general laws of their oxidation are deduced. —On the action of the iodides of allyl and zine on epi- chloridrine, by M. Lopatkin. — On isopropyl allyl dimethyl carbinol, by M. Kononovitch.—On the relation between dia- magnetism and the temperature of fusion of bodies, by P. Bachmetieff. The absolute heat of fusion being represented by the equation W = (¢ + 273) cs + ds, where c is the specific heat, éthe latent heat of fusion, and s the specific weight of the body ; then, the series (¢ + 273) s being taken according to the figures of Regnault and M. Carnelley—it appears to be in reverse order to Faraday’s diamagnetic series, the bodies appearing in the following series which culminates with Bi and Sb:—K, Na, P, Br, S, Mg, Ca, I, Al, In, Sn, Bi, Sb, Za, Cd, Pb, Ag, Cu, Pd, An, Ur, W, Pt, Ir, Os.—On the atmospheres of planets, the temperature of the sun in cosmic space, and the earth’s atmo- sphere, by E. Rogovsky.—On some new demonstrations of the conditions for a minimum of deviation of a prism, by N. Poltschikoff.—A note in answer to M. Stankevitch, by the same. —Studies in cosmical physics: III. the heating of meteorites when falling on to the earth, by Th. Schwedoff.—Answering to an objection made at the British Association of 1882 by Sir William Thomson to his cosmic theory of hail, the author discusses the heat which a meteoric stone may receive when piercing our atmosphere. He shows by several examples, by our experience of meteorites, and by M. Daubrée’s testimony, that they never have been brought to fusion. The meteorite must be compared toa fire syringe (Briguet pnewmatique), which condensates the air and raises its temperature, remaining nearly cold itself when its conducting power is feeble. The vés viva of the m2teorite is spent in piercing the layers of air—that is, in bringing them into motion (like a bullet which would spend its force in piercing 1000 sheets of paper before reaching the target), and to admit that its v7s wZva be transformed into heat, would be to forget the force spent in piercing the air.—Index to the sixteenth volume. Bulletin de la Société des Naturalistes de Moscou, 1884, No. 2° —Materials for the flora of Central Asia, by Prof. N. Sorokine. After having twice visited several parts of Russian Turkistan and the delta of the Amu-daria, M. Sorokine returned with a rich collection of phenogams, which proved this part of the Central Asian flora to be very rich, original, and interesting. The department of Gasteromycetes alone offered the greatest interest, on account of its containing forms peculiar to Algeria, Egypt, Cuba, and so on. There are even several indices which would seem to indicate that the Aral-Caspian region has been a centre of dispersion of several forms, whose sporz were trans- ported by winds across the Red Sea to Africa, and thence to Spain and France. The whole work of the author could not be pub- lished at once, on account of its numerous plates. The descrip- tion of the Chytridiaceze has appeared in the Archives botaniques du Nord de la France, the remainder will appear in the Moscow Bulletin, which contains now the descriptions, with five plates, May 14, 1885] NATURE of the Hypodermei and the Gasteromycetes.—Plante Raddeanz Monopetalz, by Ferd. von Herder (continued).—Solution of a problem of the theory of comets, by N. Joukovski (Russian). The geocentric position of a particle of the tail which has left the nucleus since a given time under the action of a given re- pulsive force, to determine the displacement of the particle for a given change in the repulsive force—such is the problem treated. —Analyses of salt and mud from a volcano of Trans-Caucasia. —An essay on the solution of the geodetical problem, by Th. Sloudsky (in French). The already-known formule already give the possibility of embodying all anomalies less than 30” in lati- tude and less than 15 oscillations of the pendulum in twenty- fours against the calculated ones. The author tries, however, to give a more theoretical formula, which might at the same time embody larger anomalies.—List of the herbaria of the Mos- cow University and of the Society of Naturalists, by J. Goro- shankin.— Studies on the averages of the relative moistness, by Dr. K. Weihrauch (continued ; in German).—Necrology and Annual Report. Rendiconti del R. Istituto Lombardo, March 26.—History of the first century (1783-1883) of the Reale Istituto, by G. B. Venturi.—On the persistence of the thymus gland in children and adults, by Prof. Giovanni Zoja.—Account of a successful operation performed on a young girl for the purpose of closing an open sore on the left cheek produced by a severe attack of typhoid fever.—Further notes on conformable representations in higher mathematical analysis, by Prof. Giulio Ascoli.—Meteoro- logical observations made at the Royal Observatory of Brera, Milan, during the month of March. Rivista Scientifico-Industriale, March 31.—A new explanation of the red crepuscular lights that have been attributed to the Krakatoa eruption, by Prof. Carlo Marangoni.—Variations in the electric resistance of solid and pure metallic wires according to the temperature (continued), by Prof. Angelo Emo.—A visitation of caterpillars (Zithosta caniola, HI.) in Florence during the present season, by P. Bargagli. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES LONDON Royal Society, April 23.—‘‘On the Changes produced by Magnetisation in the Length of Rods of Iron, Steel, and Nickel.” By Shelford Bidwell, M.A., LL.B. The earliest systematic experiments on the effects produced by magnetisation upon the length of iron and steel bars are those of Joule, an account of which is published in the Phzi. Mag. of 1847. Joule’s experiments haye many times been re- peated, and his general results confirmed. In particular, Prof. A. M. Mayer carried out a series of very careful observations with apparatus of elaborate construction and great delicacy. The conclusions at which he arrived were in accord with those of Joule, so far as regards iron; in the case of steel there was some apparent discrepancy, which, however, might to a great extent be accounted for by differences in the quality of the metal used and in the manner of conducting the experiments. In 1882 Prof. Barrett published in NATURE an account of some experiments which he had made, not only on iron but also on bars of nickel and cobalt, with the view of ascertaining the effect of magnetisation upon their length. The knowledge on the subject up to the present time may be summarised as follows :— (1) Magnetisation causes in iron bars an elongation, the amount of which varies up to a certain point as the square of the magnetising force. When the saturation-point is approached the elongation is less than this law would require. The effect is greater in proportion to the softness of the metal. (2) When a rod or wire of iron is stretched by a weight, the elongating effect of magnetisation is diminished ; and if the ratio of the weight to the section of the wire exceeds a certain limit, magnetisation causes retraction instead of elongation. (3) Soft steel behaves like iron, but the elongation for a given magnetising force is smaller (Joule). Hard steel is slightly elongated, both when the magnetising current is made and when it is interrupted, provided that the strength of the successive currents is gradually increased (Joule). The first application of the magnetising force causes elongation of a steel bar if it is tempered blue, and retraction if it is tempered yellow: subse- quent applications of the same external magnetising force cause 45 temporary retraction, whether the temper of the steel is blue or yellow (Mayer). (4) The lengh of a nickel bar is diminished by magnetisation, the maximum retraction being twice as great as the maximum elongation of iron (Barrett). In order that the results of Joule ard Mayer might be com- parable with those obtained by the author, he made an attempt to estimate the magnetising forces with which they worked. From data contained in their paper, it was calculated that the strongest magnetising force used by Joule was about 126 units, while the stiongest used by Mayer did not on the highest probable estimate exceed 118 units. In the author’s experiments the magnetising force was carried up to about 312 units. The metal rods, too, were much smaller than any which had been before used for the purpose, ranging in diameter from 1°40 to 625 mm. Their length was in every case 100 mm., and the apparatus was capable of measuring with tolerable certainty an elongation or retraction equal to a ten-millionth part of this length. By using thinner iron rods and greater magnetising forces than those previously employed, the following curious and inter- esting fact was established. If the magnetisation be carried beyond a certain critical point, the consequent elongation, instead of remaining stationary at a maximum, becomes diminished, the diminution increasing with the magnetising force. If the force is sufficiently increased, a point is arrived at where the original length of the rod is totally unaffected by magnetisation ; and if the magnetisation be carried still further, the original length of the rod will be reduced. It also appeared that the position of the critical point in steel depended in a very remarkable manner upon the hardness or temper of the metal ; considerable light is thus thrown on the apparently anomalous results obtained by Joule and by Mayer. Further experiments disclosed strong reason for believing that the value of the critical magnetising force in a thin iron rod was greatly reduced by stretching ; this would explain the fact that Joule obtained opposite effects with stretched and unstretched wires. By ascertaining the relative values of the temporary moments induced by gradually increasing external magnetising forces, an attempt was made to connect the point of maximum elongation with a definite phase of the magnetisation of the several rods in which the elongation had been observed. Though more experiments must be made before it is possible to generalise from them with perfect safety, the results so far obtained by the author indicate the laws given below. The elongations and magnetisations referred to are temporary only ; before the beginning of an experiment the rod was permanently magnetised by passing through the magnetising coil a current equal to the strongest subsequently used. In iron the greatest elongation due to permanent magnetisation was generally found to be about one-third of the total elongation, while in nickel the permanent retraction amounted only to about one-twenty-fifth part of the whole. I. IRon (1) The length of an iron rod is increased by magnetisation up to a certain critical value of the magnetising force, when a maximum elongation is reached. (2) If the critical value of the magnetising force is exceeded, the elongation is diminished until with a sufficiently powerful magnetising force the original length of the rod is unaffected, and, if the force is still further increased, the rod undergoes retraction. Shortly after the critical point is passed, the elonga- tion diminishes in proportion as the magnetising force incre: ses. The greatest actual retraction hitherto observed was equal to about half the maximum elongation, but there was no in ‘cation of a limit, and a stronger magnetising force would have p oduced further retraction. (3) The value of the external magnetising force corresponding to maximum elongation is for a given rod approximately eq tal to twice its value at the ‘‘ turning point.” Definition.—The turning point in the magnetisation of an iron bar is reached when the temporary moment begins to increase less rapidly than the external magnetising force. (4) The external force corresponding to the point of maximum elongation increases (when the quality of the iron is the same) with the diameter of the rod. So also does its value at the turning point. (5) The amount of the maximum elongation appears to vary inversely as the square root of the diameter of the rod, when the quality of the iron is the same. 46 (6) The turning point, and therefore presumably the point of maximum elongation, occurs with a smaller magnetising force when the rod is stretched than when it is unstretched. Il, STEEL (7) In soft steel magnetisation produces elongation, which, as in the case of iron, increases up to a certain value of the mag- netising force, and afterwards diminishes. The maximum elongation is less than in iron, and the rate of diminution after the maximum is passed is also less. (8) The critical value of the magnetising force for a steel rod diminishes with increasing hardness up to a certain point, cor- responding to a yellow temper; after which it increases, and with very hard steel becomes very high. ‘There is therefore a critical degree of hardness for which the critical magnetising force is a minimum ; in steel of a yellow temper the value of the critical magnetising force is lower than in steel which is either softer or harder. (9) In soft steel a strong magnetising force subsequently dimin- ished may cause a greater temporary elongation than the diminished force is capable of producing if applied in the first place. (10) A temporary elongation when once produced in soft steel may be maintained by a magnetising force which is itself too small to originate any perceptible elongation. III. NIcKEL (11) Nickel continues to retract with magnetising forces far | exceeding those which produce the maximum elongation of iron. The greatest observed retraction of nickel is more than three times the maximum observed elongation of iron, and the limit has not yet been reached. (12) A nickel wire stretched by a weightundergoes retraction when magnetised. Anthropological Institute, April 28.—Francis Galton, F.R.S., President, in the chair.—Mr. A. L. Lewis read a paper on the past and present condition of certain rude stone monuments in Westmoreland. The highest point of the railway between Lancaster and Carlisle is a little to the south of the village and station of Shap, in Westmoreland, where there were formerly some very extensive rude stone monuments, now un- fortunately almost entirely destroyed. Allusion is made to them by Camden and Dr. Stukeley, and a circle is said to have been destroyed when the railway was made; some remains of this circle may be seen from the train, but only a few stones are left | The most interesting monument now remaining in | on the spot. the vicinity of Shap is situated at a place called Gunnerskeld, two or three miles to the north, and consists of two irregular, concentric, slightly oval rings, about 50 and 1oo feet in diameter respectively, the longest diameters being from north to south.— A paper by Admiral F. S. Tremlett on quadrilateral construc- tions near Carnac was read. These inclosures were explored by the late Mr. James Miln ; in each case the boundary walls are formed of coarse, undressed stones, put together without any kind offcement, and having built up in them a series of small menhirs ; they also contained beehive structures for cremation, reddened and become friable from the effects of great heat. It would appear that the cremation had been perfect, as not a particle of calcined bone was found in either of the inclosures.— A paper by M. Jean L’Heureux on the Kekip-Sesoators, or ancient sacrificial stone of the North-West Territory of Canada, was read. Elevated two hundred feet above the level of the sur- rounding plain, Kekip-Sesoators, the Hill of the Blood Sacrifice, stands like a huge pyramidal mound commanding an extensive view of both Red Deer and Bow River Valleys. A natural platform of about one hundred feet crowns its summit; at the north end of the platform, resting upon the soil, is the Sesoators, a rough boulder of fine-grained quartzose, fifteen inches high and about fourteen in diameter ; upon its surface are sculptured half an inch deep the crescent figure of the moon with a shining star over it. Two small concave basins about two inches in diameter are hollowed into the stone, one in the centre of the star, the other about seven inches from it in a straight line ; around them are traced various hieroglyphic signs, and all over the surface are numerous small circlets, which remind one of the sacrificial stone of Mexico. Here at a time of private or public necessity, when extraordinary blessings are sought, comes a solitary warrior, himself the priest and the victim ; from the time of sunset he sits in solemn vigil gazing in the far east for the coming of the star-god of his ancestors ; and when the first ray of the morning star lights the distant horizon, he lays a finger of his left hand on the top of the stone and cuts it off, leaving the blood to NATURE [May 14, 1885 flow into the basin. He then presents the bleeding finger to the morning star, and, leaving it in the basin of the star-like figure, retraces his steps towards the lake at the foot of the hill, where he dresses his wound, and at sunrise enters his own village, where he is received with triumphant honours. Amongst the Blackfeet these self-inflicted wounds ranked equal to those received in battle, and are always mentioned first in the public recital of the warrior’s great deeds in the national feast of Ocan. Geologists’ Association, May 1.—William Topley, F.G.S., President, in the chair.—A paper was read on wingless birds— recent and fossil—and on birds as a class, by Dr. Henry Woodward, F.R.S._ The author prefaced his remarks on wing- less birds by giving first a brief account of the characters of birds as aclass. He described the peculiarities of the skull and the fore- and hind-limb, the cervical, thoracic, sacral, and caudal vertebrae, with the shoulder-girdle and pelvis. He compared the highly-specialised fore-limbs in existing birds with that of Archaeopteryx, the former, with three rudimentary digits, having the metacarpal bones anchylosed together ; the latter, with three free digits in each manus, armed with claws. He compared the bones of the hind-limb of an adult Zezazodon with those of a young Dinornis, and showed how closely the characters observ- able in the former are repeated in the latter. Many interesting analogies were also pointed out in the form of the ilium, ischium, and pubis in Struthio and Iguanodon. The Archeopteryx, although possessing so many points of divergence from the Avian type, was shown to be the earliest known ancestor of the great division of Carina¢e (birds with a keel to the sternum) to which - nearly all modern (flying) birds belong. For the Ratite (or boat-breasted birds), to which division the Ostrich, Rhea, Emu, Cassowary, Apteryx, Dinornis, Zpyornis, &c., belong, an’earlier ancestor must be sought. The author contended that, on the evidence before us we have a right to claim a higher antiquity for the Xatite than for the Carinafe, not only from the present wide distribution of this division of the class, but also from the fossil evidence which embraces for the Struthious order even a still larger geographical area than that shown from existing species. And if we are at liberty to add to this the evidence of ° the footprints of bipedal animals in the Trias (which agree with the tracks of birds in the number of digits in the foot), then these footprints may be taken as further evidence of their priority in geological time. For the primitive forms of this class we must evidently look to the palzeozoic rocks. Zoological Society, May 5.—Prof. Alfred Newton, F.R.S., Vice-President, in the chair.—A communication was read from Mr. Jean Stolzmann, containing observations on the theory of sexual dimorphism.—Mr. J. Bland Sutton, F.Z.S., read a paper on hypertrophy and its value in evolution, in which he attempted to show that material changes in structure might be the result of what was originally a pathological condition.—Mr. E. T. Newton, F.Z.S., read a paper on the remains of a gigantic species of bird (Gastornis klasseni), which had been obtained by »~ Mr. H. M. Klaassen from the ‘‘ Woolwich and Reading Beds” | of the lower Eocene series. The author observed that these fossils proved that in early Eocene times England was inhabited by a race of birds which equalled in their proportions some of the more massive forms of the New Zealand moas.—A com- munication was read from Mr. R. B. Sharpe, F.Z.S., contain- ing the description of a new species of Hornbill from the Island of Palawan, which he proposed toname dnthracoceros lemprieri. —Prof. E. Ray Lankester, F.R.S., read some notes on the right cardiac valve of the specimens of Afteryx dissected Ly Sir Richard Owen in 1841.—A communication was read from Lieut.-Col. C. Swinhoe, F.Z.S., being the third of his series of papers on the Lepidoptera of Bombay and the Deccan. The present paper treated of the second portion of the Heterocera.— A communication was read from Dr. St. George Mivart, F.R.S., containing a correction of a statement concerning the structure of Viverricula, contained in a former paper. MANCHESTER Literary and Philosophical Society, Feb. 16.—1nomas Alcock, M.D., in the chair.—A proposed revision of the species and varieties of the sub-genus Cylinder (Montfort) of Conus (L.), by Mr. J. Cosmo Melvill, M.A., F.L.S. March 10.—Prof. W. C. Williamson, LL.D., F.R.S., Presi- dent, in the chair.—On making sea-water potable, by Thomas Kay, President of the Stockport Natural History Society. Communicated by F. J. Faraday, F.L.S. March 16.—Thomas Alcock, M.D., in the chair.—On the breeding of the Reed Warbler (Acrocephalus arundinaceus) in May 14, 1885 | Cheshire, by Francis Nicholson, F.Z.S.—On Lagen2 crenata, by Dr. Alcock.—The Post-Glacial Shell-beds at Uddevalla, Sweden, by Mark Stirrup, F.G.S. PARIS Academy of Sciences, May 4.—M. Bouley, President, in the chair.—Summary of the meteorological observations made during the year at four stations on the Upper Rhine and in the Vosges district (Schlucht, Munster, Colmar, and Thann), by M. G. A. Hirn, Tables are given of the actinometric observa- tions, of the prevailing winds with their mean and greatest velocities, of the mean and extreme temperature, of the atmo- spheric pressure and rainfall for each month of the year at all these stations. During the period in question the most salient phenomena were the severe frosts of the month of April, which proved very destructive, especially to the vines, and the sudden and violent hurricane of July 16, which swept with tremendous rapidity over the Vosges, almost unaccompanied by rain, and with very little thunder.—Remarks on the influence exercised by seismatic disturbances on Phylloxera, by M. S. Villalongue. The case is mentioned of a vineyard near Malaga affected by this parasite and supposed to have been destroyed, which never- theless broke into leaf with fresh vigour after the earthquakes which recently devastated the southern provinces of Spain.— Application of the general laws of the theory of the partition of numbers to numerical functions, by M. N. Bougaieff.—On an easy method of controlling the velocity of electric motor currents (one illustration), by M. Marcel Deprez.—Note on the suppression of the nitrous vapours of the Bunsen pile, and ona new pile which becomes depolarised in the atmosphere, by M. A. d’Arsonval.— On a new variety in the anomalous group of Cyclocephalians, by M. A. Lavocat. This variety, for which the term ‘‘ ophthal- mocephalous”’ is proposed, is illustrated by the recent case of a still-born lamb, in which nose and eyes were entirely absent, and, in place of the orbits, showing in the median plane a cavity formed by the union of the two temporal fosses. At the same time the tongue, the ears, and all the parts corresponding with these organs were in the normal state.—On the system of canal- isation present in the cellules of plants, and on the continuity of the protoplasm in vegetation, by M. L. Olivier. In opposition to the generally accepted views, the author infers from his micro- scopic studies that in the thickness of the membranous walls of plants there is a highly developed network of canals, by means of which the continuity of the protoplasm is effected throughout the cellular system.—An attempt to determine the relative age of the Grand’-Combe Carboniferous deposits by means of their fossil vegetation, by M. R. Zeiller. RoME Reale Accademia dei Lincei, January 4.—On pleasur- able and periodic respiration. Prof. Mosso communicated an abstract of a memoir in which he expounds various observations made by him on respiration. By means of tracings taken from a man in a state of complete rest, he has recognised that in the respiratory movements periods of greater or less depth in breathing alternate with one another, and that such periods are observable in all animals, especially during sleep. The author has likewise ascertained that man breathes a greater quantity of air than is necessary, and it is that respira- tion that he calls pleasurable (vespivaztone di lusso). It is in consequence of this excess in the ordinary breathing that a man does not increase the extent of his respiratory movements in ascending a mountain or in undergoing a change of atm spheric pressure. Prof. Mosso has determined the limit of this pleasur- able respiration which is manifested in sleep when no cause would render it necessary. According to the pauses which the periodic respiration undergoes, the author divides it into remzt- tent (remutten'e) and intermittent (intermittente). These pauses do not depend on the movements of the blood-vessels nor on psychical factors. It is a recognised fact that respiration has not a single centre, but that various muscles subserve this func- tion independently of each other. Prof. Mosso concludes that not only is periodic respiration a normal physiolozical pheno- menon, but that it isnothing else than the respiration of Cheyne and Stokes, which has hitherto been looked upon as a morbid condition. The author closes his own paper with a critical review of the theories of the nature of the movements of re- spiration.—Other communications :—Dr. Piccini described the analyses and the methods of pieparation of certain fluor salts of titanium, corresponding to the sesquioxide, which had been NATURE 47 obtained by him.—Drs. Ciamician and Silber described the results of the action of nitric acid on pyril-methyl-ketone.—Drs. Cia- mician and Magnazui communicated a first note on the action of carbonyl chloride on the potassic compound of pyrrol —The sanction of the Academy was likewise given to the printing, in the Ati Academici, of a memoir by Prof. Belloni, in which the author describes the olfactory and olfactory-auditory apparatus of the teleosteans (the sled rotundi of Fritsch).—The Secre- tary, Signor Blaserna, read a communication by Signor Laure, in which the author insists on the necessity of paying great attention to the barometric variations in cases of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. January 18.—Articles belonging to the Stone Age dis- covered in the commune of Breonio Veronese. Prof. Pigorini observed that of all the localities containing remains of the Stone Age Breonio Veronese is the most interesting and the richest, on account of its numerous caves in which primitive man has left his traces. The numerous flint implements found in that locality were attributed by ancient writers to the Cimbri. Some of these have common forms, but others are of very singular shape, and the use of the latter cannot be determined. The importance of such articles, which are found also in the sepulchres of the Stone Age near the caves, but which are there reproduced almost in miniature, consists in the fact that articles of the same form are found among the remains belonging to the prehistoric American stations, which leads us to surmise the existence of a bond of connection in the earliest times between the inhabitants of the Old World and the New. Prof. Pigorini, while dwelling on the great value of the collection of such curiously-shaped articles made by Signor S. de Stefani, and described by him before the Congress at Venice, was glad to be able to announce to the Academy that the collec- tion had been acquired by Prof. Landberg, whose attachment to Italy and whose philanthropic character were well known, and that it was his generous intention to present the collection to the Prehistoric and Ethnographical Museum at Rome. This valuable scientific material is thus to remain in Italy.—On the observa- tions on the solar maculz and facule made in the Observatory of the Collegio Romano in 1884. From the observations made, Signor Tacchini believed that he could conclude that the solar activity was diminishing and that it would very soon reach its minimum. Comparing the observations of 1883 with those of 1884, he found that in 1884 chromospherical phenomena attained a considerable development. Signor Tacchini, although he has not yet completed his labours in reducing the observations, i sof opinion that 1884 will have to be remembered as a year of maximum frequency of hydrogenic perturbations, but he intends to return to the question when he has completed the calculations relating to it.—On an ancient vase representing Sappho.— Signor Comparetti read some preliminary notes regarding an ancient vase belonging to the collection of the Archzological Society of Athens. On this vase, the drawing on which is rather rude, Sappho is represented in the midst of her disciples, she herself being in the act of reading some epic lines written on a roll held in her hand. This vase belongs to the fourth century B.c., and hence to the period in which Sappho was most popular in the refined and gallant society of Athens. According to Prof. Comparetti, the two disciples who are listening to Sappho, must, judging from their names which are written on the vase, be two Athenian heterze.—Discovery of an ancient encyclopzedia, and the plagiarism practised on it. Signor Narducci announced that he had discovered in the Biblioteca Angelica, at Rome, a parchment MS. belonging to the end of the thirteenth century, containing in its first 129 pages an encyclopedia, hitherto unknown, compiled by Egidio Colonna, of Rome. After giving an account of the contents of this work, Signor Narducci drew attention to the shameless manner in which the encyclopzedia of Colonna had been plagiarised by the Englishman Bartholomew Glanville, commonly called Bartholo- meus Anglicus, who flourished about 1630. This writer acquired the greatest reputation by a book of his called ‘‘ Liber de pro- prietatibus rerum,” which is in great part copied word for word from the encyclopedia of Colonna.—Other communications : Signor Fiorelli gave an account of the excavations of antiquities made during the month of December.—Dr. Nasini made a com- munication regarding some researches he had made on the atomic refraction of sulphur, and on the higher value of that refraction.—Dr. Piccini read a note containing some general considerations on peroxides of the type of peroxide of hydrogen, and made a communication as to the continuation of his re- searches on a new series of titanium compounds. 48 February 1.—On the hydrogenic protuberances of the sun, observed at the Royal Observatory of the College of Rome in 1884.—Prof. Tacchini, in continuation of his previous note to the effect that 1884 must be considered as a year in which the phenomena of the chromosphere had attained their maximum development, presented the results of ob- servations made by him on 242 days. From these it ap- peared that the number of the protuberances increased from March to October. In order to get rid of the anomalies which are met with in various observations, and to obtain a curve representing the course of the phenomena in the quinquennial period 1880 to 1884, Prof. Tacchini has taken as monthly means the means of three months, considering each month along with the month before and after it. The curve so constructed shows three culminating points or periods of maximum activity, these corresponding to July, 1880, September to October, 1881, and March, 1884, which last is the highest in the whole series. The maximum of the protuberances follows that of the sunspots, and recent observations make it probable that 1885 will be a year of greater activity in the chromosphere and solar atmosphere. —On the degree of precision in the determination of the density of gases. Dr. Agamennone stated that the first to experiment with a certain amount of success on the density of gases were the physicists Dumas and Boussingault, and that Regnault had introduced the most important improvements in the methods of working adopted by them. He observed, however, that even these improved methods of Regnault were not exempt from certain errors, the nature of which the author pointed out and described, indicating the precautions that had to be used in the various operations of weighing, in order to avoid some of these errors by taking advantage of the accurate instruments which we possess at the present day. The author insisted specially on the con- stant source of error proceeding from the property which glass has of condensing gases on its surface, and on the exactness of measurement required in determining the pressure at which the gas to be weighed is contained in the vessel in which the weigh- ing is effected. Dr. Agamennone has repeated in the Royal Physical Institute of Rome all the experiments of Regnault, and, correcting an error found in one of the experiments of that physicist, he finds that for the value of the weight of a litre of air, which, according to the corrections made by Kohlrausch and Lasch, would be 1°292756 grammes, there ought to be substituted 1°292767 grammes—a determination which, accord- ing to Dr. Agamennone, is subject to a maximum uncertainty of about + o'0005 gramme, and to a mean uncertainty of + 0'000067 gramme.—Determination of the density of the air. Dr. Agamennone having in his previous paper shown how in the determination of the density of gases the errors affecting the final result proceed from the measurements of weight and pressure, announced that he had executed two series of ex- periments for the determination of the density of the air, making use of weights and pressures separated from one another by pretty wide limits. The pressures employed in the two series of experiments were : (1) that of the atmosphere ; and (2) one of two atmospheres. The author, after describing his methods of procedure and the precautions taken by him, communicated his results, which showed a great difference between the mean values of his two series, and that because the air under pressure departs from Mariotte’s law. Dr. Agamennone concludes that when the density of a gas is to be determined, the gas being weighed in a compressed state, it is necessary above all to know by direct experiments the variations in volume of the gas operated on, and to know what amount of condensation there NATURE is on the walls of the vessel in which the gas is com- pressed. For the determination of the deviation of a gas from Mariotte’s law, which is a matter of so much importance in researches of this kind, the gas might be weighed at different pressures in a resisting vessel with a sufficiently delicate balance. Some experiments of Regnault have shown this method to be sufficiently satisfactory.x—Consequences of a new hypothesis of Kohlrausch on thermo-electric phenomena. Dr. Battelli, after giving a vésumé of the theoretical explanations offered by Thom- son and Tait to account for the results obtained experimentally in thermo-electric phenomena, stated also the hypothesis of Kohlrausch on the electrical transport of heat, and showed how, from the conclusions of Kohlrausch, all the formule confirmed by experiment might be deduced.—Other communications :— Drs. Ciamician and Silber have continued their studies on the compounds of pyrrol, and explained minutely the method by | which they had succeeded in conyerting pyrrol into pyridin,— } [May 14, 1885 Prof. Cassani communicated a paper on the angles of linear spaces.—Dr. Tonelli presented a note on the analytical repre- sentation of certain singular functions.—An abstract was com- municated of a memoir by Messrs. Vanecek, entitled ‘‘Sur la Génération des Surfaces et des Courbes gauches par les Faisceaux de Surfaces.” February 15.—On the worship of stone weapons in the Neolithic age. Signor Pigorini exhibited a singular flint imple- ment which had been found in one of the caves in the commune of Breonio Veronese, referred to the Neolithic age. It has the triangular form of a lance- or arrow-head, but is of rather large dimensions. It weighs, in fact, 1°710kilo., and one of the equal sides of the triangle is more than 21 cm. in length. It cannot be supposed that this colossal spear-head could have been used as a weapon, chiefly because its dimensions would have required a shaft of quite unmanageable size, but also because the cavity at its base would have rendered the shafting extremely fragile. Signor Pigorini called to mind how, even at the present day, the common people attributed a celestial origin to the weapons of stone —a superstition which also existed among the ancients ; but there are proofs that at the very time when these weapons were made they were held as emblems of divinity. There was, in fact, in the Neolithic age, a worship of the axe, since specimens of that weapon are found, of dimensions so small or so large, like that of Breonio Veronese, that they cannot be regarded as anything else than votive offerings.—Concerning a fragment of a manuscript of Cicero belonging to the ninth century. Signor Narducci found, in the Vatican Library, a valuable manuscript containing numerous Ciceronian fragments coMected by a certain Hadvardo. Signor Narducci transcribed the manuscript page by page, in the hope that, by collating it with the works of Cicero, now known, he might find some fragments‘of lost books of the great orator. After identifying each of the fragments, he found that the compiler had not had at his disposal any of the works of Cicero known in the Middle Ages, but not at the present day. Signor Narducci gave a short specimen of the manuscript, with the various readings found at the present day in the most esteemed versions of the various works of Cicero, and he announced that Prof. Schwenke is preparing a critical study of the manuscript in question. CONTENTS PacE Sir William Thomson’s ‘‘Mathematical and Physical Papers.” By. Prof. Helmholtz, F-R'S) 5295 23925 Our Book Shelf :— Warren's °*Paradise Found” — --) <)pe-0 See Buxton’s ‘‘ Epping Forest.”—G. S. Boulger ... 28 Jagnaux’s ‘‘Traité de Minéralogie appliquée aux Arts, a l’Industrie, au Commerce, et 4 |’ Agriculture, &c.” 28 Letters to the Editor :— Photographing the Aurora Borealis.—Carl Siewers. 29 Speed! and Velocity.—B. . .). W. ossi icine neeme Time.—Thunderbolts.— Vision.—Sunglows.—Antoine d’Abbadie a): sw le bajo iS See EE Plutarch on Petroleum.—W. H. Deering ..... 29 Hut Circles.—Worthington G, Smith. ..... 29 A Lady Curator.—Consul E, L. Layard. .... 30 Hoar Frost.—Mrs, Caroline W. D. Rich 3 BO Rainbow Phenomenon.—Charles Croft. ..... 30 Five: Mathematical) Rarities. =. 2.) eee On certain Spectral Images produced by a Rotating Vacuum-tube, By Shelford Bidwell ...+.. 30 Jupiter. By W. F. Denning. (J/lustrated)..... 31 Notes MORBPECOEr oo doc. EE Our Astronomical Column :— The Harvard College Observatory, U.S...... +. 37 Tempel’s Comet (1867) 11.) = <<. s2) toa) one New Nebule: ss 66 6 @ 3 3° 2) = (see Astronomical Phenomena for the Week 1885, May 17-23) ew het seen oe) a The Iron and SteeliInstitute . 5:9. 2. 2). seme Sunlight and the Earth’s Atmosphere, II. By Prof. S. P. Langley. ((/ustrated) 1). 0- | «11-1 en Zoological Research, . 5s ye) is © «seen University and Educational Intelligence ..... 44 Scientific Serials a Tae eDiets ais: celle Steet Societies and Academies ......: . «ss % 45 NABORE: 49 THURSDAY, MAY 21, 1885 THE BRITISH MUSEUM CATALOGUE OF LIZARDS Catalogue of the Lizards in the British Museum (Natural History). By George Albert Boulenger. Vol. I. Geckonide, Eublepharide, Uroplatide, Pygopodide, Agamide. Second Edition. (1885.) T would be difficult to name any order of vertebrates more urgently in need of cataloguing than the lizards. The last general work on the group published in any country was Dr. J. E. Gray’s Catalogue, which appeared forty years ago, only six years after the completion of the volumes devoted to lizards in Dumeril and Bibron’s great work on Reptiles. The additions made in Dr. Gray’s Catalogue were considerable, but many of them were of doubtful value. Thus of fourteen new genera therein added by him to the family of Geckoes alone, but three survive in the present edition, the remainder swell the synonymy. Mr. Boulenger’s Catalogue is a boon to herpetologists and to biologists generally, not only because it places within their reach in a few handy volumes descriptions that have hitherto been widely scattered, but also because the classification proposed, whether it be generally accepted or not, is a distinct advance upon the artificial system hitherto in vogue. It is to be hoped that lizards so closely resembling each other as do, for instance, Gongylus, Ablepharus, and Euprepes, will no longer be classed in three distinct families solely because of trivial differences in the form of the nasal shield and in the development of the lower eyelid. At the same time, as naturalists have but rarely access to a collection of lacer- tilian skeletons, it is to be regretted that a few diagrams have not been added to the present catalogue, to show the cranial characters and the forms of the vertebre, clavicles, &c., upon which Mr. Boulenger’s families are founded. A considerable change in some well-known reptilian genera is proposed in the present work, and it is probable that the union, for instance, of Sted/zo and Trafelus with Agama and of Bronchacela with Calotes will not be uni- versally acceptable. But no change appears to have been proposed without valid reasons, and the tendency to excessive multiplication of genera on insufficient grounds has become so serious a nuisance in zoology that a diminution in the number is welcome. It is satisfactory to find, on comparison with the catalogue of 1845, that whilst the species attributed to the Geckonid@ have in- creased from 97 to 270, the genera have only augmented in number from 40 (or if Ezdb/epharis and Uroplates, now placed in other families, be excluded, 38) to 49, whilst the Agamide which, in the earlier list, comprised 79 species, distributed amongst no less than 34 genera (35, including flatteria) now contain 202 species, but only 30 genera. But six new-generic names are proposed by Mr. Boulenger in the present work, and only three of these are used for generic groups not previously recognised, the others _ being intended to replace terms that are inadmissible. It is almost impossible to form an adequate opinion of the descriptions and synopses in a catalogue of this kind VOL. XXXII.—NO. 812 without testing them extensively, and the only thorough testis to try, by means of them, to identify unknown forms without having a series of specimens of allied species at hand. Most museum publications are deficient in this respect, because the writers do not make sufficient allowance for the difficulties under which those who have occasion to identify animals find themselves. An example or two may be taken from the present work, In the synopsis (p. 114) of Hemzdactylus, one of the largest and most difficult genera of Geckoes, two groups of species are distinguished, the one by having the “free distal joints of all the digits remarxably short,” the other by having them long. In a museum, with other species for comparison, this is a good distinction, but away from any specimens except the one that he is endeavouring to identify it is difficult for a naturalist to tell whether the joints of the lizard he is examining are remarkably short compared with those of other forms. Again, in Draco (p. 254) several species are distinguished by having the snout longer or shorter than the diameter of the orbit, but it is not stated how the snout is measured. It is but right to say that such instances appear exceptional in the present catalogue, and that it is very rare to find a work in zoology from which similar examples might not be taken. One of the chief desiderata in books like the present is accuracy as to localities. The museum catalogues of a past age left much to be desired in this respect, and their shortcomings have had a pernicious influence on the pro- gress of a study of wide biological and geological interest, that of the geographical distribution of animals. It will probably be a long time before all the erroneous localities are weeded out, but it is satisfactory to note the great improvement that has taken place in British Museum catalogues of late years. Where so much care has been expended on the subject as is shown in the present work, it appears almost ungracious to point to such trifling shortcomings as appear, though a few mistakes have naturally crept in. Thus the locality for Acanthosaura (Oriocalotes) Kakhienensis is not in the Khasia hills as stated at p. 305, but Ponsee, in the Kakhyen hills, on the borders of Yunan. Again, considering the extensive collections that have been made of late years throughout Bengal, it is very extraordinary, if Hoplodactylus duvan- celit and Gonyocephalus belli? really occur in the province that neither of them has been rediscovered, and the locality should not be recorded without doubt. Altogether the present volume quite maintains the level that the best recent museum catalogues have led natur- alists to expect. Why it should be called a “second edition ” is not clear. A comparison of the two editions resembles an antiquarian research. It is necessary to recall a state of zoological knowledge as extinct as the dodo before the conditions under which the so-called first edition was produced can be understood. When the head of the zoological department in the British Museum could propose to divide reptiles into two sections, one called Sgvamata, comprising the orders of lizards and snakes, and the other, called Cataphracta, consisting of tortoises, crocodiles, and amphisbzenians, on the ground that the former were clad with scales and the latter with plates, the knowledge of the animals classified was evi- dently in a rudimentary stage. As if the classification D 50 NATURE [May 21, 1885 thus proposed was not sufficiently startling, it was gravely suggested (p. 2) that the five orders of reptiles were “analogous” to similar subdivisions in birds and mam- mals ; the lizards as “climbers” representing the Z7sess- ores in the former and the /77maZes in the latter, serpents being “carnivorous” corresponding to Accipitres and Fer@, Emydosaurians (crocodiles) because they are “aquatic” to Amseres and Cefe, tortoises in virtue of being “large-footed” to Galline and Ungulata, and Amphisbenians for no particular reason to Gral/e and Glives. Jt is doubtful whether the authorities of the British Museum would not have done wisely by leaving this farrago of nonsense, one of the last echoes evoked by the once popular quinquennial system of Vigors and Swainson, in well-merited oblivion, and in not calling attention to it by suggesting a comparison between the work by Dr. Gray and that by Mr. Boulenger. However great may be the changes in zoological classification during the next forty years, the difference between the views now held and those that may prevail in the future will scarcely be so revolutionary as that which exists between the first and the second edition of the British Museum Catalogue of Reptiles. THE SILVER-LEAD DEPOSITS OF NEVADA The Stilver-Lead Deposits of Eureka, Nevada. By J.S. Curtis. 4to. 200 pp. (Washington, D.C., Govern- ment Printing Office, 1884.) aP HE remarkable mineral district which is dealt with in this memoir is situated in the eastern part of the State of Nevada, about the centre of the dreary region known as the Great Basin, between the Great Salt Lake of Utah and the Sierra Nevada range of California. The business centre of the town, or “mining camp,” of Eureka is about go miles south of the Palisades Station, on the Central Pacific Railway, with which it is united by a narrow- gauge branch railway. The principal mines situated about Ruby Hill, about 14 miles west of the town, extend for about a mile along the contact of a limestone, sup- posed to be of Cambrian age, with an underlying quartzite. The quartzite forms the axis of a steep anticlinal arch, which has been modified on one side by a great fracture known as the Ruby Hill fault, and between this and some secondary fractures, an enormous mass of crushed lime- stone is included, containing the mineral deposits, or ore bodies proper, which are essentially cave deposits, the hollows between the limestone fragments, which are of all sorts of shapes and sizes, being filled with products of the oxidation of galena, pyrites and mispickel, such as sulphate, carbonate, and arsenate of lead, and brown iron ore, in addition to the unaltered minerals in smaller quantities. The chief mineralogical find of these mines has, however, been of Wulfenite or molybdate of lead, which has been produced in considerable quantity, both in detached crystals of great beauty and interspersed through the mass of the other minerals. As a whole, the ores contain about 33 per cent. of lead, 30 ozs. of silver, and about 1? ozs. of gold per ton. These ore bodies are of every possible form and size, from small strings up to masses measuring upwards of Ioo feet in all directions ; but in spite of this great irregularity of form, they are generally connected with systems of fissures or channels, and it is by following these fissures that most of the great discoveries have been made. Although mines extend for nearly a mile along the hill, the most valuable portions of the deposit are included within a length of about 500 yards at the north-western end belonging to the Eureka and Richmond Mining Companies ; and, as the largest development of ore has been on or near the boundary dividing the two properties, disputes as to the ownership of different masses have been followed by litigation culminating in a law-suit which in some way recalls the famous Torbane Hill case of the Scotch courts; the principal mining and geological ex- perts of the United States, when called in as witnesses, being about equally divided in opinion as to whether the zone oi limestone containing the ore was a lode or not. In the first judgment the affirmative view prevailed, and was maintained on appeal, although the case appears to have been ultimately decided upon considerations of previous agreements as to boundary lines between the two companies rather than on technical definitions. The absurdity of attempting to apply precise definitions to such essentially irregular objects as mineral deposits has never been so well demonstrated as in this famous case. As regards the origin of the ores, the author considers them to have been deposited by hot springs constituting the final episode of a period of volcanic activity, evidence of which is found in the neighbourhood, though not in the im- mediate vicinity of the mines. A large number of assays of the limestone and quartzite rocks enclosing the de- posits have been made, proving them to contain silver of the value of from fourpence to twenty-two pence per ton, which, however, in the author’s opinion shows con- clusively that the materials for the ore could not have been derived from any of the sedimentary formations. The systematic assaying of the rock has been attempted to be utilised as a method of discovering ore bodies, as have also experiments upon variations in electrical activity, but as yet without practical results, although a curious coincidence has been observed in the indications given by the two methods. The yield of precious metals of the Ruby Hill mines between 1869 and the date of the author’s report, 1883, has been about 15,000,000/., the value in the proportion of about one-third of gold to two-thirds of silver, in addition to about 225,000 tons of lead. Both the smelting and desilverising of the ore are done on the spot, the latter being effected by the inverse Pattinson process of Luce and Rozan, in which the lead is crystallised by injecting steam, and the liquid lead is run off from the im- poverished crystals. This is perhaps the largest applica- tion that this process has yet received. The lower workings of the mines, although they have been extended to a depth of 1200 feet, have not as yet led to any discoveries comparable with those made be- tween 300 and 700 feet below the surface. The author, however, considers the chances of finding ore in depth to be favourable. Taken as a whole the volume is a very interesting one, and is well illustrated, although for practical purposes the scale of the plans and sections is rather small, and ~ May 21, 1885] NATURE 51 the description of the underground workings is scarcely sufficient to enable the reader to appreciate exactly the value of the author’s theoretical conclusions. ils JB, OUR BOOK SHELF Den Norske Nordhavs-Expedition, 1876 to 1878. XIII. Spongiadae. Ved G. Armauer Hansen. 25 pp.,7 plates, I map. (Christiania, 1885.) THE thirteenth report on the zoological collections of the Norwegian North Sea Expedition treats of the sponges, and is by one who, though well known as a student of other branches of zoology, has not, we fancy, been hither- to known as a spongologist. We do not know whether we may not associate with this fact the somewhat alarm- ing percentage of new species which he describes ; of the forty-five enumerated, thirty, or two-thirds of the whole, are new ; many of the species, among which it is interest- ing to note there is a new Hyalonema, H#. arcticum, are very briefly described ; on the other hand, the figures, as in other parts of this report, are well executed, and will be of considerable assistance in the detection of the species by other workers. The author was, unfortunately, unable to obtain any preparations in which he could trace out the canal system, or the structure of the soft parts, and he has, therefore, confined himself to an account of the spicules. With regard to these he has, we are glad to note, made use of the stenographic system which was invented by Dr. Vosmaer ; any and every pro- position for abbreviating the descriptions of species ought to be tested, for the abundance of “literature” is a very threatening danger to science. It is not likely that all the methods that have been from time to time suggested will be found to be useful; no one, for example, has fol- lowed the two methods proposed by the late Prof. Garrod, or that adopted by Prof. Jeffrey Bell in the description of species of starfishes; on the other hand, Dr. Herbert Carpenter has taken up and improved the method sug- gested by Prof. Bell for the species of Comatulids, and will, we understand, adopt it in his forthcoming Chadlenger Report. The chief objections to formule as applied either to species, or spicules, or other organs, are, of course, that a particular method has to be learned, and that, if it is too brief, it tells us too little. The latter, for example, is true of the Owenian method of formulating the dental characters of Mammalia ; it tells us that, while Gymnura has eight premolars above and below, Erizaceus has six above and four below, but it does not tell us which are missing in the latter. If we desire to register our knowledge on this point, we must make use of the more elaborate system devised by Prof. Flowerand Dr. Dobson. As to the former objection, we must bear in mind that some spicules have had such names as floricomo-hexradiate, or patento-ternate, applied to them, and we can well imagine that a formula may well be accepted as a not unpleasant alternative. The Hunterian Oration. Delivered at the Royal College of Surgeons, by John Marshall, F.R.S., &c. (London: Smith, Elder, and Co., 1885.) Not only the wide range and perennial importance of the work of John Hunter—the surgeon and anatomist whom the clear judgment of Buckle places second only to Aristotle among inquirers into organic nature—but also the fertility of human ingenuity, is shown by the fact that, for nearly a century, every year has seen some eminent surgeon discourse with more or less variety and freshness upon the life and achievements of this graet man. The novelties of Mr. Marshall’s treatment of the well- worn theme are, first, recounting the life of his hero backwards in successive decennia from his grave to his cradle ; and, secondly, bringing Hunter into the modern world of science, and imagining the way in which he would be affected by modern methods and modern results. No’ doubt he would be delighted to see the splendid collection which has grown out of his “ Hunterian Museum,” but whether he would be more pleased or puzzled by the technics of histology and the elaborate machines of a physiological laboratory may perhaps be doubted. An orator must be an eulogist, and in this case there is ample room for praise ; but it would be a valu- able contribution to criticism if Mr. Marshall, or some equally qualified man, would discuss Hunter’s achieve- ments as an anatomist, compared with Meckel and Cuvier; as a surgeon, with his contemporary Pott, and his successors Astley Cooper and Brodie; as a physio- logist with Haller and Bichat; and as a naturalist—on the broad ground which includes human and “ compara- tive” anatomy, normal and morbid structure, “the physiology of disease” (to use Hunter’s own phrase), as well as that of health—with the only successor he has had, or, we may predict, ever will have, the illustrious Johannes Miller. To such a critic might be suggested as shades in the intellectual portrait, Hunter’s neglect of the aid of magni- fying glasses such as were used to good effect before him by Leewenhoeck and Grew ; his want of learning and cultivation, with a certain consequent narrowness of mind ; and such occasional obscurity of language as may not unfairly be taken to imply some obscurity of thought. “ Definitions,” he says, “ of all things on the face of the earth are the most cursed.” But may not the use of terms without definition sometimes excuse a choleric word ? After the most exacting criticism, there is no question that Hunter’s name would remain one of the glories of this country—to be mentioned next to those of Harvey, Newton, and Darwin. It is therefore most fitting that his fame should be kept green by the annual piety of successive orators, and of these Mr. Marshall is a worthy compeer. LETTERS TO THE EDITOR [Zhe Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts. No notice is taken of anonymous communications. [Zhe Editor urgently requests correspondents to keep their leiters as short as fossible, The pressure on his space ts so great that tt is impossible otherwise to insure the appearance even of communications containing interesting and novel facts. Notes on the Action of the Wimshurst Induction Machine AN interesting notice on the different influence-machines now in use occurs in NATURE, vol. xviii. p. 12. Ofthese ingenious instruments, that lately devised by Mr. Wimshurst is likely to recommend itself beyond others, on account of the ease with which it may be excited, even in a damp atmosphere, and the high tension of the electricity discharged from its accumulators. The following remarks lay no claim to originality, but they may neverth«less afford some interest to those who would witness its effects at a small pecuniary outlay ; indeed its con- struction is well within the powers of the amateur mechanic. Makers advertise sparks of fabulous length from comparatively small machines, but dense discharges of 44 inches may be obtained under favourable circumstances from disks of 15 inches diameter, if care be taken adequately to insulate the collecting apparatus. It is obvious that an zmassisted spark of 9 inches cannot be produced from plates whose minimum air-spaces of insulation do not exceed 34 inches. The weakest part of insula- tion in these machines is usually between the metal inductors and the attachments of the driving-gear and spindle. In the dark, beautiful brushes of light flash across these spaces, and thus they point where the electricity leaks away from the 52 NATURE [ May 21, 1885 accumulators. The tendency to form these brushes may’ be much diminished by cementing a small disk of sheet caoutchouc over the inner ends of each metal-inducing strap. ; The machine in full work presents several points of interest, the explanation of which, perhaps, is not very obvious. The first I would notice is, that although 15-inch plates will scarcely give an wassisted spark of more than 1% inches in length, the interposition of a trifling condenser, showing only a coated surface of 6 square inches, will entirely change the character of this spark, the almost continuous stream of short sparks giving place to fewer, zigzag, snapping, 4-inch discharges, of much in- creased density and brilliance. The attachment of a condensing tube, constructed as follows, will be found a valuable addition to such machines as collect separately the positive and negative electricities. About 18 inches of thin glass combustion-tubing of }-inch diameter is taken. Within, and at 4 inches distance from each end, a space of 2 inches is coated with tinfoil, leaving a space of 5 inches or so of clear glass between them. Two similar pieces of foil are fixed by a thin coat of gold-size on the exterior of this tube. They superpose the inner pieces of foil, and act as the outer coats of two small Leyden jars united as it were in one. These outer coatings are connected by a strip of tinfoil, The inner coats are placed in contact respectively with the plus and minus collectors of the machine, by means of thick brass wires thrust through caoutchouc plugs. The wires are so bent that their ends may drop into suitable holes, from which they may be at any time detached. A thin coat of spirit lac-varnish spread within and without much favours the insulation of the tube. Thus arranged, bright angular sparks of 4 or more inches in length will pass between the knobs of the discharger at every three-quarter turns of the handle. Another point of interest offers itself when the knobs of the discharger are placed beyond their usual striking distance. In such a case the spark very frequently passes within the tube from coating to coating, quite silently, and with an optical illusion of comparative slowness of transit. When first I noticed these bright flashes of light, they suggested the form of an un- dulating fire-ball, and this brought to my remembrance the often-described but obscure phenomenon of “ ball-lightning.” I could not, however, detect any real retardation of the discharge by a somewhat rough experiment with the ordinary spark-wheel. When two large jars are connected with the machine the dis- ruptive discharge of 4 inches is accompanied by a sharp report, like that of a small pistol. I was not prepared for the fact that such a noisy discharge made to pass through the condensing-tube is quite silent, just as if it flashed through a partial vacuum. It may also be noted that the spark through the tube may be made much to exceed the length of the discharge in the ordinary way. The last point I now mention, and concerning which I should value the remarks of Mr. Wimshurst, or any other competent elec- trician, is the increasing intensity of charge taken up by the metal inducers, or sectors, as they pass each other between the point of their contact with the earth through the metallic brush and the next following comb-collector. In the electrophorus such a contact is required once between the delivery of each spark ; whereas in the machine here used, having perhaps twenty-eight sectors, a contact is given only once in seven inductive processes. It will be found that well-varnished jars, without the usual wooden tops, are much the most efficient. Nevertheless, even these sometimes become so highly charged, that the electricity will force itself over their edges, doubling back, as it were, over a distance of 5 inches. A pretty, but somewhat trifling experiment may be made by attaching two jars of unequal capacities to the collectors. Thus a jar of half a pint capacity placed on one side may be flanked by a quart jar onthe other. Here the small jar, if the coatings be not too distant from the lip, will discharge itself three different times, whilst the large jar is getting sufficient tension to strike, say, at 34 inches. Both jars will then discharge together across the upper knobs. It may thus be shown that four half-pints of electricity make one quart of the same, as in liquid measure. G, B. BucktTon Nesting of Micropternus Phzoceps IN continuation of the communication from my frlend, Mr. Wm. Davison, regarding the nesting of woodpeckers in ants’ nests, published in NATURE (vol. xxxi. p. 438), perhaps the following notes of mine may be of interest :— Camp Meplay, Thoung-yeen Valley, Tenasserim, April 20, 1882 This morning, in going from my camp to the Meplay Forest Reserve, I had to pass through several densely overgrown phonzohs.* While making my way along with some difficulty, I startled a brown woodpecker (AZicropternus pheoceps) from a small pyingado tree (Xy/a dolabriformis). Looking up into the branches I saw a large ants’ nest, in the centre of which appeared a circular hole so exactly like the borings made by woodpeckers ordinarily in the trunks of trees, that I sent up a Karen boy who was with me to ascertain whether it was possible the Micropternus had been boring into the ants’ nest, as, I had heard was the bird’s curious habit. The ants’ nest was only about ten feet above the ground, placed in a fork of the pyingado, two small branches of which passed clean through it. Climbing up, putting in his fingers and then a twig, my Karen follower announced that there were two eggs. Leaving the nest alone for the time being, in the evening I returned by the same route, and was able not only to cut off and carry into camp the whole nest as it was ; but I managed to secure also the hen bird as she flew from the eggs. Arrived in camp, I got the two eggs out, and then very carefully made a cross-section through the #, entrance tunnel made by woodpecker ; 4, retort-shaped nesting-chamber of woodpecker; c, excavations made by the ants; ddd...... d, en- trances to them; ///...... 4 tunnels made by the ants; gg, fork of pyingado branch—one twig passing through the egg-chamber excavated by the woodpecker. ants’ nest so as to divide the boring made by the woodpecker longitudinally. The accompanying is a rough diagrammatic sketch of the appearance of the cross-section of the nest as hollowed out by the woodpeckers. The ants’ nest was a large, spheri- cal, solid mass of leaves and clay, the leaves outside being arranged one over the other something like the tiles on the roof of a house, but riddled in many places with the entrance tunnels made by the ants—a small black and red species of M/yrmica, the trivial or specific name of which I do not know. It is ; probably closely allied to the AZjzmica mentioned by Sir J. Lubbock in his ‘‘ Ants, Bees, Wasps” as having been described by Sykes in the Zrans. Ent. Soc., vol. i. Very few of the ants * The wild hill-tribes of Burmah and Tenasserin have a wasteful system of cultivation called ‘‘toung-yah.” Yearly, in February, the heads of families in a village choose, each head for himself, a spot of well-grown, often virgin forest, generally on a hill-side, and within as convenient a distance of the village as is obtainable, cut down all the trees big and small, and allow them to dry during the hot months of March, April, and May, and towards the latter end of the last month set fire to them. The ashes thus obtained from the timber forms a splendid manure for paddy, and soung-yak rice is preferred by the Karens to ordinary gum (field) rice. The “‘toung-yah,” or clearing after the paddy has been gathered in, is abandoned, and in two or three months, under a hot sun and excessive moisture, becomes an inaccessible jungle, full of thorny bamboos, creepers, and elephant grass. Such deserted toungyahs are called phonzo/ts, and are not again cultivable ‘for from ten to fifteen years. May 21, 1885 | NATURE 53 remained in the nest, and the few that were about seemed agitated and stung virulently. Probably the mass of them had been driven off or eaten by the woodpeckers. The tunnel the latter had made was about two inches in diameter and four inches long, bored horizontally in, and ending in an irregular- shaped egg-chamber about ten and a half inches in cross diameter, but narrowed by the branch of pyingado which pierced the nest through and through, and crossed the egg-chamber diagonally. The bottom of this chamber alone was smooth, but there was no lining, and the two translucent white eggs of the woodpecker had rested on the bare boards, so to speak, of the ants’ house. In the excavations ccc made by the ants themselves there were neither eggs, larvze, nor pupe; probably these all had been removed when the woodpeckers invaded the nest. CHARLES BINGHAM, Deputy Conservator of Forests, British Burmah Henzada, British Burmah, April 12 Staminody of Petals The cases of staminody of petals not being very frequent, it may be of interest to draw the attention of the readers of Nature to such a modification as observed in Fuchsia. The places of the four petals of the flower examined are occupied by four almost colourless filaments of an average length of three-fifths of an inch. Each of them bears on its top a nearly circular dark red lamina of three-tenths of an inch dia- meter. These laminz are so strongly vaulted as to have the shape of a segment of a globe, the hollow side being turned out- ward, the convex inward. At the base of the lamina, z.e. at the top of the filament, a short protuberance is seen, resembling in external shape the lower part of an anther. This anther occupies the concave side of the lamina and is consequently turned out- ward. Though the anther of one of the petals is only slightly developed, yet it may be admitted as a matter of fact that, instead of petals, this flower has produced four stamens, whose anthers bear a petaloid appendage. A microscopic examination, namely, showed not only the peculiar composition of the anther- wall, but also the presence of pollen-grains. Of the stamens, properly so called, the outer whorl is present, but the inner one is only represented by two of the four. One of these two is inserted in the ordinary way, viz. at the base of the petal. The second, however, has grown together half way up with the petal’s filament ; there it has, in consequence of a spiral turning, arrived at the back side of the petal, whence it bends obliquely outward. By this union the impression is created of a stamen rising from the back of the (modified) petal, concealing its anther in the Jamina’s concavity. This occurrence brings to recollection the case of MJonarda fistulosa as cited by Maxwell T. Masters from Turpin (‘‘ Vegetable Teratology,” p. 298), with this difference, however, that what is probably only adhesion is mistaken for petalody, whilst the case above described offers an antheroid petal grown together with a true stamen. J. C. CosTERUS Amsterdam, May 4 Catalogue of Fossil Mammalia in the British Museum, Part I. In the review of the above work in a late number of NATURE (vol. xxxi. p. 597) the reviewer entertains such a complete misap- prehension of my system of naming the premolar teeth of typical heterodont Eutherian mammals that I must~beg space to correct it. The reviewer asserts that this system is untrue because it im- plies that in general with a smaller number than the full comple- ment of four premolars the diminution must have commenced with the first, proceeded with the second, andso on. In reality it implies nothing of the kind, and if he had taken the trouble to turn to pp. 152 (No. 39,732) and 174 (No. 48,787) he would have seen instances where I have mentioned the absence of the middle teeth (.2 and fm.3) and the retention of the terminal teeth (fm.1 and fm.4). Similarly in the ‘ Palzontologia Indica,” ser. ro, vol. iii. p. 48, I have adopted the same system for the incisors, and have shown that in Hippopotamus it is 7.2, and not 7.3, that disappears in some species. IT am well aware that in many of the Insectivora and Chiroptera there is often great difficulty in deciding on the homology of the individual premolars when these are reduced in number ; and the reviewer might have noticed that in the former order I have not ventured to definitely determine the position of any tooth in advance of the last premolar. Among the Chiroptera I have considered the three premolars of Vesfertz/io (p. 13) as homologous with the last three of the typical series, as there is apparently no evidence to the contary; the small size of pm. 3 indicates, however, that an allied genus may retain only pm. 2 and pm. 4; but the minute size of the one tooth in advance of pm. 4 in Rhinolophus has induced me to regard it as pm. 3, although it may be fm, 2. The advantage of the system employed in the ‘‘ Catalogue” is well instanced when we contrast the premolar dentition of Canis, and Lepus or Theridomys ; the homology of the last tooth of this series (and there is only one in 7herzdomys) being at once seen, whereas it is entirely lost if we employ a method like that used in Dr. Dobson’s ‘‘ Catalogue of Chiroptera,” where the actual first tooth in each genus is called the first of the series. I claim for the system adopted by myself every ad- vantage in those cases where it is possible to determine the homology of the individual premolars in any form in which the number does not exceed four; and even in cases where such determination is not absolutely certain, the error can be but very slight, and does not lead to the utter confusion caused by the system (or, rather, the want of system) which I presume the reviewer would prefer. When we come to those mammals in which the number of premolars is more than four, my systen fails; and, in view of this, some German writers have adopted the plan of numbering the premolars the reverse way—z.e. terming the premolar next the first molar fm. 1, and then counting towards the incisors. Although this system would be advantageous if we could always be sure of the division between the premolars and molars in homceodont mammals ; yet it has several di-advantages, and has not, therefore, been adopted. In reference to the suggestion of your reviewer, that instead of making a catalogue of the fossil Mammalia in the collection of the British Museum (as I was instructed to do by the Museum Authorities), I should have made one of all the known species of fossil Mammalia, any person having the slightest pretence to any knowledge of the present state of mammalian paleontology would have at once known that it would be utterly useless to attempt any such work at the present time, when new species and genera are being made almost daily, and a host of those already made are as yet but empty names. As a minor matter, I may mention in regard to the lower jaws of Crossopus, alluded to in the review, that their identification rests solely on the authority of Prof. Sir R. Owen, and that per- haps I have acted in a too conservative spirit in admitting them. Harpenden Lodge, May 2 RICHARD LYDEKKER Fossil Insects “« THE Earliest Winged Insects of America ; a Re-examination of the Devonian Insects of New Brunswick in the Light of Criticisms and of New Studies of other Paleozoic Types,” is the title of a brochure by Mr. S. H. Scudder, of Cambridge, Mass.. recently published. These Devonian insects are fragments of five wings ; a sixth is now dropped, as ‘‘ too imperfect for any satisfactory discussion, ” though in 188r its description filled about two quarto pages. These insects have been, since 1865, so often discussed that their literature is a rather voluminous one. A number of far-reaching conclusions elaborated by the author would have to be aban- doned if the determination of the insects should be proved incor- rect. This I endeavoured to do in Bull, Mus. Comp. Zool., viii. No. 14, Cambridge, 1881, and in NATURE, xxiii p. 483. The principal aim of the author’s new paper is to show that my determinations are erroneous. Concerning his statement that I haye studied in nature only the (in most cases poorer) reverses, I may remark that his paper gives nothing more, after his study of the obverses ; even less for Gerephemera. These Devonian insects have been decidedly unfortunate from the very outset. Eminent paleontologists denied their Devonian origin, and put them to the Carboniferous or to the ‘‘ Ursa Stufe ’ of the sub-Carboniferous. One of the insects, Xenoneuraz antiqu- orum, said to possess a stridulating organ on the wing, caused an unusual sensation. Poetic paleontologists were delighted to be introduced by this insect to the sounds of the Devonian woods. Now these woods are silent again, except in some text-books. “©Tt does not appear reasonable,” said the author, “‘to maintain 34 NGL TORE [May 21, 1885 my former hypothesis of a stridulating organ.” acquainted with such organs will be of his opinion. Another insect, Homothetus fossilis, was said to have a small basal vein, considered to be homologous with the arculus of the Odonata, and therefore to form a connecting link between Neuroptera and Pseudoneuroptera. A new synthetic family, Homothetidz, was proposed. But now a re-examination of this wing convinces the author ‘“‘that he had been mistaken about this arculus.” It does not exist at all. The third insect, Platephemera antigua, was determined by me as the apical half of the wing of a gigantic dragon-fly. As this is the only species claimed now by the author to belong to the Ephemeridz, he defends vigorously his determination by four objections :—(1) ‘‘In no dragon-fly, living or fossil, is there found beyond the nodus between the mediana and margin, more than a simple longitudinal vein, the marginal vein.” If the author will examine any Odonate wing from 6.7ow, he will find such a vein, which is the prolongation of the subcosta, bent on the nodus to the marginal vein, and running close to it. Near the nodus it is more widely separated in larger species. (2) “ The reconstruction of the wing, after the dimensions given by Dr. Hagen, would, on the most favourable showing, make a wing of ridiculously extravagant appearance.” But such forms occur in living species of Tramea, Rhyothemis, &c.” (3) ‘‘The narrowing of the second cubital space is a common feature in Ephemeridz (six genera after the Rev. Mr. Eaton’s plates are quoted) ; and, as this varies in different species of the same genus, it seems to bea very unimportant matter.” I had purposely stated suddenly narrowing, and this does not exist at all in Ephemeridz, Everybody namely of in the six quoted genera, and cannot therefore vary in ’ the different species of the same genus. It exists in Odonata. (4) ‘‘ The sector subnodalis does not run unbroken to the tip, as in all dragon-flies I haye examined, but is lost in reticulation shortly before the margin.” This last-quoted character is a very common feature in dragon-flies (Tramea, Rhyothemis, &c.). Only very exceptionally this sector runs unbroken to the tip in the large sub-family of Aischnidx (cf De Selys’s ‘‘ Revue des Odonates d’Europe,” p. 122). As all objections have been proved ¢o be ¢ncorrect, and only based upon insufficient knowledge of the venation of Odonata and Ephemeride, Platephemera belongs by the simple evidence of facts to the Odonata. The new proposed family of Palephem- eridze dies unborn, and the conclusions made from Palephemera are without value. The fourth species, Gerephemera, gives much trouble to the author, and he is now inclined to bring it into the same group with the Protophasmida. As only a part about 4 mm. b oad can be said to exist in both figures (Brongniart and Scudder) which could be compared, and as this part contains only a few sectors running to the margin, the relationship of Protophasma to Gerephemera is not at all obvious. The reverse of Gere- phemera contains more than the author has seen. The basal part of a hind wing to the sector trigonali inferior, the basal part of a front wing with the same sector, and some veins belonging, probably, to another (front?) wing. The part figured and described by the author belongs, probably, to the other hind wing. No student of Odonata will be in doubt that Gerephemera belongs to this family, perhaps near Isophlebia. His statement ‘that the superior origin of the branches of the sector medius is entirely inconsistent with an Odonate hypothesis, and is the most salient point in the wing,” is directly recognised as an error by looking at the figures in De Selys’s ‘‘ Monograph Caloptery- gines” (cf Cleis, Vestalis, Neurobasis, &c.). This statement is only surpassed by the emphatic repetition ‘‘that the marginal would then be an elevated, and the mediastinal a depressed, vein, which combination ts never the case.” This statement is just the contrary to what exists in all Odonata—unless it is preferred to examine the wings from beneath. There exists still no monograph of the Sialidze ; therefore it is impossible to make conclusions and form new families for the other three Devonian species. The opinion on the Devonian insects given by Rey. A. E. Eaton (NATURE, vol. xxiil. p. 507) is still very just: ‘‘ Palacontologists have adopted a ridiculous course with regard to some insect fossils. Whenever an obscure fragment of a well-reticulated insect-wing is found in a rock, a genus is straightway set up, and the fossil named as a new species. The species is then referred to the Ephemerid, and is immediately pronounced to be a synthetic type of insects at present distantly related to one another in organisation. This enunciation of synthetic types is often nothing less than a resort at random conjecture respecting the affinities of animals which the writer is at loss to classify. I thought that the Ephem- eridz had served quite long enough as an asylum for fossil cripples. I wished to intimate gently, that refuse of other groups of insects should be henceforth shot elsewhere.” Cambridge, Mass., March 12 H. A. HAGEN High-Level Stations In NATURE, vol. xxxii. p. 17, I find the abstract of an address by Mr. Omond, on ‘‘ Ben Nevis.” There are many points of interest, but I regret that one was not mentioned—vyiz. the exceedingly rapid decrease of temperature with elevation from Fort William to the Ben, anything nearly approaching, in middle latitudes, being only found on the Brocken, and all high-level stations of the Alps showing a much smaller decrease. At the Brocken, as well as at the Ben, the great difference from the Alps is not in summer, but in the colder months of the year. The reason seems to lie in the nearly constant winds, which bring air from below, which is cooled by ascension. The cases of great dryness of the air with descending currents in anti-~ cyclones in the colder months of the year, when isolated moun- tains are often much warmer than the valleys,! are comparatively rare in the North of Scotland, but frequent in the Alps, and certainly must and do have a great influence on the mean tem- perature. Where they are frequent, as in the Alps—especially the eastern—the mean amount of decrease of temperature with elevation must be slower. I think all meteorologists will concur with me that the greatest points of interest in the Ben Nevis station is the study of the meteorological phenomena near the centres of cyclones, as no high-level station in the world is s» favourably situated as this for this study. A. WOEIKOF St. Petersburg, May 1 (13) Rainbow Phenomena Your correspondent Mr. C. Croft (NATURE, No. 811, p. 30) has noticed phenomena which are perfectly familiar to students of physical optics. The internal bands of colour within the primary bow are the ‘‘ supernumerary” bows due to diffraction. ‘They were described by Langwith in the PAzlosophical Trans- actions for 1722: a partial theory of them was given by Young in 1804, and a complete theory by Sir G. Airy in 1836. The illu- mination of the sky in the regions within the primary and with- out the secondary bows, and also the relative darkness of the space between the two bows, Mr. Croft will find the desired explanation in any elementary treatise on optics ; Osmund Airy’s Geometrical Optics may be cited as giving a good account of these matters. The particular bow seen by Mr. Croft appears to have been of unusual brilliancy ; did he notice any of the radial streaks, which I described in 1878 as frequently accom- panying rainbows ? S:LvaNnus P, THOMPSON Finsbury Technical College, May 16 Aurora Last night at about 10.30 to 10.35 p.m. there was a well- marked aurora visible from here. It did not last long, the bright bands fading rapidly into a general glow towards the north. The wind, which was easterly yesterday, has gone round to north-west to-day with tendency to rain and low temperature. J. P. O’Remiiy Royal College of Science for Ireland, Stephen’s Green, Dublin, May 14 Red Hail Mr, W. H. Mircuet, of Newry, has sent me the accom- panying note, which he thinks may be of interest to the readers of NATURE. C, EVANS Downshire Hill, Hampstead, N.W., May 18 On May 7, Mr. R. A. Mullan, solicitor, of Newry, was driy- ing in a gig near Castlewellan, co. Down, when he was over- taken by ashower of hail. To his surprise he observed that some of the hail-stones—perhaps one in a hundred—were of a t This is well explained in the ‘Handbuch der Climatologie” of T. Hann. See also my paper in the Zeztschr. 7 Meteorologie, 1883, pp. 211, 241. May 21, 1885] decided red colour, the rest being white, as usual. Taking up some that fell in the gig, Mr. Mullan found that the colour was not merely superficial, but pervaded the substance of the hail- stone, and, on melting, they stained the fingers. He did not think, or had not the means, of preserving any of the water resulting. Has the like been observed before? Spectral Images Mr. BIDWELL’S notice of spectral images (NATURE, vol. xxxiil. p. 30) calls to mind certain phenomena I witnessed while riding in a railway train in Kentucky last October. The fence of the railway consisted of posts of about 6 inches in diameter, and twenty paces apart, connected by wires. The posts had newly been painted green. I was seated on the right side of the carriage, face forwards; the speed fully twenty miles an hour, with the sun behind my right shoulder, when looking at the posts on the left side, brightly illuminated by the sun, I observed that each post had the appearance of a twin post imme- diately in advance of it—touching it—of a red colour. To make myself sure that I was not deceived by some abnormal affection, IT called the attention of a niece of mine to the phenomenon, and she saw it quite as well as I did. Another niece, however, failed to make it out. Iam under the belief that the red post was the complementary colour of the green one, appearing the instant after the latter had been seen, and though apparently in advance in space of the green pust, really was seen later in time. The fact of both being apparently seen simultaneously, is accounted for by the well-known law of retinal images lingering on vision. HENRY MUIRHEAD Cambuslang THE NEW OUTBURST OF LAVA FROM VESUVIUS Ry PESTERDAY, May 2, up to two o’clock, Vesuvius appeared to be in its natural state of activity, such as persisted with slight variations for some considerable time. At that hour the lava, which was at some height within the cone of eruption, forced a way out at its base, traversing the plain of old lava filling the crater of 1872, and producing a rent about one quarter the way down the great Vesuvian cone. This rent represents the exten- sion outwards of a volcanic dyke that has been in process of formation for over two years. A visitor during that period who walked around the southern rim of the 1872 crater, might have noticed a fissure varying from a few inches up to 2 feet wide, and extending inwards across the crater plain, until lost beneath the efectamenta of the cone of eruption. From this fissure issued a powerful current of hot air, and in part of its course an abundance of HCl. This latter was indicated by the continual de- composition of the scoria and ash in its immediate neighbourhood, so that a large patch of yellow dust filled with the unattached pyroxene crystals was a point of bright colour in the black scoria-covered lava-plain. The lava at first actually issued, or, more properly, welled up from this fissure, but its point of exit was soon lowered by the cutting down of the outer slope. The lava soon commenced to flow down the cone with considerable rapidity, forming two distinct parallel streams averaging fifty metres apart, so that in the evening the landscape was lit up by these two brilliant streaks of fire. This morning I started early, and ascended on foot to the eastern side of the two streams, though often incon- venienced by the hot wind and exhalations blown off the lava. The streams take origin close together, and no doubt conjoin, but are covered by scoria—a vast quantity of /apil/o and ash that has been slipped downwards and forward, forming a rough annular space which would require a drawing to explain. At the upper end of this we have part of the great cone slipped down, showing in section the dyke, which I may call hollow; we have a fissure which was filled by lava, and which consolidated and adhered to its sides, forming sadbam_, but before the central part solidified, the general level was lowered, and NATURE ay) it drained away, leaving the dyke divided in two by an empty space. At 2 p.m. to-day the streams of lava had the following dimensions at their exit :— Eastern Western Breadth about 14 metres About 24 metres Depth estimated at 1 metre : at 2 metres Rate of flow on both, about 1 metre per second. The output therefore equals for the eastern stream about 90 cubic metres per hour, or 2160 cubic metres in 24 hours, whilst that of the western stream represents 300 cubic metres per hour, or 7200 in 24 hours. The two streams, therefore, represent an otttput of 9360 cubic metres during the 24 hours, from May 2 to 3, at 2 p.m. This quantity would equal a deposit of rock of about 1 km. long, 9 m. broad, and 1 m. thick, which is rather an under-estimation of what now lies on the side of the mountain, for the two streams had at the hour of obser- vation traversed more than two-thirds of the fedzmenture. The amount of lava represents far more than what occupied the chimney above the level of the lateral open- ing, and the mechanism of the increased quantity ex- truded I have gone into fully ina paper read last week before the Geological Society. The cone of eruption only now gives forth vapour, its stone-throwing propen- sities being stopped by the lowering of the magma level. In consequence of the want of support of its inner walls by disappearance of the fluid column, these are rapidly crumbling in, and the craterial inner cavity much in- creased in size. In the same way a breach has been made in the line of the dyke by falling in of that part of loose materials immediately above it. This change in Vesuvius will no doubt be put down in history as an eruption, and possibly a relationship sought between contemporaneous earthquakes, or some other phenomena. It is nothing more nor less than the final giving way of part of the cone before a dyke that has been working its way out for years. I send you these few notes after a long day’s climb, exposed to great changes of temperature and mephitic vapours. I ask, therefore, that this will be taken as an excuse for these rough and ready notes, which I thought your readers would be interested to have quickly. Naples, May 3 H. J. JOHNSTON-LAVIS EXPERIMENTS WITH COAL-DUST AT NEUNKIRCHEN, IN GERMANY eS a former article on this subject which appeared in NATURE of Nov. 6 last (p. 12), I described the appa- ratus employed by the Prussian Firedamp Commission in making their experiments, and at the same time I gave an account of four experiments that were seen by Mr. Wm. Thomas Lewis and myself. No official account of these experiments had been pub- lished at that time, but quite recently Herr Hilt and Herr Margraf have made a joint report in the name of the Commission. As this report is intended to be only a preliminary one, it does not give the whole of the details of each experiment, but it shows as far as it goes that everything has been conceived and carried out in a spirit of liberality and thoroughness. At the outset Herr Hilt states that the uncertainty which seemed to surround this important question, and in particular the peculiar views that had been enunciated by MM. Mallard and Le Chatelier, who reported upon it to the French Commission du Grisou,! had induced him to address a letter on the subject, dated December 15, 1883, to the Prussian Wetter-Commission, urging them as a matter of duty to take it up and investigate it by a series of large-scale experiments. The French Commis- sioners, referred to, stated at the end of their report that “they considered it established that coal-dust in the absence of fire-damp does not constitute an element of * Annales des Mines, Janvier—Février, 1882. 56 NATURE | May 21, 1885 danger.” “It may, however, play an important part in aggravating the consequences of a firedamp explosion.” I had myself keenly felt how difficult it would be after a verdict of this kind, emanating from such high authorities, to make further progress in the work of convincing practical mining men of the truth of the views I, had previously advocated in the pages of the Royal Society’s Proceedings. Yor that reason, and in the absence of some powerful weapon wherewith to meet the French Com- missioners with some chance of success, I have hitherto desisted from doing battle with them, although I have been satisfied they were in error from the first. The required weapon has been provided by Herr Hilt, the spokesman of the Prussian Commission, and may now, I think, be made use of without much fear of future contradiction. Speaking of coal-dust from Pluto Mine, in Westphalia, Herr Hilt says, as the outcome of a long series of practical experiments on the largest scale yet attempted : “Es kann keinem Zweifel unterliegen dass mann mit dieser Staubsorte bei Verlangerung der Strecke und Streuung auch der Flamme eine beliebige Lange wurde- gebenkénnen. Ganz ahnlich erhalt sich der Staub von Neu Iserlohn.” Or: “There can be no doubt that with this kind of dust the flame could be lengthened out to any desired extent, provided the gallery and the layer of dust on its floor were made equally long.” “ The dust of ‘Neu Iserlohn behaves in exactly the same way.” ? After carefully examining the details of this report, I think it not improbable that many, if not most, of the other twenty-four kinds of coal-dust that were subjected to experiment would have given results similar to those which led to the foregoing remarks had they been em- ployed in the same state of minute subdivision. Ditfer- ences in chemical composition do not appear to haye as much effect in controlling the length of flame produced by a given dust under a certain set of conditions as the comparative fineness of the particles of which it is com- posed. In order to show the effect of fineness Herr Margraf has divided the dusts into five classes, as follows :— Length of Flame pro- duced by firing 230 grm. of powder in cannon next floor, the floor being strewn with coal-dust for a length of ro m. 21 to 31m. Designation Number of Dusts in each Class. _of Class. Five, beginning with Pluto Very fine Twelve, ending with Camp- | Fine Hie ST Se 3 to 21m. hausen ... .. Four Medium 12 to 15 m. Five Coarse .. 6to 12m. Some experiments were also made with dust passed through sieves having meshes of various widths, which showed that the finer the state of subdivision, the longer was the corresponding flame. From this it is obvious that before anything definite can be ascertained regarding the influence of chemical composition, it will be necessary to reduce the dusts to a uniform standard of fineness. Herr Margraf proposes to do this by passing them through a sieve with meshes I mm. wide. I am afraid, however, that some more exact method of effecting a separation of the very fine from the moder- ately fine particles will have to be resorted to before a satisfactory result can be looked for. A current of air ascending slowly at a uniform rate would be a better means than any conceivable kind of sieve. I have on several previous occasions pointed out that when a colliery explosion has been begun in a dry mine the coarser particles of coal-dust are winnowed from the finer ones by the blast of air which sweeps through the workings in advance of the flame. It seems to me that ‘It may be instructive to compare this conclusion with the second sentence of No. r paper, ‘‘On the Influence of Coal-dust in Colliery Explo- sions,” Proc. Roy. Soc., 1876; the second last sentence of No. 2 paper, 7dzd., 1879; the conclusion of No. 3 paper, zéid., 1881.—{Abstract). under these circumstances experiments made with any other than the finest particles of each kind of dust can serve no practicable purpose whatever, and that any general conclusions drawn from them must necessarily be misleading. It is further highly probable that this is the rock upon which the French Commission was ship- wrecked. They had ascertained by actual experiment that, as the coarser particles of any given dust were removed by sift- ing, the flame produced under the same set of conditions became longer and larger in proportion to the fineness of the remaining dust. Yet they failed to carry the argu- ment to its legitimate conclusion. They appear to have been misled either by too much speculation, or by the negative results of their experiments, due, it may be, to the smallness of the scale upon which they were made. They finally pronounced coal-dust to be an element of very secondary importance in colliery explosions, thereby allowing a splendid opportunity to slip from their grasp. The Prussian Commissioners were not slow to take advantage of the opening thus afforded them. Thanks partly to the large scale upon which they have set to work, | partly to the natural fineness of Pluto and New Iserlohn dust, they have been fortunate in obtaining a series of positive results which amply confirm those previously obtained with the somewhat smaller apparatus belonging to the Lords of Committee of Council on Education set up in this country under the auspices of the Royal Society (No. IV. paper, “ On the Influence of Coal-dust in Colliery Explosions,” Proc. Roy. Soc., 1881). The dust brought from Camphausen Colliery does not appear to stand very high on Herr Margraf’s list, and yet, since the publication of the memoir, that colliery has been devastated by one of the most violent explosions on record, in which it is admitted, I believe, that coal-dust, and not fire-damp, was the principal agent of destruction. Are we to conclude from this that the nine dusts which lie between Pluto and Camphausen in the order of relative danger are equally liable to produce a flame of indefinite length under like favourable conditions? and, if so, is | it not obvious that the experiments are not as reliable as might be wished, since they fail to tell us so ? Before concluding, I might mention that Herr Hilt refers to and agrees with a remark made by MM. Mallard and Le Chatelier to the effect that the method of experi- ment followed by Sir Frederick Abel and myself when using the apparatus described in my first paper was “too little exact ” to determine accurately what percentage of gas is required to render a mixture of coal-dust and air inflammable. My earliest experiments here referred to were made with the view of finding, if possible, some rational explanation of great colliery explosions which up to that time appear to have baffled every attempt to grapple with them, and were not intended to form a kind of counterpart on the large scale of the exact eudiometric processes resorted to in the laboratory. At the same time I may state, however, that, so far as I have been able to ascertain by reading and observation, the methods then employed will compare not unfavourably, as regards exactness, with any that have succeeded them, not ex- cluding those of the Prussian Wetter-Commission. W. GALLOWAY THE FAUNA OF RUSSIAN CENTRAL ASIA Ui NTIL within the last thirty years Turkistan has been unknown to science, and what is now ascertained concerning its fauna and flora is for the most part inac- cessible to the scientific world because written in Russian. Not that autoptic writers of eminence upon the zoology of the country are numerous. They do not number a dozen, the names most conspicuous being Prjevalsky, Alpheraky, Bogdanoff, Severtsoff, and especially Fedchenko. _Prje- valsky’s routes do not touch mine, except in the Kuldja May 21, 1885} region, where also Alpheraky travelled, and collected Lepidoptera, with a list of which he has favoured me. To Bogdanoff and Severtsoff I am indebted for information not previously published in English, whilst in connection with the immense work that bears Fedchenko’s name I have had the valuable help of Madame Olga Fedchenko, who both accompanied her husband on his scientific journeys and, after his lamented death, edited his works. When I add that I have before me proofs of between three and four thousand species of fauna and flora, in about twenty lists with introductions, the scientific reader will not need to be told that in the compass of a single article I can but touch the fringe of the subject. I have ventured to think, however, the readers of NATURE might be interested in a plain statement that would give some idea of the little-known fauna of Turkistan, as well as indicate what I hope to publish shortly in fuller form. The part of Russian Central Asia through which I recently travelled, and with which this paper will be mainly concerned, lies between the Oxus and Irtish Rivers, and between the 38th and Soth parallels of north latitude, which region comprises vertically all altitudes from the salt plains, 600 feet above the sea, to the moun- tain plateaus of the Pamir, 15,000 feet high. The species of mammals in Turkistan exceed 80 in number. Among them may be mentioned 7 species of bats, the long-eared hedgehog, and the white-clawed bear. To these must be added the badger, otter, and other Mustelide, including three species of marten. Of the last I was able to secure some skins and skeletons, which are now in the British Museum. The wolf abounds ; also a wild dog ; 3 species of fox ; the tiger, snow-leopard, cheetah, and other cats. The salt-plains are frequented by the souslik, and many other rodents, including the hairy-nosed porcupine. To these should be added the Persian gazelle, the Saiga antilope, the Siberian ibex, and the Maral stag. I saw at Kuldja and Tashkend speci- mens of the skull and horns of the Thian Shan sheep, which is bigger than a donkey. The horn is more than four times the length of the skull, and the head complete weighs upwards of 7olbs. The yak is kept by the Kara- Kirghese. The Russians, too, as an experiment, have introduced some cross-breeds into the plains. The birds of Turkistan number nearly 400 species, to which may be added 27 frequenting the Pamir. The diurnal birds of prey, such as vultures, eagles, hawks, &c., number 36 species, some of which the Kirghese train for hunting. Of nocturnal birds of prey there are 9 species of owls. There are thirteen species of crows, and no less than 40 of the finch family, including a new species of sparrow. The thrush family is represented by the blackbird, black-throated, misletoe, and some other thrushes. There are more than 4o of the warbler family, many of them being known in Western Europe, such as the greater nightingale, the bluethroat, redstart, redbreast, and others. Six species of the titmouse family are found in Turkistan, only one of which, however, the well-known oxeye, is common also to England. Two species of dip- per are found throughout the country, and other small birds are the Nepalese and European wrens, the Syrian nuthatch, and no less than to forms of wag-tails. Of pipits there are 7 species, and 14 of larks. The hoopoe I saw when coming south from Sergiopol, and again in the streets of Vierny. Other Turkistan birds are the bee-eaters, the three-toed woodpecker, the ubiquitous cuckoo, and the wonderful Pallas’s sand-grouse, which last, some twenty years ago, invaded Europe in such an astonishing way. Among gallinaceous or game birds are found in Turkistan the black grouse, the capercailie, four species of partridge, the quail, Mongolian pheasant, pea-fowl, and common cock. Of the swan, goose, and duck tribes there are nearly 30 species. Wading-birds, again, are found in great variety, and among them a NALURE 57 red-billed curlew, thought at first to be a new species. It has red legs, and a remarkably long red beak, bent at the end, and well adapted for picking up worms from between the pebbles of the beds of the mountain streams it frequents. Reptiles are represented in Turkistan by 33 species of lizards, vipers, and tortoises. Of the last I tried to bring for the Zoological Gardens a species (Homopus horsfieldi), and it travelled asleep with me some hundreds of miles from Tashkend, but on approaching Odessa it was found to be the sleep of death. Almost all the serpents are non-venomous. Of amphibians there are five *species, including the edible frog and green toad. The fishes of Turkistan are composed half of European and half of Asiatic forms. The European forms belong principally to the lower course of the Syr-daria, Amu- daria, and part of the Zarafshan, whilst certain genera belong exclusively, so far as is known, to the high moun- tainous countries of Central Asia. The total number of Turkistan species probably exceeds fifty. Of these twenty- five at least belong to the carp family, and there are taken besides sturgeon, trout, pike, barbels, gudgeon, rudd, roach, bleak, bream, loaches, and perch. The fishes of the Zarafshan are particularly noticeable. Of fifteen species found therein not less than five belong to genera met with in numbers in Kabul, Kashmir, Nepal, and the Himalayas. To one of these genera belongs the JZas7znka, remarkable for its poisonous eggs. The greatest find, however, among the ichthyological fauna of Turkistan has been the Scaphirhynchus, of great importance, not only from a zoological, but also a biological point of view, on account of the extreme smallness of its eyes and the rudi- mentary condition of its air-bladder. This fish, and certain geological questions connected therewith, was referred to in NATURE in connection with a letter on the Oxus that appeared in the 7z7zes on January 7 last. If for Mollusca we enlarge our area to take in Kashgar and Ladak, then we have in “ Central Asia” thus formed 93 species known up to the present time, the land snails being scarce in the desert plains as compared with the larger number and more peculiar forms in the mountain regions. Among the fresh-water Mollusca the predomi- nant feature is the large number of air-breathing species which live in stagnant water, and the almost total absence of the genera living in running water. It has been sug- gested that this scarcity may be due, as in Switzerland, to the low temperature and stony bed of the rivers. Among the 50 species of Crustacea known in Turkistan there was not discovered for a long time a crayfish ; but Madame Fedchenko informs me that one of a variety new to the species hitherto known in Russia has been recently found. Among the Crustacea inhabiting the fresh waters of Russian Central Asia a very large number of West European species is found, and the new species are, in the majority of instances, very similar to the commonest in Central and Southern Europe. Of the 16 families to which European spiders are said to belong, all, except two groups very limited in number, have their representatives in Turkistan. The 146 species known there belong to 55 genera, which constitute ap- proximately one-half of the total of European genera. Che Zurantule are remarkable in that there are found in the Zarafshan Valley forms which in Europe are met with in countries far apart from each other, and have been reckoned as different species. The most widely dis- tributed form is that with the lower part of the abdomen quite black; next comes the form with coloured edges ; and, finally, that with the lower part almost entirely orange. The scorpions of Turkistan are identical with those met with in Trans-Caucasia, and the distribution of one species (So/puga zntrepida) is remarkable. — First found in Spain, it was seen later on the Indersk Moun- tains, then in the Zarafshan Valley, besides which speci- mens of this harvestman have been found in Vierny. 58 The animal is reckoned poisonous, and its bite has in certain cases been followed by death, although nothing is yet known of its poison-apparatus. The species of Turkistan beetles are estimated at 1000. I have before me a list of 500, some of them as yet un- published. Amongst the most remarkable is the Copr7s tumulus, the largest specimen measuring one inch and three-quarters long. The hymenopterous fauna of Turkistan is not yet fully worked out, but I may observe that of Afe//ifera there are known 438 species, and of SAhegid@ upwards of 150. As regards the latter, the valleys of Ferghana and the Zarafshan do not present many specialities. On the other hand, the Kizil Kum desert abounds in new species and even genera, sharply distinguished from known spe- cies both in the form of the body and in the beauty and size of the individuals. There is, moreover, a remarkable similarity between the species belonging to the Kizil Kum and the Egyptian sands. Of Scoliid@ 30 species are known, whilst of A/z¢z//id@ 18 species have been treated by Gen. Radoszkoysky, who informs me that Gen. Komaroff, now military governor of the Trans-Caspian district, has quite recently made scientific explorations between As- khabad and Merv, and that among the insects collected by him about Askhabad are six speces of Wutillide, four of which are marked as new, and one as a new genus. Of 36 species of ants collected in Turkistan, 7 only were new. The Formicide of the region seem to be very similar to those of South Europe. This is not astonishing, since the mean temperature of a Turkistan summer differs little from the mean summer heat in Southern Europe, and this case only proves once more that, in general, countries with summers alike have greater similarity with regard to fauna and flora than countries lying under identical isotherms with different summers, This peculiarity is evident with regard to Formicide, because, for example, in Italy and Turkistan they have an identical summer ; and though the winter in Turkistan is long and cold, it does not appear to have much influence over the ants, which are protected there- from. European species which live in trees and woods appear to be in most cases absent from Turkistan. Of the new Turkistan species one Jschnomyrmex rhaphidii- ceps) is specially interesting, as closely allied to two species inhabiting countries between the tropical and sub- tropical zones of the southern hemisphere. It is remark- able, therefore, to meet with a species of the same genus in the temperate zone of the northern hemisphere, and it may be presumed that these last have existed in Turkistan since the Tertiary period. I have yet to mention Chrys?- diformes, of which 53 species have been found in Turkistan, and among them 2 new genera and 15 new species. Before passing from hymenopterous insects I may mention that, though saw-flies are not numerous in the Zarafshan Valley, yet there is one form particularly re- markable, for, with a normal male, related to the group Selandrid@ is a female without traces of wings. Affected by this absence of wings, the thorax undergoes important changes, and appears greatly swollen, and all the females generally have the appearance of little bags. Its relation to this family is said to be astounding, since it is the only example of the wingless form in the whole family of saw- flies. All the other specialities of structure, however, as well as the wings of the male, confirm it. One of the first lists made of the butterflies and moths of Turkistan enumerated 367 species, of which 122 species were of Microlepidoptera. The great majority (284) were caught in the oases and hilly districts between 750 and 4500 feet above the sea; 41 species also were taken on mountains up to 8000 feet high, and 28 species from 8000 to 13,000 feet. Mr. Alpheraky, of Taganrog, has furnished me with a list in manuscript of 377 species of Lepidoptera collected by him in 1879 jn the district of Kuldja and the NATURE [May 21, 1885 surrounding mountains ; but even these two lists together, I am told, give only an incomplete enumeration of the Lepidoptera of Turkistan, which contains a large number of new forms. As we travelled from Tashkend to Khojend dragon-flies were so numerous that we caught several specimens by ex- tending a butterfly-net from our carriage. The neuroptero- logical fauna, however, of Turkistan is only partially known. Mr. MacLachlan has treated upwards of 60 species, most of them European in character, and many of them belonging even to Western Europe, whilst there is also an unimportant mixture of the Indian element. There is a mingling again of the Indian element in the orthopterous fauna of Turkistan, but the Indian species are much fewer than the European. This fauna is par- ticularly like that of South Russia, and it contains a large number of West European species. The non-European species are from South Asia, among which are a few from more distant countries, particularly from Africa. The total number of species known in Turkistan exceeds 70. Among them should be mentioned two locusts, and a third called locally Prws. Ravages of the former have been complained of in the neighbourhcod of Perovsk and of the “ Prws” in the Zarafshan Valley. Of Hemiptera I have no list of species, but I saw a fine collection at Tashkend, made by Mr. Oshanin. I come, lastly, to Ces¢odes, or intestinal worms. Of 47 species known in Turkistan, 2 are found in man, 3 each in the dog and sheep, 2 each in the cat and goat, and 1 each in the horse, ox, and marmot ; 30 are found in birds, 2 in reptiles, and 1 in fishes. Of all the Vermes the most interesting is what the Bokhariots call the Azsh¢a (Filaria medinensis). The parasite is found at Bokhara and certain adjacent towns in the water of stagnant pools, which the natives drink, and suffer in consequence from the 7/sh/a disease. The worm develops under the skin, lengthening at the rate of about an inch in a week, until an abscess is formed, through which the head (as is said) of the parasite appears. The problem, then, is to extract the animal entire. Native specialists insert a needle, and one end is drawn out by the fingers of the right hand, whilst those of the left press the adjacent part. Russian medical men wind off the animal on a reel, so much as comes out daily without force, till the whole, commonly three feet in length, is extracted. If, however, the worm should break, thousands of fresh germs are liberated from the broken part, and the illness continues for several months. I met with an unsuccessful case at Samarkand, and was given by the doctor some pieces of the 7zs/Za, which I brought in spirits to London. The appearance of the worm is of a milk-white colour, resembling cooked vermicelli, and it can be stretched like a piece of elastic. The investigations of Prof. Fedchenko brought to light some very interesting facts concerning the vishta, the first of which was that the germs of the parasite cannot live in very fresh water, which is in keeping with the fact that the parasite appears only in those places where the people are forced to use standing water. The vishta is the last of the Turkistan fauna that I can men- tion here, but I hope within a few weeks to publish fuller particulars, through Messrs. Sampson Low and Co., ina new work entitled “Russian Central Asia, including Kuldja, Bokhara, Khiva, and Merv, with Appendices on the Fauna, Flora, and Bibliography of Russian Turkistan.” HENRY LANSDELL FIELD EXPERIMENTS AT ROTHAMSTED? ar HE above Report, forwarded to us, bears the name of no publisher, and is not priced. It therefore may be taken as a private issue, copies of which can only be + «Memoranda of the Field Experiments conducted on the Farm and in the Laboratory of Sir John Bennett Lawes, Bart., at Rothamsted, Herts., June, 1884.” OV ——— ; = May 21, 1885] NALGRE 59 had by application to Sir John Lawes at Rothamsted Park, St. Albans. The task of reviewing matter of so condensed a charac- ter as this is by no meanseasy. Eversince 1840, Sir John Lawes has carried out field and stall experiments on a scale well worthy of a national enterprise. Elaborate papers by this most enterprising of experimentalists, and his equally well-known coadjutor, Dr. T. H. Gilbert, have poured forth from Rothamsted during the entire memory of the present generation. During the last twenty-five years the scientific staff presided over by Dr. Gilbert has consisted of two, and sometimes three, chemists, and as many competent assistants, a botanical assistant, two to four computors and record-keepers, besides laboratory men. From 1847 to 1884 ninety-six memoirs have been contributed upon subjects bearing upon the soil, the plant, the atmosphere, drainage water, and rainfall, utilisation of sewage, animal nutrition, feeding-materials, manures, the occurrence of fairy rings in pastures, &c., &c. There is, in fact, scarcely a topic of agricultural or pastoral life which has not been investigated at this great English Agricultural station, and that through the enter- prise of one man. The Memoranda commence with a summary of rain- fall and drainage extending backwards to 1851. Not only is the local rainfall given for each month over a period of nineteen years, but also the amount percolated through gauges of 20, 40, and 60 inches in depth of soil, the amount evaporated, and the amount retained by capillary attraction in the soil. Thus, as a general sum- mary of the total rainfall, we find 45°3 per cent. percolated through 20 inches depth of soil, 47°4 per cent. through 4o inches of soil, 41°9 per cent. through 60 inches of soil, as indicated by rain- or drain-gauge, while the remainder is accounted for by evaporation or retention in the inter- stices of the soil. The averages obtained by unremitting observation from 1851 to 1870 are used in comparison with subsequent years, as in the case of the last completed record from September, 1882, to August, 1833. Thethree last columns of the tables given are devoted to the nitro- gen removed in solution by percolation of drainage-water calculated in pounds per acre, by which we see that, at the depths above-mentioned, from 36 to 44 lbs. of nitrogen per acre are annually carried down from the upper layers of the soil to a depth of 5 feet and more. One of the most attractive series of experiments, ex- tending now over a period of thirty years, is that carried out upon permanent grass-land in the Park at Rothamsted. Space forbids more than a most cursory sketch of these experiments. Like all the Rothamsted investigations, the first aimis practical and comparative. The questions asked are as follows:—What is the effect of various applications to grass land? Which gives the largest return? What is the effect upon the herbage of con- tinuous and of varied treatment? What is the effect upon the soil of long-continued privation and of long- continued /eedz7g with simple and combined dressings ? The investigation is at once chemical, physical, and botanical, and the change wrought in the character of the herbage of various contiguous plots of natural pasture, as well as upon the soil to a great depth, is most remarkable. Perhaps the chief interest in the experiments upon crop cultivation will still centre around wheat. Broad- balk field, on the Rothamsted estate, is unique, so far as treatment and cropping goes. In 1839 this field carried a crop of turnips, manured with farm-yard dung; in 1840 it was barley; in 1841, peas; in 1842, wheat; in 1843, oats ; all the fourlast crops being unmanured. The field was, therefore, according to all farming rules, in an exhausted state when the first experimental crop of wheat occupied it in 1844. Every year since 1843 has this field carried wheat, and, with some exceptions, nearly the same description of manure has been applied to each plot. In this field the visitor, during the present summer, will see the forty-second wheat-crop growing without manure of any description upon the unmanured portion of the field, still keeping up a wonderfully uniform yield of about thirteen bushels per acre—or about the average yield of wheat-lands in the United States of America. This is a striking fact for those who fear the eventual exhaustion of our soils, Equally startling is the result from the con- tinued use of nitrate of soda year after year. This ferti- liser is looked upon by many landlords and agents with suspicion as a stimulator and exhauster of the soil ; and yet after forty-one years application of nitrate of soda, and nothing else, we have the astounding result of an average of 234 bushels per acre, or double the yield of the unmanured plot. And, although it is true that the yield of the unmanured and nitrate of soda plots is less upon an average from 1868 to 1883 than it was from 1852 to 1867, yet it is equally true of the plot manured with 14 tons of farmyard manure annually; and this fall- ing off is therefore probably due to a succession of bad seasons, more than to any actual exhaustion of the soil. Another striking fact brought out in these experiments is the excellent results achieved by applica- tions of artificial fertilisers as contrasted with those ob- tained from farm-yard manure. In the latter case, where 14 tons of dung have been annually applied to the wheat- plot for forty years in succession, the very satisfactory yield of 33% bushels per acre has been obtained over the entire period. When, however, a well-compounded mix- ture of artificial fertilisers has been applied, a larger yield has been obtained. _ For example, 200 lbs. of sulphate of potash, 100 Ibs. of sulphate of soda, 100 lbs. of sulphate of magnesia, 34 cwts. of superphosphate, and 600 lbs, of ammonia salts, have given upon an average over the same long period 36 bushels per acre year by year. We must not draw these remarks to a conclusion without at least noting the interesting experiments upon barley, the lezuminous crops, clover sickness, root crops, and potatoes. The memoranda close with a synopsis of a series of experiments upon rotations of crops commenced in 1848 in order to test the effect of growing crops in ro- tation, instead of continuously, and so to arrive at pre- cise results when a system of mixed farming is pursued with and without manures, and in conjunction with sheep farming. JOHN WRIGHTSON RECENT EXPLORATIONS OF THE PAMIR a8 third fasciculus of the /zvestéa of the Russian Geographical Society contains three very interesting papers, by D. L. Ivanoff, on the Pamir, being the results of the expedition of MM. Ivanoff, Putyata, and Ben- dersky, already mentioned in NATURE. The first of these papers deals with the journeys of the members of the expedition ; the second contains the author's views on the orography of the Pamir; and the third gives a de- scription of the flora, fauna, and inhabitants of this “ Roof of the World.” Leaving aside the purely geographical part (M. Ivanoff’s papers should be translated into English), I shall sum up the most important orographical results arrived at by the author, as also his observations on the natural history of the Pamir. As to its limits, so variously determined by geographers, M. Ivanoff places them—rightly in my opinion—as follows :—The Alay Mountains in the north, the Hindu- kush in the south, and the Kashgar Mountains in the east. «As to its western limits, the following remarks ought to be made :—The whole of the highlands on the upper Amu-daria must be divided into two parts—the Eastern Pamir and the Western. The Eastern Pamir is a very high plateau, intersected by numerous valleys, rivers, and lakes, with an average height above the sea-level of 12,000 feet (from 10,000 to 14,000). These valleys are either separated by chains of mountains 60 NATURE [May 21, 1885 or by low swellings which mostly reach only from 1100 to 1500 feet above the level of the surrounding valleys, and very seldom 3000 feet. The slope of these swellings above the valleys is so gentle that water-sheds only 1100 to 1500 feet high are often twenty to fifty miles distant from their foot. These high valleys strictly correspond to what the in- habitants call “ Pamir.” “ Pamir” signifies, in fact, “a flat roof,” and when the inhabitants want to describe it in more detail, they add: “broad valleys between low mountains, so high, however, that nothing but grass may grow on them; where there is nothing,” they say, “and the earth is like the palm of the hand, that is the Pamir.” So they describe what a geographer would call a High Plateau. This plateau has, on_ the whole, the shape of a great horse-shoe, in the middle of which are situated the mountains of the Murghab and Alichur. This does not imply, however, that there are absolutely no mountain-ridges on the plateau ; no ange- haufte Gebirge, as Karl Ritter would say. The Pamir chain of mountains which runs east-north-east between the Pamir and the Alichur rivers in the south belongs to this category. It rises above the Great Lake as a stone wall 3500 to 5000 feet high; but it has its foot in the 10,000-feet-high valleys which surround the lake, and belongs to the category of the angehaufte Gebirge. Several other lower chains, such as the Alay, Trans-Alay, Riang-kul, Murghab, Alichur, and Vakhan, run in the same direction over the surface of the great plateau, and have the same character. As to the Western Pamir, which might be described as the mountainous Pamir, it has quite another character. The whole of the plateau sinks towards the west, but, at the same time, numerous chains of mountains make their appearance. We have there, according to Ritter’s classi- fication, an Alpine country. The rivers, which flow lazily in the east, become rapid, their valleys narrow; crags, rocks, and hills confine them; the routes become diffi- cult, and the mountain-passes very rare. The rich prairies of the east disappear also, giving place to forests, and, lower down, to agriculture, which rises as high as 8000 feet in the north and 10,000 feet in the south. Even the inhabited valleys are mere mountain-gorges. It is obvious that, under such conditions, the real western limits of the Pamir cannot be determined with exactitude; and we consider M. Ivanoff very near the truth when he says that the Western Pamir merges into the Alpine highlands of the Darwaz, Shugnan, and Badakshan. The limits are thus far more undefined in the west than in the north and east. The author considers, thus, that the Shugnan and Darwaz ought not to be included in the Pamir proper ; they might be considered rather as a highland which has risenat theintersection of the eastern with thenorth-western ones of the Hindu-kush (as border ridges?). The Pamir would thus appear as a mighty plateau about 170 miles long, 200 miles wide in the meridional direction, and covering nearly 34,000 square miles. As to the much-spoken-of meridional upheaval of the Bolor, M. Ivanoff points out that there are absolutely no traces of upheavals having a direction either from north to south, or even towards north-north-west or north- north-east. On the contrary, all his observations on the stratification of rocks—and they are numerous—show that the stratification follows the direction either of east- north-east (that of the whole Central Asian plateaux), or north-west, that is, that of the Hindu-kush. The same is true with regard to longitudinal valleys, which always follow a direction towards north-north-east. As to the Kashgar Mountains, still unexplored, they seem to repre- sent a repetition of shorter chains running towards north- west, and arranged in éche/on. If this opinion of M. Ivanoff is confirmed—and it most probably will be, as it pretty well corresponds with the broad lines of the structure of the Central Asian plateaux, as also with what is already known as to their structure—we shall have definitely to re- nounce seeking for meridional chains in this part of Asia. We have already been brought to renounce them in North-Eastern Asia, where I believe I have proved that neither the Great Khingan nor the Kuznetzki Alatau, nor even the Sikhota-alin, have this direction. On the contrary, we will perceive that the Pamir is only the highest terrace of a series of plateaux extending throughout the central parts of Asia in a north-eastern direction from the source of the Amu to Behring Strait. But let us return to M. Ivanoff’s papers, and to his observations on the flora and fauna of the Pamir. The high valley of the Alay already belongs to the Roof of the World. It is covered with rich prairies, the chief elements of which are Graminez. Nearer to water you find a thick growth of Carex physodes, which has given its name, Rzazg, to so many parts of the Pamir high- lands. Numerous species of Papilionaceze, many of them relations of the flowers of our European meadows, give a pleasant aspect to the steppes of the Alay in June. The same character—a mixture of the vegetation of the steppes with that of cold climates and highlands—is found also on the Eastern Pamir as you advance further south. But itis sufficient to descend into the valleys of the west to find immediately a far richer flora and, very soon, corn-fields. The animals inhabiting the Pamir are also a mixture of those of the steppes with those of Alpine regions. The tame yak (Bos indicus) is met with the well-known “arkhars.” Although their horns are scattered in great numbers on the Pamir, they are far from disappearing, and M. Ivanoff has seen numerous herds of from 100 to 150, and considers that they ought to be counted by thousands in the neighbourhood of the Great Lake. In the mountains the “kiiks” (Capra, probably szézrzca) are numerous, but very difficult to approach ; the brown bear is common, and M. lvanoff’s men killed four of them. The wolf of the steppes unavoidably accom- panies the herds of arkhars. The yellow marmots (Arvicola caudatus) are very numerous ; the steppes of the Pamir are their true dwelling-places, and the expedition has met also with great numbers of small Siberian hare, which is common on the Issyk-kul. The Indian goose, the Syrrhaptes of the high steppes, the Megaloperdix tibetana in the rocky hills, and the Perdix chukar—this last met with only once at a height of 14,000 feet—are especially worthy of notice. As to the climate of Pamir, it is, of course, very severe. The winter reigns in full for seven months. As to frosts, there is hardly one single month without them, and even on July and August nights the expedition experi- enced frosts of 6° below zero. There are places on the Pamir where snow rarely reaches a great depth, but, its distribution depending mostly upon the prevailing winds, there are places where it falls in thick layers. As to the rivers, even the Murghab freezes for some time. The true inhabitants of the Pamir are the Kirghizes, namely, the Kara Kirghizes, who belong to four different stems—Teit, Gadyrsha, Nayman, and Kiptchak. The chief settlements are situated in the valleys of the Northern and Southern Ghezia, about the Riang-kul, on the Ak-baital, the Ak-su, the Alichur, and in the basin of the Kokui-bela. They are found also on the Upper Tagarma. These Kirghizes are very much like those of the Alay, but a special feature of them—very rare, on the whole, with the Mongolian race—is that they continually suffer from tooth-ache; perhaps it depends upon the climate; at any rate, common disease—an inflamma- tion of the eyes—obviously depends upon the clouds of salt dust raised on the Pamir by the western winds. They spend the winter, at a height of 11,000 to 12,000 feet, in the same tattered Azbitkas, that they in- habit in the summer, and know nothing of the warm dwellings erected for the winter by the Alay Kirghizes. © pe ete eh) Oe de Oe CE May 21, 1885 | NATURE 61 In the summer they ascend to the hilly tracts, reaching about 14,000 feet, in order to save their cattle from the mosquitoes. Though living chiefly on milk produce, they still are dependent upon the inhabited countries of the west, for they are accustomed to the use of bread. The other race inhabiting, if not the Pamir itself, then its outskirts, are the Tadjiks. In the high valleys of the Shugnan, the Roshan, the Darwaz, and the Karategin, they occupy the narrowest gorges of the mountains, try- ing to escape there from the persecutions of their khans, who are themselves vassals to the neighbouring larger states like Bokhara, Kokan, or China. Being Shiites, they are still more persecuted by their Sunnite rulers. Their dwellings are miserable hovels built of rough stones. Broad wooden platforms, under which fowls and young goats are kept, are divided into numerous compart- ments, which might be called rooms, each of them having its special destination as a kitchen or as a room for weaving, and so on. Notwithstanding the surrounding poverty, one feels comfortable in their poor hovels, the walls of which are decorated with numerous clay pil- lars, niches, and a variety of paintings very artistically made by the women, who have found the means of fabricating even boxes from clay mixed with husk. The pottery, all made by women without instrumental aid, is striking in the artistic feeling infused into its fabrication. Their fields are not less striking by the in- credible labour which has been spent in clearing them from millions of stones. There are “fields” not larger than a common-sized table, cleared with effort, or arti- ficially made by the side of a mountain stream. They keep some cattle, and, during the summer, mount with it to higher tracts. The Pamir is visited by many savda- gars, or traders, from Kashgar, Badakshan, or Ferghana, who supply the Kirghizes and Tadjiks, at very high prices, with manufactured produce, receiving in exchange their own produce. M. Ivanoff remarks that the small preliminary map published in the /zves¢éa, to illustrate the explorations of his expedition, is still incomplete, and does not quite correctly represent the results of his investigations. The larger completed map will therefore be welcomed when it appears. Beaks NOTES A MEETING of the General Committee of the Darwin Memorial Fund was held last week at the rooms of the Royal Society, Prof. Huxley, President, in the chair, when it was stated by the treasurer, Dr. Evans, that, after payment for the statue and other expenses, a balance of about 2200/. would remain. The following resolutions were then passed :—‘‘ That the statue of Darwin be made over to the Trustees of the British Museum in trust for the nation.” ‘‘ That the balance of the fund, after payment for the statue and medallion and incidental expenses, be transferred, under the name of the ‘ Darwin Fund,’ to the President, Council, and Fellows of the Royal Society in trust to invest the same in or upon any stocks, funds, or securities authorised by law as investments for trust moneys.” ‘‘ That the President and Council of the Royal Society apply from time to time the dividends and interest of such investments in such a manner as shall to them appear best calculated to promote bio- logical studies and research.” ‘‘ That a list of subscribers and a statement of the accounts be printed and circulated, tozether with the resolutions now passed, and that a woodcut or some other representation of the statue accompany the statement.” The statue, by Mr. Boehm, R.A., has been placed in the great hall of the British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell Road, and arrangements for its unveiling will be made shortly. THE vacancy created by Prof. Bayley Balfour’s retirement from the Regius Chair of Botany in the University of Glasgow, which we announced some time back (NATURE, March 12, Pp. 441), has been filled by the appointment of Mr. F. O. Bower, F.L.S., Lecturer on Botany in the Normal School of Science, South Kensington. Both as a teacher and by his important researches in the morphology of Gymnosperms and the Vascular Cryptogams, Mr. Bower has rapidly assumed a leading position amongst the younger generation of botanists, and the loss of his services to the Normal School is much to be regretted. Mr. Bower is an M.A. of Trinity College, Cambridge. THE Goldsmiths’ Company has contributed one hundred pounds towards the fund which is being raised for the family of the late Henry Watts, to which we have already drawa attention in these columns. THE Court of Assistants of the Fishmongers’ Company has unanimously resolved that a grant of 2000/7. be made to the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom—roool. to be paid this year, and the remainder in annual sums of 200/. during the next five years. rll THE subject of Mr. Romanes’s Rede Lecture on June 2 wil be ‘‘ Mind and Motion.” THE subject of Prof. W. G. Adams’s British Association address will be ‘“‘ The Electric Light and Atmospheric Ab- sorption.” AT a meeting of the directors of the Ben Nevis Observatory held on Thursday last week, it was agreed to add a printing press to the establishment, for printing each day the hourly observations, with a view to their distribution among the more distinguished meteorologists and prominent meteorological insti- tutions in different parts of the world. THE verdict of the jury who considered the case of the Usworth Colliery explosion, whereby forty men and boys were killed early in the present year, is important as marking what appears to be the commencement of a new era in the history of these phenomena. It is probably the first expression of opinion from a public body of this class to the effect that coal-dust and a small percentage of fire-damp can play the part that has hitherto been usually ascribed to fire-damp alone. They found that the explosion was caused by a shot, the fire of which acted upon “ the coal-dust and a small percentage of gas.” The convenient and time-worn ‘‘ outburst of gas” theory, which consigned the helpless miner to the vicissitudes of chance, and exonerated colliery owners and their agents from all responsibility, seems on the point of giving way before its rival the coal-dust theory, which points out an easy means of preventing great explosions of this kind. The latter theory has doubtless a hard battle still to fight against prejudice and ignorance, but it has all the advantages of youth and vigour on its side, and is supported by a number of facts which appear to be incontrovertible. Tue Russian Geographical Society has just issued a pro- gramme of climatological and phenological observations, which, it is to be hoped, will be adopted by numerous observers. The number of plants and animals enumerated is smaller than in most similar programmes, it being the aim of the Society to make the task of the obse-vers as easy as possible. A new feature of this programme are observations on the condition of the snow covering the ground, the time of its appearance and thawing, the rise of water in the rivers at the melting of the snow, c. M. Fave has been continued on the roll of teachers of the Paris Polytechnic School, in spite of his having passed the time of incapacitation by old age. The exception has been grounded by the Minister of War on the plea of continued services rendered to science. A banquet has been given to the worthy astronomer by his admirers on this occasion. 62 NAL ORE [May 21, 1885 THE Sanitary Congress opened yesterday at Rome. In the Spanish Congress on Monday, Sefor Castelar called attention to Dr. Ferran’s experiments in inoculation against cholera, and asked the Minister of the Interior to give a subvention to enable Dr. Ferran to continue his ex- periments on a larger scale. The Minister, in reply, said he was unable to do so at present, but as soon as it lay in his power he would grant a sufficient sum, although, in his opinion, Dr, Ferran’s experiments had not yet reached a sufficient degree of certainty to prove a complete success. He added that a com- mission of medical men would be appointed to visit Valencia and other towns in order to study the experiments that are being made. In reference to this subject Dr. Cameron, M.P., writes to the Standard that the Under-Secretary for Foreign Affairs has promised to instruct the British Minister at Madrid to send home translations of any reports bearing on the system of inocu- lation with cholera virus attenuated by artificial cultivation, as a protection against Asiatic cholera, discovered by Dr. Ferran, of Valencia. This having come to the notice of Dr. Ferran, that gentleman has sent Dr. Cameron a telegram giving the results up to date of a great test experiment which is at present being conducted by him, under the eyes of scientific commissioners at Alcira, a town near Valencia, where an epidemic of cholera is raging. According to Dr. Ferran’s tele- gram the population of Alcira is 16,000, and since the first of the present month 5432 of its inhabitants have been inoculated with his protective virus. That would leave the number of those not inoculated about 10,500; or, accepting 16,coo as an exact figure, precisely 10,568. Of the 10,500 persons who are not inoculated, cholera has attacked 64, and proved fatal to 30. Of the 5432 who have been inoculated it has, according to Dr. Ferran, attacked only 7, and proved fatal in no single case. In other words, since the commencement of the experiment on May I, one person out of every 163 has been attacked among the uninoculated population, and one person in every 352 has died of cholera ; while among the inoculated population only one person in 776 has been attacked, and not a single person in the entire 5432 has died of the disease. Dr. Ferran concludes his telegram by expressing the desire that a British Commission should be sent to Alcira to verify these results. THE floating dome presented by M. Bischoffsheim to the Observatory at Nice is now finished, and has been on exhibi- tion in Paris during the past week. It is intended to cover a colossal telescope; it is 22 m. in diameter inside, and has a circumference of 60 m., or 2 m. more than the dome of the Pantheon. Instead of rendering it movable by placing it on rollers, according to the ordinary method, it is closed below by a reservoir for air, which rests on the water in a circular basin. This system of suspension is said to be so perfect, that in spite of its great weight, a single person can turn it completely round the horizon. To provide against the water freezing, it has been proposed to dissolve in it a salt to the point of saturation, but it is feared that this may cause corrosion of the apparatus. Frosts, however, are rare in Nice, and special experiments on this subject will be made. ON Friday night the House of Commons agreed, without a division, toa motion by Sir John Lubbock for a select com- mittee to inquire whether, by the establishment of a forest school, our forests and woodlands could be rendered more re- munerative. The proposer pointed out that, while our interests in the subject were greater than those of any other country in the world, as we had 2,800,000 acres under wood in Great Britain and about 340,000,000 in the Colonies, yet this was almost the only country without a forest school. He referred to the effect of scientific forestry in the Landes in France, and in India, where the net forest revenue fifteen years ago was only 52,000/., while, since the establishment of a forest department, it had risen to over 400,000/. per annum. As a result of neglect of the science in this country, students for India had to be trained at Nancy, a school of course specially adapted for French requirements, and the forests in our Colonies and other possessions (Cyprus and the Cape, for example) had to be put under the control of foreigners, as there were no Englishmen trained for the work. Sir John Lubbock, however, declined to commit himself to the establishment of a Government school ; it could not be left altogether to private enterprise, because a school necessarily required access to a considerable area of forest. He thought it worthy of consideration whether some interme- diate system might be adopted which would enable some one or more existing institutions to benefit by national forests. Mr. Gladstone, whose interest in arboriculture is well known, could not bind the Government to the establishment of a School of Forestry, although he recognised the universal ignorance on the subject prevalent amongst land agents and others in England. He distinguished the circumstances in India, where there are important facts connected with the climate, and with the due supply of moisture in the atmosphere, which are not present in this country. The School of Forestry, moreover, he said, which was established by the Indian Government in England, was open to every one who could pay the fees. There was also the difficulty that forests of large extent are rare here, and that they are kept, not for purposes of profit, but of landscape beauty, or pleasure and sport. In conclusion he said the Government gave their hearty approval to Sir John Lubbock’s proposal, reserving, at the same time, their freedom with regard to the recommeudations which the committee might make. A TRANSLATION of Prof. Cremona’s well-known work on the ‘* Elements of Projective Geometry,” by Mr. C. Leudersdorf, of Pembroke College, Oxford, will shortly be published by the Clarendon Press. It is hoped that this may be useful to stu- dents of a subject which has been, comparatively speaking, neglected in this country, although much attention has been paid to it on the Continent. The opportunity has been taken to considerably enlarge and amend the book. All the improve- ments to be found in the French and the German editions have been incorporated, and a new chapter on ‘Foci ” has been added. ‘The text has been carefully revised throughout, and has received many additions and elucidations, some due to the author himself and others to the translator. ON the night of Friday the 15th inst. one of the most terrible storms ever witnessed in Vienna occurred there, by which shrubs, trees, and even houses were wrecked ; and the cold accompany- ing was so severe that several persons exposed to it during the night were found frozen to death in the morning. In the Paris Bulletin International of the morning of the 16th it is reported that 139 millimetres of snow fell at Vienna. In all parts of Austria and Hungary snow covers vineyards and fields, where the crops were in an advanced condition, and incalculably great damage has been done. The festivals of Pancratius, Servatius, and Boniface, the Ice Saints of 1885, will long be remembered in this part of Europe. WE have received the report of the Rugby School Natural History Society for the past year. That portion of it which relates to the Temple Observatory at Rugby has already been noticed in these columns. The editors observe that it appears to be a law of the existence of the Society (like that of the animalcule Amada proteus) that an infusion of life into one part produces a corresponding decline in another. For some years the botanical, geological, and archzological sections absorbed all energy, but now there is a decided movement towards zoology and a decline in those sections once most vigorous. A fair start May 21, 1885 | has been made with some zoological collections ; the aquarium, however, has proved a failure, and the vivarium labours under the disadvantage of never being reached by the sunlight. Several short and interesting papers are published with the report. Tue Russian Government has sent an official of the Education Department to Vienna to study the State commercial and indus- trial schools of Austria, these establishments being regarded as models, and the Russian Government intending to organise similar ones. THE Fish Culture Department at the International Inventions Exhibition has proved a great success and attracted a large con- course of visitors. During the past week many important addi- tions have been made, including a magnificent model of a Fish Culture Establishment exhibited by Mr. T. J. Mann, and a series of oyster beds, demonstrative of the process of breeding and fattening oysters. A special feature has been made of oysters this year in the Aquarium, where they are to be seen in numerous varieties imported from various quarters of the globe. In close proximity to them are exhibited various dredges and implements used in this particular fishery. THE Count Liitke Medal of the Russian Geographical Society has been awarded this year to a work which deserves a special notice. It is Prof. N. J. Zinger’s work on the determination of time by means of corresponding heights of different stars (trans- lated in German by H. Kelchner, and published at Leipzig with a preface of O. W. Struve, under the title : ‘‘ Die Zeitbestimm- ung aus correspondirenden Hohen verschiedener Sterne.”) The determination of time with great exactitude, for telegraphic determinations of longitudes, by means of easily transportable instruments, has already occupied the Pulkowa astronomers. W. Struve and W. K, Déllen proposed very skilful methods of observations. .The latter had proposed to determine the time by means of a special Repsold’s circle from two passages of two stars in the prime vertical. The exactitude reached by this means was from 0°05 to 006 of a second; the circle had to remain in an unaltered position for no more than five or six minutes; but the whole observation took about forty minutes. Prof. Zinger’s method, which is a further development of the work begun by Maupertuis, Olbers, Hauss, Delambre, and Knorre, consists in making two successive observations of two stars chosen for that purpose, at the same altitude, by means of any instruments which may not be divided with great perfection, but whose level would only show the changes the telescope may undergo when directed on two different azimuths. This method was met first with some coolness, on account of the difficulty of finding two stars which would culminate soon after one another at the same altitude. But M. Zinger has shown that even with a moderate telescope it is easy to have two stars easily found and pretty well seen at daylight which pass at the same altitude at an average of no more than nine minutes one after another. His tables render the task of finding such stars very easy, there being in moderate latitudes no less than 160 pairs of stars appropriate to that purpose. As to the ease and accuracy of the method, it is sufficient to say that time is determined with a probable error of no more than 0°04 of a second in no more than half an hour, without even making use of the divisions of the Repsold circle, and with only one reading of the microscope. For several years Prof. Zinger’s method has been submitted to a very extensive test by Russian astronomers. So we learn from Gen. Koversky’s analysis of it, published in the last ‘‘ Annual Report” of the Geographical Society, that, when determining by means of light-signals the difference of longitudes between Pulkova and Parlovsk, and using a very plain instrument pre- pared by M. Brauer on M. Zinger’s principles, the difference has been determined with an error of only one-fiftieth of a second, M. Pyertsoff, in Mongolia; Gen. Stebnitzky, in the NATURE eee 63 Caucasus, who considers the determinations of time from corre- sponding heights of two stars quite as accurate as that deduced from zenithal distances taken with a Repsold circle, but far shorter and easier ; the Russian officers in Bulgaria, who have determined with telegraphic signals the longitudes of thirty-seven places in less than seventy evenings, spending no more than three hours each evening for a determination which gave the longitude with an error of only 0'04 to 0°02 of a second; the measurements around Omsk in 1878 ; those of M. Gladysheff in the Transcaspian, and of M. Mionczyorski on the Ural in 1882-84—all these have been made on the same method of Prof. Zinger, which has now become the most familiar one with Russian astronomers. The measurements are usually made with a Reps- old’s circle, which is ready for work half an hour after the astronomer has arrived at the place whose longitude he proposes to determine ; and in chronometrical expeditions five minutes to a quarter of an hour of a bright sky give the possibility of measuring the longitude with an accuracy quite sufficient for geographical purposes. THE additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens during the past week include a Macaque Monkey (A/acacus cynomolgus 2) from India, presented by Mr. James Fleming; a Common Badger (J/éles ¢axus), British, presented by Mr. C. Ethelstone Parke; a Wild Ass (Zguus teniopus 8) from the Island of Diego Garcia, Chagos Archipelago, presented by Mr. F. D. Lambert, jun. ; a Common Squirrel (Scéurus vulgaris), British, presented by Mrs. G. A. Smith ; four Red-faced; Weaver Birds (Foudia erythrops) from South Africa, a Grenadier Weaver Bird (Zuplectes oryx) from West Africa, presented by Mrs. Herman Kuhne; a Dominican Kestrel (Zimnunculus dominicensis), a — Bittern (Ardetta ), three Martinican Doves (Zenaida martinicana), two Moustache Ground Doves (Geotrygon mystacea), a Tuberculated Iguana (Zguana tuberculata) from the West Indies, presented by Dr. A. P. Boon ; two Harvest Mice (Mus minutus), British, presented by Mr. G. W. Oldfield; two Demeraran Cock of the Rocks (Rupicola crocea 6 $) from Demerara, presented by Mr. T. C. Edwards-Moss ; two Mute Swans (Cygnus olor), British, presented by Mr. J. W. Gibson ; a Horned Lizard (PArynosoma cornutum) from Texas, presented by Master C. A. Greeven ; three Common Vipers (Vipera derus), British, presented by Mr. W. H. B. Pain; four White-faced Tree-Ducks (Dendrocygna viduata), a White Gannet (Suda piscata) from Brazil, deposited ; a Dark Green Snake (Zamenis atrovirens), South European, purchased. GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES Tue following message from Col. Prjevalsky, dated Lob Nor, March 15 (probably O.S.), is published in the Invalide Russe :— ‘During the last autumn and winter we visited Eastern Zaidam as far as Lob Nor. The middle range of the Kuen Lun, hitherto unknown, has been examined with sufficient care. The ancient route leading from Khoten to China has been found and thoroughly explored. We have also discovered three enormous snow peaks, to which we have given the names of Muscovite, Columbus, and Enigmatical. The most elevated point of the first-named is Mount Kremlin, of the second Mount Djinri, and of the third the Crown of Monomachus, which are all of a higher elevation than 20,000 feet above the sea. The Thibetan plateau, skirting the middle Kuen Lun, has an average height of 4000 feet. No inhabitants were met with except in the Southern Zaidam. - Further to the west the flora and fauna of the desert are extremely poor. In the month of December the cold was so intense that the mercury froze. We passed the month of February and the first fortnight of March at Lob Nor. We are just about to set out again, with the intention of crossing Cherchen, for the purpose of reaching Kiria, in the district of Khoten. During the three months of summer we shall traverse Northern Thibet, if the Chinese do not oppose us, and in the autumn we shall return to our own Turkestan. We are all in good health.” 64 NATURE [May 21, 1885 THE last issue of the Zsvestéa of the Russian Geographical Society (1885, 1) contains a very interesting paper, by M. Lessar, on ‘* South-Eastern Turcomania,” with a map, thirteen miles to an inch, of the region between Merv and Herat. This paper consists of a chapter on the occupation of Merv; a diary of the journey from Fol-otan to Penj-deh and in the Steppes; a geo- graphical sketch of South-West Turcomania ; and a translation of Sir Henry Rawlinson’s note, by which M. Lessar’s account of his first journey was accompanied in the Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, with a few remarks by the author. Capt. Abbot’s remarks on South-West Turcomania and the Badhyz are also translated in an appendix. The geographical descrip- tion of the region comprised between the oasis of Merv, the Murghab, the Borkhut mountains, and the Hari-rud, which region is described as ‘South-Western Turcomania,” is especially worthy of notice, as a valuable contribution to the geography of the region. THE Government of India has decided to appoint Mr. Ney Elias, one of the most distinguished of our Chinese travellers, and at present English Commissioner in Ladakh, to act as British Consul at Yarkand and Kashgar. Mr. HOLMAN BENTLEY sends to the Z7zes news of the safe return of the Rev. G. Grenfell, F.R.G.S., in the Baptist Missionary Society’s steamer the race, after a voyage on the Upper Congo River from Stanley Pool to Stanley Falls, a distance of 1060 miles. He has explored many of the tribu- taries on the way—the Mobangi to 4° 30’ N. lat., the Ukere to 2° 50’ N., and the Lubilanji to 1° 50’ S. The Mbura is navigable only for ten or twelve miles from its junction with the Congo, when cataracts bar the way. The Mobangi is a fine river, but the people are very wild. In a recent number of Das Ausland, Herr Habenicht, of Gotha, makes an important suggestion with regard to observa- tions in Africa. He points out the dearth of accurate observa- tions in latitude, longitude, and heights in the interior of that continent. For instance, with regard to the greater part of North Africa we are dependent on those of Vogel and Barth, while in South Africa those of Livingstone are almost the only ones we have. Even in the interior of the Cape Colony, the Orange Free State, the Transvaal, Namaqualand, the Kalahari desert, our knowledge of exact positions is still in the air. More is known of the central and lower Congo and the coast.- To remedy these defects, Herr Habenicht proposes to geographical societies interested in African exploration that the field should be subdivided. Young men should be trained to make astro- nomical observations, barometrical measurements and itineraries, and two should be despatched on each route with separate sets of instruments. The routes suggested are the following: (1) Cape Town, through Stellaland, to the Zambesi; (2) Delagoa Bay to Stellaland; (3) Cape Town, through Namaqualand and Damaraland, to the Zambesi ; (4) Loango to Zanzibar ; (5) Zanzibar to the Egyptian Soudan; (6) the Lower Niger, through Darfur, to Khartoum ; (7) the Gold Coast to Timbuctoo ; (8) Morocco to Timbuctoo ; (9) Tripoli to Socoto ; (10) Bengazi, through Kufra and Borgu, to Kuka. All previous explorations, he says, would by these observations receive a sound scientific basis. M. RabbE, the Director of the Natural History Museum at Tiflis, has been ordered by the Russian Government to inyesti- gate the mountain systems of the border-lands of Trans-Caucasia and Khorassan, between Ararat and Ala Dagh on the west and Elburz on the east. FROM a report addressed by Col. Feilberg to the Argentine Minister of Marine on the subject of his mission to explore the Pilcomayo River, it appears that this stream is only navigable for eighty leagues from its mouth in the Rio Paraguay up to its confluent, the Rio Dorado. Five miles higher the rapids com- mence ; there is then only two feet of water, the channel is narrow and very tortuous, and the current swift. The upper waters are lost in marshes, which the traveller crossed. On returning, the water had fallen considerably, and the journey was only accomplished with much trouble and after many acci- dents. During his stay on the Chaco he reports that he did not see a single Indian, although their tents were still standing in places. One of his officers had been sent with the chronometers to Corientes, to compare them by telegraph with the Observatory of Cordoba or Buenos Ayres. These comparisons are essential for the verification of the observations made, and as soon as they have been obtained, the maps which are to accompany the publication of the journal of the mission will be commenced. ACCORDING to the Colonies and India a conference took place on March 31, by telegraph, between the Melbourne and Sydney branches of the Geographical Society of Australia, on the ques- tion of New Guinea exploration. It was decided to subsidise Mr. H. O. Forbes’s expedition, to the extent of 500/., on con- dition that the two Colonies receive copies of the explorer’s diary and despatches, and duplicates of his collection of specimens. The Conference also decided to send an independent cxpedition from the Aird River, the whole expenses to be defrayed by the Society. The expedition will be placed under the leadership of Capt. Everell, who will be accompanied by Herr von Leudenfelt. THE Report on the trade of Persia by our Consul at Teheran, which has just been laid before Parliament, contains some inter- esting statistics on the population of Persia, in order to judge how far the country has recovered from the effects of the great famine of 1871-72. The area of the dominions of the Shah is 1,647,070 square kilometres, and the population is estimated at 7,653,000, contiined in 99 towns with a total population of 1,963,800, while the villages and rural districts contain 3,780,000, and the nomads are estimated at 7,909,800. It is | curious to notice how the number of nomads are made up: the Arabs number 52,020; Turks, 144,000; Kurds and Leks, 135,000; Beluchs and gipsies, 4,140; Bakhtiaris and Lurs, 46,800. The statistics of the creeds are: Sheeahs, 6,860,600 ; Sunnis and other Mohammedan sects, 700,000 ; Parsees, 8,000 ; Jews, 19,000 ; Armenians, 43,000; Nestorians and Christians, 23,000. Of the Armenian population 52°8 per cent. are males and 47'2 females. Of the Mussulman population the mean pro- portion is §0°5 per cent. females and 49°5 males. The following is a list of some Persian towns with their respective populations : Tabreez ... 164,630 | Zenjan 24,000 Ispahan .,. 60,000 to 70,000 | Cazoin ts ace eee) OOOO Yezd 40,000 | Resht (including ad- Kerman ... 41,170 joining villages) ... 40,000 Shiraz é 30,000 | Astrabad ... ++» 10,000 Shuster ... under 20,000 | Nishapore... :. 11,000 Dizful 25,000 | Sebzevar ... ... ... £2,000 Burujird ... , 20,000 | Meshed 60,000 Kermanshah ... 30,000 | Kashan 30,000 Hamadan 30,000 | Koom 20,000 Maragha... 13,250 | Mianeh : 7,000 Soujboulak 5,000 | Mohammera 15,000 Mr. Dickson, taking the medium between the highest and lowest figures he has obtained, estimates the population of Teheran at about 120,000, while Col. Ross estimates that of Bushire at 70,000. In Astron. Nachr., vol. cx., Prof. Dr. Auwers has published the results of his researches and calculations about the longitude of some places in Australia. Since these data will have to be altered by the result of the determination of the difference in longitude between Port Darwin and Banjuwangi (Java) we may omit particulars and only state that Mr. Auwers has found to be :— heaw0 ass Longitude of Sydney Io 4 49°75 °F) Windsor Io 3 20°92 mF Melbourne... 9 39 54°32 “5 Adelaide 9 14 20°57 INFORMATION has been received in Berlin of the death, in the Cameroons, of Lieut. Tilly, the leader of another German expe- dition sent out to explore that part of Africa. A PARLIAMENTARY paper just issued (Commercial, No. 5, 1885) contains an exhaustive report, by Vice Consul Comber- batch, on the Dobrudja. Under the head of geography it refers to the name, limits, frontiers, area, topography, division, moun- tains, forests, mines, rivers, marshes, lakes, islands, harbours, and tides of the district. This is succeeded by sections on the climate, history, ancient remains, population, sanitary state, government, public works, religion, education, agriculture, commerce, industries, navigation, natural history, and principal towns. The report, which occupies fifty pages, is thus a short treatise on this district at the mouth of the Danube, of which much was heard in connection with political events a few years ago. Ve eee ES ——— = May 21, 1885] NATURE 65 ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA FOR THE WEEK, 1885, MAY 24-30 (For the reckoning of time the civil day, commencing at Greenwich mean midnight, counting the hours on to 24, is here employed. ) At Greenwich on May 24 Sun rises, 3h. 58m. ; souths, 11h. 56m. 36°3s.; sets, 19h. 55m. ; decl. on meridian, 20° 51’ N.: Sidereal Time at Sunset, 12h. 5m. Moon (Full May 28, 2th.) rises, 15h. 16m. ; souths, 20h. 59m. ; sets, 2h. 33m.*; decl. on meridian, 5° 55’ S. Planet Rises Souths Sets Decl. on meridian h. m. h. m. h. m. a, Mercury 3 21 IO 21 17 21 Dr SNe Venus 4 14 12 19 Zolz4y ce 2h a7 Ni Mars LOM. LOn29) ny) he Bak CoN IS apiece nrORONNe ety) SON er I) 4o 5 13,25 Ne Saturn Heute) oe ey 2a) Boo NS 22 21N. * Indicates that the setting is that of the following day. Occultation of Star by the Moon Corresponding angles from ver- May Star Mag. Disap. Reap. eR Oehere inverted image h, m. h. m. a BREeOeIbree! oss Ad se 2 TO. 3 5 148 253 Phenomena of Fupiter’s Satellites May h. m. May h. m. 26s)... 20) 10. Iil..tr.-ing: 29... 20 46 I. occ. disap. 2376 list epr || 30 o 18 I. ecl. reap. 27 ~... 21 57 III. occ. disap. 20 25 _ I. tr. egr. eee 20/39) LI ecl> reap: 20 56 IV. occ. reap. Bouse Leitr. tne: The Occultations of Stars and Phenomena of Jupiter's Satellites are such as are visible at Greenwich. May h. 25 ... 13 ... Mercury at greatest elongation from the Sun 25° west. Mercury in conjunction with and 3° 15’ south of Mars. 30) ag Oe THE VALUE OF A MARINE LABORATORY TO THE DEVELOPMENT AND REGULATION OF OUR SEA FISHERIES} ie is a striking fact, to which attention has before now been drawn, that whilst the agriculturist, on whom we depend for a large part of our food supplies, has very largely availed himself of scientific knowledge in the treatment of crops and herds, the fisheries of our coasts, which provide an almost equally large amount of food to the people, have never been carried on with any regard to an accurate knowledge of the fishes on which they depend. Agriculture is, in this country, a refined branch of chemistry ; but there has been no demand for a knowledge of marine life which might enable the fisherman to pursue his calling to the greatest advantage. In fact, our fishery industries are still barbaric ; we recklessly seize the produce of the sea, regardless of the consequences of the method, the time, or the extent of our depredations. In the same ignorant fashion as the nomadic herdsmen of Asia descend upon a fertile valley, and after exhausting it, leave it to time and natural causes for its recupera- tion, so do we treat the fishing-banks of our coast. So long as fishing was-relatively small in amount this method was not altogether objectionable. But with the increase of population, and the introduction of steam fishing boats and more effective instruments of capture, there is reason to believe that some at least of our coast fisheries are being destroyed, and that others may follow in the same direction. Other civilised nations have perceived the necessity of attempt- ing to regulate the various kinds of sea-fisheries on rational principles—that is to say, on principles based on an exact knowledge of the life and habits of the fi hes which it is desired to capture. The French, the Norwegians, and above others, the Americans, have given attention to this matter. There is reason to believe that the Romans had gained a * Abstract of paper read at the Society of Arts, Wednesday, May 13, 1885. By E. Ray Lankester, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Zoology in University College, London, and Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford. special skill—now lost—in cultivating sea fish. Whatever that may have amounted to, it is certain that modern Europe has entirely neglected the cultivation, and even the care of sea fisheries. It has been the merit of the Fish Commission of the United States to make the first attempt in modern times to deal with sea fisheries in the spirit of civilisation, that is of men who are determined to understand and control, for the advantage of their race, the operations of nature, rather than to leave things to chance, the unknown development of physical causes. The direct efforts of the American Commission, and the knowledge which scientific men have accumulated with regard to fishes, without designing aid in the regulation and develop- ment of fisheries, do not enable us at present to answer many of the questions with regard to different sea fishes which we urgently require to know if we are to deal like reasonable, practical men with our fisheries, so as to improve them, or even so as to prevent their extermination. At the late Fisheries Exhibition Congresses, the universal cry, the one unanimous demand, was ‘‘more knowledge!” We cannot tell whether beam-trawling with steamboats is injurious or not to some of our most valuable sea fishes, until we have more knowledge. We have not sufficient knowledge to enable us to say that it would restore some herring grounds to their former richness, if the fishermen were kept off those grounds for a few years. We do not know why soles are getting scarcer every year ; we know nothing about soles, and so we can do nothing to remedy their constantly increasing diminution. We do not know why oysters are scarce, or how to make them more abundant. A few hap-hazard attempts to cultivate oysters are now and then made, but have resulted in an immense loss of money rather than in gain, because we do not know all about oysters in the same precise and detailed way in which we know all about wheat, or all about pigs or chickens. We do not know why some fishes swim in great shoals year after year at certain seasons near certain spots, and then to the dismay of the fishermen suddenly give up ever passing that way. We do not know whether we could hatch the young of soles, turbot, cod, and other valuable fishes, and stock the sea with them as we do our rivers with trout and salmon. We do not know whether we could favour the increase of such fishes by cultivating in the sea their favourite food. In many cases we do not know what their food is. We do not know whether we might increase these fishes by destroying their enemies. In fact, we know exceedingly little about the minute details of the life of marine animals, and if we wish to deal with sea fisheries like rational men, we must find out these minute details, and gradually apply the knowledge so gained. A laboratory on the sea-shore, provided with boats and fisher- men, and having within its walls tanks for hatching eggs and watching sea fish, and conyeniences for the work of naturalists trained in making such observations, is the way to meet the deficiency in our knowledge above noted. This was perceived many years ago in France, and more recently various laboratories have sprung into existence on the Mediterranean and on the American coast. There is not, as yet, any such place of investigation on the English coast, and it is this deficiency which the Marine Bio- logical Association, of which my honoured friend, Prof. Huxley, is President, and H.R.H. the Prince of Wales is patron, pro- poses to meet by building and maintaining a really efficient and thoroughly organised laboratory and experimental aquarium on the shore of Plymouth Sound. The Association does not propose merely to build this place, but to arrange for the carrying out there of most importan investigations on such questions as those I have a few minutes ago named. They have the hearty and earnest co-operation of all the naturalists in the United Kingdom, Scotch and Irish naturalists having united with their English brethren to form this institution. Naturalists are glad to take part in the study of these practical questions, because the arrangements and the studies which are necessary to answer the questions of the practical fisherman, are also just those which are necessary to advance the knowledge of the order of nature which forms the single object of truly scien- tific investigation. They will systematically and eagerly join with one another in the operations of the Plymouth laboratory, to obtain thorough knowledge with regard to the habits, food, breeding, and life-conditions of all kinds of marine fishes, such 66 NATURE [May 21, 1885 as will be not only valuable but actually indispensable to the practical fisherman ; and in the reports of the work done in the new marine laboratory which will be published by the Associa- tion, I do not doubt that the basis for future legislation and for future methods of sea-fishery will be found. I may here venture to mention some of the results obtained by the efforts of the naturalists who form the United States Fish Commission—at the head of which is Prof. Spencer Baird. I would, however, especially remark that the Commission has only been at work for ten years, and that very great practical results cannot be expected at once. A vast amount of know- ledge has to be obtained before we can deal practically with all the various kinds of sea-fishes ; and it is to me a proof of the wonderful sagacity and activity of the American naturalists that they have already been able to do what they have done in the practical direction. Prof. Baird has especially attempted to artificially cultivate sea-fishes. It seems to him that it is better, if it be possible, to replenish the seas by stocking them with young fish, to take the place of those removed by fishermen, rather than to impose legislative restrictions and penalties upon the fishermen. The attempt to artificially cultivate sea fish is an admirable example of the relation of scientific knowledge—that is, thorough and cause-reaching knowledge—to practical commercial operations. There are two distinct stages in this attempt at artificial culti- vation. The first is the scientific. You must ascertain how, when, and where the fish naturally breeds ; you must find out, experimentally, how to procure its eggs, fertilise them, and rear the young to a given size—on a small scale. That is the busi- ness of the scientific naturalist. When he has ascertained all the details of this operation—which differ entirely in the case of different fishes, and may take years to ascertain—then the second stage is entered on. The commercial man then comes forward, and in the light of the knowledge obtained for him by the scien- tific man, attempts the hatching of the fish on a large scale— not by the hundred, but by the million. The American Fish Commission has undertaken both stages of the work, and the second is necessarily a very costly one. A very promising result has been obtained in the artificial breeding of codfish, and again in the case of the shad. [Details of these operations were here given by the author. ] Again, in dealing with the American oyster, the Commission has obtained what promises to be a very great success. [Details of this case were given. ] But there is an almost unlimited field of work before the American Commission. Experiments and observations similar to those carried out by the American Commission, will be undertaken by the Biological Association at Plymouth. For example, the artificial cultivation of that most valuable of British fishes, the sole, will be at once taken in hand. At present absolutely nothing is known as to the spawning of the sole—the male fish is not even recognised. In the first instance the naturalists at Plymouth will study the eggs and the mode of spawning of the sole, and the way in which the eggs are fertilised naturally. Then the necessary conditions for the rearing of the young fish will be ascertained. After that it will be possible to hatch a vast number of young soles and turn them out into Plymouth Sound, and to determine in this particular area, which is admirably adapted by its natural delimitations for the experiment, whether the take of soles in the Sound has been increased by the operation. Similar experiments will be tried with other fish; and also knowledge will be gained as to the food of various fishes, and the causes which determine their movements, their increase, and their diminution in the neighbourhood of Plymouth. This knowledge will help us to form sound and reliable con- clusions as to the supposed injurious effects of steam trawlers and other modes of fishing, and so lead on to sensible and valuable legislation in regard to the seasons and modes of fishing best suited to obtain the maximum benefit from the harvest of the cea. The English oyster, though differing from its American con- gener, can no doubt be brought under control by a thorough- going knowledge of all the conditions affecting it at all periods of life ; and this it will be a first duty of the Marine Biological Association to attain. [Suggested inquiries as to the oyster were here mentioned. ] Lastly, the subject of “bait” is one of great importance, which we shall be able to deal with effectively. Not only shall we find new and effective baits, at present neglected Wy our line fishermen, but we shall be able to direct the cultivation of such valuable baits as the mussel and the limpet. There is no fact which gives one so vivid an idea of the immense commercial value of sea fisheries as the amount which is annually expended on mussels for use as bait in those fisheries. There are few statistics on this subject, or indeed on any matters relating to our sea fisheries, and it will be one object of the Marine ~ Biological Association to collect such statistics. But there is a certain amount of information as to the use of mussels for bait. Thus between October, 1882, and May, 1883, twenty-eight boats engaged in the haddock fishery at Eyemouth, in the North of Scotland, used 620 tons of mussels (about 47,000,coo indi- viduals), costing nearly 1800/. to the fishermen, that is to say, over a million and a half of mussels for the whole time, or about 7coo a day to each boat—at the rate of one penny for twelve mussels, The total value of mussels used for bait in the deep sea line fisheries of the British coasts must amount to many hundred thousand pounds in a year—and we can only roughly guess at the value of the fish caught by this large expenditure on bait. In spite of the great economic importance of the mussel, its complete history of reproduction and growth is not known, and though in France and Germany it is carefully and profitably cultivated, very few attempts have been made on the British coast to protect or to artificially favour mussel scalps so as to make them remunerative properties. This is a subject with which a marine laboratory would enable us to deal in a very short time. The same general remarks, mutatis mutandis, apply to the second most important bait, viz, the limpet. Before concluding this sketch of the work which lies before the managers of a marine biological laboratory, I may say a few words as to the nature of the buildings and equipment required for such an institution. The most efficient scientific laboratory of the kind is that erected at Naples by Dr. Dohrn, a drawing of which is exhibited. The Naples laboratory, with its tanks, row boats, and steam launches, has cost about 20,0007, and involves an annual expenditure of about 4ooc7, A staff of observers is paid out of this sum, and the efforts of the institution have hitherto been entirely directed to the obtaining of accurate scientific know- ledge with regard to the fauna and flora of the Bay of Naples. It is justly regarded as one of the most important scientific institutions in Europe. The United States Fish Commission have erected, from time to time, various small laboratories, and are now about to expend 10,000/7, on a laboratory at Wocd’s Hole, and 20,coo/. on build: ing fish-ponds protected by piers of masonry. Since its commence- ment, the United States Commission has received from the Imperial revenue about 300,0007. In 1884 alone it received 70,000/. It must be remembered that these large sums cover the expense of very extensive operations in fish-breeding on a commercial scale, and are not solely for the purpose of preliminary investigation. The Marine Biological Association proposes to proceed in a modest manner, arranging in the first instance for the carrying out of the necessary experimental inquiries. A site has been obtained on the Citadel Hill, at Plymouth, by permission of the authorities of the War Office, and here will be erected a laboratory, comprising on the ground floor large and small tanks, and above, a series of working rooms fitted with small tanks. Through all a stream of sea-water will be driven by pumping apparatus, from large tanks in the basement, containing several thousand gallons. These reservoirs will only be re- plenished two or three times in the year. Boats, including a steam-launch, will be required, and two or three fishermen, who will act as attendants. A resident superintendent, who will be a thoroughly qualified naturalist, will be appointed at a salary of 200/. a year, and will be lodged on the premises. Naturalists will frequent the laboratory at their own expense for the purpose of study, and from time to time competent investigators will be appointed to carry out particular inquiries. The latter will be paid for their work from special sources, not from the general income of the Association until that reaches a large amount. Great assistance will be afforded to the work of the Association by the local fleet of fishing boats, which is very numerous, and comprises some vessels of large size. It is esti- mated that a capital sum of 10,coo/., and the prospect of an income from annual subscribers, members of the Association | and others, of about 500/. a year, will enable the important work which has been taken in hand to be commenced. The Council of the Association feel very great confidence that they will be May 21, 1885} able to obtain annually sufficient funds to keep the laboratory in efficient working order when once the capital sum of 10,000/. has been subscribed. Towards the latter amount they have already raised a sum exceeding 5000/. From Plymouth as a centre, in the course of future years, the operations of the Association will extend, and additional laboratories will no doubt be constructed hereafter by the Association on other parts ‘of the coast of the United Kingdom, should the first one prove a success, and the work carried out through its agency meet with public approval and support. Whilst the Marine Biological Association aims at obtaining, by the operations of its laboratory and experimental aquarium, that knowledge which is clearly necessary for the improvement and regulation of our sea fisheries, if must be remembered that its work will necessarily enlarge and advance the great science of biology, and that to many of us this is its surest promise of utility, for we cannot always directly govern the march of scientific progress. The whole field of knowledge must be cultivated, in the simple faith that the increase of knowledge is the greatest good which human effort can achieve. By adopting a thorough and comprehensive scheme of study of the problems connected with the life of fishes, we shall, as invariably happens in the history of science, obtain results which at present we cannot foresee, but which, we may feel assured, will yield in unexpected ways rewards and blessings to humanity. METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS HE Royal Meteorological Society recently held its sixth Annual Exhibition of Instruments at the Institution of Civil Engineers, 25, Great George Street, S.W. This Exhibition was devoted to sunshine recorders, and solar and terrestrial radiation instruments. The first attempt at obtaining an instrumental record of the amount of sunshine was made by Mr. J. F. Campbell, of Islay, in the year 1853, when he mounted a hollow glass sphere filled with acidulated water, in the centre of a cup of mahogany, so arranged that the sun’s rays were focussed on the interior of the cup and burnedit. The lines of burning, therefore, indicated the existence of sunshine. Solid glass spheres have been substituted for the hollow ones, and cards in metal frames have replaced the wood ; but in its principle the sunshine recorder of 1885 differs little from that erected on Richmond Terrace, Whitehall, thirty yearsago. Other modes of recording sunshine are based on the action of the rays of the other end of the spectrum on the actinic instead of the heat rays. Among workers in this direction may be mentioned Marchand of Fécamp, Sir Henry Roscoe, and others. The most recent improvements in this direction are those by Prof. McLeod and by Mr. Jordan. With regard to solar radiation thermometers, the successive stages in the assumed perfecting of these instruments have been as follows:—An ordinary mercurial thermometer acts as a spherical mirror, and reflects the rays which fall upon it. To lessen this the bulbs were first made with black glass ; moreover, originally the degree marks were put upon the supporting slab, then they were put upon the tubes of the thermometers. It was then found that in a position where two thermometers with similarly coated bulbs were exposed to the sun, but one was exposed to more wind than the other, the indicated tempera- tures varied greatly. To ayoid this it was proposed that the thermometer should be inserted in a glass shield exhausted of air. Various forms of mounting have been adopted, but the chief efforts have been expended in determining the influence of the amount of air left in the so-called vacuum. was that, inasmuch as black glass had a bright surface, there NATOCRE The next stage | was still much light reflected, and therefore the surface was | dulled with a coat of lamp-black—so that all heat falling upon the bulb might be absorbed. Subsequently, owing to the in- fluence of the lower temperature of the unblackened thermo- meter tube, about one inch of it was coated like the bulb. As evidence of the degree of exhaustion, a small mercurial pressure gauge was attached to the thermometer, and by other makers platinum wires were soldered through the shield so that the strati- fication of the electric arc might indicate the amount of air still left. With regard to terrestrial radiation thermometers, the pattern of instrument used has varied very little. The Rutherford minimum has almost always been used, but its sensitiveness has ~ gradually been increased : the spherical bulb was replaced by a } f cylinder, the cylinder was elongated and bifurcated, and | engaged in photographing the prismatic spectrum that it was eventually, in order to strengthen the forks, they were united | decided to publish them in the American Fournal of Science. 67 into what is known asa “link.” Another plan was to flatten the cylindrical bulb into as thin a plate as possible, this giving a maximum of surface in proportion to the contents. The bulb was also made double, and thus we have the so-called ‘‘ bottle” pattern, and then the tube was let into the side of the bottle, and both ends of the bottle were left open, and so we have the “open cylinder”—a remarkable specimen of glass-blowing. Then there have been two patterns of mercurial thermometers— Casella’s and Negretti’s. Difficulties have arisen from the degree marks being obliterated by the weather. To guard against this the tube has been inclosed in what are known as Leach’s shields, and many attempts have been made to render the joint at the entrance of the tube watertight. This is not easy, because the thermometer is exposed to a great range of temperature, and the air inside the shield varies so much in volume that it forces its way through almost every joint. The object is, however, effected when the external jacket is sealed on the stem near the bulb. In addition to specimens illustrating the various patterns of tle above instruments, the Exhibition also included a number of new instruments, and many interesting photographs, sketches and diagrams. The photographs of clouds and lightning were very good. At the meeting of the Society the President, Mr. R. H, Scott, F.R.S., read a paper giving a brief account of the various instruments and arrangements to be found in the Exhibition for the purposes of recording solar and terrestrial radiation and the duration of sunshine both in regard of its light and its heat, the last-named being obtained by means of the sunshine recorders, which are now pretty generally used. He exhibited twelve monthly maps showing the percentage proportion of hours of recorded sunshine to the hours the sun was above the horizon in the various districts of the United Kingdom. He stated that the features which strike any one on examining the maps of sun- shine, which are for the most part for the five last summers and for the four last winters, excluding January to March, 1885, which has not yet expired, are :—First, the broad fact that the extreme south-western and southern stations are the sunniest, as has already frequently been pointed out, Jersey is undoubtedly the most favoured of our stations in this particular. Second, that in the late autumn and winter Ireland is much sunnier than Great Britain, Dublin having absolutely the highest percentage of possible duration of sunshine in November and December, and being only equalled by Jersey in January. The Dublin instrument is not situated in the city, but at the Mountjoy Barracks in the Phoenix Park, beyond the Vice-regal Lodge. The north-east of Scotland is also exceptionally bright, as the station, Aberdeen, lies to leeward of the Grampians. In April the line of 40 per cent. of possible duration takes in Jersey, Cornwall, Pembrokeshire, the Isle of Man, and the whole of Ireland except Armagh. The absolute maximum of the year occurs in May, and the amount rises to 50 per cent. (nearly to 60 in Jersey) over the district just mentioned as enjoying 40 per cent. in April. In June there is a falling off, which is continued into July and even into August in the Western Highlands. In the South of England, however, a second maximum occurs in August, the figure for Jersey rising to 50 per cent. This is mainly due to the exceptionally bright weather of August, 1884, in the southern counties of England. In September, Ireland shows a falling off, and the greatest degree of cloudiness is in Lincolnshire. In October, the Midland Counties of England are the worst off. In November the line of 40 per cent. encloses two districts, one Dublin, already mentioned; the other the Eastern Counties (Cambridge and Beccles). The absolutely highest monthly percentages in the period under consideration are in the month of May, 1882, in which St. Anne’s Head, Milford Haven, had 62 per cent., while Geldeston (Beccles), Douglas (Isle of Man), and Southbourne (Bournemouth) show 61 per cent. SCIENTIFIC SERIALS THE American Fournal of Science, April.—On the use of carbon bisulphide in prisms, being an account of experiments made by the late Dr. Henry Draper of New York. The results so far obtained by Dr. Draper in his investigations on the cause of the difficulties encountered in the use of carbon bisulphide in prisms seemed so valuable and so likely to prove useful to others 68 With the assistance of Mrs. Draper, Mr. George F. Barker was accordingly requested to collect from Dr. Draper’s copious notes the facts here detailed in connection with his experiments. Some supplementary measurements have also been made to test the efficiency of the apparatus. —The genus Pyrgulifera, Meek, and its associates and congeners, by Charles A. White. These molluscan forms, constituting the Bear River Laramic fauna of the author, are not found among any other North American fauna, either fossil or recent, but appear to have their congeners in a fauna still surviving in Lake Tanganyika, Central Africa, as well as in the Upper Cretaceous fresh-water deposits of Hungary. —On the occurrence of native mercury in the alluvium in Louisiana, by Ernest Wilkinson. Native mercury has recently been unexpectedly discovered at Cedar Grove Plantation, Jeffer- son Parish, Louisiana, where it is found disseminated in small globules in the mean proportion of 0°002934 per cent. through- out the alluvial soil. It also occurs elsewhere in the same region in such large quantities and under such general conditions that its presence can hardly be attributed to human agency. Yet no other explanation is offered of this curious phenomenon.—Re- marks on the series of earthquakes that have recently devastated the scuthern provinces of Spain, by C. G. Rockwood, jun.—On the structure of the spores or spore-like bodies (Sporangites huronensis of Sir J. W. Dawson) occurring in the Devonian formations of North America, by J. M. Clarke.—Denudation of the two Americas, by T. Mellard Reade. In this paper the author follows up the calculations already made by him regarding the quantity of matter annually removed in river water from the surface in England and Wales and some of the river basins of the European continent. Here the Mississippi, Amazons, and St. Lawrence basins are dealt with, the results confirming the provisional assumption that about 100 tons of rocky matter are dissolved by rain per English square mile per annum throughout the world. —On Arctic Interglacial Periods, by Dr. James Croll. It is argued that the Polar Interglacial periods were more marked than the Glacial, and that they neither did nor could exist simultaneously in both hemispheres. In a concluding note the author remarks that this will probably be his last paper on ques- tions relating to geological climate, advancing years and declin- ing health obliging him to abandon the subject in order to finish some work in a different field of inquiry which has been laid aside for over a quarter of a century.—Notes on some apparently undescribed forms of fresh-water Infusoria, No. 2 (with Plate III.), by Dr. Alfred C. Stokes. —Palzeozoic notes ; new genus of Cambrian Trilobites Mesonacis, by Charles D. Walcott. Bulletin de la Socié:é d' Anthropologie de Paris, 4° Fascicule, 1884.—The sequel to the ‘* Anthropology of California,” by M. Ten Kate.—Observations on the anthropological character and social conditions of the M’zabites, by Dr. Charles Amat, who has added to the results of his personal study of the people a brief summary of their history, derived from the chronicle of Abou Zakaria, translated by M. Masqueray, while he is indebted to a brother officer, M. Motylinsky, for much interesting in- formation regarding the language, which differs entirely from Arabic, and presents close affinities with the dialects of the Berbers. The people, who are a remnant of the ancient sect of the Karidjites, retain many traces of pre-Moslem usages and forms of belief, follow agricultural pursuits, and are the main purveyors of corn inthe Sahara.—Notes, by Dr. Hyades, on the Fuegians, considered from a hygienic and medical point of view. —On the significance of the name of the Aryans, by M. Ploix, who attempts to prove its derivation from a Sanscrit root indi- cating ‘‘white.” This hypothesis is very forcibly attacked by M. oO. Beauregard, who, in a subsequent communication to the Society, brings forward strong evidence to show that the etymo- logical meaning of the term is ‘‘noble” or ‘‘ venerable.”—A report on the project of instituting an official anthropometrical examination of the pupils in the primary schools of Paris, by M. Manouvrier.—On the influence of the American medium on the races of the Old World, by M. de Quatrefages.—Notes by M. Pietrement in support of his opinions regarding the age of iron, which had been called in question by M. Mortillet.—Communi- cation, by M. de Rialle, of M. Macey’s account of a grave, discovered near Saigon, Cochin China, in 1882. According to the opinion of the few natives who are versed in local archzeo- logy, this grave, which was discovered twelve feet below the sur- face, dates back at leart 4oo years. From the lower of the two superposed coffins, besides a few vertebrze and the tibiee, a cranium was extracted which presents a deep perforation above the right NATURE : [May 21, 1885 temporal that may be regarded as the cause of the death of the Annamite chief to whom the remains belonged.—Report, by M. de Ujfalvy, of the finds obtained from a Celtic cemetery near Rosegg, in the valley of the Drave. The tumuli, of which there are more than 300, resemble in structure and general con- tents those opened at Hallstadt and in Styria, but in addition they — have yielded a large number of curious little leaden figures of — wheels, birds, men on horses, &c., attached to the surface or margins of the various vases.—On some crania from the Mero- — vingian graves at Fermes (Oise), by M. de Maricourt, with an — extensive series of measurements, which, according to him, — afford strong presumptive evidence of diseases having a scrofulous — or syphilitic origin.—On the Gallic rock-tumuli of Port Bara (Quiberon), by M. Gaillard.—On an elephant’s tusk found in — the valley of the Drance (H. Savoie), by M. D’Acy. This find” was obtained at 3000 feet above the level of the sea, and is” believed to belong toa relatively recent representative of A/ephas — primigenius.—On the manufacture of fire-flints still existing in _ France, by M. P. Salmon. This industry is chiefly carried on near Percheriou (Loir-et-Cher), whence large numbers of flints _ are annually exported to supply the demand still existing for them among Central African and other savage tribes.—Com- | munication, by Dr. Verrier, regarding the work of Dr. Engel- mann, of Louisville, on the various modes of delivery prevalent amongst women of different races.—On the different powers of resisting cold shown by various races, by M. Maurel,—On a. placental anomaly in a case of twin-delivery, by Dr. Verrier.— Notes on the crania of three idiots, by Drs. Doutrebente and Manouvrier.—Obseryations on the static and dynamic conditions by which man is enabled to stand erect, by Dr. Fauvelle.—Re- searches on the so-called ‘* Maye” of Provence, by Dr. Berenger- Ferand. The paper is an enlarged exposition of an earlier notice, which appeared in 1883, on the Provenzal customs of our own times, in which the author sees a survival of the ancient worship of Maia—as are our own May queen, Florrie games, jack in the green, and other May festivals—the long ages of Christianity having modified but not obliterated the traces of paganism. Rendiconti del Reale Istituto Lombardo, March 12.—Note on the kinetic theory of the gases and on the limits of the terrestrial atmosphere, by Prof. R. Ferrini.—On some geometrical, stati- cal, and kinematic properties of articulated polygons, hy Prof. G. Jung.—A comparison of the respective merits of Bellani’s lucimeter and the English heliograph constructed by Negretti and Zambra, of London, by Giovanni Cantoni.—On some uni- form representations in the higher mathematical analysis, by Prof. Giulio Ascoli.—On some remarkable features of the stratified rocks in the Valtravaglia district, North Lombardy, by Prof. Taramelli.—On the question whether rice should be con- sidered as a contraband of war, by Ercole Vidari. April 9.—Historical notes on the comet of the year 1472, by Prof. G. Celoria.—On the geometrical movement of invariable systems, by Prof. C. Formenti.—Remarks on the cholera bacilli observed and described by Pacini in his various medical publica- tions, by Prof. L. Maggi.—Further observations on uniform representations, by Prof. Giulio Ascolii—Note on the traces of Roman jurisprudence in the Longobard edicts, by Prof. P. del Giudice. —Critical examination of the proposed Italian -penal code punishments, by E. A, Buccellati. Bulletin de V Académie Royale de Belgique, March 7.—A word on the two Balenopterze cast ashore at Ostend in the years 1827 and 1885, by P. J. Van Beneden.—Observations of Wolf’s comet made at the Brussels Observatory (0715 m. equatorial), by L. Niesten.—Observations of Encke’s comet made at the same observatory, by E. Stuyvaert.—On the early epochs of Flemish history, by Alphonse Wauters.—Note on “Louis du Tielt, painter and engraver, who flourished at Ypres during the seventeenth century, by Ch. Piot. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES LoNDON Royal Society, January 22.—‘‘ Observations on the Chro- matology of Actiniz,” by C. A. MacMunn, M.A., M.D. Com- municated by Prof. M. Foster, Sec.R.S. The conclusions arrived at may in part be summed up as follows .— f (1) Actinia mesembryanthemum contains a colouring matter which can be changed into hemochromogen and hematoporphyrin ; z May 21, 1885] NATORE 69 — _ this is present in the other species mentioned above, and from its characters it is provisionally named Actiniohematin. (2) It is not actiniochrome (a pigment found by Prof. Moseley in the tentacles of Bwnodes crassicornis), as its band occurs nearer the violet than that of antiniochrome. Moreover, both actiniochrome and actiniohematin can be extracted with glycerin, in which the latter is convertible into hamochro- -mogen, but the former remains unchanged. Actiniochrome is generally confined to the tentacles, and is not respiratory, —actiniohzematin occurs in the ectoderm and endoderm, and is _ respiratory. ___(3) A special colouring matter is found in Sagartia parasitica, _ different from either of the above, and this too exists in different _ states of oxidation. It is not apparently identical with that _ obtained by Heider from Cerzanthus membranaceus. (4) In the mesoderm and elsewhere in Actinia mesembryan- themum and other species, a green pigment occurs which alone and in solution gives all the reactions of dz/iverdin. (5) Anthea cereus, Bunodes balliz, and Sagartia bellis, yield to solvents a colouring matter resembling chlorofucin, and all the colouring matter, which in them shows this spectrum, is derived from the ‘‘ yellow cells” (= symbiotic alge), which are abund- _antly present in their tentacles and elsewhere. It is not identical with any animal or plant chlorophyll, as is proved by adding reagents to its alcoholic solution. _ (6) When “‘ yellow cells” are present, there appears to be a suppression of those colouring matters which in other species are of respiratory use. April 23.—‘‘ Magnetisation of Iron.” BM-A., D.Sc., F.R.S. The paper contains an account of the results of experi- ments which have been made on a considerable number of samples of iron and steel of known composition, including samples of cast iron, malleable cast iron, wrought iron, ordinary steels, manganese, chromium, tungsten, and silicon steels. The electrical resistance and the magnetic properties are determined in absolute measure. Amongst the electrical resistances the most noteworthy fact is the very high resistance of cast iron, as much as ten times that of wrought iron. The fact that man- ganese steel is almost non-magnetic is verified, and its actual permeability measured. The action of manganese appears to be to reduce the maximum magnetisation of steel, and in a still greater ratio the residual magnetism, but not to affect the coercive force materially, It is shown that the observed per- meability of manganese steel containing 12 per cent. of man- ganese would be accounted for by assuming that this material consists of a perfectly non-magnetic material, in which are scat- tered about one-tenth part of isolated particles of pure iron. Some practical applications of the results are discussed. April 30.—‘‘ Further Observations on Enterochlorophyll and Allied Pigments.” By C. A. MacMunn, M.A., M.D. In a paper read before the Royal Society in 1883, the writer described the spectroscopic and other characters of entero- chlorophyll which was obtained from the liver or other append- age of the ezferon of various invertebrates (hence the name). It is now shown that this pigment is 7o¢ due to the presence of symbiotic alge, or immediate food-products, but is built up by the animal containing it. Taking the six bands! of vegetable chlorophyll in alcoholic solution described by Kraus, the first two and the fourth are coincident with those of enterochlorophyll in a similar solution ; the third band is, however, frequently missing from the latter. The fifth and sixth bands belong to the yellow constituent, which Hansen shows to be a lipochrome ; the corresponding bands in the case of enterochlorophyll also belong to a lipochrome, and are not always coincident with the lipochrome bands of plant- chlorophyll. This was proved by saponifying enterochlorophyll by Hansen’s method (as described in NaTurE, vol. xxx. p 224). But saponification of vegetable chlorophpll changes it considerably, as bands of a solution, before saponifying, do not correspond with those of a similar solution after saponifying. Hansen’s results were confirmed as far as the separation of *‘chlorophyll green” and ‘ chlorophyll yellow ” are concerned, and the crystals described by him obtained. While the dominant band of “ chlorophyll green” in solutions of plant-chlorophyll is moved much nearer the violet by saponi- _fying, or split up into two in some cases, the corresponding band By John Hopkinson, * The five bands in a leaf, as described by Kraus, can be seen by using & micro-spectroscope of small dispersion and good substage achromatic condenser, of enterochlorophyll disappears z# tofo, or remains in the same place. Another difference was also noted in the case of entero- chlorophyll and in the case of Sfongzl/a chlorophyll, namely, that it is impossible to bring about a com//efe separation of the constituents in most cases by saponifying and treating as Hansen directs. All ‘the bands of a solution of Sfongz//a chlorophyll are co- incident with those of a similar solution of plant chlorophyll, as already proved by Prof. Lankester and Mr. Sorby. From the enterochlorophyll of Uvraster rubens crystals of ** chlorophyll yellow” and ‘‘chlorophyll green” were obtained by saponifying. Morphologically, enterochlorophyll occurs—as proved by the examination of fresh-frozen sections—in oil-globules, granules, and dissolved in the protoplasm of the liver cells ; no starch or cellulose could be found in such sections after adopting the usual botanical precautions. Hence enterochlorophyll is an animal product, and a chloro- phyll, of which there are probably several occurring in animals. Geological Society, April 29.—Prof. T. G. Bonney, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S., President, in the chair.—James Back- house, Percy Bosworth Smith, and James Shipman were elected Fellows of the Society.—The following communications were read :—On the structure of the ambulacra of some fossil genera and species of regular Echinoidea, by Prof. P. Martin Duncan, M.B. (Lond.), F.R.S., V.P. Linn. Soc. After noticing the general knowledge which exists about the structure of the ambulacra in the Cidaridz and the elaborate investigations of Loven on the Triplechinide, the author brought before the Society the results of his own work with and without the co- operation of his fellow-worker in the description of the Echin- oidea of Sind, Mr. Percy Sladen, F.G.S., and which referred to the Diadematide and the Arbaciadee of the recent faunas. Starting with the knowledge of the construction of the modern Diadematidze, the author investigated the genera Hemipedina, Pseudodiadema, Pedina, Hemicidaris, Diplopodia, and Cyphosoma. The necessity for the re-establishment of the genus Dip/opodia was shown, and a new genus, Plesiodiadema, was founded. Pseudo- diadema, shorn of the forms included in these genera, remains and differs more from Dzadema than has been believed. The method of the growth of the great plates of Memictdaris was explained, and the comparison between the peristomial plates of some of the Diadematidze and the universal structure of the ambulacral plates in Pedina was made. The author considered that there are six types of ambulacra in the regular Echinoidea, so far as the group has been investigated, there still remaining much to be done. These types are the Cidaroid, Diadematoid, Arbacioid, Echinoid, Cyphosomoid, and Diplopodous. In conclusion the succession in time of the structures which characterise these types was considered.—The Glacial period in Australia, by R. von Lendenfeld, Ph.D. Communicated by W. T. Blanford, LL.D., F.R.S., Sec.G.S. Although several previous writers have suggested that boulders and gravels found in different parts of Australia are of glacial origin, the evidence is vague, and no clear proof of glaciation has been brought forward. During a recent ascent of the highest ranges in Australia, parts of the Australian Alps, the author succeeded in discovering a peak which he named ‘‘ Mount Clarke,” 7256 feet high, and in finding traces of glaciation in the form of voches moutonnées throughout an area of about 100 square miles. The best-preserved of the ice-worn surfaces were found in a valley named by the author the ‘* Wilkinson Valley,” running from north-east to south-west, immediately south of Miiller’s Peak and the Abbot Range. No traces of ice-action were found at less than 5800 feet above the sea. Tle rocks showing ice-action are all granitic, and the fact that the surfaces have been polished by glaciers is said to be proved by the great size of such surfaces, by their occurrence on spurs and projecting points, by many of them being worn down to the same general level, and by their not coinciding in direction with the joints that traverse the rock. In conclusion the author briefly compared the evidence of glacial action in Australia with that in New Zealand.—The physical conditions involved in the injection, extrusion, and cooling of igneous matter, by H. J. Johnston- Lavis, M.D., F.G.S., &c. The great disproportion between the displays of volcanic activity in the same volcano at different times, and between the eruptions of different volcanoes, is a subject deserving the most attentive consideration. The violence of a volcanic outburst does not bear any relation to the quantity 7O NATORE [May 21, 1885 of material ejected. The union of water with lavas may be compared with the solution of a gas in water; but there is reason to believe that in their deep-seated sources lavas contain little or no water. If igneous matter be extruded through dry strata the eruption might take place without explosive manifesta- tions. But if igneous matter be extruded through water-bearing beds, a kind of dialysis would take place between the igneous and aqueous masses. In this way the tension of the steam in the fluid rock may at last become so great that a fissure will be formed at the surface and volcanic action will follow. In this way the violence of a volcanic eruption will be determined by the quantity of water contained in the strata through which the lava passes in its passage to the surface, and by the temperature at which it reaches the surface. This theory explains the ac- knowledged sequence of volcanic outbursts of different degrees of violence, and the intervals which occur between them. It also explains the differences between the central and lateral eruptions of a great voleano and the phenomena attending its extinction. The structures of the igneous rocks, whether of basic or acid composition, are greatly modified by the presence in them of volatile ingredients. The succession of events indi- cated by the structure of Monte Somma and Vesuvius, Rocca- monfina, Monte Vulture, and Monte Nuovo show that after a long cessation of volcanic activity we have an extensive produc- tion of fragmentary and scoriaceous material, and that this is gradually succeeded by the eruption of lava-streams. The water and other volatile substances, such as sulphates and chlorides, which are given off abundantly in volcanic eruptions, may act as solvents for the various minerals which constitute lavas. aaa “Physical Scciety, May 9.—The meeting was held in the Physics Theatre of Clifton College, Bristol, in consequence of an invitation from the British Naturalists’ Society, Prof. Guthrie, President, in the chair.—Messrs. E. Cleminshaw, E, F. Herrom, and A. L. Selby were elected members of the Society.—The following communications were read :—On evaporation and dis- sociation, by Prof. W. Ramsay and Dr. S. Young. The authors gave the results of a series of investigations undertaken with the view of determining how far the passage of a liquid into a gas resembled the dissociation of a chemical compound. For this purpose the relation between the pressure and temperature of several dissociating substances such as ammonic carbonate, chloral hydrate, and phthalic acid had been examined. The authors hope shortly to publish the full details of these experi- ments and the conclusions arrived at.—On a model illustrating the propagation of the electro-magnetic wave, by Dr. S. P. Thompson. The model consists of two sets of beads. Each set is composed of a number of beads fixed to the extremities of wires, and by a suitable mechanical contrivance each executes an approximately harmonic motion at right angles to the wires and the mean plane of the set. The phase of each bead differing by a certain small amount from the succeeding, the whole represents a wave-propagation. The two sets are coloured differently and are so placed that their harmonic motions are executed at right angles about the same axis which represents the direction of propagation of an electro-magnetic disturbance, one wave being the electrostatic and the other the electro-magnetic displacement. —On aself-recording stress and strain indicator, by Prof. H. S. H. Shaw. This instrument was designed for one of Wicksteed’s 50-ton single lever machines lately erected in the Engineering Laboratory of University College, Bristol, and has been found very simple and effective. In this testing machine the stress is applied by moving a mass of 1 ton along a lever ; this mass is connected by a cord with a vertical cylinder upon the indicator. This cylinder carries a paper wound around it, and turns upon its axis as the mass is moved towards the end of the lever. A pencil capable of a vertical motion bears against this, and thus horizontal distances upon the paper are measures of stress. The strain is measured by the vertical motion of the pencil, the posi- tion of which is controlled by a wire attached to the rim of a wheel above, upon the same axis of which are other smaller wheels, any one of which can be connected to a fine wire which is carried horizontally to the upper end of the test-piece passing over a pulley fixed to it, and is fixed to the lower end. Any extension of the test-piece can be multiplied at pleasure on the diagram by attaching the wire to a larger or smaller wheel.— Note on the so-called silent discharge of ozone generators, by Mr. W. A. Shenstone. Mr. Shenstone had arranged some apparatus by which this could be viewed. It seemed to have the characteristics of the Brush discharge. ; EDINBURGH Royal Society, April 20.—Robert Gray, Vice-President, in the chair.—In a paper on the effect of pressure on the tempera- — ture of minimum compressibility of water, Prof. Tait showed that the various results obtained admitted of easy deduction from theory.—A note on the variation by pressure of the melting- point of paraffin, &c., by Mr. W. Peddie; and a note on the thermal effects of tension in water, by Mr. G. N. Stewart, were submitted by Prof. Tait—Mr. Hugh R obert Mill read a paper on the temperature of the water inthe Firth of Forth, describing the work done at the Scottish Marine Station in this direction. The annual range of temperature, from summer maximum to winter minimum, was found to vary from nearly 40° F, at Alloa, where the river is fresh at low tide, to 20° at Queensferry, twenty miles seaward, and 10° at the mouth of the Firth thirty-five miles _ further on. The mean temperature of the water appeared to be — the same—47°"5—at all parts of the estuary, From June to — September the river was warmer than the sea, from October to — May it was colder, the average rise or fall in temperature at el f time along the Firth being 0°07 per mile. During the summer period the surface-water had a higher, and during winter a — lower, temperature than that beneath. The annual minimum — was reached in February, the maximum in August, and there were indications of the period being delayed toward the open sea. Materials are unfortunately wanting for discussing the variations of temperature in the North Sea beyond the influence of land. Mr. Mill showed curves of the monthly mean tem- peratures of the water plotted by the use of polar coordinates. Each month was represented by an angle of 30°; the tempera- ture being measured on the radius, equal values were shown as" concentric circles. Temperatures so plotted appear as closed curves, andin several cases those for the water resembled a circle placed eccentrically to the circles of reference. This method of curve-drawing has several advantages over that by the use of rectangular coordinates where periodic phenomena are to be represented.—Mr. J. T. Cunningham, of the Marine Station, read a paper on the relations of the yolk to the gastrula in teleosteans and in other types. Mathematical Society, May 8.—Mr. A. T. G. Barclay, President, in the chair.—Prof. Chrystal read papers on repeated differentiation, and on a process for finding the differential equa- tion of an algebraic curve. Dr. Thomas Muir made a com- munication on integration formule, and gave a historical note on the so-called Simson line.—Mr. J. S. Mackay contributed several mnemonics for certain mathematical constants. , SYDNEY Linnean Society of New South Wales, Feb. 25.—Prof. W. J. Stephens, M.A., F.G.S., President, in the chair.—The follow- ing papers were read:—On some reptiles from the Herbert River district, Queensland, by William Macleay, F.L.S., &c. Five new species are here described, Ainulza picta, and Tetra- dactylus guttulatus of the family Scincide, and of Ophidians Nardoa crassa, Tropidonotus ater, and Hoplocephalus assimilis. —Notes on certain Ceylonese Coleoptera, described by the late Francis Walker, by A. Sydney Olliff. In these notes Mr. Olliff, who had examined Mr. Walker’s types in the British Museum, endeavours to clear up the synonomy of the Clavicorn families. The name Asana was proposed for the 7rogosita rhyzophagoides of Walker, which cannot be referred to any known genus. In form it resembles Zzfasfis, but is characterised by the presenc of a scutellum.—On the flight of birds, by R. von Lendenfeld, Ph.D. PARIS Academy of Sciences, May 11.—M. Bouley, President, in the chair.—Remarks on the application of photography to the mapping of the stars by means of MM. P. and Pr. Henry’s new objectives, by M. Mouchez. The first essays with an ob- jective of 0°16 m. and a provisionary apparatus proved so suc- cessful, that a new instrument has been constructed with two objectives of 0°24 m. and 0°34 m. respectively. Although not yet completely regulated, this instrument has already yielded some remarkable results, fully justifying, if not exceeding, the hopes entertained by astronomers. It appears to have once for all solved the problem how to apply photography to the con- struction of a map of the heavenly bodies which shall include stars of the r4th and 15th magnitudes.—On the spontaneously reversible spectral rays, and on the analogy between the laws of ba May 21, 1885] NATURE 71 their distribution and intensity with those of the hydrogen rays, by M. A. Cornu.—On the electric conductibility of solid mer- cury and of pure metals at low temperatures, by MM. Cailletet and Bouty. From numerous experiments made with mercury, silver, tin, aluminium, magnesium, copper, iron, and platina, the authors conclude that the electric resistance of most pure metals decreases regularly when the temperature is lowered from o to —123, and that the coefficient of variation is apparently much the same for all. It seems probable that the resistance would become extremely slight at temperatures lower than —200°, although this point has not yet been practically tested. Note on the action of aluminium on the chloride of aluminium, by MM. C. Friedel and L. Roux.—An inquiry into the reason which renders mechanical exciters incapable of bringing into play the excito-motor regions of the brain proper, by M. Vulpian.— Remarks on MM. A. F. Marion and G. de Saporta’s ‘‘ Eyolu- tion of the Vegetable Kingdom,” by M. Duchartre.-—On a method of reconnoitring the enemy’s position at great distances with a description of the telemetrograph, an instrument invented for carrying out these operations (one illustration), by M. A. Laussédat.—On the cure of progressive myopy by the processes of iridectomy and sclerotomy, with remarks on the theory of this ophthalmic affection, by M. H. Dransart.—Note on the theory of the figure of the earth, by M. O. Callandreau.—Remarks on a new and accurate method of astronomic observation by means of a fixed lunette attached to the meridian, by M. Ch. von Zenger. By this simple process the angle of position and the distance of the double stars may be determined and measurements taken of the parallax of the sun or the stars. For simple observations a precision of o’’o2 may be relied upon which is considerably greater than that hitherto obtained by the use of the most accurate and powerful meridian lunettes.—Results of experiments under- taken at the national powder mills of Pont-du-Buis with the regulating apparatus of two turbines for the purpose of testing the conclusions deduced from M. Léaute’s memoir on oscillations at long intervals in machinery set in motion by hydiaulic agency, by M. A. Bérard.—On the polarisation of the metallic capillary tubes by the flow of fluids under high pressure, by M. Krouchkoll. When a conducting fluid is driven through a capillary metallic tube at a_ pressure of less than fifteen atmospheres, the tube and the fluid being placed in communication with the mercury of a capillary electrometer, no polarisation of the tube takes place. But if the pressure be raised, the author shows that the tube begins to become polarised, the polarisation increasing with the pressure. —Description of a new electric pile, at once simple and cheap, which has been named the “ self-accumulator”’ by the inventor, M. Jablochkoff. For this pile it is claimed that it emits no odour, that it utilises the local curréats which are so troublesome in ordinary piles, and especially that it supplies electric power at a very low price, for in it filings, cuttings, and other waste forms of metals may be employed.—On the tensions and critical points of some vapours, by MM. C. Vincent and J. Chappuis. The author's observations are here confined to hydrochloric acid and the chloride of methyl, the object being to show how the maxima tensions of a series of liquefied gases vary with the temperature, to determine the critical points of these products, and to compare the results obtained for the purpose of verifying the hypotheses advanced by MM. Nadejine and Pawlowsky. — Note on the oxy- chlorides of aluminium, by MM. P. Hautefeuille and A. Perrey.—On the apparent volatilisation of silicum at a tempera- ture of 440°, by MM. P. Hautefeuille and A. Perrey.—Note on a method of preparing arsenical acid, and on the existence of com- binations of arsenious and arsenical acids, by M. A. Joly.—On the limit of combination for the bicarbonates of magnesium and potassium, by M. R. Engel.—On a hydrochlorate of proto- chloride of chromium, by M. Berthelot.—A calorimetric study on the effects of the tempering and cold-hammering of cast steel, by M. Osmond.—Remarks on the mineralogical consti- tution of the Sierra Nevada of the Iberian Peninsula, by M. Guillemin-Tarayre.—On the liberation of carbonic acid and the absorption of oxygen by leaves kept in dark places, by MM. P, P. Dehérain and L. Maguenne.—Note on a new gutta-percha plant, by M. E. Heckel. As a substitute for the Isonandra gatta, Hooker, which is threatening to disappear, the author _ proposes the Butyrospermum Parkit, Kotschy, which possesses similar properties, and which is widely diffused throughout is equatorial Africa, between Upper Senegal and the Nile basin. — A fresh contribution to the question of the origin of boric acid : analysis of the Montecatini waters between Florence and Pistoja, by M. Dieulafait.— On an arrangement enabling the observer to follow with the eye the phenomena presented by aquatic animals subjected to a pressure of 600 atmospheres, by M. P. Régnard. —On a new apparatus intended to detect infinitesimal quantities of blood wherever present in fluids or on solid substances, and named the ‘‘hema-spectroscope” by the inventor, M. M. de Thierry.—On pathological urines, by M. A. Villiers. —Note on a method for measuring the intensity of sensations, and especially those of colour, by M. Aug. Charpentier.—On the formation and development of the spores in Cladothrix dichotoma, by M. A. Billet.—A study of the Bacterium uree, by M. A. Billet.—Remarks on the cause of a new epidemic recently prevalent amongst the domestic ducks in the neighbourhood of Castres, Tarn, by M. A. Caraven-Cachin. This disease, which at one time raged with great violence, was ultimately traced to the leaves of the Adlantus grandulosa, Desf., or varnish of Japan, growing in the district and eaten by these birds. BERLIN Physiological Society, April 17.—Prof. Busch spoke on anomalies in human teeth, and illustrated his observations in part by preparations laid before the Society, in part by plaster casts. In the first place he treated of anomalies of situations he had observed in teeth—the horizontal position of a wisdom tooth, which, pressing against the third molar, produced inflam- mation in the latter ; the projection of teeth through the aveolar wall of the maxilla on the anterior or posterior side, an occurr- ence happening mostly in the case of permanent canine teeth which pushed their way through at a late period, when there was no place left for them in the jaw ; the exchange of situation between the canine tooth and the first bicuspid in the order of the teeth. Another kind of anomalies respected the number of the teeth, especially of the incisors. Instead of the normal number of four in each jaw, five were now and again ob- served, and in a few, very rare, cases, aS many as six. On the other hand, there were cases of only two in- cisors with a correspondingly large lacuna. ‘The failure of the wisdom tooth was not a rare occurrence. Anomalies of dental structure the speaker illustrated by pieces of ivory, which presented very remarkable deviations from the normal course of their fibres. In human teeth there had to be considered under this head enamel pearls, that is, smaller or larger round drops of enamel adhering to the roots, and having no connection with the crown. Anomalies of size were very rare. The breadth of the physiological variations amounted to about 3 to 5mm. Now and again, however, enlargements were observed as high as 10 mm., and diminutions as low as too’9 cm. Inthe latter case crown and root had each transformed itself into the shape of a cone. Enlargements affected the root more frequently than the crown. Anomalies of the root were sometimes seen in curves shaped like an S$ or hook, but more frequently in the increase or diminution of the number of the roots. More than five out- spread roots, more or less perfect, had never been observed. Molars of the lower maxilla were not unfrequently found with three, and bicuspids with two separate roots. In incisors and canine teeth divisions of the tips of the roots were occasionally found with two pulps, or more or less deep segmentations. A diminution, as well as an increase in the number of the roots had also been observed; yet was the coalescence of separate roots of rarer occurrence than their increase by splitting. The frequency of the anomalies referred to was not great. Out of nearly 11,000 teeth examined, only about 100 anomalous specimens had been found. Still more seldom did swellings occur on the teeth. These were sometimes soft, and consist- ing of connective tissue ; sometimes completely calcified with- out containing one of the tooth tissues differentiated ; sometimes situated on the crown, sometimes on the root. These Odontoma, like the teeth themselves, were always to be found in particular grooves of the maxilla. No osseous coalescence of the teeth and maxilla had ever been observed. At the close the speaker pro- duced casts of gums which showed very considerable variations in their curves, ranging from an entirely flat up to a highly arched form.—Prof. Christiani communicated briefly the results of experiments carried out by Herr Gnezda on the poison of the cobra di capello (Waja trifudians). The poison was obtainedin India by causing the snakes to bite into snails or mussels wrapped in gutta-percha and filled with water. The watery solution thus obtained was reduced by evaporation. Of its physical and chemical qualities it was to be remarked that the 72 NATURE poison belonged to the class of propeptons. Experiments were instituted with representatives of all the vertebrata. They were all susceptible of the poison, and died when the dose of the poison amounted to 3mg. per kilogramme animal. The time when death followed a full dose of the poison was very various. Rabbits died after half an hour, pickerels after an hour, frogs later, then cats, and lastly pigeons. Stronger doses hastened death. Dilutions and the introduction of artificial respiration delayed death. The physiological effect extended principally to the central nervous system. The muscles and the peripherical nerves continued irritable, although paralysis set in very soon. Seldom were spasms and compulsory movements observed. The poison appeared to have hardly any effect at all on the heart. Physical Society, April 24.—Dr. Kayser reported on a recent paper of Prof. Bunsen (Wiedemann’s Annalen, 1885, Heft 3) in which the differences between the results of the speaker’s experiments regarding the absorption of carbonic acid on smooth glass surfaces and those published by Prof. Bunsen two years ago received their explanation. While, namely, Dr. Kayser had found that the absorption of carbonic acid proceeded according to definite laws formulated by him, Prof. Bunsen had observed that this process of absorption did not terminate even after as long a period as three years, but still continued, even though at a reduced rate. In his most recent work Prof. Bunsen had now established that the glass threads, even after a current of dry air had been for a considerable time directed over them, still retained a layer of water which was thin in proportion as the temperature was high, but did not become entirely dissipated till the temperature reached as high as about 500° C. This layer of water it was which absorbed the carbonic acid, and all the more powerfully the denser was the layer of water. The density of the water, however, stood in inverse relation to its thickness. From these experiments Dr. Kayser concluded that the absorp- tion of carbonic acid on the glass threads which Prof. Bunsen had obseived continuing for so long a period was only an absorp- tion of the gas by the adhering water and no absorption on the smooth glass surface, whereas in the speaker’s experiments, in which the glass threads had in boiling oil been freed from all adhering matters, the carbonic acid had been absorbed by the smooth glass.—Dr. Less spoke of two curves placed before the Society, as markings of the barograph on April 22 and 23 during the time of the brief thunderstorm in Berlin. The two curves presented in general an analogous course, concurring, moreover, with curves which Dr. Less had observed last year during the severe July storm. Before the outburst of the thunderstorm the curves sank slowly, next rose steeply to a considerable height ; with the attainment of the maximum of pressure coincided the stroke of lightning ; the curve then maintained itself at a level for some time, throughout which the thunder-shower or hail was wont to fall; on the cessation of rain the curve of atmospheric pressure sank steeply to beneath the former minimum. In the two April curves a further sudden rise preceded the second weaker stroke of lightning, and there then followed several smaller jerkings of the curves coinciding with the time of the formation of clouds consequent on the short thunder-storm. In the curves of the July of last year during the severe storms so copiously charged with lightning, the apex of the curves after the sudden ascent was not straight, but consisted wholly of short indentations each of which appeared to correspond with an indi- vidual lightning stroke, so far as it was possible to fix the precise times. The sudden steep ascent of the curve on April 22 and 23 coincided with a sudden increase in the force of the wind, which soon, however, fell weaker, and at last sank almost to complete stillness. The speaker also reported the corresponding numerical values for the variations of atmospheric pressure marked by the barograph. VIENNA Imperial Academy of Sciences, March 5.—Contribution to a knowledge of Coniopterigide, by F. Lowe.—On a new morphological element of peripheric nerves, by A. Adamkiewicz. —On the sensibility to light and colours of some marine ani- mals, by V. Graber.—On some propagatory organs of the fruits of Composite, by M. Kronfeld.—On the fauna of the Jurassic deposits of Hohenstein, Saxony, by G. Bruder.—On mannite lead-nitrate, by A. Smolka.—Note on Lowe's lead-nitrate and on Morawski’s penta-plumbonitrate, by the same.—On the tem- perature of Vienna and its environs, with a study on the action of local influences on the mean temperature, by T. Hann.—On camphoronic acid, by T. Kachler and F. V. Spitzer.—On the daily and yearly course, and on the period of disturbances of magnetic declination at Vienna, by T. Liznar. March 12.—On nerve-corpuscles, by A. Adamkiewicz.—On the use of boiling oxygen, nitrogen, carbon oxide, and atmo- spheric air as a freezing-agent, by S. von Wroblewski —Contri- bution to a knowledge of the texture of hyaline cartilage, by E. — Zuckerkandl.—On the Upper Italic flora of the Lunz strata and of the bituminous slate of Raibl, by Dr. Stur. March 19.—Crystallographic researches on camphor derivates, by V. von Zepharovich.—Experimental studies on the deter- mination of the constant of dielectricity of some gases and vapours, by T, Klemencie.—On the planes of solution of cal- careous spar and arragonite, by V. von Ebner.—On figures obtained by corroding arragonite, by the same.—On a meteoric explosion observed at a distance of 1000 metres by R. Spitaler on March 15, by E. Weiss. UPSALA Society of Science, April 17,—The foilowing paper, by Dr. K. B. J. Forssell, was accepted for insertion in the Society’s Fourvnal :—‘‘ Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Anatomie und Systematik der Gloeolichenen.” Prof. Lilljeborg described a Metridia armata (Boeck) taken in the Antarctie Ocean (lat. 54°-5° S.), and suggests that it was probably found near both poles. It was taken by Capt. Scheele, of the Swedish barque J/onark, an amateur scientist to whom the Society had lent instruments, vessels, and apparatus for deep-sea researches. He further exhibited Plurxoma abdominale (Iubbock), also taken by Capt. Schéele in the South Atlantic. It was remarkable as having an appendicular eye on the side of the head.—Prof. Hildebrandsson spoke about the twilight phenomenon, specially with reference to some observations of the purple glimmer then prevailing, made by Dr. Gyllenskjéld.—Prof. Clason gave a lecture on the functions of certain parts of the brain. CONTENTS PAGE The British Museum Catalogue of Lizards .... 49 The Silver-Lead Deposits of Nevada ...... 50 Our Book Shelf :— Hansen’s ‘‘Den Norske Nordhavs-Expedition, 1876 tomn8 7872 less a oe coe lemon es 51 Marshall’s ‘‘ Hunterian Oration” . .... emo Letters to the Editor : — Notes on the Action of the Wimshurst Induction Machine.—G. B. Buckton, F.R:S) > fase ees Nesting of Micropternus pheoceps.—Charles Bingham (Zllustrated) . eee Go 5 + - 52 Staminody of Petals.—J. C. Costerus ...... 53 Catalogue of Fossil Mammalia in the British Museum, Part I.—Richard Lydekker. 7 . ) . sae Hee 5153 Fossil Insects.—Dr. H. A. Hagen 2 <5 see ci SS) High-Level Stations.—Dr, A. Woeikof. .... . 54 Rainbow Phenomena.—Prof. Silvanus P. Thomp- SOW ES Gut ce cto oio Gop wu dross o a) Se fo) a eg Aurora.—Prof. J. P. O’Reilly ..... 54 Red Hail: —C. Ewans .. .. 2%. «sn ee 54 Spectral Images.—Dr. Henry Muirhead ..... 55 The New Outburst of Lava from Vesuvius. By HJ: Johnston-Vavis) 0. 2 <= sue eee «55 Experiments with Coal-Dust at Neunkirchen, in Germany. “By, W. Galloway, ).0-0)-) ieee 5D The Fauna of Russian Central Asia. By Rev. Dr. Henry Lansdell: — 0s) 7) 3 5 mi +e ee Field Experiments at Rothamsted. By Prof. John Wrightson ETON DA Doo 0 om 58 Recent Explorations ofthe Pamir. ........ 59 Notes? ean a eee oe: Heimer Bare ag eh Geographical’ Notes. 2) os ane Mere | Lo: Astronomical Phenomena for the Week 1885, May 24-30) ee eo Seale qemreltger te sets” teem 65 The Value of a Marine Laboratory to the Develop- ment and Regulation of our Sea Fisheries. By Prof. E. Ray Lankester, F.R.S..... . +12 Os Meteorological Instruments. ......... 67 Scientific'Serialssy ee. eee ee 5 PMA uit y (7 Societiesiand Academies). semen erie eons 68 [May 21, 1885. NARORE 73 THURSDAY, MAY 28, 1885 PRACTICAL INSTRUCTION IN BOTANY A Course of Practical Instruction in Botany. By F. O. Bower, M.A., F.L.S., Lecturer on Botany at the Normal School of Science, South Kensington, and Sidney H. Vines, M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S., Fellow and Lecturer of Christ’s College, Cambridge, and Reader in Botany in the University ; with a Preface by W. T. Thiselton Dyer, M.A., C.M.G., F.R.S., F.L.S., Assistant Director of the Royal Gardens, Kew. Part I. Phanerogamze— Pteridophyta. (London: Macmillan and Co., 1885.) ie is with more than ordinary satisfaction that we welcome this volume. Apart altogether from con- sideration of its intrinsic excellency, its appearance is gratifying as a first product of the younger school of botanists in this country—a school which for some years past has been doing good work in oral teaching, though up till now it has not contributed to teaching literature— and it is time that its methods were put in a more permanent form and made more generally accessible. The inconsistencies and inaccuracies characterising, with few exceptions, our endemic botanical text-books and our dependence for reasonably safe handbooks with informa- tion up to date upon translated works, mostly of German authors, are a reproach for which every botanist would gladly see the cause removed. At last we have a prospect of this, and the volume now before us is an instalment of a work which will in great part do so. The names of Thiselton Dyer, Bower, and Vines on the title-page are a guarantee of its thoroughness and accuracy, and the book certainly bears out their reputation. The book took origin, as Mr. Thiselton Dyer informs us in the preface, in the work initiated by him at South _ Kensington in 1873. It is no small merit to have started at that time a system of instruction which embraced the examination by every student of the leading morpho- logical facts of every important type in the vegetable kingdom. And this programme, which Mr. Thiselton Dyer set himself and successfully carried out, has not only eventuated in what, with him, we hope will be per- manent—the institution, in what is now the Normal School of Science, at South Kensington, of a lectureship on botany, but also, in what concerns us here—this volume. *T had always,” says Mr. Thiselton Dyer, “hoped to put together the results of the experience in teaching methods acquired at South Kensington in the form of a handbook, which should save teachers who wished to follow our example from much of the trouble and diffi- culty which I, and those who at different times have taught in this way, have had to face. But, in the mean- _ while, I had been drawn off to administrative duties which left a steadily decreasing leisure for purely scientific work. Fortunately, my friend Mr. Bower was willing—and with far greater competence—to take up the task which I was unable to perform, and to him are entirely due the labora- tory instructions for studying the different types selected. Dr. Vines has very kindly supplied the chapters on methods and on the morphology of the cell. But besides VOL. XXx11.—No. 813 this he has at every step given the assistance of his own extensive experience in practical teaching.” With this book before us we can understand the motive of success of the South Kensington course, for it is the most thorough introduction to the practical study of plant morphology which has yet appeared ; the only book to be mentioned along with it is the recently published “Practicum” of Strasburger—(of which of course the inevitable translation is promised)—and that is laid down on somewhat different lines. In the first chapter Dr. Vines gives an excellent account of methods and reagents, delightful in the clearness and conciseness of its language and bearing throughout evi- dence of the hand of one who is no mere compiler of instruction but who has himself tested and had experience of all that is explained. The manner of setting to work, of making preparation, of making cultures, of preparing reagents, is all set forth in such a way that any intelligent tyro may readily equip himself and do good work. And we must congratulate Dr. Vines on the wise selection of methods and reagents he has made for notice, and on their arrangement. The multiplicity of new methods— many with but questionable advantage to recommend them—and their technicalities even in connection with botanical work is, at the present time, somewhat appall- ing and it is satisfactory to have these sifted by so com- petent an authority. Dr. Vines’s second chapter, on the Structure and Pro- perties of the Cell, is a very prominent and commendable feature in the book, and will prove an extremely valuable one to all practical students—the micro-chemical portion of it especially, which gives in summarised and terse form the fundamental reactions exhibited by the various elements in the plant body, which are the basis of all further laboratory work. The student finds here at once a guide for testing the dictums of the earlier chapter as well as a graphic code for reference in his future studies. A synoptical arrangement such as this, and so happily worked out, has not been attempted in any previous book. Mr. Bower’s more especial work, the morphology of the various types dealt with, is no less excellent. The ex- amples selected for illustration appear to us particularly well chosen, being readily obtainable in any locality, and their characteristics, macroscopic and microscopic, are explained with precision and in great detail. We shall not dwell at any length upon illustration of the admirable character of this part of the book, but in evidence of its completeness will refer to the section on the vegetative organs of Dicotyledons. Sw/flower is selected as the chief type for examination, and we have first of all a brief description of the embryo and germination; then its stem in the mature and young condition are gone over, macroscopically and microscopically; but as it shows only the herbaceous type, the arboreous type as seen in Elm is explained, and further, the aquatic type, as in Mare’s-tail. Sections are next added on the stem of Cucumber and Lime-tree with a view to special illustra- tion of the sieve-tube elements, and upon Dazdelion and Spurge for laticiferous elements. In like manner the leaf is treated of, to that of Swflower, which is the chief type, descriptions of Cherry-laurel and Stone-crop being appended. Again, in the case of the root, Scar/et- runner as well as Sunflower is described. Besides these E 74 NATURE [May 28, 1885 forms we have mentioned, which are dealt with in detail, frequent references are made to other examples in which equally good or further illustration of special features may be obtained. Similar thoroughness runs through the accounts of all the types. Every one perusing the volume must be impressed with the high standard of its educational value. Teacher and student in this country are alike to be con- gratulated upon its publication. The former has now a thoroughly trustworthy laboratory guide to place in the hands of pupils, and the latter has a handbook in his own language to which he can refer with confidence in his search after a sound knowledge of plant-morphology. This is only the first part of the work, and deals with Phanerogams and Pteridophytes. May the succeeding portion not belong in appearing! It is regrettable that the original intention of the authors “ to preface the directions for the study of each type with a short account .. . of its salient morphological facts” has not been carried out in this part; Mr. Thiselton Dyer assigns in the preface the reason for its postponement. We are convinced that the want of such brief epitomes will be universally felt. But as the book is certain of a full measure of success, we loo’: forward, with the authors, to the realisation of their hope that “the original scheme upon which the work was planned ” may be “ carried out in a future edition.” We conclude as we began by heartily welcoming the volume. We envy a student commencing to work with such a guide, and we are greatly mistaken if its effect is not very rapidly felt in the botanical teaching of the country. THE PENNATULIDA OF THE NORWEGIAN NORTH ATLANTIC EXPEDITION Den Norske Nordhavs Expedition, 1876-1878. Zoologie Pennatulida. Ved D. C. Danielssen og Johan Koren. (Christiania; Grondahl and Sons, 1884.) ast is the twelfth part of the series of monographs contained in this fine work, the first part of which was published in 1880. The former parts have dealt with, besides the chemistry and physics of the expedition, the fishes, a part of the Mollusca, the Gephyrea, Annelida, Asteroidea, and Holothuroidea, the monographs on the last four animal groups being by the same indefatigable naturalists who have produced the present memoir on the Pennatulida. The work is a highly creditable one to all concerned. The present part is illustrated by twelve excellent plates, two of which are coloured, and which are in the same style as those already published by the same authors in their well-known memoir on new Alcyonians belonging to the Norwegian fauna published two years ago." Thirteen species of Pennatulida belonging to eight genera were obtained during the expedition, and of these eleven species and two genera were new. One of the new genera is Svava, a small sea-pen with rudimentary fins and devoid of spicules on the sarcosome, cells and polyps. There is a stripe of zooids on either side of the stem, and in the two lateral canals of the stem are deve- loped the zonads on the mesenteries of these zooids. The zooids alone produce gonads, the fully-developed * “*Bergens Museum. ; Nye Alcyonider, Gorgonider og Pannatulider tilhorende Norges Fauna.” (Bergen, 1883.) polyps being barren. They are viviparous, the larvae escaping from their mouths, as in Corallium. The other new genus, Gunneria, is founded on a fragment of a single specimen, but it is characterised by the presence of an immense quantity of spicules on the bodies of the polyps, their tentacles, and the sarcosoma, which latter forms a — regular calcareous crust on the walls of the cells; the spicules are so closely packed in several layers that it is difficult to separate them, even with caustic potash. this respect Gunneria approaches the Gorgonidze ; yet it is, nevertheless, a true Pennatulid. The main feature of the memoir is, however, the part which relates to the now famous deep-sea Pennatulid, Umébellula encrinus, to which more than half the letter- press and seven of the five plates are devoted. The Norwegian Expedition obtained twelve specimens of Umbellula encrinus from different localities. Kolliker described eight species of the genus from the Challenger collection, but one of these, U. magvifiora, is considered by the authors as referable to the old historical UW. encrinus, as are also Lindahl’s new species from the Swedish Expedition of 1871, viz. U. miniacea and U. pallida. The whole of the twelve specimens obtained by the Norwegian Expedition are here carefully described in all details. All of them differ from one another, display- ing peculiarities in various ages and stages of develop- ment which might, were the series less complete, easily lead to the establishment of separate species. The largest specimen obtained was dredged from a depth of 763 metres. Itis a giant indeed. The rachis and the polyps, of which there are forty in the bunch, are twice figured on the last two plates, of actual size, coloured and un- coloured. The bunch of polyps occupies with its breadth nearly the entire length of the folio plate. The plates are far the finest representation of Umbellula yet published. There are eight prominent lanceolate areas occupied by In| —— a zooids which extend up between the lateral polyps on the © calicle-like part of the rachis, and spread themselves inferiorly over the rachis generally. The zooids are described as having each a single protusible tentacle, the tentacle when not retracted looking like a pendent papilla. These tentacles sometimes, but not always, bear short lateral pinnules, which are hollow, their cavities commu- nicating with those of the tentacles, and which can be retracted with them. Kdolliker, in his account of the Challenger Pennatulids, described similar zooids each bearing a single tentacle as existing in Umbellula Huxley and U. Carfenterz, and in the latter species found the single tentacles branched. He figures them, but only on a very small scale. On looking at the figures here given of these zooids (Tab. X., Figs. 56, 57) it is very difficult to understand their structure: the position of the mouth is not shown in any one, and they are drawn as elongate and flask-like in form when expanded, squat and rounded when retracted. The tentacle seems when protruded to be a direct narrow prolongation of the entire body of the zooid, and it appears as if on retraction this prolongation were telescoped into the basal region of the body. The base of the single tentacle should abut on one side of the mouth, but no such mouth-opening is figured. In the enlarged view of a zooid (Fig. 57) the mouth is neither definitely indicated nor referred to in the description. The text is not at all clear on the point. May 28, 1885] NATURE ks _ The polyps bear the gonads, and are apparently vivi- parous. Very interesting conclusions are arrived at by the authors by comparison of the various stages at their disposal as to the mode of growth and successive addi- tions of fresh polyps to the colony around the termina] primary polyp, and these are at variance with those of Lindahl. A couple of lateral polyps appear on each side of the terminal polyp, then another pair of laterals are formed, and the rachis expands in breadth. The centro- dorsal polyp is formed, and then the dorso-lateral are deve- loped, whilst the lateral polyps become more numerous. H. N. MOSELEY OUR BOOK SHELF A Flora of the English Lake District. By J. G. Baker, F.R.S., F.L.S. (London: George Bell and Sons, York Street, Covent Garden, 1885.) IT is perhaps surprising that a “Flora” of the Lake district has not before been issued, considering the large number of botanists who have yearly rambled over its fells and dales. It has been left to Mr. J. G. Baker to do so, and with modesty he says “‘it does not seem likely at present to stand in the way of anything more complete.” The limits of the “ Flora” embrace parts of Cumberland, Westmoreland, and the whole of what is botanically called Lake Lancashire ; but excludes “the northern half of Cumberland and the western slope of the Pennine Chain, through Cumberland and Westmoreland ;” the exact boundaries are, however, not very clearly defined One cannot help feeling, directly the book is opened, that it is the work of one used to generalise and deal with facts in a broad way: inno part more so than in the first fourteen pages, where, accepting Mr. H. C. Watson’s definitions, he describes the distributive types, zones of altitude, temperature, &c., with a clearness coming of long and practical acquaintance with the subject, giving comparative tables of the types, &c., with those of Northern Yorkshire, Northumberland and Durham, and Britain, and making the Lake Flora about goo species. It should, however, be remembered that this number is based on Mr. H. C. Watson’s estimate of 1425 species for Britain as a whole. Had that estimate to be made wow by Mr. Watson, the result would probably be the accepting of a larger number, not alone by the discovery of species since made, but by a decided feeling on his part “that there were some species that would eventually have to be divided.” It may well be asked why is there this com- paratively large amount of difference demanded among our native plants to constitute a “ species,” and the little often accepted among newly-discovered “species” from distant countries ; doubtless knowledge is progressive in the latter case, but still theories and generalisations are built up on them with as much apparent certainty as on floras long known and: studied. Mr. Baker then enumerates the species constituting the flora, running up to 234 pages, numbering them according to the sixth edition “the “London Catalogue,” showing also (but not num- ering) the large number of doubtful plants that have at various times been reported from the district. Perhaps the most striking fact brought out by this “Flora” is the scarcity of aquatic species compared with the numerous lakes and tarns, of which there must be between sixty and seventy, large and small. Whether in this particular district this is from the want of investigation, or from a real paucity of species or specimens, is difficult to ‘say ; but certainly our lakes and waters have not been suffi- ciently systematically searched, whether from the botani- cal, zoological, or chemical point of view. In this we should do well to emulate the Swedish naturalists; but in 027 | case it may well be asked, “ Where are we to look for help?” How little we know of the life-histories of our aquatic plants ! and it may well be suggested as a study for those botanists, who, while not being able to take up botany in the way so ably advocated lately by Prof. Bower in NATURE, still have some leisure from other occupations and duties, and could really advance the knowledge of our flora beyond mere collecting. It is only necessary to turn over the plates of Dr. T. Irmisch’s work on them to under- stand what is meant and required. AR. B. The Fallacy of the Present Theory of Sound. Wy Henry A. Mott, jun., Ph.D., E.M., &c., Professor of Chemistry and Physics in the New York Medical College and Hospital for Women; Author of “The Chemist’s Manual,” “Was Man Created?” “ Adulteration of Milk,” “Testing the Value of Rifles by Firing under Water,” “ The Laws of Nature,” “ The Air We Breathe and Ventilations,” &c. 12mo. (New York: Printed for the Author, 1885.) THIS is a very curious book. Its author appends to his name recognised scientific titles, and seems to hold a responsible position as a teacher; but he has been led into a hopeless and inextricable muddle about wave- motion ; and, starting with a misconception, he naturally obtains results so utterly at variance with common sense and experience, that it is remarkable he cannot see his error. He begins by admitting that “to attack a theory which has been upheld for 2500 years, and which has been and is sustained by the greatest living scientists, is certainly a very bold undertaking.” But he feels bound, neverthe- less, “to come to the front and join Dr. A. Wilford Hall in exposing the fallacy.” He fulminates, moreover, the following withering defiance at false prophets: “If Profs. Helmholtz, Tyndall, Lord Rayleigh, Sir William Thom- son in Europe, and Profs. Rood and Mayer in this country, wish to retain the respect and confidence of thinking people, they will at once endeavour either to defend the theory of sound, or, like men, come boldly to the front and acknowledge that it is fallacious.” There can be no doubt that these various noblemen and gentlemen will at once proceed to adopt humbly the latter and safer alternative ; because it is obvious that if they do not do so speedily, creation and nature will come to a premature end. This rather serious occurrence is thus predicted : “ The lowest tone of an organ is stated by Prof. Blaserna to have sixteen vibrations to the second, and a consequent wave-length of 7ofeet. It thus follows, says Dr. Hall, that in the sound of such an organ-pipe the air-particles (as a whole) are obliged to travel 35 feet and back sixteen times each second in order to pass from the space occupied by the centre of rarefaction to the centre of condensation and back. They would thus move with a velocity in one direction of 560 feet a second, or at the rate of 381 miles an hour, which would produce a tornado of more than double the velocity necessary to sweep a village into ruins. If there was the least truth in the wave-theory, the sound of a church-organ should get up a cyclone which would blow a cathedral into atoms.” This is truly very horrible! far worse than dynamite. Saddened by these reflections, we can bear with com- parative equanimity the revelation that “the prong of a tuning-fork moves at the rate of only about one inch in four years,” and “instead of swiftly advancing, as Tyndall says, sounds audibly when moving more than 25,000 times slower than the hour hand of a family clock, and more than 309,000,000 times slower than any clock-pendulum ever constructed, instead of very much faster, as Helm- holtz teaches.” One more quotation is irresistible: “ Imagine,” says our author, who seems to have recovered wonderfully from the terrestrial cataclysm which he and the evil-doers 76 above named have all but provoked, “imagine a locust stridulating in the centre of a mass of iron one mile in all directions” (séc). The idea is charming, countrified, bucolic, but perhaps rather cold for the poor insect! “It is admitted he could be heard, and about sixteen times quicker than in the air... .” (the steps of this grand calculation must perforce be omitted). “The mass of iron thus displaced” (ze. by said locust) “ would weigh not less than 729,749,050,612 tons, and would be so moved by: the strength of the locust.” The thought is too tremendous! so, locust-like, I must cease to “stridulate,” lest I bring down the solar system in ruins on the heads of innocent humanity. W. H. STONE Vol. III. : P2/ze. (Breslau: J. U. Kryptogamen-Flora von Schlesien. Bearbeitet von Dr. J. Schroter. Kern.) Dr. Coun’s “ Cryptogamic Flora” is already so favour- ably known by the portions which have appeared, that the announcement of any subsequent part is sure to be received with satisfaction. The first part of the Fungi, by Dr. J. Schréter, is just issued, and consists almost entirely of an introduction of nearly 100 pages, carefully digested and summarised, concluding with the order of classification adopted. The three groups or primary divisions are :—(1) Myxomycetes; (2) Schizomycetes ; and (3) Eumycetes. The latter embraces the Chytridiei, Zygomycetes, Oomycetes, Protomycetes, Ustilaginei, Uredinei, Auriculariei, Basidiomycetes, and Ascomycetes, with an appendix for the incomplete Hyphomycetes, Tuberculariei, and Sphzropsidei. As the present part contains only a portion of the Myxomycetes, no opinion can be formed of the manner in which the foregoing skeleton will be filled up; but, as this portion is based upon Rostafinski’s monograph, no exception can be taken thereto. The real difficulty lies further ahead, and whether the knot is to be untied or cut cannot be predicted. LETTERS TO THE EDITOR [Zhe Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to ieturn, or to correspona with the writers of, rejected manuscripts. No notice ts taken of anonymous communications. [The Editor urgently requests correspondents to keep their letters as short as possible, The pressure on his space is so great that it is impossible otherwise to insure the appearance even of communications containing interesting and novel facts.] On the Terminology of the Mathematical Theory of Elasticity I HAVE been greatly interested by the letters on this subject from Prof. K. Pearson (NATURE, vol. xxxi. p. 456) and Prof. A. B. W. Kennedy (vol. xxxi. p. 504), and I have looked forward with pleasure to further communications from other eminent ‘‘elasticians.” As, however, no better qualified person seems -disposed to continue the correspondence, and as I am practically interested in a definite settlement of elastic termin- ology, I venture to offer a few remarks on the subject. (1) Nothing could be better than Prof. Pearson’s term state of ease for the condition of an elastic body when capable of enduring a certain amount of stress, without showing permanent set on its removal. This is worthy of Clifford, and is sure to make its way. Prof. Kennedy has extended this term by applying ‘‘ maximum state of ease” to the condition in which the body may be strained to its elastic limit without set. Perhaps w/tzmate state of ease would be more significant, and /imited state of ease might be employed to denote the intermediate stages. The ultimate state of ease of course corresponds to the ‘‘ natural state” of the ideal perfectly elastic solid. At the point 4 in Prof. Kennedy’s figure we reach the Zit of perfect elasticity, and enter the stage 6 of elastic instability. Prof. Kennedy’s suggestion of ‘‘limit of stability” for the point NATURE — [ ay 28, 1885 C is inconsistent with the last. I would suggest e/astic crisis as an alternative for ‘‘ breaking-down point.” We evidently here pass the critical point in the static equilibrium of the molecules. Perhaps c’ might be called the stage of thermal inversion, At C, the bar enters the plastic state—divided by Prof. Kennedy into the stage of uniform flow from C, to the point D of maximum load and the stage of local flow from D to the point E of terminal load or (apparently) of maximum stress. (2) I observe that Prof. Kennedy uses ‘‘load” and ‘‘ external stress,” apparently as alternative terms, and that Prof. Pearson speaks of ‘‘stress per unit area.” Would it not be advisable to settle, once for all, that s¢vess shall always, when it stands alone, — mean a force per unit area? ‘‘Stress” and “intensity of © stress ” would then be identical terms, while the force across a given area due to stress would be known as the ‘‘total” or ‘resultant stress” across the area. This is all that is required to bring the terminology of Zerfect elasticity into exact corre- spondence with that of hydromechanics, in which pressure and — total or resultant pressure have always stood in this relation to one another. (3) Next as to ‘‘tension.” The word was originally adopted from the theory of strings, and of bars used like strings to sup- port weights, and was, I believe, invariably used (as it still is in the case of strings) to denote the load, or /ofa/ longitudinal © stress endured. Nowadays, however, it seems to be employed — indifferently in this sense and in that of intensity of tensile stress. I would suggest that the term ¢vaction, which the modern French writers have freely adopted, should be invariably used to denote intensity of tensile stress, and that ¢evszon should be restored to . its original signification of total or resultant traction. : ‘* Traction” and ‘‘ pressure” would then (according to the ordinary convention as to sign) be synonymous with “‘ positive ” and ‘‘ negative” stress. Perhaps some ela-tician would suggest © a convenient abbreviation for ‘‘total pressure” or ‘‘negative — tension.” (4) Is it too late to protest on behalf of that much-abused term véscostty as applied to solids? The thoroughly-established — sense of the word, as applied to fluids, implies—vof the property — in virtue of which they undergo permanent or continued change ~ of shape under continued distorting stress (z.e. their futdzty) ; but that other property in virtue of which they are able to offer more or less resistance, by means of molecular friction, to instantaneous changes of shape under stress which is mot con-— tinued. In this case, therefore, viscosity isa property distinctly _ opposed to fluidity, and, indeed, described in terms as a falling short of ‘‘ perfect fluidity.” ; It is thus obviously false analogy to describe a metal in the state of plastic flow as vzscows, or to ‘‘ appropriate this name to that permanent set which may be produced by the ancl for a long period of a stress well within the limits of elasticity.” The latter sense—at Jeast as applied to ice (NATURE, vol. xxxil. p- 16)—has, no doubt, a classical authority in the great memoir of Forbes ; but Sir W. Thomson has pointed out (‘‘ Enc. Brit.,” Art. ‘‘Elasticity,” § 31; and Thomson and Tait’s ‘‘ Natural Philosophy,” § 741) that the properties of ice so described ar included under the perfectly definite and convenient term Plasticity, which is really analogous to fluidity. On the other hand, analogy demands that the term wiscoszty, as applied to solids, shall be strictly confined to that frictional dissipation of energy which is always at work during rapi changes of strain, and which was first discovered during small vibrations within the elastic limit by Sir W. Thomson (Proc. Roy. Soc., May 18, 1865, or the passages above cited). That the viscosity of a ductile material is very greatly increased in the plastic stage is of course beyond a doubt, the amount o} energy absorbed by it on sudden increase of the stress being s much in excess of that required to provide for the increas: potential energy of the accompanying strain that the temperatur rises to a sensible extent. But what I wish to make clear is tha! the true viscosity is not essential to or characteristic of the truly plastic state, but that, on the contrary, the viscosity of a ductil solid renders it zvzferfectly plastic in just the same sense as viscous fluid is zwperfectly fluid. (5) Finally, I may perhaps be permitted to add that, next t the importance to all concerned of a definite and univers: terminology, comes the importance to mathematicians at least o! a uniform sofation. , The effect of reading through, for purposes of comparison o historical record, the 100 odd veadly important treatises on this subject—in each of which a perfectly independent and generall Lae May 28, 1885] quite different notation is employed—is simply infuriating! I would urge upon Prof. Pearson that he has now an unrivalled opportunity of fixing in the language of English (and perhaps foreign) mathematicians a really serviceable and significant system of notation. The double-suffix notation for strain and stress, which is deve- -loped to perfection in St. Venant’s French translation of Clebsch, has many advantages, but seems to be too cumbrous for English taste. Nothing perhaps could be more unmeaning than Thomson _and Tait’s notation for ‘‘ stresses,” independent as it is of all reference to the strain-symbols. Still I must confess (in common, I dare say, with most men who have derived their first inspira- tions from that mathematical epic) that it has secured too firm a place in my mental machinery to be lightly cast out, even in favour of a better. W. J. [BBETSON Cambridge, May 12 The Colours of Arctic and Alpine Animals Mr. R. MeLpo.a has maintained, in NATURE, vol. xxni. Pp. 505, the idea that the white colour of some animals, Arctic mammals and birds, must be ascribed to the absorbent and radiating power of the same colorations in relation to the rays of the sun. He maintains also that to a similar cause we owe the seasonal polychromism of several mammals and birds of the Alps, and what would be for these animals a partial return to the characters of the Glacial epoch. By an analogous theory the author explains the contrary phenomenon that is observed in many insects—that is, the darkening of the coloration, and he speaks principally on this point of the Lepidoptera. Now I begto make the following observations, and to indicate the following facts :— (1) That a seasonal mutation of colour is observable in many Mammals, now more, now less distinctly, and generally it concurs with the change of coat. Also not seldom in mammals strictly belonging to the Alps, as, for example, in the Rupicapra europea, and in the Capra tbex, the colour changes very little in the summer and in the winter, although the length, the thickness, and also the coarseness of the hairs were very different. In other cases, as, for example, in the Cervus mandarinus,* the coat is, in summer, light reddish yellow, with many round white spots, while in winter it is dark brown, and the round spots are less numerous and are light brown. (2) As to the insects, it is observed that in Coleoptera the colours of the Alpine species are brighter than those of the warmer plains, as in the genera of Carabus, Plerostichus, &c. Iniseveral species of Harpalus, Amara, Cicindelis, &c., the individuals that we find at the greatest elevations of the Alps have often lighter colours. (3) A darker colour and sometimes a whole melanism is ob- served in general in the insects of the deserts—for example, in that of Sahara. On the contrary, the mammals of these coun- tries present in general a very light colour. It seems to: me that this fact cannot be explained by the theory of radiation. (4) A very remarkable melanism is also observed in several mammals, the Reptilia and Coleoptera that are in little islands, or upon rocks in the warmest regions, for example the Z. mzvadlis, &e., Cicindela campestris, in the island of St. Peter in Sardinia.? (5) In the reptiles and in the Alpine amphibia we sometimes meet with some cases of darkening, but the cases of aremarkable brightening are not very rare, as, for example, in the tadfoles of Rana muta. (6) A sensible difference is observed in the coloration between the Arctic birds and the Antarctic. In these last black is much more abundant. Indeed, Australia, New Zealand, &c., are countries known for a remarkable darkening in the colours of many sorts of animals. In the Carnivora, which are the mammals that chiefly pre- sent seasonal polychromism and white colour, is observed a _tendency to this colour in several forms that, however, do not live either in Polar regions or in very cold places. As to this fact the colour of the genera Zoril/a, Meles, &c., and also the very curious Az/urus melanoleucus of Thibet,? should be ob- served. * Milne-Edwards, ‘‘ Recherches pour servir a I’Histoire Naturelle des _Mammiferes,” tay. 22, 22a. Paris: Masson. = Siconsulti L. Camerano, ‘‘ Richercheinterno alla Distribuzione dei Colcri nel Regno animale.” Mem. R. Accad. Scienze di Torino. 3 Milne-Edwards. NATURE _ (vol. xxxii. ‘p. 30). 77 _ The causes, I would say in conclusion, that intervene to modify the colour of animals, are very complicated ; climate has amongst these a certain importance, but it does not seem to me that, although it be very attractive, Mr. Meldola’s theory of radiation is sufficient. LORENZO CAMERANO Zoological Museum of Turin On Certain Stages of Ocular After-Images In a short note in the Phz/. Mag., 1872, vol. xliii. p. 343, Prof. C. A. Young has recorded a curious instance of ‘‘after- image,” which seems to me to be of the same order as that observed by Mr. Shelford Bidwell, and recorded in NATURE, I quote from Prof. Young’s note, which is named ‘‘ Note on Recurrent Vision,” a few lines, which will show what his observation was :— “Tn the course of some experiments with a new double-plate Holtz machine belonging to the College (Dartmouth, America), I have come upon a very curious phenomenon, which I do not remember ever to have seen noticed. The machine gives easily intense Leyden-jar sparks from 7 to 9 inches in length, and of most dazzling brilliance, at the rate of seventy a minute. When, in a darkened room, the eye is screened from the direct light of the spark, the illumination produced is sufficient to render everything in the apartment perfectly visible ; and, what is remarkable, every conspicuous object is seen fwzce at least, with an interval of a trifle less than a quarter of a second—the first time vividly, the second time faintly ; often it is seen a third, and sometimes (but only with great difficulty) even a fourth time.” Prof. Young shows that it is a subjective phenomenon, and measures the interval between the first and second seeing of an object, giving as the mean of twelve experiments the interval 0°22 second for the case of his own eyes, and 0°24 second for that of another observer. : Five or six years ago I observed another instance of what I believe to be the same kind of ‘‘after-image,” though at first I was inclined, being engaged upon experiments with a view to finding the cause of certain ocular ‘‘ghosts’”’ due to multiple reflection inside the eye (Proc. Roy. Soc., No. 223, 1883), to ascribe it to a different cause. It was seen in a room lighted only by the bright glow of coals in the grate. Whenever the eyes were suddenly flashed across the fireplace, and then fixed on some object 50° or 60° from it, there appeared a faint blue light, which seemed to flash from the object to the glow. This phenomenon was much more strongly marked at some times than others, and varied withsome cause which I never further investigated. Later I came upon another instance of the same thing ; and as this is the easiest to reproduce, and one by which one may best study the phenomena, I will describe it. Let a match or a splinter of wood be made to glow, as for testing oxygen, and let it be observed in a dark room; the eyes should be fixed, and the glowing match moved about. I found that for purposes of rough measurement a most convenient curve of motion is a figure of 8 on its side in a vertical plane (). Also it is convenient to keep the period of the movement the same, and to vary the size of the curve if change of velocity is required. There are difficulties to be overcome in regulating the brilliancy of the light (Mr. Bidwell has pointed out the necessity of a certain degree of brilliancy in the case of the vacuum tubes), if a systematic investigation were undertaken ; a glowing match becomes brighter the quicker the movement ; the reverse is the case with a platinum wire carrying a strong current of electricity ; and asmall incandescent lamp is objection- able on account of reflection from its glass case. I shall consider the ‘‘after-images” of the glowing-point as forming a trail, in which all the changes are set out at the same moment, and proceed to describe the trail for two cases. I should state that following descriptions refer to the trails as seen by me 27 ¢he evening ; for there are very considerable variations in the phenomena according as the eye is likely to be wearied or fresh. I may also repeat Mr. Bidwell’s caution that it is by no means certain that a person new to the subject will at first be able to see the appearances described. I arrange a metronome beating seconds, and move the glow- ing-point so as to describe the curve completely in two seconds. First, let the figure of eight be only as large as can be got into a rectangle 3 inches by 14. In this case there comes after the glowing-point a dark interval in the trail, about an inch long ; then a distinct blue-green ghost, about the same size as the 78 glowing-point ; again a dark interval follows, shorter than the first, and behind it a long strip with a dark core and very faintly bright edges ; as one traces backwards, the edges appear to close in together gradually, so that, after about two inches, the dark core has collapsed, as it were, and the edges have come together to form a narrow and well-defined thread of a mauve tinge ; this gradually dies away as we go further back along the trail, and by the time that the glowing-point has travelled over the whole curve once, it has nearly disappeared. Secondly, let the figure of eight be as large as can be de- scribed in a rectangle 8 inches by 4. Here the phenomena are quite different. It now seems as if the dark intervals at either end of the ghost as described above were absent, and the ghost itself were drawn out into a streak which follows ¢mmedia/ely upon the glowing-point. Its colour is now yellow-green. This gardually narrows to extinction as one traces the trail backwards, and is the positive after-image in its various stages. More pro- bably this streak has no connection with the true ghost; but is quite distinct from it, whilst the ghost no longer appears, when the point moves with greater velocity. In fact, there is probably a limiting velocity of the glowing-point, beyond which the ghost is not formed. This coincides with Mr. Bidwell’s observations as to the rate of rotation of the vacuum-tube. As the yellow streak disappears narrowing, one sees a faint blue haze on either side, separated from it by an interval of darkness. When one has traced backwards so far that the streak has vanished, one sees what was above described as a strip with dark core and faint blue or mauve edges. The edges close in and form a distinct mauve thread, which gradually dies out. It is very beautiful to see the ghostly trail hanging before one ; and, by suitable movement of the glowing point, one may fill the space, as it were, with a maze of wreathing lines. Per- haps the most s'riking part of the phenomenon, regarded from an esthetical standpoint, is the def¢’ of the figures so produced : one realises in the form of the trail that the glowing-point has been moving, not in one plane, but in space ; and one sees that some parts are nearer than others. After a time the glowing- point seems to be forgotten, and the trail is the only thing ob- served. The position of the trail appears to change with any change in the state of accommodation of the eye; if the trail goes away from one the eye attempts to follow it, and exag- gerates the movement. If there is any irregularity in the curve, as may often be the case from want of proper co-ordination of muscles—especially if the moving arm is at all subject to rheumatism—it is revealed in a terribly truthful manner by the trail. A systematic investigation of the subject would, I think, be very valuable as throwing light upon the processes in the retina. Both Prof. Young (‘‘ whatever the true explanation may turn out to be, the phenomenon at least suggests the idea of a 7e/lec- tion of the nervous impulse at the nerve extremities, as if the intense impression upon the retina, after being the first time propagated to the brain, were then reflected, returned to the retina, and, travelling again from the retina to the brain, renewed the sensation”) and Mr. Bidwell (‘‘the series of phenomena seem to be due to an affection of the optic nerve which is of an oscillatory character,” &c ) appear to incline to what I may call a physical view of the phenomena, The phenomena appear to me to point to some chemical action on the retina, and to depend in a great measure on the ra/e at which this action goes on. It would be of great interest to consider the phenomena in connection with Hering’s theory of colour sensation ; according to it these sensations are due to changes in a certain substance, in such a way that changes of a destructive or dissimilative character give rise to the sensations of white, red, and yellow, whilst those of a constructive or assimilative kind produce the sensations of black, green, and blue (‘‘Zur Lehre vom Lichtsinne,” Wien, 1878). It may be that this work has been already done ; if so I must crave the indulgence of those who have made the subject a special study, H. Frank NEWALL Crowthorne, Wokingham, May 18 “Speed” and ‘‘ Velocity” Some of your ‘‘general” readers, like myself, may wish to see the distinction between ‘‘ velocity” and ‘‘speed” more easily defined than by a reference to the calculus of quaternions, to which I believe the term ‘‘ tensor” appertains. ‘« Speed” is not in the index to the new edition of Part II. of NATURE a ——— — [May 28, 1885 Thomson and Tait. Maxwell, at p. 26 of ‘‘ Matter and Motion,” — says, ‘‘ The rate or speed of the motion is called the velocity of — the particle.” Tate, in his ‘‘ Properties of Matter,” p. 52, | writes about ‘‘ water of motion; 7.e. Speeds.” It seems thus:— (1) Rate of motion is velocity (Maxwell) (2) Speed of motion is velocity Prien (3) Rate of motion is speed (Tate). ~ From (1) and (3) it appears as if velocity and speed must be the same, as indeed (2) seems to assert. But we are told this is not the case. Cannot the distinction between the two be made more generally intelligible than by saying that ‘‘speed”’ is the “tensor” of velocity. SENEX [When Maxwell introduced to junior students the Diagram of Velocities, he made velocity include the direction of motion as well as the mere va/e of motion (z,e. speed). —ED. ] The Male Sole is not Unknown In la-t week’s issue of NATURE is what is said to be an abstract of a paper read at the Society of Arts by Prof. Ray Lankester, in aid of a proposed marine laboratory, and, passing over what he stated generally requires elucidation, he gives one example of what zs not known among fishes, and which in the first instance will be investigated at Plymouth. He is made to say ‘fat present absolutely nothing is known as to the spawning of the sole—the male fish is not even recognised.” In times gone by the plaice was asserted to have ascended from a shrimp, but this, I think, is the first time that the exist- ence of the male sole has been declined recognition. Omitting references to others, I will merely draw attention to the fact that in my collection of British fishes in spirit at the ‘* Great Inter- national Fisheries Exhibition,” and which is now deposited in the Economic Museum at South Kensington, is a fine example of the male sole, with the milt quite ripe. YT must apologise for pointing out the foregoing, but were such an error left unnoticed in a scientific paper, some practical fisherman will possibly direct attention to it, as the comparative rarity of the male to the female sole has been frequently observed upon in our weekly sporting journals during the Jast few years. Cheltenham, May 23 Francis DAy The Aurora of March 15, 1885 Nature for March 26 (p. 479) contains an account of a fine aurora observed at Christiania, Sweden, on March 15, by Prof. Sojhus Tromholt. I would call attention to the fact that an aurora (a very unusual phenomenon at this place) was visible here on the evening of March 15. [t was first seen at about 7 p.m, At the above time s veral streamers were noticed ascending somewhat east of north: after a short interval these died leaving a white nebulous cloud of light at an altitude of about 10° near a point some 10° or 1§° east of north. Shortly afterwards streamers appeared ascending some 10° or 15° west of north ; these presently disappeared, leaving a mass of light similar to that left in the east of north. Several times feebler streamers made their appearance west of north. The rays did not attain a greater height than sone 20°, and by 8}h. all was quiet, save an auroral glow along the horizon some few degrees east of north, which remained throughout the night. I have thought this might be interesting in connection with the Christiania aurora. oh. 39m. 0°68s. =+36h. 8m. 58 25s. E, E. BARNARD Vanderbilt University Observatory, Nashville, Tenn., U.S.A. Longitude west of Washington = Latitude Catalogue of Fossil Mammalia in the British Museum. . Part I, | In reply to Mr. T.ydekker’s comments on the review of his work (NATURE, vol. xxxi. p. 597) I an glad to find that the author repudiates the Owenian system and its errors, though his — recognition of the three upper premolars in Vesperé#lio as corre- sponding, respectively, to pms. 2, 3, and 4 of the typical series of four, and the minute anterior upper premolar of Riinolophus as p. 3, added to the strange absence of any note on the presence ~ of exceptions to the supposed rule that the premolars decrease | in number by reduction from the anterior extremity of the series May 28, 1885] NATURE 73 would certainly lead any one acquainted with the subject to believe that he had acted on it. The only clues afforded by the work which indicate that the Owenian system was not adopted in its entirety, now pointed out by Mr. Lydekker as existing at pp. 152, 174, would certainly escape the notice of any one who had not actually spelled through the work, as I feel sure who- ever will take the trouble to refer to will agree with me. There is no evidence whatever to support Mr, Lydekker’s assumption that the two anterior premolars in Vesperti/io and the anterior premolar in RAinolophus correspond, respect- ively, to Ams. 2 and 3 and to #. 3 of the typical.series. On the contrary, the small size of the second premolar in Vesferte/zo points to reduction by loss from the middle of the series, as we find in the greater number of species of the closely-allied order, Insectivora, and, as we know, takes place in the mandible of several species of Chiroptera. With reference to the wish expressed in the review that, instead of writing a mere catalogue of the fossil mammals in the British Museum, Mr. Lydekker had undertaken one of all the known species, and his objection, while regretting that the intended friendly estimate of his capability for such a work has been so hostilely received, 1 maintain that such should have been under- taken ; but Mr. Lydekker’s remarks show how necessary it is, and that the objection that new genera and species are being made almost daily (it is probable that they will continue to be be made to the end of time) might be applied with equal force on behalf of the birds by Mr. Sharpe, who nevertheless con- tinues his excellent catalogue. It is only by the publication of such a work that we can hope to limit the manufacture of “empty names,” such as Mr. Lydekker objects to, and to reduce to order the vast amount of scattered information and contesting opinions which encumber the study of the subject. THE REVIEWER THE ORCHID EXHIBITION HE Exhibition held in the Conservatory at South Kensington on the 12th and 13th inst. in con- nection with the Orchid Conference of the Royal Horti- cultural Society, must have furnished to the least observant visitor some explanation of the fascination exercised by orchids over their cultivators. The beauty, the variety, the strangeness of the flowers of the Orchideze attract and interest the least enthusiastic even of the lovers of nature. But the variation in flower, compatible with botanical inclusion in one family, is not more marked than is the difference in mode of flowering and of growth. Could there be in one natural order a stronger contrast than between the mode of growth and the gorgeous flowers of the genus Cattleya—essentially “ flaunting flowers ”—and those of the genus Masdevallia, where the conspicuous part of the flower consists of the three sepals, drawn out in many species into thread-like tails many inches long, and ranging in colour through every shade of orange, scarlet, and purple, down to an almost inky black! While a larger array of specimen plants has often been seen than was shown at the Conference, there has never been gathered together in any country so varied and interesting a collection, nor one containing so many rare and curious plants. Great as was the interest for the cultivator, it was no less great for the botanist. .Mr. Ridley, of the Natural History Museum, who, in conjunction with Mr. Burbidge, of the Dublin Botanic Gardens, has undertaken to draw up a report on the Conference Exhibition, found that sixty-one genera of orchids were represented. For the first time in the history of flower-shows there was a numerous collection of hybrid orchids, raised by artificial fertilisation, in flower. For the first time was there a large collection of orchids in fruit. The progress of hybridisa- tion, greatly due to the energy and skill of Messrs. Veitch and Sons and their intelligent foremen, Mr. Dominy and Mr. Seden, has already been fertile in valuable results for the cultivator. An excellent little book lately published,! Gives a list of eighty-nine hybrids already in cultivation, * “ Orchids : a Review of their Structure and History.” Illustrated. By Lewis Castle. (Journal of Horticulture Office, 171, Fleet Street, E.C.) distributed among twelve genera, but thirty-seven of them belonging to the genus Cypripedium. Those who are privileged to enter the penetralia at Chelsea know that there are there and elsewhere great numbers and varieties of hybrids, which are slowly surmounting the dangers and delicacy of infancy and childhood. But the labours of the hybridiser promise to be of great value to the botanist. Mr. Harry Veitch, in his very suggestive and interesting paper on the “ Hybridisation of Orchids,” read at the Conference, says: ‘“ How will these bigeneric crosses affect the stability of the genera as at present circumscribed?” It is well established already that the genera Leelia and Cattleya cross freely with one another, and Mr. Veitch refers in his paper to two other bigeneric hybrids, which have already flowered, and to others which have been raised, but have not yet flowered. Unfortunately it must be a long time before orchid cultivators generally can enjoy the results of hybridisation. Mr. Veitch gives the time the hybridist must wait to see the result of his labours, as follows :— Time from Germination Genus. i to Flowering Dendrobium 556 3 to 4 years. es : About the same. Masdevallia ... ngs sg seem! t eae Chysis 2 (pAIEORS cans: Zygopetalum 5 to 9 years. Lycaste ... 7 to 8 years, Leelia s ', Cattleya e Io to 12 years, With the exception of the genera Dendrobium and Cypripedium, it is a long time before sufficient plants of a hybrid can be obtained for distribution, even under the most skilful cultivation. For this reason many of the more beautiful hybrids will probably remain scarce and valuable for years. The high prices paid by collectors for orchids in some cases have been a source of merriment to the uninitiated. Speaking generally, orchids were never so cheap or so plentiful. But if a collector must have a hybrid which has been raised by skilful hands and nursed into vigour by years of patient care—or, on the other hand, must have a beautiful natural variety which has been picked out of millions of plants—if he must have them, he must pay for them. The Royal Horticultural Society is to be congratulated both on the botanical and the horticultural results of the late Conference. The Conference was a new idea, a new departure. It has demonstrated the great, widespread, and, better still, the intelligent interest taken in a singular and beautiful natural order, and the skill brought to bear on its cultivation. The short scientific contributions of Prof. Reichenbach, whose absence was universally regretted ; the paper on “Hybridisation,” by Mr. Veitch, and the brief discussion which ensued, were listened to by a large and appreciative conference. The paper on “ Cultivation,” by Mr. O’Brien, was also interesting and valuable. The very difficult question of nomenclature, which is in so confused and unsatisfactory a state as to ill brook delay, was postponed. It could not be discussed with advantage at the tail of a long meeting, and will be referred, it is to be hoped, to a a scientific committee selected from botanists in and out of the Royal Horticultural Society. ples les WHEAT-PRODUCTION IN INDIA* NDIA has recently exhibited her extraordinary powers as a wheat-producing area of vast extent. Up to the year 1877 the British wheat-grower looked upon the exhaustless prairies of the far West as his most formid- t The Wheat-Produetion and Trade of India. Calcutta. Being a collection of correspondence in continuation of papers published in 1879. 80 NATURE [May 28, 1885 able rival in the matter of wheat-growing. A short seven years has greatly altered his feelings in this respect, and we are probably right in considering that the far East is destined to do its part in forcing down the price of wheat to as great a degree as the land of the setting sun. The brochure before us is a thoroughly dry statement of facts composed of numbered despatches, letters, and tables, all bearing upon the capabilities of India as a wheat-pro- ducing country. The reader will not, however, obtain information as to extent or area, except in a more or less incidental manner. The principal matters dealt with are (1) the quality and comparative values of the various wheats grown; (2) the modes of cultivation pursued ; (3) the nature of the soils on which wheat is grown; (4) the average yield per acre; (5) the effects of continuous wheat-growing in diminishing yield; and also other matters relating to the details of wheat-cultivation in India. With regard to the quality of Indian wheats there is no room for doubt. The conclusions arrived at are based upon actual weight per bushel, value upon the Corn Exchange at Mark Lane, and an elaborate report upon milling and bread-making results furnished by Messrs. McDougall Brothers of 10, Mark Lane, London. From whichever of the above points of view we test the quality of the Indian wheat, the result is equally satisfactory, and the more so when we find that from year to year the samples and bulk continue to improve. Messrs. McDougall Brothers go so far as to sum up their experience by saying, “glancing at all the facts, it is evident that these wheats afford a larger margin of profit both to the miller and baker than any other.” The modes of cultivation adopted are of great interest. They usually exhibit vast pains, and are in this respect superior to the system of wheat-cultivation employed at home. Such elaborate cultivation would indeed astonish an English farmer accustomed to plough his lea land or turnip land once for wheat. The comparison is less fair if we take into consideration the fact that one thorough English ploughing may be worth half-a-dozen of those “ticklings” of the soil which, under Indian skies, are sufficient to make it “laugh.” Under the head of Sys- tems of Cultivation we read :—“ Ploughed in July, and again six or seven times until October. Watered in November. Again ploughed twice, rolled, ploughed again, and the seed sown through a tube attached to a plough-handle. After twenty-five or thirty days, again watered ; and this is repeated until the plants appear fortnightly where irrigation is by lift, and every twenty- five days where it is by flow. In February, when the ears have appeared, water is given weekly until the ears begin to mature.” In Armritsar ;—‘ Six months before sowing, the land is ploughed five to ten times. After sowing, the crops are watered not less than six or more than nine or or ten times.” In Gujrat:—‘ Land is broken up and ploughed many times between May and September, manured and ploughed and levelled.” The average pro- duce per acre after this system of cultivation varies from seven to fourteen or even twenty maunds (nine to twenty- seven bushels of 61 lbs.), and yet it is calculated that it is grown at from 8s. to 11s. per quarter! Wheat-growing appears to be carried on upon all sorts of soils. Upon stiff loams, sandy loams, hard clay, and “ every kind of soil.” In reply to the question, Has the productive power of the soil begun to fail? the answers are usually in the negative, or that it is not apparent. Still, as might be expected, better crops are grown upon manured and irrigated soils and upon those newly broken up from pasturage. After reading the details of wheat-cultivation in India and compared its results with those obtained in England with a fifth part of the labour, we are inclined to wonder greatly that this remote field should be able to compete with us. Why do they plough five to ten times? Howis it that in that sunny land, and after all this expenditure of labour and irrigation, twenty-seven bushels should be a maximum return, while in some cases seven bushels is all that is reaped? A painstaking farmer in England hopes for from thirty-two to forty bushels per acre after once ploughing and pressing his clover leys,and yet he cannot make both ends meet, nor yet compete with the Indian Ryot. JOHN WRIGHTSON THE REPORTS OF THE UNTITLED ST Ages COMMISSION OF FISH AND FISHERIES FOR 1881 AND 18821 HE Report for 1881 was presented to the Senate and Congress of the United States on March 17, 1882 ; it is to be regretted that so long an interval was allowed to elapse before its publication. The volume is a large one, three inches in thickness, and containing nearly 1200 pages. Scarcely any of this large quantity of letterpress is without interest and value, and we here give an account of the work described in it. The Commission began the second decade of its exist- ence in 1881, and the present report shows how greatly the organisation has extended itself, and w...2 large results it has achieved in its first ten years. The central offices of the Commission are at Washington, and up to the year 1881 were confined to the private residence of its public-spirited chief, Mr. Spencer Baird, who devoted the greater part of his house to the State service without remuneration. In 1881 a building was-erected next to the Commissioner’s residence, at the public expense, to provide space for the increased administrative work, The stations where the varied operations of the Commission are carried on are scattered throughout the United States territory. These operations fall naturally under three heads: (1) Economical statistics and historical data con- cerning the fishing industries ; (2) the applied science of regulating fish supply and distribution; (3) the pure science of marine zoology. The part of the work belong- ing to the first of these divisions is conducted partly at the central offices, partly at the seats of the industries in question. The two other fields of work are, of course, not always distinctly separate. Since 1878 buildings at Fort Wharf, Gloucester, Mass., had been occupied for hatching operations, but in 1881 they passed into the possession of a private firm, since which time only re- ports on the fisheries and records of ocean and atmo- spheric temperatures have been obtained from Gloucester. The principal site of the purely scientific work during the summer season was Wood’s Holl, Mass., where the Com- mission possessed a sea-side laboratory. Researches on the artificial propagation of oysters, &c., were carried on at St. Jerome, Md., near the mouth of the Potomac. Cultivation of the land-locked or Schoodic salmon was practised on the Grand Lake Stream, near Calais, Me. The Penobscot or Atlantic salmon (Sa/mo salar) simi- larly received attention at Buckport, Me. Another station, where lake trout, brook trout, California trout, &c., were hatched, was at Northville. The principal hatchery for the Californian salmon was on the McCloud River, a branch of the Sacramento. Shad eggs were hatched at Battery Island, Md., at North-East River, Md., near the mouth ot the Susquehanna, at the Central Station, Armory Buildings, Washington, at Washington Navy Yard, on the Potomac river-barges, and at Avoca, N.C. Carp ponds were maintained at Monument Lot and at the Arsenal, Washington. The Commission acknowledges valuable assistance received from almost all departments of the Government, but especially from the Navy Office, which, in compliance with decrees of Congress, has de- tailed steamers fully manned and equipped, lent launches, and executed work and repairs at the navy yards. Steam- * Washington, 1854. ee ee i ee ee a May 28, 1885] ship and telegraph companies have also aided in the work of the Commission. Up till 1879 the Commission was not in possession of any vessel of considerable size: its explorations at sea were carried on by means of boats either hired or lent by thenavy. In 1879 Congress voted money for the building of a steamer to be entirely devoted to the work of the organisation. This vessel was designed as a floating hatching station capable of being moved from place to place according to the season and the opportunities afforded, but she was not intended to go to sea in all weathers or to any great distance. She was named the Fish- Hawk, and was built at Wilmington, Del., from the designs of Chas. W. Copeland, consulting engineer of the Lighthouse Board. A very complete and interesting report is presented in the volume before us on the con- struction of the /zs/-Hawk and the work performed by her in 1880; and another on her services in 1881. The Fish-Hawk is 156 feet long over all, 27 feet in the beam, and 7 feet 2 inches in draught at the stern. Her ordinary speed is about 9 knots an hour. The hull below the main deck is of iron, sheathed with yellow pine ; above the main deck she is of wood. The hatching apparatus and machinery for working it are placed on the main deck immediately abaft the forecastle ; the space thus set apart is 47 feet in length. On the after part of the main deck is the principal cabin, which contains the Commissioner’s office. Above the main deck, extending from stem to stern, is a promenade deck, on which are the hoisting and reeling engine, the dredging boom, its heel attached to the foremast, and at the after end the naturalists’ labora- tory. The vessel is rigged as a fore and aft schooner, carrying a fore-staysail, a foresail and mainsail; she has four boats, the largest of which is a steam-cutter. The Fish-Hawk has been found to fulfil admirably the purpose for which she was designed, viz. the economical and effective hatching of shad. But it had long been evident that the Commission required also a sea-going steamer to investigate the conditions and extent of the known, and to discover new, fishing-grounds, to ascertain the complete history of the migrations of food-fishes, to add, if possible, to the list of species available as food, and to study marine phenomena in general. The reward to be expected from this kind of work was indicated by the history of the discovery of the tile-fish, an entirely new species of which some specimens were brought in by a fishing-vessel in 1879. The Fish-Hawk made a trip to the place where the tile-fish was found, at the western edge of the Gulf Stream, and found that it was as abundant over a large extent of ground, as the cod is in other places. The area dredged over was found to be also in other respects a valuable fishing-ground, and ex- tremely rich in all forms of life, many new and interesting species being discovered. The tile-fish has been found to be of great value as food when fresh, and to be as easily salted and preserved as the cod. In consideration of these facts Congress voted 103,000 dollars for the building of an ocean steamer for the work of the Com- mission, to be called the Albatross. In1881 the Commission began the publication of another annual volume in addition to its Report. It is called the Fish Commission Bulletin, and the first issue contained a memoir on the development of food-fishes, by John A. Ryder; one on the life-history of the eel, by G. Brown Goode ; one on the salmon disease in English waters, by Prof. Huxley and S. Walpole; and other papers on fish- hatching and fisheries. Besides this were published in 1881 four census bulletins, and a volume of tables con- taining statistics of American fisheries, all prepared under the supervision of members of the Commission. In the latter part of the year a monograph on the oyster industry was issued by Mr. Ernest Ingersoll. The results of the year’s work in the three several de- partments already defined are given in three separate NAT ORE | 81 appendices to the Commissioner’s report. Those belong- ing to the first department are contained in Appendix B, which consists of six memoirs, only two of which refer to American fisheries. The first of these is on the history of the mackerel fishery, by Messrs. Brown Goode, Collins, Earll, and Clarke, and occupies nearly a third of the whole volume. It begins with an account of the natural history of the fish, and of its geographical distribution, by Mr. Brown Goode. He finds that the species (Scomber scombrus) is confined to the North Atlantic. Its southern limit on the American coast is Cape Hatteras, lat. 35°; its northern limit, the Straits of Belle Isle, lat. 52°, though stragglers may occur further north. Its northern limit on the European coast is North Cape, lat. 71°; its southern, the Mediterranean. The mackerel appears in large shoals on the American coast every summer ; as yet it has not been ascertained where it passes the winter. Prof. Hind, who is a Canadian, believes that the fish hibernates in the mud, near shore. Mr. Brown Goode, with much greater probability, argues that the shoals move out to the deep Ocean in autumn. He distinguishes between the littoral and bathic migrations of this and other species, and con- cludes that this fish, like others of similar habits, is in- fluenced in its movements chiefly by temperature, food, and breeding instincts. The mackerel only remains near shore while the temperature of the water is above 40° F. Off Cape Hatteras mackerel first appear about March 20 ; in the Gulf of St. Lawrence they are not abundant till June. The shoals disappear in October, though occasion- ally some are caught in December. The mackerel spawn in water of 15 fathoms and less, and while spawning do not take bait, or rise tothesurface. The eggs are pelagic, and the young fish grow to 6} or 7 inches in the first season, probably reaching full size in four years. The mackerel’s food consists chiefly of pelagic forms, but not so exclusively as in the case of the herring. A great deal of space is given in this account to the evidence of fishermen as to the food of the mackerel, but as no scientific interpretation is given of their somewhat vague descriptions, the reader does not learn much from the discussion. We conclude that the food consists largely of copepoda, crustacean larvee, schizopoda, and ptero- poda. One paragraph dealing with the food question is, to an English reader, somewhat amusing. The author says that the food of the mackerel is called in England the “ mackerel-mint,” and consists of “sand-lants [szc] and five other species of fish.” We are not sure, but we think “mackerel-mint” is a mistake for “mackerel-midge,” which is the young of various species of rockling, but especially of Motella tricirrata. In the same paragraph it is said that mackerel have been seen to devour the swimming larve of tape-worms. ‘The first chapter of the essay can only be regarded as a preliminary inquiry to serve as a basis for accurate investigation. It seems strange that Prof. Brown Goode and Mr. Baird should mention a mysterious membrane over the eye of the mackerel without giving the anatomical meaning of the membrane ; and it is equally unsatisfactory to read an account of the dissection of a mackerel, quoted from Bernard Gilpin, in which the air-bladder and the aorta are mixed up. Next follows a history of the mackerel- fishery in the United States, from which we learn that since 1880 the purse-seine has come into general use for mackerel-catching. The mackerel fleet consists of 468 vessels, mostly of 60 to 8otons, schooner rigged, and very fast sailers. The old method of hook-fishing is described fully in a historical chapter. Besides the purse-seine, gill-nets are also used in mackerel fishing at the end of the season, off the New England coast. The total catch of mackerel ir 1881 off the United States coast is estimated at 294,667,000 fish. Chapter III. of the essay contains an account of the legislation affecting the mackerel fishery. Even at the time of printing the Report in 1881, on account of the 82 clamours of the inshore fishermen against the purse-seine, a Committee of Senate was appointed, which was likely to result in additional regulative enactments. The rest of the essay contains an account of mackerel-canning, statistics of the fishery in 1880, the inspection laws, a chronology of the history of the fishing, a list of vessels engaged in the iudustry, and a table of the catch by American vessels in Canadian waters. A paper by Mr. Harrison Wright relates the history of the shad fishery in the Vale of Wyoming, on the north branch of the Susquehanna. The Indians caught shad there before white settlers came, about 100 yearsago. The white people used shad seines with great success until 1830, when the construction of dams for a canal put an end to the fishery altogether. There were about forty permanent fisheries, some of which had an annual catch of 10,000 fish, weighing three to nine pounds each. It is suggested that the fishery might be restored by the construction of ladder-ways over the dams, and other improvements, _ together with a restocking of the river with young shad. A translation is given of a report on the Loffoden fishery in 1880 by Lieut. Niels Juel, the chief of the police administration, which has charge of public order, &c., at the fishery. This report is very interesting, but we have scarcely space to summarise it: we can only give a few of the prominent facts. The number of boats engaged varied from 1000 to 5000; the total number of fishermen was about 27,000, of whom about 13,000 fished with gill- nets, 10,000 with long lines, and 3000 with hand-lines. The author believes that the water-temperature most suitable for cod is between 35° C. and 44° C. The total yield of the fishery in 1879 was 25,000,000 fish, valued at 5,000,000 crowns. In 1880 the yield was still greater, being only surpassed by that of 1877. Another paper in this appendix gives extracts from the official statistics of the Norwegian fisteries in general, and another is a transcript, from the London Quarterly Review, of an article on “ The Fish-Supply of London.” In the latter the opinion of very high authorities is quoted that the fisheries of the North Sea, small as its area is, are practically inexhaustible, and that trawling does not tend to exterminate any species of food-fish. Appendix D deals with the propagation of food-fishes. It contains twelve papers, which are, with one exception, reports on the work of the various stations of the Com- mission during the year. The exception is a paper on the “Repopulation of the Water-Courses of Belgium,” by Baron de Selys Longchamps. This essay shows how the waters of the Meuse and Scheldt have been rendered barren by the construction of dams and the pollution from factories ; and that it will be a matter of great difficulty to remedy this state of things by the construction of fish- ways and the purification of the rivers. The whole work of the Commission, from its institution in 1871 to 1880, is reviewed in a number of statistical tables prepared by Chas. W. Smiley. In the period in question 43,000,000 shad were artificially hatched and released on the spot, 53,000,000 successfully transported ; 15,000,000 of Californian salmon have been hatched and released on the Pacific coast, 31,000,000 transported to other States, and 4,000,000 sent abroad. Of the 31,000,000 transported, about 50 per cent. were successfully introduced into distant waters. In 1879 and 1880 61,000 carp were distributed. Then follow seven reports on the work of the various hatching-stations, in which occur, here and there, interest- ing accounts of experiments and inventions connected with the hatching apparatus. At Wood’s Holl experiments were made with a view to arranging an apparatus suitable for hatching cods’ eggs ; the experiments were only par- tially successful. It was at Wood’s Holl that Prof. Ryder carried on his researches into the embryology of the cod. Experiments on the artificial hatching of the Spanish mackerel were made at Cherrystone, Va. NATURE | a Lastly, we have to notice Appendix C, on Natural History and Biological Research. First, we have an account of the Annelida Chzetopoda collected on the Massachusetts coast by the summer expedition of Union College. Three genera and sixteen species are described here as new to science. Of these Thaumastoma is said not to belong apparently to any known family. As far as we can judge from the figure of the head given, the genus is allied to the Nereida ; but all the figures in the plates to this paper are rough and unsatisfactory. Mr. Coutance records some experiments on the effect of saline solutions of the same strength as sea-water, but of different composition, on marine molluscs. In all cases the solutions were ultimately fatal ; but it would be in- teresting to have these experiments repeated with some alterations: viz. the solution to be substituted for the sea- water gradually, instead of suddenly, and the natural conditions to be more nearly realised in all other respects save the composition of the medium. Prof. J. A. Ryder contributes a paper on ‘‘ The Import- ance of the Protozoa and Protophytes as the Primary Souree of the Food of Fishes.” He might have said simply Proto- phytes, since Protozoa are fed by these ; and it is obvious, since a small proportion only of marine animals feed on littoral algae, that marine life depends largely on pelagic Protophyta. The author reviews the evidence that most Entomostraca feed on Protozoa, and that these feed on diatoms, &c., while the Entomostraca constitute the food of vast numbers of fish. He gives evidence to show that the adult shad feeds while spawning, in fresh water, and that the newly hatched shad feed on exceedingly small and young Entomostraca. The paper is rather a popular essay than an original memoir. S. A. Forbes finds that the earliest food of the young of Coregonus albus in Lake Michigan consists almost entirely of Copepoda of the species Cyclops Thomasi and Diatomus sictlis. 5 Prof. Ryder, in another paper, describes some success- ful experiments in retarding the development of shad ova. It was found impossible to develop them at 35° F. or at 45° F. Ovakept moist on flannel trays at 52° F. were killed by fungus, but the development proceeded at the rate of nine days for the embryonic period. In an ex- periment in which glass McDonald jars were used with water from the Potomac when the river was at the tem- perature of 51° F..to 57° F., development took place normally, and hatching was retarded till the thirteenth to. the sixteenth day. The embryos were lost by accident, but the author thinks it would require about twenty-five days at this temperature to absorb the yolk, and thus, if the same success could be insured on board ship, there would be ample time to transport embryos to Europe. Prof. Ryder’s remarks at the end of this paper, on “ The Rationale of Retardation” somewhat neutralise the satis- faction experienced in reading the account of his practical work. In the present state of science it is scarcely allow- able to talk of the nucleus as a “ directive dynamic centre,” because the phrase has little definite meaning. It is not true that the division of a nucleus has been described by Flemming under the terms “ systole” and “ diastole” ; that author’s use of those words referred to certain alter- nating movements in a nucleus previous to its division. The division of the nucleus does not give us a complete explanation of the phenomena of retardation. It is a truism that retardation of development means diminution in the rapidity of the rate at which cell-divisions take place ; but to talk of the w/s essentialis of segmentation residing in the nucleus is about as instructive as an attempt to localise the horologity of a cloc’, the ws essem- tialis of a steam-engine, or the situponability of a chair. The Report for the year 1882 was published at the end of last year, only a few months after the issue of the volume for 1881. In some respects this, the most recent annual Report, is the most interesting of the whole series, [May 28, 1885, May 28, 1885 | the year 1882 having been unusually eventful for the Commission. During that year the new ocean steamer Albatross was constructed, steps were taken towards founding a permanent station at Wood’s Holl, the Armory Building at Washington was fitted up as the central sta- tion of the Commission, and the surprising fact came to light that the tile-fish, investigated a short time previously by the Commission, had been practically exterminated by unknown natural causes. Besides the history of these events the Report contains a long and elaborate memoir, by John A. Ryder, on “ The Development of the Cod,” which forms one of the most conspicuous features of the volume, and some interesting papers on the artifi- cial propagation of the oyster: the rest of the volume is chiefly made up by the usual separate Reports of the various hatching-stations, and papers on American fishing industries. The appropriation made by Congress for the 4/batross in 1881 was too small, and it was not till March, 1882, that an additional grant was obtained, and the contract for her construction was signed. On November 11 the vessel was put into commission with Lieut. Z. L. Tanner, formerly commander of the Fzsk Hawk, as captain. On December 30 the A/éatross left Wilmington, where she was built, for Washington, on a trial trip. Her total dis- placement is 1000 tons. A description of the vessel and of her equipment is promised in a subsequent Report. The arrangements for establishing the principal permanent sea- side station of the Commission at Wood’s Holl made some progress during the year, but were not completed. An agreement was made upon the conditions of the pur- chase of the requisite land, and all the necessary techni- cal formalities arranged ; but it was essential that there should be constructed within the great harbour of Wood’s Holl an inner harbour, which would serve for a harbour of refuge as well as for the purposes of the Commission. An appropriation of 52,000/. for the new harbour was granted by Congress, but the President decided to defer action upon this and other new items in the harbour bill, and, consequently, the establishing of the Station was delayed for a time. Nevertheless, Wood’s Holl was made the head-quarters of the general summer work of the Commission, and a large party were engaged there during July and August working at marine zoology and explora- tion. The “isk Hawk was stationed there during this time. The central station at Washington was fitted up with shad-hatching apparatus, and was used as the centre from which all young shad hatched on the rivers Potomac and Susquehanna were distributed: the extreme limit of distribution was the Colorado river in Texas. The number of shad fry distributed was over 20,000,000. The curious history of the tile-fish (Lopholatilus chameleonticeps), into the distribution of which re- searches were made in 1881, is related in a report by Capt. Collins in Appendix B. At the beginning of Capt. Collins’s paper an account of the fish itself is given, from which we learn that it belongs to the family Latilide, Gill, the representatives of which are mostly inhabitants of tropical seas and of shallow water. The ground where the tile-fish had been found lies between the latitudes of Hatteras and Nantucket, in long. 70° to 71°, about 100 miles off shore, at a depth of go to 125 fathoms. In March and April, 1882, vessels arriving at the principal Atlantic sea-ports reported the extraordinary occurrence of vast numbers of large dead and dying fish floating on the surface of the sea over the region where the tile-fish had been found. It was ascertained that a large proportion of these dead fish were tile-fish. In order to determine the extent of the destruction, a steamer was chartered by the Fish Commission, and sent out to the tile-fish ground in September. Nota single Lopho- latilus could be obtained, but a new fish belonging to the genus Setarches was discovered, which promised to be of NATURE 83 importance as a food-fish. An account of this exploring cruise was published in the Fish Commission Szd/etin for 1882. Prof. Ryder’s memoir on the development of the cod is founded on researches made at Wood’s Holl, Mass., in June, 1881, and at Fulton Market, New York, in February, 1882. On the former occasion an apparatus devised by Marshall MacDonald was used, and about 5000 young fry were set free at Wood’s Holl, and 25,000 sent to Chesapeake Bay and liberated there ; these were all the fry obtained from several millions of eggs artificially fertilised. The memoir is a long one, extending to more than 100 pages, and is illustrated by twelve plates of woodcuts. This is the first publication in which the development of the cod has been described in detail and figured; the description given by Sars in his report to the Norwegian Government some years ago having been rather general, and not illustrated. The facts are given in Prof. Ryder’s paper for the most part with great accuracy and fidelity, although the appearance of the woodcuts is not very pleasing, and the more complicated of the figures are a little wanting in clearness. The theoretical part of the paper will not commend itself to those who have accepted the generalisations of embryology at present prevalent. For example, it is stated that in Teleosteans, at an early stage, the body-cavity and segmentation-cavity are con- tinuous; but the evidence produced in support of this revolutionary proposition is not by any means conclusive. It cannot be said that the obscurities of Teleostean embryology, such as the invagination of the gastrula, or the development of the genital ducts, are much illuminated by Prof. Ryder’s memoir: on the latter point no in- formation is given. Two other interesting papers are included in the Appendix for Natural History and Biological Research : one by Sidney J. Smith on the Decapod Crustacea from the dredgings of the A/éaéross in 1883, and the other by Prof. Verrill on the fauna of the tile-fish ground at the western edge of the Gulf Stream. The former of these is an extremely elaborate memoir, accompanied by ten plates of clear and well-executed woodcuts, illustrating species and structures which had not before been suffici-_ ently figured. The paper contains a great number of new species and several new genera: each new species is described with wonderful minuteness, and, a long table of measurements being added to each description, no one having occasion to use this memoir will be able to com- plain of inexactness or incompleteness in the characterisa- tion of specific distinctions. é ie The paper of Prof. Verrill is short, being simply !in- tended to indicate the most interesting features of the peculiar area investigated. It was found in the operations of 1882 that the invertebrate fauna, discovered to be so unusually abundant in 1881, had, like the tile-fish, suffered great destruction in the interval between the two seasons. This was especially the case among the Crustacea, some species, which had been taken in thousands at a single haul, having become extremely scarce. Prof. Verrill be- lieves the remarkable destruction of life had been caused by a very severe storm which occurred in the spring of 1882, and which probably forced out the cold coast water over the Gulf Stream slope. The whole of Appendix D has reference to oyster culture. It contains six memoirs, two of which describe experiments on the artificial propagation of the American oyster, Ostrea virginica. Lieut. Francis Winslow studied the subject at Beaufort, N.C., and at Fair Haven, Con. ; Prof. Ryder at St. James’s Creek, Md. In both cases, though a fair amount of success was obtained in impreg- nating the ova and keeping the embryos alive in. the free- swimming stage, no satisfactory method was discovered of obtaining a supply of attached spat with any certainty. Prof. Ryder and Col. MacDonald on one or two occasions found that their embryos had fixed themselves to the sides 84 of their aquaria in large numbers, but they could not keep them alive more than a day or two after the attachment had taken place. The growing extent of the piscicultural operations of the Commission, as indicated by the Reports in Appendix E, is marvellous. Statistics of the distribution of shad- fry during 1882 are given in a paper by Chas. W. Smiley ; the total number distributed was over 30 millions. The total number of carp distributed was 259,000, of Penebscot salmon 1,716,000, of Schoodic salmon 1,482,000. It would be extremely interesting to have some informa- tion as to the result of all this work, as to the effect pro- duced on the supply of fish in the rivers, and on the pro- ductiveness of the fisheries. The Commissioner points out that it is of little use to put anadromous fish into rivers if the waters are obstructed by dams or made unin- habitable by pollution, and a new fish-way to remedy the former difficulty is described by Col. M. MacDonald in Appendix A. But all who are acquainted with the labours of the American Commission would be grateful if Mr. Chas. Smiley would apply his great power of handling statistics to exhibiting the economical results of the pisci- cultural work. J. T. CUNNINGHAM NOTES THE statue of Darwin will be unveiled in the great hall of the Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, on Tuesday, June 9, at 12 o’clock, when Prof. Huxley, President of the Royal Society, on behalf of the memorial committee, will formally transfer it to the care of the Masters of the Museum, who will be represented by His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales. Places will be reserved for the committee and subscribers to the memorial, but the greater part of the hall will be open to the public during the ceremony. The statue, which has been executed by Mr. Boehm, R.A., is of marble, and seated, rather larger than life-size ; it is pronounced by those who have seen it to be an admirable likeness as well as a fine work of art. a Ir is now twenty-one years since the Geological Magazine was first issued. During all that time Dr. H. Woodward, F.R.S., has been an editor, and for almost the whole of it the principal editor, on whom the main burden and chief responsibility of the work has fallen. It has been a work which has not only cost him much time and labour but also has been practically unre- munerative. His friends among geologists accordingly purpose to celebrate the ‘‘ majority” of the MWagazzne by presenting to him a testimonial in appreciation of his services to science. A meeting was held last week, at which an influential committee was formed, a list of which will shortly be circulated. The treasurer and secretary is Dr. Hinde, F.G.S. WE greatly regret to record the death of the Rev. Thomas W. Webb, Vicar of Hardwick, near Hay, Brecon, well-known for his writings on astronomical subjects. We hope next week to refer to the work he has done in astronomy. THE death is announced of Mr. Peter William Barlow, F.R.S., the well-known engineer. A CONGRESS on hydrology and climatology will, it is stated, be held at Biarritz during October next. The French Govern- ment has brought the matter to the notice of foreign Govern- ments, in order that the latter may take the necessary steps to be represented at the congress. On April 13 the Leander McCormick Observatory attached to the University of Virginia was opened by public ceremony. The buildings are situated on a hill called ‘‘ Observatory Moun- tain,” because in 1825 Thomas Jefferson erected a small obser- vatory there, which gradually fell into decay. They consist of residences for the director and assistant, offices, a small NATURE [May 28, 1885 observatory for minor observations, and a large building for the dome. The observatory proper consists of a cylindri- cal building surmounted by a hemispherical dome forty- five feet in diameter, and a rectangular building used as a library and computing office. The walls are of brick, the circular portion being heavily buttressed, and bearing at the top a coping of Ohio stone. On t'iis rests cast-iron rails, on which the dome revolves. The latter weighs 25,000 lbs., and is com- posed of a framework of steel covered with galvanised iron and lined with painted canvas, having three openings covered by shutters when not in use. It takes five seconds to open one of these, and a minute and a quarter to revolve the dome quite round. The telescope, which is mounted on a brick pier under the centre of the dome, is similar at the Washington, Observa- tory. The clear aperture of the object-glass is twenty-six inches. Like so many other important scientific and educational institu- tions in the United States, this observatory is due to the gene- rosity of a wealthy native of the State, Mr. Leander McCormick, from whom it takes its name. This gentleman presented both telescope and building to the University. The cost is stated to have been about 13,000/., the telescope costing over 9000/7, The directorship of the observatory, to which post Mr. Ormord Stone, director of the Cincinnati Observatory, has been elected, is endowed with a sum of 10,000/., collected by public subscrip- tion ; while Mr. W. H. Vanderbilt has given the University a further sum of 5000/. as an endowment to pay the salary of an assistant observer, the expenses of publication, &c. According to the founder’s plan the observatory is not to be confined to purposes of the University alone, but for general scientific research, so that students from any part of the United States who desire to become professional astronomers may receive a thorough training there. In accordance with this plan the Pro- fessorship of Astronomy in the University is a wholly distinct post from that of Director of the Observatory. Prof. A. Hall. of the National Observatory at Washington, delivered the open- ing address, taking for his theme ‘‘ The Instruments and Work of Astronomy.” FROM various publications which we have recently received from the Government of Hong Kong Dr. Doberck, the astro- nomer, appears to have lost no time in employing the new observatory. The last batch of observatory papers include ob- servations on lunar transits across the meridian of Hong Kong, and on the height of Victoria Peak. As this eminence is the most important in the east (with the possible exception of Fuji- yama) in one sense—the sense in which Richmond Hill is more interesting than Mount Everest—it may be added that the mean height of the peak is 1710°6 feet above the Observatory, or 1818 feet above the mean sea-level. There is also a report on five-day means of the principal meteorological elements for 1884, con- structed according to the recommendations of the International Meteorological Congress, and a complete weather report for the same year. With four well-equipped observatories (Tokio, Shanghai, Hong Kong, and Manila) at work, the meteorolgy of the China Seas will soon cease from being the sealed book which it practically is at present. Last year was a tolerably productive one for the collectors of prehistoric remains in Switzerland. The water of the lakes was almost constantly below the highest level, which is the most favourable state of things for explorations around the lake- dwellings. The remains discovered belong mostly to the Bronze period, and the chief localities in which they were found were Lake Neuchatel and the settlement of Wallishofen near Ziirich, the latter of which is the only station of the Bronze period yet know in Eastern Switzerland. Among the most remarkable articles discovered at this settlement in 1884 were a splendidly preserved bronze sword, several dozens of bronze hatchets, bracelets, &c. Of the remains of the Stone period discovered in — | a } : May 28, 1885] the same year the most notable are those obtained at Roben- hausen, including several pretty knife-handles made of yew, some excellent specimens of mechanical industry, such as thread, woven fabrics, fishing-nets, &c., and ears of barley and wheat, one being a specimen of the rare Zyiticum turgidum. THE Zoological Society of Philadelphia, according to the Thirteenth Report of the Board of Directors, appears to have suffered during the past year, like many other institutions de- | pendent on the public for support, from the general depression of trade. The financial balance shows a large reduction ; never- theless the Superintendent is able to report that the collection ‘* presents to-day a greater and more typical variety of animal forms, in furtherance of the educational facilities which have been one of the chief aims of the Society, than at any previous period of the history of the garden.” Among the principal additions during the year was a hippopotamus, the first obtained by the Society, a collection of European water-fowl, and a brush-turkey (Za//egalla lathami) of New South Wales. The specimen procured is a female, but it is hoped that a male may also be obtained, and that its extraordinary habit of hatching its eggs, by covering them with decomposing vegetable matter, may be shown in the garden. Ir seems that the experiments of Dr. Ferran in inoculation for cholera have been stopped by the Spanish Government. THE Sanitary Congress at Rome has been engaged during the past week mainly in discussing quarantine regulations. WE have received Prof. Theodore Gill’s ‘‘ Account of the Progress in Zoology” for 1883, from the Smithsonian Report— a substantial pamphlet of over fifty pages. The special dis- _ coyeries recorded have been selected either on account of the modifications which the forms considered force on the system, or because they are or have been deemed of high taxonomic im- portance, or the animals fer se are of general interest; or, finally, they are of special interest to the American naturalist. The arrangement of the account is as follows :—General Zoology, Protozoans, Porifers, Ccelenterates, Echinoderms, Worms, Arthropoids, Molluscoids, Mollusks and Vertebrates. Each of these divisions is sub-divided according to the discoveries to be noted. At the end, a brief bibliography of note- worthy memoirs and works relating to different classes is appended. ‘‘ The statement,” Prof. Gill says, ‘‘is not intended for the advanced scientific student so much as for those who entertain a general interest in zoology, or in some of the better- known classes. It is compiled for the many rather than the few, and hence, perhaps, zoologists cultivating limited fields of research may find omissions, as well as notices of discoveries of minor importance.” On May 20 a terrific storm raged in Paris ; a stupendous peal of thunder was heard at Ir a.m. It seems the lightning struck _ the top of a high furnace at St. Ouens, near Montmartre. It is supposed that it was attracted by a mass of lead which was placed at this elevated situation for some purpose. The pecu- liarity is that no trace of the lead was afterwards found THE centennial celebration of Blanchard and Jeffries crossing the Channel in a balloon was celebrated on Sunday at Guine, Pas de Calais, where the two travellers landed. SHocks of earthquake were felt at Wartberg and Kindberg, Austria, on May 20 towards 1.30 a.m. A sharp shock was felt at Smyrna at 7.15 p.m. on May 26. Pror. Dewar, F.R.S., will give a discourse on ‘‘ Liquid Air and the Zero of Absolute Temperature ” at the last Friday evening meeting of the season on June 5, at the Royal Institution. NATURE 85 A FEwyears since the German Anthropological Society initiated an exhaustive investigation among German school children as to the proportion of those with dark and with fair complexions. This has been foliowed by similar investigations in Belgium, Switzer- land, and Cislethian Austria, and these have supplied gaps in the German inquiry. The result was, according to Dre Natur, laid before a recent meeting of the Berlin Academy of Sciences by Herr Virchow. In all, 10,077,635 children were examined as to the colour of the skin, hair, and eyes ; 6,758,827 in Germany» 608,678 in Belgium, 505,609 in Switzerland, and 2,304,501 in Austria. The geographical boundaries were the Pregel and Dniester on the east to the Vosges on the west ; the Baltic and German Ocean on the north, to the Adriatic and the Alps on the south. The following is the result:—Of pure blondes there were found in Germany 2,149,027; in Austria, 456,260; in Switzerland, 44,865 ; a total of 2,650,152, which, on a total of 9,468,557 (Belgium being omitted here) children examined, is rather more than one-fourth. The number of brunettes was: in Germany, 949,822 ; Austria, 534,091 ; in Belgium, 167,401 ; - in Switzerland, 104,410; a total of 1,755,724, or about one- sixth of a total of 10,077,635. Hence more than half the school children of Central Europe are of the mixed type. The distribution of the pure types is very different. In Germany 31°80 per cent. is fair and 14°05 per cent. dak ; in Austria the dark predominate, being 23°17 per cent., while the fair amount only to 19°79; in Switzerland the disparity is still greater, for the blondes are only 11°10 per cent., while the brunettes are 25°7; and in Belgium the blondes are 27°50 per cent. In Ger- many, therefore, the fair complexions predominate ; but even here the proportions vary greatly, getting less and less as we go towards the south. In North Germany the proportion is between 43°35 and 33°5 per cent.; in Central Germany, about 25°29; and in the south, only 18°44; while, on the contrary, the proportion of dark children diminishes from 25 per cent. in South Germany, to 7 per cent. in the north. This appears to show the incorrectness of the theory of the French anthropologist that we must seek the real Germans in South Germany, and that North Germans are a dark race, a mixture of Finns and Slavs. The fair people are most numerous in Sleswick-Holstein, Oldenburg, Pomerania, Mecklenburg, Brunswick, and Hanover. That this should be the case in Mecklenburg—formerly a Slav district—is due, according to Herr Virchow, to a return-emigration of the Germans. Middle and Western Germany were especially the cradle of this emigra- tion. Flemings, Dutch, and Frisians thus reached Holstein, Westphalia, Brunswick, Mecklenburg, and Pomerania. Saxony, Silesia, and Northern Bohemia were colonised through Eastern Franconia, Austria from Bavaria. The emigration of the German tribes took place at two different periods: the first, a move- ment from south to west, which ended with the foundation of the Frankish monarchy ; the other a return to the last, which began with the Karolingian period, and is not yet concluded. The latter has led to a permanent colonisation, and to the forma- tion of a new pure German people. The deep brown colour of the south and middle Germans, as well as of the Swiss, is traced by Herr Virchow to the Romans, Rhetians, and Illyrians, and especially to the remnants of the Celtic or pre-Celtic in- habitants, which have now become mixed with the Germans. Tue experiment of acclimatising the American Whitefish (Coregonus albus), lately tried by the National Fish Culture Association, has met with great success. Until now the attempts made were unsatisfactory, the utmost difficulty being experienced in finding suitable lakes for the reception of this valuable edible fish. The whitefish in question were incubated at'South Kens- ington in March, and afterwards transferred to ponds at Delaford where they have thrived well ever since. 86 NATURE. « THE Naturalists’ Societies in the East of Scotland have advanced an important stage. They have been established, have worked, and now have formed a union, the first report of which we have now before us. The union embraces the societies in the counties of Aberdeen, Fife, Forfar, Kincardine, Kinross, and Perth, and now consists of ten societies. The president, Dr. Buchanan White, of Perth, explained in his inaugural address the functions of the union as distinguished-from those of the individual societies. Its main object of course is to carry on more effectually the work for which each of the societies that compose it has been formed, that work being the promotion of the study of natural science, especially of local natural science. Rivalry begotten of communication and connection, he argues, is as valuable to societies as to individuals; and while each society was isolated and worked independently in its own dis- trict, the sum total of the work done was necessarily imperfect because of want of uniformity in the matter of details ; one sub- ject has been thoroughly worked while another has been un- touched, certain districts have been investigated, while others have been neglected, and the relations of one district to another have not been considered. Each society has toiled in a quarry in its own district, and has brought forth good stone<, but they lie in an unsorted heap. The union undertakes the task of sortins and utilising them. On this broad principle the union started, and the president laid down in the opening address the programme of its work for the immediate future. The first step was to ascertain the present state of knowledge of the zoology, botany, geology, and meteorology of the six counties included in the union. For this purpose a uniform method of treatment was adopted. Each reporter in his own special subject states how far the subject has been investigated, what parts of it especially require investigation, both as regards the district and the subject, what the probable richness of the district is, what important works, if any, have been published on the subject and district, and, finally, what work should be taken in hand at once. These statements make up the bulk of this first report, and there are in all nineteen, covering almost every department of natural history. The union, it thus appears, directs and organises the work of its affiliated societies, and prevents waste of power. THE additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens during the past week include a White-bellied Beaver-Rat (4ydromys leuco- gaster), a White-bellied Sea Eagle (Haliaetus leucogaster), two Stump-tailed Lizards ( Trachydosaurus rugosus), a Great Cyclodus (Cyclodus gigas), a Diamond Snake (Morelia spilotes) from Australia, presented by Mr. E. P. Ramsay, C.M.Z.S. ; an Australian Cassowary (Casuarius australis) from Australia, pre- sented by Mr. T. H. Bowyer Bower ; four Pucheran’s Guinea Fowls (Numida pucherani) fram East Africa, presented by Commander C, E. Gissing, R.N.; a Kestrel (Tinnunculus alwidarius), British, presented by Mr. C. A. Marriott ; seven Striped Snakes (Zyopidonotus sirtalis) from North America, presented by Mrs. A. H. Jamrach ; a Common Viper (Vifera berus), from Epping Forest, presented by Mr, F. W. Elliott ; two Lions (/¢/i; /zo) from Africa, two Pumas (/¢lis concolor) from South America, deposited ; a Collared Fruit Bat (Cyno- nycteris collaris), four Upland Geese (Bernicla magellanica), bred in the Gardens. OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN DousLe-STar Measures —Nos. 2662-63 of the Astronom- ische Nachrichten contain the first division of a series of measures of double stars made by Herr R. Engelmann during the years 18$2-84, preceded by a comparison of the differences between the observer's positions and distances of a number of stars, with those measured by Dembowski and Asaph Hall, and other particulars bearing upon his own results. For several of the more interesting binaries, the following epochs are given :— 0 Castor Ses 1882°88 ced 234°3 = @Cancril s. 1884°28 67'0 Ag » Leonis ... 1884°23 , gI'4 : & Urse Majoris 1884"41 Ae 249°6 5 y Virginis ... 1883°07 eC 1556 “0 42 Comz Beren. 1882°93 192°1 a ~ Bootis 1884°45 2666 : second catalogue of variable stars, so as to satisfy more nearly the observations of the late Prof. Schmidt in 1882 and 1883 :— h. m. h. m. h. July 25 13 10 Sept. 3 16 29 ... Sept.29 28 9 58 6: 13/27 = Octane Aug. 14 14 49 Getto: 16) 5% 19 L7, ta, 38 12) 16; 54) oes 22 20 8 26 26 DANS 7 eae 25 New ZEALAND.—It is well known to those who are interested in astronomical matters that the track of the central line in the total eclipse of the sun on September 9 next is almost entirely over the Southern Ocean, and that the total phase will only be observable on Jand on the shores of Cook’s Straits, New Zealand. It would appear that no central eclipse has traversed those islands during the present century ; an examination of the various ephemerides points to the annular eclipse of December 29, 1796, as the last which was there central. An annular, though nearly total, eclipse will take place near the north extremity of the North Island on January — 3, 1927, while, on May 30, 1965, when the sun is barely risen to an altitude of 5°, he will be totally eclipsed on the east coast of the North Island, near its north extremity for about 2m. 20s. | It is true that in an old catalogue of eclipses which has been — transcribed into several of our popular astronomical treatises those of December 12, 1890, and September 29, 1894, are men- tioned as being central in New Zealand, but an examination of these eclipses upon more recent data shows that neither will reach that country. In the eclipse of 1890 the central line ends in about longitude 143° W., latitude 364° S., totality with the sun on the meridian taking place in longitude 129}° E., latitude 54 south, and the line thus running south of New Zealand. In the eclipse of 1894 it ends not far from longitude 163° E , lati- tude 56° S. THE DAYLIGHT-OCCULTATION OF ALDEBARAN ON MAy 22, 1868. —Mr. H. Sadler reminds us that the occultation of Alde- baran to which reference was lately made in this column, as having been pointed out by Mr. Newall in 1868, when the star was only some eight degrees from the sun’s place, was observed by Prof. Asaph Hall. The observation is to be found in the “* Washington Astronomical and Meteorological Observations ” for 1868, p. 327. ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA FOR THE WEEK, 1885, WAV 31 TO JUNE 6 (For the reckoning of time the civil day, commencing at Greenwich mean midnight, counting the hours on to 24, is here employed.) At Greenwich on May 31 Sun rises, 3h. 51m. ; souths, rrh. 57m. 25°7s. ; sets, 20h. 4m. ; decl. on meridian, 21° §9' N.: Sidereal Time at Sunset, . 12h. 42m. Moon (at Last Quarter June 6, oh.) rises, 2th. 16m.* ; souths, th. 43m. ; sets, 6h. tom. ; decl. on meridian, 18° 21’ S. Planet Rises Souths Sets Decl. on’meridian — h. m. h. m. Reh rigs Mercury ... 3 7 IO 22 17 38 13 43 N. Venus 414 12 28 20 42 23 8N. Mars 2 50 IO 21 17. 52 16 31 N. Jupiters “2.7 Lowes) pees © 37* .= I35ORNG Saturn aha t.. Sgt 3 2I 12 22 24N. * Indicates that the rising is that of the preceding and the setting that of the following day. Phenomena of Jupiter's Satellites June h. m June h. m. 4 2 ne 22050) eaten. 5 ... 22 43 (I. occ. disap. 4. ..; 23 44 “Vitvecl-sreap. 1! @6 %s) 22022)" loptrrepr The Phenomena of Jupiter's Satellites are such as are visible at Greenwich. . | | | > May 28, 1885 | CHEMICAL NOTES IN a paper communicated by Prof. Mendeleeff to the last issue of the Hournal of the Russian Chemical Society, being a reply to M. Avenarius, the Professor makes a very interesting com- parison between his own formula of dilatation of liquids and the logarithmic formula of Waterston, supported in Russia by his opponent, M. Avenarius. He shows by analysis why both for- mulas express with sufficient approximation the expansion of ether within the limits of 0° and 104°, the observations beyond that limit having to be left aside until we have a more accurate knowledge of the laws of expansion of this substance at higher temperatures and under higher pressures. He demonstrates, moreover, that the logarithmic formula is as inapplicable to water as his own ; and, developing both formulas into series, he shows why his own simpler formula ought to be considered as a first approximation to the law of dilatation of liquids until the true law is discovered. Though polemic in its first part, the paper is a masterly piece of scientific treatment of the controversy about so important a question. FoLLowINc on the lines laid down by Mr. H. B. Dixon in his experiments on the combustion of carbonic oxide in dry and in moist oxygen, Mr. H. Brereton Baker has recently described some very interesting results regarding the combustion of phos- phorus and carbon in oxygen. When the elements in question were heated in oxygen which had been kept in contact with phosphorus pentoxide for some weeks, combustion occurred only to a very limited extent. The presence of a small quantity of water-vapour seems to be needed in order to start the com- bustion (C. S. Journal, Trans., 1885, 349). THE influence of the relative masses of the reacting bodies on chemical changes has of late years received a good deal of atten- tion. Urech has discussed the well-established data regarding the influence of dilution, and of the presence of excess of one or other ingredient, on chemical reactions (Ber., xviii. 94). He points out that the diluent may act both physically and chemi- cally. When it acts altogether as a diluent it does not, according to Urech, affect the rate of the chemical operation. Excess of either reacting body appears always to exert an influence on the rate of change. ‘The causes of the variations in the rate of chemical change are probably very complicated ; even the shape aaa of the containing vessel may exert an appreciable effect. EXPERIMENTS are described by M. J. Thoulet (Compt. Rend., xcix. 1072) on the effect of immersing various solid bodies in saline solutions, e.g. marble, quartz, &c., in aqueous solutions of sodium or barium chloride. In each case a portion of the dissolved salt was precipitated on the surface of the immersd solid. The conclusion is drawn that there is an attraction between the dissolved salt and the solid immersed, and that the amount of attraction is proportional to the surface of the solid. SoME time ago Mr. Bayley showed that when drops of various solutions are allowed to fall on to filter-paper, the salt which was in solution in many cases remains in the centre, and a water- ring extends around it. Mr. J. U. Lloyd has extended these observations (Chem. Nezws, li. 51). He has observed the distances to which various substances in aqueous solutions extend on pieces of blotting paper, dipped into the solutions, before they are left behind by the water. Great differences were noticed in the length to which different salts thus travelled. Mixtures of salts were also examined; in some cases one salt passes on, leaving the other completely behind. Thus a solution of quinine and berberine sulphates was separated by the method described ; the former salt passed on through the paper after the progress of the latter had quite ceased. Dilute sulphuric acid behaved similarly ; pure water alone passed onwards. In the case of simple salts dissolved in water, the rule appears to be that the more dilute the solution, the quicker is the separation into salt and water. CHEMIS1's are beginning to realise that the structural formulz they have so long rezarded as final expressions are, after all, very imperfect representations of chemical operations. The molecule of a compound has been treated as a structure built up of atoms ; in their anxiety to learn the relations of these atoms chemists have almost forgotten that the molecule is itself a whole, Attention has of late been recall 5 ee Notes: = << dostecile slosre is) wie: sale sien Our Astronomical Column :— Double:Star Measures . . . « + «-+ «01 MeeEOG Minima of Algo) ... .- suid. sign oe Central Solar Eclipses in New Zealand. ...... 86 The Daylight Occultation of Aldebaran on May 22, 1868. ve ate Sha ee Bee, a Astronomical Phenomena for the Week 1885, ; May 31to June'6 . . 2 45 |e hero ie) oll eee Chemical Notes:«<.:. <4: $i. i.) Secu eeememenen Geographical Notes... .. 2. s+ ess eee A Yearly and a Daily Period in Telegraphic Per- turbations. By Dr. Sophus Tromholt. (Zilustrated) 88 A Note relating to the History of the Aurora Borealis. By Dr. Sophus Tromholt.......+ 89 University and Educational Intelligence ..... 90 Scientific Serials| |... 2% St) a0) cia. a ee Societies and Academies .....+.++-+++- QF NATURE 97 THURSDAY, JUNE 4, 1885 THE DEINOCERATA OF WYOMING Dinocerata, a Monograph of an Extinct Order of Gigantic Mammals. By O. C. Marsh. Monographs of the U.S. Geological Survey. Vol. X. (1884.) ON the high plateau that lies to the west of the Rocky Mountains, along the southern borders of Wyoming Territory, the traveller who is moving westwards begins to enter upon a peculiarscenery. Bare, treeless wastes of naked stone, crumbling into sand and dust, arise here and there into terraced ledges and strange tower-like pro- minences, and sink into hollows where the water gathers in salt or bitter pools. Under the cloudless sky, and in the dry clear atmosphere, the extraordinary colouring of these landscapes forms, perhaps, their weirdest feature. Bars of deep red alternate with strips of orange, now deepening into sombre browns, now blazing out again into flaming vermilion, with belts of lilac, buff, pale green, and white. And everywhere the colours run in almost horizontal bands, the same band being continuous and traceable from hill to hill, and tower to tower, across hollow and river-gorge for mile after mile through this rocky desert. These parallel strips of colour mark the nearly horizontal stratification of the rocks that cover all this wide plateau country. They are the tints character- istic of an enormous accumulation of sedimentary rocks that mark the site of a vast Eocene lake or succession of lakes on what is now nearly the crest of the continent. These lacustrine sediments, in all somewhere about two miles in vertical thickness, were doubtless laid down during a slow subsidence of the lacustrine area, when the subterranean movements were in progress that finally gave the mountain-ranges and plateaux their present forms and altitudes. They represent a vastly protracted period of quiet sedimentation, in the immediate proximity of an extensive land-surface plentifully clothed with a tropical vegetation, and abounding in varied forms of animal life. They consequently offer to the geologist peculiar facilities for investigating the evolution of a fauna apparently exposed to the minimum of interference from changes in its environment. It is now about fifteen years since the wonders sealed up within the sediments of these vanished lakes first began to be known. The wandering Indian, indeed, had long been familiar with the skulls and skeletons which, by the decay of the inclosing rock, looked out upon him from the side of éz¢ée and cavion. But he revered them as the bones of his ancestors, and left them untouched, to be disinterred by the ceaseless working of wind and rain. The earliest trappers, squatters, and prospectors brought back news of marvellous monsters grinning from the ledges of rock beneath which they camped. At last these tales attracted the notice of some of the enthusiastic naturalists in the eastern States. Prof. Leidy, of Phila- delphia, obtained a number of bones from which he was able to bring to light an entirely novel, and now wholly extinct creature, to which he gave the name of Uznta- therium. Prof. E. W. Cope likewise described some forms disinterred by him in the same region. But the VOL, XXXII.—NO. ‘814 earliest and most successful investigator of these remains is Prof. O. C. Marsh, who, as far back as 1870, began the search in the Green River basin, and who, after many years of most laborious research, both among the western deserts and in his wonderful collection at Yale College, has at last been able to publish this splendid monograph on the Deinocerata. No trouble or expense has been spared to obtain material for the study of these strange extinct creatures. One expedition after another has been despatched to the West, and many tons of bones have been deposited at Yale, where it is believed there are now represented more than two hundred individuals of the Deinocerata alone. Some of these remains are admirably preserved ; indeed, had the animals been still living, the materials for a knowledge of their osteology could hardly have been more perfect than it is. The Deinocerata form an order established by Prof. Marsh to include some peculiar and well-marked forms found in the lacustrine deposits of the Green River basin—a tribu- tary of the Colorado River of the West. This order belongs to the Ungulates, some of the characters allying it with the Artiodactyls (Paraxonza), others with the Perissodactyls (Wesaxonza) ; while in others, again, it is linked with the Proboscidians. The points of resemblance, however, are usually, in the author’s opinion, such general characters as seem to point backward to some ancestral ungulate, rather than to any near affinity with existing forms of these groups. The Deinocerata include three genera which occupy three successive stratigraphical horizons. The oldest, Uintatherium, found in the lower strata of the Eocene lake, appears to be the most primi- tive type; the youngest, 7zzoceras, found at the highest level, is the most specialised ; Dinoceras being an inter- mediate form. The number of species belonging to the order has not been satisfactorily determined, but about thirty forms more or less distinct have been recognised. Comparing Dznoceras with the large living Ungulates, Prof. Marsh points out that in size and proportions it was intermediate between the elephant and rhinoceros, but had also features akin to those of the hippopotamus; while in its stature and movements it probably resembled the elephant as muchas any existing animal. It presented certain striking peculiarities which at once marked it off from any form now familiar to us. The skull in particular wore an altogether extraordinary aspect. It was long and narrow, and on its top it supported three separate transverse pairs of high osseous protuberances or horn- cores, which may have been covered with bosses of thick skin, and were no doubt powerful offensive weapons. The canine teeth were enormously deve- loped in the male, forming short, trenchant, decurved tusks, which were protected by a dependent process on the lower jaw. The nasal bones were so elongated as to form nearly half the length of the entire skull, projecting forward and overhanging the premaxillaries. There was probably no proboscis, for the neck was long enough to allow the head to reach the ground without it, but there is some evidence of a thick flexible lip, perhaps like that of the rhinoceros. The brain was proportionately smaller than in any other known mammal, recent or fossil, and even less than in some reptiles. In one species at least it was so diminutive that it apparently could have been drawn through the neural canal of all the pre-sacral EF 98 vertebra, certainly through the cervicals and lumbars. The limbs were massive and heavy, the bones, like those of the rest of the skeleton, being nearly or quite solid. The fore- foot was larger than the hind-foot, its component bones being comparatively short and massive, with five well- developed digits, as in Proboscidians, but the carpal bones interlocked with the metacarpals as in Perisso- dactyls. The feet, as in the modern elephant, were planti- grade, and were doubtless covered below with a thick pad. We can picture these dull, heavy, slow-moving creatures haunting the forests and palm-jungles around the margin of a great lake. Into the quiet depths of that lake their carcases from time to time found their way, swept down perhaps by river-floods. Among their contemporaries were other forms whose remains have also been more or less abundantly preserved in the same deposits. Of these, two genera next in size to the Dinocerata were Perissodac- tyl ungulates somewhat larger than a tapir (Pal@osyops and Lzmnohyus). Another interesting form is Orohippus —a four-toed ancestor of the living horse, while additional varieties of the ungulate type were related, though distantly, to the tapir and rhinoceros (Colonoceras, Helaletes, Hyrachyus). Two remarkable genera (7Zz?/o- thertum, Stylinodon), nearly as large as a tapir, possessed characters resembling those of the ungulates, carnivores, and rodents, and have been embraced by the author in a new order called by him 77//odontia. Among the carni- vores there was one (Zz7zo/elzs) nearly as large as a lion, and another hardly less in size (Oveocyon), while Dromo- cyon was somewhat smaller and ZLznocyon about as large as a fox. There were likewise lemurs having some affinities with South American marmosets ; also repre- sentatives of the Marsupials, Insectivora, Chiroptera, and Rodentia, but no true Quadrumana or Edentates. Rep- tiles abounded, especially crocodiles, turtles, lizards, and serpents, while fishes of many kinds swam in the lake. The structure and history of the Deinocerata with their place and affinities in the animal kingdom are fully discussed in this important monograph. Like his previous work on toothed birds in the same series of memoirs, Prof. Marsh’s present volume is an admirably executed and exhaustive research. Every bone is care- fully worked out and drawn. Every available fragment of evidence is patiently collected, compared, and tabu- lated. Whatever may be disputable regarding the conclusions drawn, there can be no variety of opinion as to the actual data. No fewer than fifty-six lithographic plates, and nearly 200 woodcuts depict with singular fidelity every part of the skeleton of the Deinocerata as at present known. But Prof. Marsh is much more than a comparative anatomist. It is not enough for him to describe the bones he has unearthed, and to point out their analogies in the living world. He is instinctively an evolutionist, and every extinct animal seems to propound to him the problem of its ancestry and its descendants. One of the most suggestive chapters in his present memoir is devoted to the genealogy of ungulate animals, and the place of the Deinocerata among them. He believes that from some primitive form, of generalised type, probably small in size, resembling generally an insectivore, and going back at least as far as Permian time, all the mammalian NATURE [| ¥une 4, 1885 tribes have descended. Such a genealogical mammal, belonging to Prof. Huxley’s group of Hyfotheria, would possess all the general characters of the subsequently developed mammalian orders. But special characters, acquired in adaptation to conditions of environment, would be developed in the course of time, and would lead to the establishment of different modified types. The general characters would thus alone be a safe guide in tracing a community of ancestry, while those of a special kind need not necessarily indicate affinity, but may have independently arisen from the influence of the same sur- roundings in groups already quite distinct from each other. In the Cretaceous system, a well-marked group of mammals is found which is represented now by the living Hyrax, along what appears to have been the main stem of ungulate descent. From this stem, after the remarkable waning of reptilian life at the close of the Mesozoic ages, there diverged, in Cretaceous times, a branch which terminated in Cory- phodon—a tapir-like form which, both in America and in Europe, probably quite equalled if it did not surpass in size and power any of the representatives of the fading reptilian types of an older creation. Another branch which may have been given off about the same time reached its full development in the Deinocerata, which were certainly the monarchs of the region where they lived. But nothing is more striking in the history of these and the other colossal mammals than the rapidity with which they appear and disappear from the scene. Dinoceras and its allies, so far as the evidence yet goes, appear to have been restricted to the middle part of the Eocene period. Their remains are not found in the earlier deposits of that period, and cease to occur before we reach the upper parts of the series. The cause of this speedy extinction is to be sought, according to Prof. Marsh, in the small brain of the animals, their highly specialised characters, and huge bulk, whereby they were unfitted for adapting themselves with sufficient rapidity to new conditions ; and a change of surroundings brought about their extinction. But this is a point on which the geologist may not unnaturally claim to be heard when he demands some evidence of such change of surroundings. Had the supposed geological vicissitudes been sufficiently serious to cause the extinction of a whole tribe or sub- order of large mammals, they might have been expected to have left sonie palpable evidence of their passage in a corresponding change in the nature of the deposits accu- mulated in the lakes. But there is certainly nothing in the nature or succession of these deposits to suggest that any important modifications of topography or climate took place during the time when they were being de- posited. On the contrary, they seem to point to pro- tracted uniformity in the conditions of sedimentation. They afford no indication whatever that the successive appearance of Coryphodon, Dinoceras, and Diplacodon was accompanied, far less was determined by, any essential change of physical conditions. That such change actually took place is of course quite conceivable, but when it is demanded as an essential factor in mammalian evolution, some admissible proof may very fairly be demanded. Like Prof. Marsh’s previous memoir on “Odontor- nithes,” the present volume may be regarded as a model monograph. It is complete without being overloaded, 4 ~ . > ee eee 8? Fune 4, 1885 | NARURE 99 exhaustive and yet lucid and interesting from beginning toend. After reading it one feels that the Deinocerata are no longer extinct, vanished forms, but familiar ac- quaintances which one could not fail to recognise any- where. Every part of their structure is methodically presented to view, and restorations are given showing the relations of the parts to each other and what is the author’s conception of the general form of the animals. It has hardly ever been possible in the Old World to re- construct the mammalia of so early a period from such ample materials as are now amassed at Yale College. Hence the restorations attempted have often been little more than more or less probable conjectures which might be conformed but were more usually corrected or even effaced by the progress of discovery. So full, however, is the evidence for Prof. Marsh’s restorations, that there remains very little room for future emendation. He is still engaged in continuing these remarkable memoirs on the ancient life of the North American continent. A third monograph on the Sauropoda is approaching com- pletion, and a fourth, on the Stegosauria, is far advanced. These large and profusely illustrated works are issued as part of the work of the United States Geological Survey. They reflect the highest honour on their indefatigable author, and on the Survey which undertakes their publi- cation. ARCH. GEIKIE REMSEN’S “ORGANIC CHEMISTRY” An Introduction to the Study of the Compounds of Carbon; or, Organic Chemistry. By Ira Remsen, Professor of Chemistry in the Johns Hopkins Uni- versity. Pp. x., 364. (Boston: Ginn, Heath, and Co., 1885.) ae is chemistry. Of how few books professing to be books on chemistry can it be said that they teach us anything of the science. The student who begins the study of the carbon compounds has to suffer many things from the text-books. Some of them present him with dry bones in the shape of isolated facts and bold assertions regarding structural formulae and the linking of atoms. Others Jead him into speculations which he is unprepared to follow ; he makes little flights into these and comes back fancying he is a chemist. Other books (there are not many of them) proceed on the true scientific lines ; but very frequently their pages are encumbered with too many facts about more or less widely separated compounds, or they deal so much with groups of compounds, rather than with typical individual bodies, that the beginner soon loses his way, becomes perplexed, and is ready to abandon the pursuit. Prof. Remsen has shown us a more excellent way than any of these. He leads the learner by degrees through the early difficulties; he places before him distinct and detailed accounts of a few typical compounds ; he shows him how these compounds are mutually related; and then he takes him back to the beginning again and teaches him how each compound he has learned to know repre- sents a group, and how, when he knows the properties of one member of the group he also knows much about all the members. At the outset Prof. Remsen makes a few wise and pregnant remarks on the meaning of structural formule. These “ enable the chemist who waderstands the language in which they are written to see relations which might easily escape his attention without their aid. In order to understand them, however, the student must have a knowledge of the reactions upon which they are based ; and he is warned not to accept any chemical formula unless he can see the reasons for accepting it.” The whole book is a practical sermon on this text. In no other elementary book in the English language will the student find so many admirably chosen examples of the formation of structural formulz. The important facts are noted ; then the inference is drawn; then the hypothesis is ventured upon; analogous facts are re- called ; the hypothesis is strengthened or weakened ; suggestions are made ; experiments are conducted ; and all is finally summarised in the formula. But the book is more than a selection of examples showing how s‘zuctural formule ought to be gained. It is a systematic although elementary treatise on organic chemistry. The student is first taught about the two paraffins, methane and ethane ; then he learns how the halogen derivatives of these are prepared, and what relations they bear to the parent hydrocarbons. By this time he has had his first taste of isomerism. Then he proceeds to the oxygen derivatives of methane and ethane; he learns what an alcohol is ; he becomes acquainted with ether, aldehyde, formic and acetic acids, some ethereal salts, and acetone. This method of studying a few simple compounds in detail is pursued until the student is more or less familiar with representatives of all the principal groups of com- pounds derived from the paraffins. He is now in a position to study these hydrocarbons as a group, and to deal in some detail with the questions of isomerism. When the paraffins and their derivatives have been thus studied, the more difficult subject of the benzenes and their compounds is approached. And here the author shows an admirable power of dealing with facts as facts, and with theories as theories. What could be better than the following remarks regarding saturated and unsaturated compounds ? “In the aldehydes and ketones, carbon is in combina- tion with oxygen in the carbonyl condition. When they unite with hydrogen and some compounds, such as hydro- cyanic acid, the relation between the carbon and oxygen is probably changed, the latter being in the hydroxyl condition. The changes are usually represented by formulas such as the following :-— CH,-C7 2 +H, = CH,.c¢ OF H.€ re 3 H3C\, J C=OfHEN= (7 eCN, H,C/ H;C/ In the carbonyl group the oxygen is represented as held by two bonds to the carbon atom, while in the hydroxyl condition it is represented as held by one bond. The signs may be used if care is taken to avoid a too literal interpretation of them. There are undoubtedly two rela- tions which carbon and oxygen bear to each other in carbon compounds. These relations may be called ‘he hydroxyl relation, represented by the sign C—O—, and the carbonyl relation, represented by the sign C=O” (pp. 209-10). How different this is to the crude, glaring statements that annoy the reader of the commonplace text-book written by the Philistine. The fact that structural formule help us to understand the relations existing between the parts of specified mole- 100 NATURE [Fune 4, 1885 cules is strongly insisted on throughout this book. When we know nothing of these relations the author does not hesitate to tell us so. Thus, regarding the formula of benzene, as commonly written with successive double and single bonds, he says (p. 239) :—‘ This formula, however, expresses something about which we know nothing, and concerning which it is difficult at present to form any conception. The simpler formula [/.e. the hexagon with- out any double bonds] leaves the question as to the relation between the carbon atoms entirely open, as it is in fact.” And again, speaking of the structure of the molecule of ethylene, Prof. Remsen remarks (p. 213) :— “As regards the relations between the two carbon atoms of ethylene we know nothing, save that it is probably different from that which exists between the carbon atoms of ethaxe.” A most instructive example of the methods pursued in organic chemistry, and at the same time of the scientific method of inquiry, is to be found on pp. 318-321, where the reactions of phenol-phthalein are discussed. The facts are given, but they seem only facts until some light is shed on them by the appearance in one reaction of triphenylmethane, a substance already familiar to the student. The student is shown how “this suggests that all the substances [he has been examining] are derivatives of this fundamental hydrocarbon.” And he is asked to note how easily, when this conception has once been formed, the interpretation of all the reactions follows. Many other admirable illustrations of the scientific method of inquiry are to be found throughout the book. I would especially draw attention to the simple but thoroughgoing treatment of the “equivalency of the hydrogen atoms” in the molecule CH, (pp. 28-29), and in the molecule C,H, (pp. 234-236). It is on subjects such as are discussed in the pages referred to that the chemical student so frequently suffers shipwreck. If he will use this little book by Prof. Remsen as his pilot, and will keep a good look out as he proceeds, he may hope to pass the shoals of the hexagon-formula, and the shallows of the ortho-, meta-, and para-derivatives of benzene. The author of this book deserves the thanks of all chemical teachers who have tried to teach organic chem- istry to beginners for the clear and short directions which he gives for preparing the more important compounds of carbon. The book may well be used as a laboratory guide, no less than as an introduction to the science of organic chemistry. Prof. Remsen has already done good service to the science of which he is a student, by publishing his “Principles of Theoretical Chemistry ;” he has now given us a book which must be of great use in advancing the study of organic chemistry ; could he not supplement these by an elementary but scientific treatise on inorganic chemistry ? M. M. PaTtrison MUIR MINERALOGY IN CALIFORNIA Fourth Annual Report of the State Mineralogist of California. By H.G. Hanks. $8vo, pp. 410. (Sacra- mento; State Printer.) A UTHOUGH a systematic geological investigation of = the State of California has been commenced at dif- ferent times since 1853, the Legislature has generally got tired of providing the funds after a few years’ continu- ance, and the work has been stopped. The most notable effort towards the provision of a complete geological description of the State was that made by Prof. J. D. Whitney, who, with a body of assistants, including men of the highest attainments in every collateral branch of natural science, carried on the survey from 1860 to 1873, when it was suddenly discontinued, to the great regret of scientific men both in America and Europe. No attempt to continue or supplement Prof. Whitney’s work was made until 1880, when the author was appointed State mineralogist with the object of investigating questions more particularly connected with mining industry than with geology in the larger sense. The author during his period of office, which appears to be terminable and held for four years only, has founded a valuable mineral museum and library, more than 6000 specimens illus- trative of the mineral deposits of the State having been collected and arranged. These do not, however, appear to be very sumptuously housed, as the author calls atten- tion to the danger from fire, “as well as other incon- veniences, such as the prevalence of ammoniacal and hippuric odours, and the disturbance of arranged speci- © mens in the cases by the jarring made by the hoisting of hay by tackles attached to the underside of the museum floor. The California State Museum is well worthy of a good and thoroughly fireproof building.” With the latter opinion our readers will no doubt heartily agree. Besides the work of organising the museum the author has published annually a report upon some branch of mineral industry as carried out in the State—for instance, that for 1883 was largely devoted to the borax deposits of the mud lakes in the interior of the State. The present volume, described as the fourth and last report of the State mineralogist, is mainly devoted to a catalogue and description of the minerals of California as far as they are yet known. This is alphabetically arranged, and contains descriptions of the composition physical proper- ties and uses of the different species, together with de- tailed information as to localities, and methods of working in the more important ones. Altogether 161 different species are described as having been found in California, but this number will no doubt be considerably increased by future explorers. At the present time, in addition to gold; mercury, petroleum, and borax are the chief pro- ducts of importance, although as regards all of them the prevailing complaints of over-production and unre- munerative prices appear to be as prevalent as in less favoured localities in the Old World. The condition of the gold-mining industry appears to be a very healthy one, for although the enormous annual yield, ranging from 10 to 13 millions sterling in 1850-55, has diminished to 3 and 44 millions in the past four years ; the increased facilities for working render it possible to handle at a profit rock not containing more than 12s. worth of gold in the ton ; while in the earlier days 20 dollar (80s.) rock was not considered to be worth removal. The total value of the gold raised in California since 1848 is estimated at above 230,000,000/. in value, which if reduced to a single mass would be contained in a cube 14 feet 4 inches in the side. Although the work is essentially a compilation, it is well arranged, and will be of great use to those interested in Californian minerals. A general introduction on the —— eS ae ee Yo ee . Fune 4, 1885] NATURE. TOl resources and industries of the State precedes the cata- logue of minerals. This, though interesting matter, seems rather out of place. H. B. ALGE Rabenhorst’s Kryptogamen-Flora von Deutschland, Oesterreich, und der Schwetz, Zweiter Band. Die Meeresalgen. Bearbeitet von Dr. F. Hauck. Nos. 7, 8, 9,10. 8vo. (Leipzig: Ed. Kummer, 1883-1885.) A Monograph of the Alge of the Firth of Forth. By George William Traill. 4to. (Edinburgh: Printed for the Author, 1855.) Notes on Marine Alge. By Edw. Batters, F.L.S. (Pro- ceedings of the Berwickshire Naturalist Club, 1884.) ale concluding numbers of Dr. Hauck’s work have recently appeared. To the description of species is added an appendix in which some new species are de- scribed. Then follow a comprehensive key to the genera ; an index of families, genera, species, and synonyms ; lists of illustrations, and of works on algz, arranged alphabeti- cally, according to the names of the authors; also the title-page, preface, and table of contents—all most useful auxiliaries to a scientific work. To the favourable opinion of this work, already ex- pressed in the columns of NATURE (vol. xxix. p. 341), it may be added that the later numbers, treating of the Chlorozoosporez and the Schizophycee, fully justify this opinion, and Dr. Hauck must be congratulated on the successful completion of what has undoubtedly been an arduous undertaking. In turning over the pages of the work, one cannot but be ‘struck by the variety of views which, in spite of the closest examination by competent observers with the aid of the best microscopes, still prevail among algologists as to the systematic position of certain alge. Not to multiply instances, it will be sufficient to mention the genera Porphyra and Bangia. By Dr. Berthold and Dr. Hauck they are classed with the Floridez ; while Dr. Agardh and M. Rosanoff place them among the Ulvacez. As to Goniotrichum, which Dr. Agardh rele- gates to the Ulvacez and Dr. Berthold includes in the Bangiacee, Dr. Hauck, in despair of discovering its affinities, places it at the end of the description of species, as of still doubtful position. Although it may be doubted whether all Dr. Hauck’s identifications of British Algze will be admitted by our botanists, yet the work cannot fail to prove extremely useful in this country, and is, in fact, much needed. Mr. Traill’s work, entitled “ A Monograph of the Algze of the Firth of Forth,” consists of an alphabetical list of the marine Algz of this locality, with their habitats, time of appearance and of fruiting, and the names of the host- plants on which grow such species as are epiphitic. Each copy of the work is intended to be illustrated with some half-dozen herbarium specimens of the rarer Algae. Those in the copy before the writer are in excellent condition, and are interesting from their rarity. That Mr. Traill is a most patient and painstaking observer goes without saying. An analysis of the list will show how many species he has collected and ob- served, which are new, not only to the Firth of Forth, but | to the British marine flora. He has watched the growth and development of these plants from their first appear- ance until their maturity. Among them will be found several Algee which, though frequent in the south, have not previously been seen so far north; and he has also met with some arctic and northern species which are not only new to the British marine flora, but are not described in Dr. Hauck’s work. Among these northern species may be mentioned Phieospora tortilis, which has a range in this country, so far as is known at present, from the Firth of Forth to Bamborough. While this plant is so abundant in the Baltic as to cause much inconvenience to fishermen by getting entangled in their nets, its existence is not re- corded on the German shore of the North Sea. Uvospora Penicilliformis, one of the Algee found by Dr. Kjellman on the coast of Spitzbergen, is another of Mr. Traill’s “ finds.” It will be observed that he mentions having obtained the cystocarps of Rhodymenia palmata. If he has really met with the true crystocarps of this plant he is for- tunate, since Dr. Agardh, Dr. Harvey, Dr. Hauck, and other botanists have hitherto searched for them in vain. Harvey has shown (“Phyc. Brit.,” Pl. 217) that bodies outwardly resembling cystocarps are common enough ; probably these are what Mr. Traill has found. They are not, however, true cystocarps. The establishment of the Biological Station at Granton, near Edinburgh, will certainly give a fresh impetus to the study of marine botany in that locality ; and there is no doubt that Mr. Traill’s work will be found extremely serviceable to local collectors of Algz. The Proceedings of the Berwickshire Naturalist Club for 1884 contain notes by Mr. Edward Batters on seven- teen species of rare and little known Algz found by him at Berwick-upon-Tweed. A short and clear description is given of each species, and the rarer kinds are illustrated by lithographic plates. LETIERS TO THE EDITOR [Zhe Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts. No notice ts taken of anonymous communications, [The Editor urgently requests correspondents to keep their letters as short as possible, The pressure on his space ts so great that wt ts impossible otherwise to insure the appearance even of communications containing interesting and novel facts.| Ocular After-Images and Lightning Ir will no doubt be of interest to many of your readers to know that the curious optical phenomenon observed by Prof. C. A. Young, when working with a large Holtz machine, and referred to in Mr. Newall’s letter (NATURE, vol. xxxii. p. 77), may be produced with very small apparatus. 1 have in my possession one of the small Voss machines with 10-inch plates which are now so common. Upon the stand of | this instrument I placed two ordinary Leyden jars, about 54 inches high, in such a position that their tinfoil-covered bottoms touched the brass sockets in which rest the fixed con- densers of the machine, while the rods connected with their inner coatings were in contact with the sliding electrodes ; with this arrangement sparks of great brilliancy from 14 to 2 inches in length could easily be produced at the rate of about six per minute. A copy of NATURE was set up against a dark back- ground 4 feet distant from the machine, and at every discharge the paper appeared to be illuminated by two, or sometimes three, distinct flashes of decreasing brightness, which succeeded one another with great rapidity. Each flash was sufficiently 102 NATURE [| Fune 4, 1885 powerful to enable the pictures on the cover to be clearly seen. By throwing the light upon a quickly rotating disk of zinc with a strip of white paper pasted across it, I convinced myself that the phenomenon was a subjective one: the successive images of the white strip always occurred in exactly the same position. I think these experiments go far towards explaining a matter which must have occurred as a difficulty to many besides my- self. Why is it that the illumination produced by a brilliant flash of lightning invariably appears to be of a quivering or intermittent character? We know that the actual duration of a single discharge is sensibly infinitesimal, and both reasoning and laboratory experiments would lead us to believe that a rapid series of discharges between two insulated bodies must at all events be of infrequent occurrence, and due to exceptional circumstances. Yet the quiver of the lightning-flash is pro- verbial. It would be interesting to ascertain by means of a revolving disk with a single white band across it, whether this is not in most cases a purely subjective phenomenon, due to a succession of after-images. SHELFORD BIDWELL Wandsworth, June 1 Iridescent Crystals of Potassium Chlorate WITH regard to the above crystals, described by Prof. Stokes in NATURE (April 16, p. 565), I should like to suggest, with some diffidence, that the colours may be due, not to a continuous hemitropic crystal-film, but to a series of fine tubular cavities ranged parallel to each other between the two main portions of the crystal, such as not unfrequently occur on a large scale in Iceland spar, and appear to be due to bad fitting (so to speak) of hemitrope-films on the rest of the crystal (see Groth’s ‘* Phy- sikalische Krystallographie,” p. 441). The surfaces of these prismatic cavities, which may be of almost wave-length fineness, would form a series of furrows from which light would be reflected under the same conditions as from grooved surfaces like those of mother-of-pearl ; and, according to the usual laws of interference, we should expect such pheno- mena to occur as are described by Prof. Stokes: eg., non- polarisation of the light, predominance of rays of a particular refrangibility in the reflected beam, and total disappearance of this beam at two azimuths differing by 180°, when the length- dimension of the tubes lies parallel to the plane of incidence. I may mention that plates of opal—at any rate those portions which give a uniform colour—afford spectra extremely similar in character to those of the iridescent crystals: definite bright bands in the reflected light, and dark complementary bands in the transmitted light, changing their position in the spectrum with change of incidence. Now the iridescence of opal is pretty well known to be due to the reflection of light from the surfaces of rows of filaments imbedded in the mass (see Sir David Brewster’s paper in Brit. Ass. Reports, 1844, part 2, p. 9). The above hypothesis would also account for Prof. Stokes’s observation that the iridescent crystals were best formed when the solution was gently stirred; the molecules then, like a harassed army, being too much disturbed to ‘‘ fall in” as they should do. i I cannot say that I have yet succeeded in actually bringing out such rows of tubes under the microscope. It is easy to see with a $-inch power, when the illuminating beam is properly adjusted, a sort of wavy structure at the twin-film (like that seen in opal under the same conditions) ; but I have not yet made out such definite rows of cavities as would seem to be required to produce the singularly uniform sheet of colour. They may be beyond the power of a microscope altogether. Eton College H. G. MADAN P.S.—Since I wrote the above, Prof. Stokes has very kindly pointed out that opal spectra are fully described by Mr. Crookes in Proc. Koy. Soc., xvii. 448. One opal micro-section which I have gives a spectrum almost exactly like No. 12 in that paper, but the band is slightly less refrangible than the D line at an incidence of 20°. Pre-Existence and Post-Existence of Thought fo express any views on these subjects one might well have hesitated some years ago, as hereditary transmission, tolerated as a doctrine, chiefly with regard to the breeding of sheep and dogs, was held to be unphilosophical. Darwin has settled the matter in the domain of science, but perhaps without altogether disposing of prejudices. Mr. Galton and myself have long since dealt with less material aspects of heredity. What I want to bring on the scene of consideration is the common notion of throwing the great-grandsire. Few now are inclined to doubt about this. Throwing the grandsire in the case of man may be taken to represent a period of a hundred years of transmission until birth for three generations, and consequently such period of the pre- existence of a thought or habit, which is in one’s self, and of which there may be an actual register. It is better to select the example of a man, and of a great-grandsire, rather than of a father, because it carries with it a period of remoteness. Taking then a period of a century for pre-existence in the past, there comes the consideration of vitality of occurrence in the future, as we know of it from the past. Taking a generation for the birth of offspring, and adding to it three generations for a great-grandchild, we have, say, one hundred and fifty years. Adding together the two periods, we obtain an epoch of transmission in pre-existence and of possible existence of two hundred and fifty years. One such epoch antecedently and another subsequently may be counted in round numbers five hundred years, and we shall see our way to a thousand. Perhaps after all we know less in detail of the transmission of osseous peculiarities than we assume. There are the means in some cases of examining bony structures of epochs and intervals of 1,000, 2,000, 5,000, 10,000 and more years, and we can trace forms of development. What we further want is the power of witnessing the successive individual variations, which is attended with diversity from other beings, and constitutes identity. Though identity may to some extent repose in the process of a bone, in the way in which a vein or sinew has traversed, we have evidence of this rather collectively in a species or a variety, than in the mode in which it periodically or irregularly influences a series of individuals. The transmission of physical peculiarities in the soft tissues is © equally permanent, and can be better traced in the individual. There are good examples of it in well-known cases of family features, and of racial types. We are now familiar with cases of the hereditary transmission of mental qualities, as in that of the Bernouilli family, though perhaps one of the most remarkable instances is that of the Ottoman dynasty, members of which for several hundred years have displayed capacity, and yet here we have only the male elements of transmission, as in the marriages there has been a great mixture of races. It may, however, be that the Turk, the so-called Circassian (sometimes a Daghestani), and the Georgian are more nearly allied than we have been disposed to consider. The problem now before us may be treated, irrespective of what laws there may be of male or female transmission, as in breeding, the qualities of an ancestor on either side and of either sex may be reproduced, and it is this reproduction and transmission of mental qualities which is to be considered. The mental qualities must be distinguished from the osseous structure or the soft tissues in degree. There is a vast differ- ence in extent, and probably in distinction, between the trans- mission of some feature and that of conscious or unconscious thought or even of a dream. My own term of ‘‘ unconscious thought ” I prefer to ‘‘ uncon- scious cerebration,” because the main distinction between conscicus and unconscious thought is chiefly, if not wholly, dependent on the quality of consciousness. One reason for retaining it here is with reference to dreams. Whatever may be the operation of recording other thoughts, dreams are certainly preserved during life as effectually as any kind of thought, although no organ of seeing or hearing is concerned. If it is remarkable that purely physical properties should be preserved in the germ of a minute animal, it is much more so that any process allied to the operations of thought should be preserved—the influence of events, the influence of dreams, used age after age to constitute the mind of this day. It will be per- ceived that I am speaking very loosely and vaguely, to some extent of set purpose, to bring under consideration a general question of long time in the transmission of a mental process, whether connected with what is called instinct or unconscious thought, and without limiting the discussion more than is necessary with postulates or set definitions. HybrE CLARKE 32, St. George’s Square, S.W., May 23 "itself. Fune 4, 1885] NATURE 103 Long Sight I was at school at Rossall, between Fleetwood and Black- pool, on the coast of Lancashire. One day, being on the sea- wall with Arthur A. Dawson, an Irish boy, we could see the Isle of Man as if it were ten miles away, and then to the south of the Calf of Man we could distinctly see on the horizon the summits of two mountains, which we pronounced must be in Treland. Four years later I was staying at Blackpool with my mother, when we distinctly saw the same blue mountains just appearing above the sea. Being in the Isle of Man later on, I was at Port Erie, to the west of Castletown, and saw the same summits, and was told they were the mountains of Mourne. From there the mountains stood well out of the water, though we could not see the rest of the coast. The Mourne Mountains are 2798 feet high. They are 125 miles from Blackpool. A. SHAW PAGE Selsby Vicarage, Gloucestershire, May 28 Museums THE interest which the readers of NATURE in this country and in America take in the promotion of museums has induced so many of them to inquire of me for a paper recently noticed by yourself that, to spare their time and my own, I shall be glad if you will enable me to refer inquirers to your advertising columns. THE AUTHOR OF ‘‘ MUSEUMS OF NATURAL HisToRV ” A NEW EXAMPLE OF THE USE OF THE INFINITE AND IMAGINARY IN THE SER- VICE OF THE FINITE AND REAL EOMETERS are wont to speak (it seems to me) some- what laxly of “the line at infinity” as if there were only one such line in a plane; ina certain but not in the most obvious sense this is true—viz. there is but one right line of which all the points are at an infinite distance from all lines external to them in the finite region of the plane, and except these points there are none others having this property ; but in the sense that there is but one line infinitely distant from all points external to it in the finite region, the statement is obviously erroneous, for it need only to be mentioned to be at once perceived to be true by any tyro in geometry that all rays passing through either of the two “circular points at infinity” (Cayley’s absolute) are infinitely distant from any external point in the finite region ; these two imaginary points may indeed without any reference to the circle be defined as the points which radiate out in all directions rays infinitely distant from the finite region; the “absolute” being, so to say, the common depository, 7.e. the crossing points of all infinitely distant rays as the “line at infinity” is the locus of all infinitely distant points. Similarly in space : there is not one infinitely distant plane, “the plane at infinity,” but an infinitely infinite number of such planes—viz. any plane touching “the circle at infinity” (an imaginary circle in the plane at infinity) will at once be recognised to be infinitely distant from any external point in the finite region, or, as we may say more briefly and picturesquely, infinitely distant from the finite region It will give greater vivacity to this conception to imagine an axis through which pass planes in all directions, and to travel in idea this axis round “the circle at infinity ” keeping it always tangential thereto ; the complex or corolla of planes, so to say, thus formed (infinitely infinite in number) contains only planes of infinite distance from the finite region ; and “the plane at infinity” is but one of them—viz. the one which passes through all the axes named, just as the line at infinity in a plane is the line which passes through both the centres of infinite distance. The infinitely infinite series of infinitely distant planes is of course the correlative of the infinitely infinite series of infinitely distant points whose locus is the so-called “plane at infinity.” The above statements have only to be made, to be accepted by the geometer, although I do not remember seeing them * anywhere explicitly given ; but what I want to show is that, although supersensuous abstractions, so far from being barren they are capable of immediate application to the world of reality, and afford an instan- taneous answer to a very simple practical question which has only just lately been mooted. The question is this: Suppose acd to bea given pyramid, and that perpen- diculars are drawn from its four vertices, say 4, A, C, D, to a variable plane, then it is easy to show that a certain homogeneous quadratic function of 4, B,C, D ccpending on the form of the pyramid or relative lengths of its edges must be constant, and the question arises, What is this constant quadratic function, this quadric in 4, B,C, D, expressed in terms of the edges of the pyramid exclusively ?+ Just so if we take a triangle, adc, in a plane there will be a constant quadratic homogeneous function of the distances of its three vertices from a variable line ; and it is well known in this case that if 4, B, C are the distances the constant quadratic function in question will be— (2oy (4 — €)(B— €) + (be)? (B— A) (C— A) + (ca)?(C — B)(A B). But if we had not known this fact it could have been found as follows :—Calling the above function 7, when A, #£,C all or two of them become infinite the relation between the ratios of 4 : 8: C will be such as would arise from making “=o; on no other supposition will this be the case. Now, if we use trilinear co-ordinates with adc as the triangle of reference, and take as the co-ordinates of any variable point P, the areas aPé, 6 Pc, cPa instead of the simple distances of P from a6, dc, ca, then every body knows that the line at infinity has for its equation— (1) rty+z=0, and will easily see that the circle circumscribing @éc has for its equation-— (2) (ab)xy + (bc (y2)+ (caPrz =o. Moreover, when such co-ordinates are employed the distances of any line 424+ By + Cz=0 (3) from the three vertices are A, 4, C each multiplied by the same known quantity. If then A,&,C become infinite this line must pass through one of the intersections of the line at infinity with the circle, or, in other words, the equations (1), (3), (2) must be capable of being satisfied simultaneously, and accordingly by a well-known algebraical law it follows that the determinant to (2) dordered by the coefficients of (1) and (3) must vanish. Consequently this determinant so bordered will represent the sought-for form /, z.e. the constant quadratic function will be represented by— e A B G c A @ (a6) (ac)? I IR NOEAP @ (6c)? I Cc (ea) (c6)? e I ® I I I On calculating this determinant it will be found to be the function of A — B, B— C, C — A above given, except that each term is multiplied by the constant factor — 2, which may of course be dispensed with. Now let us apply similar or analogous considerations to the determination of the constant quadratic function of * The statement concerning the circular point-pair at infinity being centres of pencils of infinitely distant rays I have since met with somewhere in Dr. Salmon’s Conics, but stated in quite a casual manner. It may not be un- worthy of notice that just as the distance between any two points in a ray passing through either point of the adsodufe in a plane vanishes, so similarly vanishes the area of any triangle drawn in ary plane touching “the imaginary circle at infinity” in space. : + If Z, m, m. p are the distances of the vertices from the opposite faces, and x, y, 2, ¢ from the variable plane, it is well knows that >> G — = COS 7/2, n) is constant, in fact is unity. 104 NATURE [Fune 4, 1885 A, &, C, D, the four distances on a variable plane from the fixed points @,4,c,¢. I must promise that using quadri- planar co-ordinates x, y, z, ¢ analogous to those employed Just now for the plane—viz. such as will cause xty+e2e+f=0 (1) to become the equation to “the plane at infinity,” the sphere circumscribing the fundamental pyramid aéca takes the analogous form to that given for the circle from which indeed it may be deduced with a stroke of the pen —viz. the equation to this sphere will be— (abfxry + (acPxre+(adyxrt+ (dcfyz+(bd)yt + (cd)*zt=o (2). Moreover the distances of a plane whose equation}is— Ax+By+Cz+Dt=o0 (3) from the vertices of the pyramid will be A, B, C, D each multiplied by the same known quantity. The intersection of the plane at infinity with any sphere, and consequently with the circumscribing sphere named, is “the circle at infinity ;” hence if / is the constant function required we may find it as the function of 4, B,C, D, which becomes zero when the plane (3) is tangential to the intersection of the plane (1) with the sphere (2), or, which is the same thing, when the intersection of the planes (1) and (3) is tangential to the sphere (2), and this function is well known to algebraists to be the determinant formed by bordering the determinant to (2) with the co- efficients of (1) and (3), ze. we may take as the constant function / the determinant following :— e A B Cc D e A e (a6)? (ac? (ad) I B (6a)? @ (bc? (6d 1 GY (Ga). (eb)? e (ed)? { D (da (db (do? I e I I I I e of which the developed value is easily found to be— — 3(a6)'!(C — D) + 23 (a 6)" (ac)*(B — D)(C — D) wi-pes (A-—C)(B-D + 23 (2b)? (cd) ? (a. DB 26) This value of the constant function in its expanded form I some time ago found by a different method, and sent'in the shape of a question to the Educational Times.* In a brief correspondence which ensued with Prof. Cayley, he wrote to me giving the equivalent determinant form which he arrived at by a totally different order of conceptions and in a very beautiful manner, as follows. We may regard the differences between 4, 4, C, D as equal to the differences between the distances of a, 4,c,@ from a fifth point, e, at an infinite distance, and may call ae, de, ce, de equal to 4 + KX, B+ KH, C+AK4, V+ K respectively, where & is infinite. Hence by his own well-known theorem regarding mutual distances of five points we shall have— / @ (ab)? (ac)? (ad)? (A+K) 1 | (6a) ry (bc)? (6d)? (B+K)2 «| (¢ a)* (G 6)? @ (¢ d) (C+ Ky 1 | | (da)? (db)? (de)? e) Oats - (A+K)? (B4K)? (C+K): (D+K)? e I I Mt I I I @ And by the ordinary well-known rules in determinants * If the differences between 4, B, C, D be regarded as the minor deter- . aye eG £ 2) + 5 minants of the bilinear matrix ~* = e , any practised algebraist would at once recognise that my form becomes expressible as a determinant of the 6th order, and I think I could hardly have failed eventually to have made this observation, the more especially as I was aware of the connection of the subject with that of the section of any sphere with the plane at infinity—but as a matter of fact Cayley anticipated me, and was the first to actually write down the function under the form of a determinant. In each method the concept of infinity appears, but in mine that of the imaginary as well; and although more far-fetched than the other, the latter possesses the advantage of yielding the result as the transcript of a mere mental process without involving the necessity for the performance of any work whatever of algebraical reduction. for combining lines with lines and columns with columns it may easily be shown that the above determinant is of the form 47,K*+ G&-+ H, where F, represents— = 15 A B Cc 18) e A fa) (a6)? (ac? (ad 1 B (6a) @ (bc (6d)? 1 Cc (ca? (¢6) e@ (cd) I D (da) (db)? (dc? e@ I e I I I I e Consequently /, =o. This equation gives not only the form of the constant function but the value of the con- stant (4, when the element — 4 is suppressed, being iden- tical with my /). On removing the line and column of capital letters the above determinant equated to zero expresses the condition of the points a,4,c,@ lying in a plane—as proved by Cayley in days long past (and still ordinarily so proved) by a very artful manner of multiplying a determinant into a numerical multiple of itself; but this result follows as an instantaneous consequence of the reflexion that if a,b, c,d did not lie in a plane the above equation would mean that the circumscribing sphere was ¢ouched by the plane at infinity, whereas we know that this plane never touches but has the faculty of always cutting every sphere in a constant circle of imaginary points. Hence the ex- istence of this equation implies the coplanarity of the four points a, 4, c, d, and the converse proposition may be shown by simple algebraical reasoning to follow from this.* Postscrvtpt.—\ have been led by what precedes to a rather interesting observation in universal geometry. Suppose we form a determinant with the squared distances of one group of # points from another equi- numerous group any or all of which may be coincident with those of the former one: and to each line and at the foot of each column of this determinant affix a unit; a determinant so formed we may agree to call the bordered determinant of either group in regard to the other. Thus ex. 7. aad ae’ ay I ba* 6B by I ca cB Give I I I I is the bordered determinant of a,4,c in regard to a,By. When the two groups .are one group repeated we may call this determinant the bordered se/-determinant of the groups. My theorem is that the bordered determinant of two equi-numerous groups in respect to one another is a mean proportional to the bordered self-determinant of one of the groups, and that of the projection upon its zzveauw of the other group. [Thezveaw to’a group of points means the homaloid (Clifford’s flat) of the lowest number of dimensions which contains the group. ] We may regard a group of # points as the vertices of a figure whose squared content we know by Cayley’s theorem above referred to is a sub-multiple of the bordered self-determinant of the group; it is in fact that quantity divided by (—)**1 2" (1.2.3... #)*,so that we may vary the statement of the theorem and say that the product of the contents of the figures denoted by two equi-numerous groups into the cosine of the inclination of their mzveaus is a known numerical sub-multiple of the bordered deter- minant of one group in respect to the other. Thus, keep- ing at first within the limits of conceivable space, we see * The equation in the text extended to the points A, B,... Z, X assumes new importance and rises to philosophic interest when regarded as the izérvinsic equation to the ntveau of A, B,... L, in which the co-ordinates of the variable point Vin the niveau are the squares of A XY, BX,... 2X; itis of course an equation of the second degree in these co-ordinates. The dis- tances of either of two points from the other are the same in quantity but differ in sign. Hence the sgnave of either is the natural measure of the interval de¢ween the two points. Fune 4, 1885] NATURE 105 that the cosine of the angle between zéc, aéd, the faces of a tetrahedron, will be the determinant— e ab ad I ab e ba? I ca cb ca I I I I divided by sixteen times the product of the faces adc, abd. Or, again, if a4, cd be any two non-intersecting edges of the tetrahedron, + 2a@4.cd cos (a6, cd) ought to be equal to— ac aad I 6c ba? I I I e and as a matter of fact the cosine between (aé, cd) is ad*?+bce—ac —bd*, 2ab : Again, if ac, def are any two triangles in space of 5, 4, or 3 dimensions the product of their areas into the cosine of their inclination will be a numerical multiple of the bordered determinant of the group aéc in regard to def, and if they lie in the same plane their product itself will be that numerical multiple. Similarly for two groups of four points lying in one space (as ex gr. that in which we ééve, move, and have our being +) the product of their bordered self-determinants will be equal to the bordered determinant of either group in respect of the other, because their #zveaus coincide, and if we take two groups of five points each in ordinary space it again follows from the theorem that the bordered determinant between them must vanish, a statement which when the two groups coincide reverts to Cayley’s condition concerning the mutual squared distances of five points in ordinary space. Finally, there can be little doubt, I think, of the truth of the following theorem dealing with determinants (but un- bordered) t of which the general theorem we have been considering which deals with bordered determinants must needs be a corollary. By P:: QO where P, Q are two groups of 7 points each, let us understand the determinant formed by taking the cosines of the angles which the 7° lines connecting P and Q subtend at a point O equidistant, in space of the necessary number of dimensions, from each of the 2 given points, and let ?’, QO’ mean the groups ? and Q augmented by the addition of O to each of them, the theorem is that— cos (P’, Q') = equal to JE (0) R V(P:P)(Q:0Q)° * Obviously therefore we can express the squared shortest distance between two non-intersecting edges of a tetrahedron as a rational function of the squares of all six. The formula in the text is well known and easily proved for the case of a4c¢d being in a plane, which is enough to show that it must be true universally, for if we make BCD rotate about AC, the projection of C upon BD does not move, and consequently A C into the cosine of A C, B D is invariable. + It would perhaps be more correct to say “‘ which has its being in ys.’ t From which it follows that every algebraical theorem regarding square matrices expressed in the umbral notation is immediately convertible into a proposition in universal geometry ; the umbrz cease to be mere abstractions, and acquire a local Aabitation and a name as points in extension. § “P: P isin fact the factorial of 2 divided by the »th power of the dis- tance of O from each point in P into the content of (what I call) the plasm (of order x) denoted by ?’. A plasm of the order 1, 2, 3 means a rectilinear segment, a triangle, a tetrahedron—whence it is easy to deduce and define in exact terms the mean- ing of a plasm of any order as a figure bounded by plasms of the order next below its own. Thesquared content ofa triangle is equal to the sum of the 3 Squared contents of its projections on mutually perpendicular planes in ordinary space : but also to the sum of the 6 squared contents of its projec- tions on 6 such planes in extension of 4 dimensions and so en—and in general the square of the content of a Alaswz denoted by x points is similarly re- a(n —1)...(#-—i+1) 5 — . ; such squares in extension of soluble into a sum of I. o-e 2 ( +2— 1) dimensions; as these squared contents are all expressible imme- diately by Cayley’s theorem in terms of squared distances, the above state- ment gives rise to a far from self-evident theorem in determinants. What I Thus for the case of 7 equal to 2 if O is the centre of the sphere passing through a, 4, c,d, we ought to find the cosine of the angle between the arcs a6, cd equal to cosac coscd cos 6c cosébd divided by a square root of cosaa cosadb coséa cos bé into a square root of cos ¢c coscad cosdc¢ cosdd z.e. equal to cos ac. cos 6d — cos ad cos bc sinad.sincad as is the case. There ought also to exist analogous theorems applicable to non-equi-numerous point groups depending in some way upon the minors of a corresponding rectangular matrix.* J. J. SYLVESTER New College, Oxford, April 1885 GRESHAM COLLEGE ete question of what is to be done with one of the greatest of existing London abuses, Gresham College, has again come up in connection with a letter from a “Londoner” in the Zzmes. The 7izmes, in a somewhat incomplete leader, animadverts strongly on the abuse, and urges its prompt remedying. Surely when the fact that London has no university in the true sense is attracting so much attention and the movement to supply the want is so powerful, it is absurd to allow the funds to be worse than wasted which represent the wreck of those which were originally intended for the main- tenance of a real institution of this class. There were once 20,000 students at Gresham College, and when London does have a university, as it must. have some time, even Gresham College will be without razson d’étre. “Topographically,” the Zzmes says, “the lecture-rooms are off the track of students. None of the apparatus of systematic instruction, in the way of examinations, accompanies the courses. Provision does not exist, have here termed f/asms might with more exactitude be termed Arofo- plasnis, as being the elements into which all other figures are capable of being resolved. * It may be objected that the theorems of the text applied in their full generality beyond the limits of empirical space cease to affirm a relation between two different things and therefore lose their efficacy as such and become mere definztions of the meaning of the inclination of two figures in supersensible space. To meet this objection it is sufficient to give a general method for determining algebraically the projection of a point in space of # dimensions on the niveau of » points where v is any number not greater than 2; this it is easy to see may be effected as follows :— (a) I observe that the niveau of any » given points in a space of z dimen- sions may be expressed in Cartesian co-ordinates by means of equating to zero each of 7 — 42 +1 independent minors of a rectangular matrix containing 2 +x columns and u + 1 lines, the formation of which is too obvious to need stating in detail. (8) In order to project orthogonally a point whose % co-ordinates in a space of 2 dimensions are x’, y’, . . . 2’ upon aniveau (of the (# — 1)th order) passing through given points defined by theequation dx + By+...C2+ we have only to write r—2:y—y': nse easter vate combining the(# — 1) equations contained in this proportion with the equation, the resulting values of x, y,... determine the projection of the given point on the given niveau. If now v points are given in a space of % dimensions and the projection is required of a given point upon their niveau we may proceed as follows :— (x) Find the % — v + 1 equations which define the niveau. (2) On each of the niveaus of the (# — 1)th order which correspond thereto respectively find the orthogonal projections of the given point. (5) Through these x — v + 1 projections of the given points and the given point itself draw a niveau which will be defined by (% + 1) — (2 — v+ 2), 7.€. v — I equations. Finally, combining these with the z — v + 1 original equations we have # equations in all, and these will serve to determine the » co-ordinates of the projection required. 7‘ This method is not always the most compendious, but is always sufficient, and enables us to attach a definite meaning to the inclination of two spaces of any the same order to one another: thus ex. g7., the content of the pro- jection of abcd on efgh divided by the content of aécd itself is the cosine of the inclination of the niveaus abcd, e/g /, and the projections of the several points a, 6,c,d on e/g h (say a’, 6’, c,d’) being found by the preceding method, the content of the tetrahedron a’ é'c’ d' (and therefore the inclination of the two niveaus) is a known quantity. 106 or, at any rate is not employed, for the contact of the mind of the learner with the mind of the teacher. The lecturer ascends to his chair, recites or reads his stipu- lated discourse, and disappears with the mechanical routine of an automaton. The professorial staff, it might have been added, has as little internal unity as relation- ship to its classes. It is a concourse of atoms with no affinity except equality of stipends. To call the founda- tion a college is to use a manifest misnomer. It is as much a college as one at Oxford or Cambridge would be with the undergraduates and fellows suppressed, and the Master, Dean, Bursar, and Butler left to perpetuate the tradition. The Corporation of the City and the Mercers’ Company are Sir Thomas Gresham’s trustees, and derive very substantial advantages from his bounty. “ The inutility of the Gresham Lectures was recognised in the days of Dr. Johnson. Johnson lamented as bitterly as our correspondent that the able professors of Gresham College, which was ‘intended as a place of instruction for London, contrived to have no scholars.’ His explanation was that the professors lectured gratis, and grew indolent from the absence of pecuniary incentives to intellectual exertion. ‘We would all, he exclaiméd with conviction, “be idle if we could.’ Permission to charge sixpence a pupil for each lecture would, in his opinion, have infused vitality into the institution ; every professor would forth- with have grown ‘emulous to have many scholars.’ There could be no harm in administering his specific now. The good of a condition such as Gresham College has been reduced to is that any experiments may be tried upon it without excessive risk. But the failure of the foundation arises from deeper sources than those to which Johnson attributed it. Several of the present lecturers are no- toriously of a temper and standing not to need a money bribe to urge them to do their duty. The Dean who is the Divinity Professor delights in occasions for eccle- siastical exegesis. He would rejoice to find a way of gathering five hundred receptive hearers to listen to the theological expositions he throws away on a meagre fraction of the number. Another Dean was Senior Wrangler, and is abundantly competent for the geometrical themes he has to discuss. Thesubject of civil law is committed to amost capable jurist. The Professor of Music is able elsewhere without any endowment to attract to his classes a large paying audience. The blame, as our correspondent concedes, does not lie with the lecturers, who only slumber in concert with their classes and their patrons. It must be imputed to the gross contempt which has been shown for all the conditions of educational success. Their founder intended his seven professors to be professors in a College which he did not survive to create. He died at the age of sixty, stillimmersed in public affairs, and before attaining the leisure for carrying out his idea of an ‘ epitome of a University in London.’ Accidents for which it would be useless to condemn his trustees would have prevented them, had they otherwise been well disposed, from ac- complishing his ambitious programme. His estate, so far as it was appropriated to the purpose, proved in- sufficient for the complete endowment of a College and its staff. A collection of lectures was left as it were in the air. For a time they appeared to have procured favour in spite of their disadvantages. In the nature of things they could not keep it permanently. They were without soil to take root and sprout in. The error of all concerned has been that the want was not supplied by incorporating either them in something else or something else inthem. Last century was a period of educational, though not of intellectual, stagnation. Gresham College only languished in company with many other Colleges better furnished with the gifts of fortune. The present age has witnessed a revival of zeal for instruction by methods in which the Gresham foundation might have been turned to the greatest service, and has been turned to none. While London, and, most of all, the City, was careless of NATURE [ Fune 4, 1885 learning, it was no reproach to the managers of Sir Thomas Gresham’s bounty that they converted it to no account. The absurdity is that for years the town, from its centre to its outskirts, has been crying out for educational appliances, and that Gresham College is suffered to remain as futile and superfluous as ever. Half-a-dozen institutions have been erected in or by the City to effect the objects for which Sir Thomas designed his foundation. For any one of them it would have been the most admirable nucleus; it would have afforded a starting point, and have bestowed the dignity of old descent. Thus it would have gained at last the reason for existence it has been craving in vain for a couple of centuries. “Tastes of benefactors in distant ages do not always agree with the popular inclinations of the present. Re- luctance on the part of trustees to deviate from the will of the men they represent is to be excused, though it cannot always be allowed to block the road to reform. When, however, a founder has let posterity into his confidence, and the application of his gifts clearly conflicts with his own views, it argues strange perversity or default of mental elas- ticity not to perceive where genuine respect for his wishes should lead. Without a framework in which they could be set and mutually co-ordinated, the Gresham Lectures can- not possibly do what the founder desired them to do. The public spirit of the City would not refuse to take up and finish the work which Gresham sketched out if it could be secure that his original instalment of beneficence was no longer wasted as now. Already it has been endea- vouring to fill up the gap by its own exclusive exertions. The City of London College, the courses of the University Extension Society, lectures at the London Institu- tion, the Technical College, Middle Class Schools, and not a few institutions besides, are spontaneous efforts of the past dozen years to work out the original idea of Sir Thomas Gresham. The proper City of London College is Gresham College. Around it as the centre all the other educational instruments of the City ought naturally to group themselves. Not the most punctilious conservatism could reprobate the Cor- poration and the Mercers’ Company if they would use the authority they possess, and seek fresh authority, to aid in the promotion of that general result. Gresham College, as it is, has been for centuries, and is doomed to be,a burlesque of collegiate life. Its lectures must be equally dead whether delivered in a dead or a living tongue. Its choice is between becoming something more or something less than itis now. If it cannot develop, it had better cease to be.” ELECTRICITY AT THE INVENTIONS EXHIBITION HE International Inventions Exhibition is intended to illustrate the progress of invention during the period that has elapsed since the last Great International Exhibition in this country in the year 1862. Accordingly we find under Group XIII. electricity ranged under twelve classes, entitled respectively, generators, conductors, testing and measuring apparatus, telegraphic and tele- phonic apparatus, electric lighting apparatus, electro- metallurgy and electro-chemistry, distribution and utilisa- tion of power, electric signalling, lightning-conductors, electro medical apparatus, electrolytic methods for ex- tracting and purifying metals, electrothermic apparatus. Under such a classification there is no doubt that the Exhibition might have been made thoroughly repre- sentative of the wonderful progress that has taken place in this branch of science, both in its theory and practice, during the last twenty-three years. The reason that it is not so is twofold: electricity has had of late years many exhibitions dedicated to itself—those of Paris, Vienna,and Sydenham ; and it was quite imposs- ible in such an exhibition as the Inventions, where so Fune 4, 1885] much has had to be compressed into so little space, to indicate the progress of invention in each class of each group. If, however, electricity is not represented in this way, it is in another way, and that is through the medium of one of its special applications—that of the electric light. Electricity thus forms the light and life of the whole Exhibition after sunset, and in this connection we would view it on the present occasion. Those who visited the Health Exhibition last year will not notice any great change in the internal illumination beyond the more extensive use of the electric light and its greater steadiness, but will observe that an alteration has been made in the garden lighting, to a description of which we propose to confine this article. In place of the numerous attendants who, a little before darkness set in, were to be seen last year lighting one by one the little oil lamps which, in their coloured glasses, were scattered all over the trees and lawns, an observer discovers at half- past eight or a little liter a gradual diminution in the darkness of the evening, and the eye becomes gradually sensible to the fact that the architectural features of the buildings are becoming clearly defined, and by degrees are actually illuminating surrounding objects, whilst at the same time the lawns and shrubberies, the parterres and trees, and even the ponds of water and waterfalls assist in the general illumination with light of every shade and colour. Where before all was darkness, there is a scene of bewildering enchantment: fountains play and throw up into the air, now high, now low, solid sheets of illumined water and spray of mingled water, dust, and light, at one | moment of golden hue, at another of the loveliest magenta ; while when the silver light of the electric arc alone illu- minates the fountains, broken by some magic power below into waterdrops, all the prismatic colours of the rainbow are observable, and, revelling in the beauty, one wonders how it is all brought about. In what is known as the tower, Sir Francis Bolton has before him a plan of the gardens with switches on it, enabling him to turn the lights on or off, or to increase or diminish their intensity at-his will. controls the effects in the upper garden, another those in the lower garden, a third commands the statue of the late Prince Consort, a fourth and fifth the illumination of the east and west quadrants and east and west arcades respec- tively, whilst a sixth controls the external lighting of the conservatory. Four switches on the lower portion of the switch board enable the operator to raise or lower the intensity of the light ; the first altering it from 1 to %, the second from 2 to 4, the third from } to 3, and the fourth from # to full power. One of the most interesting features of the illumination, and that which perhaps causes the most wonder and bewilderment, is the play of the fountains. Below the island in the fountain is a water-tight chamber, about 5 feet in height and 20 feet square, into which one obtains access by first descending a ladder from the diving apparatus-house into a low arched passage, from which one ascends into the chamber. The roof of this is covered with water-pipes which convey the water from the main in all directions, the supply being regulated by screw valves ; the five large jets are fitted with plug valves and levers, by the manipulation of which the dancing motion and breaking up into water-drops of the columns of water are effected. The average quantity of water expended per hour during a fountain display is 70,000 gallons. Under the five large water jets are five sky- lights, fitted with thick glass, below each of which is placed a wooden box, containing a powerful arc-light with the carbons set horizontally. Over the top of the lantern is a holophote, such as is used in lighthouses, by means of which the rays of light are concentrated, and projected upwards into and with the column of water, whilst their colours are varied by drawing sheets of stained glass across the lantern. The water is supplied at a NATURE One of the switches | 107 pressure of about 7olb. to the square inch, which is sufficient to carry it up to a height of 120 feet. On one of the walls of the chamber is a board, on which are signalled the instructions from the tower, which are read off by an assistant to the staff. In this manner the various effects which more or less puzzle the spectators are telegraphed from the tower above, and carried out in the concealed chamber below. The following are the number and distribution of the lamps, all of which are made by the Edison-Swan United Company, most of them being of 5 and ro-candle power, whilst a few of 20-candle power are used on the band stands and verandah of the conservatory :— Lamps Conservatory acc 1418 E. and W. Quadrants 1584 E. and W. Arcades 1832 Upper Gardens 1550 Lower Gardens 2300 Albert Statue 336 Total on 9020 There are fourteen miles of main and branch wires, nine miles of twin wire, and two miles of small connecting wire. On the buildings and on straight lines on the grass specially constructed wooden lamp-holders are used, in other places ordinary spring-holders. The current is generated by three Siemens B 13 self-regulating dynamos, each weighing about 11 tons, and each capable of main- taining 2000 (20-candle) lights at 300 revolutions per minute ; the current of each being 500 amperes at an electromotive force of 250 volts, the weight of the arma- ture being 3 tons. The dimensions of the machines are as below :— : in. Heigit including bed-plate Length over all... Be Width 50K Diameter of armature Length of armature Wn oOMD nu wow The four series coils, which are coupled in parallel, are wound with copper-wire 4-1oths of an inch in diameter, and the shunt coils, which are coupled in series, with wire of No. 9 standard gauge; the armature being wound with flat strips instead of wire. Each of the dynamos is coupled to a Goodfellow and Matthew’s triplex compound engine of 200-h.p. indicated, two of the machines being easily capable of maintaining all the lights. The main current from the dynamos is led to a switch-board, in connection with which is an electro-dynamometer so arranged that there shall be no break of continuity. In each branch circuit is a fork working in the core of a solenoid, the prongs of the fork dipping into a pair of mercury contact cups. The solenoids are connected by wires with Sir Francis Bolton’s room, and by their use he can raise or lower the fork out of or into the contact cups and thus turn the lights off or an as required. The return circuits enter into a single conductor, which is arranged with four sets of mercury cups and solenoids in series ; around each set is a bye-pass containing a resistance of determined magnitude, so as to vary the brilliancy of the lamps as desired. The works for the electric illumination of the gardens and fountains have been carried out by Messrs. Siemens Brothers, to the designs of Sir Francis Bolton. Con- sidering that the instructions for the preparation of the machinery for illuminating the gardens were only given in February last, the result obtained at the Inventions Exhibition is evidence that electric lighting has now advanced to such a stage that orders may be given for very large installations and executed in a perfect manner in a very short space of time. 108 NATURE [Fune 4, 1885 VESUVIUS So writing on May 3 Vesuvius has continued to pour forth a continuous stream of lava. From the lowering of the general level of lava in the main chimney no reflection could be seen at its mouth, as is usually the case. This state of things continued till the 6th, when the vapour could only escape in intermittent puff in con- sequence of the accumulation of déér7s from the crumbling edges of the inner crater edge. As these puffs escaped, they resembled balls of dark grey smoke, from which fell a shower of fine ash, the result of the grinding up of the fine materials that had fallen in as above described, and partially blocked the upper outlet. The crater plain was scattered over with ash and rounded fragments of lava from which that had been ground off. Soon after a faint glimmer was visible, which gradually increased each night until it came to a stationary point, since which little change has taken place. The lava still continues to flow with more or less regularity, but from the small quantity it only gutters and collects on the slope of the great cone. The whole series of events since May 2 is identical with what occurred under similar circumstances in December, 1881, and January, 1882, which I have already described in these pages. The whole sequence of phenomena are easily explicable on the most simple mechanical principles, and do not require that valcanological magic which, even at the present time, is too often employed in describing volcanoes or earthquakes. I may mention that the above estimate might seem too low as the surface of the streams moved quicker (about I m. in 17 seconds), but the lava was particularly viscuous on this occasion, and towards the edges it could not have progressed more than the above distance in two or three minutes. A similar retardation no doubt occurred wher- ever in contact with its channel, so that I think the estimate of I m. per minute is a very fair one. If we allow an average outflow of 5000 cm. during the last twenty-two days (z.e. from May 2 to 24), which I am sure many would think under-rated, we have the prodigious output of 110,000 cm. ; the product of what would usually be called a very small eruption. But the flow has not stopped, and shows no indication of so doing. This large amount of material, added to the surface of the great cone, is already making a difference in its out- line, and should the outflow continue for nearly three years, as occurred after the December, 1881, outburst, the Vesuvian cone will have another gigantic hump of lava to spoil the graceful curves of its back. Either as the result of bad writing or of printer’s errors some obvious mistakes have crept into my last communi- cation. For “wnattached pyroxene crystals” read wz- attacked. For “salbam” read salband. Read for “about one metre per secovd,” about one metre per wznute. Naples, May 24 H. J. JOHNSTON-LAVIS THE RUAHINE RANGE, NEW ZEALAND i the summer of 1843, Mr. Colenso being at Hawke’s Bay, first saw the Ruahine Range, looking sublimely grand under its crest of virgin snow. Hearing at this time of natives living secluded in the interior, in the country lying between this range and the famed central volcanic district, Tongariro, he determined to visit them, and he has lately published a most graphic and interesting account of several visits to and over the range, which were accomplished between the years 1845 and 1847. This narrative is, as would be expected from a botanist like the author, largely interspersed with valuable notes on the flora, and there are also some on the fauna of that region. It is also somewhat interspersed with quotations, for the most part appropriate ones, from the authors favourite poets. It is not necessary that we should make any comments on the fact that this little memoir does not appear in the 7vazsactions of the New Zealand Institute, already so full of various important con- tributions to our knowledge of New Zealand forms from Mr. Colenso’s pen, for the publishing Board of that Insti- tute, having declined to publish more than an abstract of it, the memoir was, by request, returned to the Hawke’s Bay Philosophical Institute, before which Society it had originally been read, and it has been by them laid before the scientific world with additional and copious notes. The first attempt to cross the range was made under great difficulties in February, 1844: the weather was bad, heavy rain flooded the rivers and mountain streams, and the guide had forgotten the route. Despite all disad- vantages, many a rare and several new plants were found. On a Saturday night, after a slender supper amid the deepening gloom of the beech forest, we read : “‘ Here, pendent from some of the trees, hung a most lovely species of Loranthus (Loranthus flavidus), while on many other trees that fine species ZL. tetrapetalus formed dense bushes, bearing crimson flowers in profusion, so that in some of the more open spots among the closely-growing trees the whole forest wore a reddish glare.” At the very spot where they halted, a fine bushy composite shrub with hydrangea-like leaves was gathered, which has been since named by Sir J. Hooker, O/earia Colensoz. Fatigued with the day’s work the party slept till 10 o’clock on the Sunday, and then awoke to find themselves completely invaded by a large “ blue-bottle fly,” which, it appears, inhabited the beech-wood in countless numbers, and was most teasing and audacious: their blankets and | woollen clothing had been attacked, and were literally filled with the fly eggs, and the hair of the natives’ heads had also similarly suffered. These blue-bottles spoiled the Sabbath day’s rest ; they had never before been met with by Mr. Colenso. We wonder if the species has been recognised by Baron Osten Sacken, who has recently been engaged in describing New Zealand Diptera. After two days’ more fatigue, the party were obliged to descend without crossing the summit, being nearly starved into the bargain. But amid all these troubles, Colenso writes that he at least had some joys, certainly, under the circum- stances, unknown to the natives, in that he discovered, on the return, several fine new plants (Adsophtila Colensot), several new species of Coprosma, some of which grew so compactly together that in some places it was impossible to get through them, and so they had to walk zon them. Here, but only in one spot, that beautiful fern, Wypolepzs millefolium, was found. Many beautiful and new forms of Veronica, as VY. duxtfolia, V. nivalis, and V. tetragona, this last species in its barren state resembling much the branch of a Podocarpus. Here we venture to interpose a wish that Mr. Colenso would write an essay on the mimetic resemblances of the species of the genus. But this was not all: a little further up there were found “splendid Celmisias and Ranunculuses in countless numbers, intermixed with elegant Wahlen- bergias and beautiful Ourisias, Euphraisias, Gentians, Dracophyllums, Astelias, and Calthas, and many others. Here were plants reminding one of those of our native land, with rare and little known novelties.” After the first burst of surprise, the great difficulty of carrying off these prizes presented itself: no collecting materials were at hand. There was no time to lose. “First I pulled off my coat, and made a bag of that; then, driven by necessity, 1 added thereto my shirt, and, by tying the neck, got an excellent bag. Lastly the crown of my hat held a few. Fortunately the day turned out a fine one, and on returning to the camp the night was spent placing them among spare clothing, bedding, and books.” Of this “find” drawings of nearly fifty were published by Sir W. J. Hooker, or Sir J. Hooker, in the “ Flora Nove Zelandiz” or the “Icones Plantarum.” The graphic account of that terrible plant, Acéphy/la Colensoz, we must ‘ P 1 | | : Fune 4, 1885 | content ourselves by thus referring to ; it is too long to quote, and too good to condense. Two solitary tufts of two Alpine plants were also de- tected on this occasion. One, Helichrysum Colensot, the edelweiss of New Zealand, was found on the edge of the top of a mountain composed entirely of dry shingle of various sizes, from big lumps to dust. The other, Geum parvifiorum, grew near the former, but, unlike it, has been found on the South Island. This first attempt to cross the range failed, though its summit was reached ; but a second attempt, made in February, 1847, was suc- cessful. A short sojourn was made at Matuku, the principal of the Patea villages ; the route thereto was the long round-about by Taupo. From Matuku, on March 25, the ascent of the Ruahine was made, and the Mission Station at Waitanga was reached on March 3, after many hardships and difficulties. The narrative abounds in numerous records of great interest. The following is an account of one of the largest, we suspect, of flower visitors, honey-seekers, and one unknown to Darwin or Hermann Miller :— “Close to the village, and even within its fence, were several very large Kewhai trees (Edwardsta grandiflora) ; these were covered with their golden flowers, and mostly without leaves. The sun was shining brightly, and the parrots (Vestor meridionalts) flocked screaming from the forests around to the Edwardsia blooms ; it wasa strange sight to see them, how deftly they managed to go out to the end of a long lithe branch (preferring to walk parrot fashion), and there, swinging back downwards, lick out the honey with their big tongues, without injuring the young fruit . . . For, seeing but very few petals falling (and those only vexillae), I sent some of the boys to climb the trees and bring me several marked flowering branches, which had been visited by the parrots. I found that all of the fully expanded flowers had had the upper part of their calyces torn open, and the uppermost petal (vexillum) torn out ; this the parrots had done to get at the honey. As the flowers are produced in large thick bunches, some are necessarily twisted or turned upside down ; still it was alwavs that peculiar petal and that part of the calyx (though often in such cases undermost) which had been torn away. Through this no injury was done to the young fruit inclosed, which would in all probability have been the case if any of the other petals had been bitten off. It cannot be said that it is owing to the vexillum being the largest petal (as it is in many papilionaceous flowers) that it is thus laid hold of and torn away by the parrot, such not being the case in this genus: for the long fruit runs down through the two carinated lowermost petals, that are often quite two inches long, and is further protected by the two side ones (al), which four, from their being closely imbricated together, form a much larger and firmer hold for the bird’s beak. “Further, as these parrots are large birds with huge bills, and as the flowers are always produced on the tips of the small branches, which bend and play about under the weight of their bodies, one cannot but suppose that it ismo easy matter for the birds to get a bite at them at all,so as to make the proper openings whereby to insert their thick tongues and lick out the sweet contents without injuring the young immature fruits, especially when we further consider that the common practice of this parrot is to take up in its claws whatever it wishes to discuss. Of all the flowers I examined, only the upper part of the calyx and corolla had been torn, and on none was the young fruit wanting, nor did I notice any bunches which had had their flowers wholly torn off. What with the glistening snow, the sun shining, and the golden blossoms of those trees, the numerous parrots diligently and fearlessly at work so close to the village, yet often screaming, it was altogether a peculiar and interesting sight.” What delightful corners for the botanist are to be met NATURE 109 with in this range the next paragraph will show. Many of the species are of the greatest interest—quite Alpine gems ; and some few of them, or of closely-allied species, grow freely with us. We would be prepared to welcome them all. “Tn the open ground, on two or three mound-like hills of peaty-looking soil, and near each other, on the west side, grew that remarkably fine Ranunculus, A. zvszgzis. On my discovering it I was astonished at its size—its largest golden flowers being nearly 2 inches in diameter, its flowering stems 3 to 4 feet high, and some of its round crenated leaves measuring 8 to 9 inches across! Both Sir Joseph Hooker and his father were equally sur- prised and delighted, and as it was (then) by far the largest species known, Sir Joseph Hooker gave it that appropriate specific name—zzsignzs. I only found it in that locality, but it was in great plenty; its principal neigh- bour was the notorious Tamarea plant (A céphylla Colenso?), already fully noticed; and those splendid composita- ceous plants Celmisia sfectabilis and C. tmcana, which generally grew close together, forming large, dark-green, shining patches, and bearing a profusion of fine white flowers—a striking contrast to their leaves. At first sight I saw that this new Ranunculus was closely allied to R. pinguis, of Lord Auckland’s group and Campbell’s Island—then lately described in the “ Flora Antarctica,” of which work I had received an early part just before I Jeft the station. Other plants of those far-off Antarctic islets were also found here, on the summits—notably Oreobolis pumilio, growing in dense tufts in exposed places ; while the peculiar straggling Cyathodes empetri- folia, and the pretty little flowering-plants Euphrasia antarctica and Myosotis antarctica flourished in half- sheltered hollows with Plantago Browniz and the grass Catabrosa antarctica. With these last also grew, very closely intermixed (much as we have seen the daisies and buttercups among low turfy grasses in our English mea- dows), the curious plant Drapetes dieffenbachii ; the little elegant Ourisia cespitosa, abounding in flowers; a very small and new species of Plantago (P. wmzjflora); and a similar-sized botanical novelty, Astelia linearis, a tiny plant bearing a large orange-coloured fruit ; a little Caltha (C. Nove Zealandia), having pale, star-like flowers ; two graceful Gentians (G. montana and G. pleurogynoides), and a very small, shrubby, prostrate Coprosma (C. pumila), together with several elegant, shrubby little Veronice. Two orchideous plants, Pterostylis foliata and Caladenia bifolia (of which I wished for better speci- mens), I also detected growing sparingly, and with them a couple of Carices, C. acicularis and C. inversa, and also two species of Uncinia, U. divaricata and U. fili- formis; and with them several interesting Hepatic and Mosses. Only in one or two spots, in shady, shel- tered places near the top, and just within the forest, did I meet with that pretty little plant, Owrisza Colensoz, but in those spots there were plenty of them, and always beautifully in flower; the plants of this species grew apart, as if they liked room—in this respect differing alto- gether from the other species of this genus I have seen.” The lover of flowers can easily judge from these ex- tracts how interesting to them would be this memoir of the now venerable explorer ; there is much more of the like nature throughout its pages, and we trust the Hawke’s Bay Philosophical Institute will send some copies of this “ In Memoriam” narrative to this country, on sale for their benefit. NOTES THERE will be a conversazione at the Royal Society on Wednesday next, June Io THE conversazione of Sir F. Bramwell, the President of the Institution of Civil Engineers, will be held in the International 110 NATURE [Fune 4, 1885 Exhibition Buildings, South Kensington, to-morrow evening, from nine to twelve. The Society of Arts conzersazzone will be held in the same place on July 3 next. A PUBLIC meeting has been held in Birmingham to make pre- liminary arrangements for the reception of the British Association for the Advancement of Science on its visit to Birmingham in 1886. The mayor, Mr. Alderman Martineau, presided, and there was a large attendance. After referring to the four previous visits of the Association to Birmingham, the last of which was in 1865, the mayor stated that the forthcoming visit would involve a large amount of preliminary work, for which arrange- ments had to be made by the appointment of local committees. The meeting would probably be under the presidency of Prin- cipal Dawson, of Montreal. A large local committee was appointed, together with honorary officers, and the meeting terminated with a vote of thanks to the mayor. THE statue to Linnzeus which was recently unveiled with so much ceremony in Stockholm, stands in the well-known park Humlegarden. It represents the ‘‘flower-king”—as he is called in Sweden—at the age of sixty in a meditating attitude, holding the ‘‘ Systema Nature” and a bunch of flowers in his left hand. It is surrounded by allegorical female figures repre- senting botany, zoology, medicine, and mineralogy, and is executed by Prof. Kjelberg, the work having occupied five years. A ZOOLOGICAL garden is being formed in Stockholm, at the well-known pleasure resort of Djurgarden, which will be the first of its kind in Scandinavia. Most of the animals are being purchased in Germany. THE Rede Lecture was delivered on Tuesday in the Senate House at Cambridge by Mr. G. J. Romanes, F.R.S., the subject being ‘‘ Mind and Motion.” THE Central News has received a telegram from Bombay announcing that a fearful earthquake has devastated a portion of Cashmere. The first shocks were experienced on Sunday, and created intense consternation. The oscillation was repeated at intervals of about ten minutes, and the shocks still continued up to the time the despatch was sent off. A wild panic is stated to have seized upon the people, who ran to the rivers and lakes, and sought to escape by embarking upon floating craft of any description. The town of Srinagar seems to haye suffered severely. A great portion of the city is stated to have been demolished by the most severe shocks. Later accounts state that although some severe shocks have occurred in Cashmere, the loss has been trifling. A sMarv shock of earthquake was felt in Cape Town and the surrounding districts shortly before midnight on May 10, but no damage was reported. THE results of a series of observations “carried out by the Hydrographical Bureau at Washington, in order to determine the length, depth, and duration of ocean waves, have been pub- lished. The largest wave observed is said to have had a length of half a mile, and to have spent itself in 23 seconds. During storms in the North Atlantic waves sometimes extend to a length of 500 and 600 feet, and last from 10 to 11 seconds. The most careful measurements of the heights of waves give from 44 to 48 feet as an extreme limit; the average height of great waves is about 30 feet. These measurements refer to ordinary marine action, and do not relate to earthquake action or other excep- tional agencies. A CORRESPONDENT to Ausland makes a communication re- garding the present condition of the artesian wells in Sahara. It is well known that such wells have been in operation there from avery remote period, and in the Algerian Sahara additional wells have been opened with considerable success by the French. Between Biskra and Tuggurt the 434 old wells yielded in 1879 64,000 litres of water per minute, the 68 French ones 113,000 litres. The number of palms had increased from 359,000 to 517,000, that of other fruit-trees from 40,000 to 90,000, the population from 6672 to 12,827. In December, 1881, the yield of water from the wells had risen to 209,000 litres per minute+ But this success is confined to a narrow zone within which water can be reached within a depth of 100 metres, and even here the borings that have been made since 1881 indicate a diminution in the yield of water, making it appear as if the limit of produe- tion of the underground reservoirs had almost been reached. Many of the French borings, too, are getting stopped up by sand, and are of too small calibre to be cleaned out and restored ike the wider Arabic ones. It is believed that it will be abso- utely necessary to set about the sinking of new wells with a wider bore. Dr. ANDREE, of Leipzig, discussed before a recent meeting of the Anthropological Society of Vienna the question whether iron was known in America in pre-Columbian times. Meteoric iron was certainly in use amongst certain Indian tribes and the Esquimaux, but Dr. Andrée thinks that they were wholly unac- quainted with the art of forging iron. This conclusion is based on the fact, among others, that while there is ample proof that the Indians -knew« how to obtain and employ gold, silver, tin, copper, quicksilver, &c., we hear nothing of iron mines in the history of the civilisation of ancient America. The language itself proves this, for there is no expression for iron. Some writers, it is true, speak of the word panztleue as that for iron, but it really means metal in general. Moreover, in pre-historic, or rather pre-Columbian, graves, especially in the rainless regions of Peru and Northern Chili, ornaments of all kinds, weapons and implements are found, but no objects in iron haye been dis- covered, although the Indians placed their most valued articles in their tombs. There is no reason, he thinks, to believe that the tools employed in the great masonry works of Peru, such as that at Tiahuanaco, were other than those in use in the rest of Peru, which were of chami, a species of bronze. The chisels found in Peruvian grayes soon become blunted when used on the hard strut ; but it is suggested that there was some method of sharpening them easily. Indians certainly have worked a hard stone like nephrite without iron; and there is no improba- bility, says the writer, in the theory that these chisels were employed, when we recollect the patient temperament of the Indians, who for generations were accustomed to the repetition of the same work, to indolently pursuing an uniform task, and also that guia cavat lapidem. Before the last meeting of the Asiatic Society of Japan (reported in the Fapan Weekly Mail) Mr. H. Pryer read a paper entitled ‘‘ Notes on the AZwstela itats? and on the Corvus japon- ensis, Bonaparte.” The paper was largely a criticism of views advanced by Dr. Brauns regarding the generic affinities of these animals, and published in the Society’s Zransactions. A series of comparative measurements of the beak, metatarsus and wing of the Corvus corax and Corvus japonensis were given, with comparisons of the tail, eggs, and larynx, which proved that they were not identical. It was suggested that Dr. Brauns’ specimen of the Corvus japonensis was really a specimen of the Corvus corone. THE Fohns Hopkins University Circular for May contains the abstract ofa paper by Mr. Donaldson, entitled ‘* Observations on Temperature-Sense.” Blix, of Upsala, and Eulenberg, of Berlin, have observed that there are definite points on the skin at which sensations of cold only are aroused ; others, distinct from the first and equally definite, for the sensation of heat, while between these two sets of spots sensations of pressure only are aroused. These reactions were obtained by electrical and thermal stimula- tion of the skin. Mr. Donaldson, whose attention had previ- | Fune 4, 1885 | NATURE Ill ously been attracted to the subject, endeavoured to make accurate maps of these cold and hot spots. It was found that their distribu- tion on corresponding parts differed in different individuals, that the distribution on symmetrical parts of the body was different, that the number of cold spots was greater than the number of hot spots, that the relative abundance of the two kinds varied in different parts of the skin, and that, roughly speaking, there are two grades of spots, viz. those which react almost always- and those which react only half the time and with a compara- tively faint sensation. The spots, as a rule, are less than a millimetre in diameter, and they are easily exhausted. The sen- sation roused by a single stimulus often lasts, however, for some minutes after the removal of the stimulus. As the thermally sensitive spots move about as the skin moves, it 1s clear that they are in the skin and not below. On being cut from the skin and examined, the spots showed no structures with which the sensations could be associated. The spots were found quite as sensitive on scars as on the sound skin, Using the radiant- heat method described by Pollitzer, the hot spots were found to respond from eight to forty times more quickly to a given stimu- lus than the not-hot ones. The explanation of any sensation of heat on the not-hot spots appears to be that there is conducting heat through the skin, so that the stimulus finally reaches a hot spot. : THE death is announced of Mr. Alexander Croall, Curator of the Smith Institute, Stirling, and a botanist of some reputation. WE have just received Band vy. of the Verhandlungen des Vereins fiir naturwissenchaftliche Unterhaltung zu Hamburg, 1878-1882 ; the title-page bears the date 1883 ; it appears to haye been published in monthly numbers. Was Band v. actually published until 1885? ‘There is no internal evidence against its appearance in 1883, but we fail to find any reference to certain papers in it in the published records for that year. This ambiguity as to date is awkward. The contents are varied and valuable, and embrace natural history in its broadest sense, as will be seen from the titles of some of the papers, such as ‘‘ Die Um- gestaltung unserer Gegend durch Wasser und Wind und die Abnahme des Wassers in unserem Gebiete ;” ‘‘ Die Variabilitat der Schmetterlinge in ihren verschiedenen Entwickelungs-Stadien, und der biologische Werth von Form, Farbe, und Zeichnung ;” “Die Entwickelung unserer Kenntnisse der Lander im Siiden von Amerika ;” ‘‘ Hammer und Messer in der Sprachgeschichte ;”” *Haben auch in Deutschland gleichzeitig mit dem Mammuth Menschen gelebt?” ‘* Die Insel Rotumah und ihre Bewohner ;” ‘* Mittheilungen tiber einen Taifun bei Jokohama und Jeddo,” &c. Of the papers enumerated that on typhoons seems especially interesting on account of the analyses given of the reports of various ship-captains, There are several zoological and botanical papers, in addition to the one already quoted. THE new annual report of the Canadian Minister of Agri- culture to the Governor-General contains, for the first time, the report of the Dominion entomologist, Mr. James Fletcher. The Minister explains that as an acquaintance with the results of entomological science is a matter of necessity to every tiller of the soil, he took the step of appointing an official entomologist in order that the attention of those whose interests are materially affected might be called to the subject. As Mr. Fletcher was only appointed in June last year, his report is necessarily a pre- liminary one. He has succeeded in establishing a system of correspondence all over the Dominion, and from extracts of letters which are published in his report it is clear that he has ample work before him. In parts of Nova Scotia, for example, the cultivation of wheat has had to be abandoned, on account of the wheat-midge, or Diéglosis tritici. In other places, clover, peas, roots, fruit and forest trees have suffered heavily by the ravages of various insects. The position of entomologists, there- fore, is one with large possibilities of material benefit to the Dominion and its inhabitants. A SERIES of photographs of lightning flashes were lately ob- tained at Berlin by Dr. Kayser, and are the subject of a paper to the Academy there (Wed. Ann., No. 5). The lightning is shown (as previously) to have gone very often from one point to several, the aspect in the photograph being like that of a river with numerous tributaries (only the fluid takes the opposite direction). The weaker flashes did not so branch out. In one remarkable effect the stem consists not of one bright line only, but of four parallel throughout, the second being rather a band, and stratified transversely. The explanation Dr. Kayser offers is, that in this case there was an oscillating discharge, The first spark, in passing from cloud to earth, would leave a channel of heated air, which would be used by the next spark from earth to cloud, only it was meanwhile a little displaced by the wind ; and so with the others. Such oscillatory discharges may sometimes be observed with the eye in violent thunderstorms if the oscilla- tion be pretty slow. Dr. Kayser reckons the whole phenomenon in the present case to have occurred in less than half a second. The stratified appearance of the band he is unable to account for. THE eels of the ponds in the woods of Vincennes leave them every spring in large numbers, making their way to the Seine or the Marne, several kilometres distant. They take advantage of rainy weather, when the herbage is wet, and their instinct guides them directly to their destination. New species have repeatedly been introduced into the lakes, but in vain; all seem to have this disposition to leave. Some have thought that the water of these ponds, having been brought by hydraulic engines, has undergone some change which drives the eels away. But the phenomenon of such migrations by eels and some other fishes is not uncommon. Thus in the marshes of Picardy eels are often found on the grass, going from one pond to another. THE reports of the Aéronautical Society of Great Britain for the years 1883 and 1884 have just been issued together in a small volume. It is mainly occupied by papers read before the Society. Amongst these is one on the mechanics of flight and their application to flying machines, by Mr. H. Middleton ; artificial flight attainable by Mr. Hollands ; the possibility of man-flight, by Mr. Barry ; on the methods of soaring birds, and the bearing of the facts connected with them, by Mr. J. Lancaster, of Chicago. Amongst the shorter papers are: a visit to the Aéronautical Exhibition at Paris, by Mr. Frost ; a memoir of Mr. John Stringfellow, by Mr. Brearey ; a light and economical motor for propulsion in air, by Capt. Griffiths ; and conjoint gas and mechanical action as applied to flight, by Mr. Brearey. AN aéronautical exhibition under the patronage of the Aéro- nautical Society of Great Britain is to be opened during the present month in connection with the International Exhibition at the Alexandra Palace. The objects for exhibition will be models of designs for the accomplishment of aérial navigation by mechanical means only, or partly by buoyancy and partly by mechanical means; objects which are capable of flight and carrying their own motive power ; machines constructed upon a scale calculated to carry a weight equal to that of a man upon the principles advocated by the inventors ; light motors ; balloons, nayigable or otherwise ; balloon material’; kites, or similar aérial appliances, for saving life at sea, or for traction ; and other objects of interest connected with aéronauties. The large out- door space will be made available for various competitions, such as the nearest approach to a given locality. The disputed question of aérial locomotion by the aid of buoyancy will also be conclusively tested. THE scientific society, Isis, of Dresden, having recently attained the fiftieth year of its existence, has issued a special 112 jubilee or festival number of its Proceedings. It was founded in 1834, at the end of which year it had 27 members, and in 1835 it was reorganised and called Isis. During the first thirty years of its existence the Society was fortunate in having in keeping a single president, Dr. Reichenbach, whose lectures were mainly instrumental in the formation of the Society. In 1860 the twenty-fifth anniversary of the founding was celebrated with much ceremony, and as the occasion was also Reichenbach’s jubilee, the double event was commemorated by the establish- ment of a memorial fund which bore his name, and the income from which was to be devoted to the support of a Saxon student travelling for zoological investigation. A record was then issued of the work of the Society so far ; the number before us carries on the story for another twenty-five years, thus completing the history of the half century. The 27 members of 1835 have swollen to about 465 in 1885, and progress in other directions has been in proportion. In addition to the secretary’s record of the advances of the last quarter of a century, the Festschrift con- tains a paper by Prof. Stelzner on the development of the methods of petrographic investigation during the last fifty years, and one by Herr Topler on the history of discoveries in electro- magnetism and inductional electricity. Most of the remaining papers deal with local science, such traces of animals in the coal formations of Zwickau, and several others on subjects connected chiefly with Dresden and its neighbourhood. The Society starts on the second half of the first century of its existence with ample vigour and promise of an unlimited lease of existence and activity. On May 22, at about 6.30 p.m., a mirage was seen from Visby, on the island of Gothland, in the Baltic. It appeared out at sea, on the western horizon, and represented a town on both sides, surrounded by high forest-clad mountains, which seemed to be within a distance of only a few miles. A large vessel with three masts lay in front of the town. The mirage lasted a couple of minutes, when it suddenly disappeared. ONE hundred thousand shad have been reared in the United States during the last year, to say nothing of other species of fish, the exact number of which it is impossible to compute. It will be remembered that the shad was once exceedingly prolific in the Thames, but owing to the impure state of the river their numerical proportions have decreased to a very large extent. The Fish Commissioners of America have acted wisely in acclimatising the shad to their own waters, it being a valuable fish and easy of cultivation. A SHORT time since we commented upon the enormous quantities of rats which infested the Health Exhibition, but which entirely disappeared shortly after it closed. Soon after the present Inventions Exhibition opened, these pests commenced to reappear, and their numbers are daily increasing. The authori- ties would do well to check their movements before they assume gigantic proportions. ALTHOUGH the Professorship of Anatomy and Histology at the University of Lund- has been twice officially announced vacant no applicant has come forward. It will now have to remain unoccupied till 1886. THE Mexican Government has at length determined to under- take a geological survey of the whole country, as far as prac- ticable. 10,000 dollars have been assigned for preliminary expenses. WE have received from Messrs. Theiler and Sons specimens of their Universal Pocket Microscope and their Demonstration Microscope. The former magnifies 50 diameters, while the latter, intended for ‘schools and the drawing-room,” has three powers—30, 100, and 150 diameters. They are both very ad- mirable contrivances, and should be in the hands of all young people. The definition and achromatism of the Demonstration Microscope are perfect, NATURE [ ¥une 4, 1885 THE additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens during the past week include two Javan Cats (Felis javanensts), a Marbled Cat (Felis marmorata) from Malacca, presented by Mr. Frank Swettenham ; a Common Marmoset (Hafale jacchus) from Brazil, presented by Dr. L. Morgan ; a Slender-billed Cockatoo (Cacatua tenuirostris) from Australia, presented by Mrs. E. H. Watson ; two Tuatera Lizards (Sphenodon punctata) from New Zealand, presented by Prof. T. J. Parker; a Smooth Snake (Coronella levis), a Common Viper (Vipera berus), British, pre- sented by Mr. W. H. B. Pain; a Slender-billed Cockatoo (Cacatua tenuirostris) from Australia, thirteen Tuatera Lizards (Sphenodon punctata) from New Zealand, deposited ; an Osprey (Pandion haliaetus), caught in the North Sea, purchased ; a Darwin’s Rhea (Rhea darwini) from Patagonia, received in exchange ; a Hog Deer (Cervus porcinus 6), two Four-horned Antelopes (Zeraceros guadricornis), two Prairie Marmots (A7c- tomys ludovicianus), two Long-fronted Gerbilles (Gerbz/lus longifrons), born in the Gardens. OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN THE OBSERVATORY OF ParIs.—Rear-Admiral Mouchez has issued his report on the work of this establishment during the year 1884. The completion of the re-observation of Lalande’s stars has led to a new disposition of the meridian-instruments, one of which, on the proposal of M. Leewy, is now occupied with the determination of a number of circumpolar stars on his new method ; the great meridian-circle and the circle of Gambey are still employed for observations of the minor planets, and of comparison-stars for planets, comets, and nebulz observed with the equatorials. The great telescope of 0°74 m. is still un- mounted, no suitable position being available in the present state of the grounds of the Observatory. M.Mouchez mentions having received communications from the authorities in Algeria, referring to the possibility of obtaining from the local budget the greater part of the sum that would be required to mount the instrument at the Observatory of Algiers on the summit of the Boudjaréah—an exceptionally favourable situation, which might be visited by the astronomers of the Paris Observatory for special observations, but the Council of the latter institution have not availed themselves of the proposition, in the hope that the equatorial may yet be erected at Paris. Amongst the ob- servations made with the instruments in the west tower and the Henry equatorial, are many of the satellites of Uranus and Neptune, the companion of Sirius, the belts of Uranus, nebulz, and double-stars. MM. Henry have been occupied with astro- nomical photography during the year, and, as is well known, with great success; various clusters of stars have been photo- graphed, and M. Mouchez appends to his report a reproduction by heliogravure of a plate of the great clusters in Perseus. A trace of the motion of the minor planet Pallas was shown after an exposure of thirty-five minutes. The important results ob- tained by MM. Henry in photographing very small stars in those crowded parts of the heavens where the Galaxy crosses the ecliptic have been already referred to in this column. Steady progress has been made both with the calculations and print- ing of the Paris Catalogue of Stars, and it is expected that the first volume of both series (star-positions as observed, and catalogue) will be completed by the end of the year. Vol. xviii. of the AZémoires is finished. The Report further details the personal work of the members of the Observatory staff. Amongst the additions to the Museum is a portrait of Pons, presented by M. Tempel. The Report for the year 1884 is preceded by one which enters specially into the present condition of a scheme for removing the principal instruments in the Observatory to a site where not only greater steadiness can be secured in their mounting but where the objections of being surrounded by a great city will not exist. It appears that the Academy of Sciences have not, so far, favoured this scheme. M. Mouchez states very clearly his view of the question. THE ComMEr TEMPEL-SWIFT (1869-80).—M. Bossert, of Paris, is engaged upon the determination of the orbit of this comet, which may be expected to reach perihelion again about May, 1886, the period of revolution being rather less than 5% years. Since the last perihelion passage on November 8, 1880, | SE ee: ee be Fune 4, 1885 | the perturbations are not likely to have been material, and should the comet arrive at its least distance from the sun early in May the chances of reobservation will be very small indeed, the longitude of perihelion being in 43°, and the inclination of the orbit to the ecliptic less than 54°. ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA FOR THE WEEK, 1885, JUNE 7-13 (For the reckoning of time the civil day, commencing at Greenwich mean midnight, counting the hours on to 24, is here employed. ) At Greenwich on June 7 Sun rises, 3h. 47m. ; souths, 11h. 58m. 35°58. ; sets, 20h. Tom. 5 decl. on meridian, 22° 48’ N.: Sidereal Time at Sunset, 13h. 15m. Moon (New on June 12, 23h.) rises, oh. 56m. ; souths, 7h. 3m. ; sets, 13h. 22m. ; decl. on meridian, o° 41’ N. Planet Rises Souths Sets Decl. on meridian . m h. m. h. m. ae Mercury... 259 ... 10 34 13 9 17) LOIN Menus 2. 4 17 ... 12 38 20 59 23 57 N. Mars 2.34 <2, IO’ 14 17 54 17 58N. Jupiter OBE no TU Mo ob OPT LORE IN Ic Saturn meotee | 12040) |.:.) 20149 22 26N. * Indicates that thesetting is that of the following day. Phenomena of Fupiter’s Satellites June h. m | June h. m. 7... 2042 J.ecl. reap. | 11 ... 20 36 II. occ. disap. Seeee.) 0) 2 LV. tr. ing. Ney aah 2 1) Ie petty: The Phenomena of Jupiter's Satellites are such as are visible at Greenwich, June h, 11... I... Mars in conjunction with and 3° 51’ north of the Moon. tie...) 10 Mercury in conjunction with and 2° 47’ north of the Moon. aR 6 Saturn in conjunction with and 4° 3’ north of the Moon. Wegteresst) (Li7 Venus in conjunction with and 5° 48’ north of the Moon. GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES THE Pamir is the subject of another contribution, by M. Tvanoff, to the last issue of the /zvestza of the Russian Geo- graphical Society. Several objections having been made to his views on the Pamir, already mentioned in Nature, and especially to his tendency of limiting the name of Pamir to the eastern part of the great Central Asian mountain mass. M. Ivanoff answers by a paper accompanied by a map of the Pamir, on which the whole of the region is represented ; the chains of mountains being drawn, however, merely schematically, which circumstance is a great obstacle to catching on the map their real characters. He insists on the fact that the denomina- tions ‘‘Great” and “Little Pamir,” introduced by Messrs. Gordon and Trotter, are not known to those natives who are best acquainted with the region, and they lay altogether too much stress upon the names in use among Kirghizes. He thus limits the discussion as to what must be considered as the Pamir, which discussion had been so very well put by his former orographical papers on its proper ground—that of physical’geography—where it obviously must remain. Wenotice in the same issue a paper by M. Wolter on the Prussian Lithuanians ; and a preliminary report, by M. Sorokin, on his journey in Russian Tian-Shan. THE new and promising route to Central Asia from the Mortvyi Kultuk Gulf of the Caspian via the Ust-Urt to Kungrad is the subject of an interesting paper read by M. Belayskiy before the Russian Geographical Society, and analysed in the last issue of the Zevestia (xxi. 2). Until lately the Mortvyi Kultuk was considered too shallow for navigation, east winds being said to reduce its depth to 3°5 feet. Kecent soundings proved, however, that, the usual depth being about 9 feet, no winds reduce it more than to 44 feet; in fact, flat steamers freely navigate the gulf. Those which do not take more than 4% feet of water approach the shores for 60 to 230 yards at Ayrakly. From that port, which has sweet-water wells, the route goes on to the Ust-Urt plateau. The Ust-Urt was formerly considered as quite dry, and as having ‘ NATURE E13 a very severe climate. But this belief was exaggerated. Water is found at each Io to 13 miles; there are also pasture-grounds, and neither the cold in winter nor the heat in summer is excessive. This last is moderated by winds. The saksaou/, brushes, and the excrement of camels give the necessary fuel. On the whole stretch, 270 miles long, from the Mortvyi Kultuk to Kungrad, there is no difficulty in crossing the Ust-Urt in carriages, and want of water is felt only near Kungrad. From this town steamers may ply on the Amu-daria ; a steamer has already gone up the river to Khodja-Sala. Moreover, a route, available for carriages, runs along the left bank of the river. On the whole this new route has already proved to be more advantageous for the transport of merchandise from Bokhara to Russia than he old one via Orenburg. FROM a communication to the Russian Geographical Society, made by Dr. Dyboyskiy, it appears that the Commodore Islands —Behring, Copper, and two smaller ones—situated 300 miles east of Kamschatka, ought to be regarded in a better light than they have been hitherto. Behring Island is covered with excellent prairies, and Dr. Dybovskiyis sure that agriculture could be carried on it. The southern part of this island is hilly, and reminds one of the alpine regions of Kamstchatka. No forests, but only shrubs of the Rhododendron Sorbus, and so on, grow on the islands; but the explorer’s experiments of planting forest-trees proved quite successful. The higher tracts offering excellent grazing grounds for reindeer, a number of these last were imported in 1882, and the experiment of acclimatising them on the is'and proved also quite successful. The narrow valleys of Copper Island are also considered quite suitable for agri- culture. The islands are formed of crystalline rocks covered with Tertiary deposits ; they contain copper ore and brown coal, of course unworked. Fuel is brought from Kamtschatka, The climate is far milder than on the peninsula, and while in May snowa yard thick lay at Petropavloysk, vegetables are freely grown on the islands. Snow is altogether so scanty that horses brought on to Behring Island were feeding throughout the winter on the prairies. The fauna of the islands has been well explored by M. Dybovskiy. The flora is much like that of the alpine regions of Kamtschatka. The inhabitants, all Aleutes, 514 in number, live in wooden houses. They are all Christians, and can read. THE attention of geographers and men of science ought to be called to several numbers of the Archiv fiir die naturwissen- schaftliche Landesdurchforschung von Bohmen, which have recently been issued (Prague: Franz Rzuonatz). The numbers of most interest to geographers pure and simple are those form- ing the first division of the third volume, and containing a list of the heights in Bohemia trigonometrically determined by the Imperial Institute of Military Geography in the years 1877-79. Numbers 2 to 6 of the fourth volume deal with the geology and botany of Bohemia, and numbers 1 to 3 of the fifth volume are also devoted to geology. The monographs composing this work are said to constitute a real treasury of information concerning the physical conditions and natural resources of the Austrian Crownland of which it treats. AT the last meeting of the Paris Geographical Society a com- munication was read from Capt. Sorensen respecting his visit last year to Spitzbergen. It contained numerous observations on climatology and the configuration of the coasts (especially in correction of the English charts). His remarks with regard to the state of the ice during the spring are of special interest. He found the ice around Spitzbergen very different from what he had observed in previous years. Usually the western side is accessible at the commencement of the season, viz., May and June. Drifts are to be met with, but they disappear about the middle of June, or, at the latest, in the beginning of July. Last year, on the other hand, the west coast was blocked by ice the whole summer through. No captain can recollect having ever encountered such a mass of ice on this coast. The Norwegians have observed that for three years past the melting of the ice has grown later year by year. On the east coast the sea is generally full of icebergs, but it was wholly free from them last year. Off Barentz Island also the sea was free from ice, and one of the captains who penetrated farther to the east discovered two islands. Capt. Sorensen suggests, therefore, that Spitz- bergen and Franz-Josef Land form parts of a vast archipelago, and not two wholly distinct territories, as has hitherto been believed. He promises during coming years to continue his meteorological observations in his annual visits to these regions. 114 THE last number of the Royal Geographical Society of Antwerp (tome ix. 5¢ fascicule) contains a paper by M. van den Gheyn on the European origin of the Aryas, a discussion of recent researches on this subject, especially of the works of Schrader, Pena, von Loher, Roth, Geiger, and Ujfalvy. The author, while regarding the subject as open to discussion, thinks that the probabilities are in favour of an Asiatic origin. Dr. Haine writes on the manners of the Californian Indians, amongst whom he passed some time about 1850. M. August Thys con- tributes a brief account of an early Flemish navigator, Dietrich Paesschen, who made several voyages to the Levant about 1511 ; and M. Baguet describes Steinen’s late journey on the Xingu. An instalment of the report of the commission to study the Scheldt concludes the number. THE expedition which the Norwegian Government dispatches this summer to the coast of Finmarken, to which we have pre- viously referred, has for its chief object to ascertain whether there are banks or fishing grounds far from the coast, a circum- stance which has never been ascertained, but which would be of great value if proved. Hitherto all fishing has been confined to the shore, but, judging from what is the case further south in Norway, such a discovery is very likely. ON May 27 the Arctic steamer A/er? sailed from Halifax with a scientific expedition for Hudson’s Bay, to examine its harbours and the facilities that exist fora trade route from the Western Territory to Europe. ARTIFICIAL EARTHQUAKES Outs recently we noticed a paper by Prof. Milne, of Japan, which contained exhaustive records of nearly 250 earth- quakes that occurred in that country in two years, and which was an earthquake history of Northern Japan during that period. We have now before us another paper from the same indefatigable mvestigator, also on earthquakes, but on a totally different branch, viz. seismic experiments—in other words, on artificial earthquakes. These experiments are so original in their incep- tion, and in some respects so unexpected in their results, that they are worth describing at some length. The paper, which was read before two successive meetings of the Seismological Society of Japan towards the close of last year, covers over eighty octavo pages, and contains several illustrations; but it will be possible to extract its principal results in a comparatively short space, There were in all ten series of experiments, carried on over three years. The object was to study phenomena con- nected with earth-vibrations produced either by some explosive like dynamite, or by allowing a heavy weight to fall irom a height. Each set of experiments involved several weeks’ pre- paration ; amongst the chief difficulties to be overcome were the procuring, transporting, and storing dynamite, putting the observing-stations in telegraphic connection, arranging the firing apparatus, making electric fuses, and the like, and doing all this in the midst of a populous city. These initial difficulties could never have been overcome but for the assistance of various departments of the Japanese administration, and it is pleasing to notice the help which Japanese officials freely render Prof. Milne in his interesting and important work in the field of seismic science. Nevertheless, he warns his readers at the out- set that his experiments were such that it is hardly just to expect them to be carried out satisfactorily by a private individual ; the trouble, expense, danger, and magnitude of the arrangements which they involve make them fitter undertakings for an army corps. The only guiding data which he had when he commenced were the results obtained by the late Mr. Robert Mallet and by Gen. Abbot. These referred only to the velocity with which earth-vibrations were propagated, and in taking diagrams of earth-motion he was therefore entering upon new ground, and therefore continually encountered new results. Sometimes it was found that the instruments employed required modification before satisfactory records could be obtained 3 at other times the records which were obtained gave indications of new lines of investigation, to pursue which new apparatus would be needed, and soon. Hence many of his results, he observes, can only be regarded as provisional ; for example, those which relate to the velocities of normal and transverse vibrations. The experiments were carried out, as far as circumstances would permit, in differ- ent soils, the chief agents employed being heavy weights of 1700 Ibs, and upwards dropped from heights up to 40 feet, and NATURE different quantities of dynamite exploded in cavities of varying depths. mographs. experiments are described with the utmost detail, illustrated by [Fune 4, 1885. The effects of these were observed with different seis- The observations thus made in the ten series of numerous plans and tables, under their appropriate heads. Prof. Milne sums up his results under a succession of heads, and the most important of them are given below. He observes, how- ever, that in reading these conclusions it must be remembered that they only refer to experimerts performed in certain kinds of © ground. Effect of Ground on Vibration.—Hills have but little effect in stopping vibrations, but excavations exert considerable influence onthem. In soft, damp ground it is easy to produce vibrations of large amplitude and considerable duration; in loose, dry ground an explosion of dynamite yields a disturbance of large — amplitude but of short duration, while in soft rock it is difficult to produce a disturbance the amplitude of which is sufficiently great to be recorded on an ordinary seismograph. General Character of the Motion.—The pointer of a seismo- graph with a single index first moves in a normal direction, after which it is suddenly deflected, and the resulting diagram yields — a figure partially dependent on the relative phases of the normal and transverse motion, which phases are in turn dependent upon the distance of the seismograph from the origin of the disturb- ance. — “The statement that a thing can be moved about with- out altering its shape may be shown to amount only to this, that two angles which fit in one place will fit also in | another, no matter how they have been brought from the one place to the other.” Several most serious qualifications must be imposed upon this statement before it can possibly be accepted as true. The chapter on JZo¢éon properly forms a part of this work, so far at least as kinematics is concerned. But it seems to be a mistake to conclude it with a few editorial sentences on the Laws of Motion. For here we have a perfectly new subject, and one which would require at least a full chapter to itself. It is probable enough that, at some period of his life, Clifford imagined that it might be possible to get rid of the idea of matter as well as of that of force, and so to reduce Dynamics to mere Kine- matics. He never so expressed himself to me. But purely physical subjects were, properly speaking, beyond his sphere ; his ideas about them were always more or less vague, because always of a somewhat transitional character, and were much modified at times by the momentary turn of his philosophical speculations. We are told in a foot-note to the first page of the Preface that Clifford left his A¢z#etic (a companion volume to his Kinematic) 7z a completed state. Surely, keeping this in view, the introduction of Laws of Motion into the present work was superfluous. This foot-note unfortunately strikes a jarring chord at the very first opening of the book. We are told that “more serious delay seems likely to attend the publica- tion” of Clifford’s completed MS.; this is followed by a mysterious species of protest or remonstrance. Clifford could never have written in this vein. He would either have kept silence, or have blurted out the whole truth. Mystery and insinuation were not weapons of his, and should not be employed in connection with his name.' PG. GAs OUR BOOK SHELF New Commercial Plants and Drugs. No.8. By Thos. Chiisty, F.L.S., &c. (London: Christy and Co., 155, Fenchurch Street, 1885.) THE eighth number of Mr. Thos. Christy’s ‘‘ New Com- mercial Plants and Drugs” has recently appeared, and the contents are of a similar character to those that have preceded it, the most recently introduced commercial products derived from the vegetable kingdom being enu- merated and what has been written about them brought together. The first plant referred to in the book is of course the Kola nut (Cola acuminata), as being one of the most important, or at least one that has attracted a very large share of attention during the past year. This article is illustrated by a coloured plate of the fruit and seeds of this species, as well as of the Guttiferous plant known as the Bitter Kola. Besides having the property of cleansing or purifying and thus rendering wholesome stagnant or foul water, it has also been used for clarifying beer and spirits. One of its most remarkable properties is in restoring the senses after partaking to excess of intoxicating drinks. The most recent application of the Kola nut, however, is in the preparation of a paste for mixing with cocoa or chocolate, which it is said to im- prove “both in strength and flavour to an astonishing degree.” It is considerably more nutritious and strength- ening ; so much so indeed “that a workman can, on a single cup taken at breakfast time, go on with his work through the day without feeling fatigued.” In consequence of this and many other medicinal ™ In Nature, vol. xxxii. p. 4, Mr. Tucker intimated that Messrs. Macmillan and Co, would publish the remaining mathematical papers of the late Prof. Clifford.—Ep. 126 NATURE [ Fune 11, 1885 virtues the Kola nut is considered to have a great future before it in European commerce, and is consequently strongly recommended to the notice of planters in our colonies for extensive cultivation. With regard to the preservation of the germinating properties of the seeds, Mr. Christy says he has received them in good condition, both in baskets and barrels lined with the leathery leaves of a tree known as the “bal tree.” Some received in dry loam arrived as fresh as when they were gathered, and of some that arrived eighteen months since, the bulk is stated to be perfectly fresh and retaining still their beautiful red colour. From a list of fifteen species of AZyristica, the fruits or seeds of which are described, the value of the nutmeg genus is shown, especially as oil seeds. Seeds new to commerce are frequently arriving in the Liverpool and London markets, intended for the expression of oil and for the preparation of oil cake. Such seeds are of a very varied character and belong to widely different natural orders, and not long since those of ALyréstica surinam- ensts came into Liverpool under the name of African nuts. Upon analysis they were found to contain a large quantity of solid oil or fat with an agreeable taste, and but little, if any, odour, and when fairly pure it is said to resemble cocoa butter, Amongst other important economic plants or drugs mentioned are the Coca (Evythroxylon coca), the medical effects of which have attracted so much attention of late ; the Jamaica Chewstick (Gouvania domingensis), which, it is stated, “ has recently been introduced into this country by one of our leading London dentists for use in tooth powder and mouth wash,” and also in the form of a fluid extract as a garele for relaxed throat. Of Papaine, the active principle of the Papaw (Carica papaya), some interesting records are given regarding its effects in treatment of diphtheria, croup, indigestion, dyspepsia, &c. LETTERS TO THE EDITOR [Zhe Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or lo correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts. No notice is taken of anonymous communications. : [The Editor urgently requests correspondents to keep their le:ters as short as possible, The pressure on his space is so great that it ts impossible otherwise to insure the appearance even of communications containing interesting and novel facts.] Ocular After-Images and Lightning In reply to Mr. Shelford Bidwell’s query whether the quiver of the lightning flash is a purely subjective phenomenon or not, I send the following extract from my note-book, made October, 1873:—‘‘A flash of lightning consists of several separate flashes all occurring within a fraction of a second of each other. There was a very severe thunder storm at night, the thunder almost continuous. Drawing the curtain across the window so as to expose only a narrow slit of skylight, I observed this slit in the looking-glass which I kept moving rapidly backwards and forwards on its axis. Whenever a flash occurred, several images of the slit appeared, showing that there wer several successive illuminations of the slit.”” This was not the result I had expected, the experiment having been suggested to my mind in consequence of some experiments I had been making on the phenomenon of recurrent vision. The results of these experiments were published in the P42’. Mag., December (supplement), 1872. One object of my experi- ments was to determine in what way the colour of the recurrent image depends upon the colour of the light producing it. By using a sliding shutter and a small window covered with different coloured glasses, I found that the colour of the recurrent image tends to be of a tint complementary to that of the light causing it, being, however, in all cases bluer than the complementary tint. I add the following extract from my paper:—‘‘A re current image of an object may be produced without any appar- atus whatever. To do this, place the right hand over the eyes so that the palm of the hand covers the right eye, and the fingers the left eye. Ifthe middle finger be then raised for a moment, so as to admit light for as short a time as possible into the eye, a recurrent image of any light-coloured object held against a dark background may be seen. The effect is much better seen by twilight or gaslight than in full daylight. This method of producing a recurrent image is, however, much inferior to that in which a sliding shutter is used, owing probably to the illumination IN your issue for April 30 (vol. xxxi. p. 601) is an account of a quinquefoliate strawberry. In the garden of the New York Agricultural Experiment Station at Geneva we have some second year seedling strawberries, some of which are bearing three, four, and five leaflets on the same plant, the leaves all large and perfect. We have other plants in which the two extra leaves are borne half way down the petiole, and which attain fair size, and yet others where these stipulary-like appendages are reduced to hair-like bracts. The variety of strawberry introduced under the name ‘‘ Mrs. Garfield” frequently has these bract-like appendages. While speaking of the strawberry, I would remark that seedling strawberries very frequently are unifoliate during their early growth, and it appears as if Duchesne’s Fragaria monophylla may be regarded as an instance of arrested develop- ment in one of these one-leaved younglings. E. Lewis STURTEVANT New York Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, N.Y., May 28 OBSERVATIONS OF THE TEMPERATURE OF THE SEA AND Aik, MADE DURING A VOYAGE FROM ENGLAND TO THE RIVER (PICA TEE WIN, TUES SuSE BN alee Beas obliged to proceed to South America at the beginning of this year, I took with me a thermo- meter and a hydrometer in order, if circumstances were — favourable, to provide myself with occupation during the — somewhat long and monotonous voyage. Thanks to the — kindness and courtesy of Capt. Brown, of the s.s. Lezénztz, . ; ; : of the retina not being sufficiently instantaneous. Cheltenham College, June 6 A. S. Davis A Quinquefoliate Strawberry ' . F | who took a lively interest, and assisted me greatly in carrying out my observations, the voyage was neither long nor tedious. j The Lezénitz sailed from Southampton on January 16, 1885, and made the passage direct, without touching at intermediate ports, to Monte Video, where she arrived on February 8, after a very favourable voyage. The route © lay through the most interesting meteorological districts of the Atlantic, and my principal object at starting was to make as many observations of the temperature and the density of the surface-water along the route as possible. With these I combined observations of the temperature of the air, and frequently also of the wet-bulb thermo- — meter. Observations were begun on January 21 in lat. 34° N., and continued up to the morning of arrival in the River Plate. I have put together the simultaneous observations of the temperature of the air and the water with those of the © wet-bulb thermometer, as they possess some interest of | their own ; the observations of density are kept for a — future opportunity, as the reductions in connection with © them are not quite finished. | The thermometer used for all the observations was— divided into simple degrees of the Centigrade scale, and was of the ordinary form of German manufacture, with a paper scale. The degrees were 1°6 mm. apart, so that there was no difficulty in estimating tenths of a degree. Its zero was verified on board by immersing it in pounded ~ ice, and found correct. The ice was well pounded in a clean towel, and a soda-water tumbler filled with it ; the thermometer was then thrust into it and allowed to remain till sufficient ice had melted to fill up the interstices, pro- ducing a perfect magma of ice and water down to the | 2 Fune 11, 1885] bottom. The mercury remained constant on the zero line. The temperature of the air was 25° C." Temperature of the Water.—The water was collected in a small bucket, well clear of the side of the ship, and on the opposite side from that through which the con- densing water of the engine is discharged. Its tempera- ture was determined as soon as the sample was brought on board. As the ship left the Channel in the middle of winter, and proceeded nearly due south, the temperature of the water rose rapidly at first. Observations were begun on January 21, in lat. 34° N., and between this latitude and lat. 10° N. the rate of rise was very steady, averaging 0°36° C. per degree of latitude. From lat. 5° N. to 15° S. the temperature is very uniform and high, averaging 26°86° C. After passing lat. 15° S. the temperature falls, and begins to show greater variations, as the shallow water on the Abrothes Bank is approached. The average tem- perature of the water over this bank was 25°56° C. After passing Cape Frio, and between the parallels of 25° and 30° of south latitude, the variations of temperature are considerable and often abrupt ; the maximum observed in this part was 267 C., and the minimum 24°3 C. As the higher temperature generally accompanies a greater salinity, it is probable that these variations are due, not to any terrestrial source, such as large rivers, but to an oceanic cause, the less salt and colder water of the deeper ocean strata being thrown up against the coast, and mix- ing imperfectly with the hot and dense surface-water. In lat 30° S. the influence of the River Plate makes itself distinctly felt by a general rapid fall of temperature. As the ship got into soundings, with the change in colour and other properties of the water, the temperature fell rapidly to between 23° and 24° C., and to 22° C. in six fathoms off Flores Island close to Monte Video. The minimum temperature observed in this part was 20° C, at 2 a.m. between Lobos Island and Maldonado Point. Excluding the latter part of the voyage between the River Plate and lat. 15° S., where the conditions are a good deal affected by purely local causes, the surface- water shows well-marked diurnal maxima and minima of temperature. From lat.9° N. to lat. 2° N. the ship passed through the equatorial belt of calms and rains, which separates the regions of the north-east and the south-east trade-winds from each other. It is characterised by a calm sea, a cloudy sky, and heavy rains. Here the tem- perature was subject to very little diurnal variation (03 C.) On approaching St. Paul’s Rocks, a few miles north of the equator, the clouds cleared away completely, and there was a calm sea, a clear sky, and a very power- ful sun. The result was a comparatively great rise of temperature in the afternoon ; and yet the greatest differ- * Having plenty of pounded ice at my disposal, I poured off the water which had formed by melting, and replaced it by sea-water, containing 35 65 grammes salt per kilogramme, and then immersed the thermometer ; it fell rapidly below zero, and remained constant at —1°‘o. I then strained away the sea water from the ice and replaced it by a mixture of equal volumes sea-water and distilled water : the thermometer fell to — 0°45, and remained constant for some time at that temperature. When the ice was mixed with distilled water alone, the thermometer again stood ato’ C. These experi- ments were made to verify some observations of Pettersson, quoted in his investigations into the nature of ice formed from waters of different degrees of salinity, in connection with the voyage of the Vega. He there says, re- ferring to the melting temperature of different kinds of ice, that pure fresh- water ice, when immersed in sea water, melts at a temperature considerably below o° C. Writing from memory, I think he puts the melting-point at from —1° to —2° C. _ Having both the ice and the sea-water ready at hand, I repeated this iemarkable experiment. ‘The result showed that Pettersson’s observation is quite correct, and that the lowering of the melting-point is roughly proportional to the salt held in solution. When equal volumes of the sea-water and distilled water of the same temperature were mixed, there was no change of temperature. I do not remember if Dr. Pettersson furnished an explanation of this remarkable phenomenon, and I am unable to supply one myself, but it must necessarily affect the validity of conclu- sions as to the composition of sea-water ice drawn frem its melting-point. When the Chadlenger was in Antarctic waters I made a number of observa- tions on the melting-point of ice collected from broken pieces of the pack, and found it begin to melt a little below —1°C. I concluded that either it Was one solid substance or a mixture of several solids. Butfif pure ice melts at a different temperature according to the medium in which it is placed, then this reasoning is faulty. for inclosed brine would have much the same effect as inclosed salt or crystalline hydrate. NATURE 127 ence between any neighbouring maximum and minimum in this region was only 1°1°C. The maximum temperature of the sea-surface observed during the voyage was 27°4C. (81°3 F.) at 2 p.m. on January 31, in lat. 7° 35’S., the Brazilian coast being about 100 miles distant. The temperature of the water will be further considered in connection with its density ; at present its connection with the temperature of the air will be more particularly considered. Temperature of the Air —Along w:-h the temperature of the water, that of the air during c.ylight was deter- mined. It is probably very rare, in any part of the ocean, to find the mean temperature of the air agreeing accurately with that of the surface water, and in many places the differences are considerable. In order to be able to compare the temperature of the air with that of the water, it is necessary that both should be determined with equal accuracy. The temperature of the water is easily and accurately determined by agitating the thermo- meter in a bucket of it freshly collected. With the air it is somewhat different. Having only one thermometer with me, I was obliged to use it for all purposes, and I could not hang it up in a thermometer-box, even if I had had one, and had deemed it advisable to do so. On board ship, however, I am convinced that it is quite impossible to fix a thermometer-box in such a position as always to secure such an air-pressure as to justify the assumption that the indications of the thermometer may be taken as the true temperature of the air. Even on shore and under the most advantageous circumstances, the tem- perature of the thermometer in the atmosphere of the best constructed box is too much dependent on the tem- perature and capacity for heat of the material of the box for it to be assumed always to be identical with that of the air outside, at the moment of reading. I was obliged, therefore, to adopt the method of whirling the thermometer, at the end of a short string, in the air, in whatever part of the ship happened at the moment to afford the most favourable conditions, and reading it when it had assumed a constant temperature. The tem- perature of the air is thus determined in mostly the same way as that of the water, namely, by agitating a thermo- meter in it, and the comparison of the two is therefore likely to lead to trustworthy conclusions. , Temperature of Wet-bulb Thermometer.—The series ot observations with this instrument is not so complete as that with the dry thermometer, but they possess some interest. The method of observation was the following :— The temperature of the air having been determined by whirling the thermometer in it, a bucket of sea-water was fetched and its temperature taken ; the thermometer was then exposed, with its bulb still wet with sea-water, to the breeze in a proper part of the ship, and its temperature observed when it became constant. The exposure of the instrument requires some care. The bulb must be quite free from grease, which can be readily secured by washing it with soap and water. It is then dipped into the water and allowed to drip for a second. It is then held some- what inclined to the direction of the wind and to the horizon, and rotated gently on its axis so that the bulb be kept covered with a continuous film of water which is locally thickened by gravity, which tends to form a drop on the lower side of the bulb. The reading of the thermo- meter is observed while it is being rotated. Had I in- tended from the beginning to make a series of wet and dry bulb observations, I should probably have used ‘fresh water from the first. I began to expose the thermometer, merely in order to have an indication whether the atmo- sphere were saturated or not, and I expected, in the damp equatorial regions, to find the atmosphere so heavily saturated as to be incapable of producing any sensible lowering of the thermometer with damped bulb. For this purpose it seemed to be quite sufficient to expose the thermometer wet with sea-water. Having begun with 128 NATURE | Fune 11, 1885 sea-water the observations were continued with it. A few comparative observations were made in order to determine the effect of replacing the sea-water by fresh water. On February 2, after a shower, the tempeiature of the air was 25°o0 C. When wet with sea-water the temperature of the thermometer was 2375 C., and with rain-water 23°1 C. Similarly, at noon on the same day, the following temperatures were observed: dry bulb, 26™1 C.; wet bulb (sea), 24°5 C. ; wet bulb (rain), 24°°2 C. The air, at this time, appeared, to the sensation, to be damper than at any other time, and yet, when suitably exposed, there was a difference of nearly 2° C. between the wet and dry thermometers. There is an advantage in having the bulb of the ther- mometer wet with a continuous film of water, instead of being surrounded with damp muslin, namely, that it more nearly resembles the surface of the sea, which is exposed to the influence of the atmosphere. Observations with the wet thermometer were not made as regularly as those with the dry instrument, and no observations were made with either of them after dark, owing to the difficulty of securing proper exposure and reading the instrument with a lantern, without heating it. The temperature of the air and of the water were taken generally every two hours from 6 a.m. to 6 p.m., but the intervals between the observations were not always the same. These observations showed that only on two days, January 31 and February 1, between lat. 6° S. and 12’ S., did the mean day temperature of the air exceed that of the surface-water. On these days the temperatures were taken every two hours from 6 a.m. to 6 p.m., and the means of the groups of seven observations gave, on January 31: air, 27°13 C.; sea, 2690 C.; difference, 0°23 C. ; and on February 1, air, 27°"26C. ; sea, 26°96 C.; difference, 0°30 C. These differences would have been reduced in amount if the observations had been carried on through the night, though, from the very high tempera- ture of the air just before sunrise on February 1 and 2, they would not have been reduced to zero. In the table (p. 129) all the simultaneous observations of temperature of air and water made during the voyage, ex- cept those of the last day, when approaching the mouth of the River Plate, are collected in small tables for each day. The time of day is given in hours, from o to 24; the temperatures are in Centigrade degrees ; ¢ denotes the temperature of the sea-surface,7— TZ the difference be- tween that of the temperature of the air, and 7—7 the difference between the readings of the thermometer in air with its bulb dry and when it is wet with sea-water. At the head of each table is given the meteorological dis- trict of the ocean through which the ship was passing, as “north-east trade-winds,” “equatorial calms,” and the like ; also the day of the month (1885) and the latitude and longitude at noonof the day. The means at the foot of each table are simply the arithmetical means of the numbers in each column; and their meaning and value are at once apparent on inspecting the column. With the two exceptions above-named, the temperature of the sea was always found higher than that of the air, over the day, and only very seldom was it exceeded by that of the air at the hottest time of the day. Had the observations been carried on through the night, the contrast between the two temperatures would have been much greater. On January 31 and February 1 the conditions were somewhat exceptional. On the former of these days the ship passed into the northerly monsoon, which prevails all down the Brazilian coast during the southern summer. Like the similar monsoons in the northern hemisphere, it is caused by the proximity of a large mass of land, which gets intensely heated by the vertical rays of the sun. On January 30 the wind had been light south-easterly ; during the night it fell calm, and at sunrise a light easterly wind sprang up, which gradually drew around towards the north and blew all day, with just sufficient force to travel exactly at the same rate as the ship (114 knots); consequently, during the whole of the day the atmosphere on the deck was motionless, with a very powerful sun beating on it and heating up every thing, so that it was impossible to find any place where the air could be got, coming fresh on board, without having been exposed to the influence of the highly-heated deck and fittings. It is therefore certain that the air-temperatures are somewhat above the water. It is probable that, when the true temperature of the air can be ascertained, it will be found to be usually below that of the sea-surface. The cause of this is, I think, to be found in the relative dryness of the atmosphere over the ocean. If the observations with the wet-bulb thermo- meter be considered, it will be seen that the least differ- ence of reading between the dry- and the wet-bulb thermometers was 1°o C. on January 28, when the ship was in the middle of the equatorial belt of calms and rains. In this region perfectly saturated air might be expected, and with instruments exposed in the usual form of box I have no doubt that here, and in the very oppressive weather of the northerly monsoon, the two instruments would have given identical readings. The readings of the air-temperature on January 28 were per- fectly trustworthy, as the sky was thickly overcast with dense rain-clouds all day ; there was thus no risk of over- heating ; the readings with the wetted bulb were equally satisfactory, so that the results of the observations on that day may be taken to represent fairly the normal state of things in the “ Doldrums.” The temperature of the sea varied from 26°°3 to 26°6 C., the mean of five observa- tions during the day being 26°-42 C. The mean tempera- ture of the air during the day was o°'92 lower than that of the sea, or 25°°5 C., and the temperature of the wet-bulb thermometer 1°°3 lower still, or 24°°2 C. It will be seen that, on the two exceptional days, January 31 and February 1, the difference between the wet- and the dry- bulb thermometer is greater than would be expected from the oppressive damp feeling of the air; it is therefore all the more likely that the dry-bulb readings are too high as indicated above. However, it is important to observe that in all the regions passed through, whether in the westerly winds of the North Atlantic or the equatorial calms, or the monsoon of the South Atlantic, the tem- perature of the wet-bulb thermometer is always very markedly below that of the dry-bulb thermometer. In fact, such is the mobility of the atmosphere that it rarely has the opportunity of saturating itself; and if the effect which must be produced when this air meets the surface of the water be considered, it will, I think, afford some explanation of why at sea the temperature of the air, even by day alone, is usually markedly below that of the sea- surface. If we consider the film of water immediately at the surface of the sea, having the atmosphere on the one side of it and the bulk of the water on the other, it is strictly comparable with the film of water surrounding the bulb of the thermometer, when exposed to the atmosphere in the way described above ; and the air playing upon it must produce exactly the same effect in the one case as in the other. The evaporation lowers the temperature of the aqueous film, which proceeds to extract heat from the neighbouring bodies—namely, in the one case the air and the bulb of the thermometer and in the other case the air and the layer of water immediately below the surface film. lf we imagine for a moment the surface film separated from the bulk of the water below it by a diaphragm im- pervious to heat, then exposed to the atmosphere so as to suffer evaporation and lowering of temperature, then on the removal of the diaphragm it would immediately sink away from the surface and its place would be taken by warmer, and therefore less dense, water from below. In the case of sea-water this effect would be slightly intensi- fied by the concentration produced by evaporation. 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Through a moderately dry atmosphere the rays ass with comparatively little heating effect, but are argely absorbed on entering the water. Consequently the loss of heat which the water suffers by evaporation at the surface of separation is made good more abundantly than that sustained by the air; and the difference in power of absorption of radiant heat exhibited by these two substances is thus sufficient to keep up a permanent difference of temperature between the water and the air immediately above it. Starting with air and water at the same temperature, Wwe may imagine the process taking place in three acts. First, the water at the surface evaporates, and the air on the one side, and the water on the other, are cooled ; second, in order to make up for the heat thus rendered Jatent and lost, the sun shines upon both alike, but the water absorbs a larger proportion of the heat of its rays than the air does; and finally, a portion of this excess is then removed from the water by the simple contact of the air at its surface. The nett effect of these causes is to produce a permanent excess of temperature of the surface-water of the sea over that of the air above it, provided that that air is not completely saturated with moisture, From what I have seen and experienced in the regions visited by the south-west monsoon in the east, I cannot doubt that there are often cases where the most carefully exposed wet- and dry-bulb thermometers would show identical readings, and the atmosphere is completely saturated with vapour of water. Thus it is probable that the temperature of the air would not be inferior to that of the water. Further, when, on the eastern coasts of Asia, the south-west monsoon blows out of the China Sea and penetrates far into the North Pacific, off the coasts of Japan it attains a latitude of naturally lower temperature than that from which it proceeded, so that much of the water with which it was laden, and which is held diffused through it as a mere gas, is condensed and re- mains suspended in it, producing a visible haze, which obscures the horizon and condenses on all solid objects exposed to it. Here the conditions are reversed, and instead of the air losing heat to evaporate the water, it receives the heat liberated by the condensation of the steam removed from waters of lower latitudes. Such conditions are, however, certainly exceptional, and there can be little doubt that, as a rule, the temperature of the surface-water of the sea is higher than that of the air. The temperature of the air depends on that of the water which tends to warm it and the degree of its own dryness, by virtue of which the water has a tendency to evaporate into it and, by extracting heat from it for this purpose, to cool it. It is obvious that local circumstances such as currents may produce differences between the temperature of the air and the water, but such cases are not here under consideration. J. Y. BUCHANAN Mendoza, March 18 THE REV. T. W. WEBB Y the death of the Rev. Thomas William Webb, M.A., F.R.A.S., English astronomy has lost one of its most assiduous and accomplished votaries. Mr. Webb, who had reached the age of 79 years, passed a long life as the incumbent of two obscure Welsh livings, held by him in succession. At Tretire he may be said to have laid the foundations of those astronomical tastes which took their finished and best-known shape during the later years of NATURE | [ Yune 11, 1885 his life whilst he was incumbent of Hardwick, in Brecon- shire. He was a genial and right-thinking parish priest, whose highest aim was the performance of his duty. For the sake of astronomy it was well perhaps that he obtained so little ecclesiastical advancement ; for had things been otherwise it is probable that he would never have deve- loped those scientific tastes which have made his name almost a household word. It was my privilege to make his acquaintance upwards of twenty years ago, and I look back with extreme pleasure to the many letters which have passed between us on practical matters connected with observational astronomy and the use of instruments. Whilst Mr. Webb in bygone years used to write a good deal in the current scientific magazines of the day, especi- ally the Zrtellectual Observer and the Student, it was by his “ Celestial Objects for Common Telescopes” that he became chiefly known in the astronomical world. This work, published in the year 1859, was designed to be a cheap popular abridgment ina modified form of Admiral Smyth’s “Celestial Cycle,’ which had done right good service in providing English amateurs with information as to what to look for and how to find. By 1859 Smyth’s work had become both out of print and somewhat out of date, and Mr. Webb’s unpretending abridgment filled at once an undoubted void. It is indeed not wholly correct to speak of Webb’s “ Celestial Objects”? as an abridgment of Smyth’s older, larger, and more expensive volume. It was this; but it was also a good deal more, for whilst it offered to the possessors of small telescopes convenient lists of objects deserving of their attention, it also supplied an enormous amount of original information connected with the sun, moon, and planets, and the use of telescopes. ‘This information, though no doubt suggested by Admiral Smyth’s style, was no mere vechauffé of other people’s work, but represented the personal experience of an intensely industrious and persevering man working under great difficulties through lack of instrumental means. I shall never forget the feeling of blank astonishment which crept over my mind one day when (in, I think, the year 1864) Mr. Webb told me that the first edition of his book, and all his magazine articles up to that date de- scribing double stars and clusters, were founded on studies pursued by means of a telescope set up in his garden and not equatorially mounted, This, I well remember, was not said in any spirit of boasting in the garb of mock modesty, but was the casual utterance of a simple truth disclosed without effort or intention. I do not think I ever came in the way of any student of nature of whom it could be so truly said that he was “ without guile.” Mr. Webb was every inch a gentleman, and a philosopher in the highest sense of the word. Every line that he wrote contained either the record of some fact noticed by himself, or a sensible deduction from some other facts. When his facts had come to an end his pen ceased to pass over paper, and the result was that no one ever read a sentence written by him without learning something useful, set forth in the fewest possible words, often, indeed, in a form of concentration which erred on the side of incon- venient brevity ; but in these days of penny-a-lining (and it may even be admitted that there is even such a thing as science penny-a-lining) Mr. Webb’s habitual terseness cannot be described as a vice. His private letters show that, where necessary for the instruction of a young astronomer, he never grudged time and trouble for going into details. The highest praise that can be awarded him is that he not only did many usetul things himself, but that he set an example of patient and industrious research which resulted in many young men all over the British Empire seeking to imitate his cheery and sensible style of work and thought. ; G. F. CHAMBERS a . Fune 11, 1885 | NATURE 131 = 1 eeecace to the legislature of New York, presented this THE PRESERVATION OF NIAGARA matter, and recommended the appointment of a commis- eee seven years ago Lord Dufferin, then governor- | sion to investigate the question, to confer with the general of Canada, suggested to Gov. Robinson | Canadian authorities, to consider what measures were of New York that the governments of the province of | necessary, and to report the results to a succeeding Ontario and the state of New York should purchase such | legislature. lands about Niagara Falls as would be required to give By resolution the commissioners of the State Survey free access to the principal points of view, and serve to | were charged with the investigation. This commission restore and preserve the natural scenery of the great included some of the most distinguished men of the state,— cataract, beside securing to visitors freedom from those | Ex-Goy. Horatio Seymour, Vice-President of the United vexatious annoyances which now abound. Subsequently | States, W.A. Wheeler, Lieut.-Goy. Dorsheimer, President the governor-general called the attention of the govern- | Barnard of Columbia College, and others. ment of Ontario to the matter, and recommended co- With breadth of view worthy of such men, they state in operation with the state of New York in accomplishing | their report that, “under this resolution, it became the this purpose. duty of the commissioners to ascertain how far the private Later, in January, 1879, Gov. Robinson, in his annual | holding of land about Niagara Falls has worked to public STATE RESERVATION AT NIAGARA 200 ° 200 400 600 8900 1009 2090 meg se epee es ----- Boundary of the Lands to be taken for the Purpose of preserving the Scenery of the Falls of Niagara NIAGARA FALLS J American Falls VILLAGE I : pS Robinsons na Sy lL eS: 2 Jes oF 4) Birt Moe 9 L. f \: ts Goat |/sland u NIAGARA dre VENA IE hs been cee oo enw ee eee Horse Shoe th Sister Falls Islands = ea eae ~ ne Stanferd’s Geogr Estab/. disadvantage through defacements of the scenery; to | looking to making a showground of the island ; and every estimate the tendency to greater injury ; and, lastly, to | point from which the Falls could be seen on the American consider whether the proposed action by the state is | side was fenced in, and a fee charged for admission. It necessary to arrest the process of destruction, and restore | was found that, owing to the topography of the main to the scenery its natural character.” In pursuance of | shore, it was practicable to restore its natural aspect by these objects, the commissioners instructed Mr. James T. | clearing away the buildings from a narrow strip of land Gardiner, director of the State Survey, to make an examina- | 100 to 800 feet broad and a mile long, and planting it with tion of the premises, and prepare for their consideration a | trees which would screen out from view the buildings of project. He was assisted in this work by Mr. Frederick | the village. When these trees should be grown, and the Law Olmsted, the distinguished landscape-architect. mills removed from Bath Island, and trees planted there, The examination showed that the destruction of the | the falls and rapids would be again seen in the setting of natural scenery which forms the framework of the Falls | natural foliage which formed so important an element in was rapidly progressing: unsightly structures and mills | their original beauty. Every point from which the Falls were taking the place of the beautiful woods that once | could be seen would also become free of access by overhung the rapids; the fine piece of primeval forest re- | the plan proposed. A map was made showing just maining on Goat Island was in jeopardy from projects | what lands should be taken to carry out these purposes. * From Science. The commissioners adopted the plan of Mr. Gardiner nae NATURE and Mr. Olmsted, and recommended to the legislature of 1880 the passage of an Act to provide for acquiring title to the necessary lands by the exercise of the right of eminent domain, leaving it to a future legislature to con- summate the purchase by appropriating the amount for the payment of the awards, if the sum should seem a reasonable price forthe property. Such an Act passed the Assembly, but was defeated in the Senate, although the movement was supported by petitions signed by the most distinguished men of this and other countries. The report of the State Survey, with its complete descriptions, illustra- tions, and maps, then became the basis of a systematic effort on the part of a few determined friends of the Falls to educate and arouse public opinion to save the scenery of Niagara. Early in 1883 this movement ripened into the organisation of an association to promote legislation for preserving the scenery of the Falls of Niagara, Mr. Howard Potter of New York being president, and Hon. J. Hampden Robb, chairman of the executive committee. Through the efforts of this Niagara Falls association an Act was passed, in 1883, providing for a commission, entitled “The commissioners of the state reservation at Niagara,” and giving them power to proceed through the courts to condemn the lands needed. _Ex-Lieut.-Goy. William Dorsheimer is the president of this board ; and the other members are President Anderson of Rochester University, Hon. J. Hampden Robb, Hon. Sherman S. Rogers, and Andrew H. Green. With some modifica- tions made necessary by changed conditions, they adopted the plan proposed by the State Survey. The lands selected were then surveyed, and their value ap- praised by a commission of very high character, appointed by the court, the total value of the lands being $1,433,429.50. The report of the commissioners of the reservation was made to the present legislature, and a Bill to appropriate this sum was introduced. The Niagara Falls association worked in every part of the state to arouse public opinion to the importance of making this appropriation, and the commissioners laboured most earnestly among the legislators and the people. The battle was a hard one against ignorance and narrow- minded selfishness; but the victory is complete. The legislature, by more than a two-thirds majority, has appropriated the $1,433,429.50, and the governor has approved the Act. After six years of almost continuous effort on the part of the active friends of this enlightened project, it is secured by alaw which declares that the lands are pur- chased by the state in order that they may be “ restored to, and preserved in, a s/a/e of nature,” and that every part of them shall be for ever free of access to all mankind. NOTES WE understand that on the receipt by the Science and Art Department from the Foreign Office of a despatch from Her Majesty’s Ministerat Washington forwarding communications con- cerning the proposed change in the time for beginning the astro- nomical day, as recommended by the recent International Meridian Conference at Washington, the Lords of the Committee of Council on Education requested the following Committee to advise them as to what steps should be taken in the matter. Prof. J. C. Adams, F.R.S., the Astronomer-Royal, Capt. Sir F, Evans, K.C.B., R.N., the Hydrographer of the Navy, Gen. Strachey, R.E., C.S.I., F.R.S., Dr. Hind, F.R.S., and Col. Donnelly, R.E. In accordance with their recommendations copies of the Report of the Delegates to the International Prime Meridian Conference at Washington, together with the resolu- tions adopted by that body, have been sent to various depart- ments of the State, and to the following Societies, &c. : Society of Telegraphic Engineers, Royal Astronomical Society, Royal Society, Submarine Telegraph Company, Eastern Telegraph Company (Limited), Eastern and South African Telegraph Company (Limited), Eastern Extension, Australasia and China Telegraph Company (Limited), Railway Clearing House. They have been informed that these resolutions of the Prime Meridian Conference appear to my Lords of the Committee of Council to be such as commend themselves for adoption. But before in- forming the American Government to that effect their Lordships would be glad to receive the opinion of the various societies on the subject. THE annual meeting for the election of Fellows of the Royal Society was held at Burlington House on Thursday, June 4, the President in the chair. The following were elected :—Major A. W. Baird, R.E., Philip Herbert Carpenter, D.Sc., Sir Andrew Clark, Bart., M.D., Andrew Ainslie Common, F.R.A.S., Staff-Commander Ettrick William Creak, R.N., Prof. Edward Divers, Henry Hicks, M.D., William Mitchison Hicks, M.A., Francis R. Japp, Ph. D., Arthur Milnes Marshall, M.D., Prof. Henry Newell Martin, D.Sc., Cornelius O’Sullivan, Prof. John Perry, Prof. Sydney Ringer, Sidney Howard Vines, D.Sc. THE Davis lectures upon zoological subjects will be given in the Lecture Room in the Zoological Society’s Gardens, Regent’s Park, on Thursdays, at 5 p.m. The first was given on Thurs- day, June 4, the subject being ‘‘ Rhinoceroses and their Extinct Allies,” by Prof. Flower, LL.D., V.P.R.S. The others are :— Thursday, June 11, ‘“‘Apes and Lemurs,” by Dr. St. George Mivart, F.R.S. ; Thursday, June 18, ‘‘ The Structure of the Swan,” by Prof. W. K. Parker, F.R.S. ; Thursday, June 25, “‘The Domestic Cat,” by J. E. Harting, F.L.S.; Thursday, July 2, ‘‘ Recent Advances in Zoology,” by Prof. F. Jeffrey Bell, M.A. ; Thursday, July 9, ‘‘The Ancestors of Birds,” by F. E. Beddard, M.A. ; Thursday, July 16, ‘‘ The Animals of New Guinea,” by P. L. Sclater, F.R.S. IN the second edition of his work, ‘‘ Sur]’Origine du Monde,” M. Faye has promulgated the following hypothesis regarding the relations between the geological epochs and the stages of the terrestrial cosmogony. The history of the earth he divides into six stadia. The first is that in which the earth was a glowing ball. The second he calls the Antezote period, in which total dark- ness supervened on the extinction of the earth’s glow. The third is the Primary period, during which there was a feeble illumina- tion from the sun, which was then just coming into existence. During the Secondary peried the sunlight went on increasing as the sun itself grew larger and assumed its proper shape. In the fifth stadium, which is that of the Zertzary period, there was complete solar illumination, and the sun soon attained the maxi- mum of its activity; while in the last stadium, that of the Quaternary period, there has been a slight diminution of the solar activity (rather surmised than demonstrated), accompanied by the diappearance of every cosmogonic influence and the establishment of perfect stability in almost all directions. Oscillations in the earth’s crust and feeble volcanic manifesta- tions are almost the only instances of cosmogonic change still observable. WE have received from MM. Fol et Sarasin a copy of a paper by them on the depth to which the light of the sun will pene- trate into the sea. It will be remembered that in November last they recounted the results of their experiments on the same subject in the Lake of Geneva. The present paper describes similar experiments made in the Mediterranean off the zoologi- cal station and harbour of Villefranche. By means of photo- graphic plates they have proved that in the month of March, in the middle of a sunny day, the rays of the sun do not penetrate beyond 400 metres below the surface of the Mediterranean. | This is established by seven separate experiments, at varying [Yume 11, 1885 4 _ Fune 11, 1885] NATURE u33 depths and different hours of the morning. At 380 metres, shortly before 11 a.m., the impression on the plate was less than that which would have been left on exposure to the air on a clear night, without a moon. Between 1.20 and 1.30 p.m., ata depth of 405 to 420 metres, there was no trace of any im- pression whatever on the plate. Light clouds do not appear to cause any notable diminution in the depth to which the light penetrates. In the Lake of Geneva the writers also undertook a new series of investigations to determine the effect of the season on the penetration of light. They give 200 metres as the extreme limit for winter in the lake; but they found that there is as much light at 380 metres in the Mediterranean as at 192 metres in the Lake of Geneva; and by a comparison of these with previous experiments, it appears the light penetrates from 20 to 30 metres deeper in March than in September ; in the month of August, perhaps the difference is a little more. Compared with the series of plates exposed in the lake, those of the Mediterranean are characterised by a slower and more regular gradation. ‘This gives rise to the idea that while in the lake the light would be promptly intercepted by the deeper layers, more orless disturbed or muddy, in the Mediterra_ nean the absorption proper to pure water would be the principal, if not the sole factor in arresting the luminous rays. In a communication to Ausland on the causes of the Anda. lusian earthquakes, A. Rzehak, of Briinn, maintains that they are clearly referable to the ‘‘tectonic’’ class of terrestrial dis- turbances—that is, those which are connected with the process by which mountains are elevated. Evidence of this connection is furnished by the manner in which the disturbed areas are in- fluenced by lines of fault. The entire area of disturbance in the case of the earthquakes of December last is divisible into three zones : (I) the littoral zone in the south, where the shock was most severe; (2) Andalusia proper, which was likewise the seat of pretty severe disturbances ; and (3) the central plateau of Spain as far as the Carpetena chain (a section of the Sierra Guadarrama), where, as already pointed out by M. Nogués (NATURE, xxxi. p. 417), the shocks completely died out. These three zones are separated by lines of fault. A great fault can be traced not only along the northern ‘slopes of the Serrania de Ronda, but also further eastwards to the district lying north of Malaga. To the north of this line scarcely any places suffered greatly from the earthquake—except those which, like Ante- quera, Loja, and Archedona, lie close to or immediately beside transverse faults. Elsewhere the degree of shock was tolerably uniform as far as the fault of the Guadalquivir, which bounds the central plateau on the south. A third great fault passes along the south of the Sierra Guadarrama, and there the dis- turbance seems to have ended. THE honour of C.I.E. has been conferred upon Mr. Francis Day, Deputy-Surgeon-General (Retired), Medical Department, Madras, andon Mr. J. B. N. Hennessey, late Deputy-Superin- tendent, Indian Survey Department. THE Meteorological Society of Vienna has resolved to erect a meteorological station on Mount Sonnenblick, near Tauern, in the central range of the Tyrolese Alps, 3100 metres above sea- level, and thus the highest station of the kind in Europe. THE Royal Institute of British Architects, on Monday evening, presented to Dr. Henry Schliemann, F.S.A., their Royal Gold Medal. In acknowledging the medal Dr. Schliemann said that our knowledge of prehistoric architecture was very deficient, for our sole informant was Homer, whose scanty information as to the construction and arrangement of the heroic palaces we did not even understand. THE latest official report of the earthquake in Cashmere states that much damage was occasioned in the north western portion of the valley. The ground opened, and the villages of Dubgaon, Jamalapar, and Ovan were swallowed up, while sulphurous dust and hot water issued from the cracks. The fort at Gurais and the grain store-houses were buried. A telegram sent from Serinagur on Friday last says :—‘‘ The shocks continue every three hours, with much preliminary noise, but a comparatively slight motion.” The great shock appears to have travelled in a southerly direction, and to have been felt at several places in Northern India, although it did no damage there. THE death is announced, at the age of fifty-two, of Robert von Schlagintweit, Professor of Geography and Ethnology at the University of Giessen. He was the youngest of the three brothers Schlagintweit who, on the recommendation of Alex- ander von Humboldt, and under the special care of Lieut.Col. Sykes, were sent by the British East India Company to explore that country, and especially the mountain regions in the north- west. Theresults of their researches, which lasted for several years, are recorded in comprehensive works of the highest scientific value. IMPORTANT experiments in aérial navigation are now being made by Mr. A. F. Gower, well known in connection with the Gower-Bell telephone. The operations being carried on are, it is understood, within the cognisance of the Government, and are more particularly directed towards the adaptation of balloons to war purposes. Several ascents have already been made, and in carrying out his arrangements Mr. Gower appears to have recognised the advantages offered by the position of the town of Hythe, which he has made the centre of his operations. On Sunday week the wind being favourable, one of the automatic pilot balloons invented by Mr. Gower, with appliances for giving out its own gas and ballast, one compensating for the loss of the other, was filled with 2300 feet of gas, and ascended at about 11 o'clock. In the car a written statement was, of course, placed, explaining the ownership of the machine and its object, with the result that it was next heard of at Dieppe, having made a rapid passage of about seventy-two miles in a straight direction and descended at 2.30 in the afternoon. On Monday, another pilot balloon, with a capacity of 4300 feet, was started, and im- mediately followed by Mr. Gower in his own balloon (contain- ing 23,000 feet of gas). The object of Mr. Gower in ascending was to watch the action of the pilot; but the smaller machine made such rapid progress that it got out of his observation and came down in the vicinity of Paris. Meanwhile Mr. Gower, who ascended about noon, took the French coast at Boulogne at 2.15, and then taking a northerly curve travelled overland to Calais, where he made.a smooth descent at 4 p.m. A still more important undertaking was, however, entered upon on Wednes- day, when Mr. Gower, Capt. Lane, and Mr. Dale, the aéronaut, ascended in a balloon of 40,000 feet capacity. A good start was made, and the aérial voyagers sailed away in a northerly direcs tion. After a journey of rather more than an hour, they were compelled to descend, owing to the wind taking a slight turn towards the North Sea, and with much difficulty landed on the Isle of Sheppey, having travelled twenty-three miles. A very laudable effort at teaching the general public practical astronomy is being made in Christiania. An optician, Herr Ae Olsen, has erected a great refractor in the Royal Park—in size said to be the fifth in the world—through which the celestial bodies can be observed by the public for a small fee, while explanations are given of their nature, &c. The interior of the pavilion in which it is mounted is hung with celestial charts and diagrams, as well as views of the planets, the sun, and the moon, for the purpose of facilitating the object in view. The cost of the instrument is very nearly 2000/, INTELLIGENCE haz been received at New York, June 9, stating that a waterspout has burst near Lagos, in Mexico. One 134 NATURE [Fune 11, 1885 hundred persons are reported to have perished, and it is feared that the loss of life will prove even greater. A WATERSPOUT passed over a portion of the town of Hagenau (Alsace) on May 23 last, doing very great damage to houses and trees. AT Stendal (Prussian Saxony) a Committee for the erection of a monument in memory of Dr. Gustay Nachtigal has been formed, and contributions towards this object are solicited. TuE Austrian Central Tourist Club has addressed a petition to the Assemblies of all Austrian alpine provinces to pass a law prohibiting the wholesale uprooting of Z:ve/zwezss now carried on. The petitioners point out that hundreds of thousands of the plants are dug up and sent abroad, even to America, so that there is a fear that the favourite plant of all lovers of the Alps will be totally exterminated, except in a few remote plac s. In Switzer- land, it is stated, for several years past there have been stringent laws in the several cantons against uprooting and selling the Edelweiss. THE 76/e of wind in fertilising the ground is remarkably illus- trated, according to M. Alluard, by the very fertile valley of Limagne, in Auvergne. The prevalent winds there are west and south-west, and traverse the chain of the Domes, where are vast deposits of volcanic ashes. Much of this dust is thus carried to the Limagne valley, and settles there of itself, or is carried down by rain or snow. As it contains a large amount of phos- phoric acid, potash, and lime, it is highly fertilising, and its very fine state favours rapid assimilation. From observations on the Puy de Dome, M. Alluard estimates the annual deposit at 348 to 400 grammes per square metre, WE have received the Calendar of the University of Virginia for the academical year 1884-85. The science department appears to be exceptionally strong and well organised. ONE result of the recen visit of the Ameer of Afghanistan to India is that his palace at Cabul is to be lit by the electric light. He ordered the necessary apparatus when at Rawul Pindi, and three Cabulese have for some time past been studying its mani- pulation at Bombay. WE have received a copy of a lecture by Mr. Thomas Fletcher, delivered before the Parkes Museum of Hygiene, on ‘‘ Smokeless Houses and Manufactories.” It deals mainly with the lecturer’s personal experiences of the employment of gaseous fuel in his private residence and manufactory at Warrington, the appliances which he has used, a comparison of the cost with that of coal, the work done, &c. In reply to a question, Mr. Fletcher expressed the opinion that radiant heat is the only possible comfortable way of heating a living-room, and that it is therefore better to mix gas with air to prevent smoke, and heat as large a surface as possible to incandescence. ACCORDING to a report by the Director of Public Instruction in Tunis, there are at the present moment twenty primary schools in the Regency—eight in Tunis, and twelve in other towns—Susa, Monastir, Sfax, Goletta, &c. In this number are included three schools of the Israelite alliance at Susa, Tunis, and Mehdia. The number of pupils is 3974, composed of 2291 boys and 1683 girls. The report states that there are in addition a certain number of primary schools in which the instruction is religious. Of these there are 113 in Tunis, and about 500 in the whole Regency. For secondary instruction there are three establishments, all in Tunis. These contain 23 classes with 38 masters, giving instruction to 416 pupils, of whom 78 are French, 27 Italian, 26 Anglo-Maltese, 74 Jews, 193 Arabs, and 18 of various nationalities. A MEETING of the National Fish Culture Association was held on Thurday last to consider the question of instituting sea tem- perature observations with a view to gaining independent and fresh knowledge with respect to our marine food-fishes. The subject of marine stations was discussed together with other matters relative to log-books to be issued to suitable investigators. THE additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens during the past week include a Squirrel Monkey (Chzyso/hi2x sciurea) from Demerara, presented by Mr. T. C. Edwards-Moss ; a Common Badger (AZe/es taxus) from Derbyshire, presented by His Grace the Duke of Devonshire, K.G., F.Z.S.; a Common Badger (Mfeles taxus) from North Wales, presented by Mr. T. W. Proger; two Common Hedgehogs (Zrimaceus europeus), a Common Viper (Vipera berius) from Norfolk, presented by Mr. T. E. Gunn; a Chattering Lory (Zorius garrulus) from Moluccas, presented by Mr. H. D. Astley, F.Z.S.; a Red- crested Cardinal (Parcaria cucullata) from South America, pre- sented by Miss Hyrzan ; a White-tailed Eagle (Haliaetus albi- cil/a) from Perthshire, presented by Mr. H. Tennent Tennent ; a Manx Shearwater (Pufinus anglorum), a Puffin (fratercula arctica), British, presented by Mr. W. Graham, F.Z.S. ; an Egyptian Monitor (Varanus niloticus) from West Africa, pre- sented by Mr. H. Denny ; an African Lepidosiren (Protoplerus annectens) from African Rivers, presented by Mr. Cornelius Alfred Malony, C.M.G.; two Slowworms (Anguis fragilis), British, presented by Mr. F. J. Guy; a Sharp-nosed Crocodile (Crocodilus acutus) from Jamaica, deposited ; a Collared Fruit Bat (Cynonycteris collaris), an Axis Deer (Cervus axis 3), a Hybrid Luhdorf’s Deer (between Cervus duchdorfi and Cervus canadensis 8), a Burrhel Wild Sheep (Ovds durrhel), two Trian- | gular-spotted Pigeons (Columba guinea), a Variegated Sheldrake ( Zadorna variegata), a Herring Gull (Larus argentatus), twenty Spotted Salamanders (Salamandra maculosa), thirty Pleurodele Newts (JZolge waltz), bred in the Gardens. ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA FOR THE WEER, 1885, JUNE 14-20 (For the reckoning of time the civil day, commencing at Greenwich mean midnight, counting the hours on to 24, is here employed.) At Greenwich on June 14 Sun rises, 3h. 44m. ; souths, rth. 59m. 59°9s. ; sets, 20h. 16m, ; decl. on meridian, 23° 18’ N.: Sidereal Time at Sunset, 13h. 49m. Moon (at First Quarter on June 19, 14h.) rises, 5h. 46m. ; souths, 13h. 38m. ; sets, 2th. 25m. ; decl. on meridian, 17° 37’ N. Planet Rises Souths Sets Decl. on meridian be Feats bah h. m. oO. ar Mercury ... 2 58 10 56 18 54 20 45 N. Venus 4 26 12 48 21 10 24 11 N. Mars 2 18 (oy 4/ 17 56 19 17 N. Jupiter 9 28 TONS 7) ae 23r40) 12 32 N. Saturn Ay, 12 16 .z.. (20°25) eezeoee Phenomena of Jupiter's Satellites June h. m June h. m. Y=.) 20) 05) LU tring, 18 ... 2317 TL oeerdisaps 22,37 _ T. ecli reap. |) 20) -2.)-20)33)) Uinatrreens 16... 22 24 IV. ecl. disap. The Eclipses of Jupiter’s Satellites are such as are visible at Greenwich. June h. 17 15 Jupiter in conjunction with and 3° 44’ north of the Moon. HS ees DR Saturn in conjunction with the Sun. GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES AFTER having lost, in December last, their director, Prof. W. G. Erofeeff, and in January one of their most active members, W. A. Domzer, the Russian Geological Commission has again sustained a heavy loss in the death of the distinguished G. P. Helmersen. According to the notice in the last issue of the J/zvestia of the Commission he began his scientific career more than sixty years ago, at the Dorpat University, and when Pelee > mA >> EE EO | —s Sune 11, 1885] NATURE 135 less than twenty-two years of age. Throughout his life he has had the opportunity of exploring nearly all the surface of Russia in Europe, from Olonetz to the Crimea and from Poland to the Ural, penetrating also into the Kirghiz Steppes in the Asiatic dominions of the empire. The results of his varied ex- plorations are embodied in 130 monographs, some of which are bulky works. His first work of importance, the ‘‘ Exploration of Southern Ural,” was published in 1831, in connection with Hofmann. Five years later it was followed by a description of the Kirghiz Steppes and by ashort paper on the Ural and Altay Mountains. In 1838 he began to puilish the results of his ex- plorations of the Baltic provinces, which were thenceforth con- tinued throughout his life. In 1840 he studied the lake region of North-west Russia and of the Valdai Hills, and next year made the first attempt to embody all that was known regarding the geological structure of Russia by publishing the first geo- logical map of the country. The coal-fields of the Moscow basin then attracted his attention, and in 1845 he published the results of his researches into the structure of the Ust-Urt and its slopes towards the Sea of Aral. In 1850 he published an in- teresting sketch of the Devonian Rocks of Middle Russsa. In 1857 there appeared his notice as to the rising of the Baltic shore and the action of ice and water on it, being the first of a series which led him afterwards to investigate the subject of boulders. After having spent four years in the exploration of the Olonetz region, he embodied the results of his observations in a work published in 1860. His researches into the physical conditions of St. Petersburgh, the artesian well bored in that capital, and the Alexander monolith, made his name popular even among unscientific readers. A work on Lake Peipus and the Narova river appeared in 1864, and completed his researches in the lake region of North-west Russia. Next year a second revised edition of his geological map of Russia, including the Ural and Caucasus, and a map of the Russian coal-basins, were published by the indefatigable geologist. The supposed drying up of the Sea of Azov was the subject of several papers and reports presented by him to the Academy of Sciences, as also the extension of the coal-fields from the Don, through Tula and Kaluya, to Courland and Eastern Prussia. In 1870 he published his ‘‘ Studies on Boulders,” the second part of which appeared only three years ago. In 1879 he issued a geological and physico-geographical description of the Aralo-Caspian region. A paper, written together with M. Yakovleff on the _ same subject, in 1883, was his last contribution to the Memoiis of the Academy of Sciences. In all these works, Helmersen appeared asa follower of the school of geologists represented by Leopold von Buch and Alexander Humboldt. Instead of merely describing the fossils of a given formation, and minutely study- ing its various stratigraphical and palzontological horizons, he tried to discover the leading physical and geographical features of the country he explored, and devoted great attention to dyna- mical geology. His works are as valuable to the geographer as to the ge logist. For twenty-five consecutive years Helmersen was Professor at the Mining Institute of St. Petersburg, and since 1844 he was one of the most active members of the Academy of Sciences. In 1851 he was elected a foreign member of the Geological Society of London—an honour well bestowed on one of the most industrious and distinguished gevlogists whom Russia has produced. THE last issue of the /evestia of the Russian Geographical Society contains a map showing M. Potanin’s last journey in China, from Peking to Kookoo-koto and Lang-tcheou (73° 30’ E. long.), to illustrate M. Potanin’s letters dated Boro-b:lga‘un and Lang-tcheou, September and November 13th, 1884. The Ordos, described with so dark features by Huc, looked more attractive than might have been expected. True, the whole of the country between the Yellow river and Boro-Balgasun is covered with sand; but moving sand is rare, the éarhhans being usually fortified by vegetation. The skiabyk—a species of Artemisia—is the most frequent growth in the éarkhans, the Cavities between them being thickly covered with bushes of Caragana, archa, and jashil. Water is found wherever the sub- soil appears from beneath the sand ; numerous sweet water ponds make there their appearance, and they are surrounded with moist pasture-grounds. The dry grounds between the sands are covered with Steppe vegetation, the Ca/imeris colouring sometimes wide spaces in white. Sarrazin, millet, and hemp are cultivated on these dry grounds. Altogether, the eastern Ordos may be considered as a rich country for cattle breeding, if supported by some agriculture. Two old towns, now in ruins’ were pa-sed on the borders of the Ordos. Boro-balgasun, too, was formerly a town, within the ruined walls of which there are now but a few Mongolian huts, and the house of the Belgian missionaries. In the Van principality M. Potanin visited the Edjen-khoro place, on the ‘(chamkhak river ; it consists of two tents where the bones of Chengiz-khan are said to be preserved. On Sept. 22, the expedition left Boro-balgasun. They visited the salt lake Baga-shikyr, and for five days crossed a region covered with low hills and almost uninhabited, notwithstanding the good pasturage which spread between the éa7khans, these last becoming more thinly spread than in the east. Ruins of Mussulman villages destroyed during the last insurrection are not uncommon. Lin-tcheou, on the Hoang-ho, is surrounded by fruit-gardens. South of it numerous villages extend for some fifty miles along a canal which runs parallel to the Hoang-ho and crosses on aqueducts its iributaries. Its banks offer an uninter- rupted fruit garden, with a few rice-fields. All this richness is, however, of recent origin, the former gardens having been all destroyed by Chinese after the last insurrection. Altogether, the region bears traces of desolation ; whole towns have been quite destroyed. ‘The town Tsin-tsi-pou was the centre of the insurrection. South of this town, M. Potanin left the valley of the Hoang-ho, and crossed the series of flat ridges which reach towards the south, 6,000 feet to 7,000 feet abovethesea-level. Still they have gentle slopes, owing to their covering of Loess which reaches a thickness of from 200 to 300 feet. The hills are formed of red sandstone, with some layers of pudding-stone north of the Tao-tsoui river, while south of Tsin-youang the ridge consists of silicious and clay-slate. The sandstone con- tains beds of salt, which impregnates also the soil and is worked to some extent; it is raised also from a number of small lakes. The Loess covers the whole of the country from Ping-yang-sia to Lang-tcheou, spreading also over the summits of the higher ridges. The population is of Turk origin, and though it has assumed Chinese customs it maintains its Mussulman religion. In the hilly tracts dwellings, and even inns, are dug out in the Loess, Lang-tcheou is a great city, picturesquely built on the right bank of the Hoang- ho at the foot of ahigh mountain ridge. A floating bridge crosses the great river. The plants collected for the herbarium by the expedition were but few, owing to the late season ; but alto- gether in the whole region there are no trees excepting those which are cultivated; even the higher ridges are devoid of trees and but scarcely clothed with grass. From Lang-tcheou, where the astronomer, M. Skassy, remained with the scien- tific collection, M. Potanin went to the west-to visit the Salors and Shorongols, who inhabit that region, while M. Berezovsky proposed to advance further south to Hoy-sian, situated on the water-divide between the Yellow and the Blue Rivers. The scientific results of the expedition promise to be very interesting. The astronomer, M. Skassy, has determined the position of fifteen places and mapped the route. M. Berezovsky has col lected 140 samples of birds, and M. Potanin bring- back collections of plants, insects, and reptiles, as also a geological collection. A RECENT number of the ¥afan Gazéte contains a series of notes on each of the islands forming the Kurile group, which stretches from Jeso northward to Kamtschatka, and which for the past ten years have belonged to Japan. The notes are arranged by Prof. Milne, from his own notes and those of Mr. Snow, who has spent many consecutive summers amongst the islands. They refer mainly to the numerous volcanoes among the Kuriles, but much information on other points relating to this little-known group is given. The name applied by the Japanese to the chain is ‘‘ Chishima,” or ‘‘ the thousand islands,” but there are really not more than thirty or forty. Of these, Iturup and Kunashiri, the most southern members of the group, are the largest. They ‘‘ form the first links of the chain which yolcanic agencies have built up whilst attempting to join Japan and Asia.” Iturup is 113 miles long and 77 in greatest width; Kunashiri is 62 miles by 17. They are all very desolate, and sparsely popu- lated in summer by Japanese and Ainos, who come to fish. In Iturup, between the coast and the mountains, there is a kind of jungle composed mainly of bamboo grass, which is impassable. The explorer has therefore to follow the bed of a stream or the bear tracks. Prof. Milne thinks it not unlikely that the Iturup bear may be a species new to science. From the spect- mens seen in cages it seems to resemble the grizzly bear of North America, 136 NATURE [Fune 11, 1885 EEE eee ANNIVERSARY OF THE ROVAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY “THE Anniversary Meeting of the Royal Geographical Society was held in the theatre of London University on Thurs- day, the Right Hon. Lord Aberdare, F.R.S., President, in the chair. In his address, Lord Aberdare referred to Mr. Keltie’s report on the position of geographical education in England and on the Continent. The Report, Lord Aberdare stated, contains statements and recommendations of the highest interest and importance. Of the state of geographical education in Great Britain Mr. Kellie draws a very dismal picture. ‘There is no encouragement to give the subject a prominent place in the school curriculum ; no provision, except at elementary normal schools, for the training of teachers in the facts and principles of the subject, and in the best methods of teaching it ; no induce- ment to publishers to produce maps, globes, pictures, reliefs, or other apparatus of the quality and in the variety to be found on the Continent ; while our ordinary text-books are, as a rule, unskilful compilations by men who haye no special knowledge of their subject.” This neglect is attributed to the ‘ exigencies of examination.” Geography, as a class-subject, ‘*does not pay.” It is not recognised at the Universities by either pro- fessorship or readership ; it does not find a real place at any of their examinations ; while in the Army and Navy examinations it is at a discount ; and such geography as is given is of a very partial character, and is merely left to crammers. These un- satisfactory statements are justified by a large amount of evidence. In striking contrast to this picture is that which Mr. Keltie presents of the state of geographical education in Germany, France, Italy, Switzerland, and several other countries of Europe. Germany, as might be expected, takes the lead, and does its work most thoroughly. But the systematic study of geography is even there of recent creation. It prevails in twelve out of the twenty-one universities of Germany ; and nearly all the twelve existing professorships of geography have been founded within the last twelve years. “The ideal aimed at, and being rapidly carried out, is to have one continuous course of geographical instruction from the youngest school-year up to the university.” And Mr. Keltie deals with these ascend- ing courses, showing in detail the teaching from the elementary to the higher schools, and in the universities. His examples of lessons he himself heard at some of these schools are most graphic, and suggest their high value in any course of intelligent education. Lord Aberdare then briefly referred to the conclusions at which Mr. Keltie arrives. These, he stated, are clear, sensible, practical, but by no means encouraging. In all these Ewmopean ccuntries the curriculum is defined and imposed by the State, which, keeping the purse-strings, dictates the course of instruction. Except over our elementary schools, the State in this country exercises no such power, direct or indirect. We must be content to bring the force of public opinion to bear upon our schools and universities ; for with them, and especially with our uni- versities, rests the solution of this great question. Mr. Keltie’s Report will be duly considered by the Council ; it will doubtless be published ; and means, Lord Aberdare ventured to prophesy, will be taken to bring home to our educational authorities, with fresh power and urgency, the necessity for not allowing Great Britain to lag behind our political and commercial rivals, our rivals in human culture, in the systematic study of geography. In the meantime, during the course of the autumn, an exhibition will be formed of the results of Mr. Keltie’s labours in collecting specimens of the best text-books, maps, globes, diagrams, models, and other apparatus used in teaching the various branches of geography. This done, it remains for me, Lord Aberdare said, only to express the fervent hope that this latest effort of the Society to promote the studies which it was founded to extend, may meet with a large measure of success and tend to lay the basis of a sound and thoroughly national system of instruction in geography in all its branches, physical, political, and historical. Lord Aberdare then gave a brief résumé of exploring work since his address in November last. He specially referred to the four years’ explorations in Eastern Tibet of the Pundit Krishna, and to the geographical work done in connection with the Afghan Boundary Commission. The preliminary map sent home by Major Holdich rectifies in many important points the erroneous topography in all pre- existing maps, and gives us a clear idea of the surface-configu- ration and physical condition of one of the most interesting districts in Central Asia. Further east the indefatigable Colonel Prjevalsky has been recently again heard of from the centre of the continent, at Lob Nor. In and around the Zhob valley, areas of about 5500 square — miles of reconnaissance on the 4-inch scale, and of 400 square miles of topography in the }-inch scale are reported to have been completed ; thus going far to fill in a reproachful hiatus in our present maps of Afghanistan, The ascent of certain peaks in the Himalaya by a member of the Alpine Club, Mr. W. W. Graham, an account of which was read by him at one of the Society’s meetings in June last, has attracted considerable attention in India. The classical lands of Asia Minor have again this year been the subject of topographical investigation. In the winter of 1882-3 a fund was raised by public subscription in order to effect explorations that might throw light on the antiquities and early history of the regisn. Mr. W. M. Ramsay was entrusted with the execution of this scheme, and travelled with this view, May to October, 1883. He invited a scholar of the American School of Athens, Mr. J. R. S. Sterrett, to accompany him during great part of the summer. During that year’s work the conviction grew up that no adequate study of the history of Asia Minor was possible till the ancient topography was better known and that no advance in the study of the ancient topography could be made till a better map of the country had been compiled. It was therefore found necessary, week by week, to pay a growing attention to the natural features of the country, the natural routes of communication, and the natural boundaries separating district from district. Lord Aberdare referred to the work done in New Guinea by Mr. Van Braam Morris, Dutch Resident at Tidore, who has examined this part of the coast, and ascended the Amberno, which had always been reported by passing navigators, on account of its numerous supposed mouths, to be a large river with an extensive delta, and to the journeys into the interior of the Rey. James Chalmers. Mr. Chalmers has visited many parts of this coast along a line of about 500 miles, and penetrated, at various places further inland, by land, than any other European, and his descriptions of the country and the habits of the vivacious, excitable, and pugnacious race of savages with which it is peopled, merit careful attention at the present time. An attempt is about to be made by the ex- perienced traveller Mr. H. O. Forbes to penetrate to the summit of the ranges, or plateaux, which extend along the centre of this part of the great island. Since he left England on this arduous mission some weeks ago we learn that the Sydney and Mel- bourne branches of the Geographical Society of Australasia have offered to contribute to the expenses of this expedition, which is supported by grants by our Society, the Scottish Geographical Society, and the British Association. In other parts of Aus- tralasia the chief additions to our knowledge have been a survey of a large tract of new country in Central Queensland by Mr. C. Winnecke, and the exploration of the King Country in the northern island of New Zealand by Mr. Kerry-Nicholls, of which the explorer himself gave us an account at one of our evening meetings. In Africa Lord Aberdare referred to the work done by Mr. H. H. Johnston at Kilimanjaro. Since then the brothers Denhardt, who had previously done excellent work in surveying the course of the River Dana, which flows from the southern slopes of Mount Kenia, have left again for East Africa. They have been commissioned, as we are informed by the German African Society, to take up a line of exploration similar to that adopted with so much success by Mr. Joseph Thomson, but to follow it much further to the north than the point reached by our English traveller, namely, to the reported great lake Sam- buru, north of Lake Bahringo. Further north still the year has witnessed the accomplishment of what may be termed one of the most interesting and difficult feats of all recent African travel. This is the journey of Messrs. F. L. and W. D. James, the authors of the well-known book on the ‘‘ Wild Tribes of the Soudan,” who with three English companions, Messrs. G. P. V. Aylmer, E, Lort Phillips, and J. Godfrey Thrupp, organised an expedition and started last December to cross the north-eastern angle of Africa from Berbera to Mogadoxo. The hostile dis- position and uncertain temper of the Somali tribes who inhabit this wide region have hitherto offered invincible obstacles to its exploration by Europeans. Mr, James and his party, however, succeeded in penetrating 400 miles to the south, as far as Barri on the River Webbe, a point about 215 miles distant from Mogadoxo. The interior was found to be a plateau of an ayerage elevation of about 4000 feet. Fume 1 I, 1885| NATURE rai With regard to the more southerly parts of Eastern Africa, and more especially the region between the Mozambique coast and Lake Nyassa, our knowledge has lately increased by leaps and bounds. The increase has been principally due to the sys- tematic explorations of Mr. Consul O'Neill. The general remark may be permitted that, thanks chiefly to Mr. O'Neill, we now have for the first time a fairly satisfactory knowledge of a region varied in its physical configuration, well watered, and fertile, which has hitherto remained a blank on our maps, notwith- standing the occupation of the coast by the Portuguese for nearly four centuries. M. Giraud has returned this spring from his exploration of Lake Bangweolo and its outlet, and his unsuccessful attempt to cross Africa by way of the Upper-Congo ; Mr. Arnot has crossed from Natal to the Bihé plateau by way of the Upper Zambesi ; Mr. Montagu Kerr has crossed Matabele-land and the Zambesi, and penetrated by a new route to the south-western shore of Lake Nyassa; and Mr. Richards has reached from Inhambane the southern districts of Umzila’s kingdom. In Western Africa further additons have been made to our knowledge of the Congo, chiefly by the publication of Mr. Stanley’s long-expecied book and the maps which accompany it, and by Messrs. Grenfell and Comber’s careful survey of the middle course of the Congo and the Bochini tributary to the junction of the great river Kwango. The members of the French Expedition on the Ogowé and the northern tributaries of the Congo have also been doing good work in the survey of the territories newly acquired by France. In South America a striking feat of exploration has been ac- complished since my last address; the supposed inaccessible summit of Mount Roraima, on the confines of British Guiana and Brazil, was reached in December last by Mr. im Thurn and his companion, Mr. Perkins, accompanied by a small party of Indians. In conclusion Lord Aberdare gave the following brief sum- mary of the Admiralty surveys of the year 1884, for which he was indebted to the hydrographer, Capt. Wharton, R.N.: The continuous prosecutions of marine surveys in different quarters of the globe has been well maintained during the past year. The two home-surveying vessels have been employed, one on the west and the other on the east coast of Great Britain. On foreign surveys 60 officers and 500 men haye been employed in four steam ships of war and five other smaller vessels. These ships have been at work in Newfoundland, the Bahama Islands, Magellan Straits, South Africa, Red Sea, Malay Peninsula, coasts of China and Korea, north-west coast of Australia, and amongst the Pacific islands. The most important additions to our hydrographical knowledge are as follows:—The survey of the Little Bahama Bank will be shortly finished, and the same may be said of the southern shore of Newfoundland. The survey of the main sirait of Magellan, to which reference was made in the last address, was completed early in the year. Many useful additions have been made to ports and salient parts of the coast of south-east Africa. In the Red Sea the intricate approaches to Sawakin have been well laid down. On the west coast of the Malay Peninsula, Penang harbour has been re-surveyed and the positions of the islands lying to the north-west and forming the eastern boundary of the ordinary route of vessels to Malacca Strait have been accurately determined. The unknown western shores of Korea, south of the approach to Seoul, for two degrees of latitude have been explored, and the main features of this island-studded shore laid down. New rivers and harbours have been entered, notably, the large river Yeun-san-gang, at the entrance to which stands the considerable town of Mokfo. There appears, however, to be little chance of immediate trade with Korea, in consequence of the absence of any valuable products and the scanty needs of the population. The southern approach to Haitan Strait on the Chinese coast, much used by British trade, has been re-charted. On the difficult shores of Western Australia such progress has been made as the small means at the disposal of the surveyors has permitted. In the Solomon Islands the Bougainville Strait has been charted. This Channel will in the future be most probably a highway for traffic between Eastern Australia and Japan. Many additions have been also made to the charts of various groups of other Pacific islands. The survey of the coasts of India carried on by officers of the Royal Navy and India Marine has been actively progressing. Surveys of Rangoon, Cheduba, and other ports in the Bay of Bengal, as well as harbours on the west coast of Hindostan, have been made. A re-suryey of the great Canadian lakes has been com- menced in Georgian Bay, where trade by water is on the increase. Lord Aberdare then intimated his resignation of the Presidency of the Society, the Marquis of Lorne having been elected to succeed him. PROF. REYNOLDS ON THE STEAM INDICATOR* ‘THE object of this paper was to define the causes and extent of the disturbances in indicator diagrams. The theory, as given, had been taught for several years in Owens College; but the publication had been deferred to enable an extensive series of ex- periments to be made. These experiments had now been carried out by Mr. A. W. Brightmore, Stud. Inst. C.E., late Berkeley Fellow in Owens College. In the first place it was shown that there were five principal causes of disturbance, namely: the inertia of the piston of the indicator and its attached weights ; the friction of the pencil on the paper, and its attached mechanism ; varying action of the spring ; inertia of the drum ; friction of the drum. The effect of the inertia of the pencil and its attached mechan ism presented 2 mathematical problem, by the solution of which it was shown that there were two disturbances from this cause : one, a general enlargement of the mean indicated pressure, de- pending on the weight of the moving parts of the indicator, the stiffness of the spring, and the square of the speed. The other disturbance was a vibration of the pencil. _ Every indicator piston vibrated when disturbed, so that the period of vibration depended on the stiffness of the spring. The error which these oscillations caused in the area of the diagram depended on their magnitude, and, to a greater extent, on the smailness of the number in a revolution. But the evil of these oscillations was not so much an effect on the area as in the disfigurement and the confusion they produced in the diagram. So long as there were thirty of these oscillations in a cycle. the necessary fluid friction of the indicator piston would so far reduce them as to render a fair diagram possible, but when the number was as low as ten it was all the pencil could do to prevent them upsetting the diagram. The friction arising from the pressure of the pencil always acted to oppose the motion of the pencil, and therefore rendered it too large during expansion and exhaust and too small during compression and admission, and thus the general effect was to increase the size of the diagram. This friction consisted of that of the pencil on the paper ; and that of the mechanism, caused by sustaining the pressure of the pencil. The effect of the friction of the pencil was greatly reduced by the motion of the paper. The magnitude of these effects taken together on the area of the diagram depended on the construction of the instru- ment and on pencil-pressure. From numerous experiments It would appear possible to make a difference of as much as five per cent, in a locomotive in mid-gear by pencil-friction. _ The couclusions, as regarded the motion of the pencil, were that the general effect of inertia and friction were both to increase the size of the diagram; that so long as the speeds were such that the number of vibrations of the pencil during a revolution of the engine was not greater than fifteen, the effect of inertia was less than one per cent., but that, if the number was greater than thirty, oscillations would show themselves unless the pencil-friction was increased. They might, by this, be kept down till the number of vibrations was equal to fifteen, but not farther, and then the necessary friction would affect the area of the diagram about five per cent. For the diagrams to be sensibly accurate, and free from oscillation, the speeds must not be greater than would make the number of vibrations equal to thirty. These speeds were given in the paper for Richards’ indicators. The effect of the inertia of the drum with an elastic cord was shown to be a nearly uniform elongation of the diagram. The result of the varying stiffness of the drum spring was a nearly uniform contraction. With Richards’ indicator these two latter disturbances neutralized each other at a speed of 150 revolutions per minute. Ai other speeds the effects were apparent in the length of the diagram ; but, except when the expansion was great and the connecting rod short, they did not affect the indicated pressure. The friction of the drum with an elastic cord caused the cord to be longer during the forward stroke than during the ¥ A Paper read at the Institution of Civil Engineers, May 19, **On the Theory of the Indicator and the Errors in Indicator Diagrams,” by Prof. Osborne Reynolds F.R.S. 138 NATURE [Fune 11, 1885 backward stroke, so that the diagram was distorted and shortened, the drum being uniformly behind its proper position during the forward stroke, and before its position during the backward stroke. This distortion diminished the area of the diagram according to the rate of expansion and the length and elasticity of the cord used. This was definitely expressed by a formula. This dis- turbance, the influence of which was very great in cases of high expansion, large engines, and ordinary cords, appeared to have been unnoticed. The circumstances on which it depended were the elasticity of the cord and the friction of the drum, and the question was how far these existed in the ordinary indicators. It might be said that the diagrams which led to the discovery of this effect were taken with an indicator which had been in con- stant use for several years. It was in apparently perfect condition, and the diagrams cid not differ essentially from those which had . been previously taken. The cord was one which had been supplied by the maker. The manner of the discovery was described : For years the author had pursued in the clas the method of testing the vibrations of the indicator pencil by pro- jecting them on to the crank-circle, and he had noticed that the first oscillation fell short, and shorter in the back diagram than in the front. The cause of this was not obyious, and it was partly with a view to determine this cause that Mr. Brightmore’s investigation was commenced. A slight error in the reducing rod, which had a fixed centre and a slot in which a stud in the slide-block worked, was altered. This, however, did not get rid of the effect. A new cord was substituted for the old one, and the effect was found to be much enhanced, the new cord being more elastic than the old one. ‘This reduced it to the stretching of the cord, but it was only after carefully working out the effect of the inertia of the drum, and it was seen this was to lengthen the first oscillation at the back end that the friction was examined. ‘The indicator was taken to pieces, cleaned and oiled ; then the effect wes much reduced. Several new wires and cords were used, and eventually steel wire was adopted as the best. The test supplied by the oscillations could only be applied to diagrams taken at high speeds, and the test furnished by the influence upon area was vague. What was wanted was an independent means of determining the simul- taneous positions of the drum and the engine-piston. As the best method of meeting this, it was decided to arrange an electric circuit through the pencil to the drum, with sufficient electromotive force to prick the paper, making the engine-piston close this circuit at eleven definite equidistant points in the motion backwards and forwards. This was successfully carried out, and the stretching of the cord during the backward and forward strokes was definitely ascertained. Taking the smallest results obtained with a cord, it appeared from these experiments that the least difference of stretching was to make this difference in inches 5 per cent. of the length of the cord in feet. Examples of this effect in diminishing the mean indicated pressure were given. Thus, ina locomotive cutting off at one-quarter it was 8 per cent.; in a condensing engine having 3°5 feet stroke, cutting off at one-tenth, 20 per cent. ; and the same compounded, Io per cent. These would seem to be the smallest results that could have occurred in ordinary practice. The conclusion, however, that hitherto the normal indicated power from engines had been from 10 to 20 per cent. too small must wait for verification. Yet there were not wanting independent evidences of such an effect. In diagrams taken from engines at high speeds the admission line would not but for this effect be vertical. It would show a certain amount of detail, and the first oscillation would not have a sharp top. Moreoyer, it was commonly found that the expansion line, allowing for clearance, was above the true expansion line for the steam. This apparent rise in the curve of expansion was exactly what would result if the apparent cut-off was too early, and this was the result of the effect that had been considered. The author had tried several diagrams, and found that after correction the expansion line came out very close to the true curve. In making these comparisons the explanation of another feature of diagrams became apparent. When the two diagrams were traced on the same card, there was sometimes a want of symmetry about them, and in this case the cut-off was shorter on the back than on the front diagram. This the author at- tributed to the friction of the drum when the cord for the back diagram was longer than that for the front. When this was the case the relative lengths of the cord were about 1 to 1°8. These observations were illustrated in a diagram from ‘‘ Richards’ Indicator.” To test this diagram a tracing was taken, and reversed so that the front diagram was superimposed on the back. It was observed that the diagrams were of different lengths, and the difference was about the same as the difference in cut-off; that notwithstanding the apparent cut-off in the back diagram was to that in the front in the ratio of 2 to 3, the expansion line of the back diagram was the same shape as that in the front ; and that if the diagrams were restored, supposing the lengths of the cords used to have been 5 feet and g feet, the diagrams became exactly similar, and, allowing 2 per cent. clearance, the expansion line came to be the true expansion line for that cut-off. The mean pressure was 14 per cent. larger than from the original diagram. Such instances as these seemed to sufficiently establish a case against the blind faith which appeared to be at present placed in the accuracy of the indicator diagrams. But, in conclusion, the author stated that he should be very disappointed if anything in this investigation should have the effect of diminishing reliance _ on the indicator itself. le would have the instrument treated fairly, and instead of being the object of unthinking worship he would have it the object of careful study and experimental investigation, so that the limits of its wonderful perfection might be known exactly, and that reliance placed on it which sprang from knowledge. THE VISITATION OF THE ROYAL OBSERVATORY, GREENWICH HE visitation of the Royal Observatory took place on Satur- day last, when, in spite of bad weather, there was a numerous attendance. The following extracts (condensed in some cases) from the Report of the Astronomer-Royal to the Board of Visitors indicate the work of the past year. It will be gratify- ing to all to know that a considerable increase in the optical power of the Observatory is in contemplation. Transit- Circle. —A reversion-prism made by Messrs. Troughton and Simms has been used since last June in observations with the collimators as well as with the transit-circle to reverse the apparent direction of measurement or of motion, a movement towards the left (as in transits of south stars) being converted into a movement towa ds the right, or upwards, or downwards, according to the position of the plane of reflection of the reversion-prism. The collimation-observations show no sensible personality depending on the apparent direction of measurement ; it has, however, been considered well, in order to eliminate any possible effect of the kind, to take half the measures in each determination of collimation with the direction of movement of the wire reversed as regards right and left. In the transits the practice is to observe on each day two clock-stars and also cir- cumpolar stars with the direction of motion reversed. A com- parison of the results from the reversed and ordinary observations of clock-stars shows sensible differences in the case of some observers, who, however, have probably not yet settled down into a definite habit of observing stars which appear to move in the reverse direction. Ia order to determine absolute personal equations in the observation of slow-moving as well as of quick-moving stars of various magnitudes (whether the motion be from right to left or the reverse) and of limbs of the sun, moon, or planets, the Astronomer Royal has arranged, in concert with Mr. Simms, a personal equation instrument to be used with the transit-circle. In this instrament, which is on the point of completion, and was seen at work on Saturday, a vertical plate with a circular aperture, 6 inches in diameter, to represent the sun or moon, and several small pinholes, to represent stars of different mag- nitudes, is placed in the focus of an object-glass of about 7 inches aperture and of about 50 feet focal length (which is attached to the dew-cap of the transit-circle, when horizontal and pointing north), and is carried smoothly by clockwork from éast to west or west to east at a rate which may be varied at will from that of a very close circumpolar star to three or four times that of an equatorial star by an ingenious but simple mechani- cal contrivance devised by Mr. Simms. The apertures in the vertical plate are illuminated by direct sunlight or moonlight reflected by a plane mirror towards the object-glass, and the times of transit of the artificial sun, moon, or stars, which are to be observed; over the wires of the transit-circle, are also registered automatically on the chronograph by means of insulated platinum studs, corresponding to the artificial objects, which make contact with other studs, corresponding to the wires in the field of view of the transit-circle. Fune 11, 1885] NATURE 139 Since last October transits of the close circumpolar stars have -been taken at the middle wire set to successive revolutions of the R.A. micrometer, thus virtually introducing a system of very close equidistant wires for the slow-moving stars. It is thus found that a larger number of separate observations can be ob- tained in a moderate time, a point of special importance in changeable weather. The equality of successive intervals of the R.A. micrometer-screw was tested last January foreach revolution through a range of twelve revolutions, and also for every tenth of the three middle revolutions, and the errors of the screw appear not to exceed the errors of observation. The determina- tion was made by means of the south collimator, the eye-piece ofthe transit-circle having been turned through 90°. The ob- servations of close circumpolar stars have also been discussed " with a view of testing the equality of succeSsive revolutions of the R.A. micrometer screw, the results being very satisfactory. The screws of the microscope-micrometers also were examined . by means of the south collimator on March 27 and following days, successive intervals being measured for each revolution ‘ and third of a revolution from—1' to 6". Though there is f evidence of considerable wear in the individual screws, which have been in constant use since 1875, the methcd of using them 4 (the action of the spring being in opposite directions for the £ micrometers of each pair) entirely eliminates this effect from the ; mean, and the resulting errors (which are probably casual errors of observations) do not exceed 005 at any part of the screws. The subjects of meridian observations in the past year have been as usual the sun, moon, planets, and fundamental stars, with other stars from a working catalogue, which now contains about 2,750 stars. About 380 stars have been lately added to the list from the ‘‘ Harvard Photometry,” with a view of making the forthcoming Greenwich Catalogue of stars down to the sixth magnitude as complete as possible. It is hoped that all of these stars will have been sufficiently observed by the end of 1886, when it is proposed to form a Ten-Year Catalogue, epoch 1882‘0. The annual catalogue of stars observed in 1884 contains about 1,370 stars. The following statement shows the number of observations with the transit-circle made in the twelve months ending 1885, May 20: ! Transits, the separate lim)s being counted at separate observations... a a2 eee nee te, 552 Determination of collimation error... es He, 20) Determinations of level error ... ae He aoe Circle observations ae os aa as ne g2n Determinations of nadir point, including the number of circle-observations ... Reflection-observations of stars (similarly included) A 619 The discordance between the nadir observation and the mean of the results from reflection observations of stars north and south of the zenith has recently become very small, the correction deduced for the first four months of the present year being only —0”'07. The mean correction indicated by the observations of 1884 was — 0-36, whilst those of 1883 gave the value —0’"45. The steady increase of this discordance from 1878 to 1883 and its subsequent decrease remained unexplained, no change having been introduced into the method of observation of the nadir point or of stars by reflection during the last two years. The apparent flexure of the transit-circle, as found by means of the collimators, has again changed sign. From six deter- minations made on 1884 June 3, Sept. 9, Sept. 29, Oct. 5, Oct. 20, and May 20 (the reversion-prism being used on each occasion except the first) the resulting values (found by four . different observers) are —0""47, + 1''00, + 0”°03, + 010, and +o0"'o08, the mean of which is +0'°17, agreeing closely with the value + 0°13 found by nine accordant determinations in the period 1879 to 1882, whilst the mean of five determinations by three different observers in 1883 gave the value — 0°49. No correction for flexure (as distinct from the R—D correction) has been applied to the observations since 1879. The correction for R — D, the error of assumed colatitude, and the position of the ecliptic, have been investigated for 1884. The computation of the geocentric and heliocentric errors for the planetary results is not yet complete. The correction for discordance between ‘reflection and direct observations of stars, deduced from observations in 1884 which extend from Z.D. 69° north to Z.D. 70° south is — 0”*02 + 0°66 sin Z.D, The assumed formula ae + ¢ sin =z represents the observations of 1884 satisfactorily throughout the whole range of zenith distance. The value found for the colatitude from the observations of 1884 is 38°. 31.2191, differing only by 0” or from the assumed value ; the correction to the tabular -obliquity of the ecliptic is + 0”°57; and the disGordance between the results from the summer and winter solstices is — 0” 99. The mean error of the moon’s tabular place (computed from Hansen’s Lunar Tables with Prof. Newcomb’s corrections) is +0s‘02 in R.A. and + 029 in longitude as deduced from 104 meridian observations in 1884. Altazimuth.—The observations with this instrument have been restricted to the period from last quarter to first quarter in each lunation, the total number of observations of various kinds made in the 12 months ending 1885 May 20 being as follows :— Azimuths of the moon and stars ... ... ... «. 321 Azimuths of the azimuth-mark ... ... ... 181 Azimuths of the collimating-mark wa gp 192 Zenith-distances of the moon ae 178 Zenith-distances of the collimating-mark 196 Since last December a ‘“‘reversion prism” has been used to reverse the apparent direction of motion in the observation with lamp right and in that with lamp left on alternate nights. Clocks.—On Jan. 1 the public clock at the Observatory entrance and the other mean solar clocks were put forward 12 hours so as to show Greenwich civil time, starting at midnight and reckoning from oh. to 24h., which would correspond with the universal time recommended by the Washington Conference. The change from astronomical to civil reckoning has also been made in all the internal work of the Observatory, and has been carried out without any difficulty. Greenwich civil time is found to be more convenient on the whole for the purposes of this Observatory, but its introduction into the printed astronomical observations has been deferred to allow time for a general agree- ment amongst astronomers to be arrived at. It is proposed, however, to adopt the civil day without further delay in the printed magnetical results, thus reverting to the practice previous to 1848, and making the time-reckoning harmonise with that used in the meteorological results, the reckoning from oh, to 24h, being for the future adopted in both cases. Reflex Zenith Tube.—The observations of + Draconis for deter- mination of the temperature correction have been continued, and about 45 transits over the 30 wires have been observed at temperatures ranging from 46° to 72. Seven transits of 9. Aurigz were also observed last February at low temperatures ranging from 42° to 56. £quatorials.—The work on the Lassell equatoreal has occu- pied a great deal of attention during the past year, a number of repairs and alterations having been required in order to get the instrument into proper working order. The driving clock, which was found to drive the instrument at only three-fifths of the proper speed, has been altered, a slow motion in R.A. (to be worked from the observing stage) has been contrived, a new slide of improved construction has been made for gearing the driving-screw into the hovr-circle, the teeth of the hour-circle have been re-cut, a firm declination clamp has been applied, an: improved edge suspension fur the large mirror (consisting of a steel band which encircles the mirror and is supported by brackets at six equidistant points of the circumference) has been contrived, a new and firmer mounting of the small mirror has been made, and the eye-piece has been mounted firmly on a plate which allows it to be tilted in any direction, for optical ad- justment. The framed ir nm base which supports the instrument has been bricked up and filled with concrete, and this, with the other alterations, has greatly increased the stability of the tele- scope, which is now quite satisfactory. Difficulty is, however, still experienced from want of stability of the optical axis of the large mirror, which requires to be readjusted continually, as the telescope is moved. When the mirrors have been properly ad- justed the definition appears to be very good, the companion to Vega being shown with remarkable distinctness without any trace of scattered light from the large star. The south-east and Sheepshanks equatorials are in good order, as also is the Simms’ six-inch equatorial mounted in the south ground. With one or more of these equatorials, or with the altazimuth,, 30 occultations of stars by the moon (19 disappearances and 11 reappearances, including 7 disappearances and 9 reappearances during the lunar eclipse of October 4), and 57 phenomena of 140 Jupiter’s satellites, have been observed in the twelve months ending 1885 May 20, and the observations have all been com- pletely reduced to the end of 1884. Comet (c) 1884 has been observed on four nights, the Lassell reflector or one of the other equatoreals being employed, and some measures of distances and position-angle of double stars, as well as a large number of ob- servations for determining the value of 1°’. of the screw in different parts of the field of view have been made with the Airy double-image micrometer mounted on the Sheepshanks’ or Simms’ equatorial. Micrometer measures of some of the satellites of Saturn (in- cluding Enceladus) were made on seven nights with the Lassell equatorial. Spectroscopic and Photograthic Observations.—The solar pro- minences have been observed with the half-prism spectroscope on only two days, the photographic reductions having pressed very severely on the spectroscopic assistant during the long con- tinued maximum of sun-spots. For the determination of motions of stars in the line of sight, 569 measures have been made of the displacement of the F line in the spectra of 47 stars, and 72 measures of the 4 lines in 14 stars, besides measures of the displacements of the 6 and F lines in the spectra of the east and west limbs of Jupiter, and of the east and west ansz of the rings of Saturn, and comparisons with lines in the spectrum of the moon, or of the sky, made in the course of each night’s observations of star-motions, or on the following morning, as acheck on the general accuracy of the results for star-motions. The observations of the last twelve months confirm the change in the motion of Sirius, which now appears to be approaching the sun at the rate of about 20 miles a second. As there is great difficulty in the use of a pointer or cross-wires for measuring both the broad dark line in the star’s spectrum and the narrow bright comparison line, Mr. Maunder has suggested the use of a rever- sion spectroscope (on the double-imsge principle) for these ob- servations, and Prof. Pritchard has kindly lent the reversion spectroscope of the Oxford University Observatory, in order that the suitability of that form of instrument may be tested. The spectroscopic observations of all kinds are completely reduced to the present time. In the twelve months ending 1885 May 20 photographs of the sun have been taken on 173 days, and of these 431 have been selected for preservation, the record being not so complete as usual, owing partly to the loss of several days during the adjust- ment of the instrument after the adaptation of the secondary magnifier, and partly to a failure of the supply of dry plates in July last during the absence of Mr. Maunder. There were only two days on which the sun’s disk was observed to be free from spots. The mean spotted area of the sun was slightly less in 1884 than in 1883 and slightly greater than in 1882, whilst the faculze in 1884 showed a slight increase as compared with 1883, and a slight falling off as compared with 1882. It would seem that the maximum both of sun-spols and faculee occurred about the end of 1883 or beginning of 1884. For the year 1884 Greenwich photographs are available for measurement on 152 dsys, and Indian photographs filling up the gaps in the series on 159 days, making a total of 311 days out of 366 on which photographs have been measured. In 1883 the total number of days was 340, viz., Greenwich series 215 days, supplemented by Indian photographs received from the Solar Physics Co nmittee on 125 days. Magnetic Instruments.—The following are the principal results for magnetic elements for 1884 :— Approximate mean westerly declination 18°.8'. - { 3°93r (in English units). Mean horizontal force “7-812 (in Mere anits,) : { 67.20. 8 (by 9-inch needles). Mean dip - 67.29.32 (by 6-inch needles). 2 67. 30. 9 (by 3-inch needles). In the year 1854 there were only five days of great magnetic disturbance, but there were also about 20 days of lesser disturb- ance for which it appears desirable to publish tracings of the photographic curves. It may be interesting to add the tracings fora few quiet and nearly quiet days in order to exhibit the characteristics of the ordinary diurnal movement. Commencing with 1883 the magnetic diurnal inequalities of NAT ORE [| ¥une 11, 1885 declination, horizontal force, and vertical force have been dis- cussed by the method of harmonic analysis, the harmonic expressions for these inequalities being obtained for each month and for the year with arguments expressed in apparent solar time as well as in mean solar time. Meteorological Observations.—The mean temperature of the year 1884 was 50°°7, being 1°°4 higher than the average of the last 43 years. The highest air temperature (in the shade) was 94° on Aug. 11, and the lowest 24°°5 on Noy. 25. The mean monthly temperature was above the average excepting in the months of April, June, Oct. and Nov. The mean daily motion of the air in 1884 was 286 miles, being 3 miles greater than the average of the last 17 years. The greatest daily motion was S91 miles on fan. 23, and the least 78 miles on Feb. 8. The only recorded pressure exceeding 20 Ibs. on the square foot in 1884 was 22°7 lbs. on Jan. 23, after which the connecting chain of the pressure plate broke, as mentioned in the last report. It is probable that greater pressures occurred afterwards on the same day, and also in the gale of Jan. 26, at which date the chain had not been renewed. During the year 1884 Osler’s anemometer showed an excess of about 25 revolutions of the vane in the positive direction N, E, S, W, N, excluding the turnings which are evidently accidental. A The number of hours of bright sunshine recorded by Camp- bell’s sunshine instrument during 1884 was 1115, which is about 100 hours less than the average of the seven preceding years. The aggregate number of hours during which the sun was above the horizon was 4465, so that the mean proportion of sunshine for the year was 0°250, constant suushine being represented by 1. The rainfall in 1884 was 18’0 inches, being about 7 inches below the average of the last 40 years. ; Chronometers and Timz Signals.—The number of chrono- meters now being tested at the Observatory is 151, and of these 103 (79 box-chronometers, 13 pocket-chronometers, and If deck-watches) belong to the Navy, 40 are placed here for the annual competitive trial, and § are on trial for purchase by the Austrian Government, The first six chronometers in the competitive trial of 1884 were rather above the average of the last ten years as inferred from the trial numbers. As niuch difficulty is experienced in maintaining the chronometer oven at a nearly constant tempera- ture, an apparatus has been procured from Mr. Kullberg which is designed to effect this automatically, by the action of a com- pensation-bar, which, as the temperature rises, gradually closes a small hole through which the supply of gas to the gas burners passes. The apparatus has not yet been brought into use, as the chronometer oven has been constantly required for testing chronometers since it has been received. The automatic drop of the Greenwich time-ball failed on 6 days through the clock-train stopping. The ball was not raised on 3 days on account of the violence of the wind. As regards the Deal time-ball, which is now dropped by cur- rent passing through the chronopher of the Post Office tele- graphs, there have been fourteen cases of failure owing to inter- ruption of the telegraphic connections, and on one day the current was too weak to release the trigger without the assist- ance of the attendant. - In connection with the establishment of hourly time signals at the Start or Lizard, which was long advocated by Sir G. B. Airy, I have received from the Committee of | loyds’, in answer to my inquiry, an assurance that that corporation would be willing to undertake the maintenance of hourly time-signals at any of their signal-stations, provided the Government would supply the necessary apparatus. After consultation with Capt. Wharton, it has been thought better that, before taking further steps, some preliminary trials should be made of a collapsible cone as an hourly time-signal, facilities for doing which exist at Devon- port. As regards ball-drop or other time-signal, I would propose that it should be made automatically by a local clock, to be corrected daily by the help of a time-signal from Greenwich at 10 a.m., which should automatically start an auxiliary seconds pendulum, suspended freely just behind the clock pendulum. The attendant would then accelerate or retard his clock pendulum (by electro-magnetic action as in the Greenwich mean solar clock) so as to make it pass through the middle of its vibration at the same time and in the same direc- tion as the auxiliary pendulum, and thus to indicate accurately Greenwich mean time. A return signal to Greenwich sent by Fune it, 1885 | NATURE I4! the local clock at the next hour (11 A.M.) would show that this clock had been properly corrected, and would be a guarantee for the general accuracy of the time-signals. Preliminary trials have shown that the observation of coincidence of vibration of two pendulums can be made with great certainty, and Messrs, E. Dent and Co. are now arranging for the mounting of an auxiliary pendulum on one of the transit of Venus clocks, and _ for adapting it to give hourly time-signals. The errors of the Westminster clock have been under Is. on 50 per cent. of the days of observation, between Is. and 2s. on 29 per cent., between 2s. and 3s. on Io per cent., between 3s. and 4s. on 7 per cent., and over 4s. on 4 per cent. : During the past year the Observatory has lost the valuable services of Mr. Dunkin, who retired on August 25, after an honourable service of forty-six years, which has been throughout characterised by remarkable zeal and ability, and has contributed largely to maintain the credit of the Observatory. Mr. Dunkin has been succeeded in the post of Chief Assistant by Mr, H. H. Turner, B.A., of Trinity College, Cambridge. The report concludes as follows :— During the past year the various classes of work carried on in this Observatory have been somewhat extended. The meridian observations are more numerous than usual, and various subsidiary investigations involving considerable labour have been undertaken with a view to increase their

IN connection with the meeting we venture to recommend to our readers the new edition of Baddeley’s ‘‘ Guide to Scotland,” Part I, a copy of which has been sent us. It includes all the country from the Borders to as far north as Aberdeen, Inverness, Gairloch, and Stornoway. No more useful, practical, and trustworthy guide to the region exists, while the thirty-seven admirably executed maps and plans will be found a great com- fort and convenience. Dulau and Co. are the publishers. M. JANSSEN will shortly begin a new series of experiments on the influence of gases in spectrum analysis, in continuation of those which he made about fifteen years ago at La Villette gasworks. The tubes in which the gas will be contained and compressed will have a length of more than 100 metres, and be able to bear an unusual amount of pressure. Thus a new degree of accuracy may be expected from these researches, which are progressing favourably at the Meudon Physical Observatory. For more than a year some important measurements of the altitude and movements of clouds have been carried on at Upsala by the aid of two theodolites, one of which is mounted in the Linnzeus and the other in the Botanical Gardens. These instru- ments, which belong to the Academy of Science, were used for auroral and cloud measurements by the Swedish expedition to Spitzbergen, 1882-83. The object of the measurements of the altitude and movements of clouds is not so much to obtain their mean altitude as to derive some knowledge of their movements in the upper part of the atmosphere, a matter which is of great importance to meteorology. The researches have advanced so far that it has been found possible to fix astronomically the movements and altitude of the cirrus clouds. ACCORDING to the Zégliche Rundschau the population of Ratisbon has been greatly frightened by the sudden disappear- ance recently of thousands of jackdaws, which dwelt in the spire of the cathedral of the town, on account of asimilar phenomenon occurring before the outbreak of the last cholera epidemic in the place. In Munich a similar phenomenon is also stated to have taken place. REFERRING to ‘‘sonorous sand,” the report of the secretary of the Smithsonian Institution says that an interesting problem to physicists and geologists has been the sand found in certain localities, which, when placed in motion by sliding, sometimes produces a very sonorous or resonant sound, peculiar in character and difficult of explanation. Prof. Bolton, of Trinity College, Hartford, desirous of making researches on the subject, and especially of studying the microscopical, chemical, and physical peculiarities of the grains, requested the aid of the Institution in obtaining materials for the purpose. A considerable variety of specimens was collected in the Sandwich Islands, the coast of Oregon, Germany, and many other places. These are now in Prof. Bolton’s hands, and he will prepare a report on the subject. THE Chesapeake Zoological Laboratory, as the marine station maintained by the Johns Hopkins University is designated, is Science states, established for the present summer session at Beaufort, on the coast of North Carolina. Dr. W. K. Brooks, the director, who was prevented last year by ill-health from giving as much time as usual to the laboratory, is fortunately quite restored to his usual strength, and is in full activity at his post. Twelve collaborators are with him. Several of these are already teachers in various branches of zoological science, and | all of them are well prepared to make use of the opportunities [August 27, 1885 - » | Me - August 27, 1885 | NATURE 401 which are afforded at this station. An unusual number are engaged in original researches. The season of 1885, although uncomfortably hot, has thus far been exceptionally favourable for collection. The weather has been calmer than heretofore in June and July, and specimens were found in June which have usually not appeared until the middle of August. The com- pany, notwithstanding their personal discomfort from the heat, have maintained their full enthusiasm in the work upon which they are engaged ; and it now appears as if the eighth session of the laboratory would be more fruitful in results than its pre- decessors, good as they have been. A DUNFERMLINE correspondent writes tu us that one of the most important and certainly the most complete cemetery of the Stone Age which has been laid bare in recent times has just been discovered in the grounds of Pitreavie, Dunfermline, Fife- shire. In connection with rebuilding operations a sand-pit was opened, and here, in a space of 15 yards by 10 yards, no fewer than five cists have been discovered. The cists were constructed of rough sandstone flags, and four of these measured about 42 inches in length, 20 inches in breadth, and 16 inches in depth. The fifth was little more than 18 inches square. A cinerary urn of baked clay was found in each of the large cists, but in the small ‘‘ grove” nothing was found but a quantity of apparently calcined bones. A couple of flint scrapers and a bottle-shaped piece of limestone—which may have done duty as a hammer— were also among the finds. The urns measure from 5 to 6 inches across the mouth and from 43 to 6 inches in height, and, strange to say, the construction of the bowls indicate that they have been made at different successive periods. No. 1 urn is an unshapely piece of sun-dried pottery; No. 2 showed an advance in the shape ; and Nos. 3 and 4 are neatly formed and ornamented with a simple dotted pattern. The explorations will be continued, and it is expected that several other important finds will be made. Dr. Munro, the author of ‘‘ Ancient Scottish Lake Dwellings,” has visited the tumuli with a view to place a report in the hands of the Antiquarian Society of Scot- land. A tradition exists that the site of the mound was an old graveyard, and some people who haye been engaged in the district in agricultural pursuits for the past half a century state that nuierous flagstones and pieces of urns have been turned up by the plough or grubbed, and Dr. Munro attaches great im- portance to the flint scrapers, and was of opinion that the bones found in the small cist were human bones. AT the recent Railway Congress at Brussels the question whether it would be economical and desirable to use iron or steel instead of wooden sleepers was fully discussed. It was stated that metal sleepers of various patterns are being used in Holland and India to a considerable extent, and that they are being tried experimentally in Belgium, England, and other countries. An opinion was expressed that sleepers of the description which is being tried in England would afford good material support for the rails on main lines, although some inconvenience might be felt from a quoin of wood being used with it. It was also considered that other metal sleepers which are being tried in Holland and elsewhere had given satisfactory results. The cost of metal sleepers is higher than that of wood. They require good ballast, and there had not been sufficient experience from their use, in regard to their duration and main- tenance, to enable the section to state specifically the relative advantages of the new description of sleepers. It was therefore considered that further experience is necessary. The difficulty of arriving at a conclusion as to what would be applicable in all countries and under all circumstances was exemplified in the discussion of this subject by the representative of the Egyptian railways. He stated that iron or steel sleepers cannot be economically used in Egypt, because they become corroded by the sand. The representative of the Indian railways, on the other hand, informed the section that iron or steel sleepers only can be used in India, because the white ant destroys wooden sleepers. Considerable discussion took place as to the construc- tion of railways in regard to the curves, gradients, and works generally, including the question whether lines with a compara- tively small traffic should be laid with heavy or light rails. It was, however, found impossible to lay down any general pro- positions which could be adopted under all the circumstances in which railways have to be made. Ir may be remarked that Francois Arago was born at Estagel in the beginning of February, 1786, so that a centennial cele- bration may be expected next year. A statue was erected in this place twenty-nine years ago at the expense of the late M. Pereire. AN exhibition of labour was opened a few weeks ago at the Palais de l’Industrie, Paris. An electrical railway with a single rail was exhibited by M. Lartigue, and is carrying passengers with regularity on a zigzag line of about 200 metres’ length. A series of popular exhibitions with magic lanterns on the new features of microscopy is largely attracting public attention. So-called antediluvian music is played on a series of irregular stones which have been selected so that they represent two octaves when suspended by strings. THE American Ornithologists’ Union will hold its next meet- ing in New York on Tuesday, November 17. WE have received catalogues of electrical apparatus from two new firms: the first of these is the Kinetic Engineering Com- pany, who are agents in this country for the well-known firm of Breguet. They are now exhibiting Lippmann’s ingenious mercurial galvanometer. The second catalogue is that of Messrs. P. Jolin and Co., of Bristol. This enterprising firm describes several instruments of great use in the physical labora- tory, especially the dead-beat galvanometer of D’Arsonval’s type, and adjuncts therefore. This instrument appears to be specially adapted for private laboratories. We are glad to see new firms taking such good standing in the character of the apparatus they offer to the scientific world. THE Java newspapers report that volcanic activity in the island continues to increase. Another mountain, called Raun, broke out on June 21, casting out much steam and ashes. In the evening smoke was ejected in such quantities as to darken the horizon on the windward side, until a shower of ashes fell, upon which the sky cleared up. Kaun appears to be an active yolcano, but no such violent eruption has been known in recent years. On the night of July 8 anew eruption of Mount Smeru took place ; it was a heavy explosion followed by a stream of red-hot lava, which came duwn to the same spot which was laid waste by the former eruption. In the evening of July 9 another explosion followed. “RESULTS of Twenty Years’ Observations on Botany, Ento- mology, Ornithology, and Meteorology, taken at Marlborough College, 1865-84,” is the title of a large pamphlet embracing a summary of twenty years’ work. The tables are accumulations of facts properly registered. In the botanical notices the first appearances in each year are given, the day being noted as the day of the year, not of the month. This method is readiest for comparison and for striking the average. In addition the average for the twenty years, the earliest and latest days, the amplitude and the number of observations are given. The entomological notices are arranged in the same way, except that the earliest and latest appearances and the amplitude are omitted ; these are not a great loss, for they can be ascertained from the tables in a moment by any reader. In ornithology the observations include the date when first seen, and when an egg and the young have 402 been found. The meteorological notices include for each month of each year the highest, lowest, and mean readings of the barometer, the maximum and minimum temperature in the shade, the number of times the thermometer stood above certain points varying with the seasons of the year, the maximum in the sun, the minimum on the grass, amount of rain collected, and the number of rainy days. The wettest year of the twenty was 1882, when the rainfall was 43°79 inches ; the dryest, 1870, with 23°41 inches. The weather records in these tables have been kept by one observer, with properly verified instruments, and all the observations have been critically examined at the Royal Meteorological Society ; the botanical notices, though obtained by a large staff of observers, have all been recorded by one person, who saw all the specimens; but entomological and ornithological notes were taken by a series of recorders, and there is therefore not the same uniformity as in the two previous cases, WE have received the annual report of the West Kent Natural History, Microscopical, and Photographic Society for the past year. It contains abstracts of several papers read during the year. It isa pity there is no abstract of the discussion intro- duced by the president at the annual dinner at Gravesend, on “‘Bacon and Beans.” There are two papers on subjects con- nected with photography. Mr. W. F. STaNntey has recently brought out a new form of protractor and goniometer, which has the special merit of measuring an angle right up to the vertex. This new form of protractor will be very convenient to civil engineers in measuring angles upon ordnance maps which are most frequently subtended by short lines, and many other cases. Used as a goniometer, it will be very convenient to measure the angles of large crystals and planes of cleavage, also to draw the same direct from the instrument. The instrument consists of two concentric circles, the outer one carrying the graduation, the inner a Vernier ; each supports an arm with an edge extending to the centre. The angles are measured by slipping the inner circle with its attached arm and Vernier round the groove on the outer circle, which keeps it in position. We believe the instrument has all the good points which Mr. Stanley claims for it, and it will be useful to artists as well in determining angles of perspective. THE whitefish (Coregonus albus) now in the ponds at the Delaford Fishery are growing rapidly, some of them reaching seven inches in length. It will be remembered that the ova of these fish were brought from America last spring, and hatched out at South Kensington. A REMNANT of the great forests which once covered the south of Sweden was recently dug out of a bog at Kiuneved, consisting of a boat 6 feet in diameter hollowed out of a log. The tree from which it was obtained must have been 20 feet in circum- ference. The wood, which was blue in colour, was very hard, and the boat so heavy that two bullocks could not move it. Mr. HENRY PHILLIPS, jun, one of the secretaries to the American Philosophical Society, has performed a very useful work in compiling a register of all the papers published in the Tran:actions and Proceedings of the Society since its commence- ment. The ‘‘register” forms a small pamphlet of fifty-six pages, the titles being arranged according to the authors’ names. It is therefore an index to all the publications of the Society— but a name, not a subject, index. THE additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens during the past week include a Rhesus Monkey (AZacacus rhesus 6) from India, presented by Mr. E. Pelditch ; a Bosmani Potto (Fero- dicticus potto §) from West Africa, presented by Mr. C. R. Williams ; two Gerbilles (Gerécllus ) from Suakim, pre- sented by Surgeon-Major J. A. Shaw; two White-faced Tree WA TORE | [dugust 27, 1885 Ducks (Dendrocygna viduata) from West Africa, presented by Mr. Cecil Dudley ; three Green Turtles (Chelone viridis) from the West Indies, presented by M. C. Angel, F.Z.S.; a Bonnet Monkey (Macacus sinicus ) from India, presented by Mr. J. C. O'Halloran ; two Narrow-barred Finches (JZunia nisoria) from Java, an Indian Silver Bill (4Zwnza malabarica) from India, an Amaduvade Finch (Zstrelda amandava) from India, pre- sented by Mr, Horace Sanders ; a Short-toed Eagle (Czrcaelus gallicus\ from Southern Europe, presented by Mr. Henry Sotheran ; a Mona Monkey (Cercopithecus mona 6) from West Africa, presented by Mr. White ; a White-necked Crow (Corvus scapulatus) from West Africa, deposited ; nine Gold Pheasants (Thaumalea picta), received from the Right Hon. George Sclater-Booth, M.P.; a Barred-shouldered Dove (Gcofelia humeralis), a Coquerel’s Lemur (CAivogaleus coguereli), a Collared Fruit Bat (Cynonycteris collaris), bred in the Gardens. OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN THE BINARY-STAR 70 OPHIUCHI.—Notwithstanding the care with which the orbit of this double-star has been discussed, the companion appears to be again deviating from its predicted position to a considerable extent. It will be rernembered that from the anomalous motion of the smaller star Madler was led to the suspicion that the law of gravitation does not apply in this system, while Jacob thought there was indication of disturbance from a third body. M. Perrotin gives the following epoch resulting from his measures made at Nice in 1883: 1883°49 Position 45°°6 Distance 2°28 On comparing with the orbit assigned in No. 1 of ‘‘ Astro- nomical Observations made at the University Observatory, Oxford,” which accords closely with the measures up to 1878, and with the orbits Flammarion, Tisserand, and Schur, we find the following differences taken in the order, obseryation— calculation :— Position. Distance. The Oxtord/orbit — = 9°9 .. —0'60 Flammarion af Gaasy av’ de | = Roe Misserand, 7. cst jeces Caee teen we 1h S eee SCHUM ences Suk tos ere 0 Uh) ees O75; It is very possible that in this case the difficulty of represent- ing the position of the companion-star may be attributed to the paucity of measures near the peri-astron, rather than to an anomalous motion which has not been remarked in most of the other binaries. However this may be, the object no doubt is one deserying of continued attention. The Oxford orbit, which, it will be seen, is the nearest as regards the position angle in 1883, gives for 1885°5—position, 44°°6 ; distance, 2/*64. TurTtLe’s CoMET.—On September ro, at midnight, this comet will be in about R.A. 136° 33', Decl. + 3° 48’, rising at Green- wich two hours before the sun, and with an intensity of light one-third greater than when first observed at Nice on August 8. It may perhaps be observed after perihelion in the southern hemisphere if the more powerful telescopes are utilised. On August 13 the correction to Herr Raht’s ephemeris was — 13s. in right ascension and +5/°5 in declination. The comet is about 2' in diameter, without very apparent central condensation. THE COMET OF 1652.—At present we have only one calcula- tion of the orbit of this comet—that of Halley, founded upon the observations of Hevelius in the scarce volume of the “*Machina Ccelestis.” It would be interesting to investigate the orbit anew from the observations made by Richard White at Rome, though he gives no nearer time for his distances of the comet from stars between December 21, 1652, and January 3, 1652, than ‘‘hora 2 post occasum solis.”” The observations will be found in Zeitschrift fiir Astronomie, vol. iv., where they are entitled ‘‘ Observationes Comete, qui exeunte anno 1652 com- paruit, habitze Romz per Riccardum Albium, Anglum.” Zach supposed the observer to be Richard White, and there can be little doubt that he is the Mr. White repeatedly mentioned by Evelyn in his Diary. Zach has the remark, ‘‘ Diese Beobacht- ungen kénnen leicht besser als die des Hevelius seyn,” and an examination of the latter will show that there is some foundation August 27, 1885 | for this remark. On December 21, according to Halley’s ele- ments, the distance of the comet from the earth was only 0°14; on January 3 it had increased to 0°42. The fact that the place of the ascending node of the comet of 1698, as it is printed in Halley’s ‘‘Synopsis of Cometary Astronomy,” is 180° in error, or, in other words, the place of the descending node has been given for that of the opposite one, furnishes a hint that it is not safe to accept a single calculation of the orbit of any of the earlier-computed comets without examination. ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA FOR THE — WEEK, 1885, AUGUST 30 TO SEPTEMBER 5 (For the reckoning of time the civil day, commencing at Greenwich mean midnight, counting the hours on to 24, is here employed. ) At Greenwich on August 30 Sun rises, 5h. rim. ; souths, 12h. om. 23’0s.; sets, 18h. 49m. ; decl. on meridian, 8° 52’ N.: Sidereal Time at Sunset, 17h. 26m. Moon (at Last Quarter on Sept. 2) rises, 20h. 28m.* ; souths, 3h. 15m. ; sets, 10h. 12m. ; decl. on meridian, 8° 11’ N. Planet Rises Souths Sets Decl. on meridian h. m. h. m. fy me ant, Mercury. OF Qo .<. 12) 17 18 33 2 28N. Wentseeres S007) e550) 57, 19) 47 Se 24709. Mars ee ONSGte ss. OAS 17 (O-e nt) 220 50aNe Jupiter 5 48 L228" .:., EO) Sieve. 7a Onn Saturna SnAg wee 7 G2 x. TON T: sesgnazosuNs * Indicates that the rising is that of the preceding day. Occultations of Stars by the Moon Correspoading Sept. Star Mag. Disap Reap angle = oe inverted image h. m h. m. th ea Css LaurL Be bien p22 neil 22 52 62 247 MGs wat ilus enchytreoides, by M. Remy Saint- ‘Loup. —Extraction aaa composition of the gases contained in the foliage of floating and submerged aquatic plants, by MM. N. Gréhaut and J. Peyrou.—Recurrence of the superficial earth- quake at Escarpel and in the neighbourhood of Douai, Départe- ment du Nord, by M. Virlet d’ ‘Aoust. CONTENTS PAGE The Life of Frank Buckland. Ry Rev. W. Tuckwell 385 Compensation of Compasses. ..... AO oy tls The Forbes Memorial Volume .........-. 387 Our Book Shelf :— Hall’s “* Elementary Algebra for Schools” .... 388 Mackay’s ‘‘ Key to the Elements of Euclid” 388 Schiafer’s ‘* Essentials of Histology.” —Dr. E. Klein, LE Seto Gosia DEON oc ooo 2c 388 Howes’ “Atlas of Practical Elementary Biology ” 388 Letters to the Editor :— Radiant Light and Heat.—A Student; Prof. Bal- four Stewart, F.R.S.... . =) A eS) Pulsation in the Veins. —J. Hippisley < .. 389 The Fauna of the Seashore.—Arthur R. Hunt . . 390 On the Terminology of the Mathematical Theory of Electricity. William Sutherland ....... 391 An Encysting ‘‘Myzostoma” in Milford Haven.— P. Herbert Carpenter. . . +) OT Solid Electrolytes.—Shelford Bidwell . 3 391 The Square Bamboo. By W. T. Thiselton Dyer, COMiG., FiRS: (Zidstrated)) pee ee Or Forecasting by Means of Weather Charts . . 392 Radiant Light and Heat, II. By Prof. Balfour Stewart, F.R.S. (Zilustrated ) ieee 394. The Life of Aquatic Animals at High Pressure. (lustrated) = oe on ee fe ole aie te Tele ROO ie Bigg ai 5 bot 5S . oe ee 2 © 400 Our Astronomical Column :— The Binary Star 70 Cee +) oh aye 402 Tuttle’s Comet ... Mero oo}! UE The Comet of 1652. . . 402 Astronomical Phenomena | for the "Week "1885, August 3oto September5 ...... - = = 6 =| 403 Geographical Notes-. - 2... == - == 3% Bh 8 2 cies ' Mineral Products of the United States... 404 Prof. L. Sohncke on the mee of Thunderstorm Electricity seem aie ote te Beene Ae te mys Leas Cystoliths 2..Gn ie eee oecnt 3 Maine: come Oy, University and Educational Intelligence | Gecarecrs | / Societies and Academies. .........+-.-. 408 NATOERE 409 THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 3, 1885 THE ANDAMAN ISLANDERS On the Aboriginal Inhabitants of the Andaman Islands. By Edward Horace Man, Assistant Superintendent, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, with Report of Re- searches into the language of the South Andaman Islands, by A. J. Ellis, F.R.S. Reprinted from the Fournal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. (London: Triibner and Co.) ““ TN considering the habits, customs, and physical peculiarities of a savage race, it is important to acquire as much information as possible regarding the land they inhabit, and also to ascertain the nature and extent of the influences exercised by, or resulting from, their intercourse with other nationalities.” The author of the work from which the above extract is quoted has proved himself fully qualified to treat of this interesting race of people, among whom he resided for four successive years in his capacity of Assistant Super- intendent, from the scientific point of view which he has so well defined in the foregoing passage. The volume before us consists essentially of a series of papers com- municated at various times since 18S0 to the Anthropo- logical Institute, and now republished, with the sanction of the Institute, in a separate form, with an introduction and fourteen short appendices. The report on the language of the South Andaman Islands concludes the volume, and bears a separate title-page indicating that it has been drawn up by Mr. A. J. Ellis, F.R.S., from the materials furnished by Mr. Man and Lieut. R. C. Temple, of the Bengal Staff Corps. The Andaman Islands consist of a group situated in the Bay of Bengal between the roth and r4th parallels of N. latitude, and comprise Great and Little Andaman, the former consisting of North, Middle, and South Andaman, together with the Archipelago, Interview, Rutland, and many other small islets. The entire area of the islands is estimated at about 2508 square miles, of which about 2000 square miles are comprised in Great Andaman. Some pages of the introduction are devoted to a descrip- tion of the physical features, climate, and scenery, the author calling special attention to the numerous fine harbours which offer safe anchorage during all seasons. With respect to the population, Mr. Man estimates the total number of the aborigines of Great Andaman as probably about 2coo, and of those inhabiting Little Anda- man 1000 to 1500; the aggregate population of all races is about 15,000, nearly four-fifths of this number being made up of the convicts inhabiting the penal settlement. A succinct history of the settlement is given, from which it appears that the modern history of the Andamans dates from 1857, although a previous attempt to found a penal station had been made by the Honorable East India Company, but this was abandoned in 1796 on account of the high death-rate. The author recognises eight distinct tribes of aboriginal inhabitants in Great Andaman and one in Little Anda- man. The natives with which the officers in charge of the station at first came into contact displayed much hostility and considerably harassed the operations of the working VOL. XXxII.—NO. 827 parties; but improvements have gradually been effected in the relationship between the aborigines and the settlers chiefly through the establishment of Government homes, and now, as Mr. Man states in a passage quoted from Dr. Day, “the convicts are left unmolested, the imple- ments of agriculture are not stolen, the fishing stakes are left undisturbed, the gardens are no longer pillaged, run- away convicts have been recaptured, and shipwrecked sailors assisted.” The author, who had charge of one of the homes, also states that these “have effected good in bringing together members of the various tribes, between whom the way has thus been paved for intermarriages, which were of course formerly of rare occurrence ; tribal feuds have also here been amicably arranged, while, through visits paid to Port Blair and other homes by members of all the Great Andaman tribes, as well as by our visits in the station steamer to the more distant encampments, the knowledge of our power, resources, and kindly intentions has spread throughout their re- spective territories.” The aboriginal inhabitants of Little Andaman are, however, still unreclaimed, and all attempts to civilise them have hitherto failed; their hostility towards strangers is such that any persons unfortuate enough to be cast on their shores would be as ruthlessly slaughtered now as at any period prior to our annexation of the islands. The effect of the contact with civilisation upon those more friendly tribes who have accepted the advantages offered by the homes is however similar to that which invariably results from all such attempts :—“in propor- tion as they gain in intelligence and tractability, the more fat and indolent do they become, and, having no incentive towards exertion, frequently lose in great measure their quondam skill in hunting.” Still more serious is the moral deterioration which has taken place through con- tact with the convict population, and Mr. Man is careful to point out that his observations have been confined to those primitive communities which have not yet had time to be affected by the virtues and vices of modern civilisa- tion. One interesting point which has been brought out by an attempt to educate the native children is that up to the age of ten or eleven they are as intelligent and can learn as well as the children of civilised races, but after this age no further progress is possible. This feature in the mental evolution of savage races has, if we remember correctly, been observed in the case of many other un- civilised tribes. In the succeeding portions of the volume we have an immense amount of detailed information upon all the points which are likely to be of value to the anthro- pologist. With regard to the vexed question of the origin of the race, Mr. Man considers that the natives are the direct descendants of the prehistoric inhabitants, that they all belong to the same race, and that the tribal dif- ferences are the effects of isolation by the natural barriers of the country and the constitutional jealousies and hos- tilities which formerly prevented the tribes from living on amicable terms with each other. Ethnologically the author regards these people as Negritos, and “racial affinity—if there be any—may possibly some day be found to exist between them and the Semangs of the Malayan Peninsula, or the Aétas of the Philippine Islands.” 7, 410 WAT ORE 4a a LSept. 3, 1885 Following the section on the ethnology of the Anda- manese we have an excellent description of their form and size, forty-eight males and forty-one females having been most carefully weighed and measured, with the result that the average height of the men is 4 feet 103 inches and of the women 4 feet 7} inches, and the re- spective average weights 98} lbs. and 93} lbs. To give an idea of the thoroughness with which the author has dealt with his subject, under the heading “ Anatomy and Physiology,” we have a series of five sets of observations on the temperature and rate per minute of respiration and of the pulse on five subjects ranging in age from seventeen to twenty-two years. Descriptions of the pathology, medicine, physiognomy, physical powers and senses, psychology and morals, magic and witchcraft, of the tribal distribution, topography, arithmetical faculties, and of their habitations, government, laws, crimes, &c., complete the first part. With respect to diseases it appears that palmonary consumption and other pectoral complaints are or were the chief causes of mortality among these people; to these have unfortunately now to be added that “terrible scourge ” which has spread over the greater part of Great Andaman, and which, as in Australia, unless successfully dealt with, threatens, as Mr. Man informs us, “the early extermination of the race.” The morals of the Andamanese in their primitive state appear to be of a distinctly high standard, as will appear from the following extracts :— “Much mutual affection is displayed in their social relations, and, in their dealings with strangers, the same characteristic is observable when once a good under- standing has been established . . . every care and con- sideration are paid by all classes to the very young, the weak, the aged, and the helpless, and these, being made special objects of interest and attention, invariably fare better in regard to the comforts and necessaries of daily life than any of the otherwise more fortunate members of the community. Andatanese children are reproved for being impudent and forward . . . they are early taught to be generous and self-denying . . . the duties of show- ing respect and hospitality to friends and visitors being impressed upon them from their early years,” &c. With regard to their modesty Mr. Man states that the esteem in which this virtue is held, “and the self-respect which characterises their intercourse with each other may even be said to compare favourably with that existing in certain ranks among civilised races.” It is much to be regretted that the so-called “civilisation” with which these people have been brought into contact should have led to the moral deterioration which the author with scientific candour does not scruple to disclose. It is perhaps hardly necessary to add that the stories concern- ing the prevalence of cannibalism among these tribes have been completely disproved both with respect to the present time and to former periods of their history. In the second part of his interesting monograph the author treats of the language, relationships, names, in- itiatory ceremonies, marriage, death and burial, super- stitions, religious beliefs, demonology and mythology. In the third part we have an account of the social relations of the Andamanese, their mode of life, games and amuse- ments, and a description of their weapons, manufactures, &c. Want of space forbids anything more than a mere mention of the ground covered by these sections, but it will suffice to say that they are characterised by the thoroughness which is such a valuable feature of Mr. Man’s work. The few slight defects which we have noticed are on matters of quite minor importance, such, for instance, as the statement in the introduction, that “the water in the harbour of Port Blair has been found to be remarkable for its high density, as is evidenced by the rapid oxidation of iron immersed in it;” in its present form this reads rather like a case of om sequitur. It remains only to add that in the fourteen appendices we have a mass of most valuable information on various subjects connected with these islands and their inhabit- ants: most of these appendices are philological ; one is devoted to a list of the native trees, and another to a list of the shells. The Report on the language of the South Andaman Islanders is reprinted from the 7vazsactions of the Philo- logical Society, before which body it was delivered by its author, Mr. A. J. Ellis, F.R.S.,as his retiring presidential address in 1882. The volume is illustrated by a good series of typical photographs of the natives and five plates of weapons, ornaments, &c., and a map of the islands forming a frontispiece. In concluding this notice we must not omit to mention that Mr. Man’s mode of treatment is based upon the instructions drawn up by Col. Lane-Fox (now General Pitt-Rivers) on behalf of a Committee of the British Association, and published among the Reports for 1873. This Report was afterwards issued in an expanded form as a Manual of Anthropological Notes and Queries, and the work now under consideration may be regarded as one of the most important practical results of the labours of the Committee referred to. We believe that Mr. Man is at present engaged in a similar study of the inhabitants of the neighbouring Nicobar Islands, one of which— Camorta—was selected as a station by the Eclipse Expe- dition of 1875. We shall look forward with much interest to the continuation of the author’s labours in this new field. R. M. COMMERCIAL ORGANIC ANALYSIS Vol. I. By Alfred H. (London: J. and A. Churchill, Commercial Organic Analysis. Allens ii, 176. ib: Gis: 1885.) OTWITHSTANDING the fact that enormous numbers of text-books on chemical subjects have been appearing during recent years, a few comprehensive works on the subject of commercial analysis have been long and greatly needed. When it is considered how every day commerce has been availing itself more and more of the powers of scrutiny and control afforded by chemical analysis, this delay may appear remarkable. But the truth is that to produce such a work very excep- tional qualifications and a very unusual degree of experi- ence are necessary. A work on commercial analysis must be thoroughly practical if it is to be useful, and prescribe methods of analysis only which experience has proved to be accurate and serviceable. Analysts as a rule have their specialities—these specialities often being determined by local industries—and long experience fre- a _- : Sept. 3, 1885 | NATURE 41I quently leads them to devise or modify processes without any record appearing outside their own laboratories. Almost every analyst has his own manuscript “ process- book,” according to which he expects his assistants or pupils to work, and so it becomes a matter of extreme difficulty for an author to produce a work that shall be generally acceptable as a laboratory guide. The too frequently occurring discrepancies in commercial analyses may in a measure be attributed to the same cause, and there can be no doubt that a unification in the methods of conducting and recording analyses is greatly to be desired. This end will doubtless be greatly furthered by the production of standard books such as the present one. A first edition of the work before us appeared in 1879. It has undoubtedly taken already a very high position, and has been welcomed as filling a conspicuous gap in the literature of analytical chemistry. The value of a division between organic and inorganic analysis to the ordinary analyst may not be great, but it is useful to the author in enabling him to keep his work within bounds. The first edition of the b&k appeared in two volumes ; in the new edition a rearrangement and extension is being made, and it will now occupy three volumes. The first volume deals with organic bodies of the fatty series and of vegetable origin, and includes chapters on the alcohols, ethers, and other neutral derivatives of the alcohols, sugars, starch and its isomers, and vegetable acids. The second volume, which is to appear shortly, will be devoted chiefly to coal-tar products and bodies of the aromatic series, to hydrocarbons generally, fixed oils and the products of their saponification, and the tannins. Nitrogenised organic substances, including cyanogen compounds, alkaloids, organic bases, and albumenoids will be treated of in the third and concluding volume. This arrangement of the subject is, we think, a great im- provement on the previous one, and makes the book much more convenient for reference. Mr. Allen treats his subject in as scientific a manner as possible, and this gives quite a peculiar character to his work. It is not, like so many books on analysis, merely a series of receipts or processes of chemical handicraft ; but a work assuming the possession of some really scien- tific knowledge on the part of those using it. It would be easy to go too far in attempting to generalise in such a subject as commercial analysis and in introducing theo- retical details ; but although the author goes so tur, for instance, as to introduce structural formulze for many of the substances dealt with, it cannot be said that he demands more knowledge than should be forthcoming from those engaging in this difficult and often obscure branch of analysis. The introduction, extending over thirty-five pages, embraces a description of some general methods, such as the determination of specific gravity, of melting- and boiling-points, optical properties, &c. The rest of the volume is devoted to a consecutive account of substances comprised under the several headings. After the author has described briefly but sufficiently what the substance is or ought to be, he gives the methods for its detection, estimation, or analysis, and intersperses the account with such general information as is likely to be of value to the analyst. We cannot attempt to enumerate tbe somewhat remarkable collection of products dealt with in the course of the work. Wines, beers, cordials, tinctures, chloroform, sugars, confectionery, starch, vinegar, the commercial acetates, tartrates, and citrates—are examples taken at random, which will serve to give some idea of the variety. They are, however, treated in a connected manner, in illustration of which we may refer with special approval to the division on sugars, and starch and its isomers. With regard to the methods recorded by Mr. Allen we may say that on the whole they are such as have borne the test of experience, whilst new processes or modifica- tions of old ones are duly referred to and discussed. The author acknowledges assistance from many men of expe- rience, and has, we think, used it to the best purpose. His descriptions are clear and concise, and the book is remarkably free from errors of any kind. We think it really an excellent enterprise, excellently carried out, and congratulate Mr. Allen on having produced a scientific and thoroughly practical book which, we are confident, will find a place in the library of every practical chemist. RECENT TEXT-BOOKS OF DETERMINANTS Lecciones de Coordinatoria con las Determinantes y sus principales aplicaciones. Por D. Antonio Suarez y D. Luis G. Gasc6é. (Valencia, 1882.) Traité Elémentaire des Déterminants. Par L. Leboulleux. (Genéve, 1884.) Die Determinanten, fiir den ersten Algebra bearbettet. 1884.) Lessons Introductory to the Modern Higher Algebra. By George Salmon, D.D. Fourth Edition. (Dublin, 1885.) HE first of these works is outwardly a very handsome volume, and on examination we find that the authors have also done their part in the most painstaking and methodical way. The main part of the title, “ Coor- dinatoria,” is apt at first to mislead, and indeed after a cursory glance at the contents a cosmopolitan reader might be, pardoned for thinking that “ Coordinatoria ” was a misprint for “ Combinatoria,” for what our grand- fathers spoke of as the Avs Coméinatoria is the subject of the opening chapters. “ Coordinatoria” it is, however, and in the preface it is placed as a science side by side but in contrast with the science of Quantity. There are in all twenty chapters in the book. The first seven (146 pp.) deal with permutations, combinations derangements or inversions of order, substitutions, and difference-products : they form a lengthy and most care- fully prepared introduction to the theory which follows. The next ten chapters (242 pp.) deal with determinants, and expound all the more important properties in the most methodical, simple, lucid and ungrudging manner. The learner, for example, is prepared for the evaluation of a determinant whose elements are expressed in figures By — Onterricht in der Von Dr. H. Kaiser. (Wiesbaden . Simplification by addition. . Simplification by subtraction. 29. Simplification by addition and subtraction. § 330. Simplification by multiplication. And so on, up to— a ) 327 aes 32 Petr 412 NAT ORE (Sept. 3, 1885 § 335. Simplification by multiplication, addition, and subtraction. An impatient Briton might be tempted to call this ‘simplification to the death,” but after calmly perusing the whole he might be induced to confess that he had said so in his haste. The last three chapters deal with applications of determinants: one is arithmetical, and is mainly concerned with continuants and magic squares— a rather invidious juxtaposition ; one is algebraical, and gives the determinantal solution of a set of simultaneous linear equations; and the last is geometrical. A very valuable feature of the book is a 7éswsné in 4o pp. of all the definitions and theorems given in the preceding 410 pp. No one but a most enthusiastic and painstaking teacher would have thought of adding such an admirable abstract. The next book on our list might have been more accu- rately described as a very elementary treatise : it must have been intended for pupils with exceedingly little algebraical training. The first 18 pp. are occupied with determinants of the second order, and they are followed by 33 pp. treating of those of the third order. It may be safely affirmed that the pupil who requires 18 octavo pages to teach him the theory of such abstruse functions as determinants of the second order would do well to re- direct the expenditure of his mental energy. The book is carefully and accurately written, and there is a wealth of simple exercises in it, worked and unworked. Dr. Kaiser’s pamphlet is of the same ultra-elementary character—considerately restricted, however, to 23 pp. On a former occasion (NATURE, vol. xxix. pp. 378, 379) we drew attention to the fact that a new Introduction of this kind appears every year in Germany, and that of late they. have not been improving. We merely notify, there- fore, that this is the production for 1884. The preparation of a new edition of Salmon’s “ Modern Higher Algebra” has been entrusted to Mr. Cathcart. It contains about 40 pp. of new matter, the chief increase arising from the expansion of the chapter on “ Applica- tions to Binary Quantics” into ¢wo chapters, the first with the old title, and the second headed “ Applications to Higher Binary Quantics.” The changes made on the portion which deals with determinants are slight, and consist chiefly in the insertion here and there of well- chosen examples. OUR BOOK SHELF The Three First Years of Childhood. By Bernard Perez. Edited and translated by Alice M. Christie. With an introduction by James Sully, M.A. (London: W.S. Sonnenschein and Co., 1885.) THE earliest years of infancy are of importance to two classes of inquirers—to the educator who knows how much evil results trom the wrong treatment of young children, and to the evolutionist who, rejecting the Zadu/a vasa of Locke, looks to infancy as the time freest from any effect of artificial training. In the study of other men’s minds the observer is as likely as not to be pur- posely deceived by them, whereas deceit is an accom- plishment which few infants have attained to. Mr. Bernard Ferez seems well to combine these characters. He is an educator who has published various works on school matters, and he describes man as an animal which ought to be reasonable, while he is not necessarily so, as criminal scandals and the success of bad novels prove. He notes that the preponderating elements in a child’s will are impulsiveness and stubborn- ness, incapability of fixed attention, qualities most opposed to the temperament of philosophy and discipline. Much of his book is advice to practical educators, whom he urges to study the manifestations of infancy and to endeavour to lead their youngest pupils by example and not check their behaviour by authority ; their intellect should be helped, not controlled. He specially points out the danger of deceit before even the youngest of children. But, on the other hand, there is little of the tone of the pedagogue in his book. Far more is it a book of sugges- tion than one teaching with authority, and it will en- courage the spirits of fruitful doubt and inquiry in the mind of every reader. He enters heartily into the teach- ing of modern science, even to using the argument that infants have not certain sensations decause they would be of no use to them at that age; and, thinking it necessary to caution his readers against leaving everything to hereditary dispositions and powers. He urges the im- portance of comparing early human life with animal life, thus making cats, dogs, birds, and babies more interest- ing than before. We may engey his book without accept- ing the teaching that human language has grown out ot such involuntary signs as laughter, sobs, and screams, afterwards performed voluntarily. No doubt these in- voluntary sounds are of more use to an infant than more sober utterances, and have therefore become innate and involuntary, while language is an artificial acquirement. We think that few who have watched their vigorous antics will feel sure that a state of equilibrium, a passive state of health, or even that of moderate and appropriate exercise in moving their Jimbs, is the most enjoyable sensation fo infants, though this latter pleasure is sufficient to explain many actions of infants for which our author seeks a deeper reason. On the other hand, we think that the moral sense has become more deeply impressed than he suggests, and is far from entirely the result of approba- tion and disapprobation. Attention and vivid perception seem strangely shaken up in his remarks ; the latter faculty explains the dislike which children have to hearing a tale repeated with variations, They have indeed got it all “by heart.” Mr. Sully, in his very suggestive introduction, raises the question, Who is best qualified to follow up this delicate business of observing and rightly explaining all the movements and utterances of such young objects? Neither father, mother, nurse, nor doctor is completely qualified for the study. Mr. Sully concludes that the father and mother must conjointly undertake the work, the cooler intellect of the one checking and steadying the close and loving knowledge of the other, Let us suggest that an elder sister is most likely to succeed, and thus indicate a path to intellectual usefulness and even emin- ence well fitted for a lady’s sphere. It will elevate every little labour from drudgery into a scientific study of varia- tions and resemblances of the greatest importance, and add immensely to the interest of nursery life in a large family. On such observations may be based, by herself or by more ambitious philosophers, theories of racial varieties, of biology, and of education. Sir W. Hamilton points out that the study of the human mind requires no scholarship or costly apparatus, and the principal acquire- ment necessary for success in the study we suggest is a little close knowledge of one’s own thoughts and feelings. In recording observations Darwin’s golden rule must always be strictly adhered to: Theorise freely—every other observer will help to demolish anything that will not hold water, and whether true or not it may be a sug- gestive hypothesis. Be most scrupulous as to recording as a fact anything not strictly correct ; no one can dis- prove it, and it may throw back the reception of a useful truth for a generation. W. ODELL Sept. 3. 1885] NATURE 413 Un Capitolo di Psicofisiologia. Da Enrico dal Pozzo. Foligno, 1885.) A GooD book on abnormal mental phenomena of all sorts was to be expected from Prof. dal Pozzo, one of the very oldest living investigators of this branch of physiology in Europe. The present excellent little treatise comprises the substance of seven lectures delivered during the current year to the medical students at the University of Perugia on “ Hypnotism,” “ Animal Magnetism,” “ Som- nambulism,” “Human Radiation,” and “ Psychism.” The whole field is thus covered from the time of Mesmer down to Mr. Crookes’s experiments, and the still more recent ‘“‘ Thought Readings” of Mr. Bishop and Mr. Cumberland. As a philosopher of the monist school, the author naturally rejects the spiritualistic con- ception, accepts the term “psychism” only in Mr. Crookes’s sense, and regards all these manifestations as strictly co-related and explicable on physiological grounds. Human radiation he is also disposed to admit as a bio- logical property, hence has no difficulty in believing in such well-attested facts as may be explained by it. But whatever cannot be so explained he regards as unworthy of credence, and treats the terms “ spiritual,” “ transcen- dental,” and the like, as synonymous with ignorance. The power claimed by paid mediums to hold commune with the departed is, of course, emphatically denied, and it is cogently argued that the medium can tell us nothing regarding present or past facts of which the audience may be ignorant. He cannot, for instance, say how many chairs are in the next room if the number is unknown to all present, whereas the somnambulist will often tell it exactly. Hence if these psychic manifestations did not depend on human radiation, but were the work of spirits, it would follow that these spirits are more ignorant than ordinary somnambulists. And to the assertion that psychism produces phenomena absolutely inexplicable by human radiation, the answer is that who cannot do the less can scarcely do the more in matters of this sort. At the end of the work a chapter is added on Giordano Bruno, and his philosophic system, which, although not directly connected with the subject, will repay perusal. Die Nutzbaren Pflanzen und Tiere Amerikas und den alten Welt vergleichen in Bezug auf thren Kulturein- Jiuss. Dr. L. Hock. (Leipzig: E. Engelmann, 1884.) IN a pamphlet of fifty-eight pages Dr. Hock institutes a comparison between the useful plants and animals em- ployed by man in the two hemispheres. Although the comparison is made in a somewhat rambling manner in the text, the conclusions arrived at are clearly tabulated in the form of anappendix. The influence of useful plants and animals on civilisation seems almost lost sight of, except on p. 10, where guesses at their mode of influence, rather than evidence proving it, are offered. Only those species considered by Dr. Héck to be the most important to mankind are noticed ; hence the comparison can only be regarded as approximate to the truth. The author finds that the Old World or eastern hemisphere affords 269 useful plants and 58 animals against 52 plants and 13 animals derived from the New World. In consideration, however, of the larger area of the eastern than of the western hemisphere, which he estimates as being in the proportion of 9 to 4, he concludes that the New World only affords rather more than half so many as the Old. The tables in the appendix indicate a certain amount of carelessness or confusion, which slightly vitiates the conclusions arrived at. Thus, Cz¢rullus Colocynthis and Momordica Elaterium are classed under fruits used as food, instead of under medicinal plants; Aumex Patentia is indicated as English spinach, and H/aema- toxylum campechianum, which is stated in the text to be a New World plant, is given in the appendix as belong- ing to the Old World. It is difficult to understand the principle upon which the “more important” plants have been selected, many of them being by no means so ex- tensively used as others which are omitted ; this is par- ticularly noticeable in the list of medicinal plants and those used in the arts. But, in justice to the author, it must be admitted that the task he has undertaken is a most difficult one, and cannot be fully treated in so small a space as he has given to it. Hisclaims that the greater proportion of the present work was already completed before De Candolle’s “ Origin of Cultivated Plants” fell into his hands must also be allowed due weight. LE TRERS GO TLE EDITOR: [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or lo correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts. No notice is taken of anonymous communications. [The Editor urgently requests correspondents to keep their letters as short as possible. The pressure on his space is so great that it is impossible otherwise to insure the appearance even of communications containing interesting and novel facts.] Iona BEFORE the close of the season when there is easy, and indeed luxurious, access to the Island of Iona by steamers from Oban, I would call attention to the high interest which attaches to its geology in connection with the rocks now called ‘‘ Archzean.” Although the rocks of Iona are lithologically very distinct from the old gneiss of the Hebrides (which is the true ‘‘ Lauren- tian” and closely resembles the rocks near Quebec), yet they are equally distinct from the mica slate series of Argyllshire, and I have always regarded them as undoubtedly belonging to the pre-Cambrian horizons. I had never seen, however, until last week, the beautiful sections exhibited in the precipices of the south-west corner of the island. Tourists often visit the little “Bay of the Coracle,” where St. Columba is said to have landed, and I had not myself gone farther west. But the very calm sea of last week tempted me to boat round the farther coast to the south-west, and I was much struck by the sections there seen. The 1ocks are quite free from vegetation, and the exhibition of the strata is very striking. They are intensely hard and highly silicious—beautifully coloured with red, green, and black—and the beds dip at a high angle with remarkable flexures and faults of all kinds. On the side of the island where the cathedral is, and which tourists visit, the rock is entirely different in its mineral aspect and character—being a dark or black slaty rock, thinly bedded, and with no bright colouring at all. It belongs, however, evidently to the same series, and has generally the same dip and strike as the beds farther west. I should be very glad if some geologist acquainted with the different horizons of the Archzean series so largely developed in Canada could visit Iona, and determine to which of these horizons its rocks belong. Between them and the mica slates of the mainland of Argyllshire there is interposed the massive granite of the Ross of Mull—which comes up close to the eastern shore of Iona, avd on the other side of which, near Bornepan, the mica schists are in the same relative position ; while underneath the granite itself, and sometimes interbedded with it, there are some beds of a dark hornblendic gneiss. The whole neighbourhood is evidently one of great interest in connection with the oldest metamorphic rocks of our island. s.s. Columba, Campbelltown, August 30 ARGYLL Radiant Light and Heat THERE are two points in my article of last week which I should like to have the opportunity of discussing at somewhat greater length. (1) In this article I made use of the following expression, having especial reference to phosphorescent bodies which con- tinue after excitement to emit luminous rays at a comparatively low temperature :—‘‘ There seems to be no reason why molecular energy should not be somehow changed at once into radiant light and heat.” Let me now explain what I meant by this state- ment. The concluding quotation from Prof. Tait leads us to see that the definite connexion between the quantity and quality of the heat and light given out by a body and the temperature of that body, which the theory of exchanges asserts, is only statistically true. I can imagine, therefore, a few neighbourin g 414 NATURE «4 [Sepé. 3, 1885 molecules of some phosphorescent substance to be in a state of constraint, and to relieve themselves, thus causing vibrations which are communicated to the ether—the whole change taking place so quickly and on so small a scale that the statistical law above- mentioned does not apply, and is not therefore broken. Nay, further, I can imagine an enclosure, the walls of which are coated internally with an excited phosphorescent body perform- ing for all practical purposes the part of an enclosure of low temperature under the theory of exchanges, and yet it may be continuing for some time to emit visible rays. (2) I can, however, imagine the following question to be put : Let there be a phosphorescent substance which is capable of being excited by certain rays coming from a black body at the temperature T, these rays being apparently converted into others of lower refrangibility which continue to be given out for some time by the phosphorescent body. Let us further suppose that the phosphorescent body does not suffer chemical decomposition at the temperature 7. Now imagine a temperature enclosure kept at temperature T, the interior walls of which are lined in part with this phos- phorescent substance. What will happen in this enclosure? I think there can be little doubt that if there be such an enclosure capable of existing permanently and without decom- position of the substances which compose it, then the rays which it gives out must be those required by the theory of exchanges, But if the further question be asked in what way does the phosphorescent body conform to the theory of exchanges, we may, I think, plead ignorance. As far as Iam aware we have experi- mentally little or no knowledge of what the phosphorescent substance will do under these conditions, presuming that it can exist undecomposed. All our knowledge is limited to its be- haviour at a low temperature when acted on by high temperature rays, and its peculiar behaviour under these conditions cannot, I think, be viewed as a valid objection to the theory of exchanges. BALFOUR STEWART The Eleven-Year Meridional Oscillation of the Auroral Zone Tus very remarkable law, in favour of which Mr. Tromholt quotes a short series of observations made at Godthaab, which, he says, are supported by a few in other Polar regions, would, it seems to me, if satisfactorily proved, not only advance the science of terrestrial magnetism a stage, but also materially help to elucidate the exceedingly mysterious bond of union between the aurora and weather. As long as we simply knew that the manifestations of the Aurora Polaris increased and diminished everywhere with the spotted area of the solar surface, we were obliged to conclude that there was a similar increase and decrease in the electrical energy of terrestrial currents, and meteorological evidence did not favour the idea that the eleven- year variation in terrestrial currents was on such an extensive scale as the amplitude of the auroral oscillation would imply. But now if the law which Tromholt has indicated, really exists, a great deal of the difficulty in correlating the two phenomena disappears, since it is obvious that a comparatively small dis- placement of the zone would cause the annual average number of aurore to increase or diminish by their normal amount. Thus from lat. 60° N. to lat. 65° N., a distance of only 350 miles, the annual average number of aurorce diminishes from 80 to 4o. T will not now dwell upon analogous eleyen-year oscillations of isobars, such as Blanford’s Asiatic seesaw, and the indications of similar secular displacements of the Atlantic isobars noticed by Allan Brown and others, or upon the extraordinary resemblance in form between the auroral zone and the mean storm track of the northern hemisphere charted by Prof. Loomis in his latest contribution to meteorology; but I would merely say. that Tromholt’s discovery seems likely to become the touchstone which may, in the hands of an intelligent and comprehensive worker, clear up the entire question, and I earnestly hope that no efforts will be spared to corroborate it. I will conclude by adding my mite. In looking over Fritz’s monograph on the connection between solar spots and terrestrial magnetism and meteorology, I have found a series of observa- tions at Godthaab and Jakobshayn (69° 22’ N.) further north, which do not appear to have been utilised by Mr. Tromholt, and which, when combined in the form of percentages, cover a space of ten years, and add strong corroboration to the law indi- cated by Tromholt.* 5 5 5 a 2 9 “Ueber die Beziehungen de: Sonnenfleckenperiode zu den magnetischen und meteorologischen Erscheinungen der Erde,” p. 48. TABLE I.—JWo. of Aurore seen annually at Godthaab and Fakobshavn, compared with Wolf's Sunspot Numbers Years .. 1840 qr 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 Godthiabw./—» iGo!" jog) 484) 87) 7a 32)" ee Jacobshavwn. zo “'rs)' rs’ x8 x2 24 ‘ar! x7 x4 7 ix) eee Sunspots ... 63°2 36°8 24°2 10°7 1570 ior 61°5 984 124°5 95°9 66'5 TABLE II.—The above numbers of Aurore converted into per- centages of their means and compared after smoothing with smoothed Sunspot Numbers * Years ... 1840 41 2 3) sak 45 46 47. 48 49 50 Godthaab... — 84 131 8 SSS 43 It Jacobshavn. 62 93 93 Tir 74 348 axg0 O05) 86 68 130 129 Smoothed means of } 70°5 87 106'2 Iog 109'2 1012 95°7 86'2 88 109 both ] Smoothed 4 " . a 5 nD 2 5 5 A « sunspots | 544 40°2 23°9 I5'r 202 39°r 65°3. 95°6 110°7 95'6 76'3 The figures in Table IT. speak for themselves. To corroborate this law by further observation will necessitate a prolonged sojourn in some region xorvth of the maximum auroral zone, and Greenland appears to be almost the only region where this could be done in the absence of a regular Polar expedition. E. DouGias ARCHIBALD Tunbridge Wells On Cases of the Production of ‘‘Ohm’s (or Langberg’s) Ellipses” by Biaxial Crystals IN examining the macled crystals of potassium chlorate, which are so extremely common in the ordinary crystallised salt, I have found that all those which consist of two hemitrope plates only, nearly equal in thickness, give the above-mentioned secondary interference-curves when placed in homogeneous convergent plane-polarised light. This result is no more than we should expect if the crystals were uniaxial, as Prof. Largberg showed (ogg. Annalen Erginzungsbhd., 1., 540) many years before the curves were independently discovered by Prof. G. S. Ohm (see NATURE for November 27, 1884, p. 83). But potassium chlorate is a biaxial crystal, the angle included by the optic axes being 28° 30° (determined in olive oil), and I donot find that the production of the curves in such crystals has been hitherto noticed. The plane of the optic axes, however, makes so large an angle, viz. 38° 30’ (as determined in olive oil), with the normal to the surfaces of the plates in which potassium chlorate usually crystall- ises, that the isochromatic curves in the vicinity of this normal belong to a very high order, and do not sensibly differ from portions of circles of large radius. Thus in a macle, in which the crystallographic position of one of the components differs by 180° from that of the other, the planes of the optic axes make equal angles of 38° 30’ with the normal on opposite sides of it, and so the conditions determined by Langberg for the production of the secondary ellipses are fulfilled. I have, in fact, made artificial twins of this kind by cementing together plates of the salt oriented as above indicated ; and I find that they show the ellipses precisely as the natural macles do. Of course, in order to see them, the compound plate must be so placed that the plane which includes the normal and the two acute bisectrices makes an angle of 45° with the plane of polarisation of the light. In a good micropolariscope the four optic axes and portions of the lemniscates immediately surrounding them are visible at the edges of the field. ; It is possible, but not common, to find crystals of potassium chlorate consisting of three plates nearly equal in thickness, the top and bottom plates being symmetrically disposed, while the intermediate one differs from them in crystallo- graphic position by 180°. In such cases the secondary in- terference-curves are much more complicated, two sets of ellipses being generally visible, one on each side of the centre of the field (the exact ‘position, of course, depending on the relative thickness of the plates, as Langberg has shown). One macle I have found to consist of five or six distinct plates, and the secondary curves produced by this are too complicated to be easily described. I do not find any marked difference between the curves pro- duced by the iridescent twins and those given by the ordinary macles. Many of the iridescent crystals show,'when the plane of ate2b+e eee) The Forth Bridge. By Benjamin Baker, M.Inst.C.E. 430 Societies and Academies) 9. = = = -)-)-) -1-8 soe NA TORE: 433 THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 1885 10, OUR PRESENT NEEDS F it be fair to forecast the success of a meeting of the British Association by the quality of the addresses delivered by the various presidents, then we may predict that the meeting of this year at Aberdeen, which began yesterday, will stand out among its fellows. We think it would be hard to find any prior occasion on which such a high standard of excellence had been reached all round. The growing use as well as the growing feeling for the need of scientific methods comes out in a most unmis- takable way, while there is no fear that either hearers or readers will be lulled into a Sleepy Hollow of satisfaction or a rest-and-be-thankful feeling. For that much remains to be done even in the way of initial organisation both of teaching and working, is frankly and fearlessly acknow- ledged by several of the speakers. These present needs may well occupy our attention, and we may begin by those pointed out by the President of the Association himself, who speaks both as a man of Science and a politician. No one knows better than “Sir Lyon Playfair how Science can aid the body politic, or knows better how each party when in office neglects or uses this powerful engine for the nation’s good. He begins by quoting these noble words from the address of the President at the Aberdeen Meeting in 1859—the lamented Prince Consort :—“ We may be justified in hoping . . . that the Legislature and the State will more and more recognise the claims of Science to their atten- tion, so that it may no longer require the begging box, but speak to the State like a favoured child to its parent, sure of his paternal solicitude for its welfare ; that the State will recognise in Science one of its elements of strength and prosperity, to foster which the clearest dictates of self-interest demand.” One can get no better idea of the Philistine condition of the Government and of the House of Commons in ‘matters of science than from the fact that much of what follows in the President’s Address has not been said in the House itself instead of at Aberdeen. The real reason perhaps is to be gathered from a remark made by Prof. Chrystal in his address in Section A :— “We all have a great respect for the integrity of our British legislators, whatever doubts may haunt us occa- sionally as to their capacity in practical affairs. The ignorance of many of them regarding some of the most elementary facts that bear on every-day life is very sur- prising. Scientifically speaking, uneducated themselves, they seem to think that they will catch the echo of a fact or the solution of an arithmetical problem by putting their ears to the sounding-shell of uneducated public opinion. When I observe the process which many such people employ for arriving at what they consider truth, I often think of a story I once heard of an eccentric Ger- man student of chemistry. This gentleman was idle, but, like all his nation, systematic. When he had a pre- cipitate to weigh, instead of resorting to his balance, he would go the round of the laboratory, hold up the test-tube before each of his fellow-students in turn, and ask him VOL, XXxXII.—No. 828 to guess the weight. He set down all the replies, took the average, and entered the result in his analysis.” Now if this view of our legislators is shared by men of such acumen as Sir Lyon Playfair and others in the House of Commons more or less connected with science, we can well understand their silence in the modern council of the nation which so little resembles the Witanagemote of former times. In his pleading for more State recognition of science the President points out the present activity of Germany and France, and especially of the United States: ““.. . Both France and Germany make energetic efforts to advance Science with the aid of their national re- sources. More remarkable is it to see a young nation like the United States reserving 150,000,000 acres of national lands for the promotion of scientific education. In some respects this young country is in advance of all European nations in joining Science to its administrative offices. Its scientific publications, like the great paleeon- tological work embodying the researches of Prof. Marsh and his associates in the Geological Survey, are an example to other Governments. The Minister of Agri- culture is surrounded with a staff of botanists and chemists. The Home Secretary is aided by a special Scientific Commission to investigate the habits, migra- tions, and food of fishes, and the latter has at its disposal two specially constructed steamers of large tonnage. The United States and Great Britain promote fisheries on distinct systems. In this country we are perpetually issuing expensive Commissions to visit the coasts in order to ascertain the experiences of fishermen. I have acted as Chairman of one of these Royal Commissions, and found that the fishermen, having only a knowledge of a small area, gave the most contradictory and unsatisfactory evidence. In America the questions are put to Nature, and not to fishermen. Exact and searching investigations are made into the life-history of the fishes, into the temperature of the sea in which they live and spawn, into the nature of their food, and into the habits of their natural enemies. For this purpose the Government give the cooperation of the Navy, and provide the Commission with a special corps of skilled naturalists, some of whom go out with the steamships, and others work in the biological laboratories at Wood’s Holl, Massachusetts, or at Washington. .. . The practical results flowing from these scientific investigations have been important. The inland waters and rivers have been stocked with fish of the best and most suitable kinds. Even the great ocean which washes the coasts of the United States is beginning to be affected by the knowledge thus acquired, and a sensible result is already produced upon the most important of its fisheries. The United Kingdom largely depends upon its fisheries, but as yet our own Government have scarcely realised the value of such scientific investigations as those pursued with success by the United States.” He quotes with approval a passage from Washington’s farewell to his countrymen: “ Promote as an object of primary importance institutions for the general diffusion of knowledge.. In proportion as the structure of a Government gives force to public opinion it is essential that public opinion should be enlightened.” He next points U 434 out that it was not till 1870 that England established a system of education at all, and that now, while all great countries, except our own, have Ministers of Education, we have only Ministers who are managers of primary schools. Passing on to the State need of abstract knowledge, we read as follows :— “Ali, the son-in-law of Mahomet, the fourth successor to the Caliphate, urged upon his followers that men of science and their disciples give security to human pro- gress. Ali loved to say, ‘Eminence in science is the highest of honours ;’ and ‘ He dies not who gives life to learning.’ In addressing you upon texts such as these my purpose was to show how unwise it is for England to lag in the onward march of science when most other European Powers are using the resources of their States to promote higher education and to advance the bound- aries of knowledge. English Governments alone fail to grasp the fact that the competition of the world has become a competition in intellect.” We have seen how Sir Lyon Playfair twits the heads of the Education Department with being merely managers of primary schools. The President of the Chemical Section, Prof. Armstrong, also shows reason why their functions must be expanded if science is ever to get on here. He holds that without State action the difficulties which at present prevent the existing teaching institutions from exercising their full share of influence upon the advancement of our national prosperity are all but in- superable. He foresees the objection that such an inter- ference would deprive teaching-centres of their indi- viduality, but he denies that this must necessarily follow, and we know no one who has a better right to express an opinion on such a subject. Some part indeed of Prof. Armstrong's address is terrible reading. The present chemical education and chemical examinations in this country are, according to him, to a large extent shams, and worse. The students who come to the centres of higher instruction are scarcely reasoning beings—they have never been brought to reason; and at those centres the instruction has been of too technical a character, while hardly anywhere is there an atmosphere of research. We commend this part of Prof. Armstrong’s address strongly to our readers. He points out, among many other matters, the vital import- ance of the research atmosphere, and he frankly states the difficulties felt by earnest men. On this point, indeed, we think him a little too sensitive. Many of the remarks so often made now touching the absence of research in our chemical laboratories apply not to such men as him, but to those whose trading spirit and proclivities are well known—men who discredit the profession to which they belong. Still, it is well that the difficulties should be fairly recorded, especially in juxtaposition with a state- ment that absence of research must always indicate the absence of teaching worthy of the name. A complete revision of the present system, both of teaching and examining in chemistry, is, therefore, ac- cording to Prof. Armstrong, one of the most pressing of our present needs. Are the other sciences better off? Certainly not mathematics if Prof. Chrystal has a right to speak for that branch: NATURE | Sept. to, 1885 “All men practically engaged in teaching who have learned enough, in spite of the defects of their own early training, to enable them to take a broad view of the matter, are agreed as to the canker which turns every- thing that is good in our educational practice to evil. It is the absurd prominence of written competitive examina- tions that works all this mischief.” But some may think that in the setting of problems mathematics teachers have an advantage over others in preventing unintelligent cramming. This is not Prof. Chrystal’s opinion : “The history of this matter of problems, as they are called, illustrates in a singularly instructive way the weak point of our English system of education. They origin- ated, I fancy, in the Cambridge Mathematical Tripos Ex- amination, as a reaction against the abuses of cramming bookwork, and they have spread into almost every branch of science teaching—witness test-tubing in chemistry. At first they may have been a good thing; at all events the tradition at Cambridge was strong in my day, that he that could work the most problems in three or two and a half hours was the ablest man, and, be he ever so ignorant of his subject in-its width and breadth, could afford to despise those less gifted with this particular kind of superficial sharpness. But, in the end, came all to the same : we were prepared for problem-working in exactly the same way as for bookwork. We were directed to work through old problem papers, and study the style and peculiarities of the day and of the examiner. The day and the examiner had, in truth, much to do with it, and fashion reigned in problems as in everything else. The only difference I could ever see between problems and bookwork was the greater predominance of the in- spiriting element of luck in the former. This advantage was more than compensated for by the peculiarly dis- jointed and, from a truly scientific point of view, worthless nature of the training which was employed to cultivate this species of mental athletics. The result, so far as problems worked in examinations go, is, after all, very miserable, as the reiterated complaints of examiners show ; the effect on the examinee is a well-known ener- vation of mind, an almost incurable superficiality, which might be called Problematic Paralysis—a disease which unfits a man to follow an argument extending beyond the length of a printed octavo page.” As to the crying present need, Profs. Chrystal and Armstrong are at one. We want a higher ideal of educa- tion in general and of scientific education in particular : “ Science cannot live among the people, and scientific education cannot be more than a wordy rehearsal of dead text-books, unless we have living contact with the working minds ofliving men. It takes the hand of God to make a great mind, but contact with a great mind will make a little mind greater. The most valuable instruction in any art or science is to sit at the feet of a master, and the next best to have contact with another who has himself been so instructed. No agency that I have ever seen at work can compare for efficiency with an intelligent teacher, who has thoroughly made his subject his own. It is by providing such, and not by sowing the dragon’s teeth of examinations, that we can hope to raise up an intelligent generation of scientifically educated men, whe shall help our race to keep its place in the struggle of | Sept. 10, 1885 | nations. In the future we must look more to men and to ideas, and trust less to mere systems. Systems have had their trial. In particular, systems of examination have been tested and found wanting in nearly every civilised country on the face of the earth.” What we have written will show what food for thought in the matter of our present needs has been provided at Aberdeen for those gathered together for the advance- ment of science. Surely the three addresses to which we have specially referred in the present article suggest a gap in the organisation of the Association. Why should there not be a section to deal specially with the question of Education and Research ? THE “DECOMPOSITION” OF DIDYMTUIT i | NDER the above title the Chemical News has recently reprinted from the Chemiker Zeitung a notice of an important piece of work recently communicated to the Vienna Academy by Dr. C. A. von Welsbach. The work appears to have resulted in the discovery that the ‘‘ dyad or triad element ” didymium with an “ atomic weight” of 48 or 96, or 147, according to the text-books employed, and which since its separation by Mosander in 1841 has been investigated by Marignac, Hermann, Watts, Bunsen, Deville, and Erk, not to mention many others, is no element at all, but is built up of two substances which can be separated from each other by an ordinary chemical process. The “decomposition” was in fact effected by means of the double ammonium or sodium nitrates in presence of lanthanum salt. The colours of the salts of the two substances are quite different. The salts of that which approaches lanthanum in its chemical characteristics are of a leek-green, those of the other substance are rose or amethyst red, and it is this substance which exists in greatest quantity in didy- mium. Dr. von Welsbach proposes for these two new substances the names of “ praseodymium” and “neo- dymium.” It will be readily seen that from the chemical point of view alone these results are of very high interest, but there is another from which they assume a very great importance. The “element” didymium after it was separated by the chemist had been handed over to the physicists. Gladstone, we believe, was among the first to note the characteristic absorption spectrum of the salts. In this work he was followed by Bahr and Bunsen, Erk and others. Thalén determined its spark spectrum, and in our spectroscopic literature didymium has taken its place by the side of hydrogen and iron as a characteristic spectrum-giving element. Now one of the arguments which has been used in support of the view put forward some time ago of the dissociation of the chemical elements at solar tempera- tures is that at one “heat level” in the sun’s atmosphere (a term coined because the sun’s atmosphere must get hotter as we go down, and we have means of determining which vapours ascend from hotter regions and which descend from cooler ones) we get some lines of the spec- trum of a substance, let us say iron, and at another we get others ; so that to get the complete spectrum of iron, as we see it when we use iron in our laboratories, we have NATURE 455 to add together the two sets of lines seen in the spectra of parts of the sun known to be at different temperatures. To make our statements more precise we may say that the lines of iron seen bright in the spectra of solar prominences and those seen widened in the spectra of solar spots are so different that it may be said that there is hardly a line common to both. So much so that, as was said years ago, if we did not know iron here, and the fact that its spectrum contains both sets of lines, we should say that the prominences gd iron contained one substance, and the spots gw@ iron contained another. These facts were explained by the hypothesis that there were in the so-called element iron at least two different substances or molecular groupings, one of which alone could withstand the higher temperature of the promin~- ences. The reason that do//% sets of lines and many others are seen in the spectrum of iron in the high- tension spark is that the temperature of the spark is sufficient to carry the solid metal through the series of simplifications, whether many or few, which lie between the limits formed by the solid state and the temperature of the prominences. _ To this it has been objected that if these things exist in iron they should be isolated and put in bottles. To this it has been replied that the bottles themselves must be incandescent, or the “things” will unite again as they have done before to form iron as we know it. Now the real importance of Dr. von Welsbach’s work is that what has not yet been done for iron—to prove beyond all cavil the above hypothesis—he has done for didymium. He has got into two bottles, which we may mentally label “spot bottle,” “ prominence bottle,” two substances from the “element” didymium, each of which has a characteristic spectrum consisting of different parts of the spectrum of didymium just as the spots and promin- ences have spectra gud iron, which are different parts of the spectrum of iron. Further, by mixing the substances in these two bottles together in proper proportions he can produce a third, which gives the mapped spectrum of didymium.exactly as in the general spectrum of the sun, in which we get, added together, the absorptions of the hotter and cooler regions represented by prominences and spots, we have gzd iron, something not unlike the arc spectrum of that substance. There is no doubt that the interest of both chemists and physicists will be keenly excited by Von Welsbach’s work, and that it will be critically examined and re- peated. If it be confirmed we may hope that some day similar work will be undertaken here. The way is open, and has been cleared in a remarkable way. Formerly it was imagined that very high temperatures and new chemical methods were the sole agents to which appeal could be made in such a case; it may turn out that there are reagents to hand if chemists will turn their attention to them. It is further clear that the ‘‘elements” with high atomic weight should be the first to be attacked. Those who consider the spectrum of cerium, for instance, which in the blue and violet portion is richer in lines than the spectrum of the sun itself, to be produced by the vibra- tion of “the chemical atom” or “ the chemical molecule,” no matter which, will find themselves in a hopeless minority, now that the simpler explanation of a mixed 436 WA TORE [ Sept. 10, 1885 o1igin has apparently received confirmation in the case of another substance. But although we have chiefly confined ourselves to the spectroscopic bearing of the work, it is not too much to say of it that, if this separation be in the sense as indi- cated, it is the most important work in mineral chemistry we have had for many years. By patient work the group of cerium, didymium, &c., metals has yielded several new metallic oxides, differing considerably from didymium, but having the same general reactions, being members of the same group in fact. The difference in the ordinary chemical reactions of cerium, lanthanum, didymium, scandium, terbium, ytterbium, and probably samarium is generally very slight, and they can only be separated by long-continued operations, nearly always cases of frac- tional separation. The close relationship of these metallic oxides has been long recognised, and the group has been considered peculiar in this respect, and in consequence an immense amount of labour has been expended upon it, more than has ever been expended on groups of other metallic oxides. Indeed, the notion that heat is the agent of chemical resolution seems to have gained such a hold that apparently for the last two, or three, decades, with the exception of the cerite metals, it is the only reagent the action of which has been taken as definitive in esta- blishing a thing to be an element. We are not aware that any records of patient work on chromium exist, attempts to isolate any other substance from chromium oxide other than our ordinary chromium. The general properties of this, or these, oxides surely invite to further investigation. And in the case of nickel and cobalt which appear almost to be isomers, there is a fine field for investigation which might be as profitably cultivated perhaps as an almost infinite series of carbon compounds. OUR BOOK SHELF Annuaire géologique unive*).. et Guide du Géologie autour de la Terre. Par le Dr. Dagincourt. (Paris : Comptoir géologique de Paris, 1885.) THIS is the first annual issue of a geological guide edited by the Secretary to the Geological Society of France, which cannot fail to be of the greatest use as a book of reference to those concerned with geology all over the world. Multum in parvo would be a very suitable motto for the book, for the amount of information which it con- tains in a small space is really marvellous. The editor does not profess to have carried out the whole of the programme which he has set before himself in the present issue ; but it was decided to bring out the volume this year on account of the meeting of the Geological.Congress at Berlin, and also in order that he may be able in the ensuing issue to profit by private and public criticism. The best criticism of it will be a bare statement of its contents. It first describes the history, various meetings and utility of the Congress of Geologists, with the pro- ceedings at the meetings in Paris and Bologna. It then takes the continents in alphabetical order, and the countries in them in the same way, and supplies a mass of geological information of all kinds with regard to each. Taking as an example the first country under the head Europe, which is Germany (Allemagne), we find a list of books on the bibliography of German geology, of general (as dis- tinguished from special and detailed) geological maps, and of the leading works on certain districts ; these are succeeded by a general sketch of the geological features of Germany, and of the occurrence of the various geological systems';{then a detailed?account of the organisa- tion for the production of geological maps in the various countries and provinces composing the German Empire ; then a sketch of the institutions in which geology is taught, the various universities with their professors, laboratories, collections, museums, &c., the professors at the various polytechnic and agronomical schools, the public and private geological collections, with in some cases, brief descriptions of the principal features (these occupy a considerable space), then the various geological societies, with their organisations; next the periodical publications, their prices, size, general nature of the con- tents, divided into five classes—(1) those specially geo- logical, (2) those containing from time to time geological papers, (3) geographical periodicals containing geological papers, (4) those devoted to mining, (5) collections of geological and paleontological memoirs. These lists are succeeded by others which form a very important feature of the work—viz. the names, addresses, and special fields of all the geologists in the German empire ; and finally the titles of all the books and papers which have appeared during the past year on mineralogy, petrography, geology, and paleontology, arranged in alphabetical order. This description of the volume under the head “ Allemagne,” will give an accurate idea of the scope and arrangement of the book, for although circumstances have prevented the scheme being carried out with the same degree of thoroughness for every part of the globe, the volume will year by year approach nearer to, doubtless even improve upon, this standard. In the case of Great Britain, for instance, the issue for 1886 will contain a thorough study of our geology, and its teaching in our universities and other public institutions. Its ultimate completeness must naturally depend much on the assistance which the editor receives from geologists all over the world in supplying information, making the necessary alterations required by time, offering suggestions and adding corrections ; and the volume is so useful and full in design that we have little doubt Dr. Dagincourt’s fellow-geologists will willingly help him to carry it out in all its details. We observe that Tasmania has by an error been put amongst Asiatic countries instead of in Australasia. LETTERS TO THE EDITOR [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts. No notice ts taken of anonymous communications. [The Editor urgently requests correspondents to keep their letters as short as possible. The pressure on his space is so great that it ts impossible otherwise to insure the appearance even of communications containing interesting and novel facts. | The Meteoric Cycle and Stonehenge WE are now passing through the hundredth meteoric cycle of nineteen years, which commenced with a.p. 1882, and will terminate with A.D. 1900. These cycles began with the year of om Saviour’s birth, and our prayer books contain tables showing for many successive years on what days Easter days and our movable festivals will occur. At the end of every such cycle the new and full moons happen within an hour and a half of the same time of the year as they did at the beginning. With these cycles is commonly associated the name of Meton, an astronomer of Athens, who wrote a book on the subject, by which the Greeks regulated the recurrence of their festivals. He flourished 432 years B.C. But the knowledge of these cycles existed in England centuries before the time of Meton, as I will presently show, and it is probable that the four very ancient erections supposed to have been temples of the sun near Penzance, had reference to this cycle of nineteen years, as they each consisted originally of nineteen stones placed upright and rising from 3 to 6 feet above the ground in rude circles varying in diameter from 65 to 80 feet. These temples are still existing, although some of their stones have fallen, and they are miles from each other, but are all called in the printed maps, as well as immemorially, by one and the same name, viz. ‘‘ Vine Sept. 10, 1885 | NATURE 437 Maidens,” which is simply an abbreviation for /MVinefeen Maidens. The following quotation from Diodorus Siculus (Book II. chap. iii. Booth’s Trans., page 139), who flourished about forty-four years B.C., will be an historical confirmation of what I have above stated :— “* Amongst those who have written old stories much like fables, Hecatzeus (born 549 years B.C.) and some others say that there is an island in the ocean over against Gaul (as big as Sicily) under the Arctic pole, where the Hyperboreans inhabit, so called because they lie beyond the breezes of the north wind ; that the soil there is very rich and fruitful, and the climate temperate, inasmuch as there are two crops in the year.” This description does not apply to the whole of the island referred to, but represents Mount’s Bay, its most south-western extremity, and we may therefore conclude that those from whom Hecatzeus and the others derived their information were the Pheenician traders who for centuries previously frequented Mount’s Bay for tin and fish, and who imagined all Britain to possess the same rich soil and mild climate as Mount’s Bay where still “* there are two crops in the year.” But to proceed with the quotation :— “They say that Latona was born there, that they worship Apollo above all other gods, and the inhabitants demean them- selves as if they were Apollo’s priests, who has there a stately grove and a renowned temple of a round form, and that there is a city likewise consecrated to this god. The sovereignty of this city and the care of the temple (they say) belong to the Boreades.” This city and this ‘‘ renowned temple of a round form” are doubtless those of Old Sarum and Stonehenge, the inner oval of which, immediately around the altar, consists of precisely nineteen stones (see the plate in Dr. Stukeley’s ‘* Stonehenge,” page 20). But the four temples of the sun above described of nineteen stones each, placed upright ‘‘in a round form” to represent the cycle of nineteen years, are not mentioned by Diodorus, as they were probably deemed not worthy of notice after alluding to the renowned temple of Stonehenge. The passage concludes as follows :— “‘They say, moreover, that Apollo once in nineteen years comes into the island, in which space of time the stars perform their courses, and return to the same point, and therefore the Greeks call the revolution of nineteen years ‘the great year.’” Plymouth, August R. EDMONDS Nebula in Andromeda Last night the nebula in Andromeda was observed here. The stellar-like nucleus was distinctly seen. It appeared to be of a reddish-yellow colour as contrasted with that of the nebula. We think that a change has certainly taken place, no such stellar-like centre having previously been seen in the nucleus. The stellar point was examined with a small prism held between the eye-piece and the eye. A continuous spectrum was seen. Dr. Boeddicher and I were both convinced that there were considerable inequalities in its light, and independently formed the impression that there was at times a bright band or line in the green. The colour of the stellar point appeared much the same as that of Aldebaran. RossE Observatory, Birr Castle, September 8 Sunsets IN July of this year I spent a short time in the Schwarzwald of Baden. For more than a week the sky was cloudless day and night, yet the heat was not oppressive. The sunsets were beautiful beyond description, and the after-glows magnificent. One evening in particular will always remain impressed upon my memory. It was that of July 26, and the place was a few miles from the town of Neustadt, nearly in the centre of the forest. Wonderful effects began to appear so soon as the sun touched the crest of the western hills. But these were as nothing compared with what followed. The moment the lumin- ary had disappeared behind the hills long streamers began to radiate high up into the heavens, and for a time, as the daylight diminished, they increased both in length and intensity, rivalling any description or figures of the Arctic auroras that I have ever seen ; at the same time the most vivid and ever-changing glow lit up the whole western heavens. The scene lasted more than an hour, and its effect was heightened by, and perhaps partly due to, a nearly full moon, which rose from behind a slight dip or pass in the hills on the eastern side of the valley. The in- habitants of the Schwarzwald are indubitably phlegmatic, and not easily moved to excitement ; but this display of celestial pyrotechnics was too much for them, and at a small roadside inn the carters and others who were enjoying their beer inside turned out ez masse to witness it. I am not a strong admirer of Turner’s pictures, but, in comparing nature with art, one idea came uppermost—the scene was ‘‘ Turneresque.”” Lewisham, S.E., September 3 R. McLAcHLAN Pulsation in the Veins Mr. HipPmsLey will find a very simple way of showing pulsa- tion in the veins, as well as in the arteries, by fixing a long bristle or thread of sealing-wax over the vessel by means of a little tallow. The end of the lever will vibrate and produce all the movements of the sphygmograph. This method was adopted by Mr. Wilkinson King nearly fifty years ago, and the instru- ment styled by him the sphygmometer. In his paper in the Guy’s Hospital Reports for 1837, “On the Safety Valve Func- tion of the Right Ventricle of the Heart,” will be found much valuable matter and discussion about venous pulsation. August 29 S We Red Hail Vu Vinterét que peut offrir la coloration de la gréle, j’espere que vous voudrez bien inserer ces quelques lignes dans votre journal : “* La gréle colorée en rouge, observée par Mr. Mullan et dont il est question dans Je No. 812 de ce journal, n’est pas un fait . ’ , 2 a. isole. Ona observe un cas analogue en 1880, le = juin, en 14 Russie. Les grélons de cette chute-la étaient intéressants sous plus d’un rapport. Leur forme se ramenait a trois types: paralléli- pipede, cylindre, spheroide trés-aplati et muni de cavité aux bouts de la petite axe. Certains de ces grélons étaient perces de part en part, le long de la petite axe, ce qui leur donnait l’apparence des anneaux. Certains des grélons étaient colorés en rouge-pale, dautres avaient la couleur bleu-pale, mais pour la plupart les grélons étaient grisou blanc. L’observateur, M. Lagounowitch, crut avoir remarqué que la couleur était lige 4 la forme des grélons. Je cite ces faits et j’en propose l’explication dans ma brochure, ‘ Sur l’Origine de la Gréle.’”’ THEODORE SCHWEDOFF, Professeur de Physique a l'Université d’Odessa Odessa, le us aout, 1885 27 On the Terminology of the Mathematical Theory of Electricity MR. SUTHERLAND’s letter on terminology (NATURE, vol. Xxxil. p. 391) leads me to suggest to Mr. Scott the employment of the term /ow-fression for depression in his weather forecasts sent to the newspapers. It is nearly as easily pronounced and written, and will not have such a tendency to mislead the general public as to there being a depressing of the air where it really ascends. HENRY MUIRHEAD Cambuslang THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION Aberdeen, Monday {ss place has evidently been astir for days in antici- pation of the present meeting. Already are the directions necessary for visitors finding their way to the various sections put up in conspicuous places in Union Street and the neighbourhood of Marischal College. The accommodation in the fine building for reception rooms, committee rooms, reading, sectional, and other rooms, seems, so far as can be judged at present, every- thing that could be desired. It is evident that the Local Committee have been working in earnest to make the second Aberdeen meeting a success, and their efforts have been heartily supported by the citizens and country people. Up to Saturday 1000/. worth of tickets had been sold to local people alone, and many more will be sold between this and Wednesday. Of old members of the Association 750 have already written that they intend to be present 438 and it is confidently anticipated that quite 2500 people will take out tickets for the meeting. This great influx of strangers has tasked the available accommodation in Aberdeen, and, as might be expected, the charges in hotels and lodging-houses are somewhat exorbitant. Of foreigners who are to be present one of the most distinguished is Prof. O. C. Marsh, the well-known Ameri- can paleontologist, who. it is expected, will take part in the proceedings of both Cand D. Others are the Abbé Renard of Brussels, Dr. Max Schuster of Vienna, Dr. von Dechen of Bonn, and Prof. Radlkofer of Munich. It is expected that Mr. Im Thurn, the naturalist, who recently ascended Mount Roraima in British Guiana, will be able to be here, and tell personally of his ascent and its important results. Of the excursions, that to Balmoral on Saturday is evidently the favourite, and there will be considerable competition to be included among the 150. The Earl of Crawford has for the same day invited sixty members to visit Dunecht, where the observatory will be inspected, and where the archzeologists will be shown the “ Barnekin of Dunecht.” The Earl of Crawford also contributed several very valuable and interesting objects to a fine exhibition of antiquities, old books and manuscripts, that is being arranged. Among the expeditions arranged for Thursday the 17th, is one specially for geologists, to Portsoy; and for the same day the Rev. W. Gordon invites a party of naturalists to Braemar. Among the local establishments which will be open to the inspection of visitors are several of the great granite works for which Aberdeen is so famous. Anothex exhibition of special interest, arranged by the Scottish Geographical Society, will consist of Scottish maps, including some 150 different maps, atlases, guides, and special topographical works. If one may judge from the present appearance of the weather, the meteorological conditions promise to be favourable, and, if so, the meeting will be sure to be successful, so far as pleasuring is concerned, while the discussions that have been arranged for the Sections A and B are likely to give it considerable scientific im- portance. INAUGURAL ADDRESS BY THE RIGHT Hon. SIR PLAYFAIR, K.C.B., M.P., F.R.S., PRESIDENT LYON I. Visit to Canada.—Our last meeting at Montreal was a notable event in the life of the British Association, and even marked a distinct epoch in the history of civilisation. It was by no mere accident that the constitution of the Association enabled it to embrace all parts of the British Empire. Science is. truly catholic, and is bounded only by the universe. In rela- tion to our vast empire, science, as well as literature and art, are the common possession of all its varying people. The United Kingdom is limited to 120,800 square miles, inhabited by 35 millions of people ; but the empire as a whole has 84 millions of square miles, with a population of 305 millions. To federate such vast possessions and so teeming a population into a political unit is a work only to be accomplished by the labours and per- sistent efforts of perhaps several generations of statesmen. The federation of its science is a subject of less dimensions well within the range of experiment. No part of the British Empire was more suited than Canada to try whether her science could be federated with our science. Canada has lately federated dis- tinct provinces, with conflicting interests arising from difference of races, nationalities, and religions. Political federation is not new in the history of the world, though it generally arises as a consequence of war, It was war that taught the Netherlands to federate in 1619. It was war which united the States in America ; federated Switzerland, Germany, and Austria, and unified Italy. But Canada formed a great national life out of petty provincial existences in a time of profound peace. This evolution gave an immense impulse to her national resources. The Dominion still requires consolidation in its vast extent, and applied science is rapidly effecting it. Canada, with its great expanse of territory, nearly as large as the United States, is being knit together by the iron bands of railways from the Gulf NATURE [ Sept. 10, 1885 of St. Lawrence to the Pacific Ocean, so that the fertile lands of Ontario, Manitoba, Columbia, and the North-Western terri- tories will soon be available to the world. Still practical science has much to accomplish. England and France, with only one- fifth the fertile area of Canada, support 80 millions of people, while Canada hasa population not exceeding 5 millions, A less far-seeing people than the Canadians might have invited the applied science which they so much require. But they knew that without science there are no applications. They no doubt felt with Emerson— ‘* And what if Trade sow cities Like shells along the shore, And thatch with towns the prairie broad With railways ironed o'er: They are but sailing foam-bells Along Thought's causing stream, And take their shape and sun-colour From him that sends the dream.” So it was witha far-reaching foresight that the Canadian Govern- ment invited the British Association for the Advancement of Science to meet in Montreal. The inhabitants of Canada received us with open arms, and the science of the Dominion and that of the United Kingdom were welded. We found in Canada, as we had every reason to expect, men of manly and self-reliant character, who loved not less than we did the old home from which they had come. Among them is the same healthiness of political and moral life, with the same love of truth which distinguishes the English people. Our great men are their great men: our Shakspeare, Milton, and Burns belong to them as much as to ourselves ; our Newton, Dalton, Faraday, and Darwin are their men of science as much as they are ours. Thus a common possession and mutual sympathy made the meeting in Canada a successful effort to stimulate the progress of science, while it established, at the same time, the principle that all people of British origin—and I would fain include our cousins in the United States—possess a common interest in the intel- lectual glories of their race, and ought, in science at least, to constitute part and parcel of a common empire, whose heart may beat in the small islands of the northern seas, but whose blood circulates in all her limbs, carrying warmth to them and bringing back vigour to us. Nothing can be more cheering to our Association than to know that many of the young communities of English-speaking people all over the globe—in India, China, Japan, the Straits, Ceylon, Australia, New Zealand, the Cape— have founded scientific societies in order to promote the growth of scientific research. No doubt science, which is only a form of truth, is one in all lands, but still its unity of purpose and fulfilment received an important practical expression by our visit to Canada. This community of science will be continued by the fact that we have invited Sir William Dawson, of Montreal, to be our next President at Birmingham. Il. Science and the State.—I cannot address you in Aberdeen without recollecting that when we last met in this city our President was a great prince. The just verdict of time is that, high as was his royal rank, he has a far nobler claim to our regard as a lover of humanity in its widest sense, and especially as a lover of those arts and sciences which do so much to adorn it. On September 14, 1859, I sat on this platform and listened to the eloquent address and wise counsel of the Prince Consort. At one time a member of his household, it was my privilege to co-operate with this illustrious prince in many questions relating to the advancement of science. I naturally, therefore, turned to his presidential address to see whether I might not now con- tinue those counsels which he then gave with all the breadth and comprehensiveness of his masterly speeches. I found, as I expected, a text for my own discourse in some pregnant remarks which he made upon the relation of science to the State. They are as follows :—‘* We may be justified in hoping . . . that the Legislature and the State will more and more recognise the claims of science to their attention, so that it may no longer require the begging-box, but speak to the State like a favoured child to its parent, sure of his paternal solicitude for its welfare ; that the State will recognise in science one of its elements of strength and prosperity, to foster which the clearest dictates of self-interest demand.” This opinion, in its broadest sense, means that the relations of science to the State should be made more intimate because the advance of science is needful to the public weal. The importance of promoting science as a duty of statecraft was well enough known to the ancients, especially to the Greeks and Arabs, but it ceased to be recognised in the dark ages, and Sept. 10, 1885 | NATORE 439 was lost to sight during the revival of letters in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Germany and France, which are now in such active competition in promoting science, have only publicly acknowledged its national importance in recent times. Even in the last century, though France had its Lavoisier and Germany its Leibnitz, their Governments did not know the value of science. When the former was condemned to death in the Reign of Terror, a petition was presented to the rulers that his life might be spared for a few weeks in order that he might complete some important experiments, but the reply was, ‘‘ The Republic has no need of savants.” Earlier in the century the much-praised Frederick William of Prussia shouted with a loud voice, during a graduation ceremony in the University of Frank- fort, ‘*An ounce of mother-wit is worth a ton of university wisdom.” Both France and Germany are now ashamed of these utterances of their rulers, and make energetic efforts to advance science with the aid of their national resources. More remark- able is it to see a young nation like the United States reserving 150,000,000 acres of national lands for the promotion of scien- tific education. In some respects this young country is in advance of all European nations in joining science to its administrative offices. Its scientific publications, like the great palzeontclogical work embodying the researches of Prof. Marsh and his asso- ciates in the Geological Survey, are an example to other Govern- ments. The Minister of Agriculture is surrounded with a staff of botanists and chemists. The Home Secretary is aided by a special Scientific Commission to investigate the habits, migra- tions, and food of fishes, and the latter has at its disposal two specially-constructed steamers of large tonnage. The United States and Great Britain promote fisheries on distinct systems. In this country we are perpetually issuing expensive Commis- sions to visit the coasts in order to ascertain the experiences of fishermen. I have acted as chairman of one of these Royal Commissions, and found that the fishermen, having only a knowledge of a small area, gave the most contradictory and un- satisfactory evidence. In America the questions are put to Nature, and not to fishermen. Exact and searching investiga- tions are made into the life-history of the fishes, into the tem- perature of the sea in which they live and spawn, into the nature of their food, and into the habits of their natural ene- mies. For this purpose the Government give the co-operation of the navy, and provide the Commission with a special corps of skilled naturalists, some of whom go out with the steamships and others work in the biological laboratories at Wood’s Holl, Massachusetts, or at Washington. The different universities send their best naturalists to aid in these investigations, which are under the direction of Mr. Baird, of the Smithsonian Insti- tution. The annual cost of the Federal Commission is about 40,000/., while the separate States spend about 20,000/. in local efforts. The practical results flowing from these scientific in- vestigations have been important. The inland waters and rivers have been stocked with fish of the best and most suitable kinds. Even the great ocean which washes the coasts of the United States is beginning to be affected by the knowledge thus ac- quired, and a sensible result is already produced upon the most important of its fisheries. The United Kingdom largely depends upon its fisheries, but as yet our own Government have scarcely realised the value of such scientific investigations as those pur- sued with success by the United ‘States. Less systematically, but with great benefit to science, our own Government has used the surveying expeditions, and sometimes has equipped special expeditions to promote natural history and solar physics. Some of the latter, like the voyage of the Challenger, have added largely to the store of knowledge ; while the former, though not primarily intended for scientific research, have had an in- direct result of infinite value by becoming training-schools for such investigators as Edward Forbes, Darwin, Hooker, Huxley, Wyville Thomson, and others. In the United Kingdom we are just beginning to understand the wisdom of Washington’s farewell address to his country- men when he said ; “‘ Promote as an object of primary import- ance institutions for the general diffusion of knowledge. In proportion as the structure of a government gives force to public opinion, it is essential that public opinion should be enlightened.” It was only in 1870 that our Parliament established a system of national primary education. Secondary education is chaotic, and remains unconnected with the State, while the higher educa- tion of the universities is only brought at distant intervals under the view of the State. All great countries except England have Ministers of Education, but this country has only Ministers who are the managers of primary schools. We are inferior even to smaller countries in the absence of organised State supervision of education. Greece, Portugal, Egypt, and Japan have distinct Ministers of Education, and so also among our Colonies have Victoria and New Zealand. Gradually England is gathering materials for the establishment of an efficient Education Minister. The Department of Science and Art is doing excellent work in diffusing a taste for elementary science among the working classes. There are now about 78,000 persons who annually come under the influence of its science classes, while a small number of about 200, many of them teachers, receive thorough instruction in science at the excellent school in South Kens- ington, of which Prof. Huxley is the Dean. I do not dwell on the work of this Government department, because my object is chiefly to point out how it is that science lags in its progress in the United Kingdom owing to the deficient interest taken in it by the middle and upper classes. The working classes are being roused from their indifference. They show this by their selection of scientific men as candidates at the next election. Among these are Profs. Stuart, Roscoe, Maskelyne, and Ricker. It has its significance that such a humble representative of science as myself received invitations from working-class con- stituencies in more than a dozen of the leading manufacturing towns. In the next Parliament I do not doubt that a Minister of Education will be’created as fa nucleus around which the various educational materials may crystallise in a definite form. Ill. Sczence and Secondary Education.—Various Royal Com- missions have made inquiries and issued recommendations in regard to our public and endowed schools. The Commissions of 1861, 1864, 1868, and 1873 have expressed the strongest dis- approval of the condition of our schools, and, so far as science is concerned, their state is much the same as when the Duke of Devonshire’s Commission in 1873 reported in the following words :—‘* Considering the increasing importance of science to the material interests of the country, we cannot but regard its almost total exclusion from the training of the upper and middle classes as little less than a national misfortune.” No doubt there are excep- tional cases and some brilliant examples of improvement since these words were written, but generally throughout the country teaching in science is a name rather than a reality. The Technical Commission which reported last year can only point to three schools in Great Britain in which science is fully and adequately taught. While the Commission gives us the conso- lation that England is still in advance as an industrial nation, it warns us that foreign nations, which were not long ago far behind, are now making more rapid progress than this country, and will soon pass it in the race of competition unless we give increased attention to science in public education. A few of the large towns, notably Manchester, Bradford, Huddersfield, and Birmingham, are doing so. The working classes are now re- ceiving better instruction in science than the middle classes. The competition of actual life asserts its own conditions, for the children of the latter find increasing difficulty in obtaining em- ployment. The cause of this lies in the fact that the schools for the middle classes have not yet adapted themselves to the needs of modern life. It is true that many of the endowed schools have been put under new schemes, but as there is no public supervision or inspection of them, we have no knowledge as to whether they have prospered or slipped back. Many corporate schools have arisen, some of them, like Clifton, Cheltenham. and Marlborough Colleges, doing excellent educational work, though as regards all of them the public have no rights and can- not enforce guarantees for efficiency. A return just issued, on the motion of Sir John Lubbock, shows a lamentable deficiency in science teaching in a great proportion of the endowed schools. While twelve to sixteen hours a week are devoted to classics. two to three hours are considered ample for science in a large proportion of the schools. In Scotland there are only six schools in the Return which give more than two hours to science weekly, while in many schools its teaching is wholly omitted. Every other part of the kingdom stands in a better position than Scotland in relation to the science of its endowed schools. The old traditions of education stick as firmly to schools as a limpet does to a rock; though I do the limpet injustice, for it does make excursions to seek pastures new. Are we to give up in despair because _an exclusive system of classical education has resisted the assaults of such cultivated authors as Milton, Montaigne, Cowley, and Locke? There was once an en- lightened Emperor of China, Chi Hwangti, who knew that his country was kept back by its exclusive devotion to the classics 440 of Confucius and Mencius. He invited 500 of the teachers to bring their copies of these authors to Pekin, and after giving a great banquet in their honour, he buried alive the professors along with their manuscripts in a deep pit. But Confucius and Mencius still reign supreme. I advocate milder measures, and depend for their adoption on the force of public opinion. The needs of modern life will force schools to adapt themselves to a scientific age. _Grammar-schools believe themselves to be im- mortal. Those curious immortals—the Struldburgs—described by Swift, ultimately regretted their immortality, because they found themselves out of touch, sympathy, and fitness with the centuries in which they lived. As there is no use clamouring for an instrument of more compass and power until we have made up our minds as to the tune, Prof. Huxley, in his evidence before a Parliamentary Committee in 1884, has given a time-table for grammar-schools. He demands that out of their forty hours for public and private study, ten should be given to modern Janguages and _ history, eight to arithmetic and mathematics, six to science, and two to geography, thus leaving fourteen hours to the dead languages. No time-table would, however, be suitable to all schools. The great public schools of England will continue to be the gymnasia for the upper classes, and should devote much of their time to classical and literary culture. Even now they introduce into their curriculum subjects unknown to them when the Royal Commission of 1868 reported, though they still accept science with timidity. Unfortunately the other grammar-schools which educate the middle classes look to the higher public schools as a type to which they should conform, although their functions are so different. It is in the interest of the higher public schools that this difference should be recognised, so that, while they give an all-round education and expand their curriculum by a freer recognition of the value of science as an educational power in developing the faculties of the upper classes, the schools for the middle classes should adapt themselves to the needs of their existence, and not keep up a slayish imitation of schools with a different function. The old classical grammar-schools may view these remarks as a direct attack upon them, and so it is in one sense, but it is like the stroke of Ithuriel’s spear, which heals while it wounds. The stock argument against the introduction of modern sub- jects into grammar schools is that it is better to teach Latin and Greek thoroughly rather than various subjects less completely. But is it true that thoroughness in teaching dead languages is the result of an exclusive system? In 1868 the Royal Commission stated that even in the few great public schools thoroughness was only given to 30 per cent. of the scholars, at the sacrifice of 70 per cent. who got little benefit from the system. Since then the curriculum has been widened and the teaching has improved. I question the soundness of the principle that it is better to limit the attention of the pupils mainly to Latin and Greek, highly as I value their educational power to a certain order of minds. As in biology the bodily development of animals is from the general to the special, so is it in the mental development of man. In the school a boy shauld be aided to discover the class of know- ledge that is best suited for his mental capacities, so that, in the upper forms of the school and in the university, knowledge may be specialised in order to cultivate the powers of the man to their fullest extent. Shakspeare’s educational formula may not be altogether true, but it contains a broad basis of truth— “* No profit goes, where is no pleasure ta’en ;— In brief, sir, study what you most affect.” The comparative failure of the modern side of school educa- tion arises from constituting it out of the boys who are looked upon as classical asses. Milton pointed out that in all schools there are boys to whom the dead languages are ‘‘ like thorns and thistles,” which form a poor nourishment even for asses. If teachers looked upon these classical asses as beings who might receive mental nurture according to their nature, much higher results would follow the bifurcation of our schools. Saul went out to look for asses and he found a kingdom. Surely this fact is more encouraging than the example of Gideon, who ‘“‘ took thorns of the wilderness and briars, and with these he éawg/¢ the men of Succoth.” } The adaptation of public schools toa scientific age does not involve a contest as to whether science or classics shall prevail, for both are indispensable to true education. The real question is whether schools will undertake the duty of moulding the minds of boys according to their mental varieties. Classics, 1 Judges, viii, 16. ee TOE [ Sept. 10, 1885 from their structural perfection and power of awakening dormant faculties, have claims to precedence in education, but they have none to a practical monopoly. It is by claiming the latter that teachers sacrifice mental receptivity to a Procrustean uniformity. The universities are changing their traditions more rapidly than the schools. The vza antigua which leads to them is still broad, though a wa moderna, with branching avenues, is also open to their honours and emoluments. Physical science, which was once neglected, is now encouraged at the universities. As to the 70 per cent. of boys who leave schools for life-work with- out going through the universities, are there no growing signs of discontent which must force a change? ‘The Civil Service, the learned professions, as well as the army and navy, are now barred by examinations. Do the boys of our public schools easily leap over the bars, although some of them have lately been lowered so as to suit the schools? So difficult are these bars to scholars that crammers take them in hand before they attempt the leap; and this occurs in spite of the large value attached to the dead languages and the small value placed on modern subjects. Thus, in the Indian Civil Service examina- tions, 800 marks as a maximum are assigned to Latin, 600 to Greek, 500 to chemistry, and 300 to each of the other physical sciences. But if we take the average working of the system for the last four years we find that while 68 per cent. of tthe maxi- mum were given to candidates in Greek and Latin, only 45 per cent. were accorded to candidates in chemistry, and but 30 per cent. to the other physical sciences. Schools sending up boys for competition naturally shun subjects which are dealt with so hardly and so heavily handicapped by the State. Passing from learned or public professions to commerce, how is it that in our great commercial centres, foreigners—German, Swiss, Dutch, and even Greeks—push aside our English youth and take the places of profit which belong to them by national inheritance? How is it that in our colonies, like those in South Africa, German enterprise is pushing aside English incapacity? How is it that we find whole branches of manu- factures, when they depend on scientific knowledge, passing away from this country, in which they originated, in order to engraft themselves abroad, although their decaying roots remain at home?! The answer to these questions is that our systems of education are still too narrow for the increasing struggle of life. Faraday, who had no narrow views in regard to education, deplored the future of our youth in the competition of the world, because, as he said with sadness, ‘‘our schoolboys, when they come out of school, are ignorant of their ignorance at the end of all that education.” The opponents of science education allege that it is not adapted for mental development, because scientific facts are often disjointed and exercise only the memory. Those who argue thus do not know what science is. No doubt an ignorant or half-informed teacher may present science as an accumulation of unconnected facts. At all times and in all subjects there are teachers without zsthetical or philosophical capacity—men who can only see carbonate of lime in a statue by Phidias or Praxi- teles ; who cannot survey zoology on account of its millions of species, or botany because of its 130,000 distinct plants; men who can look at trees without getting a conception of a forest, and cannot distinguish a stately edifice from its bricks. To teach in that fashion is like going to the tree of science with its glorious fruit in order to pick up a handful of the dry fallen leaves from the ground. It is, however, true that as science teaching has had less lengthened experience than that of litera- ture, its methods of instruction are not so matured. Scientific and literary teaching have different methods ; for while the teacher of literature rests on authority and on books for his guidance, the teacher of science-discards authority and depends on facts at first hand, and on the book of Nature for their in- terpretation. Natural science more and more resolves itself into the teaching of the laboratory. In this way it can be used as a powerful means of quickening observation, and of creating a faculty of induction after the manner of Zadig, the Babylonian described by Voltaire. Thus facts become surrounded by scien- tific conceptions, and are subordinated to order and law. It is not those who desire to unite literature with science who degrade education ; the degradation is the consequence of the refusal. A violent reaction—too violent to be wise—has lately 1 See Dr, Perkins’s address to the Soc. Chem. Industry, NaTurE August 6, 1855, p. 333 Sept. 10, 1885 | NATURE 441 taken place against classical education in France, where their own vernacular occupies the position of dead languages, while Latin and science are given the same time in the curriculum, In England manufacturers cry out for technical education, in which classicul culture shall be excluded. In the schools of the middle classes science rather than technics is needed, because, when the seeds of science are sown, technics as its fruit will appear at the appointed time. Epictetus was wise when he told us to observe that, though sheep eat grass, it is not grass but wool that grows on their backs. Should, however, our grammar- schools persist in their refusal to adapt themselves to the needs of ascientific age, England must follow the example of other European nations and found new modern schools in competition with them. For, as Huxley has put it, we cannot continue in this age “‘ of full modern artillery to turn out our boys to do battle in it, equipped only with the sword and shield of an ancient gladiator.” Ina scientific and keenly competitive age an ex- clusive education in the dead languages is a perplexing anomaly. The flowers of literature should be cultivated and gathered, though it is not wise to send men into our fields of industry to gather the harvest when they have been taught only to cull the poppies and to push aside the wheat. IV. Science and the Universities.—The State has always felt bound to alter and improve universities, even when their en- dowments are so large as to render it unnecessary to support them by public funds. When universities are poor, Parliament gives aid to them from imperial taxation. In this country that aid has been given with a very sparing hand. Thus the univer- sities and colleges of Ireland haye received about 30,000/. an- nually, and the same sum has been granted to the four univer- sities of Scotland. Compared with imperial aid to foreign universities such sums are small. A single German university like Strassburg or Leipsic receives about 40,000/. annually, or 10,000/. more than the whole colleges of Ireland or of Scot- land. Strassburg, for instance, has had her university and its library rebuilt at a cost of 711,000/., and receives an annual subscription of 43,0007. In rebuilding the University of Strass- burg eight laboratories have been provided, so as to equip it fully with the modern requirements for teaching and research." Prussia, the most economical nation in the world, spends 391,000/. yearly out of taxation on her universities. The recent action of France is still more remarkable. After the Franco-German war the Institute of France discussed the important question: ‘Pourquoi la France n’a pas trouvé @hommes supérieurs au moment du peril?’? The general answer was, Because France had allowed university education to sink toa lowebb. Before the great Revolution France had twenty-three autonomous universities in the provinces. Napo- leon desired to found one great university at Paris, and he crushed out the others with the hand of a despot, and re- modelled the last with the instincts of a drill-sergeant. The central university sank so low than in 1868 it is said that only 8000/. were spent for true academic purposes. Startled by the intellectual sterility shown in the war, France has made gigantic efforts to retrieve her position, and has rebuilt the provincial colleges at a cost of 3,280,000/., while her annual budget for their support now reaches half a million of pounds. In order to open these provincial colleges to the best talent of France, more than 500 scholarships have been founded at an annual cost of 30,000/. France now recognises that it is not by the num- ber of men under arms that she can compete with her great neighbour Germany, so she has determined to equal her in intellect. You will understand why it is that Germany was obliged, even if she had not been willing, to spend such large sums in order to equip the university of her conquered province, Alsace-Lorraine. France and Germany are fully aware that science is the source of wealth and power, and that the only way of advancing it is to encourage universities to make researches and to spread existing knowledge through the community. Other European nations are advancing on the same lines. Switzerland is a remarkable illustration of how a country can compensate itself for its natural disadvantages by a scientific education of its people. Switzerland contains neither coal nor the ordinary raw materials of industry, and is separated from other countries which might supply them by mountain barriers. Yet, by a singularly good system of graded schools, and by the * The cost of these laboratories has been as follows :—Chemical Institute, 35,0007. ; Physical Institute, 28,0007. ; Botanical Institute, 26,0007. ; Ob- servatory, 25,000/. ; Anatomy, 42,000/. ; Clinical Surgery, 26,000/. ; Physio- logical Chemistry, 16,0007. ; Physiological Institute, 13,9002. great technical college of Zurich, she has become a prosperous manufacturing country. In Great Britain we have nothing com- parable to this technical college, either in magnitude or efficiency. Belgium is reorganising its universities, and the State has freed the localities from the charge of buildings, and will in future equip the universities with efficient teaching resources out of public taxation. Holland, with a population of 4,000,000 and a Small revenue of 9,000,000/., spends 136,000/. on her four universities. Contrast this liberality of foreign countries in the promotion of higher instruction with the action of our own country. Scotland, like Holland, has four universities, and is not very different from it in population, but it only receives 30,000/. from the State. By a special clause in the Scotch Universities Bill the Government asked Parliament to declare that under no circumstances should the Parliamentary grant be ever increased above 40,000/, According to the views of the British Treasury there is a finality in science and in expanding knowledge. The wealthy universities of Oxford and Cambridge are gradually constructing laboratories for science. The merchant princes of Manchester have equipped their new Victoria Uni- versity with similar laboratories. Edinburgh and Glasgow Universities have also done so, partly at the cost of Government and largely by private subscriptions. The poorer universities of Aberdeen and St. Andrews are still inefficiently provided with the modern appliances for teaching science. London has one small Government college and two chartered colleges, but is wholly destitute of a teaching university. It would excite great astonishment at the Treasury if we were to make the modest request that the great metropolis, with a population of 4,000,000, should be put into as efficient academical position as the town of Strassburg, with 104,000 in- habitants, by receiving, as that town does, 43,000/. annually for academic instruction, and 700,000/. for university buildings. Still, the amazing anomaly that London has no teaching uni- versity must ere long cease. It is a comforting fact that, in spite of the indifference of Parliament, the large towns of the kingdom are showing their sense of the need of higher education. Manchester has already its university. Nottingham, Birmingham, Leeds, and Bristol have colleges more or less complete. Liverpool converts a dis- used lunatic asylum into a college for sane people. Cardiff rents an infirmary for a collegiate building. Dundee, by private benefaction, rears a Baxter College with larger ambitions. All these are healthy signs that the public are determined to have advanced science teaching, but the resources of the institutions are altogether inadequate to the end in view. Even in the few cases where the laboratories are efficient for teaching purposes, they are inefficient as laboratories for research. Under these circumstances the Royal Commission on Science advo- cated special Government laboratories for research, Such labora- tories, supported by public money, are as legitimate subjects for expenditure as galleries for pictures or sculpture ; but I think that they would not be successful, and would injure science if they failed. It would be safer in the meantime if the State assisted universities or well-established colleges to found labora- tories of research under their own care. Even such a proposal shocks our Chancellor of the Exchequer, who tells us that this country is burdened with public debt, and has ironclads to build and arsenals to provide. Nevertheless our wealth is proportion- ally much greater than that of foreign States which are com- peting with so much vigour in the promotion of higher education. They deem such expenditure to be true economy, and do not allow their huge standing armies to be an apology for keeping their people backwards in the march of knowledge. France, which in the last ten years has been spending a million annually on university education, had a war indemnity to pay, and competes successfully with this country in ironclads. Either all foreign States are strangely deceived in their belief that the competition of the world has become a competition of intellect, or we are maryellously unobservant of the change which is passing over Europe in the higher education of the people. Preparations for war will not ensure to us the blessings and security of an enlightened peace. Protective expenditure may be wise, though productive expenditure is wiser. “* Were half the powers which fill the world with terror, Were half the wealth bestowed on camps and courts, Given to redeem the human mind from error— There were no need of arsenals and forts.’’ Universities are not mere storehouses of knowledge ; they are 442 NATURE [ Sept. 10, 1885 eer rn EEE eee also conservatories for its cultivation. In Mexico there is a species of ant which sets apart some of its individuals to act as honey-jars by monstrously extending their abdomens to store the precious fluid till it is wanted by the community. Professors in a university have a higher function, because they ought to make new honey as wellas to store it. The widening of th: bounds of knowledge, literary or scientific, is the crowning glory of university life. Germany unites the functions of teaching and research in the universities, while France keeps them in separate institutions. The former system is best adapted to our habits, Sut its condition for success is that our science chairs should be greatly increased so that teachers should not be wholly absorbed inthe duties of instruction. Germany subdivides the sciences into various chairs, and gives to the professors special labora- tories. It also makes it a condition for the higher honours of a university that the candidates shall give proofs of their ability to make original researches. Undersuch asystem, teaching and investigation are not incompatible. In the evidence before the Science Commission many opinions were yiven that scientific men engaged in research should not be burdened with the duties of education, and there is much to be said in support of this view when a single professor for the whole range of a physical science is its only representative in a university. But I hope that such a system will not long continue, for if it do we must occupy a very inferior position as a nation in the intellectual competition of Europe. Research and education in limited branches of higher knowledge are not incompatible. It is true that Galileo complained of the burden imposed upon him by his numerous astronomical pupils, though few other philosophers have echoed this complaint. Newton, who produced order in worlds, and Dalton, who brought atoms under the reign of order and number, rejoiced in their pupils. Lalande spread astronomers as Liebig spread chemists, and Johannes Miiller biologists, all over the world. Laplace, La Grange, Dulong, Gay Lussac, Berthollet, and Dumas were professors as well as discoverers in France. In England our discoverers have generally been teachers. In fact, I recollect only three notable examples of men who were not—Boyle, Cavendish, and Joule. It was so in ancient as well as inmodern times, for Plato and Aristotle taught and philo- sophised. If you do not make the investigator a schoolmaster, as Dalton was, and as practically our professors are at the present time, with the duty of teaching all branches of their sciences, the mere elementary truths as well as the highest generalisations being compressed into a course, it is well that they should be brought into contact with the world in which they live, so as to know its wants and -aspirations. They could then quicken the pregnant minds around them, and extend to others their own power and love of research. Goethe had a fine perception of this when he wrote— Wer in der Weltgeschichte lebt, Wer in die Zeiten schaut, und strebt, Nur der ist werth, zu sprechen und zu dichten- Our universities are still far from the attainment of a proper combination of their resources between teaching and research. Eyen Oxford and Cambridge, which have done so much in recent years in the equipment of laboratories and in adding to their scientific staff, are still far behind a second-class German univer- sity. The professional faculties of the English universities are growing, and will diffuse a greater taste for science among their students, though they may absorb the time of the limited pro- fessoriate so as to prevent it advancing the boundaries of know- ledge. Professional faculties are absolutely essential to the existence of universities in poor countries like Scotland and Ireland. This has been the case from the early days of the Bologna University up to the present time. Originally univer- sities arose not by mere bulls of popes, but as a response to the strong-desire of the professional classes to dignify their crafts by real knowledge. If their education had been limited to mere technical schools like the Medical School of Salerno which flourished in the eleventh century, length but not breadth would have been given to education. So the universities wisely joined culture to the professional sciences. Poor countries like Scotland and Ireland must have their academic systems based on the pro- fessional faculties, although wealthy universities like Oxford and Cambridge may continue to have them as mere supplements to a more general education. A greater liberality of support on the part of the State in the establishment of chairs of science, for the sake of science and not merely for the teaching of the professions, would enable the poorer universities to take their part in the advancement of knowledge. T have already alluded to the foundation of new colleges in different parts of the kingdom. Owens College has worthily developed into the Victoria University. Formerly she depended for degrees on the University of London. No longer will she be like a moon reflecting cold and sickly rays from a distant luminary, for in future she will be a sun, a centre of intelligence, warming and illuminating the regions around her. The other colleges which have formed themselves in large manufacturing districts are remarkable expressions from them that science must be promoted. Including the colleges of a high class, such as University College and King’s College in London, and the three Queen’s Colleges in Ireland, the aggregate attendance of students in colleges without university rank is between nine and ten thousand, while that of the universities is fifteen thousand. No doubt some of the provincial colleges require considerable im- provement in their teaching methods ; sometimes they unwisely aim ata full university curriculum when it would be better for them to act as faculties. Still,sthey are all growing in the spirit of self-help, and some of them are destined, like Owens College, to develop into universities. This is not a subject of alarm to lovers of education, while it is one of hope and encouragement to the great centres of industry. There are too few autonomous universities in England in proportion to its population. While Scotland, with a population of 3} millions, has four universities with 6590 students, England, with 26 millions of people, has only the same number of teaching universities with 6000 students. Unless English colleges havesuch ambition, they may be turned into mere mills to grind out material for examinations and compe- titions. Higher colleges should always hold before their students that knowledge, for its own sake, is the only object worthy of reverence. Beyond college life there is a land of research flow- ing with milk and honey for those who know how to cultivate it. Colleges should at least show a Pisgah view of this Land of Promise, which stretches far beyond the Jordan of examinations and competitions. V. Science and Industry.—In the popular mind the value of science is measured by its applications to the useful purposes of life. It is no doubt true that science wears a beautiful aspect when she confers practical benefits upon man. But truer rela- tions of science to industry are implied in Greek mythology. Vulcan, the god of industry, wooed science, in the form of Minerva, with a passionate love, but the chaste goddess never married, although she conferred upon mankind nearly as many arts as Prometheus, who, like other inventors, saw civilisation progressing by their use while he lay groaning in want on Mount Caucasus. The rapid development of industry in modern days depends on the applications of scientific knowledge, while its slower growth in former times was due to experiments being made by trial and error in order to gratify the needs of man. Then an experiment was less a questioning of Nature than an exercise on the mind of the experimentalist. For a true ques- tioning of Nature only arises when intellectual conceptions of the causes of phenomena attach themselves to ascertained facts as well as to their natural environments. Much real science had at one time accumulated in Egypt, Greece, Rome, and Arabia, though it became obscured by the intellectual darkness which spread over Europe like a pall for many centuries. The mental results of Greek science, filtered through the Romans and Arabians, gradually fertilised the soil of Europe. Even in ages which are deemed to be dark and unprolific, substantial though slow progress was made. By the end of the fifteenth century the mathematics of the Alexandrian school had become the possession of Western Europe ; Arabic numerals, algebra, trigonometry, decimal reckoning, and an improved calendar having been added to its stock of knowledge. The old dis- coverles of Democritus and Archimedes in physics, and of Hipparchus and Ptolemy in astronomy, were producing their natural developments, though with great slowness. Many manu- factures, growing chiefly by experience, and occasionally lightened up by glimmerings of science throughout the pre- vailing darkness, had arisen before the sixteenth century. A knowledge of the properties of bodies, though scarcely of their relations to each other, came through the labours of the alchemists, who had a mighty_impulse to work ; for by the philosopher’s stone, often not larger than half a rape’s seed, they hoped to attain the three sensuous conditions of human enjoy- ment—gold, health, and immortality. By the end of the fifteenth century many important manufactures were founded by empirical experiment, with only the uncertain guidance of science. Among these were the compass, printing, paper, gun- Sept. 10, 1885] NATURE 443 powder, guns, watches, forks, knitting-needles, horseshoes, bells, wood-cutting and copper-engraving, wire-drawing, steel, table glass, spectacles, microscopes, glass mirrors backed by amalgams of tin and lead, windmills, crushing and saw mills. These im- portant manufactures arose from an increased knowledge of facts, around which scientific conceptions were slowly concreting. Aristotle defines this as science when he says, ‘‘ Art begins when, from a great number of experiences, one general concep- tion is formed which will embrace all similar cases.” Such con- ceptions are formed only when culture developes the human mind and compels it to give a rational account of the world in which man lives, and of the objects in and around it, as well as of the phenomena which govern their action and evolution. Though the accumulation of facts is indispensable to the growth of science, a thousand facts are of less value to human progress than is a single one when it is scientifically comprehended, for it then becomes generalised in all similar cases. Isolated facts may be viewed as the dust of science. The dust which floats in the atmosphere is to the common observer mere incoherent matter in a wrong place, while to the man of science it is all- important when the rays of heat and light act upon its floating particles. It is by them that clouds and rains are influenced ; it is by their selective influence on the solar waves that the blue of the heavens and the beauteous colours of the sky glorify all Nature. So, also, ascertained though isolated facts, forming the dust of science, become the reflecting media of the light of knowledge, and cause all Nature to assume a new aspect. It is with the light of knowledge that we are enabled to question Nature through direct experiment. The hypothesis or theory which induces us to put the experimental question may be right or wrong ; still, predens guestio dimidium scientie est—it is half way to knowledge when you know what you have to inquire. Davy described hypothesis as the mere scaffolding of science, useful to build up true knowledge, but capable of being put up or taken down at pleasure. Undoubtedly a theory is only tem- porary, and the reason is, as Bacon has said, that the man of science ‘‘loveth truth more than his theory.” The changing theories which the world despises are the leaves of the tree of science drawing nutriment to the parent stems, and enabling it to put forth new branches and to produce fruit ; and though the leaves fall and decay, the very products of decay nourish the roots of the tree and reappear in the new leaves or theories which succeed. When the questioning of Nature by intelligent experiment has raised a system of science, then those men who desire to apply it to industrial inventions proceed by the same methods to make rapid progress in the arts. They also must have means to compel Nature to reveal her secrets. AZneas succeeded in his great enterprise by plucking a golden branch from the tree of science, Armed with this even dread Charon dared not refuse a passage across the Styx ; and the gate of the Elysian fields was unbarred when he hung the branch on its portal. Then new aspects of Nature were revealed— “* Another sun and stars they know That shine like ours, but shine below.” It is by carrying such a golden branch from the tree of science that inventors are able to advance the arts. In illustration of how slowly at first and how rapidly afterwards science and its applications arise, I will take only two out of thousands of examples which lie ready tomy hand. One of the most familiar instances is air, for that surely should have been soon understood if man’s unaided senses are sufficient for knowledge. Air has been under the notice of mankind ever since the first man drew his first breath, It meets him at every turn; it fans him with gentle breezes, and it buffets him with storms. And yet it is certain that this familiar object—air—is very imperfectly under- stood up to the present time. We now know by recent re- searches that air can be liquefied by pressure and cold ; but as a child still looks upon air as nothing, so did man in his early state. A vessel filled with air was deemed to be empty. But man, as soon as he began to speculate, felt the importance of air, and deemed it to be a soul of the world upon which the respiration of man and the god-like quality of fire de- pended. Yet a really intelligent conception of these two essential conditions to man’s existence—respiration and com- bustion—was not formed till about a century ago (1775). No doubt long before that time there had been abundant speculations regarding air. Anaximenes, 548 years before Christ, and Diogenes of Apollonia, a century later, studied the properties of air so far as their senses would allow them ; so, in fact, did Aristotle. Actual scientific experiments Were made on air about the year 1100 by a remarkable Saracen, Alhazen, who ascertained important truths which enabled Galileo, Torricelli, Otto de Guericke, and others at a later period to discover laws leading to important practical applica- tions. Still there was no intelligent conception as to the com- position of air until Priestley in 1774 repeated, with the light of science, an empirical observation which Eck de Sulbach had made 300 years before upon the union of mercury with an in- gredient of air and the decomposition of this compound by heat. This experiment now proved that the active element in air is oxygen. From that date our knowledge, derived from an in- telligent questioning of air by direct experiments, has gone on by leaps and bounds. The air, which mainly consists of nitro- gen and oxygen, is now known to contain carbonic acid, ammonia, nitric acid, ozone, besides hosts of living organisms which have a vast influence for good or evil in the economy of the world. These micro-organisms, the latest contribution to our knowledge of air, perform great analytical functions in organic nature, and are the means of converting much of its potential energy into actual energy. Through their action on dead matter the mutual dependence of plants and animals is secured, so that the air becomes at once the grave of organic death and the cradle of organic life. No doubt the ancients suspected this without being able to prove the dependence. Euripides seems to have seen it deductively when he describes the results of decay :— “ Then that which’springs from earth, to earth returns, And that which draws its being from the sky Rises again up to the skyey height.” The consequences of the progressive discoveries have added largely to our knowledge of life, and have given a marvellous development to the industrial arts. Combustion and respiration govern a wide range of processes. The economical use of fuel, the growth of plants, the food of ‘animals, the processes of hus- bandry, the maintenance of public health, the origin and cure of disease, the production of alcoholic drinks, the processes of making vinegar and saltpetre—all these and many other kinds of knowledge have been brought under the dominion of law. No doubt animals respired, fuel burned, plants grew, sugar fer- mented, before we knew how they depended upon air. But as the knowledge was empirical it could not be intelligently directed. Now all these processes are ranged in order under a wise economy of Nature, and can be directed to the utilities of life ; for it is true, as Swedenborg says, that human ‘‘ends always ascend as Nature descends.” There is scarcely a large industry in the world which has not received a mighty impulse by the better knowledge of air acquired within a hundred years. If I had time I could show still more strikingly the industrial advantages which have followed from Cayendish’s discovery of the composition of water. I wish that I could have done this, because it was Addision who foolishly said, and Paley who as unwisely approved the remark, ‘that mankind required to know no more about water than the temperature at which it froze and boiled, and the mode of making steam.”’ When we examine the order of progress in the arts, even before they are illumined by science, their improvements seem to be the resultants of three conditions : (1) The substitution of natural forces for brute animal power, as when Hercules used the waters of the Alpheus to cleanse the Augean stables; or when a Kamchadal of Eastern Asia, who has been three years hollowing out a canoe, finds that he can do it in a few hours by fire. (2) The economy of time, as when a calendering machine produces the same gloss to miles of calico that an African savage gives to a few inches by rubbing it with the shell of a snail; or the economy of production, as when steel pens, sold when first introduced at one shilling apiece, are now sold at a penny per dozen ; or when steel rails, lately costing 45/. per ton, can now be sold at 52. (3) Methods of utilising waste products, or of endowing them with properties which render them of increased value to industry, as when waste scrap iron and the galls on the oak are converted into ink ; or the badly-smelling waste of gasworks is transformed into fragrant essences, brilliant dyes, and fertilising manure ; or when the effete matter of animals or old bones is changed into lucifer-matches. All three results are often combined when a single end is obtained—at all events, economy of time and production in- variably follows when natural forces substitute brute animal 444 NATORE [ Sept. 10, 1885 force. In industrial progress the sweat of the brow is lessened by the conceptions of the brain. How exultant is the old Greek poet, Antipater,’ when women are relieved of the drudgery of turning the grindstones for the daily supply of corn. ‘* Woman ! you who have hitherto had to grind corn, let your arms rest for the future. It is no longer for you that the birds announce by their songs the dawn of the morning. Ceres has ordered the water-nymphs to move the heavy millstones and perform your labour.” Penelope had twelve slaves to grind corn for her small household. During the most prosperous time of Athens it was estimated that there were twenty slaves to each free citizen. Slaves are mere machines, and machines neither invent nor discover. The bondmen of the Jews, the helots of Sparta, the captive slaves of Rome, the serfs of Europe, and uneducated labourers of the present day who are the slaves of ignorance, have added nothing to human progress. But as natural forces substitute and become cheaper than slave labour, liberty follows advancing civilisation. Machines require educated superin- tendence. One shoe factory in Boston by its machine does the work of thirty thousand shoemakers in Paris who have still to go through the weary drudgery of mechanical labour. The steam power of the world, during the last twenty years, has risen from 114 million to 29 million horse-power, or 152 per cent. Let me take a single example of how even a petty manu- facture improved by the teachings of science affects the comforts and enlarges the resources of mankind. When I was a boy the only way of obtaining a light was by-the tinder-box, with its quadruple materials, flint and steel, burnt rags or tinder, and a sulphur match. If everything went well, if the box could be found and the air was dry, a light could be obtained in two minutes ; but very often the time occupied was much longer, and the process became a great trial to the serenity of temper. The consequence of this was that a fire or a burning lamp was kept alight through the day. Old Gerard, in his herbal, tells us how certain fungi were used to carry fire from one part of the country to the other. The tinder-box long held its position as a great discovery in the arts. The Pyxidicula tyniaria of the Romans appears to have been much the same implement, though a little ruder, than the flint and steel which Philip the Good put into the collar of the Golden Fleece in 1429 as a repre- sentation of high knowledge in the progress of the arts. It con- tinued to prevail till 1833, when phosphorus matches were introduced, though I have been amused to find that there are a few venerable ancients in London who still stick to the tinder box and for whom a few shops keep a small supply. Phosphorus was no new discovery, for it had been obtained by an Arabian called Bechel in the eighth century. However it was forgotten, and was rediscovered by Brandt, who made it out of very stinking materials in 1669. Other discoveries had, however, to be made before it could be used for lucifer matches. The science of combustion was only developed on the discovery of oxygen a century later. Time had to elapse before chemical analysis showed the kind of bodies which could be added to phosphorus so as to make it ignite readily. So it was not till 1833 that matches became a partial success. Intolerably bad they then were, dangerously inflammable, horribly poisonous to the makers, and injurious to the lungs of the consumers. It required another discovery, by Schrotter in 1845, to change poisonous waxy into innocuous red-brick phosphorus in order that these defects might be remedied, and to give us the safety-match of the present day. Now what have these successive discoveries in science done for the nation, in this single manufacture, by an economy of time? If before 1833 we had made the same demands for light that we now do, when we daily consume eight matches per head of the population, the tinder-box could have supplied the demand under the most favourable conditions by an expenditure of one quarter of an hour. The lucifer-match supplies a light in fifteen seconds on each occasion, or in two minutes for the whole day. Putting these differences into a year the venerable ancient who still sticks to his tinder-box would require to spend ninety hours yearly in the production of light, while the user of lucifer-matches spends twelve hours; so that the latter has an economy of seventy-eight hours yearly, or about ten working days. Measured by cost of production at one shilling and sixpence daily, the economy of time represented in money to our population is twenty-six millions of pounds annually. This is a curious instance of the manner in which science leads to economy of time and wealth even in a small | * **Analecta Veterum Gracorum,” Epig. 39, vol. ii. p. 119. manufacture. In larger industries the economy of time and labour produced by the application of scientific discoveries is beyond all measurement. Thus the discovery of latent heat by Black led to the inventions of Watt ; while that of the mechanical equivalent of heat by Joule has been the basis of the progressive improvements in the steam-engine which enables power to be obtained by a consumption of fuel less than one-fourth the amount used twenty years ago. It may be that the engines of Watt and Stephenson will yield in their turn to more economical motors ; still they have already expanded the wealth, resources, and even the territories of England more than all the battles fought by her soldiers or all the treaties negotiated by her diplomatists. The coal which has hitherto been the chief source of power probably represents the product of five or six million years during which the sun shone upon the plants of the Carboniferous period, and stored up its energy in this convenient form. But we are using this conserved force wastefully and prodigally ; for although horse power in steam-engines has so largely increased since 1864, two men only now produce what three men did at that date. It is only three hundred years since we became a manufacturing country. According to Prof. Dewar, in less than two hundred years more the coal of this country will be wholly exhausted, and in half that time will be difficult to procure. Our not very distant descendants will have to face the problem —What will be the condition of England without coal? The answer to that question depends upon the intellectual develop- ment of the nation at that time. The value of the intellectual factor of production is continually increasing; while the values of raw material and fuel are lessening factors. It may be that when the dreaded time of exhausted fuel has arrived, its impor- tation from other coal-fields, such as those of New South Wales, will be so easy and cheap, that the increased technical education of our operatives may largely over-balance the disadvantages of increased cost in fuel. But this supposes that future Govern- ments in England will have more enlightened views as to the value of science than past Governments have possessed. Industrial applications are but the overflowings of science welling over from the fulness of its measure. Few would ask now, as was constantly done a few years ago, ‘*‘ What is the use of an abstract discovery in science?” Faraday once answered this question by another, ‘‘ What is the use of a baby?” Yet around that baby centre all the hopes and sentiments of his parents, and even the interests of the State, which interferes in its upbringing so as to ensure it being a capable citizen. The processes of mind which produce a discovery or an invention are rarely associated in the same person, for while the discoverer seeks to explain causes and the relations of phenomena, the inventor aims at producing new effects, or at least of obtaining them in a novel and efficient way. In this the inventor may sometimes succeed without much knowledge of science, though his labours are infinitely more productive when he understands the causes of the effects which he desires to produce. A nation in its industrial progress, when the competition of the world is keen, cannot stand still. Three conditions only are possible for it. It may go forward, retrograde, or perish. Its extinction as a great nation follows its neglect of higher educa- tion, for, as described in the proverb of Solomon, ‘‘ They that hate instruction love death.” In sociology, as in biology, there are three states. The first of balance, when things grow neither better nor worse ; the second that of elaboration or evolution, as we see it when animals adapt themselves to their environments ; and third, that of degeneration, when they rapidly lose the ground they have made. For a nation, a state of balance is only possible in the early stage of its existence, but it is im- possible when its environments are constantly changing. The possession of the raw materials of industry and the exist- ence of a surplus population are important factors for the growth of manufactures in the early history of a nation, but afterwards they are bound up with another factor—the application of intellect to their development. England could not be called a manufacturing nation till the Elizabethan age. No doubt coal, iron, and wood were in abundance, though, in the reign of the Plantagenets, they produced little prosperity. Wool was sent to Flanders to be manufactured, for England then stood to Holland as Australia now does to Yorkshire. The political crimes of Spain, from the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella to that of Philip III., destroyed it as a great manufacturing nation, and indirectly led to England taking its position. Spain, | through the activity and science of the Arabian intellect, had Sept. 10, 1885] acquired many important industries. The Moors and the Moriscoes, who had been in Spain for a period as long as from the Norman Conquest of this country to the present date, were banished, and with them departed the intellect of Spain. Then the invasion of the Low Countries by Philip Il. drove the Flemish manufacturers to England, while the French persecu- tion of the Huguenots added new manufacturing experience, and with them came the industries of cotton, wool, and silk. Cotton mixed with linen and wool became freely used, but it was only from 1738 to the end of the century that the inventions of Wyatt, Arkwright, Hargreaves, Crompton, and Cartwright started the wonderful modern development. The raw cotton was im- ported from India or America, but that fact as regards cost was a small factor in comparison with the intellect required to convert it into a utility. Science has in the last hundred years altered altogether the old conditions of industrial competition. She has taught the rigid metals to convey and record our thoughts even to the most distant lands, and, within less limits, to reproduce eur speech. This marvellous application of electricity has diminished the cares and responsibilities of Governments, while it has at the same time altered the whole practice of commerce. To England steam and electricity have been of incalculable advantage. The ocean, which once made the country insular and isolated, is now the very life-blood of England, and of the greater England beyond the seas. As in the human body the blood bathes all its parts, and through its travelling corpuscles carries force to all its members, so in the body politic of England and its pelasgic extensions, steam has become the circulatory and electricity the nervous system. The colonies, being young countries, value their raw materials as their chief sources of wealth. When they become older they will discover that it is not in these, but in the culture of scientific intellect, that their future prosperity depends. Older nations recognise this as the law of progress more than we do; or, as Jules Simon tersely puts it—‘* That nation which most educates her people will become the greatest nation, if not to-day, certainly to-morrow.” Higher education is the condition of higher prosperity, and the nation which neglects to develope the intellectual factor of pro- duction must degenerate, for it cannot stand still. If we felt compelled to adopt the test of science given by Comte, that its value must be measured by fecundity, it might be prudent to claim industrial inventions as the immediate fruit of the tree of science, though only fruit which the prolific tree has shed. But the test is untrue in the sense indicated, or rather the fruit, according to the simile of Bacon, is like the golden apples which Aphrodite gave to the suitor of Atalanta, who lagged in his course by stooping to pick them up, and so lost the race. The true cultivators of the tree of science must seek their own reward by seeing it flourish, and let others devote their attention to the possible practical advantages which may result from their labours. There is, however, one intimate connection between science and industry which I hope will be more intimate as scientific education becomes more prevalent in our schools and universi- ties. Abstract science depends on the support of men of leisure, either themselves possessing or having provided for them the means of living without entering into the pursuits of active industry. The pursuit of science requires a superfluity of wealth in a community beyond the needs of ordinary life. Such super- fluity is also necessary for art, though a picture or a statue is a saleable commodity, while an abstract discovery in science has no immediate, or, as regards the discoverer, proximate com- mercial value. In Greece, when philosophical and scientific speculation was at its highest point, and when education was conducted in its own vernacular and not through dead languages, science, industry, and commerce were actively prosperous. Corinth carried on the manufactures of Birmingham and Sheffield, while Athens combined those of Leeds, Staffordshire, and London, for it had woollen manufactories, potteries, gold and silver work, as well as shipbuilding. Their philosophers were the sons of burghers, and sometimes carried on the trades of their fathers. Thales was a travelling oil merchant, who brought back science as well as oil from Egypt. Solon and his great descendant Plato, as well as Zeno, were men of commerce. Socrates was a stonemason ; Thucydides a gold-miner ; Aristotle kept a druggist’s shop until Alexander endowed him with the wealth of Asia, All but Socrates had a superfluity of wealth, and he was supported by that of others. Now, if our universi- ties and schools created that love of science which a broad edu- cation would surely inspire, our men of riches and leisure who NATURE 445 advance the boundaries of scientific knowledge could not be counted on the fingers as they now are, when we think of Boyle, Cavendish, Napier, Lyell, Murchison, and Darwin, but would be as numerous as our statesmen and orators. Statesmen, with- out a following of the people who share their views and back their work, would be feeble indeed. But while England has never lacked leaders in science, they have two few followers to risk a rapid march. We might create an army to support our generals in science, as Germany has done, and as France is now doing, if education in this country would only mould itself to the needs of a scientific age. It is with this feeling that Horace Mann wrote: ‘‘The action of the mind is like sthe action of fire : one billet of wood will hardly burn alone, though as dry as the sun and north-west wind can make it, and though placed in a current of air; ten such billets will burn well together, but a hundred will create a heat fifty times as intense as ten—will make a current of air to fan their own flame, and consume even greenness itself.” VI. Abstract Science the Condition for Progress.—The subject of my address has been the relations of science to the public weal. That is a very old subject to select for the year 1885. I began it by quoting the words of an illustrious prince, the consort of our Queen, who addressed us on the same subject from this platform twenty-six years ago. But he was not the first prince who saw how closely science is bound up with the welfare of States. Ali, the son-in-law of Mahomet, the fourth successor to the Caliphate, urged upon his followers that men of science and their disciples give security to human progress. Ali loved to say, ‘‘ Eminence in science is the highest of honours,” and ‘‘ Hedies not who gives life to learning.’’ In addressing you upon texts such as these my purpose was to show how un- wise it is for England to lag in the onward march of science when most other European Powers are using the resources of their States to promote higher education and to advance the boundaries of knowledge. English Governments alone fail to grasp the fact that the competition of the world has become a competition in intellect. Much of this indifference is due to our systems of education. I have ill fulfilled my purpose if, in claiming for science a larger share in public education, I have in any way depreciated literature, art, or philosophy, for every sub- ject which adds to culture aids in human development. I only contend that in public education there should be a free play to the scientific faculty, so that the youths who possess it should learn the richness of their possession during the educative pro- cess. The same faculties which make a man great in any walk of life—strong love of truth, high imagination tempered by judgment, a vivid memory which can co-ordinate other facts with those under immediate consideration—all these are quali- ties which the poet, the philosopher, the man of literature, and the man of science equally require and should cultivate through all parts of their education as well asin their future careers. My contention is that science should not be practically shut out from the view of a youth while his education is in progress, for the public weal requires that a large number of scientific men should belong to the community. This is necessary because science has impressed its character upon the age in which we live, and, as science is not stationary, but progressive, men are required to advance its boundaries, acting as pioneers in the onward march of States. Human progress is so identified with scientific thought, both in its conception and realisation, that it seems as if they were alternative terms in the history of civilisation. In literature, and even in art, a standard of excellence has been attained which we are content to imitate because we have been unable to surpass. But there is no such standard in science. Formerly, when the dark cloud was being dissipated which had obscured the learning of Greece and Rome, the diffusion of literature or the discovery of lost authors had a marked influence on advancing civilisation. Now, a Chrysoloras might teach Greek in the Italian universities without hastening sensibly the onward march of Italy; a Poggio might discover copies of Lucretius and Quintilian without exercising a tithe of the influ- ence on modern life that an invention by Stephenson or Wheat- stone would produce. Nevertheless, the divorce of culture and science, which the present state of education in this country tends to produce, is deeply to be deplored, because a cultured intelligence adds greatly to the development of the scientific faculty. My argument is that no amount of learning without science suffices in the present state of the world to put us in a position which will enable England to keep ahead or even on a level with foreign nations asregards knowledgeand its applications 446 NATURE [ Sept. 10, 1884 to the utilities of life. Take the example of any man of learning, and see how soon the direct consequences resulting from it disappear in the life of a nation, while the discoveries of a man of science remain productive amid all the shocks of empire. As Iam in Aberdeen I remember that the learned Dutchman Erasmus was introduced to England by the en- couragement which he received from Hector Boece, the Prin- cipal of King’s College in this University. Yet even in the case of Erasmus—who taught Greek at Cambridge and did so much for the revival of classical literature as well as in the pro- motion of spiritual freedom—how little has civilisation to ascribe to him in comparison with the discoveries of two other Cam- bridge men, Newton and Cavendish. The discoveries of New- ton will influence the destinies of mankind to the cnd of the world. When he established the laws by which the motions of the great masses of matter in the universe are governed, he conferred an incalculable benefit upon the intellectual develop- ment of the human race. No great discovery flashes upon the world at once, and therefore Pope’s lines on Newton are only a poetic fancy :— ““ Nature and Nature’s laws lay hid in night, God said, ‘ Let Newton be,’ and all was light.” No doubt the road upon which he travelled had been long in preparation by other men. The exact observations of Tycho Brahe, coupled with the discoveries of Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo had already broken down the authority of Aristotle and weakened that of the Church. But though the conceptions of the universe were thus broadened, mankind had not yet rid themselves of the idea that the powers of the universe were still regulated by spirits or special providences. Even Kepler moved the planets by spirits, and it took some time to knock these celestial steersmen on the head. Descartes, who really did so nuch by his writings to force the conclusion that the planetary movements should be dealt with as an ordinary problem in mechanics, looked upon the universe as a machine, the wheels of which were kept in motion by the unceasing exercise of a divine power. Yet such theories were only an attempt to regu- late the universe by celestial intelligences like our own, and by standards within our reach. It required the discovery of an all- pervading Jaw, universal throughout all space, to enlarge the thoughts of men, and one which, while it widened the concep- tions of the universe, reduced the earth and solar system to true dimensions. It is by the investigation of the finite on all sides that we obtain a higher conception of the infinite— “* Willst du ins Unendliche schreiten, Geh nur im Endlichen nach allen Seiten.” Ecclesiastical authority had been already undermined by earnest inquirers, such as Wycliffe and Huss, before Luther shook the pillars of the Vatican. They were removers of abuses, but were confined within the circles of their own beliefs. Newton’s discovery cast men’s minds into an entirely new mould, and levelled many barriers to human progress. This intellectual result was vastly more important than the practical advantages of the discovery. It is true that navigation and commerce mightily benefited by our better knowledge of the motions of the heavenly bodies. Still these benefits to humanity are in- comparably less in the history of progress than the expansion of the human intellect which followed the withdrawal of the cramps that confined it. Truth was now able to discard authority, and marched forward without hindrance. Before this point was reached Bruno had been burned, Galileo had abjured, and both Copernicus and Descartes had kept back their writings for fear of offending the Church. ; The recent acceptance of evolution in biology has had a like effect in producing a far profounder intellectual change in human thought than any mere impulse of industrial development. Already its application to sociology and education is recog- nised, but that is of less import to human progress than the broadening of our views of Nature. Abstract discovery in science is then the true foundation upon which the superstructure of modern civilisation is built ; and the man who would take part in it should study science, and, if he can, advance it for its own sake and not for its applications. Ignorance may walk in the path lighted by advancing know- ledge, but she is unable to follow when science passes her, for, like the foolish virgin, she has no oil in her lamp. An established truth in science is like the constitution of an atom in matter—something so fixed in the order of things that it has become independent of further dangers in the struggle for existence. The sum of such truths forms the intellectual treasure which descends to each generation in hereditary succession. Though the discoverer of a new truth is a benefactor to humanity, he can give little to futurity in comparison with the wealth of knowledge which he inherited from the past. We, in our generation, should appreciate and use our great possessions— “For me your tributary stores combine, Creation’s heir ; the world, the world is mine.” SECTION A. MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE. OPENING ADDRESS BY Pror. G. CHRYSTAL, M.A., F.R.S.E., PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. WHEN a man finds himself unexpectedly in some unusual situation his first impulse is to look around and see how others have done in like circumstances. I have accordingly run through the addresses of my predecessors in the honourable office of president of Section A, which is fated this year to be filled some- what unworthily. This examination has, I am bound to say, comforted me not a little. I have found precedents for all kinds of addresses, long and short, even apparently for none at all. The variety of subjects is also suggestive of great latitude. T have found reviews of the progress of mathematical and physical science, discussions of special scientific subjects, dissertations on the promotion of scientific research, and on the teaching and diffusion of science, all chosen in their turn for the subjects of this opening address. Following some of the most eminent of my forerunners, I pro- pose to be brief; following the last of them, Prof. Henrici, I shall take for my subject, so far as J have one, the Diffusion of Scientific Knowledge. Apart from the fact that Prof. Henrici’s address greatly interested me, and that I find many of his con- clusions in agreement with the results of my own experience, and that, therefore, I wish to second him with all my power, I have other reasons for this choice, For more than half the year lam employed with absolute continuity in teaching mathematics, and it has happened for the last eight years or so that the other half has been mainly occupied in a variety of ways with science- teaching generally. This is the thing concerning which I have had most experience, and I hold it to be the most respectful course towards my audience to speak to them on the subject that I know best. Eyer since I began to study science I have been deeply in- terested in the question of how it could best be taught. I believe my meditations in that direction were awakened by some un- successful boyish efforts to apply to the satisfaction of a plough- man, who was my friend and confidant, certain principles of natural philosophy to explain the action of his plough. Wisely and unwisely I have always been ardent about the improvement of scientific teaching. I was so long before I dreamt that I should one day be called upon to put my ideas through the cold ordeal of practice. It would not be becoming that I should speak at any time, more particularly to-day, regarding the success of my own efforts, or even regarding my alternate fits of hopefulness and despair. It is enough to say that, in such a cause, “Tis better to have loved and lost, Than never to have loved at all.” The British Association, by its title, exists for the advancement of science. Now, I hold that one of the essential conditions for that advancement is the existence of a scientific public—a public, like the Athenians of old, eager to hear and tell of some new truth ; eager to discuss and eager to criticise ; ready to appreciate what is novel ; to receive it if sound, to reject it if unsound. It is to such a public that the British Association appeals, and certainly in the past it has not found its public wanting in generosity. What I should wish to see is less of mere friendly onlooking and more participation in the dance. I am not speaking now merely of a professional public, such as is so prominent in Germany for instance, made up of teachers and others professionally concerned with science. I refer mainly to that amateur but truly expert public which has always been so honourable a feature of English science, as examples of which I may mention Boyle and Cavendish in former days, and Joule and Spottiswoode in our own. It is quite true that much of that scientific public came in days of yore from the leisured class, whose ratio to the rest of the nation will not improbably decrease in the course of our social development. I think, however, that the loss we may thus sustain will be more than compensated by Sept. 10, 1885 | NATURE 447 the continual increase of those who have received higher educa™ tion of some kind or other, and whose daily occupations give them an interest, direct or indirect, in one or more branches of science. It may not be amiss to insist for a little on the advantages to science of a great body of men unofficially engaged in scientific research, in writing regarding science, or even in merely turning scientific matter over in their minds. It will not have escaped the notice of those among you who have studied the history of science, that few scientific ideas spring up suddenly without previous trace or history. It is perfectly true that in many cases some mind of unwonted breadth and firmness is required to formulate the new doctrine, and carry it to manifold fruition ; but a close examination always shows that the sprite was in the air before the Prospero came to catch him. It is very striking to notice, in the history of Algebra for instance, long periods in which great improvements were effected in the science, which cannot be traced to any individual, but seem to have been due merely to the working of the minds of scientific men generally upon the matter, one giving it this little turn, another that, in the main always for the better. Like every other thing that has the virtue of truth in it, science grows as it goes, not like the idle gossiping tale by the casual accretion of heterogeneous matter, but by the chemical combination of pure element with pure élement in reasonable proportion. I know of no greater advantage for science than the existence of an army of independent workers sufficiently enlightened for self-criticism, who shall test the results and theories of their day. Great-and indispensable as are the uses of professional schools of scientific workmen, they are open to one great and insidious danger. The temptation there to swear by the word of the master is often irresistible. Not to speak of its being often the readiest avenue to fame and profit, it is the perfectly natural consequence of the contact of smaller mind with greater. There are few things where the want of an enlightened scientific public strikes an expert more than the matter of scientific text-books. If the British public were educated as it ought to be, publishers would not be able to palm off upon them in this guise the ill-paid work of fifth-rate workmea so often as they do; nor would the scientific articles and reviews in popular journals and magazines so often be writt2n by men so palpably ignorant of their subject. We all have a great respect for the integrity of our British legislators, whatever doubts may haunt us occasionally as to their capacity in practical affairs. The ignorance of many of them regarding some of the most elementary facts that bear on every- day life is very surprising. Scientifically speaking, uneducated themselves, they seem to think that they will catch the echo of a fact or the solution of an arithmetical problem by putting their ears to the sounding-shell of uneducated public opinion. When I observe the process which many such people employ for arriving at what they consider truth, I often think of a story I once heard of an eccentric German student of chemistry. This gentleman was idle, but, like all his nation, systematic. When he had a precipitate to weigh, instead of resorting to his balance, he would go the round of the laboratory, hold up the test-tube before each of his fellow-students in turn, and ask him to guess the weight. He then set down all the replies, took the average, and entered the result in his analysis. I will not take up your time in insisting upon the necessity of the diffusion of science among that large portion of the public who are, or ought to be, appliers of scientific knowledge to prac- tical life. That part of my theme is so obvious, and has been of late so much dwelt upon, that I may pass it by, and draw your attention to another place in which the shoe pinches. All of you who have taken any practical interest in the organisation of our educational institutions must be aware of the great difficulty in securing the services of non-professional men of sufficient scien- tific knowledge to act on School Boards, and undertake the direction of our higher schools. It is no secret among those who carefully watch the course of the times in these matters that our present organisation is utterly insufficient ; that it has not solved, and shows every day less likelihood of solving, the problems of higher education. This arises, to a great extent, from the fact that a scientifically educated public of the extent presupposed by the organisation really does not at present exist. If the existence of a great scientific public be as important as I think I have shown it to be, it must be worth while to devote a few moments to the consideration of the means we adopt to produce it both in the rising and in the risen generation. It would naturally be expected that we should look carefully to the scientific education of our youth, to see that the best men and the best means that could be had were devoted to it; that we should endeavour to make for them a broad straight road to the newest and best of our scientific ideas ; that we should exer- cise them when young on the best work of the greatest;masters ; familiarise them early with the great men and the great feats of science, both of the past and of the present ; that we should avoid retarding their progress by making the details and illustrations or particular rules and methods end in themselves. Granting that it is impossible to bring every learner within reach of the fullest scientific knowledge of his time, it would surely be reasonable to take care that the little way we lead him should not be along some devious by-path, but towards some eminence from which he might at least see the promised land. The end of all scien- tific training of the great public I take to be, to enable each member of it to look reason and nature in the face, and judge for himself what, considering the circumstances of his day, may be known, and not be deceived regarding what must to him remain unknown. [If this be so, surely the ideal of scientific education which I have sketched is the right one: yet it is most certainly not the ideal of our present system of instruction, To attain conviction on that head it is sufficient to examine the text-books and examination papers of the day. Let us confine ourselves for the present tothe most elementary of all the exact sciences, viz., geometry andalgebra. These two, although among the oldest, are, as Professor Cayley very justly reminded the Association last year, perhaps the most progressive and promising of all the sciences. Great names of antiquity are associated with them, and in modern times an army of men of genius have aided their advance. Moreover, it cannot be said that this advance concerns the higher parts of these sciences alone. On the contrary, the discoveries of Gauss, Lobat- schewsky, and Riemann, and of Poncelet, Mobius, Steiner, Chasles, and Von Standt, in geometry, and the labours of De Morgan, Hamilton, and Grassman, not to mention many others, in algebra, have thrown a flood of light on the elements of both these subjects. What traces of all this do we find in our school books? To be sure azéiguity is stamped upon our geometry, for we use the text-book of Euclid, which is some two thousand years old ; but where can we point to the influence of modern progress in our geometrical teaching? For our teaching of algebra, I am afraid, we can claim neither the sanction of antiquity nor the light of modern times. Whether we look at the elementary, or at what is called the higher teaching of this subject, the result is unsatisfactory. With respect to the former, my experience justifies the criticism of Professor Henrici ; and I have no doubt that the remedy he suggests would be effectual. In the higher teaching, which interests me most, I have to complain of the utter neglect of the all-important notion of algebraic form. I found, when I first tried to teach University students co-ordinate geometry, that I had to go back and teach them algebra over again. The fundamental idea of an integral function of a cer- tain degree, having a certain form and so many coefficients, was to them as much an unknown quantity as the proverbial x. I found that their notion of higher algebra was the solution of harder and harder equations. The curious thing is that many examination candidates, who show great facility in reducing ex- ceptional equations to quadratics, appear not to have the remotest idea beforehand of the number of solutions to be expected ; and that they will very often produce for you by some fallacious mechanical process a solution which is none at all. In short, the logic of the subject, which, both educationally and scienti- fically speaking, _is the most important part of it, is wholly neglected. The whole training consists in example grinding. What should have been merely the help to attain the end has become the end itself. The result is that algebra, as we teach it, is neither an art nor a science, but an ill-digested farrago of rules, whose object is the solution of examination problems. The history of this matter of problems, as they are called, illustrates in a singularly instructive way the weak point of our English system of education. They originated, I fancy, in the Cambridge Mathematical Tripos Examination, as a, reaction against the abuses of cramming bookwork, and they have spread into almost every branch of science teaching—witness test- tubing in chemistry. At first they may have been a good thing ; at all events the tradition at Cambridge was strong in my day, that he that could work the most problems in three or two and a half hours was the ablest man, and, be he ever so ignorant of bis subject in its width and breadth, could afford to despise those 448 NATURE [ Sept. 10, 1885 less gifted with this particular kind of superficial sharpness. But, in the end, came all to the same : we were prepared for problem- working in exactly the same way as for bookwork. We were directed to work through old problem papers, and study the style and peculiarities of the day and of the examiner. The day and the examiner had, in truth, much to do with it, and fashion reigned in problems as in everything else. The only difference I could ever see between problems and bookwork was the greater predominance of the inspiriting element of luck in the former. This advantage was more than compensated for by the peculiarly disjointed and, from a truly scientific point of view, worthless nature of the training which was employed to cultivate this species of mental athletics. The result, so far as problems worked in examinations go, is, after all, very miserable, as the reiterated complaints of examiners show ; the effect on the examinee is a well-known enervation of mind, an almost incur- able superficiality, which might be called Problematic Paralysis —a disease which unfits a man to follow an argument extending beyond the length of a printed octavo page. Another lament- able feature of the matter is that an enormous amount of valuable time is yearly wasted in this country in the production of these scientific trifles. Against the occasional working and propounding of problems as an aid to the comprehension of a subject, and to the starting of a new idea, no one objects, and it has always been noted as a praiseworthy feature of English methods, but the abuse to which it has run is most pernicious. All men practically engaged in teaching who have learned enough, in spite of the defects of their own early training, to enable them to take a broad view of the matter, are agreed as to the canker which turns everything that is good in our educa- tional practice to evil. It is the absurd prominence of written competitive examinations that works all this mischief. The end of all education nowadays is to fit the pupil to be examined ; the end of every examination not to be an educational instrument, but to be an examination which a creditable number of men, however badly taught, shall pass. We reap, but we omit to sow. Consequently our examinations, to be what is called fair —that is, beyond criticism in the newspapers—must contain nothing that is not to be found in the most miserable text-book that any one can cite bearing on the subject. One of my students, for example, who was plucked in his M. A. examination, and justly so if ever man was, by the unanimous verdict of three examiners, wrote me an indignant letter because he believed, or was assured, that the paper set by the examiners could not have been answered out of Todhunter’s Elementary Algebra. I have nothing to say, of course, against that or any other text-book, but who put it into the poor young man’s head that the burden lay with me to prove that the examination in question ought to contain nothing but what is to be found in Todhunter’s Elemen- tary Algebra? The course of this kind of reasoning is plain enough, and is often developed in the newspapers with that charming simplicity which is peculiar to honest people who are, at the same time, very ignorant and very unthinking. First, it follows that lectures should contain nothing but what is to be found in every text-book ; secondly, lectures are therefore useless, since it is all in the text-book ; thirdly, the examination should allude to nothing that is not in the text-books, because that would be unfair ; fourthly, which is the coach or crammer’s de- duction, there should be nothing in the text-book that is not likely to be set inthe examination. The problem for the writer of a text-book has come now, in fact, to be this—to write a book so neatly trimmed and compacted that no coach, on looking through it, can mark a single passage which the candi- date for a minimum pass can safely omit. Some of these text- books I have seen, where the scientific matter has been, like the lady’s waist in the nursery song, compressed “so gent and sma’,” that the thickness of it barely, if at all, surpasses what is devoted to the publisher’s advertisements. We shall return, I verily believe, to the Compendium of Martianus Capella. The result of all this is that science, in the hands of specialists, soars higher and higher into the light of day, while educators and the educated are left more and more to wander in primeval darkness. When our system sets such mean ends before the teacher, and encourages such unworthy conceptions of education, is it to be wondered at that the cry arises that pupils degenerate beneath even the contemptible standards of our examinations? These can hardly be made low enough to suit the popular taste. It is no merit of the system we pursue, but due simply to the better educated among our teachers—men, many of them, who work for little reward and less praise—that we have not come to a worse pass already. Some even of the much-abused crammers have concep- tions of a teacher’s duty far higher than the system-mongers of the day, whom it is their special business to outwit ; and it is but fair to allow to such of these also as deserve it part of the credit of stemming the torrent of degeneration. We place our masters in positions such that their very bread depends upon their doing what many of them know and will acknowledge to be wrong. Their excuse is, ‘‘We do so and so because of the examina- tion. The cure for all this evil is simply to give effect to a higher ideal of education in general, and of scientific education in par- ticular. Science cannot live among the people, and scientific education cannot be more than a wordy rehearsal of dead text- books, unless we have living contact with the working minds of living men. It takes the hand of God to make a great mind, but contact with a great mind will make a little mind greater. The most valuable instruction in any art or science is to sit at the feet of a master, and the next best to have contact with another who has himself been so instructed. No agency that I have ever seen at work can compare for efficiency with an intelligent teacher, who has thoroughly made his subject his own. It is by providing such, and not by sowing the dragon’s teeth of examinations, that we can hope to raise up an intelligent generation of scientifically educated men, who shall help our race to keep its place in the struggle of nations. In the future we must look more to men and to ideas, and trust less to mere systems. Systems have had their trial. In particular, systems of examination have been tested and found wanting in nearly every civilised country on the face of the earth. Backward as we are here, we are stirring. The University of London, after rendering a great service to the country by forcing the older universities to give up the absurd practice of restricting their advantages to persons professing a particular shade of religious belief, has for many years pursued its career as a mere examining body. It has done so with rare advantages in the way of Government aid, efficient organisation, and an unsurpassed staff of examiners. Yet it has been a failure as an instrument for promoting the higher education—foredoomed to be so, because, as I have said, you must sow before you can reap. At the present time, with great wisdom, the managers of that institution have set about the task of really fitting it out for the great end that it professes to pursue. If they succeed in so doing, they will confer upon the higher education one of the greatest benefits it has yet received. They have an opportunity before them of dethroning the iron tyrant Examination which is truly enviable. This movement is only one of the signs of the times. Among the younger generation I find few or none that have any belief in the ‘‘ learn when you can and we will examine you” theory ; and small wonder, for they have tasted the bitter- ness of its fruit. Zazssex faire asa method in the higher edu- cation no longer holds its place, except in the minds of inexpe- rienced elderly people, who cling, not unnaturally, to the views and fashions which were young when they were so. All the same, the task of reformation is not an easy one. Ex- aminations have a strong hold upon us, for various reasons, some good, some bad, but all powerful. In the first place, they came in as an outlet from the system of patronage, which, with many obvious advantages, some of which are now sorely missed, had become unsuited to our social conditions. There is a certain advantage in examinations from the organiser’s point of view, which any one who, like myself, has to deal with large quantities of pretty raw material, will readily understand. Again, there is an orderly bustle about the system that pleases the business-loving eye of the Briton. Yearly the printed sheets go forth in every corner of the land. The candidates meet and, in the solemn silence of the examination hall, the inspector, the local magnate, or the professor, sits, while for two or three busy hours the pens go scratching over the paper. A feeling of thankfulness comes over the important actor in this well-ordered scene, that the younger generation have such advantages that their fathers never knew. It is only when the answers are dissected in the examiner's study that the rottenness is revealed underlying the fair outward skin. But then the examiner must go by his standards ; he must consider what is done elsewhere, and what is to be reasonably expected. Accordingly he takes his report and quickly writes so many per cent. passed. Then the chorus of reporting examiners lift up their voices in wonderful concordance ; and all, perhaps even the examiners, are comforted. There is something attrac- tive about the whole thing that I can only compare to the pleasure with which one listens to the hum of a busy factory or to the Sept. 10, 1885] roaring of the forge and ringing of the anvil. But what avails the hum of the factory if the product be shoddy, and what the roar of the forge and the ring of the anvil if the metal we work be base ? In conclusion, let us consider fora moment what might be done for the risen generation, who are too old to go formally to school, and yet not too old to learn. Imtheir education such bodies as the British Association might be very helpful. Indeed, in the past, the British Association has been very helpful in many ways. It can point to an admirable series of reports on the progress of science, for which every one who, like myself, has used them, is very grateful. It is much to be desired that these reports should be continued, and extended to many branches of science which they have not yet covered. The Association has at present, I believe, a committee of inquiry into science-teaching generally. This istypical of a kind of activity which the Association might very profitably extend. This Association, with its long list of members bristling with the names of experts in every science, not drawn from any clique or particular centre, but indiscriminately from the whole land, might take upon itself to look into the question of scientific text-books and treatises. Even if it did not set up a censorship of the scientific press, which might be an experiment of doubtful wis- dom, although some kind of interference seems really wanted now and then, it might set itself to the highly useful work of filling the gaps in our scientific literature. There is nothing from which the English student suffers so much as the want of good scientific manuals. The fact is that the expense of getting up such books in this country is so great, and the demand for them, thongh steady, yet so limited, that it will not pay publishers to issue them, let alone remunerate authors to write them. In my student-days the scarcity was even greater than it is now, and in fact thenno one could hope to get even a reasonable acquaint- ance with the higher branches of exact science unless he had some familiarity with French or German at the very least—a familiarity which was rare among my fellow-students either in England orin Scotland. Might not the British Association now and then request some one fitted for the task to write a treatise on such and such asubject, and offer him reasonable remuneration for the time, labour, and skill required ? Another field in which the Association might profitably extend its labours appea%s to me to be the furnishing of reports, from time to time, on the teaching of science in other countries, and the drawing up of programmes of instruction for the guidance of schoolmasters and of those who are reading for their own instruc- tion. There is no need to impose these programmes on any one. I would leave as much freedom to the teacher as I would to the private student. The programme drawn up by the Society for the Improvement of Geometrical Teaching, for example, has been very useful to me as a teacher, although I do not follow it or any other system exclusively. The great thing is not to fall asleep over any programme or system. For the matter of that, Euclid would do very well in the earlier stages of school instruc- tion at least, provided he were modernised, and judiciously dis- carded at that part of the student’s career where a lighter vehicle and more rapid progress becomes necessary. In such programmes as I contemplate the bearing of recent discovery on the elements of the various sciences could be pointed out, and the general public kept in this way from that gross ignorance into which they are at present allowed to fall. The British Association has of late, I believe, given its atten- tion to the encouragement of local scientific activity. There can be no doubt that much could be done in this way that is not done at present. The concentration of scientific activity in metro- politan centres is beginning to have a depressing effect in Great Britain. This is seen in the singularly unequal way in which Government aid is distributed over the country. Large sums are spent—sometimes we outsiders think not to the best purpose —through certain channels, simply because these channels happen to have a convenient opening in some Government office in London, or in some place in that important city which has easy access to the ruling powers ; while applications on behalf of other objects not less worthy are met with a refusal which is sometimes barely courteous. The result is that local effort languishes, and men of energy, finding that nothing can be done apart from certain centres, naturally gravitate thither, leaving provincial desolation to become more desolate. I think our great scientific societies—the Royal Societies of London and Edinburgh and the Royal Irish Academy—might do more than they do at present to prevent this languishing of NATURE 449 local science, which is so prejudicial to the growth of a scientific public. Besides their all-important publishing function, these bodies have for a considerable time back been constituted into a species of examining and degree-conferring bodies for grown-up men, That is to say, their membership has been conferred upon a principle of exclusion. Instead of any one being admitted who is willing to do his best, by paying his subscription or otherwise, to advance science, every one is exc/uded who does not come up to the standard of a certain examining body. So far is this carried in the case of the Royal Society of London, that there is an actual competitive examination, on the result of which a certain number of successful candidates are annually chosen. Now, against this proceeding by itself I have nothing to say, except that it appears to belong to the pupillary age both of men and nations. It is not the honouring of the select few that I think evil, but the exclusion of the unhonoured many. The original intention in founding these societies was to promote the advancement of science. How that is done by excluding any one, be it the least gifted among us, who is honestly willing to contribute his mite towards the great end, fairly passes my comprehension. If it is thought necessary, for the proper culti- yation of the scientific spirit among us, that the degree- conferring function should be continued, let there by all means be an inner court of the temple, a place for titular immortals ; but let there be also a court of the Gentiles, where those whose fate or whose choice it is to serve science unadorned may find a modest recep- tion. I believe that the adoption of this suggestion would enormously extend the usefulness of our great scientific societies, and give to their voice a weight which it never had before. At all events, if the trammels of tradition, or some better reason with which I am unacquainted, should prevent them from broadening their basis in the way I indicate, nothing prevents the British Association, with its more liberal constitution, from considering what may be done for the scientific plebeian. There is one other function of the British Association in connection with which I wish to venture another suggestion. During the annual meeting, scientific men have an opportunity of making each other’s acquaintance. Great men exchange ideas with great men ; and, most important of all, young and little men have a chance, rarely otherwise afforded, of taking a nearer view of the great. What I would suggest for consideration is, whether it might not be possible to form an organisation which would in a certain sense carry this advantage through the whole year. I have already alluded more than once to the difficulties that the scientific public—and here I include professional men generally, in fact all but the leaders of science—have in keeping pace with recent advances. Would it not be possible to have an arrangement enabling at least every large centre of the higher education to have periodically the benefit of communion with and instruction from the high priests of the various branches of science? How glad we, the teachers of science in Edinburgh for example, would be to have a course of lectures once every three or four years from Professors Cayley, Sylvester, Stokes, Adams, Lord Rayleigh. In this way effect would be given to the principle which cannot be too much insisted upon, that the power of the spoken word far exceeds that of the written letter. Not only should we learn from the mouths of the prophets them- selves the highest truths of science, but the present generation would thus come to know face to face, as living men, those whose work will be the glory of their time and a light for future ages. From the want of a proper circulating medium, the influence of great scientific men very often does not develop until they and the secrets of their insight have gone from among us. _The object of what I propose is to make these men more of a living power in their own lifetime. SECTION B CHEMICAL SCIENCE OPENING ADDREsS BY Pror. HENRY E. ARMSTRONG, PH.D., F.R.S., Sec. C.S., PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION In the Chemical Section of the British Association for the Advancement of Science the advancement of chemistry through- out the British Empire must be a subject of commanding in- terest. Signs of such advancement are not wanting : — the rapid establishment of science colleges in one after another of our large towns ; the establishment of the Society of Chemical Industry, which now, only in the fifth year of its existence, 450 NATURE [Sepz. 10, 1885 numbers over 2,000 members ; the granting of a Royal charter to the Institute of Chemistry ; the changes introduced at the London University in the regulations for the D.Sc. degree ; the report of the Royal Commission on Technical Education, in which the value to chemical manufacturers of advanced chemical know- ledge is so fully recognised ; the important conference on educa- tion held at the Health Exhibition last year; the recent agitation to found a teaching university in London with adequate provision for research—surely all these are signs that the value of higher education must and will, ere long, be generally recognised. The neglect of chemical research in our British schools has often been forcibly commented upon—of late, especially, by an eminent past-President of this section, Dr. Perkin, whose opinion is of peculiar value, as he is not only world renowned as a chemist, but also as a manufacturer: indeed, as the founder of two distinct important chemical industries. There can be no doubt of the fact and of the dire consequences to our country of such neglect : how is it, then, that such pronounced complaints have been so coldly received ; that hitherto they have produced comparatively so little effect; and that such slight encourage- ment is being given to those who, notwithstanding the many difficulties in their way, have steadfastly devoted themselves to research work? I question whether the value of such work has yet been brought home to teachers generally, let alone the public : the ‘‘cwi bono?” cry is almost invariably met by pointing to some discovery of great pecuniary value as the outcome of re- search. This argument educationalists very properly refuse to recognise. Too little has been said as to the cause of the neg- lect so bitterly and p-operly complained of. Hence it is that I propose again to take up what many may regard as a somewhat threadbare theme. Every one will agree with Prof. Sir Henry Roscoe, who in his address last year to this Section said ‘‘ that those who are to be- come either scientific or industrial chemists should receive as sound and extensive a foundation in the theory and practice of chemical science as their time and abilities will allow, rather than they should be forced prematurely” —the italics are mine— “into the preparation of a new series of homologous compounds, or the investigation of some special reaction, or of some possible new colouring matter, though such work might doubtless lead to publication.” We must also cordially agree with him that the aim should be, as he tells us his has been, ‘‘ to prepare a young man by a careful and fairly complete general training to fill with intelligence and success a post either as teacher or industrial chemist, rather than to turn out mere specialists, who, placed under other conditions than those to which they have been accustomed, are unable to get out of the narrow groove in which they have been trained.’”’ If it were necessary to show that Sir Henry Roscoe is a believer in research in its proper place, ample proof would be afforded by his statement, ‘‘that, far from under- rating the educational advantages of working at original subjects, he considers this sort fof training of the highest and best kind, but only useful when founded upon a sound and general basis.” But I venture to think that something has to be added in order to completely define the position of those who deplore the slight amount of original work which is being done in British labora- tories. We maintain that no one can really ‘‘ fZ with intelli- gence and success a post either as teacher or industrial chemist ” who has not been trained in the methods of research ; and that, owing to the neglect of research, the majority of students are of necessity trained in a narrow groove. The true teacher and the industrial chemist are daily called upon to exercise precisely those faculties which are developed in the course of original in- vestigation, and which it is barely possible—many would say, perhaps with justice, it is impossible—to sufficiently cultivate in any other manner. In a works the chemist is scarcely required as long as all goes well. The quality of the materials used or produced can be controlled by purely routine processes of analysis by the works analyst, or by well-trained laboratory boys. But things never do go well for any long period of time: difficulties are always arising ; obscure points have to be investigated ; and, if the manufacturer understand his business, improvements have to be effected—which cannot be done unless the conditions under which he is working be understood, as well as the character of the changes which are taking place. Investigation is therefore necessary at every step. No amount of instruction, such as is ordinarily given, in the mere theory and practice of chemical science will confer the habits of mind, the acuteness of vision and resourcefulness required of an efficient chemist in a works, any more than the mere placing of the best tools in a workman’s hands will make him a skilful operator. Such being our position, we maintain that it is essential to make research an integral portion of the student’s course in every college which pretends to educate chemists. It will not suffice occasionally to set a promising student to investigate,’ but a num- ber of students, as well as the staff, must always be engaged in original work: in fact, az atmosphere of research must pervade the college. It cannot be too clearly recognised that it is this which characterises and distinguishes the German schools at the present time. The student does not learn so much from the one special piece of work with which he is occupied, but a number of his fellow-students being also similarly engaged, the spirit of inquiry is rife throughout the laboratory : original literature is freely consulted, and they thus become acquainted with the methods of the old masters ; vigorous discussions take place, not only in the laboratory, but also at that most useful institution, the ‘‘Kneipe” ; the appearance of each new number of the scientific periodicals is keenly welcomed ;—in fact, a proper spirit of inquisitiveness is awakened and maintained, until it gradually becomes ahabit. Probably there is less actual routine teaching done by the staff in the German schools than in our own. Iam proud to own my indebtedness to one of them, and I can without hesitation say that I never truly realised what constituted the science of chemistry until I came under its influence. But to realise the state which I have pictured—/o create an atmosphere af research in our science colleges in order that it may be possible for our students to obtain coniplete training in chem- istry, several things are required. In the first place, it will be necessary that the students come to them better prepared than they are at present : as a rule they are so ill-prepared that it is very difficult, if not impossible, in the time at disposal to give such preliminary instruction as is indispensable before higher work can be attempted. Their mathematical knowledge is so ill-digested that it is more often than not necessary to begin by teaching simple proportion, and they look aghast at a logarithm table. They cannot draw ; so far have we advanced in our civilisation that the subject is more often than not an ‘‘ extra” in our schools. They understand a little French ; but German, which may almost be called the language of modern science, is indeed an unknown tongue to them. I do not complain of their want of knowledge of science subjects, but of the un- scientific manner in which they have been trained at school, and especially of the manner in which their intellectual faculties have become deadened from want of exercise, instead of developed and sharpened. Too many have never acquired the habit of working steadily and seriously ; they have not learnt to appre- ciate the holiness of work,! so that they render the office of teacher akin to that of slave-driver instead of to that of friend. What is perhaps worst is their marked inability, often amount- ing to downright refusal, either to take proper notice of what happens in an experiment or to draw any logical conclusion from an observation. Man is said to be a reasoning being, but my experience as an examiner and teacher would lead me to believe that this fact is altogether lost sight of by the average school- master, who appears to confine himself almost exclusively to the teaching of hard dry facts, and makes no attempt to cultivate those very faculties which are supposed to characterise the human race; or he is so ill-prepared for his work that he fails to understand his duty. These are harsh words, but the evil is of such magnitude that it cannot be too plainly stated; those who, like myself, are brought full face to it fail in their duty if, when opportunity occurs, they do not take occasion to call attention to ils existence. Probably the only remedy—certainly the most effectual, and that which can be most easily applied—is the introduction of a rational system of practical science teaching into all our schools, whatever their grade ; one effect would be that all the school subjects would of necessity soon be taught in a more scientific manner. Iam not one of those who would eschew the teaching of classics, and I do not wish to see science teaching introduced into schools generally, in order that the students who come to me may already have gained some knowledge of science: under existing circumstances I prefer that they shall not ; but I desire its introduction because the faculty of observing and of reasoning from observation, and also from experiment, is most readily 1 In my experience, the behaviour of ordinary day male students is, in this respect, particularly striking in comparison with that of female and evening students: the evening students, who come with a desire to learn, and the female students are invariably most attentive, and make the fullest use of the opportunities afforded them. Sept. 10, 1885] NA TORE 451 developed by the study of experimental science: this faculty, which is of such enormous practical value throughout life, being, I believe—as I have said elsewhere—left uncultivated after the most careful mathematical ard literary training. No one has stated this more clearly than Charles Kingsley. We are told that, speaking to the boys at Wellington College, he said : ‘* The first thing for a boy to learn, after obedience and morality, is a habit of observation—a habit of using his eyes. It matters little what you use them on, provided you do use them. They say knowledge is power, and so it is—but only the knowledge which you get by observation. Many aman is very learned in books, and has read for years and years, and yet he is useless. He knows about allsorts of things, but he can’t do them.” This is precisely our complaint—the average schoolboy may know a gocd deal about things, but he can’t do them. The ordinary school system of training does not, in fact, develop the ‘‘ wits,” to use a popular and expressive term for the observing and reasoning faculties; but it is certain that the wits require training. It is because the teaching of experi- mental science tends to develop the wits that those among us who know its power are so anxious for its introduction. This cannot be too clearly stated, the popular view—to judge from newspaper discussions—being apparently that science is to be classed with ‘‘ extras”: that it is good for those who can afford it, but can be dispensed with by those who cannot. This un- doubtedly is true of the ‘‘ science ” which is taught the specialist, and I fear even of much of the ‘‘science’’ which is at present taught in schools: let us hope that ere long other views will prevail when the object which it is sought to gain by teaching science is made clear. While blaming the schoolmaster for his neglect, it must not be forgotten that the teaching of sciences in schools meets with comparatively little encouragement at the hands of our examin- ing bodies and the universities. Again, examinations are too often entrusted to those who have no educational experience, and with most unfortunate results : in no case, probably, is in- experience so inexcusable as in an examiner. Too often, also, the exaininations are in the hands of pure specialists, who take too formal a view of their duty, and expect from boys and girls at school as much as from their own students, who are older and devote more time to the work. Such examiners are prone to discourage science by marking too severely ; and as their ques- tions govern the teaching, instruction is given in schools without due reference to educational requirements, and in a purely technical style: this, I fear, is the effect of some of the universities’ local examinations. I have it on good authority, that the recent changes in the scheme of the examinations for admission at Sandhurst have forced one large school, well known for the attention paid in it to the teaching of science, to cease to give instruction in science to those of its pupils who propose to compete at these examina- tions, at once on their deciding to do so. Then, not only are the science scholarships at the universities few in proportion, but the great majority of students pass through their university career without being called upon to gain the slightest knowledge of physical science : yet, more often than not, the teachers are chosen from these. A large proportion become clergymen, and consider- ing the demands upon them and the unbounded opportunities which they have of imparting useful information, there cannot be a doubt that to no other class of the community is a knowledge of natural science likely to be of more value. Let us hope that the time is near when our universities will no longer be open to this reproach.? Whatever steps they may elect to take, it is before all:things important that-it be not forgotten that their main purpose must be to influence the schools, so that experi- mental science may be used as an educational weapon at the most appropriate time, and not when the faculties to be fashioned _* “T sometimes dream,” said Kingsley, ‘of a day when it will be con- sidered necessary that every candidate for ordination should be required to have passed creditably in at least one branch of physical science, if it be only to teach him the method of sound scientific thought.” '? J learnt with the most lively satisfaction, but a few days ago, that Dr. Percival, the late head-master of Clifton College, speaking at a meeting of Convocation at Oxford last term, said: “If twenty years ago this university had said : from this time forward the elements of natural science shall take their piace in responsions side by side with the elements of mathematics, and shall be equally obligatory, you would long ago have effected a revolution in school education.” ‘This remark elicited some warm expressions of approval. Dr. Percival has, I am sure, the approval of all science teachers, and he will earn their gratitude, and deserve that of the public at large, if he can succeed in inducing his university to take action in accordance with his enlightened views, by it have become atrophied through neglect, as I fear is too often the case, ere the university is reached. We must carefully guard against being satisfied with the mere introduction of one or more science subjects into the school cur riculum : some of those who strenuously advocate the introduc- tion of science teaching perhaps do not sufficiently bear this in mind. Chemistry, physics, &c., may be—and I fear are, more often than not—taught in such a way that it were better had no attempt whatever been made to teachthem. I hold that it is of no use merely to set lads to prepare oxygen, &c., orto make ex- periments which please them in proportion as they more nearly resemble fireworks ; and it is not the duty of the schoolmaster to train his boys as though they were to become chemists, any more than it is his duty to fit them to enter any other particular profession or trade : the whole of the science teaching in a school should be subservient to the one object of developing certain faculties. Unfortunately, two great difficulties stand in the way at present—viz. the want of suitable books and of a rational system of teaching science from the point of view here ad- yocated ; and the requirements of the universities and other examining bodies. Both books and examinations are of too special a character: they may suit the specialist, but do not meet educational requirements. I have already somewhat fully ex- pressed my views on this subject in a paper read at the Educa- tional Conference in London last year. Although much more might be said, I will now only call attention to the important service which we may render in removing these difficulties. The reform most urgently needed, in which, as members of the community, not merely as chemists, we are all most in- terested, is the introduction of some system which will insure a proper training for teachers. Engineers, lawyers, medical men, pharmacists, have severally associated themselves to found in- stitutions which require those who desire to join the profession to obtain a certain qualification ; even chemists are seeking to do this through the Institute of Chemistry. But schoolmasters, although members of what is probably the most responsible, onerous, useful, and honourable of any of the professions, have as yet neither made, nor shown any inclination to make, a united effort to insure that all those who join their profession shall be properly qualified. Surely the time has come when the subject must receive full public attention; the country cannot much longer remain content that the education of all but those of its sons and daughters who come within the province of the School Board should be carried on without any guarantee that it is being properly conducted. Glaring as are the faults in the existing school system, and although it rests with the universities and other teaching and examining bodies—if the public do not intervene—to prescril e a proper course of instruction for potential schoolmasters and to enforce a rational system of training all the mental faculties, we science teachers may meanwhile do much by introducing more perfect methods into our own system of teaching. The students attending our courses belong to various classes: some will become chemists, and require the highest and most complete training ; others will be teachers in colleges or schools ; many will occupy themselves as consulting chemists or analysts ; many others will have to take charge of manufacturing operations in which a knowledge of chemistry is of more or less direct im- portance and value ; not a few will become medical men; and a large proportion, let us hope, will be those who have no direct use for chemistry, although the knowledge will be of great ser- vice to them in many ways : among such we may include archi- tects and builders, engineers, farmers, and even country gentle- men. Have we sufficiently considered the several requirements of all these various classes? I submit, with all due deference, that we have not! Our attention has been too exclusively directed to the training up of the future analyst ; the instruction has been of too technical a character. I know it is rank heresy to say so, but I maintain that in future far less time must be devoted to the teaching of ordinary qualitative and quantitative analysis, and that technical instruc- tion as now given in these subjects must find its place later in the course. Our main object in the first instance must be to fully develop the intellectual faculties of our students ; to encourage their aspirations by inculcating broad and liberal views of our science, not an infinite number of petty details. We must not merely teach them the principles and main facts of our science, but we must show them how the knowledge of those facts and principles has been gained ; and they must be so drilled as to have complete command of theis knowledge. The great 452 NATURE [ Sept. 10, 1885 majority will not be required to perform ordzmarvy analyses, either qualitative or quantitative ; it will be sufficient for them to have gained such. an amount of practical experience that they thoroughly understand the principles of analysis ; that they shall have learnt to appreciate the sacredness of accuracy ; and that they shall have acquired sufficient manipulative skill to be able when occasion requires to carry into execution the analytical process which their text-books tell them is applic- able, and even, if necessary, to modify the process to suit circumstances. Chemistry is no longer a purely descriptive science. The study of carbon compounds and Mendeljeff’s generalisation have produced a complete revolution! The faults in our present system are precisely those which have characterised the teaching of geography and history, and which are now becoming so generally recognised and condemned ; in fact, no better state- ment of the manner in which I conceive chemistry should be taught could be given them by broadly applying to the teaching of chemistry what was said by Professor Seeley at the Inter- national Conference on education last year, in an important paper on the teaching of history. The necessity for some change must, I venture to think, be patent to all thoughtful teachers, and especially to those who | are called upon to fulfil the painful duties of an examiner. The railway book-stalls have made us acquainted with ‘Confessions ” of all sorts, but if the ‘‘ Confessions of an Examiner ” were to be written they would be far more heartrending than any. The examiner in chemistry, let him go where he will, scarcely dare to ask a question to which the answer cannot be directly read out from a text-book. He will be told ‘‘ that such and such a compound is formed by the action of so and so upon so and so,” but he will usually find blank ignorance of the phrase “by the action of,” and as to the mode of performing the operation. The examiner would, however, be bound to agree with the teacher that it is almost impossible to induce students to seek information outside the lecture-room, and except in the ordinary cram text-books, and that it is hopeless to expect them to devote attention to anything unless it will pay in a subsequent examination—in fact that the old university spirit of acquiring knowledge for its own sake is almost unknown among our science students. Herein lies one of the teacher’s most serious difficulties, as he is more often than not bound to teach in a particular way, or to teach certain subjects, in entire oppo- sition to his own views, in order to qualify his students to pass a particular examination ; for example, many of our colleges now distinctly state that their courses are intended to qualify students to pass the examinations of the London University, and hence they are governed by the requirements of that university, which vary more or less as the examiners are periodically changed. The examiner, on the other hand, is often placed in a difficult position : it is clear to him that the system under which the students he is called upon to examine have been taught is a bad one ; yet he feels that he has no right to set questions such as he honestly believes should direct the teaching into proper chan- nels, because he knows that the teacher is immovable, and it is not fair to make the examinees the victims of a system for which they are not responsible. Hence, perforce, the teacher goes on teaching badly and the examiner examining badly. Difficulties of this kind are bound to make themselves felt at a transition period like the present, and will only disappear if we recognise the grave responsibility which rests upon ourselves and improve our methods of teaching and our text-books : these, in too many instances, are unsuited to modern requirements, and are being made worse by stereotyping, and the practice which is gradually creeping in of merely changing the date on the title page and the numeral before the word ‘‘ edition,” thus engendering the belief that the information is given up to date. Both in teaching and examining two important changes ought forthwith to be made: our students ought at the very beginning of their career to become familiar with the use of the balance ; and the imaginary distinction between so-called inorganic and organic compounds should be altogether abandoned. I do not mean that students should be taught quantitative analysis as ordinarily understood, but that instead of endeavouring to make clear to them by explanation only the meaning of terms such as equivalent, for example, we should set them to perform a few simple quantitative exercises in determining equivalents, &c. It can easily be done, and terms which otherwise long remain mythica. acquire a real meaning in the student’s mind. That the elements of the chemistry of carbon compounds do not find a place at a very early period in the course of instruction is one of those riddles connected with our system which it is impossible to answer. Attention was once pithily directed to the fact in my hearing by a scientific friend—not a chemist—who said he had often felt astonished that, although he had learnt a good deal of chemistry, the chemistry of the breakfast-table was prac- tically a sealed book to him, common salt being the one object of which he felt he knew something. I may here urge that there is one great error which we mst avoid in the future, that of overworking our students, in the sense of obliging them to pay attention to too many subjects at atime. This is done more or less, I believe, in all our science schools, and medical students are peculiarly unfortunate in this respect. It is to some extent necessitated by the deficient pre- liminary education of our students ; but I believe that I am justified in stating that it is also partly, perhaps mainly, due to the fact that the curriculum is too often imposed by lecturers who are directly interested in the attendance of students at their lectures. This is one of the great difficulties in the way of higher education, and the continuance of the evil is probably in a mea- sure due to inappreciation of what constitutes higher education and culture: neither consist in a smattering of knowledge of a variety of subjects such as is too often required at present. The more general appreciation of the value of science undoubt- edly depends to a considerable extent on improvements such as I have indicated being introduced. When such is the case,»we may hope that a large number of students will enter out chemical schools, not with the intention of becoming chemists, but be- cause it will be recognised that the training there given is of a high educational value, and that a knowledge of chemistry is of distinct service in very many avocations. We may also hope that it will be possible ere long to teach chemistry properly to medical students. Seeing that the practice of medical men largely consists in pouring chemicals into that delicately organised vessel, the human body, and that the chemical changes which thereupon take place, or which nor- mally and abnormally occur in it, are certainly not more simple than those which take place in ordinary inert vessels in our laboratories, the necessity for the medical man to have a know- ledge of chemistry—and that no slight one—would appear to ordinary minds to stand to reason; that such is not generally acknowledged to be the case can only be accounted for by the fact that they never yet have been taught chemistry, and that the apology for chemistry which has been forced upon them has been found to be of next to no value. No proof is required that the student has ever performed a single quantitative exercise ; and I have no hesitation in saying that the examinations in so-called practical chemistry, even at the London University, are beneath contempt: after more than a dozen years’ experience as a teacher under the system, I can affirm that the knowledge gained is of no permanent value, and the educational discipline #z/. Here the reform must be effected by the examining boards : it is for them to insist upon a satisfactory preliminary training, and they must so order their demands as to enforce a proper system of practical teaching ; and if chemistry is to be of real service to medical men, more time must be devoted to its study. Physiological chemistry is taught nowhere in our country, either at the uni- versities or at any of our great medical schools ; let us hope that the publication of works like those of Gamgee and Lauder Brunton may have some effect in calling attention to this grievous neglect of so important a subject. Having dealt with the educational aspect of the question, let me now briefly refer to some other difficulties which seriously hinder research. It has been more or less openly stated that the teachers in our chemical schools might themselves do far more. Is this the case? I do not think so; I believe it is not the staff, in most cases, who are primarily in fault. Under our peculiar system of placing the government of science schools in the hands of those who have little, if any, experience as educationalists, and little knowledge of or sympathy with science, the appointments are sometimes made without the slightest reference to capability of inciting and conducting original investigation, and without any proof having been given either of a desire to promote higher education in the only possible way—by research ; nevertheless experience shows that, as a rule, fair use is made by teachers of their opportunities. The opportunities afforded us are indeed few. In the first place, the amount of actual routine teaching we are called upon to perform is very considerable, many of us having to conduct evening as well as day classes ; and the work is often of the most harassing description, owing to the want of interest Sept. 10, 1885] displayed by the students. The assistance provided is also too often inadequate, and much which should be done by assistants is therefore thrown upon the principals. Higher work under these conditions is practically out of the question, not so much because it is impossible to snatch at intervals a few hours per week, but because the attention is so much taken up in the pre- paration of lectures and laboratory and tutorial teaching that it is impossible to secure that freedom of mind and concentrated attention which are essential to the successful prosecution of re- search. Bad, however, as is often the position of the principals, that of the junior staff is usually far worse. During official hours they are entirely occupied in tutorial work, and what little energy remains must more often than not be devoted to coaching or literary work, to supplement the too modest income which the salary attached to their official position affords. Under these circumstances, it is remarkable that so much enthusiasm should prevail among them on the subject of research. The tradition which prevails in the German schools, that the junior staff are bound to find some time for original work, is almost unknown in this country, and too often difficulties are raised, rather than facilities afforded, when the desire is manifested: we do not, in fact, sufficiently honour the assistant as the potential professor. It has also often struck me as cemarkable, and it must have struck others who understand the German system, that in this practical country we have not adopted that cheap luxury—the Privat-Docent, who costs nothing and exercises a most important function in promoting higher education. The explanation of this and many other anomalies lies in the fact that very few among us realise what a university is: a clear exposition of the Scotch and German systems would be of great value in these days of new universities and university colleges. I believe that in most, if not all, of the German chemical schools a private research assistant is placed at the disposal of the professor. Will this ever be the case here? The want material assistance is not only felt in this respect, however : few of our chemical schools are really efficiently equipped ; most of them are seriously in want of larger and more expensive apparatus, of suitable specimens, &c. ; the annual grant barely suffices for the purchase of the ordinary chemicals and the pay- ment of unavoidable current expenses, so that, as a rule, nothing remains to meet the expenses of research work—7.e., of higher education. In point of fact, nearly all of those who are en- gaged in research are doing so at their own expense ; important assistance, for which we cannot be too thankful, is indeed received from the various research funds, but the proportion which the grants bear to the total sum expended is not large. I am sure we all recognise that each one of us is bound, according to his abilities and the opportunities he has, to add to the stock of knowledge, and that the keenest intellectual pleasure is derived therefrom ; but it must not be forgotten that the results we obtain are very rarely of immediate practical value, and that as a rule we reap no pecuniary advantage. I venture to think, in act, that it is remarkable that so much, not that so little, is done, and that reproach rests very lightly apon the profession in this matter. Whether our national pride will prevent our being much longer beholden to foreigners for by far the greater number of new facts in chemistry is a difficult question to answer, and must rest with the public ! The occasions on which we teachers of science subjects are able to bear witness in public are of necessity few. Deeply sensible, not only of the honour, but also of the responsibility of my position as President of this Section, I felt that it was my duty to avail myself of this opportunity. Being a teacher who is interested in teaching ; being convinced of the existence of most serious faults in our educational system ; feeling that the present is a most critical period : I have not hesitated to speak very freely. Some of the difficulties to which I have referred might soon disappear if science teachers generally would agree to consider them together, and I believe that it would be a very great advantage if an association for the discussion of educational questions were formed of the staffs of our science colleges throughout the country. The special difficulties which surround our science colleges, and prevent them from exercising their full share of influence upon the advancement of our national prosperity might also be removed at no distant date; but I see only one way of accomplishing this, and I fear it will hardly find favour : it is by their all becoming vested in the State. In this country we like to do things in our own way, and the objection will at once be raised that this would deprive all the colleges of their in- dividuality, and would tend to crush originality and to stereotype NATURE 453 teaching. If I thought so I should never make the sugges- tion. But it would not, provided that complete academic freedom were secured to the staff, and each college were left to adjust itself to local requirements ; efficiency would be maintained by the competition of the various colleges. Local enterprise, which has hitherto been trusted to, is clearly breaking down under the tremendous strain of modern educational requirements : some change must ere long be made. (To be continued.) SECTION C GEOLOGY OPENING ADDRESss BY ProF. J. W. Jupp, F.R.S., Sec. G.S., PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. As this city is the only place within the limits of the Scottish Highlands where our Association holds its annual gatherings, it is fitting that the attention of those who meet in this section should, on the present occasion, be specially directed to the grand problems of Highland geology. Six-and-twenty years have passed since the members of this section assembled here, under the presidency of my dear friend, my revered master, Charles Lyell. Few now present can have actually listened to the stormy discussions of that memorable occasion, but all are familiar with the nature of the problems which in the year 1859 were here so keenly debated. It is true that the fires of these controversies have now almost died out, and from their ashes have arisen the new problems which confront us to-day ; but it will not, I think, be without profit to direct your attention for a few minutes to those two subjects which constituted the “burning questions” of that day—the age of the Crystalline Rocks of the Highlands, and the geological position of the Reptiliferous Sandstone of Elgin. With respect to the first of these questions, there are especial reasons why I should briefly review the discussions which have taken place in connection with it. It was in the meetings of this section of the British Association that the successive stages of the controversy were gradually developed. It was at a former meeting of the Association in this city that James Nicol sub- mitted to the scientific world that splendid solution of a difficult problem, which is now universally admitted to have been the correct one. This university was, during the last twenty-seven years of his active, useful, and honoured life, the scene and centre of the labours of that profound but modest thinker to whom we owe so much. Lest it should seem presumption on my part to speak on the question, I may add that for some years before his death it was my good fortune to enjoy the friendship and confidence of the late Prof. Nicol, with whom I had several opportunities of discussing the great questions at issue between himself and Murchison. Seeing, as I do to-day, his own great claims too often forgotten or ignored, I feel that, should I, on this occasion, hold my peace—‘‘ the very stones would cry out.” It will indeed be an unfortunate day for our republic of science when the palm of recognition—withheld from him whom modesty and self-respect restrain from clamorous self-assertion—is per- mitted to be snatched away by the bold and noisy advertiser of his own claims. Nearly seventy years ago, John Macculloch—that distinguished pioneer in Scottish geology—was able to prove that in our Western Highlands there exists a grand formation, made up of red sandstones and quartzite, both exhibiting unmistakable evidence of a sedimentary origin. He also pointed out that, associated with these red sandstones and quartzites, are beds of limestone, which are often altogether destitute of crystalline characters, and are sometimes bituminous, while they occasion- ally contain fossils. Macculloch strongly insisted that this great system of strata, which covers large areas in Sutherland and Ross, extending also into some of the Western Isles, is distinct alike from the Old- and the New-Red Sandstone; he asserted that it belongs to a far older period than either of those formations, and, employing the phraseology of the early geologists, he gave to it the name of the “ Primary Red Sandstone” (Zrans. Geol. Soc. ser. I, vol. ii. p. 450, &c. ‘* Western Isles of Scotland” (1819), vol. ii. p. 89, &c. ‘‘ System of Geology ” (1831). Macculloch showed clearly that the strata of his ‘* Primary Red Sandstone Formation”? are often found resting unconform- ably upon the gneissose and schistose rocks of the Highlands ; 454 NATURE [ Sept. 10, 1885 but that in other places they appear to be overlain conformably by, and even to alternate with, crystalline schists and gneisses. He was further able to state that the quartzites of his ‘‘ Primary Red Sandstone Formation” contain organic remains, some of which he correctly identified as the burrows of marine worms, while others he recognised as Orthoceratites (‘‘ Western Isles of Scotland” (1819), vol. ii. pp. 512, 543). It is almost painful to have to add that his want of appreciation of the value of palzontological evidence, a weakness which Macculloch shared with so many of the early Scottish geologists, prevented any attempt on his part at the correlation of this ‘‘ Primary Red Sandstone” with the rocks of other districts ; and thus for more than forty years this important discovery remained almost entirely fruitless. The next step in the history of our knowledge of these High- land strata which we have to record, was unfortunately a retrograde one. Sedgwick and Murchison, who visited the district in 1827, maintained that Macculloch had fallen into grievous error, and that his ‘‘ Primary Red Sandstone Formation ”’ was in fact no other than an outlying part of the Old Red Sandstone (Z7ans. Geol. Soc. ser. 2, vol. iii. p. 155). This view was strongly protested against by Hay Cunningham, who, writing in 1839, after a careful survey of Sutherland, demonstrated the justice of Macculloch’s conclusions, and even went beyond that geologist in showing the very intimate connec- tion between the quartzite and limestone. He clearly illustrated by numerous sections the unconformity of the ‘‘ Primary Red Sandstone Formation,” consisting of red sandstone, quartzite, and limestone, upon the gneissose rocks, and the apparently conformable superposition to it of other schists and gneisses (“On the Geognosy of Sutherlandshire,” by R. J. H. Cunning- ham, M.W.S. ; Zransactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, vol. xiii. (1839). Such was the state of geological opinion when, in the winter of 1854, the attention of geologists was recalled to this ancient formation of Macculloch by the discovery in it of fossils by one who fully recognised their value and importance—Mr. Charles Peach. These fossils, though imperfect, were sufficient to prove that the strata containing them must be of Pa/eozorc age. Three of the leaders of geological science at that day appear to have been deeply impressed with the importance of this dis- covery of Mr. Peach’s; but for a time, at least, the fruits of that discovery were missed, through the unfortunate retrograde teachings of Sedgwick and Murchison in 1827. Hugh Miller, whose splendid researches in the Old Red Sandstone had made him ready to welcome any extension of its boundaries, suggested that the fossils of Durness might belong to the marine Devonian. Roderick Murchison, who in his younger days had worthily conquered a kingdom in Siluria, and by successive annexations in his later years had sought to convert this kingdom into an empire—one which should embrace all the Lower Paleozoic rocks of the globe—was not unwilling to claim his native High- lands as part of this ever-growing realm. James Nicol, who had been the first to discover graptolites in the rocks of the Scottish Borderland, and had thus demonstrated their Silurian age, was so struck by the resemblance of some of the slaty rocks of the Highlands to the fossiliferous shales of his native district, that, ten years before Peach made his important discovery, he had suggested the probability of the Highland schists and gneisses being simply the Borderland shales and greywackes in an altered state (‘* Guide to the Geology of Scot- land” [1844]). Hence Nicol, equally with Murchison, was prepared to accept the Silurian age of the Durness limestone, and of the rocks associated with it. Murchison, still full of his old enthusiasm for discovery, determined to love no time in putting to the test the truth of the suggestion made by his old friend Nicol and himself; and accordingly, shortly before the meeting of the British Association, which was fixed to take place in the year 1855 at Glasgow, we find the two friends making their way into the wild district of North-west Sutherland. Unfortunately the time was too short and the weather too unpropitious for the task they had set before themselves. When this Geological Section assembled at Glasgow, Murchison declared his conviction that the limestone of Dur- ness, which had yielded the fossils to Mr. Peach, was of Silurian —that is, as he employed the term—of Lower Paleozoic age. But he, at the same time, maintained the truth of his old views, that the red sandstones of Applecross and Gareloch are in reality nothing but Old Red Sandstone (‘‘ Brit. Ass. Rep.” 1855); Zvans. of Sec. p. 87), and in this latter contention he received the warm support of Sedgwick, who was also present at the meeting (Geikie’s ‘‘ Memoir of Sir Roderick Murchison” (1875), vol. ii. p. 207). Nicol, on the other hand, appears to have been greatly dissatisfied with the results of this hasty and inauspicious journey to Sutherland. While, however, withholding his judgment as to the age of the several rock-masses, he insisted, in opposition to the views of Murchison and Sedgwick, that the whole of the vast series of Red Sandstones in Applecross and Torridon is, as Macculloch showed, inferior to the quartzite and limestone (see Nicol’s ‘*Geology of the North of Scotland” (1866), Appendix, p. 96). In the summer of the next year, 1856, Nicol, so soon as he was released from his teaching work in this university, hastened back to the Western Highlands to try and resolve some of the doubts which troubled him concerning the age and succession of the strata. This summer’s labour was productive of great and important discoveries. In the first place, he was able to com- pletely confirm the conclusions of Macculloch and Hay Cunning- ham, that a// the Red Sandstone of the Western Islands, with the exception of some small patches of ‘‘ New Red,” belong to an old formation underlying the quartzite and limestone. But his researches also enabled him to show that Macculloch’s ‘* Primary Red Sandstone” in reality consists of ¢wo formations, the lower—to which he subsequently gave the name of the “*Torridon Sandstone”—lying unconformably on the gneiss, and the upper (consisting of quarzite and limestone, containing fossils) resting everywhere unconformably upon, and overlapping, the sandstones. It is avery noteworthy circumstance that while Nicol admitted the accuracy of the descriptions of Macculloch and Hay Cunningham which seemed to point to a conformable superposition of beds of gneiss to the quartzite and limestone, the results of this first summer’s work had already raised serious misgivings in his mind as to the correctness of this conclusion, for he wrote as follows :—‘‘ The fact of the overlying gneiss having been metamorphosed 7 sz¢z, and not pushed up over the quartzite, is one requiring further investigation” (Quart. Fourn. Geol. Soc. vol. xiii., 1857, p. 35). It is not surprising, how- ever, to find that Nicol was so staggered by the magnitude of the faults which would be required to bring about such a result, that for more than a year he hesitated to accept this, which we now know to be the true, explanation of the phenomena. There was a suggestion—and it was nothing more than a sug- gestion—made by Nicol at this time, which has often been very unfairly quoted to his disadvantage. Convinced that Macculloch was right as to the infraposition of the Torridon Sandstone to the quartzite and limestone, and strongly inclined to accept Murchison’s confident assertion that this Torridon Sandstone was simply the ‘f Old Red,” Nicol pointed out that the only possible way of harmonising these two views was to suppose that the quartzites and limestones were of Carboniferous age; and he showed that the imperfect fossils which had been up to that time obtained at Durness were not sufficient to negative such a sup- position (Quart. Four, Geol. Soc. vol. xiii., 1857, p. 36). But during the summers of 1857 and 1858, Nicol continued his labours in the Western Highlands, with the result of clearing away many of his difficulties and perplexities. Murchison, too, had revisited the district, and seen that his idea of the ‘* Old- Red” age of the Torridon Sandstone would have to be finally abandoned, and that Macculloch’s views, as amended by Nicol, concerning the relations of the Highland rock-masses must be accepted. Salter, too, examining more perfect specimens of fossils which had in the meanwhile been obtained from the Durness limestone by the indefatigable Mr. Charles Peach, showed that they were certainly of dower Paleozoic age (Silurian of Murchison). The position taken up by Murchison, and on which he made his final stand, was simply arrived at by combining the strati- graphical conclusions of Macculloch and Nicol with the palz- ontological results of Peach and Salter. Murchison attended the meetings of this Association at Dublin in 1857, and at Leeds in 1858, on both occasions making use of the opportunity for explaining in detail his ideas concerning the age and succession of the Highland rocks. On the latter 1 Colonel Sir Henry James is said to have made similar observations during the same season, the summer of 1856, and to have communicated them to Sir Roderick Murchison by letter. But there can be no doubt that eee ee was made quite independently, and he was the first to publish it. Sept. 10, 1885 | NATURE 459 occasion, he challenged his old friend Nicol to meet him at the forthcoming meeting at Aberdeen to discuss the question, and the challenge was accepted. When Murchison arrived at this city, in September 1859, he brought with him a redoubtable champion in the person of Prof, (now Sir Andrew) Ramsay, the director of the Geological Sur- vey, who had been conducted to Assynt and shown the section there. It may perhaps serve as a caution against hasty general- isations, drawn from a single section imperfectly examined, to remember that so excellent a field-geologist as Ramsay un- doubtedly was not only failed to see the weakness of Murchison’s position, but threw all the weight of his great authority into the scale against Nicol in this memorable controversy. Nicol, however, laid before this meeting a paper which, after- wards published in detail in the Fouwrnal of the Geological Society,! must be admitted to have really established the main facts concerning the geology of the Highlands as accepted by all geologists at the present day; though his views, as is not un- commonly the case with great and original discoveries, were met for a long time with nothing but bitter opposition or cold neglect. Permit me to state, as briefly as possible, the conclusions which Nicol, as the result of three years of patient work in the Western Highlands, was able to announce in this place, just twenty-six years ago. 1. He maintained with Macculloch and Hay Cunningham, and in opposition to the views originally propounded by Sedg- wick and Murchison, that there exists in the Western Highlands an enormously thick series of red sandstones, quartzites, and limestones, which rest unconformably upon the ancient gneisses and schists, and belong to a far older geological period than the Old Red Sandstone. 2. He showed that this series of strata really constitutes ¢wo distinct formations, and that the older of these, the Torridon Sandstone, consists of red sandstones and conglomerates, in which no organic remains could be detected. 3. The younger of these formations was shown by him to lie unconformably upon the Torridon Sandstone, and to consist of three members, which Nicol named the Quartzite, the Fucoid Beds, and the Limestone (Quart. Fourn. Geol. Soc. vol. xvii., 1861, p. 92, &c.). It is this formation which has yielded the interesting fossils of Lower Palzeozoic age. 4. The apparent repetition of beds of quartzite and limestone, which was insisted upon by Murchison, was shown to be due to faulting and overthrow, and thus the ‘‘ Upper Quartzite ” and the “‘ Upper Limestone” of that author were proved to have no real existence (Quart. Fourn. Geol. Soc. vol. xvil., 1861, pp. 98, 108, 109, &c.). 5. What so many authors had taken for a conformable up- ward succession of this older Palaeozoic formation into overlying schist and gneiss, was asserted by Nicol to be an altogether fallacious appearance, due to the thrusting of the crystalline rocks over the sedimentary ones by great overthrow-faults. 6. The relations between these crystalline and sedimentary strata in the Scottish Highlands were shown to be precisely similar to those which are constantly produced by lateral pressure in all great mountain-chains, and consist of sharp foldings, in- versions, and faulting on the very grandest scale. Examples of overthrow-faults, similar to those of the Scottish Highlands, were instanced by Nicol as occurring in the Alps (Quart. Fourn. Geol. Soc. vol. xvii., 1861, pp. 108, 109, IIo). We cannot perhaps better illustrate the position maintained by Nicol in this remarkable paper than by quoting the following passage: ‘‘ Until some rational theory is produced of the mode in which an overlying formation, hundreds of square miles in extent and thousands of feet in thickness, can have been meta- morphosed, whilst the underlying formation of equal thickness and scarcely less in extent has escaped, we shall be justified in admitting inversions and extrusions” (z.e., of older masses on younger, as he explains his meaning to be) ‘‘ equal to those of the Alps” (Quart. Fourn. Geo!. Soc. vol. xvii., 1861, p. 110). The only serious error into which Nicol fell—and after all it is a very inconsiderable one judged in comparison with his un- doubtedly great achievements—was that of attaching too much importance to the influence of igneous intrusions in connection with the tremendous inversions and overthrow-faults to which he so clearly showed that these Highland rocks have been subjected. We now know that many of these supposed intrusive masses, 1 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xvii., 1861, pp. 85-113. _This paper was read on December 5, 1860; although its title is slightly differen:, the whole course of the argument is the same with that of the paper read here in the September of the previous year. though really of igneous origin in all probability, were of o/der date than the Palzozoic rocks in the midst of which they lie ; and that they were brought into their present positions, not by intrusion in a liquid state, but by complicated faulting. It must be remembered that these ‘‘granulites,” as Nicol very justly called them (Quart. Fourn. Geol. Soc. vol. xvii., 1861, p- 89) for they present a wonderful analogy with the typical rocks of Saxony which are known by that name, have long been regarded by geologists as among the most difficult and perplexing of rocks to explain the orizin of, though the recent researches of Dr. Lehmann have now done something towards the solution of the problem. Calmly reviewing, in the light of our present knowledge, the grand work accomplished single-handed by Nicol, I have no hesitation in asserting that when this Association met here twenty-six years ago, he had already mastered the great Highland problem in all its essential details, and that his results were distinctly proclaimed during the meetings of this section. If, then, Nicol had so fully solved this great problem of Highland geology twenty-six years ago, how is it, may not un- reasonably be asked, that we have waited so long for the justice of these views to be admitted ? A variety of circumstances have contributed to bring about this unfortunate result. Murchison was at the time too old and infirm to examine in careful detail the wild districts where those rock-masses are exhibited. Hence Nicol’s oft-repeated invita- tions to view the sections in his company remained unheeded, and we find the great geologist of Aberdeen writing in 1866 his concluding plaintive words in this memorable discussion: ‘I must express my most sincere regret that my illustrious opponent —from whom only the most thorough conviction that my views are well founded, and that the question was one on which it became a teacher of geology in Scotland to give no uncertain utterances, could have compelled me to differ—has never found it convenient to meet me again in the North. Iam convinced that we agree in so many essential points, that a few hours together in the field would bring us nearer in opinion than whole volumes of controversy.” (‘‘Geology of the North of Scotland, p. 96.”’) The phalanx of eminent geological authorities opposed to the views of Nicol, including Professors Harkness, Ramsay, Archi- bald Geikie, and Hull, for a long time carried all before them ; but it is now admitted that each of these excellent observers was deceived by having seen only portions of the evidence, and that they based their conclusions on imperfect data. Nicol, though during the later years of his life he declined unavailing coa- troversy, still continued to study the Highlands year by year, re- examining every joint in his armour and satisfying himself of its soundness. In the year 1877 I had an opportunity of visiting for the first time the interesting sections of Assynt and Loch Broom, in company with Dr. Taylor Smith, F.G.S., and Mr. Richard D. Oldham, now of the Geological Survey of India. Although I entered upon this task with the strongest prepossessions in favour of the Murchisonian hypothesis, yet what I saw there during several weeks of work convinced me that the theory of an ‘* Upper Quartzite” and an ‘‘ Upper Limestone” was alto- gether untenable, and that, so far as these two sections were concerned, Nicol’s interpretation was undoubtedly the correct one. I was greatly impressed with the proofs of enormous folding and faulting among these Highland rocks, and when, shortly afterwards, 1 had an opportunity of meeting Prof. Nicol in this place, and of hearing from his lips many details of his later work, I strongly urged him to republish his conclusions with the fuller illustrations and arguments which he was then so well able to supply. To all my pleadings he made but one reply: important as he knew these discoveries to be, yet in his advancing years he thought but little of the glory of them com- pared to their painful consequences to himself—the breach of the old friendly relations with one he, to the end, so greatly loved and honoured. He strongly deprecated at that time the re- opening of a controversy associated for him with such bitter memories ; but he expressed his full conviction that when suffi- ciently accurate topographical maps were in existence, and the whole district should be surveyed by competent geologists, the truth of all the essential parts of his teaching would be established. ! 1 In my two earlier papers ‘On the Secondary Rocks of Scotland,” published in 1873 and 1874 respectively, I had employed the Murchisonian nomenclature for the older rocks of the Highlands whenever I had occasion 456 Most completely have these anticipations of Nicol been ful- filled. During the last seven years many of the sections of the Western Highlands have been visited by different geologists, Dr. Hicks leading the way, and not a few papers have been pub- lished embodying the results of these new studies of some of the disputed points. Such an able review of this recent work has been lately drawn up by my friend, Prof. Bonney, in his Anniversary Address to the Geological Society, that I need not go over the ground again, but will content myself by referring to that address and to two exhaustive papers read by Dr. Hicks before the Geologists’ Association for full details concerning this later work. It will be seen that while new methods of study have enabled them to improve or correct Nicol’s petrological nomenclature, the principal conclusions of nearly all these writers concerning the relations of the several rock-masses entirely support his views on the subject. But very recently Nicol’s work has been tested in the way which he himself so earnestly desired. Prof. Lapworth, who, like Nicol, was especially prepared for the task by Jong and patient study of the crumpled Silurian rocks of the Borderland, taking advantage of the newly published Ordnance maps of Sutherland, proceeded in the summer of 1882 to Eriboll, bent on the task of unravelling the complicated rocks and of mapping them upon the large scale of 6 inches to the mile. Prof. Lapworth’s detailed maps and sections were exhibited to the Geological Society on May 9, 1883, during the reading of a paper by Dr. Callaway, in which the views of Nicol also received a considerable amount of valuable support. In the same year, 1883, a detachment of the Geological Survey of Scotland, under the superintendence of Messrs. B. N. Peach and J. Horne, commenced the detailed mapping of the Durness- Eriboll district. How admirably these gentlemen have per- formed their task we all know, and I hope that some interesting information concerning their conclusions will be laid before the present meeting. In offering them—as I am sure that I am empowered by you to do—the hearty congratulations of the Geological Section of the British Association upon the auspicious commencement of this great undertaking, I cannot refrain from reminding you that, of the leaders in this important enterprise, one is the son of the discoverer of the Durness fossils, the veteran Mr. Charles Peach to whom we owe so much, while the other is a very active and efficient local secretary of this Section. Nor should I do justice to my own sentiments on the subject if I failed to bear tribute to the judgment displayed by the present chief of the Geological Survey in his choice of a base from which to attack this difficult problem, to his loyalty in accepting results so entirely opposed to his published opinions, and to his promptitude in making his fellow-workers in geology acquainted with these important discoveries. Unfortunately called upon while still young, and with but little of that ripe experience which he has since gained, to grapple with the most intricate of problems—problems which the most practised of field-geologists might be forgiven for failing to solve—his own judgment yielded, though not without serious misgivings (see ““Memoirs of Sir oderick Murchison” (1875), vol. ii. p. 238) when opposed to the ardent confidence of a companion and friend whose reputation in the scientific world commanded his respect, and whose previous achievements had won his complete reliance. If, like your own Randolph at Bannockburn, he has ““Jost a rose from his chaplet’’ at the commencement of this great Highland campaign, we are well assured that the error will be worthily repaired in its subsequent stages. The conclusions arrived at by Nicol, by Professor Lapworth, and by the officers of the Geological Survey, are, in all their main features, absolutely identical ; and the Murchisonian theory of Highland succession is now, by universal consent, abandoned. In the second of the great controversies to which we have alluded as having occupied the attention of this Geological Section in 1859—that concerning the age and relations of the Reptiliferous Sandstone of Elgin—the combatants were found ranged in quite a different order. Nicol is seen battling shoulder to shoulder with Murchison, Ramsay, and Harkness, in favour of the Paleszoic age of the beds in question ; while Lyell, sup- ported by Symonds of Pendock and Moore of Bath, is as stoutly maintaining their Secondary age. The finding by Mr. Patrick Duff, in the year 1852, of the to refer to them} but in the third of this series of papers, published in 1878 (Quart. Fourn. Geol. Soc. vol. xxxiv. p. 660), I had no hesitation in aban- doning this terminology for that of Nicol. NARS ia. [Sep¢. 10, 1885 little fossil lizard called Ze/erpfeton, and the determination of its true nature by Mantell and Owen, constitute a discovery com- parable in importance and fruitfulness to Mr. Peach’s detection of the fossiliferous character of the limestone of Durness ; up to that time no doubt had ever been entertained as to the ‘‘ Old Red” age of the yellow sandstone of Elgin. For bringing together the remarkable fossils of these rocks, geologists are indebted to the untiring labours of Dr, Gordon of Birnie—whom, full of years and honours, and the object of such universal respect and love as indeed make grey hairs a ‘‘crown of glory,” we rejoice to have still in our midst. Studying Dr. Gordon’s im- portant collections, Professor Huxley was able, shortly before the previous meeting of the Association in this city, to announce that a crocodilian (.S¢agonolepis), and a second lizard of Triassic affinities (Hyferodapedon), existed at the period when these beds were deposited, so that even in 1859 the palzontological evidence in favour of the Mesozoic age of these rocks was admitted to be almost overwhelming. But this evidence has been very greatly strengthened since that date ; for Professor Huxley has shown that the genus //yferoda- pedon is represented in the Trias of Warwickshire, of Devon- shire, and of India. In the same reptiliferous sandstone, with its abundant footprints, the teeth of Ceratodus, a fish unknown in the Paleeozoic rocks, have been found, together with the re- mains of a reptile which Professor Huxley permits me to state is, in his opinion, probably Dixosauriax. Iam sure that you will all join with me in the hope that the health of the President of the Royal Society may soon be so far restored that he may be able to return to the examination of these fossil reptiles of Elgin, in the study of which some of the earliest of his great palzeonto- logical discoveries were achieved. The manner in which the yellow sandstones, which have yielded these reptilian remains, are at many different points found associated with beds containing Holoptychius and other Old Red Sandstone fish, appeared to many geologists altogether inexplicable on any other hypothesis than that the strata are all of the same geological age. In spite, however, of these appearances, and the interesting observations of Dr. Gordon and Dr. Joass on the rocks of the Tarbet peninsula, which seemed to support the hypothesis just referred to, I am able to announce that proof of the most clear and convincing character now exists of the distinction between the fish-bearing ‘‘ Old Red” and the reptiliferous ‘‘ New Red” of the neighbourhood of Elgin. In the year 1873 I showed that rocks, identical in character with the reptiliferous sandstone of Elgin, and the overlying calcareous and cherty rock of Stotfield, exist on the northern side of the Moray Firth, in the county of Sutherland, and that they there conformably underlie Rheetic and Liassic strata. Very recently Dr. Gordon has added a crowning discovery to his long list of previous ones, by detecting in the same quarry the rocks containing the reptilian and fish remains respectively. I find, however, that while the two series of beds present well-marked differences in their ; mineral characters, the yellow sandstones with fish remains clearly over- lie the undoubted Upper Old Red, and are separated from it by a well-marked bed of conglomerate. In other quarries in the district, the manner in which these two series of strata have been thrown side by side by the action of great faults is very clearly exhibited. I hope that full details of the evidence on this interesting subject will be laid before you during the present meeting. ; The facts relied upon by the Palzontologist and the Strati- graphist respectively are thus found to be no longer opposed to one another. By a complicated series of parallel faults, the Devonian and Triassic sandstones, which happen to have a general resemblance in their mineral characters, are found again and again thrown side by side with one another in the Elgin dis- trict, so that the error into which geologists fell before the discovery of the distinctive fossils of the two sets of rocks, was a very pardonable one. A retrospect of these two controversies, now so happily laid at rest, is not, I think, without its uses for the student of High- land geology, for it may serve to furnish him with some useful warnings which are in great danger of being overlooked at the present time. The discovery of a few fossil remains in strata where they were previously unknown, has completely revolutionised our ideas concerning the age of rock-masses of enormous extent and Sept. 10, 1885 | NATURE 497) thickness. Resemblances in mineral character have been proved not only to have been, at their best, very unsafe guides indeed, but to have actually betrayed those who trusted in them into the most serious errors. But for the discoveries of Charles Peach on the one hand, and of Patrick Duff and Dr. Gordon on the other, geologists would probably still continue to class the sand- stones of Torridon and Elgin respectively with the ‘‘ Old Red.” But perhaps the consideration of greatest importance which is impressed upon us by this retrospect is, that in these High- land districts we must be always prepared to meet with rock- masses of very different geological ages, thrown into puzzling juxtaposition by the gigantic movements to which this part of the earth’s crust has been subjected. He who enters on the study of Highland geology without being prepared to encounter at every step complicated foldings, vast dislocations, and stupen- dous inversions of the strata, can scarcely fail to be betrayed into the most disastrous and fatal errors. The early history of Scotland is inextricably interwoven with that of Scandinavia. ‘This proposition, true as it is of the in- significant periods of which human history takes cognizance, applies with even greater force to the vast epochs that fall within the ken of the geologist. To us the separation of Scotland and Scandinavia is an event of very recent date indeed; it is not only an accident, but an uncompleted accident! The Scottish Highlands, with the Hebrides and Donegal on the one hand, with Orkney and Shetland on the other, must be regarded—to use a technical phrase—as mere “‘ outliers” of the Scandinavian Peninsula. We must acknowledge, at the outset, that the study of the geological history of this Scandinavian peninsula and its outliers is a task bristling with difficulties. The problems presented to us in our Scottish Highlands are vast, complicated, and at times seemingly insoluble. But they are precisely the same problems that confront our brother geologists in Scandinavia. And if our tasks, our doubts, our perplexities are the same, we equally “share in the advantages and triumphs of discovery. The geologists of Scandinavia—and right worthy sons of Thor they are—have the advantage of possessing a territory almost limitless in its vastness, and seemingly infinite in its variety. But the very extent of their splendid country, with its sparse population and restricted means of communication, in- creases the difficulties of their task. ‘The harvest truly is plenteous, but the labourers are few!” With our smaller area, if we cannot expect so much variety, we may hope to gain some- thing from the number of our students and the greater access- ibility of our fields of labour. Nor would I undervalue, in this connection, the importance of the union of this country with England. I allude, of course, not to events of yesterday, like the Accession of James VI. to the English throne and the Parliamentary Act of Union, but to operations that preceded these by many millions of years! It is no small advantage that a country like Scotland, in which the rock-formations are found hopelessly crushed and crumpled together, or broken into a thousand illfitting fragments that seem to defy all attempts to reduce them to order, should be united to one like England, where, by comparison, all is orderly and simple, the strata lying in regular sequence like well-arranged volumes in a library, and only await the touch of the geologist’s hammer to display the wealth of their fossil contents. The great Scandinavian massz/, with its outlying fragments, constitutes the ‘“‘ basal-wreck ”—to employ Darwin’s expressive term—of a great Alpine chain. On other occasions I have endeavoured to show how much our study of the nature and products of volcanic action is facilitated by the existence of similar ‘‘ basal-wrecks””’ of volcanic mountains, like those which exist in your beautiful Western Isles. In the same way, I believe we may learn more by the study of this dissected moun- tain-chain, concerning the operations by which these grand features of our globe have originated, than by the most pra- longed examination of the superficial characters of the Alps or the Himalayas. Here the scalpel of denudation has laid bare the innermost recesses of the mountain-masses, and what we can only guess at in the Alps and the Himalayas, here stands in our own High- lands clearly revealed to view. It is a well ascertained fact that all the existing lofty moun- tain-chains have been formed at a very recent geological period. The reason of this it is not difficult to divine. In the higher regions of the atmosphere, the forces of denudation work so rapidly that within a very short period—geologically speaking— the vastest mountain-chain is razed to its very foundations— “They melt like mists, the solid lands, Like clouds they shape themselves, and go!” It is not surprising then to find Powell and Gilbert, fresh from the study of the grand mountain-masses of the American Con- tinent, giving expression to these thoughts in the following words: ‘* All large mountains are young mountains, and, from the point of view of the uniformitarian, it is equally evident that all large mountains must be growing mountains ; for if the pro- cess of growth is continuous, and if a high mountain melts with exceptional rapidity before the play of the elements, it is illogical to suppose that the uprising of any mountain, which to-day is lofty, has to-day ceased.” The Scandinavian Alps w2rea living and a growing mountain- chain in the far distant Palaeozoic period. Now it is not only dead, but stretched on the dissecting table of the geologist—its outer integuments and softer tissues stripped away, and its very skeleton bared to our view—a splendid ‘‘ subject” for the student of mountain anatomy. One of the first to recognise this value of our Scottish High- lands to the student of Orographic Geology was the late Daniel Sharpe. He had made himself familiar with many of the characteristic details of Alpine architecture—so far as it was then understood—and was able to show that the foliated masses of our Highland districts exhibit precisely those relations which would be seen if the contorted and fan-like masses of the Alps were planed away by denudation. Nor in suggestions of this kind, as we have seen, was James Nicol far behind Sharpe ; but at that time many of the most important features of moun- tain-structure were unrecognised or misinterpreted, and the con- clusions of these geological pioneers were little more than guesses—though very valuable and suggestive guesses—after truth. It is to our geological brethren over the Atlantic that we are especially indebted, not only for many important discoveries in the mechanics of mountain-formation, but for clearing away many of the clouds of error in which the subject had become in- volved. To Henry Darwin Rogers, who, after a career of valuable geological work in his native State of Pennsylvania, accepted the hospitality of this country, and spent the last decade of his useful life as Professor of Natural History and Geology in the sister university of Glasgow, must be assigned the foremost place in that school of orographic geologists which has grown up in America. The first sketch of the important theory of mountain-building to which Rogers and his fellow-geologists were led by the study of the Appalachian chain, was published in 1842, but it was not till 1858 that the complete evidence on which this theory was founded could be published. The conclusion at which Rogers arrived was, briefly expressed, as follows :—The Appalachian mountains were carved by denu- dation out of an enormously thick mass of stratified deposits, thrown into a series of parallel wave-like folds. To the west- ward of the mountain range ‘‘ the crust-waves flatten out, recede from one another, and vanish into general horizontality ; ”’ but towards the heart of the mountain-mass the same flexed strata become greatly crowded together, their ‘‘ axis-planes,” become more and more inclined, till at last their folds, yielding at their apices to the tremendous lateral thrust, fractures twenty to eighty miles in length, and attended with a displacement of 20,000 feet or more, were produced. Unfortunately Rogers accompanied these just views of moun- tain structure with certain crude speculations and untenable hypotheses concerning the methods by which they were produced. But in the minds of other American geologists, among whom may especially be mentioned Dana, Le Conte, and Vose—the fruitful ideas of Rogers have undergone development and ex- pansion, while they have received abundant illustration through the labours of that active band of pioneers—the United States Geological Survey—including Clarence King, Powell, Emmons, Hague, Dutton, Gilbert, and many others. Nor have the brilliant results attained by these investigators in the New World been without their effect on the geologists of Europe. Lory, Suess, Heim, Baltzer, and others have shown that the clue to the right understanding of the structure of the Alps, which had been so diligently sought and so long missed by Von Buch and De Beaumont, by Studer and Favre, was now 458 placed in our hands by the researches of the American geo- logists. an Northern Europe, Kjerulf, Dahll, Brogger, Reusch, and other geologists have ably illustrated the same peculiarities of structure in the denuded mountain-chain near the southern ex- tremity of which we are now assembled ; and in a recent valu- able and suggestive essay ‘‘On the Secret of the Highlands ” Professor Lapworth has shown how perfectly these structures are exemplified in the western district of Sutherland. In offering a few remarks on some of the still unsolved prob- lems of Highland geology I shall not hesitate to treat, as be- longing to the same geological district, both Scandinavia and Scotland. Not only is the succession of geological deposits in the two areas almost completely identical, but the characters of the several formations and their relations to one another in the one country are almost the exact counterpart of what they are in the other. The problems which await solution in Scotland are the same which confront our brethren in Scandinavia ; their difficulties are our difficulties, their successes our successes ; if they share the benefits of our discoveries, we equally partake with them in the fruits of their achievements. Important links in the chain of geological evidence, absolutely wanting in the one area, may perchance be found in the other. Every advance, therefore, which is made in the knowledge of the rocks of the one country, must necessarily re-act upon the opinions and theories which prevail among geologists in the other. At the base, and forming the foundation of this greatly denuded mountain-chain, there exist enormous masses of highly foliated, crystalline rocks. These, in great part at least, under- lie the oldest known, fossiliferous strata, and are therefore of pre-Cambrian or Archzean age. In spite of the labours of Kjerulf, Dahll, Brogger, Reusch, Tornebodhm, and many others in Scandinavia, and of Macculloch, Nicol, and their succes- sors in this country, much still remains to fbe done in studying the petrographical characters and the geognostic relations of these widespread formations. Some thirty years ago it was suggested by Sir Roderick Murchison that among these Archzean rocks there exists a “* fundamental gneiss,” a formation which is the counterpart and contemporary of the rocks in Canada, to which Sir William Logan gave the name of ‘‘ Laurentian.” Since that time other similar attempts have been made to identify portions of these Archean rocks in the Highlands and Scandinavia with crys- talline rock-masses in different parts of the New and Old World. I confess that, speaking for myself, I am not sanguine as to the success of such endeavours. The miserable failures which we have seen to have attended similar attempts, in the case even of far less altered rocks, where identifications have been based on mineralogical resemblances only (and in connection with which definite paleontological or stratigraphical evidence has been subsequently obtained) ought surely to teach us caution in generalising from such uncertain data. It has been argued that, where palzeontological evidence is wholly wanting, and strati- graphical relations are doubtful or obscure, then we may be allowed to avail ourselves of the only data remaining to us— those derived from mineralogical resemblances. But surely, in such cases, it is wiser to admit the insufficiency of the evidence, and to say ‘‘ We do not know!” rather than to construct for ourselves a ‘‘fool’s paradise,’ with a tree of pseudo-knowledge bearing the Dead-Sea fruit of a barren terminology! The impatient student may learn with the blind poet that ‘They also serve, who only stand and waits It is thought by some that the application of the microscope to the study of rock-masses may reveal peculiarities of structure that will serve as a substitute for paleontological evidence con- cerning the age of a rock when the latter is wanting. Greatly as I value the insight afforded to us by the microscope when it is applied to the study of the rocks, and highly as I esteem the opinions of some of those who hold these views, yet I fail to see that any such connection between the minute structure and the geological age of a rock has as yet been established. Although the bold generalisation which sought to sweep all the crystalline rocks of our central Highlands into the great Silurian net has admittedly broken down, yet it by no means follows that the whole of these rock-masses are of Archzean age. Nicol always held that among the complicated foldings of the Highland rocks many portions of the older Palzeozoic formations, NATURE [| Sept. 10, 1885 in a highly altered condition, were included (see Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol, xix. (1864), p. 184, and ‘* Geology and Scenery of the North of Scotland,” 1866). The same view has been persistently maintained by Dr. Hicks, to whose researches among the more ancient rock-masses of the British Isles geologists are so greatly indebted, and also by Prof. Lapworth. To. the settlement of this very important question we may feel sure that the effort of the officers of the Geological Survey will be especially directed. The geological surveyors of Scandinavia have been so fortunate as to detect, in rocks of an extremely altered character, a number of fossils sufficiently well preserved for generic and sometimes even for specific identification. Fail- ing the occurrence of such a fortunate accident, I confess that it has always appeared to me that the disturbances to which these Highland rocks have been subjected are so extreme, and the dif- ficulty of making out the original planes of bedding so great, that but little can be hoped for from general sections constructed to show the relations of the rocks of the Central and Southern Grampians to the fossiliferous deposits of the North-West of Sutherland. Lying unconformably upon these Archzean crystalline rocks in our North-West Highlands we find great masses of arkose or felspathic grit, with some conglomerates, the whole of these well-stratified deposits attaining a thickness of several thousands of feet. These rocks, in their characters and their relations, so greatly resemble the ‘‘Sparagmite Formation” of Scandinavia, that it is impossible to refrain from drawing comparisons between them. The Scandinavian formation, however, includes calcareous and slaty deposits, which are wanting in its Scottish analogue. The ‘‘Sparagmites” of Scandinavia, as a whole, appear to underlie strata containing Cambrian (Primordial) fossils, but in the very highest portion of the “‘ Upper Sparagmite Formation ” of Southern Norway there have been found, according to Kjerulf, specimens of Paradoxides. The Scottish formation has, on the other hand, yielded no undoubted organic remains. Murchison, on the ground of its unconformable infraposition to his Silurian strata, and its resem-" blance to certain beds in Wales which he called Cambrian, re- ferred it in his later years to that system. Although an identifi- cation, based on such grounds, must be admitted to be of small value indeed, yet the discovery of ‘‘ Primordial” fossils in the very similar rocks of Scandinavia may be admitted to lend it some slight support. In the present state of our knowledge, however, it is surely wiser to admit that the question of the age of these beds is still an open one, and to call it by the name suggested by Nicol—‘‘ The Torridon Sandstone.’”’ Kjerulf be- lieves there is evidence that the Scandinavian Sparagmite, in places, passes horizontally into true gneiss, and similar appear- ances are not wanting in the case of our Torridon Sandstone. (Zo be continued.) NOTES FOR THE OPENING OF A DISCUSSION ON ELECTROLYSIS, TO BE HELD IN SECTION B, AT THE BRITISH ASSOCIA- TION IN ABERDEEN, SEPT., 1885, BY PROFESSOR OLIVER LODGE I. [WHAT is an Electrolyte? The question has two distinct meanings : (2) Is a given substance an electrolyte at all ; ze. when alone. (é) Is it the electrolyte in any particular case ; z.e. when mixed with other substances. In answering (a) remember that the fact of bad conductivity does not imply that what there is is non-electrolytic. An electrolyte is one whose conduction is wholly electrolytic. Distinction between metallic - and electrolytic conduction. Obedience to Ohm’s law shown by electrolytes. Tests of Electrolytic conduction, 1%. Visible decomposition. 2. Polarisation, 3. Non - agreement Volta’s series-law. 4. Transparency. In answering (4) the fact of bad conductivity gives a decided negative, but substances which almost insulate when alone may conduct when mixed ; e.g. H,O + HCl. To the question, What is the real conductor when a salt (or acid) is dissolved in water? there are four possible answers : with - Sept. To, 1885 ] NATURE 459 (1) The salt only, (2) The water only, (3) Both the salt and the water, (4) A hydrate of the salt. (1) is to be held by those who regard the water as unchanged by the addition of salt (2) is to be held by those who suppose the water-molecules to be dissociated, or mechanically knocked asunder, by the massive salt-atoms (3) and (4) are mere modifications of one another, not easily to be distinguished. In deciding this question (4) we really decide what are the primary and what are the secondary products of electrolysis. Discussion of experimental evidence bearing on the point. Hittorf’s and Buff’s experiments on mixed Electrolytes. Magnus and others on the effect of current-intensity. (With intense currents you are more likely to get the real ions liberated because secondary actions have hardly time to occur). Direct experiment suggested by observing the place of appear- ance of free acid ; and preliminary reply in favour of (3) or (4). Valid objection suggested by Smee to regarding any of these experiments as crucial ; but possible means of evading the objection. Experiments of Hisinger, Berzelius and Davy on electrolytes in serie: sometimes throw light on the question, which are the real ions. Il. Questions about the ‘‘ migration of tons.” Do ions in salt- Solutions travel at different rates? And, in any case, at what rate do they travel ? Distinction between fused and dissolved compounds. There being simple experimental evidence that solutions often concentrate near anode and weaken near cathode, or perhaps occasionally vice versa : what is the explanation ? Several possible hypotheses : (1) Hittorf’s that the salt is primarily decomposed and that its ions travel at different speeds. (2) Hittorf’s resort in exceptional cases, that per-salts are electrolysed into sub-salts and radical. (3) Burgoin’s, that a hydrate of the salt is electrolysed and that the water travels mostly with the cation. (4) D’Almeida’s, that a free acid envelop is formed around anode and is electrolysed in series with the salt. (5) Quincke’s, that opposite ions have charges differing in magnitude as well as in sign, and are therefore urged with different forces. (6) Wiedemann’s, that the entire salt molecules electrify them- selves by comtact with the water and are thus urged bodily either with or against the current. (7) Kohlrausch’s, that every ion has its own definite rate of propagation in a given fluid when urged by a given force ; and that this rate is calculable from conductivity, concentration, and migration, data. (8) Suggested, that opposite corresponding ions’ must always travel at equal opposite rates, but that in solutions the water may conduct more or less of the current. - Mode in which this hypothesis (8) can explain migration ; and limitation to its explanation. Easy calculation of total or resultant velocity of ions, but difficulty in apportioning the right fraction of this velocity to each ion in accordance with Kohlrausch’s theory. Reasons for supposing it necessary that opposite ions must travel at the same pace. | Wiedemann’s, Quincke’s, and Helmholtz’s theories of electric Endosmose, and proof by Wiedemann that it is independent of “migration” phenomena, Bearing of experiments with electrolytes in series on the question of relative migration velocities ; and other suggested migration experiments. : IIL. Quantitative Laws of Electrolysis, (2) Ohm’s law of electrolytic conduction. (4) Faraday’s two laws, (1) The voltametric law. (2) The law of electro-chemical equivalence. And (c) dependence of decomposition EMF on chemical combination-energy. Nature of experimental evidence in favour of these laws. Question whether Ohm’s law will be exactly obeyed for violent currents. Very important consequences of the law, if exact for feeble currents. al Physical consequences of Faraday’s two laws; to be asserted of all substances for which they are accurately true. 7 Law (1) asserts that no such electrolyte possesses a trace of metallic conduction ; ¢.e. that electrolytic conduction and chemical decomposition are precisely correlative. In Helmholtz’s words, ““Through each section of an electrolytic conductor we have always equivalent electrical and chemical motion.” Or again, in other words, with a spice of natural hypothesis (first due perhaps to Ampére), Electrolysis is a kind of electrical convection rather than conduction, each atom carrying a charge with it; and the charge conveyed by every atom of a given substance is the same. Law (2) extends this last important statement to all electrolytes, and enables us to ccnclude that a definite quantity of electricity belongs to each unit of affinity of every atom of whatever kind, and that fractional portions of such atomic charges are, in electrolysis at least, unknown. This last is a most astounding statement, for it suggests that electricity may be ‘‘ atomic” as well as matter. Calculation of magnitude of this atomic charge ; enormous value of it in proportion to size of atoms (107! electrostatic units, probably, per monad atom). IV. Questions concerning Polarisation ; and the EMF needed to send a current through an electrolyte. The chemical changes which go on in a circuit wholly electro- lytic, or in any homogeneous portion of a circuit, are decom- position and identical recomposition, and consume no energy : accordingly no finite EMF is needed to send a current through an electrolyte when the force is really applied to it, and Ohm’s law is obeyed by electrolytes exactly as by metals. But at junctions of metals with electrolytes, or of electrolytes with one another, permanent chemical changes may occur, and at these places a finite EMF may be situated ; and this may be either negative, when it is called polarisation, or positive, when the whole arrangement is called a battery. Calculation of such EMF's from thermo-chemical data. Joule’s proof that the heat of chemical action is a secondary result—electric currents being the primary. The EMF (whether positive or negative) of any arrangement is obtained in volts, if the total heat produced by the chemical changes per dyad gramme-equivalent be divided by 46,000. Total polarisation may be regarded as the sum of two kinds : (z) Temporary polarisation, existing during continuance of current. (4) Residual polarisation, existing afterwards. (4) is caused by a more or less permanent alteration of the surface of the electrodes by the clinging or combined ions. (a) is caused, according to Helmholtz’s theory, by a Leyden jar action of the charged atoms straining across molecular dis- tance of the surface of each electrode, and unwilling to part with their charges. When the ions are able to combine with the electrode, or otherwise retain their charges, this (2) portion is very small. Effect of secondary actions in destroying polarisation, and rendering possible a permanent current even when apparently insufficiently propelled. Helmholtz’s air-free cell. Intense currents diminish the amount of secondary action ; and also modify maximum polarisation values, raising them above their customary amounts. V. Mechanism of Electrolytic Conduction. Electrolytic conduction is certainly a convection of Electricity by atoms of matter; but concerning the mode in which the atoms make their way through the fluid there are several hypotheses : (1) The molecular chain of Grotthus ; modified and accepted by Faraday and many others, modified further by Hittorf to explain migration. (2) The dissociation hypothesis of Clausius and Williamson ; virtually accepted by Maxwell, modified by Quincke to explain migration, and shewn by Kohlrausch to explain the facts of conductivity. (3) The electrostatic hypothesis of Helmholtz. Because Ohm’s law is obeyed, it is certain that no polarisation can exist inside a homogeneous electrolyte: in other words, there is no chemzcad cling of the atoms there, but only a frictional rub. Wiedemann’s view that conductivity is inversely propor- tional to ordinary viscosity. Probable independence of conductivity and tenacity of 460 combination. Such facts as these, if well established, render necessary some form of dissociation hypothesis. A Grotthus chain of quite eguidistant atoms might serve, instead of actual dissociation, or a momentary dissociation would be sufficient ; but no hypothesis which involves a tearing asunder of molecules in the zz¢erior of a homogeneous electro- ! lyte can be permitted. Herein lies the great distinction between electrolytes and dielectrics. Hypotheses (1) and (2) may be held in either of two forms : (a) The electrical influence of the electrodes may be supposed to reach every molecule of the fluid. This was Grotthus’s form of (1), and is Quincke’s form of (2). (6) The electrical influence of each electrode may only extend within molecular distance of its surface, while the adjustments occurring in the main body of the fluid are effected by ordinary diffusion. This was probably Faraday’s form of (1) and it is Maxwell’s form of (2). Helmholtz’s hypothesis (3) emphasises the (2) aspect of the matter by appealing to electrostatic interactions of the atoms to maintain uniformity of composition. And within a range of 1o-® centimetres of each electrode there is supposed to exist an ordinary electrostatic strain, like that in an ordinary dielectric condenser plate. The great magnitude of the atomic charges explains the feebleness of the difference of potential required to effect de- composition on electrostatic principles. And the same thing suggests a mainly electrical theory of chemical affinity. To separate an atom from its charge requires expenditure of work, hence Helmholtz’s theory of a specific attraction between matter and electricity, which he uses to explain Volta’s “contact-force,”’ the charge of atoms in a molecule, frictional electricity, and many other phenomena. VI. Addenda. Calculation of EMF needed to effect decomposition— (a) of a dielectric, (4) of an electrolyte, on electrostatic principles. Suggested theory of disruptive discharge. Possible distinction between chemical molecular aggregates. Discussion of various phenomena from the point of view of a possible ‘‘atomic”’ theory of electricity. compounds and NOTES SINCE our last issue Dr. Harting, of the Dorpat Observatory, has announced an apparent variation in the great nebula of Andromeda, which has caused some excitement in the astrono- mical world. As represented in all our drawings, and, still better, in a photograph which Mr. Common was fortunate enough to obtain last year, the centre of the nebula appeared to be only moderately condensed. There was no star or stellar point. Now, on the contrary, there is a most unmistakable star of the eighth or ninth magnitude. The question is, is this a stella nova in the line of sight of the nebula, or has the pheno- menon been produced by a new condensation in the centre of the nebula itself? Opinion inclines to the latter view, as, ac- cording to some accounts, other accompanying changes have been seen with large instruments, &c. But, on the other hand, spectroscopic evidence that the apparent nebula is not a very distant cluster is absent. By our next issue we may hope for a large harvest of telescopic and spectroscopic observations of this new object. TuE International Congress of Schoolmasters was opened in the Grand Theatre at Havre on the afternoon of the 6th instant, Mr. Goblet, the Minister of Public Instruction, presiding. THE Severn tunnel has now been completed, and on Saturday last a train containing officials and their friends passed through it from end to end. A CASE of Asiatic cholera has occurred at Cardiff. A labourer, loading a vessel which had recently arrived from Barcelona, NATURE [ Sept. 10, 1885 drank water which had been put into a cask at that port, and which was described by the medical inspector as totally unfit to drink, having the appearance of discoloured milk, and being putrid. The man died in a few hours of Asiatic cholera. On August 25 and subsequent days was held in Turin the International Congress of Alpine Clubs. The principal topic of discussion was the better management of refuges erected in different parts of the Alps, new regulations for guides, and pensions to be granted to them. The honorary president was the King of Italy, His Majesty being represented by M. Loyi ; the acting president was Prof. Ferrati. The readings of mini- mum and maximum thermometers were also collected and dis- cussed. Several excursions took place at the close of the session. THE German Meteorological Society met for its third congress at Munich last month. Prof. Bezold, of Munich, who delivered the address of the meeting, took for his subject ‘‘ The Advances of Meteorology during the last Ten Years,” dwelling mainly on the alterations made by the introduction of the synoptical method in connection with telegraphy. THE eleventh Audletin of the United States Geological Survey is a paper on the quaternary and recent mollusca of the Great Basin, with descriptions of new forms, by Mr. R. Ellsworth Call, with an introduction containing a sketch of the quaternary lakes of the Great Basin, by Mr. G. K. Gilbert. REPEATED severe shocks of earthquake have occurred in the south-east of Lower Austria and in the north of Styria, and have been followed by further shocks in Bonia, descriked as moving from east to west. WE have received Prof. Holden’s account of the progress of astronomy in 1884, and Prof. Rockwood’s account of vulcanology and seismology for the years 1883 and 1884, reprinted from the Smithsonian Report for 1884 ; also Mr. Albert Williams’s report on placer mines, and mining districts, from the report of the tenth census of the United States on the statistics and technology of the precious metals. THE programme of the technological examinations of the City and Guilds of London Institute for the Advancement of Technical Education for the session 1885-86 has been published. It con- tains a detailed syllabus of the examinations for the different grades on each subject, and copies of recent examination papers. It is to be obtained at the offices at Gresham College, and at Exhibition Road. Mr. G. J. Symons, who has examined the trees recently damaged by lightning in Richmond Park, has communicated the results of his observations to the Zzmes. They are two of a group of oaks in the eastern part of the park, slightly south-west of, but very near, the White Lodge. They were fine trees, their girth at 3 feet being 11 and 12 feet respectively ; the trunks are 23 feet apart, and one is nearly due north of the other. There are three other trees quite close to them (within 40 feet), which are uninjured, except by the branches which were thrown upon them. The injury to one tree, though fatal to it, is un- important, but the other tree affords a tremendous instance of disruptive power. It appears to have been cut through horizont- ally at about 3 feet above the ground ; the upper portion shows comparatively little injury, but the lower part is not merely stripped of its bark, but burst open in a very intense way ; spikes of the stem, several inches thick and ro to 15 feet long, , stand out from the trunk somewhat like the ribs of an umbrella before it is fully opened, and grip between themselves and the centre of the trunk branches which fell from the upper part before they had time to reclose, while the ground for perhaps 200 feet around is strewn with the bark and fragments of Sept. 10, 1885 ] the trunk, from scraps like lucifer-matches to pieces which some men could not lift. From this state of facts Mr. Symons suggests some problems: Why one tree rather than another should be struck if it be not the tallest ? why, as in this case, the wreck of one tree is greater than that of the other 23 feet away? what produces this disruptive force? &c. A curious question is, Why oaks and elms are especially liable to be struck? It was stated in 1787 that the elm, chestnut, oak, and pine were the trees most often struck in America; in 1860 Mr. Symons himself stated, in a paper read to the British Association, that the elm, oak, ash, and poplar were the most frequently struck in this country. The last number of Das Wetter of Magdeburg con- tains an abstract of ten years’ records of trees injured ; 265 are reported, and of these 165 were oaks; the only other trees of which the number was more than trifling were: Scotch firs, 34; pines, 22; and beeches, 20. It has been suggested that the frequency with which oaks are struck is due to the presence of iron in the wood. Ir is strange to contrast the weather which we have had during the summer in England, and indeed in Western Europe, with that prevailing in China, Japan, and the rest of Eastern Asia. While here it has been exceedingly dry, with as a rule a hot sun during the day, in Japan it rained almost without inter- mission throughout June and July, and the sun was rarely seen. It has been in fact a season of unusually heavy rainfall ; while with us the reverse has been the case. When the latest mails left, landslips and inundations were of daily occurrence. Between Yokohama and Tokio the railway line was blocked in several places by masses of earth which had fallen, a great part of the country was under water; and the same reports come from Osaka in the south of the main island. Here the water invaded the line, washing away the ballast, and rendering passage imposs- ible ; the inundations had rendered many people homeless, and great distress prevailed in many places. The same story comes from China. In the south, in the Kwangtung province, the rivers which debouche at Canton had become swollen with the constant rains, overflowed their banks, and spread desolation far and wide. Whether there is any connection between the extreme dryness here and the extraordinary rains in the“far East, and whether either, as has been suggested, has any connection with the unusual seismic activity prevailing at present, must be left to meteorologists to determine ; but as this activity, whether, as volcanic eruptions or as earthquakes, appears impartially dis- tributed all over the globe, from Hungary to South America, from the Eastern Archipelago and Japan to Cashmere, it is not easy Prima facie to see how it could be the cause of, or have any connection with, such strikingly different phenomena in different parts of the Old World. THE Axk (vol. ii. Nos. 2, 3), published at Boston for the American Ornithologists’ Union by -Messrs. Estes and Lauriat, continues to furnish evidence of the great activity with which ornithology is prosecuted in North America, though the students of that branch of science still affect rather the particular than the general, much as did most British ornithologists some thirty years ago, and as many do now. This perhaps is only to be expected, and since the avifauna of North America is so enor- mously larger than that of the British Islands, the condition may very likely last longer there than here. Nearly every paper in these two numbers (for April and July of the present year)—reviews of books apart—refers only to the birds of the Nearctic Region or Sub-region ; but most of them seem to the eye of a European to be good of their kind. It looks as if the nomenclatural paroxysm, which lately afflicted our esteemed brethren in the United States, were gradually passing away, and we trust that they will then have time to apply their energies to more im- portant subjects. Dr. Stejneger, however, has a fifth series of NATURE 461 his “‘ Analecta Ornithologica.”” His views are in the main so entirely in accordance with what has generally been held in England to be orthodox, that we cannot object to his labours, whatever be the trouble they may cause ; and we greatly regret the rare occasions in which we think him mistaken. One of them is in his present paper (pp. 183, 184), where he strives, and we consider fails, to make out that the generally accepted name of Scofs for a genus of Owls ought to be dropped. Because Brinnich in 1762 turned Brisson’s Scopus into Scofs, the latter term was obviously not thereby established ; and the former being, as Brisson tells us (Ornithologie, v. p. 503), his own coinage from the Greek oxida (wmbra) properly a shadow, but taken by him to mean also the colour umber—a signification it seems never to ha ve possessed—it is a wholly different thing from the classical «xa, which has always meant an Owl of some sort. Thus the two words are absolutely distinct, and Briinnich can be only regarded as having made a misdirected attempt at gram- matical emendation. We therefore hold that even the ornitho- logists of America, who recognise Briinnich’s generic names (which the ornithologists of Europe in general do not), will be fullyjustified in retaining the name Scofs in the sense in which Savigny used it. Dr. Merriam has a notice (p. 312) headed ‘‘ The eggs of the Knot (7yinga canutus) found at last!” but we must beg leave to remind him that sixty-five years ago this bird was found to breed abundantly on the Parry Islands, and, though admittedly no eggs are now forthcoming in collections, it has always been understood that specimens were then brought thence. It does not now appear that Lieut. Greely brought home any, though we trust he may have done so; but if he did not we are much in the same position as before in regard to that oological desidera- téssimum. Mr, Ernest E. T. Seton has a letter (p. 316), admir- able for its common sense, on ‘‘ The popular names of Birds,” which in a new country, inhabited by English-speaking men and women, is by no means a matter to be neglected. We have to congratulate Mr. Allen on his promotion to the Curatorship of the Central Park Museum in New York City, and Mr. Brewster on succeeding to the appointment at Harvard University thereby vacated. Both these gentlemen are so well known by name to English ornithologists, that it is quite unnecessary to point out their eminent qualifications for the posts they now respectively hold, and we hope will long continue to enjoy. The name of Dr. Coues does not appear as a contributor in either of these numbers, which fact is, we suppose, attributable to his departure westward, where we trust he will continue those field-observa- tions for which he became distinguished so long ago. We miss also any important communication from Dr. Shufeldt. Migh we venture to suggest that the quantity of small type used in this excellent journal is rather trying to some eyes? It unfor- tunately happens that even ornithologists are not exempt from some of the bodily inconveniences of advancing years, however young they may continue mentally ; and at present the volume of the Aw is not so obese but that it might wax fatter without losing its volant powers. Cor. YOLLAND, C.B., F.R.S., one of the Inspectors of Rail- ways under the Board of Trade, died on Friday last at Baddesley Vicarage, Atherstone, Warwickshire. He was born in 1810, was admitted into the Royal Military Academy, and obtained his commission in the Royal Engineers in 1828. He rose by regular promotion until he became lieutenant-colonel in 1855, and a brevet colonel in the army in 1858. After being employed in Canada till 1835, he was employed successively at the Ordnance Survey at the Tower of London, at Southampton, Dublin, and Enniskillen. During this interval he superintended the publication of astronomical observations, first those made with Ramsden’s zenith sector, and afterwards with Airy’s, the latter observations being for the purpose of determining the latitudes of various trigonometrical stations in Great Britain and 462 NATURE [ Sept. 10, 1885 Ireland. He also compiled an account of the measurement of the Loch Foyle base, which was made during the years 1827-29. The article on geodesy, which forms part of the mathematical text-book used at the Royal Military College, was written by Col. Yolland. In 1854 Col. Yolland was appointed one of the Inspectors of Railways under the Board of Trade. In 1856 he was selected as the engineer member of the Commission appointed by the Secretary of State for War to consider the best mode of reorganising the system of training officers of the scientific corps, with the special intention of abolishing patron- age and opening the commissions in those corps to competition. The Commissioners, the other two of whom were Col. W. j. Smith, R.A., and the Rev. W. C. Lake, visited France, Prussia, Austria, and Sardinia, and, after studying the methods of appointment in use in those countries, drew up a report, which was printed by order of the House of Commons. Dr. SCHOMBURGK’s Report on the Progress and Condition of the Botanic Garden and Government Plantations in South Australia for the year 1884, which is dated from the Botanic Garden, Adelaide, in March last, gives, as usual, a good deal of interesting matter on the cultivation of useful plants. The co- operation, which has of late years been so much extended between the botanic gardens in all our colonial and foreign pos- sessions, has been the means of inciting the several directors to increased energy in the development of new resources and the interchange of valuable plants, so that matter of a similar character, or treating of the same plants, often appears in reports from gardens widely separated geographically from each other. Thus we find in the report before us notes on the suitability or otherwise for Australian culture of many plants that have been similarly reported on from other parts of the world. Amongst those reported upon by Dr. Schomburgk may be mentioned mustard, rape, sesamum, ground nut, tobacco, hops, canary seed, chicory, capers, esparto, &c., &c. Speaking of esparto grass (MWacrachloa tenacissimz), which is a native of Spain, Portugal, and North Africa, and is, we are reminded, exported into England alone to the amount of 140,000 to 150,000 tons a year, so that it is becoming scarcer every day, and consequently fetching higher prices, Dr. Schomburgk says: ‘Considering the similarity of our climate with that of Spain, I endeavoured to introduce this valuable grass into the Colony, which, after many difficulties, I succeeded in accomplishing, and I have not been disappointed in its aeclimatisation in South Australia. The grass which I have now cultivated for the last five years grows admirably with us, notwithstanding the most severe droughts we have to contend with. It is propagated by seed. The question will naturally be asked, ‘Suppose we succeed in growing the grass here, where shall we find a market for it?’ Our enterprising and go-ahead neighbours in Victoria have already established two paper mills, and I understand Sydney also POssesses one, so that, if we succeed, the market for the grass is close at hand, and I think it would even pay to export the grass to England, as by means of hydraulic pressure the bulk would be considerably reduced.” Another industry which seems to promise well in South Australia: is the production of sumac, which consists of the powdered leaves and twigs of Ris coriaria and Rhus cotinus, shrubs of the Mediterranean region, and grown largely in Southern Europe for the sake of the leaves. Dr. Schomburgk says both plants grow in the Adelaide Botanic Garden, and the climate seems to suit them ; he recommends, however, that trials should be made to ascertain whether they would thrive in poor or sandy soil. On this subject the British Consul at Palermo, in the neighbourhood: of which the best sumac is grown, says the soil best adapted for the plant is that of a sandy nature. It is propagated by cuttings. The bulk of the sumac is shipped from Palermo to various countries, but principally to the United States. A catalogue of plants added during 1884 to the col- lection under cultivation at the Botanic Garden is given in the form of an appendix. It was hardly to be expected that the season should pass with- out the appearance of the sea-serpent somewhere, and if we are to believe the information forwarded to us from a correspondent in Norway, it has just visited the coast of Nordland. Three Sundays ago some lads were returning to the Island of Rod from the church at Melo, in the middle of the day, when they saw far out in the fjord a streak in the sea, which they believed to be a flock of wild ducks swimming. On proceeding’ further, however, they heard the whizzing as of a rushing fountain, and in a few moments perceived a great sea-monster with great velocity making straight for the boat. It appeared to be ser- pentine in shape, with a flat, scaly head, and the lads counted seventeen coils on the surface of the water just as it passed the stern of the boat so closely that they could have thrown a boat- hook into it. By subsequent measurements on land the length of the animal was estimated at about 200 feet. It pursued its course on the surface of the sea until close behind the boat, when it went down with a tremendous noise, but reappeared a little after, shaping its course for the Meld, where it disappeared from view. Naturally the lads were greatly frightened. The weather at the time was hot, calm, and sunny. Our informer states that the lads are intelligent and truthful, and that there is no reason to discredit their unanimous statement, made, as it were, in a terribly frightened condition. Jt might be added that the waters in which the animal was seen are some of the deepest on the Norwegian coast, and that it is not the first time fisher- men have averred having seen the sea-serpent here. The existence of the sea-serpent is fully believed in along the coast of Norway. WE have received the Fowrnal and Proceedings (vol. xviii.) of the Royal Society of New South Wales for 1884. Besides the President’s address, it contains several papers, reports of the various meetings, an abstract of the meteorological observations at the Sydney Observatory, and a rainfall map. Amongst the papers we find one on the removal of bars from the mouths of rivers, by Mr. Shellsbear ; on some New South Wales minerals, by Prof. Liversidge ; on the oven-mounds of the aborigines of Victoria, by Mr. MacPherson ; on a new form of actinometer, by. Mr. Russell; on the water supply of the interior of New South Wales ; and shorter papers on gold, on the trochoided plane, on doryanthes, &c., Mr. Caldwell’s paper on the embryology of the marsupiala, monotremata, and ceratodus: WE have to acknowledge a copy of the English translation of the paper read by Messrs. Thorell and Lindstr6m to the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, on the Silurian scorpion found in Gothland (NATURE, vol. xxxi. p. 295). It is published by Norstedt and Sons, Stockholm. THE ceremony of the Chevreul centennial has been postponed until January 1, 1886. To give more solemnity to the celebra- tion all the Paris students will be present at the /ée; now most of them are in the provinces or abroad. The health of M. Chevreul continues excellent, and the delay is not likely to prove an obstacle to the ceremony. PROF. Doo.iTrLe, of the Lehigh University, Pennsylvania, — has published a treatise on practical astronomy, as applied to geodesy and navigation (New York : Wiley ; London: Triibner). It is intended as a text-book for universities and technical schools, and as a manual for the field astronomer, The object has been to present in a systematic form the most approved methods in use at the present time, and these are illustrated. by complete numerical examples. In the introduction the method of least squares is developed with special reference to the requirements of this particular class of work. Sept. 10, 1885 | NATURE 463 Near ty all the ironworks at Pittsburgh, besides some forty iron firms within a radius of thirty miles, are now using the natural gas of the district, as are also most of the glass factories, distilleries, breweries, &c. This is creating an entire revolution in the labour market there. The output of iron and steel at Pittsburgh is about 750,000 tons per annum, and as it takes some 50 bushels of coal to make one ton of iron, it follows that at least 38,250,000 bushels of coal will be dispensed with in the yearly consumption, throwing out of employment an enormous number of miners, firemen, ashmen, roadmen, and other employés of the collieries. The cause of this great change being entirely one of nature’s arrangement renders it an impossibility for trade unions and labour agitators to deal with the matter. WE have received the Refort and Proceedings of the Bristol Naturalists’ Society for the year ending April 30 last. The principal paper is a long one, with illustrations, by Prof. Lloyd Morgan, on sub-aérial denudation and the Avon gorge, in which he has worked out in detail the subject of the influence of geo- logical structure on the scenery of the Avon, more particularly of that section of the Avon basin lying between Bristol and the Channel. There are also papers on the mapping of the mill- stone grit at Long Ashton near Bristol by the same writer, on a common fin whale stranded in the Bristol Channel by Mr. Wilson, and on the newly-discovered phenomenon of apospory in ferns by Mr. Druery. There are also papers on the rainfall at Clifton in 1884, and meteorological observations with regard to temperature during the same year. Finally Mr. Bucknall prints the eighth part of his fungi of the Bristol district, and Mr. White additions to his fora of the Bristol coal-field. The report shows that only a portion of the papers read are printed. Perhaps it is right to add in conclusion that the society is in a flourishing financial condition, for it has not only a comfortable balance on the right side of its current accounts, but has actually a capital to the amount of 17/. Ios. invested in securities. A REPORT from the Government Astronomer in the Hong Kong Government Gazette upon the progressive motion of typhoons gives the following average velocities. The course of the typhoon is here followed from its commencement on the east coast of Luzon, the cradle of the typhoons of the China seas, into the Sea of Japan, beyond which they are dissipated and lost in the North Pacific :— Nautical miles an hour East of Luzon eee me te abu 7 China Seas between 12° eal 18° N. ec wep LO China Seas between Hong oe Luzon, and Southern Formosa sae ay [ies About Hainan cise on 3 “ae em is] East of Formosa 603 ap 3 ane ces ENG) In Southern China: Kwangtung, Fokien, and Kiangsi ... 5 ¥s wks nd } 10 In the Formosa Straits ras on oa aooy HZ About Shanghai... ae 20 “se co, In Northern China ... ac a5 00 ee 23 About Japan... oe 55 ao = ons 1G) In the Sea of Japan ... ot fe 2c coo BS Dr. Nickerson, of New York, has published as a pamphlet the memorial address by him on Joseph Henry and the mag- netic telegraph, delivered at Princeton College. It is printed at the request of the President and members of the College, and is published by Charles Scribner and Sons, of New York. WE have to acknowledge Mr. G. J. Symons’s “ British Rain- fall” for 1884. The issue for 1860, in four pages, is reprinted and bound with the volume, and is interesting as the beginning of the elaborite work which Mr. Symons now publishes every year. The present volume differs from its predecessors, inas- much as it contains no articles from observers upon experimental or other branches of rainfall work; but their place has been supplied by notes by the editor scattered throughout the book. He has invited observers to report any facts within their know- ledge bearing on the effect produced upon the level of water in wells, &c., by the small rainfall of the year. Consequently observers’ accounts occupy a considerable space. Mr. Symons has added a full account of the drought. WE have received the report of the Verein fiir Naturkunde of Mannheim for-the fiftieth and fifty-first years of its existence. The report contains the jubilee address, and also a lecture de- livered by the late Dr. Schimper in the year 1834, on the classification and succession of organisms, together with a brief biography of the author and a bibliography of his writings. THE additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens during the past week include a Purple-faced Monkey (Semopithecus leuco- prymmnus) from Ceylon, presented by Mr. Ernest Greathead ; a Weeper Capuchin (Cebus capucinus 8) from South America, presented by Mrs. A. Sinclair ; a Ring-tailed Coati (asua rufa é ) from South America, presented by Master J. C. Robinson; a Yellow-footed Rock Kangaroo (Petrogale xanthopus?) from South Australia, presented by Mr. C. W. Holden; a Levaillant’s Cynictis (Cynictis penicellata?), a Suricate (Suricata tetra- dactyla 2? ) from South Africa, presented by Mr. John Constable ; four Black Water Voles (A7zvicola ba cee) from Scotland, presented by Mr. W. Arkwright, F.Z.S.; a White-backed Piping Crow (Gymnorhina leuconota) ho South Australia, presented by Miss A. Charsley; a Poé Honey-eater (Pyosthe- madera Nove-Zealandiz) from New Zealand, presented by Mr. Charles Clifton, F.Z.S. ; a Humboldt’s Lagothrix (Lagothrix Humboldti) from the Upper Amazons, a Glutton (Galo Zuscus) North European, deposited ; a Jaguar (Fe/is onca) from America, deposited ; two Long-fronted Gerbilles (Gerdil/us longifrons), two Snow Birds (Fzzco hyemalis), five Common Vipers ( Vifera berus), thirty Striped Snakes ( Zvopzdonotus sirtalis) bred in the Gardens). ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA FOR THE WEER, 1885, SEPTEMBER 13-19 (For the reckoning of time the civil day, commencing at Greenwich mean midnight, counting the hours on to 24, is here employed. ) At Greenwich on Sept. 13 Sun rises, 5h. 34m. ; souths, Ith. ; aa 44°2s.; sets, 18h. 18m. ; decl. on meridian, 3° 38’ N Sidereal Time at Sunset 17h. 50m. Moon (at First Quarter on Sept. 16) rises, toh. 52m. ; souths, 15h. 50m, ; sets, 20h. 42m. ; decl. on meridian, 13° 54’ S. Planet Rises Souths Sets Decl. on meridian h. m. h. m. h, m. ye bs = Mercury... 4 6 10 56 17 46 Dass uNe Venus 8 49 14-3 ROM) aes ON Soe Mars O 27 8 30 16-33) =... 20 sr Ne Jupiter Bea) gon, ZIG 18 18 5 56N. Satur. 215, $2253 steno Wee yan I5 9 22 22:Nr * Indicates that the rising is that of the preceding day. Occultations of Stars by the Moon Corresponding . angles from ver- Sept. Star Mag. Disap. Reap. mae fameieee fae inverted image : bi h. m. h. m. ° ° KQ):.. 13\Capricorni 7. (6) =. 20) 4)... 21°23 122 272 MON... Ta Capriconmiee hme 20 23h... 220A T I5I 273 The Occultations of Stars are such as are visible at Greenwich. Sept. h. i Sie -- Eko) Mercury at greatest elongation from the Sun, 18° west. 464 NATURE | Sept. 10, 1885 ASTRONOMICAL NOTES New CoMET.—A new comet, discovered by Mr. Brooks, has been observed by Mr. Wendell, of Harvard College Ob- servatory, and Mr. Ainslie Common, of Ealing. On Friday night its approximate position was R.A. 13h. 53m., and N.P.D. 52 20’. Its R.A. isincreasing and N.P.D. decreasing ; diameter, g minutes of arc, and getting brighter. New MINor PLANET.—On the evening of the 3rd inst. Herr Palisa, of Vienna, discovered a minor planet, thus bringing the number of these bodies to 250. The following are the particu- lars of the discovery :—September 3, 9h. 53s. (Greenwich mean time) ; right ascension, 23h. 34m. 44s. ; north polar distance, 106° 9/ 35”; daily motion in right ascension, 48s. decreasing, in polar distance 3’ increasing ; magnitude, 11th. GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES Tue Caroline Islands, which are attracting so much political attention now, are described at some length in the Gazette Géographigue. It is generally acknowledged that they were discovered by a Portuguese navigator in 1526, and during the rest of the sixteenth century they were frequently visited by Spanish and Portuguese explorers. They were called the Carolines about 1686 by a pilot named Lezcano, who saw many islets there, but could not tell to what group they belonged, or indicate their exact position. The name was given to them after Charles II. ; they have also been called the New Philippines, but this has never prevailed. Towards the end of the seven- teenth century the Spaniards in the Philippines and Mariannes learned something of the Carolines, and in 1705 an imperfect map of the group was sent to Pope Clement XI., and then the Jesuits of the mission at Manila resolved to establish a branch in the Carolines. In 1710 the missionaries and a few soldiers set sail, but on arriving at the Pelews were all massacred. Up to 1817 the Carolines were visited by navigators of all nations, but the number of the islands, their exact position, and the hydrography of the seas in which they were situated, was totally unknown. In that year Kotzebue, and subsequently Freycinet, Duperrey, Dumont d’Urville, and others, visited the whole of the Archipelago, and from them we got our first accurate accounts of the Carolines and their inhabitants. The Caroline archipelago forms part of Micronesia, and is situated to the south of the Ladrones, to the west of the Marshalls, and to the north of New Guinea. It consists of about 500 islands, of which the greater number are only afo//s. The number of real islands is only forty-eight, but as each of these is surrounded by a certain number of islets, it may be said that the archipelago consists of forty-eight groups ; forty-three of these are low coral islands, while five are composed of basalt with coral at the base. The superficial area over which the archipelago is spread is about forty- five square leagues. Geographically it may be divided into three main groups, separated by two large channels : the eastern group, of which the principal island is Ascension or Ponape ; the central group, and the western group, the principal island being Eap or Jap, of which much is being heard just now. Ponape is between 50 and 60 miles round, and has a peak in the centre which rises to a height of 2860 feet. At one part of its coast there are curious ruins which are still a problem for ethnologists ; they are apparently the remains of a large building constructed of huge blocks of basalt. The archipelago, although close to the equator, enjoys a temperate climate; there are two rainy seasons—one in January, the other in August. The islands are of astonishing fertility ; the principal productions are the bread-fruit, cocoa-nut, the palm, bamboo, orange, and clove tree, sugar-cane, beetle, sweet potato, &c. The population is generally estimated at 18,000 to 20,000, and belongs ethno- logically to the Micronesian family. The principal elements are Malay and Maori; but there is also a mixture of Negrito and Papuan, to which in later times was added a Chinese and Japan- ese element. The language is as mixed as the race ; the gramm- atical constructions are the same as those of the Maori, but Malay influence is also evident. In some of the islands there are two languages, as in Java—the vulgar and polished. They haye no religion properly so-called ; they believe in spirits, which are the souls of their deceased ancestors, and they have a great respect, a kind of cult for their dead, whom they preserve till the body falls to pieces. As in all the islands of the Pacific, tabu is practised. Each group of islands is governed by a chief or king. His power in time of peace is purely nominal, but he enjoys the respect of all ; but in the frequent bloody wars his authority is unbounded, and all submit blindly to his will. THE Pelews or Palaos Islands are quite distinct from the Carolines ; they are the most western islands of Micronesia, and are situated about 600 miles east of the Philippines. The archi- pelago consists of ten principal islands anda number ofislets. The principal one, called Babelthuap, is 30 miles long, the southern part being very mountainous. All the islands are covered by thick forests, the trees of which are used by the natives to con- struct their large canoes. Besides the yam and the cocoa-nut there are also bananas, oranges, and a large number of nutritious roots. The population is about 3500 souls, belonging to a race which is quite distinct from the Caroline Islanders. They pre- sent all the characteristics of the Malay and Papuan races, and are probably the result of the mixture of a superior Malay tribe with an inferior aboriginal people. Old travellers speak very well of these natives : they are said to be in every way superior to the inhabitants of the Caroline Islands. Here also there are two languages : one for addressing superiors, the other inferiors ; possibly it would be more correct to say that there is only one language, with copious honorific forms. The king has insti- tuted an order, which he gives or withdraws at his pleasure : the insignia is the first cervical vertebra of the fish dugong. THE Rundschau fiir Geographie und Statistik for September reproduces a forgotten discourse of Alexander yon Humboldt. It was never published, although it was privately printed for the use of the members of the Society before whom it was delivered. It deals with the primitive peoples of America and the monu- ments which they have left behind them, and was delivered before the Philomatic Society of Berlin in January, 1806 ; that is a few months after his return from his travels. It had grown to be a bibliographical curiosity ; part of its contents was after- wards reproduced in his ‘‘ Ansichten der Natur” and ‘‘ Vues des Cordilléres,” and later investigations have materially altered some positions taken up; but the discourse is otherwise very interesting, especially after its disappearance for nearly eighty years. CONTENTS PaGE Our Present'Needs\. 2 5 5 29202) +) eee 433 The ‘“‘Decomposition” of Didymium ...... 435 Our Book Shelf :— Dagincourt’s ‘‘ Annuaire géologique universel et Guide du Géologie autour dela Terre”. ..... 436 Letters to the Editor :— The Meteoric Cycle and Stonehenge. —R. Edmonds 436 Nebula in Andromeda.—Lord Rosse, F.R.S. - 437 Sunsets. —R. McLachlan, F.R.S. ...... - 437 Pulsation in the Vein.—S. W. ...... 437 Red Hail.—Prof. Theodore Schwedoff. .. . 437 On the Terminology of the Mathematical Theory of Electricity.—Henry Muirhead ........ 437 The British Association . MPM Ss Inaugural Address by the Right Hon. Sir Lyon Playfair, K.C.B., M.P., F.R.S., President . . 438 Section A—Mathematical and Physical Science— Opening Address by Prof. G. Chrystal, M.A., F.R.S.E., President of the Section . ... . - 446 Section B—Chemical Science—Opening Address b Prof. Henry E. Armstrong, Ph.D., F.R.S., Sec.C.S., President of the Section ...... 449 Section C—Geology—Opening Address by Prof. J. W. Judd, F.R.S., Sec.G.S., President of the econ ost g-ca ala ob © eke pes) Ce > 455) Notes for the Opening of a Discussion on Electro- lysis, to be held in Section B, at the British Association in Aberdeen, September, 1885, by Professor Oliver Lodge ..... os eS) NOTES sonic en meee 3 oot So) on 7) 460 Astronomical Phenomena for the Week 1885, September,13-19/ 5 = =.) <5 sue nen eS Astronomical Notes :— New: Gomet <3: cig oc cen ok 464 New Minor Planet . ioe eS 0 es Joey Caen Geographical Notes) 5 5.06 2. = = -)-) cue . NATGR LE 465 THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 1885 17, THE NEW STAR IN ANDROMEDA E have received the following important communi- cations from Lord Rosse and Dr. Huggins relating to the new star. Whether the star be connected with the nebula or not, during the last week evidence has been brought forward that it has changed both its brilliancy and position with regard to the nucleus. This question of change of position is of the highest import- ance, for arguments were advanced in this journal (NATURE, vol. xvi. p. 413) on the occasion of the out- burst of the stella nova in 1866, which suggested that a body which reduced its lustre so rapidly could have no very great “mass, and that therefore it might not be so very remote. Dr. Huggins is able to decide between the different statements which have been publishedas to the spectrum of the star: he has little doubt as to the existence of bright lines between D and % This endorses Lord Rosse’s observation which we printed last week. SINCE my communication of September 8 our books have been searched for information on the past history of the nucleus of the Andromeda nebula. I subjoin in full the entries bearing upon the question whether the ‘‘new star” is now seen for the first time, or is a variable now shining out with abnormal brilliancy. The latter would appear to be the case. The nebula was frequently observed in past years with the 6-foot reflector and measures made. These measures being too few in number for a proper survey of the nebula, publication was postponed in 1878, and the details of configuration of the nebulosity have not appeared such as to merit a monograph. ROSsE September 12 The Great Nebulain Andromeda as observed at Birr Castle with the 6-foot Reflector 1848, December 13.—Three new stars seen near nucleus. Others stars at moments suspected in large nucleus. 1848, December 15.—Confirmed previous night’s observations about the three stars 7 2 fof nucleus. 1851, October 25.—[On a rough sketch accompanying micro- metrical measurements the nucleus is indicated by a point]. 1852, September 16.—Nucleus looked very sharp. Had sus- picion of a point in centre of nucleus of large nebula which formed one angle of a quadrilateral of which the other three are small stars to the left. 1855, October 15.—With higher power several stars become visible about the nucleus. Nucleus itself suspected at moments to be resolvable. 1856, October 28.—I observed the nucleus attentively for a long time, and I thought I could at times see stars along its north edge, but I am not very confident about it. 1857, October 16.—The higher power of single lens brings out a great many very faint stars around the nucleus. a seen steadily, 8 seen by glimpses and I suspect a star in the neigh- bourhood of y. The sketch represents the central portion of the nebula. [A point is indicated in the centre of the nucleus. ] VoL. Xxx11.—No. 829 1860, October 19.—I accompanying sketch. think the nucleus is extended as in 1860, November 13.—[A sketch was carefully made, which is almost identical with the sketch of 1860, October 19, showing the extension of the nucleus very plainly. No point is indicated in the centre of the nucleus. ] [In 1861 and 1862 numerous micrometrical measures were taken, accompanied by rough sketches, showing the nucleus as a diffused nebulous patch, either round or slightly extended as on 1860, October 19. ] 1871, October 7.—A rough sketch was made [showing the nucleus round and rather distinct. ] 1872, August 7.—Nucleus very distinct on ground of nebula. 1877, November 2.—Nucleus extends in same direction as nebula ; immediately following the nucleus the nebulosity de- creases quickly in brightness, more so than on preceding side. THE star was observed here first on the night of the 3rd inst. It presented the appearance of an orange-coloured star of from the 8th to the 9th magnitude. With a spectroscope of low dispersive power a continuous spectrum was seen from about C in the red to a little beyond F. There was an apparent con- densation of light from about D to 4, which might be due to bright lines in that part of the spectrum. This supposition was strengthened by the employment of a more powerful spectroscope, but I was not able to be certain on this point. On the oth the star, which was then distinctly on one side of the principal point of condensation in the nebula, appeared to me to have a less decided orange tint. It presented an appear- ance in the spectroscope similar to that which it had on the 3rd, with the exception that the light was less strong about D. I was so far confirmed in my suspicion of bright lines that I have little doubt that from three to five bright lines were present between D and 4. On the 3rd inst. the star did not appear clearly defined in the refractor of 15 inches aperture, but the state of the sky was not good enough to enable me to be sure that the star was truly nebulous. On the oth the star was certainly free from nebulosity. WILLIAM HuGGINS Upper Tulse Hill, S.W. On September 8 the new star in the nebula (Messier 31) in Andromeda was examined in my Io-inch reflector. The nova shines with a yellowish tint and looks like an ordinary star of about 7} mag., being a perfectly sharp and well-defined x 466 NATURE [Sep¢. 17, 1885 stellar point situated near the central region of the nebula. It is quite free from any blurred appearance or any aspect of indefiniteness other than that introduced by the nebula on which it is projected. On later nights the star seemed to have slightly decreased ; its light was feebler and less sparkling, but I made no exact com- parisons for tracing the decline of brilliancy, if any. During many years the naked eye appearance of this con- spicuous nebula has been familiar to me, and I have been accustomed to notice it particularly while engaged in prolonged watches for shooting stars. No sharply-defined nucleus was ever perceptible, but now the involved star is distinctly visible by slightly averting the vision, When the air is very clear the glowing out of the star now and then is very obvious, and I mention the fact in proof that the variation of the nebula by this new phenomenon is sufficiently great to affect its naked-eye aspect. W. F. DENNING Bristol, September 13 GEALERS HO LE EDI OR: [ The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts. No notice is taken of anonymous communications, (The Editor urgently requests correspondents to keep their letters as short as possible. The pressure on his space ts so great that it ts impossible otherwise to insure the appearance even of communications containing interesting and novel facts. | Red Rays after Sunset THERE have lately been seen here some remarkable examples of rose-coloured streamers radiating from the sun at an interval of from 20 to 30 minutes after sunset, particularly on the 3rd, 5th, and 6th of this month. On the 3rd the appearance was especially striking, the contrast of colour between one very broad, vertical ray and the greenish-gray sky which separated it from its neighbours being most marked. That these rose-coloured rays are essentially identical with the diffused rose-tint observed on other occasions is evident, not only from the similarity of colour and of interval after sun- set at which they appear, but also from the occurrence of inter- mediate examples, in which the rays are so far and so broad that the radiate character is almost lost. It is, however, by no means so clear why the coloured tract of sky should be sometimes split into rays, and it is with a view to ventilate this question that I desire to call attention to the subject. I believe it is generally supposed that the dark spaces between the rays are due to masses of cloud intercepting the sun’s light, but there are difficulties in the way of this explanation which I have never seen met. It need hardly be pointed out that the matter (whatever it be) which reflects the red light must be at an altitude far above any such masses of cloud as could intercept the sun’s rays ; it could not otherwise receive and reflect those rays half an hour after the sun had set to the observer. But although above the level of the clouds, the reflecting matter would still be subject to interception of the sun’s rays by cloud at sunset, and in order to judge whether the phenomenon can be so accounted for it is necessary to consider what kind of horizon that would be behind which the sun would set to an observer at the altitude supposed. My impression is that the horizon as seen from such a height would te so distant that whatever the irregularities of cloud- surface forming it, it would be practically a level line, and that the most mountainous masses of cumulus-cloud would be insufficient to cast at that distance the enormous shadows which would be necessary to account for the rifts between the rays. Clifton, September 8 GEORGE F, BURDER Fireball A LARGE fireball was visible at Bristol and other places on September 11, at about 9h. 25m. p.m. It was described to me by several observers who approximately assigned its path as from Altair towards the western horizon. The sky was much clouded here at the time, with only Ist magnitude stars visible, but the light of the meteor appears to have been something astonishing. Mr. G. T. Davis, of Theale, near Reading, writes me that, when first seen there, the meteor was near B Ophiuchi, and seemed to describe a slightly curved path to the horizon, which it touched apparently under 8 Serpentis. It exhibited a greenish tinted disk with bright, white aureole around it, and left'no train. The aureole was at least 16’ in diameter. It will be desirable to collect further accounts of this fine meteor. The direction of its path suggests that it may belong to the same system as that of the detonating fireball of Septem- ber 14, 1875, which had a radiant point at a 348°, 6 o°+ (Tup- man). During the past fortnight I have observed a considerable number of shooting-stars, and one of the best radiant points is at a 346, 80° +, or 2° W. of that of Col. Tupman’s fireball of September 14, 1875. W. F. DENNING Bristol, September 13 Pulsation in the Veins Ir Mr. Hippisley will refer to Landois’ text-book, vol. i. p- 196, he will find it there stated, on the authority of Quincke, that a venous pulse occurs on rare occasions, normally, in the veins on the back of the hand and foot, when the peripheral ends of the arteries become dilated and relaxed. But it is to be remembered that the very same phenomenon may obtain abnormally, owing to some pathological condition of the heart, as stenosis of the mitral orifice, or insufficiency in action of the mitral valve. Mr. Hippisley does not state in his letter whether the heart was in a healthy condition, or whether any lesion of that organ was present in those on whom his experiment was tried. J. W. WILLIAMS Middlesex Hospital «* Furculum” or ‘‘ Furcula ” Is there any authority for the use of furcu/wm for the os furculatorium of birds? I am told by a contributor to the Proceedings of this Society, whose phraseology I have ventured to interfere with, that ‘‘furcu/zm” has been employed by Balfour, Huxley, and Rolleston. Such may be the case, but it is possible that even these great anatomical writers may have erred in the use of a Latin termination. No dictionary that I have been able to refer to contains the word ‘‘ furculum.” The Zoological Society of London P. L. SCLATER THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION : Aberdeen, Monday HERE have been few meetings of the British Asso- ciation so crowded with papers in nearly all the sections. On Saturday several sections met which, unless under the greatest pressure, never meet on that day. Section D has been compelled to split up into three sub- sections, and probably most of the sections will have to meet on Wednesday morning. The social distractions have been much more numerous than usual, and we suspect have somewhat seriously interfered with the legitimate work of the meeting. As might be expected, the Music Hall was crowded on Wednesday evening last to hear the President’s address, which seems to have produced a great impression on the audience. It is being more and more strongly recognised that such pre-arrangements as those of Sections A and B ought to become general throughout the sections. The discussions in the two great sections, of which the pro- grammes have appeared in NATURE, have certainly excited great interest among real workers in physics and chemistry. It is to be hoped that a full abstract of these discussions will be placed on record, as otherwise they cannot have any great permanent results. Perhaps the most popular feature in the regular sectional work has been the reading of Sir John Lubbock’s paper on ants, in Section D, on I’riday. The number of entertainments, afternoon parties, ex- cursions, and cozversaztones is almost without precedent. The conversazione in the Art Galleries on Thursday last was in every way successful, though the place was over- crowded. The flower and fruit show and the illumina- tions outside reminded many of the South Kensington displays. It was satisfactory to notice that, thanks to Sept. 17, 1885 | NATURE 467 Prof. Traill, the nucleus. of a valuable local natural history collection has been formed. Prof. Osborne Reynolds’s illustrations of compression of solids was one of the most attractive features of the evening. The collection of pictures was large and highly credit- able, while the precious collections of old manu- scripts and books lent by the Earl of Crawford had many admirers. One of the most successful afternoon parties was given the same day at Tollshill Wood by Mr. David Stewart. Of course, of the numerous Saturday excursions, that to Balmoral was the most popular. In spite of the wretched weather 200 people must have left Aberdeen for Ballater at 1 p.m. and happily by the time the end of the railway journey was reached the weather greatly improved. The drive from Ballater to Balmoral evidently gave great enjoyment to the occupants of the long cavalcade of miscellaneous “machines” which wound along the banks of the Dee, and no less, we may be sure, did the sumptuous five o’clock dinner (* lunch,” it was called) which was provided in the ball-room of Balmoral. Gen. Gairdner presided at the table, and, atter proposing the Queen’s health, drank, by command of Her Majesty, prosperity to the British Association. Under the guidance of Dr. Profeit the guests made a round of the fine grounds of Balmoral, and on driving back to Ballater, passed Her Majesty on her return from a day’s outing. The excursion to Dunecht was also a great success, the arrangements at Lord Crawford’s observatory exciting much interest. A deputation from Birmingham is here to make ar- rangements for the visit to that town next year. It is evident that the Birmingham people mean to make the 1886 meeting a success, though, so far as social arrange- ments go, it will be difficult to surpass that of Aberdeen. It is expected that Manchester will be the place of meet- ing in 1887, and for 1888 or 1889 several enterprising members hope to secure the selection of London, in order to have a meeting in common with the American Asso- ciation. Against this choice, however, there will probably be a strong protest, though of course the American Asso- ciation will be sure to receive an enthusiastic welcome whenever it chooses to visit the old country. Prof. Adams’s lecture on Friday attracted a large audience, and on Saturday evening the Music Hall was filled with an enthusiastic audience of genuine working men to listen to Mr. H. B. Dixon’s lecture and admire his experiments. Mr. Murray’s lecture to-night will certainly be of popular interest, but, summing up as it does the present position of aceanography, it will also be of the highest scientific value. The diagrams are very striking, and certainly original. A full report will no doubt appear in NATURE. The regret at the resignation of the secretaryship of the Association by Prof. Bonney is universal, though it is confidently expected that Mr. Atchison will be a tho- roughly competent successor. The additional arrivals up to this morning will bring the total number present at the meeting up to 2500. SECTION B CHEMICAL €CIENCE OPENING ADDRESS BY ProF, HENRY E. ARMSTRONG, PH.D., F.R.S., Sec. C.S., PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION } I Now pass to the consideration of a subject of special interest in this section, which I think requires the immediate earnest attention of chemists and physicists combined—that of Chemical Action. In his Presidential Address to the Association last year Prof. Lord Rayleigh made only a brief reference to chemistry, but many of us must have felt that his few remarks were pregnant with meaning, especially his reference to the im- portance of the principle of the dissipation of energy in relation to chemical change. A year’s reflection has led me to think them of peculiar weightiness and full of prophecy. I would * Continued from p. 453. especially draw attention to the closing paragraph of this portion of hisaddress: ‘‘ From the further study of electrolysis we may expect to gain improved views as to the nature of the chemical reactions, and of the forces concerned in bringing them about. Tam not qualified—I wish I were—to speak to you on recent progress in general chemistry. Perhaps my feelings towards a first love may blind me, but I cannot help thinking that the next great advance, of which we have already some fore- shadowing, will come on this side. And if I might, without presumption, venture a word of recommendation, it would bein favour of a more minute study of the simpler chemical phenomena,” Chemical action may be defined as being any action of which the consequence is an alteration in molecular constitution or composition; the action may concern molecules which are of only one kind—cases of mere decomposition, of isomeric change and of polymerisation; or it may take place between dissimilar molecules—cases of combination and of interchange. Hitherto it appears to have been commonly assumed and almost universally taught dy chemists that action takes place directly between A and B, producing AB, or between AB and CD, producing AC and BD, for example. This, at all events, is the impression which the ordinary average student gains. Our text- books do not, in fact, as a rule, deign to notice observations of such fundamental importance as those of De La Rive on the behaviour of nearly pure zinc with dilute sulphuric acid, or the later ones of Faraday (‘‘ Exp. Researches,” Series vii., 1834, 863, e¢ seg.) on the insolubility of amalgamated zinc in this acid. Belief in the equation Zn + H,SO, = Hy + ZnSO, hence be- comes a part of the chemist’s creed, and it is generally inter- preted to mean that zine we// dissolve in sulphuric acid, forming zinc sulphate, not, as should be the case, that w/e zinc dissolves in sulphuric acid it produces zine sulphate, &c. In studying the chemistry of carbon compounds we become acquainted with a large number of instances in which a more or less minute quan- tity of a substance is capable of inducing change in the body or bodies with which it is associated without apparently itself being altered. The polymerisation of a number of cyanogen com- pounds and of aldehydes, the ‘‘ condensation” of ketonic com- pounds and the hydrolysis of carbohydrates are cases in point ; but so little has been done to ascertain the nature of the influence of the contact-substance, or catalyst, as I would term it, the main object in view being the study of the product of the re- action, that the importance of the catalyst isnot duly appreciated. Recent discoveries, however—more particularly Mr. H. B. Dixon’s invaluable investigation on conditions of chemical change in gases, and the experiments of Mr. Cowper with chlorine and various metals, and of Mr. Baker on the combustion of carbon and phosphorus—must have given a”rude shock, from which it can never recover, to the belief in the assumed sim- plicity of chemical change. The inference which I think may fairly be drawn from Mr. Baker's observations—that pure carbon and phosphorus are incombustible in Awe oxygen—is indeed startling, and his experiments must do much to favour that ‘‘more minute study of the simpler chemical phenomena” so pertinently advocated by Lord Rayleigh. But if it be a logical conclusion from the cases now known to us that chemical action is not possible between any two sub- stances other than elementary atoms, and that the presence of a third is necessary, what is the function of the third body—the catalyst—and what must be its character with reference to one or both of the two primary agents? In the discussion which took place at the Chemical Society after the reading of Mr. Baker's paper, I ventured to define chemical action as reversed electrolysis, stating that in any case in which chemical action was to take place it was essential that the system operated upon should contain a material of the nature of an electrolyte (Chem. Soc. Proc., 1885, p. 40). In short, I believe that the conditions which obtain in any voltaic element are those which must be fulfilled in every case of chemical action, There is nothing new in this; in fact, it practically was stated by Faraday in 1834 (‘‘ Experimental Researches in Electricity,” series vil. §§ 858, 8591) ; and had due heed been given to Faraday’s teachings we * “Those bodies which, being interposed between the metals of the voltaic pile, render it active, ave all of them electrolytes, and it cannot but press upon the attention of every one engaged in considering this subject, that in those bodies (so essential to the pile) decomposition and the transmission of a current are so intimately connected that one cannot happen without the other. If, then, a voltaic trough have its extremities connected by a body eapable of being decomposed, as water, we shall have a continuous current through the apparatus ; and whilst it remains in this state we may look at the part where the acid is acting upon the plates and that where the current 468 should scarcely now be so ignorant as we are of the conditions of chemical change. The questions—What is Electrolysis? What is an Electro- lyte? are all-important to the chemist, if my contention be accepted. Moreover, the consideration of chemical action from this point of view almost of necessity obliges us also to consider what it is that constitutes chemical affinity. I will not presume to offer any opinion on this subject ; but I would recall atten- tion to the prominence which so great an authority as Helm- holtz gave in the last Faraday Lecture (Chem. Soc. Zrans., 1881, 277) to the view held by Faraday, and which is so efinitely stated in a passage in his ‘‘ Experimental Researches” 1 (series viii. 918, also 850 and 869). Helmholtz used the words: ‘‘I think the facts leave no doubt that the very mightiest among the chemical forces are of electric origin. The atoms cling to their electric charges, and opposite electric charges cling to each other; but I do not suppose that other molecular forces are excluded, working directly from atom to atom.” In the passages which immediately follow, this physicist then makes several statements of extreme importance, which directly bear upon the subject I desire to discuss, and which, therefore, I quote.” The interpretation of Faraday’s law of electrolysis, which Helmholtz has brought under the notice of chemists, is of the most definite and far-reaching character. Does it, however, at all events in the form in which he has put it forward, accord is acting upon the water as the reciprocals of each other. In both parts we have the two conditions, zzseparable in such bodies as these, namely, the passing ofa current and decomposition ; avd this ts as true of the cells in the battery as of the water-cell; for no voltaic battery has as yet been con- structed in which the chemical action is only that of combination: aecontposition is always included, and is, I believe, an essential chemical part ““ But the difference in the two parts of the connected battery—that is, the decomposition or acting cells—is simply this: in the former we urge the current through, but it, apparently of necessity, is accompanied by decom- position; in the latter we cause decompositions by ordinary chemical actions (which are, however, themselves electrical), and, as a consequence, have the electrical current ; and as the decomposition dependent upon the current is definite in the former case, so is the current associated with the decomposition also definite in the latter.” 1 “All the facts show us that that power commonly called chemical affinity can be communicated to a distance through the metals and certain forms of carbon ; that the electric current is only another form of the forces of chemical affinity ; that its power is in proportion to the chemical affinities producing it ; that when it is deficient in force it may be helped by calling in chemical aid, the want in the former being made up by an equivalent of the latter; that, in other words, the forces termed chemical affinity and electricity are one and the same.” Several of our leading chemists have lately begun to distinguish two classes of compounds—viz. molecular aggregates and typical compounds, the latter being united by atomic affinities, the former not. Electrolytes belong to the latter class. If we conclude from the facts that every unit of affinity is charged with one equivalent, either of positive or of negative electricity, they can form compounds, being electrically neutral, only if every unit charged positively unites under the influence of a mighty electric attraction with another unit charged negatively. You see that this ought to produce compounds in which every unit of affinity of every atom is connected with one, and only one, other unit of another atom. This, as you will see imme- diately, is the modern chemical theory of quantivalence, comprising all the saturated compounds. The fact that even elementary substances, with few exceptions, have molecules composed of two atoms makes it probable that even in these cases electric neutralisation is produced by the combination of two atoms, each charged with its full electric equivalent, not by neutralisa- tion of every single unit of affinity. Unsaturated compounds with an even number of unconnected units of affinity offer no objection to such an hypothesis: they may be charged with equal equivalents of opposite elec- tricity. Unsaturated compounds with one unconnected unit, existing only at high temperatures, may be explained as dissociated by intense molecular motion of heat, in spite of their electric attractions. But there remains one single instance of a compound which, according to the law of Avogadro, must be considered as unsaturated even at the lowest temperature—namely, nitric oxide (NO), a substance offering several very uncommon peculiarities, the behaviour of which will be perhaps explained by future researches.”’ The popular mistake is here made of assuming that elementary substances, with few exceptions, have molecules composed of twoatoms. We now know considerably over seventy elements, but of these the molecular weights in the gaseous state of only thirteen have been satisfactorily determined. The gaseous elements hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and chlorine, and also bromine, iodine and tellurium, have diatomic molecules ; phosphorus and arsenic have tetratomic molecules; those of sulphur are hexatomic, and selenium molecules are probably of similar constitution, but more readily broken down than those of sulphur ; lastly, cadmium and mercury molecules are monatomic _ It is more than probable that carbon, and also silicon and boron, form highly complex molecules. Of the remaining undetermined elements, the greater number are metals, and it is not unreasonable to assume that many of these will be found to resemble cadmium and mercury in molecular composition. It is clear, however, that at present we have no right to say that the elementary molecules are, as a rule, diatomic. It would assist in removing this error if chemists would consistently place after the symbol the numeral indicating the “‘ atomicity ” of the elementary molecule—thus, Hg,, Cd,, O.; and if in all cases when a numeral is absent, or is placed defore the symbol, it were understood that advisedly no indica- tion of the molecular state is afforded. NATORE [ Sept. 17, 1885 sufficiently with the facts as these present themselves to the chemist’s mind? All will recognise that the chemical changes effected by a current in a series of electrolytic cells are equiva- lent to those which take place within the voltaic cells wherein the current is generated ; but in neither case is the action of a simple character: in both a variety of chemical changes takes place, the precise character of which is but imperfectly under- stood, and we are unable to assign numerical values, either in terms of heat or electrical units, to most of the sefarate changes. Moreover, many compounds are not electrolytes, while others which are regarded by the chemist as their analogues are very readily decomposed by a current of low E.M.F., although no great difference is to be observed in their ‘‘ heats of formation ;” liquid hydrogen chloride on the one band, and fused silver chloride on the other, may be cited as examples. Again, how are we to interpret on this theory such changes as that involved in the conversion of stannic into stannous chloride? The former, I suppose, is to be regarded as consisting of an atom of quadrivalent tin charged with four units of, say, positive elec- tricity, and of four atoms of univalent chlorine, each carrying a unit charge of negative electricity ; on withdrawal of two of the chlorine atoms, the residual SnCl, will have two free unit charges of positive electricity. We know that when the tem- perature is sufficiently lowered two such residues unite, forming Sn,Cl,, and it is not improbable that crystalline stannous chloride represents a still laterstage of condensation. Is this compatible with the theory? That cases of this kind are contemplated would appear from the reference to ‘‘unsaturated compounds with an even number of unconnected units of affinity,’ which we are told may be charged with equal equivalents of opposite electricity ; and also from the allusion to the existence of mole- cules of elementary substances composed of two atoms. It is more than probable that these anomalies would disappear on fuller statement of his views by the author of the theory: I have ventured to call attention to them in the hope of eliciting such statement. Helmholtz tells us that electrolytes belong to the class of typical compounds, the constituents of which are united by “atomic affinities,” not to the class of ‘‘ molecular aggregates.” Is this the fact? Before chemists can accept this conclusion many difficulties must be removed which appear to surround the question. In the first place, it is in the highest degree remark- able that, with the one single exception of /iguefied ammonia, no known binary hydride is in the liquid state an electrolyte: liquid hydrogen chloride, bromide and iodide, for example, with- standing an E.M.F, of over 8,000 volts (8,040 De la Rue cells : Bleekrode). Water, again, according to Kohlrausch’s most recent determinations, has an almost infinite resistance. Yet a mixture of hydrogen chloride and water readily conducts, and is electrolysed ; an aqueous solution of sulphuric acid behaves similarly, although the acid itself has a very high resistance.! Very many similar examples might be quoted, but it is well known that aqueous solutions generally conduct more or less perfectly, and are electrolysed.? The current belief among physicists would appear to be that the dissolved electrolyte—the acid or the salt—is almost exclus- ively primarily decomposed (Wiedemann, ‘‘ Elektricitat,” 1883, ii. 924). We are commonly told that sulphuric acid is added to water to make it conduct, but the chemist desires to know why the solution becomes conducting. It may be that in all cases the ‘‘ typical compound ” is the actual electrolyte—z.e, the body decomposed by the electric current—éwt the action only takes place when the typical compounds are conjoined and form the molecular ageregate, for it is an undoubted fact that HCl and H,SO, dissolve in water, forming ‘‘ hydrates.” This production of an “electrolytical system” from dielectrics is, I venture to think, the important question for chemists to consider. I do not 1 It is more than probable that the most nearly pure sulphuric acid which can be obtained is not homogeneous, but is at least a mixture of H,SO4, H,S,07 and “‘hydrated compounds” in proportions depending on the temperature, and hence that (pure) sulphuric acid, H.SOy, like water, would behave as a dielectric. : 5 ? On the other hand, it is remarkable that, whereas liquefied ammonia may be electrolysed, an aqueous solution of ammonia is a most imperfect con- ductor (Faraday, F. Kohlrausch), although solutions of ammonium salts compare favourably in conductivity with corresponding sodium and potassium salts. This fact serves somewhat to allay the suspicion that Bleekrode did not take sufficient precautions to dry the ammonia ; but his result cannot, I think, be accepted aS final, on account of the relatively high E.M.F. required, and the repetition of the experiment with every precaution to ensure purity of the gas is most important. Faraday regarded the decom- position of ammonia on electrolysis of its solution as merely the result of secondary action. Sept. 17, 1885 | NATURE 469 believe that we shall be able to state the exact conditions under which chemical change will take place until a satisfactory solution has been found. F. ‘Kohlrausch (Poge. Ann. 1876, 159, 233) has shown that, on adding sulphuric acid to water, the electric conductivity in- creases very rapidly until when about 30 per cent. of acid is present a maximum (6,914) is attained ; conductivity then dim- inishes almost as rapidly, and a minimum (913) is reached when the concentration corresponds with that of a monohydrate (H,SO,,0OH,) ; from this point conductivity increases some- what (to 1,031 at 92°r per cent. H,SO,), and then again falls, and is probably zero for the pure acid ; on adding sulphuric anhydride to the acid conductivity again increases. Solutions of other acids and of a number of salts—chiefly deliquescent and very soluble salts—also exhibit maximum conductivity at parti- cular degrees of concentration. In no other case has the ex- istence of two maxima, such as are observed in solutions of sulphuric acid, been established ; but probably this is because the experiments either have not been, or cannot well be, carried out with pure substances or very concentrated solutions. Solutions of less soluble salts increase in conductivity as the amount of salt dissolved increases. Kohlrausch has suggested, as an explanation of the influence of the ‘‘solvent ” on the conductivity of an ‘‘ electrolyte,” that in a solution the ions which are being transferred electrolytically come less frequently into collision than would be the case in the pure substance. There is therefore less opportunity for the for- mation of new molecules, and the ions are able to travel farther before entering into combination. Regarding the question from a chemist’s point of view, how- ever, I cannot help thinking that this explanation is scarcely satisfactory or sufficient ; but I cannot resist the feeling that the production of electrolytically conducting solutions from dielectrics is in some measure dependent upon the occurrence of chemical action. If the composition of the solutions of maximum con- ductivity be calculated,’ it will be seen that they contain but a limited number of water molecules ; thus the solution of sulphuric acid of maximum conductivity (at 18°) contains 30°4 per cent. of acid, and therefore has the composition H,SO4:12°4 H,O (approximately); for nitric acid the ratio is 1:8; for acetic acid it is about 1:17. Now, it is highly remarkable that the solutions of maximum: electric conductivity are also very nearly those in the formation of which nearly the maximum amount of heat is developed ; this will at once be obvious on comparison of the curves given by Thomsen (‘‘Thermochemische Unter- suchungen,” vol. iii.) and by Kohlrausch. In the chemist’s experience, the point of maximum heat development is usually near to the point of maximum chemical change, and I think, therefore, that we are justified in concluding that, even if electrical ‘conductivity be not a maximum at a particular con- centration on account of the presence of a particular hydrate (belonging to the class of molecular aggregates) in maximum amount, at all events the ‘structure ” of the system is especially favourable, and the ‘‘ chemical influence ”’ exerted by the one set of molecules upon the other is at a maximum at the point of maximum conductivity. The fact that the amount of sulphuric acid required to form a solution of maximum conductivity in- creases with temperature— C) Temp. fo) Per cent. TOM 20M ESOmm AO sms Ou (GOn—N7Oz Sore iol) Shelly Beaks GBS) SUE VISES GZ! and also the fact that the maxima and minima of conductivity tend to become obliterated with rise of temperature (Kohlrausch), are both in accordance with the view that conductivity is in some way dependent upon chemical composition, as the effect of rise of temperature would be to cause the dissociation of hydrates such as I have referred to. The increase in conductivity of aqueous solutions with rise of temperature would appear to be against the view here put forward ; but it is probable that this 1 Formula Formula Percent.in Compositionin Conductivity ‘ weight solution of approximate mol. max. cond, ratios HNO, 63 29°7 ie. 7330 HCl 30°4 18°3 biG Ae) 7174 H,SO, 98 30°4 1:12°4 6914 H3PO, 98 40'8 1-10) 1962 C,H,O, 60 16°6 mga 152 KOH 56 28°1 Ee 5995 NaOH 49 152 I: 12°7 3276 may be largely due to diminution in viscosity and increase in the rate of diffusion. Our knowledge of the binary metallic compounds, which are generally admitted to be electrolytes er se, also affords evidence, [ think, of an intimate relation between chemical constitution and *‘electrolysability.” It has been pointed out (comp. L. Meyer, “‘ Theorien d. mod. Chemie,” 4th ed. p. 554) that, whereas all the metallic chlorides and analogous compounds which cannot be electrolysed are easily-volatile bodies, the electrolysable metallic chlorides, &c., are fusible only at high temperatures. A careful discussion of the various known cases does not, however, justify the conclusion that decomposition takes place, or not, according as the temperature at which the body assumes the liquid state—-and at which, therefore, there is full opportunity given for electrolysis to take place—is high or low, especially as recent observations show that electrolysis may take place prior to fusion. But it is especially noteworthy that many of the chlorides, &c., which are electrolytes undoubtedly contain more than a single atom of metal in their molecules ; indeed, after careful consideration of the evidence, I am inclined to go so far as to put forward the hypothesis ¢hat among metallic com- pounds only those are electrolytes which contain more than a single atom of metal in their molecules. No difficulty will be felt in granting this of cuprous and stannous chlorides, and even of cadmium, lead, silver, and zinc chlorides; but opinions will differ as regards the metals of the alkalies and the alkaline earths.’ Assuming the constitution of metallic electrolytes to be such as I have suggested it is not improbable that on electrolysis a part only of the metal is determined to the one pole, the remainder being transferred along with the negative radical to the opposite pole. Hittorf, indeed, has already put forward this view in explanation of the remarkable results he obtained on determining the extent of transfer of the ions in aqueous and alcoholic solutions of the chloride and iodide of cadmium and zinc. Again, an argument in favour of a connection between chemical constitution and electrical conductivity is the fact that carbon, sulphur, selenium and fhosphorus each exist in conducting and non-conducting modifications, as it can scarcely be doubted that the so-called allotropic modifications of these elements are differently constituted. It appears, as I have already said, to be the current belief that when aqueous solutions are submitted to electrolysis, as a rule the dissolved substance, and not the water, is the actual electro- lyte. Without reference to the question I have raised as to the constitution of an electrolyte, it appears at least doubtful whether this view can be justified by appeal to known facts ; at all events, I have failed to find satisfactory evidence that such is the case. Moreover, as sulphuric anhydride dissolves in water with considerable development of heat, it would appear that more work has to be done to separate hydrogen from sulphuric acid than to separate it from water ; on this account we might expect that the water rather than the acid would be decomposed. Are not perhaps both affected according to the proportions in which they are present? The marked variation in the extent to which the negative ion is transferred to the positive pole, as observed by Hittorf, when solutions of different degrees of concentration are electrolysed, would appear to support this view. The difference in the products, according as dilute or very concentrated solutions of sulphuric acid are used, may also be cited as an argument that the chemical changes effected vary with the concentration ; but, on the other hand, it is quite possible that the observed differences may result from the occurrence of purely secondary changes. Ostwald has recently put forward the view that one or move of the hydrogen atoms of certain acids are split off according to the concentration of the solution. I call attention to this because I conceive that it has a most 1 We may regard as evidence in support of this explanation the fact that neither beryllium chloride, which fuses at 600°, nor mercuric chloride, is an electrolyte, as both of these, at temperatures not far removed from their boiling-points, exhibit the simplest possible molecular composition. It should be pointed out, however, that Nilson and Patterson found it possible to determine the density of beryllium and chloride gas at a temperature too’—r50° below the melting-point found by Carnelly; but they were not able to say that fusion took place. Clarke’s recent interesting observations on mercuric chloride and iodide do not, I think, suffice to prove that these compounds are electrolytes ; it is more than probable that electrolysis is preceded by the formation of mercurous compounds. Even an aqueous solution of mercuric chloride does not conduct appreciably better than water (Buff). I should parhaps add that the mere presence of more than a single atom of metal in the molecule does not, I believe, alone constitute the compound an electrolyte ; much depends probably both on the nature of the metal and on the structure of the molecule. 470 NALTORE 4 ea 7 [Sept. 17, 1885 important bearing on the discussion of the nature of the chemical changes which occur during the dissolution of metals. Formerly it was said that when zinc acts upon dilute sulphuric acid, the zinc displaces the hydrogen of the water and the resulting zinc oxide dissolves in the acid, forming zine sulphate ; the modern explanation advocated by most chemists has been that the metal directly displaces the hydrogen of the acid: in fact, that this is the nature of the change whenever an acid is acted upon by a metal. Ifin a solution of sulphuric acid, of whatever strength, the acid be the actual electrolyte, I imagine that we are right in accepting this modern view ; but if the water be the electrolyte, we must, to be consistent, return to the view that the oxide— more probably in most cases the hydroxide—is the primary pro- duct. And if it can be shown that during electrolysis both water and acid, according to circumstances—concentration, E. M. F., &c.—undergo change, it will be necessary to teach that in a similar manner the action of metals on acids is no less complex. Our views on the action of metals on concentrated sulphuric acid, and on solutions of nitric acid of various strength, must also materially depend on the interpretation of the behaviour of these acids on electrolysis with varying electromotive forces. Having thus fully explained why I venture to think that Helmholtz’s definition that ‘‘ electrolytes belong to the class of typical compounds, not to that of molecular aggregates,” is some- what open to question, it now becomes necessary to make some slight reference to the constitution of these so-called molecular aggregates. Although opinions differ widely as to the definition to be given of a typical or atomic compound, and of a molecular compound or aggregate, the majority of chemists appear to agree that we must recognise the existence of two distinct classes of compounds. Prof. Williamson, in his address to this Section at the York meeting (1881), entered at length into the discussion of this question, and in very forcible terms objected to the recog- nition of molecular combinations as something different from atomic combinations ; in this I, in the main, agree most fully with him. He further said that he had been led to doubt whether we have any grounds for assigning any limits whatever to atomic values, and he adduced a number of cases which, in his opinion, afforded illustration of a capability of elements to assume greater atomic values by combining with both negative and positive atoms than with atoms of one kind only ; for example, he cited the compouuds K,CuCl, and K,HgCl, as proof that copper and mercury may assume hexad functions ; the compound K,AglI, as an illustration that silver may act as a pentad ; and the compounds KAsF, and K,AsF, were regarded by him as evidence of the heptadicity and nonadicity of arsenic. I have long been of opinion that the experimental investigation of this question is of great importance, and I believe that it must ere long attract the attention it deserves. The problem will be solved, not by discussions on the fertile theme of valency, but by determining the structure—the constitution—of bodics such as were referred to by Prof. Williamson. My own view on the question is a very decided one. So far as the mere definition of valency is concerned, I entirely agree with Lossen; and, as I have said, I hold with Prof. Williamson that in all compounds the constituents are held together by atomic affinities, and atomic affinities only, but I believe that the forma- tion of so-called molecular compounds is mainly due to pecu- liarities inherent more especially in the negative elements—z.e. the non-metal; and metalloids and not in the positive elements— the metals ; in other words, to the fact that, as was first pointed out, I believe, by Lothar Meyer, the negative elements tend to exhibit a higher valency towards each other than towards posi- tive elements. The view I take, then, is, that in the majority of so-called molecular compounds the parent molecules are pre- served intact in the sense in which a hydrocarbon radical, such as ethyl, is preserved intact in an ethyl compound, being held together by the ‘‘surplus affinity” of the negative elements. Thus I would represent the compounds K,CuCi, and K,HgCl, as containing copper and mercury of the same valency as the metal in the parent chloride, and regard them. as compounds of the radicals (CuCl,), (HgCl,) and (KCl) ; a view which may be expressed by the formule Cl. CIK Cl .«GUS fic) oiKy We crson The arsenic compounds referred to may be similar] ; represented “ F,AsF . FK RyAsea ee We do not hesitate to attribute to the so-called double cyanides this order of structure, without in any way supposing that the metal changes in valency. Evidence that the ‘‘ constituent radi- cals exist unchanged in molecular compounds” is afforded by facts such as that ferrous and potassium chlorides, for example, form a compound which obviously is still ferrous, being of a green colour, which would hardly be the case if the valency of | the iron were increased ; and that in like manner the compounds formed from stannous chloride manifest all the properties of stannous derivatives. Whatever be the nature of chemical affinity, it is difficult to re ist the conclusion that the ‘‘ charge” of a negative radical especially is rarely, if ever, given up all at once, that its affinity is at once exhausted. It would also appear that the amount of residual charge—of surplus affinity—possessed by a radical after combination with others depends both on its own nature and that of the radical or radicals with which it becomes associated. Differences such as are observed in the composition and stability of the hydrates of the salts of an acid—the sulphate:, for ex- ample—clearly point to this. Other illustrations are afforded by the manner in which chlorhydric acid yield chlorhydrates of some metals and chlorides of others.! It is noteworthy, however, that often those elements which from the ordinary point of view are regarded as possessed of feeble affinities are those which manifest the greatest tendency to form molecular compounds. Thus it is commonly held that, of the three elements, chlorine, bromine and iodine, chlorine has the highest and iodine the lowest affinity, and this views accords well with the recent observations of V. Meyer on the relative stability of their diatomic molecules at high temperatures; but nevertheless we find that the compound which HI forms with PH, is far more stable than that of HBr or HCl with this gas; and it is well known that mercuric zodide has a much greater affinity for other iodides than have mercuric bromide and chloride for the corresponding bromides and chlorides.” The recognition of the peculiarity in the negative elements to which I would attribute the formation of molecular compounds must, I think, exercise an important influence in stimulating and directing the investigation of these compounds and of com- pounds other than those of carbon ; in the near future the deter- mination of the structure of such compounds should oceupy an im- portant share of the chemist’s attention. It will perhaps afford a clue in not a few cases which are not altogether satisfactorily inter- preted in accordance with the popular view of valency. I may in- stance the formation of (?) polymericimetaphosphates, of complex series of silicates and tungstates, and of compounds of hydrocar- bons with trinitrophenol. It may even serve to explain some of the peculiarities of the more complex carbohydrates. It is one of the most clearly established of the ‘‘laws of sub- stitution”? in carbon compounds that negative radicals tend to accumulate : numerous instances are afforded by the behaviour of paraffnoid compounds with chlorine, bromine and oxidising agents, and by that of unsaturated paraffinoid compounds when combining with hydrogen bromide and iodine. The special affinity of negative elements for negative is not improbably the cause of this accumulation. A similar explanation may perhaps be given of some of the peculiarities which are manifested by benzenoid compounds. I would even venture to suggest that in electrolysing solutions the friction arising from the attraction of the ions for each other is perhaps diminished, not by the mere mechanical interposition of the veutval molecules of the solvent—in the manner suggested by Kohlrausch—but by the actual attraction exercised by these molecules upon the negative ion in virtue of the affinities of the negative radicals. One result of increased attention being paid vo the investigation 1 The name chlorhydric acid is here applied to the compound HCKOH,), —probably x = 1—which, according to Thomsen, is present in an aqueous solution of hydrogen chloride. It would be an advantage if we ceased to speak of HF, HCI, HBr, HI, as acids, and always termed them hydrogen fluoride, chloride, bromide and iodide respectively. The names hydric chloride, bromide. &c., might with equal advantage be altogether abandoned ; hydrochloric acid is objectionable, as suggesting a relation to chloric acid. The names fluor-, chlor-, brom-, and iodhydric, as applied to the acids pre- sent in aqueous solutions of the hydrides, are especially appropriate as indi- cating that they are compounds containing the radical water—that they are hydrates : indeed, it would be well to restrict the use of hydric and hydro- to bodies of this kind, and to speak of hydrides as hydri-, not as hydro-, de- rivatives. It would then be possible to give comparatively simple names even to complex hydrates. 7 2 Yhomsen gives the values in heat units as— HGCl,,2KClAq = 1380 . HgBr,,2KBrAqg = 1640 HglI.,2K1Aq = 345° HgCy.,2KCyAq = 8830 Sept. 17, 1885 | of problems such as I have indicated will probably be that we shall be called upon to abandon some even of our most cherished notions. I would suggest, for example, that it may become necessary to regard nitrogen peroxide not as a mixed anhydride of nitrous and nitric acids, but as a compound of two NO, groups ; its conversion into nitrite and nitrate affords no proof of its constitution, as chlorine peroxide, ClO,, which ex- hibits no tendency whatever to combine with itself, also yields both chlorite and chlorate. A greater shock may result from a conviction arising that not only carbon dioxide, but sulphur dioxide, and perhaps even sulphur trioxide, dissolve in water, forming hydrates—SO,'OH,, SOs°OH,—not Aydroxides. recent times, in discussing questions of this kind, we have perhaps often been led to attach too much importance to the argument from analogy ; it is not improbable that, especially in the case of compounds other than those of carbon, chemical change involves | change in structure more frequently than we are apt to believe. It is possible that a precise estimate of what, for want of a better name, I have spoken of as residual affinity, may sooner or later be obtained, if the view Prof. Lodge has propounded in his paper ‘‘ On the Seat of the Electromotive Forces in a Voltaic Cell” be correct, that the cause of the volta effect is the Zez- dency to chemical action between the bodies in contact ; that, for example, chemical strain at the air-contacts is the real cause of | the apparent contact-force at the junction of two metals in air. Prof. I odge, if I understand his argument, appears to assume that the air effects are in some way dependent on the presence of ““dissociated oxygen atoms.” I think this is probably an entirely unnecessary assumption; of late years, no doubt, it has been the fashion to attribute the occurrence of changes of various kinds to the ;resence of products of dissociation, but probably to a very unnecessary extent. Recent investigations to which T have alluded show that there are other factors of extreme im- portance: for example, that water must be present in order to render a mixture of carbonic oxide and oxygen explosive. Again, the observations of V. Meyer and Langer have shown that, whereas chlorine zie/ently attacks platinum at low temperature-, it is wethout action wpon it at temperatures between about 300° and 1300°, but then agai begins to act upon it, the action be- coming violent at 1600° to17c0°. I have little doubt that the action at Jow temperatures is dependent upon the presence of moisture ; if it were due to dissociated chlorine atoms, the action should increase with rise of temperature without break. In short, I see no reason to assume that oxygen at ordinary tem- peratures consists of other than diatomic molecules.1 Assuming Prof. Lodge’s view to be correct, the strain exists in virtue of the attraction which the oxygen molecules exert upon the metal molecules. On this assumption I can well understand that the method of calculation followed by Prof. Lodge will not uni- formly lead to satisfactory results. The ‘‘ heat of combination ” is not necessarily a measure of ‘‘affinity.” The values are in all cases algebraic sums of a series of values, scarcely one of which is known, and, as I have already pointed out, the affinities of the molecules are by no means always of the same order as the affinities of the constituent atoms ; for example, in all probability, oxygen stuff has a higher absolute affinity than sulphur stuff ; chlorine stuff a higher absolute affinity than iodine stuff; yet iodine and sulphur compounds, more often than not, seem to exhibit more residual affinity than chlorine and oxygen compounds. So that, from Prof. Lodge’s point of view, chlorine would have the higher and iodine the lower contact values ; whereas from my point of view the reverse might often be the case. I point this out because it appears to me that we here have an opportunity of testing the question experimentally, and seeing that it is possible practically to prevent chlorine from attacking metals by excluding moisture, I do not take the hope- less view that Prof. Lodge and others seem to hold regarding the possibility of settling the important question of pure contact versus chemical action by appeal to experiment. I may also point out that according to my hypothesis it is possible that the metals may exert a considerable attraction for each other, especially those having monatomic molecules :? many alloys are * This conclusion would also lead me to disbelieve entirely in the explana- tion which Clausius has given of electrolysis. ? Assuming that the heat absorbed in raising the temperature of a solid is mainly expended in overcoming intermolecular attraction, the high ‘‘ atomic heat” of metals may be regarded as evidence that their molecules powerfully _ attract each other, and hence that their molecular composition is relatively simple ; and on this view the ‘‘atomic heat” of carbon and of a number of other non-metals and of some metalloids is low owing to the extent to which the “‘affinity ” of the atoms is, as it were, exhausted in the formation of their molecules. Comparison of the ‘‘molecular heats” of chlorides and In NATORE 471 undoubtedly compounds ; possibly not a few are compounds of the ‘‘ molecular aggregate” class.! To return now for but a few moments to the subject of chemical change and its intimate connection with electrical phenomena. One application I would make of the views here put forward would be to explain the superior activity of bodies in the wascent state, and in particular of nascent hydrogen. Briefly stated, I believe it to consist in the fact that nascent hydrogen is hydrogen in circuit—hydrogen in electrical contact with the substance to be acted upon. The experiments of Faraday and of Grove afford the clearest evidence that in order to bring about action between hydrogen and oxygen at ordinary temperatures it is merely necessary to make them elements in a voltaic circuit. The difference in the effects produced by “nascent hydrogen” from different sources is, I imagine, attributable to the variations in E.M.F., which necessarily attend variations in the constituent elements of the circuit. It is not so easy, however, as yet to explain some of the changes which take place at high temperatures. Mr. Dixon’s experiments have proved that a mixture of carbonic oxide and oxygen is non-explosive, but that explosion takes place i- moisture be present, the velocity of the explosive wave dependf ing upon the amount of water present. When the mixture of the two gases is ‘‘ sparked,” change takes place, but only in the path of the discharge. Mr. Dixon considers ‘* that the carbonic oxide becomes oxidised at the expense of the water, the hydrogen set free then becoming reoxidised. M. Traube, who in a series of papers has called attention to the importance of water in promoting oxidation, has suggested that the oxygen and carbonic oxide together act on the water, forming hydrogen peroxide and carbonic acid: CO + 20H, + O, = CO(OH), + H,O,; and that the peroxide then reacts with carbonic oxide to form car- bonic acid: CO + O,H, = CO(OH),. The carbonic acid, of course, is resolved into carbon dioxide and water (Berichze, 1885, p. 1890). Traube actually shows that traces of hydrogen peroxide are formed during the combustion. It appears to me that the water may exercise the same kind of action as it (or rather dilute sulphuric acid) exercises in a Grove’s gas battery, and that its hydrogen does not become free in any ordinary sense. The pro- duction of hydrogen peroxide is not improbably due to a secondary simultaneous change. Unlike a mixture of carbonic oxide and oxygen, a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen is violently explosive. If we assume that in both cases the reacting molecules are electrolysed by the very high E.M.F. employed, and that the atoms then combine, it is difficult to explain the difference in the results. Does it arise from the fact that hydrogen is an altogether peculiar element ? Or are we to attribute it to an influence which water itself exer- cises upon the formation of water from hydrogen and oxygen— as in the Grove gas battery? It is noteworthy that the velocity of the explosive wave in electrolytic gas, according to Berthelot and Vielle, is a close approximation to the mean velocity of translation of the molecules in the gaseous products of combus- tion calculated from the formula of Clausius (H. B. Dixon, Phil, Trans., 1884, p. 636). And this is also true of mixtures of carbonic oxide and oxygen, and of nitrous oxide and oxygen with hydrogen. May we therefore assume, as the velocity corresponds with that of the products, that the water exercises the important office of inducing change throughout the mass, and not that the hydrogen is peculiar? I am tempted here to suggest that perhaps the ‘‘induction” observed by Bunsen and Roscoe in a mixture of chlorine and hydrogen is due to the occurrence of a change in which a something is produced which then promotes reaction between the two gases. I here assume that there would he no action between the pure gases. If I have allowed myself to flounder in among these difficult questions, it is not because I feel that I am justified in speaking similar compounds with those of the oxides lends much support to this view, as we have reason to believe that the chlorides—which have high ‘“‘ molecular heats ””—are of relatively simple molecular composition, and that the oxides —which have low “‘ molecular heats”—are of relatively complex molecular composition. * ‘The study of alloys from this point of view will probably furnish inter- esting results. It is noteworthy that the contact difference of potential of brass is less than that of copper, and much less than that of zinc, with the same solution, in all the cases quoted by Ayrton and Perry ; thus— Zinc Copper Brass Alum... = —"536 volt. —"127 chi —"org Sea salt —"565 5, —"475 —"435 Sal ammoniac —"637 4, —*596 —"348 It is especially important to examine the copper-tin alloys, which vary in electrical conductivity in so remarkable a manner, 472 NATURE | Sept. 17, 1885 with authority, but in the hope that I may be the ‘‘ fool,” and that the ‘‘angels” who are well able to discuss them will be led to do so without delay: for chemists are anxiously awaiting guidance on matters such as I have referred to. Attention must, however, be directed to the study of electrical phenomena by the recent publications of Arrhenius and of Ostwald (fournal fiir praktische Chemie,” 1884, 30, 93, 225 ; 1885, 31, 219, 433), and especially by the statement put forward by the latter that the rate of change under the influence of acids (in hydrolytic changes) is strictly proportional to the electrical conductivities of the acids. There cannot be a doubt that these investigations are of the very highest importance. I trust that in the discussions which we are to have on molecular weights of liquids and solids, and on electrolysis, there may be a free exchange of opinion on some of the points here raised. My reason for selecting these subjects for discus- sion in this Section will have been made sufficiently clear, I imagine. Last year in the Physical Section the idea assumed shape which had long been latent in the minds of many members of the Association, that it is unadvisable, as a rule, to encourage the reading of abstract papers, which rarely are, or can be, discussed. Two important discussions were ¢xtroduced by Profs. Lodge and Schuster. We must all cordially agree with Prof. Lodge’s remarks on the importance of discussing subjects of general interest at these meetings. It appears to me, how- ever, that even a more important work may often be accom- plished if the discussion consist of a series of papers which together forin a monograph of the subject. I have endeavoured to carry this idea into practice on the present occasion, and a number of friends have most kindly consented to assist. Un- expected difficulties have arisen, and probably we shall none o us succeed in doing all we might wish. I trust, however, that the Section will approve of this first attempt sufficiently to justify my successors in this chair in adopting a similar course. I much regret that it is impossible for me to attempt any re- view of recent work in chemistry. Not a few really important discoveries might be chronicled, and the patient industry of many who have toiled long to win results apparently insignificant should have been mentioned with high approval. A few remarks I will crave permission for, as regarding the general character of the work being done by chemists, and regarding that which has to be done. Complaints are not unfrequently made in this country that a large proportion of the published work is of little value, and that chemists are devoting themselves too exclusively to the study of carbon compounds, and especially of synthetical che- mistry. We are told that investigation is running too much in a few grooves, and it is said that we are gross worshippers of formule. Most of these outbursts are attributable to that par- donable selfishness which consists in assigning a higher value to the particular class of work with which one happens to be en- gaged or interested in than to any other line of investigation ; too frequently they result from want of sympathy with, if not absolute ignorance of, the scope and character of the work com- plained of. It must not be forgotten that chemical investigation, like other investigation, is to a large extent the work of genius ; the rank and file must necessarily follow in the order of their abilities and opportunities ; hence it is that we work in grooves. The attention paid to the study of carbon compounds may be more than justified both by reference to the results obtained and to the nature of the work before us: the inorganic kingdom refuses any longer to yield up her secrets—new elements—except after severe compulsion ; the organic kingdom, both animal and vegetable, stands ever ready before us; little wonder, then, if problems directly bearing upon life prove the more attractive to the living. The physiologist complains that probably 95 per cent. of the solid matters of living structures are pure unknowns to us, and that the fundamental chemical changes which occur during life are entirely enshrouded in mystery. It is in order that this may no longer be the case that the study of carbon compounds is being so vigorously prosecuted: our weapons— the knowledge of synthetical processes and of ehemical function —are now rapidly being sharpened, but we are yet far from ready for the attack. As to the value of this work, I believe that every fact honestly recorded is of value ; an infinite number of examples might be quoted to prove this. No unprejudiced reader can but be struck also with the improvement in quality which is manifest in the majority of the investigations now pub- lished ; at no time was more attention given to the discovery of ull the products of the reactions studied, and to the determination of the influence of changes in the conditions. As regards our formulze, those who look upon the outward visible form without proper knowledge of the facts symbolised, and who take no pains to appreciate the spirit in which they are conceived, are undoubtedly misled by them, The great outcome of the labours of carbon-chemists has been, however, the establishment of the doctrine of structure;1 that doctrine has received the most powerful support from the investigation of physical properties, and it may almost, without exaggeration, be said to have been rendered visible in Abney and Festing’s infra-red spectrum photo- graphs. Some of us look forward to the extension of the doctrine of structure not only to compounds generally, but even to the ‘‘elements.” The relationships between these are in so many cases so exactly similar to those which obtain between carbon compounds, which we are persuaded differ merely in structure, that it is almost impossible to avoid such a conclusion, even in the absence of all laboratory evidence.” As the field of view opens out before us, so does the vastness of the work to be accomplished become more and more apparent ; and Faraday’s words of 1834 may be quoted as even more appropriate than half a century ago. “Indeed, it is the great beauty of our science, Chemistry, that advancement in it, whether in a degree great or small, instead of exhausting the subjects of research, opens the door to further and more abundant knowledge, overflowing with beauty and utility, to those who will be at the easy personal pains of under- taking its experimental investigation. SECTION C GEOLOGY OPENING ADDRESS BY PROF. J. W. Jupp, F.R.S., Sec. G.S., PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION 3 CONCERNING the overlying formation of quartzites and lime- stones, much yet remains to be made out. Nicol, Lapworth, and the officers of the Geological Survey, have shown it to be made up of three principal members—the identity of which can- not be mistaken although different names have been assigned to them. While Nicol estimated the total thickness of this forma- tion at from 300 to 800 feet, however, and Lapworth places it at the smaller of these amounts, the officers of the Survey believe it to be no less than 2,000 feet thick. Eyen greater uncertainty still exists as to the exact geological age of this important formation. Murchison, who in his later years made ‘ Silurian” a mere synonym for Lower Palzeozoic, was no doubt right in regarding these rocks as being of that age. I have no intention of attempting to flog that dead horse—the controversy concerning the names which should be applied to the great systems containing the three faunas which Barrande so well showed to be present in the Lower Palzeozoic rocks. That controversy, commencing, it must be confessed, with some tragic elements, has long since passed into the sphere of comedy, and now bids fair, if still persisted in, to degenerate into farce. Little, if anything, has been added to the work of Salter in con- nection with these fossils of the Durness limestone. With their abundance of that remarkable and aberrant mollusc, Aaclurea, they can be paralleled with no other British or even European deposit, unless it be the Stinchar limestone of the Girvan district. Salter thought that this remarkable Scotch formation had its nearest analogues in the Calciferous sandstone and the Chazy limestone of North America. As those rocks contain *‘ Primord- ial” forms of ;Trilobites, they must probably be regarded as either of Cambrian age, or as constituting a link between the rocks containing Barrande’s first and second faunas respectively. Under these circumstances, it is a piece of welcome intelligence that the officers of the Geological Survey have succeeded in ob- taining a rich and varied collection of organic remains from the beds of Sutherland ; and the results of the examination and dis- cussion of these fossils will be awaited by all geologists with the greatest interest. Whether, as in the case of Scandinavia, other fossiliferous * I venture here to direct attention to an extension of the acknowledged theory of structure suggested (by myself, I may say) at the close of the discus- sion of the van ’t Hoff-Le Bel hypothesis of isomerism in Miller's “ Chemistry,” vol. iii., 1880 edition, p. 993. The same view was soon afterwards inde- pendently put forward by Dr. Perkin * F. Exner, in a recent paper (Wonatshe/te fiir Chemie, 1885, p. 249), ‘On a New Method of Determining the Size of Molecules,” actually puts forward an hypothesis as to the structure of elements. 3 Continued from p. 458. Sept. 17, 1885 | NATURE 473 deposits of Silurian age will be found to be represented in a highly metamorphosed condition in our Scottish Highlands, remains to be discovered. There is such a perfect parallelism between the several members of the Silurian in Scania and in the Scottish Borderland, so well shown by the researches of Linnarson and Lapworth, that, as Nicol always anticipated, we may not im- probably find a portion of the rocks cf the Highlands to be altered forms of those of the Borderland. Since the last meeting of the British Association in the High- lands, much progress has been made in the study of that pre- eminently British formation—the Old Red Sandstone. Dr. Archibald Geikie has thrown much new light, by his valuable researches, on the relations of the several members of the vast series of deposits which go by that name ; while Dr. Traquair, bringing to bear on the subject great anatomical knowledge, has re-examined the collections of fossil-fish made by that indefatig- able explorer, Hugh Miller. The Old Red Sandstone is the only great system of strata which we possess, while it is either wholly absent, or very imperfectly represented, in Scandi- navia. In the year 1876, I was able to announce that a vestige—a small but highly interesting vestige—of the great Carboniferous system exists within the limits of the Scottish Highlands. Well do I recall the deep, the ineffaceable impression made upon my mind when, standing at the Innimore of Ardtornish, I beheld for the first time this relic of a great formation, preserved by such a wonderful series of accidents. What the inscribed stone of Rosetta or the papyri of Herculaneum are to the archzologist, this little patch of sandstone is to the geologist. Overwhelmed by successive lava-streams that were piled upon one another to the depth of many hundreds of feet, and then carried down by a fault which buried it at least two thousand feet in the bowels of the earth, this fragment has remained while every other trace of the formation has been swept from the Highlands by the besom of denudation. Highly interesting and important in these northern areas are the Mesozoic deposits, which in places attain a vertical thickness of several miles, and which must have originally covered.enormous tracts of country. Now, judged by that very fallacious test, the space which they cover upon our geological maps, they appear in the Scottish Highlands to be absolutely insignificant. The correspondence in characters between the several Second- ary formations on the two sides of the North Sea is of a most striking kind. I have had the good fortune to study the Second- ary rocks of Scania under the guidance and with the assistance of Professor Lundgren, of the University of Lund, who has made so many important discoveries in connection with them. While doing so, I have again and again felt almost constrained to pause and rub my eyes, to convince myself that I was not back again in Scotland—so complete is the correspondence between the mineral characters, the fossils, and the geognostic relations of these strata in the two areas. The Triassic rocks of Scandinavia, consisting of variegated sandstones and conglomerates, containing much calcareous ma- terial, are absolutely undistinguishable from those of the Western Highlands. In both countries the thickness of the deposits of this age varies within very short distances, their development being local and inconstant. The formation which in places exceeds a thousand feet in thickness, at other points is reduced to an insignificant band of conglomerate. On the eastern flank of our Highlands, yellow sandstones belonging to this formation have yielded to Mr. Duff, Dr. Gordon, Mr. Grant, and others that interesting series of reptilian remains which, in the hands of Professor Huxley, have been made to throw such important light on the forms of life which existed at that remote geological period. In the very similar deposits which occur in Scandinavia, however, reptilian remains have not as yet been obtained. The abundance and variety in form and size of the footprints which occur in our Scottish rocks of this age indicate the richness of the vertebrate fauna which must have existed at that distant epoch. On both sides of the North Sea, the Triassic rocks are found passing up insensibly into the great formation known as the Rheetic and {nfralias—a formation imperfectly represented in England and Central Europe by a few thin and insignificant Strata, but in our Highland districts attaining a vast thickness and exhibiting a magnificent development. This system of strata consists of alternation of marine and estuarine deposits, the latter containing in both areas thinseams of coal. In Scania, the working of the coal and fire-clays of these deposits has brought to ight vast numbers of fossil plants, which have been so well described by Nathorst. Several very distinet floras, occurring at different horizons, have been made out, and the relations of the beds containing these floras to one another, and to the marine strata with which they are intercalated, have been clearly demonstrated by the researches of Hébert, Erdmann, and Lundgren. That similar rich stores of fossil plants would reward a search as skilful and persevering as that made by our Scandi- navian brethren, if carried on in the equivalent strata of Scotland, there can be little doubt. The whole of the vast Jurassic system in these northern lati- tudes, attaining a thickness of 3,000 or 4,000 feet, appears to be similarly made up of alternations of marine and estuarine strata. ‘lime would fail me to indicate even in the briefest manner the numerous problems of the highest interest suggested by the study of these vast deposits. At many different horizons, beds of coal anda the relics of a rich terrestrial vegetation abound. Most of these await careful study and description. So far as they are yet known, the Ferns, the Cycads, and the Conifers of the Jurassic rocks of the Highlands present wonderful resemblances with those described by Heer from strata of the same age in Norway, in Russia, in Siberia, and even far away in the Arctic regions. ‘lhe marine forms occurring in the associated strata seem to indicate that they belong to an ancient life-province, distinct from those in which the Jurassic rocks of Central and af Southern Europe were deposited. In the Upper Jurassic, so well represented in Sutherland by strata not less than 1,009 feet in thickness, we find evidence of the existence rof mighty rivers, the banks of which, though clothed with tree ferns, Cycads, and gigantic pines, yet at certain seasons must have borne down ice-buoyed blocks _of vast dimensions. That the succeeding Neocomian period was for Scandinavia and Scotland an epoch of elevation and of the prevalence of terrestrial conditions is indicated by the total absence of any trace of marine deposits of this age, no less than by the enormous denudation which can be shown to have followed the Jurassic and preceded the Cretaceous period. Our now ruined mountain- chain then probably formed the lofty watershed of a great con- tinent, through which flowed the mighty rivers that formed the deltas known as the English and German Wealdens. How powerful and prolonged were the agencies of sub-aérial waste during this period is shown by the fact that the relics of the Cretaceous formation are found resting in turn on every member of the Jurassic, the Rheetic, the Trias, and all the differ- ent Paleozoic and Archzean rocks. A great portion, indeed, of the thick and widespread Rheetic and Jurassic strata seems to have been removed by denudation before the commencement of the Cretaceous period. That thick strata of chalk once covered large areas of the Scott- ish Highlands and of Scandinayia we have the clearest proofs. In Scania and the adjoining parts of Denmark deposits of this age are found let down by tremendous faults, and these include eyen younger members of the series than are anywhere found in England. In the West of Scotland I have shown that thin de- posits of Cretaceous age, preserved to us by a wonderful series of accidents, still survive the tremendous denudation of the Tertiary periods. It is true that in Scandinavia and Scotland alike, the chalk alternates with sandstones and even with strata of estuarine origin, but the pure foraminiferal-rock that occurs in both areas could have been formed in no very shallow sea. That before the commencement of the great Tertiary denudation large areas, in Scandinavia and Scotland alike, must have been swathed in winding sheets of chalky rock there cannot be the smallest doubt. That considerable portions of these winding-sheets remained to so late a period as the glacial is shown by the fact that the in- destructible flints of the chalk with the rocks and fossils of the upper greensand abound in your boulder-clays of Aberdeenshire and Banffshire. Of the vast periods of the Tertiary we have left to us, either in the Highlands or Scandinavia, but few and insignificant relics in the form of stratified deposits. In our beautiful Western Isles and in Antrim the laya poured out in successive streams, during enormous periods of time, from the lofty volcanic cones of the earlier Tertiary epoch, has here and there buried patches of lake-mud, or river-gravel, or ancient soils. But everywhere, alike in the Highlands and in Scandinavia, we behold the most impressive evidences of the sub-aérial waste, and of the elevation that promoted this waste during the Tertiary epoch. Among such evidences we may reckon the circumstance that all traces of the vast deposits of the Secondary periods have been relent- lessly stripped away from the country, except where buried 474 NATURE ° 4 [ Sept. 17, 1885 deeply by gigantic earth-throes, or sealed up under massive lava-streams. Down to post-glacial times Scotland, and what are now its outlying islands, remained united with Scandinavia. I need not remind you how, during the glacial period, they were the scene of a similar succession of events ; while from their then far more elevated mountain summits streams of glacier-ice flowed down and relieved the mantle of snow which enveloped them. But at a very recent geological period, and indeed since the adpearance of man in this part of our globe, the separation of the two areas, so long united, was brought about. In the district now constituting the North Sea, which separates the two countries, great faults, originating in the Tertiary epoch, appear to have let down wide tracts of the softer Secondary strata among the harder crystalline rock-masses. The numerous changes of level, of which we find such abundant evidence around the shores of this sea, facilitated the wearing away of the whole of these softer Secondary deposits, except the slight fringes that remain along the shores of Sutherland, Ross, and Cromarty, on the one hand, and the isolated patches forming Scania, Jutland, and the sur- rounding islands on the other. Little could the Vikings, as they sailed over this shallow sea, have imagined that their predecessors in these regions were able to roam on foot from Norroway to Suderey ! It is almost impossible to over-estimate the effects produced by the several denudations to which Scandinavia and the Scottish Highlands have been successively subjected. In that which occurred during the later Tertiary periods, almost every portion of the non-crystalline rocks that rose above the sea-level was either entirely removed or converted into level plains, which, covered with drift deposits, now form districts like Scania and Denmark. Where, as in the great central valley of Scotland, hard volcanic masses are associated with the softer sedimentary rocks, the former are left rising as picturesque crags, standing boldly up above the general level, while the latter are worn down and buried under drift. In the west of Scotland a chain of volcanic mountains, with summits towering to the height of from ten to fifteen thousand feet, have been reduced by this same denudation to basal-wrecks, the highest portions of which attain to but little more than 3,000 feet above the sea-level ! During the grea* elevation and denudation which marked the Neocomian period, thousands of feet of strata must have been removed over wide areas, as is proved by the wonderful overlap of the Cretaceous beds on all the older strata. Of the enormous sub-aérial waste which went on in these Northern Alps during the Newer Palzeozoic periods we have impressive evidence in the vast masses of the Old Red Sandstone and Carboniferous rocks—themselves only a series of fragments that have survived the later denudations—for these rocks are built up of the materials derived from our Northern Alps. The Torridon Sandstone is the monument, and a very striking monument too, of another and still earlier period of enormous denudation. The thousands of feet of conglomerate and sand- stone of which it is made up consist of the disintegrated crystals of granites and gneisses that have been swept away. When we penetrate towards the axis of this eroded mountain- chain, the proofs of the magnitude of these denudations become even more striking and impressive. Here we see, towering aloft, the ruined buttresses of vast roc’sy arches, that when complete must have risen miles above the present surface ; there we find, lying side by side, rock-masses that could only have been brought together by displacements of tens of thousands of feet; yet so complete has been the planing down of the surface since, that it requires the most careful study even to detect the almost obli- terated traces of these grand movements. The Alps and the Himalayas, durinz their elevation, have suffered enormous waste and denudation ; but if the elevation were to cease and the waste to go on till these magnificent mountain-chains were reduced to masses of diminutive peaks, ranging from 2,000 to 8,000 feet in height, we should then have the counterpart of this stupendous ruin of the mountain-chain of the north. The history of the series of successive movements to which the rock-masses of our Highlands have been subjected is one well worthy of the most attentive study. When the evidence bearing upon the subject is carefully sifted and weighed, we become convinced of the fact that many of these movements— including some on a prodigious scale—must have taken place during what we are commonly accustomed to regard as com- paratively recent geological periods. On the eastern coast of Sutherland, a mass of Secondary rocks, including several thousands of feet of Triassic, Rheetic, and Jurassic strata, has been let down by a gigantic fault, so as to be placed in juxtaposition with the Old Red Sandstone and the crystalline rocks. Now, taking the very lowest estimates of the thicknesses of the several strata affected, the vertical “‘throw’’ of this fault must have exceeded a mile! It may not improbably,. indeed, have been at least double or treble that amount! Yet this great dislocation was certainly produced at a later date than the Upper-Jurassic period, for rocks of that age are found to be affected by it. Along the coasts of the Black Isle, strata of Middle and Upper Jurassic age are similarly found faulted against the ‘* Old Red” and the crystalline rocks. On the other side of the North Sea, in Ando, one of the Lofoten Isles, a patch of Lower-Oolite strata, consisting of marine and estuarine strata, and including beds of coal like that of Brora, is found let down by gigantic faults into the very heart of the crystalline rocks of the district. In Scania, the whole of the Secondary rock-masses owe their preservation in the same way to a plexus of tremendous faults, by which they have been entangled among the harder rocks. ‘These faults have affected not only the Jurassic strata, but even the very youngest members of the Cretaceous series. Nor are we without evidence that some of the great faults are of post-Cretaceous age, in this country, for in the Western High- lands displacements of several thousands of feet have been detected, which affect not only the Upper Cretace us, but also the Older Tertiary rocks. The effects produced by these great dis’ ocations, which have a generally parallel direction in our Highlaids, from north-east to south-west, are of the most startling character. Great strips of Triassic and Old Red Sandstone strata, like those of Elgin, and Turriff, and Yomintoul, and of the line of the Caledonian Canal, are found let down among the crystalline rocks by these gigantic faults. The great central valley of Scotland itself consists of masses of Newer Paleozoic strata, faulted down between the harder Archean and Lower Palaeozoic rocks, which form the High- lands on the one hand, and the Borderland on the other. The evidences of the existence of these great faults were collected by many of the older Scottish geologists, like Lan- dale, Bald, Chalmers, Milne-Hoem, and Nicol; and the accurate mapping of the country by the officers of the Geological Survey has, on the whole, tended to confirm their results. With regard to the age of these great dislocations of Central Scotland, it can only be certazndy affirmed that they are of more recent date than the youngest Carboniferous strata ; but I have long believed that, like many similar dislocations both in our own Highlands and in Scandinavia, they are really post- Cretaceous. Less difficulty perhaps will be found in accepting this appa- rently startling conclusion, when we remember that a complicated series of fractures injected by the lavas of the Great Tertiary volcanic foci of the West, extend right across the Highlands, the central valley, and the Borderlands of Scotland, and even traverse the whole series of the Secondary rocks in the North of England. The indications of the tremenlous manifestations of subter- ranean energy, to which these great dislocations owe their origin, are sometimes of a very striking kind. For hundreds of yards on either side of the faults, the two sets of strata are found bent and crumpled, and not unfrequently crushed into the finest dust (‘‘fault-rock”’). In the case of the great Sutherland-fault, to which I have previously alluded, we have a beautiful illustra- tion of the way in which mineral veins may originate along such lines of fissure, for in the interstices of the granite of the Ord, where it has been broken up along this certainly post-Jurassic, and probably Tertiary fault, fluor-spar and pyrites have been deposited in large quantities. ‘ It is impossible to study the tremendous movements and dis- locations, and the enormous amount of denudation which have taken place in the Highlands and surrounding districts during Tertiary times, without being convinced that all the existing surface-features of the country must date from a comparatively recent period, The vast movements which have placed soft and hard masses in opposition along certain parallel lines—generally ranging in a north-east and south-west direction—and the denu- dation which has worn away the former, while it has left the latter standing in relief, must, I believe, both be referred to the Tertiary period ; though the disposition of rock-masses brought Sept. 17, 1885 | NATURE 475 about by earlier movements would of course exercise a certain though subordinate influence in producing the existing forms of the surface of the country. At the close of the Jurassic period, and before the commence- ment of the Cretaceous, during the vast epoch marked by the deposition of the Neocomian of Southern Europe, a series of disturbances similar to those of the Tertiary, and scarcely inferior in their consequences, can be shown to have taken place. If the movements of the Scandinavian and Scottish rock- masses which took place in the Tertiary and Mesozoic periods respectively were so startling in their magnitude and so vast in their effects, what shall we say concerning those far greater dis- turbances which affected the same area towards the close of the Older Paleozoic and the beginning of the Newer Palzeozoic, when this Northern Alps was still a living and growing mountain- chain ? These movements, in which both the Archzan and the Older- Palzozcic rocks are found to be involved, have resulted in the production, through enormous lateral pressure, of those reversed faults, caused by the disruption along their axial planes of greatly inclined and compressed folds, as so well described by Rogers. Dr. Archibald Geikie assures us that the studies of the geological surveyors in North-West Sutherland led to the con- clusion that certain masses of rock have thus been carried almost horizontally over others, along these ‘‘ thrust-planes” for a dis- tance of at least ten miles. As the result of these tremendous lateral compressions, thin beds of limestone and quartzite, which have sufficiently definite characters to permit of their recognition, may be seen in Assynt, and in other parts of the Western High- lands, to be so repeated again and again by crumpling and fault- ing, that they have been regarded as deposits of enormous thickness ; while, on the other hand, massive formations have been crushed and rolled out, thereby acquiring a laminated structure like so much pie-crust. Great portions of rock-masses, which, like the much-discussed ‘* Logan-rock,” have been nipped between gigantic faults, show evidence under the microscope of having been crushed to powder and subsequently reconsolidated, while the surfaces of the ‘‘thrust-planes”’ sometimes exhibit the phenomena known as ‘‘slickensides” on the most gigantic scale. As we pass away from the central axis of this old mountain- chain, however, these complicated puckerings and dislocations pass gradually into more ordinary folds and faults, just as is the case with the Appalachians. The oft-repeated undulations of the Lower Paleozoic strata of the Borderland, so admirably described by Professor Lapworth, bear the same relation to the far more involved disturbances of rocks of the same age in the Highlands, which the foldings of the strata in the Jura do to the intense crumplings of those of the Alps; and these in turn pass insensibly into the slightly undulating or horizontal strata of the -southern half of this island. We may perhaps add another comparison between the existing mountain-chain of Southern Europe and the ‘ basal wreck ” of Northern Europe, one which I find has been already suggested by Professor Bonney. The Miocene Conglomerates, which in the Rigi and other flanking mountain masses of the Alpine chain are found piled to the depth of many thousands of feet, seem to be exactly represented in its prototype by the vast masses of the ‘* Old-Red ” Conglomerate. Vast as were the three series of movements to which I have been referring, I believe that the Scandinavian and Highland rocks bear the impress of a still grander series of di turbances than either of these—one at the same time of older date and far more universal in its effects. Many writers have treated of the great divisional planes, al- most everywhere conspicuous in the Highland rock-masses, as being necessarily coincident with planes of sedimentation. It is manifest, indeed, that the tracing of sequences and unconformi- ties among such rocks must proceed upon the assumption that the planes of foliation and stratification ave coincident. Murchi- son and Geikie so fully recognised the fact that this proposition lay at the very root of their arguments concerning a Highland succession, that they added a supplement to their paper to illustrate and enforce it. It must not be forgotten, however, that the truth of this pro- position has not only been doubted, but has heen stoutly con- tested by many of the most profound thinkers on geological questions, q As long ago as 1822, Professor Henslow, ina very remarkable paper, showed that the rocks of Anglesea are traversed by a system of divisional planes, which intersect the bedding at a very high angle, and must have been produced long subsequently to the latter ; and in 1835 Professor Sedgwick extended the obser- vations and enforced the arguments of Henslow. At an even earlier date, Poulett Scrope had shown, by his study of viscous lavas, that the planes along which crystalline action takes place are determined by pressure and strain ; and he insisted that the foliation of metamorphic masses was a phenomenon strictly analogous to the banding of rhyolitic lavas. Charles Darwin, the pupil of Henslow and the friend of Poulett Scrope—whose labours in the geological field would perhaps have met with fuller recognition had they not been overshadowed by his still greater achievements in the world of biological thought—strongly maintained the truth of these views. He added the important observation that, in the South American continent, the planes of foliation are seen everywhere, over enormous areas, to be parallel to those of cleavage ; and that these latter are of secondary origin and due to lateral pres- sure, the observations of Sharpe and the experiments of Sorby have convincingly demonstrated. That the schists and gneisses of our Highlands and of Scand- inavia have resulted from crystallising forces, acting upon strata of sandstone, clay, and limestone, or upon igneous materials constituting lava-currents, or intrusive sheets, dykes, and bosses,. I see every reason for believing. That these re-crystallised and highly-foliated masses in the great majority of cases maintain their original positions and relations, or indeed anything ap- proaching their original positions and relations, I greatly doubt ; and my doubt on this point has increased the more I have studied the Highland rocks. Thin bands of quartzite may be the rolled-out representatives of massive beds of sandstone or conglomerate ; wide-spreading schists may consist of the crystallised materials of clays and shales, crumpled, pleated, and kneaded together in endless con- volutions ; vast sheets of gneiss may have originally been in- trusive bosses of granite or thick strata of arkose. How, then, are we to apply the ordinary principles that regulate questions concerning dip and strike, and unconformity in the case of sedimentary deposits, to highly altered rocks like these ? The observations of Jukes, Allport, and Phillips on some of the simpler and more easily explicable examples of the produc- tion of foliation in rocks require to be cautiously extended, by patient study in the field and in the laboratory, to cases of a more complex and difficult character. Especially in this con- nection do we welcome such contributions to our knowledge as that made by Mr. Teall in his description of the remarkable foliated dyke of Scourie. Very significant indeed is the fact that the phenomena of foliation appears to be confined to regions which have been the scene of the most violent subterranean movement and disturb- ance. That solid rock-masses, subjected to the tremendous earth-strains to which they are liable during mountain-making, are capable of internal movement and flow—like the ice of a glacier—we have the clearest evidence. Many illustrations might be adduced in support of the view that crystallisation is influenced and controlled by mechanical forces—pressures, stresses, and strains. May it not also be true, as long ago sug- gested by Vose, that the heat which must be generated in the great shearing movements taking place in rocks have also had much to do in giving rise to that re-crystallisation which is the essence of foliation? Rock-masses, in the throes of mountain- birth, have, like glaciers, behaved substantially as viscous bodies ; may not the former have undergone molecular changes analogous to regelation in the latter? That many of the stupendous earth-movyements which produced the foliation of the rocks of Scandinavia and the Scottish High- lands must be referred to Archzean times, there is not the smallest room for doubt. That similar effects have resulted from the same agencies during subsequent periods, our fellow-geologists in Scandinavia believe they have found incontrovertible proof. For my own part I look forward confidently to the establish- ment of the same conclusion from the study of our own Highland rocks. “ But here I am conscious that I am venturing on topics upon which great and allowable differences of opinion still exist. The debates in this Geological Section during the first meeting of the British Association in Aberdeen ought, I think, to have 476 NATURE e [ Sept, 17, 1885 marked the practical close of one great series of controversies. The discussions of the present meeting will, I trust, result in the recognition and clear statement of a number of other equally important problems of Highland geology which still await solu- tion. AndI am sanguine enough to hope that when this Asso- ciation next gathers here, my successor in this chair will have to congratulate his audience upon a very brilliant retrospect of work actually accomplished in the interval. I am encouraged in this optimism by the fact that in the period which has elapsed since our last meeting here, great and import- ant improvements have been made in the methods of geological investigation. We have seen how the discovery of a few frag- mentary shells in the limestone of Durness, and of sundry casts of bones in the sandstone of Elgin, have been the means of profoundly modifying our ideas concerning the age of vast tracts of rock in the Highlands. The development of modern methods of petrographical research is destined, I believe, to lead to a similar revolutionising of our views concerning the wonder- ful series of changes which have taken place within rock-masses, subsequently to their original accumulation. Especially does the application of the microscope to the study of rocks, when employed in due subordination to, and illustra- tion of, work done in the field, promise to be the source of valuable and fruitful discoveries in the field of Highland geology. In connection with this subject. I cannot refrain from remind- ing you that while the initiative in the application of the palz- ontological method of research was taken by an English land- surveyor, we are indebted to a Scotchman in an equally lowly station of life, for overcoming some of the first difficulties in connection with petrographical study. Many microscopists had employed their instruments, and sometimes with useful results, in the study of the powders and the polished surfaces of rocks ; but it is to William Nicol, of Edinburgh, the inventor of the well-known polarising prism which bears his name, that we owe the discovery of the method of preparing transparent sections of fossils, crystals, and rocks, whereby their internal structure may be examined by transmitted light. Nicol bequeathed his preparations to his friend Alexander Bryson, and some of them are now preserved in the British Mu-eum. It is interesting, too, to recall the circumstance that it was a thin section of the granite of Aberdeen in the collection of Bryson which exhibited to Sorby that wondrous assemblage of minute cavities containing liquids, and led him, shortly before our previous meeting here, to write his paper ‘‘On the Microscopical study of Crystals, indicating the origin of Minerals and Rocks’’—a paper which has indeed proved epoch-making in the history of geology. Before concluding the remarks which hy your kindness I have been permitted to offer you to-day, I cannot forbear from in- dulging in a pleasant reminiscence of a personal character. Nearly fifteen years have passed away since I first visited the Highlands for the purpose of geological study ; it was at that time I first found myself at liberty to put into practice a scheme cherished by me from boyhood, that of studying those Secondary rocks and fossils of the Highlands among which such valuable pioneer work had been done by JohnMacculloch, Roderick Murch- ison, and Hugh Miller. I had endeavoured to prepare myself for a somewhat difficult task, by a training partly unofficial and partly official—I will not employ the terms ‘‘amateur’’ and “* profes- sional,” for of late they have been so sadly misused —-but when I came a stranger among you, I could not have deserved, and I certainly did not anticipate, that cordial welcome, that kindly aid and that generous appreciation, of which I accept my position here to-day as the crowning manifestation. While I continue to occupy myself with the glorious problems of Highland geology—and hitherto I have found that each diffi- culty surmounted has resulted, like the sown teeth of the slaughtered dragon, in a plentiful crop of new ones—the many acts of kindness of my numerous friends here can never cease to be present in my mind. For not only am I indebted to those who, like your own Dr. Gordon, of Birnie, and Dr. Joass, of Golspie, have been able out of stores of their knowledge to furnish me with ‘‘ things new and old,” and who have been un- failing in their aid and sympathy, but to those also who have pitied, but nevertheless helped, the ‘‘daft callant that speers after the chucky stanes.” I know of no higher pleasure than that which the geologist experiences in visiting regions of great scientific interest which are new to him, and of grasping the hands of fellow-workers, whose labours and teachings he has learned to admire and to | appreciate. Whatever may be my lot in this way in future years, however rich the country visited may be in objects of profound instructiveness or of surpassing interest, I can anticipate or desire nothing more valuable than the lessons, or kinder than the reception which I have met with here. “T’ll ask na mair, when I get there, Than just a Hzedax welcome.” SECTION D BIOLOGY OPENING ADDRESS BY ProF. W. C. McInTosH, M.D., LL.D., F.R.Ss.L. & E., F.L.S., Cor. M.Z.S., PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION I HAVE selected the subject of the phosphorescence of marine animals for a few remarks on the present occasion—the theme, perhaps, being the more appropriate from its congenial local surroundings ; for, like St. Andrews, Aberdeen is an “ Old University town Looking out on the cold North Sea.” A phenomenon so striking as the emission of light by marine organisms could not fail to have attracted notice from very early times, both in the case of navigators and those who gave their attention in a more systematic manner to the study of nature. Accordingly we find that the literature of the subject is both varied and extensive—so much so, indeed, that it is impossible onthe present occasion to give more than a very brief outline of its leading features. This is a subject of less moment, however, since the great microscopist, Ehrenberg, in his treatise, “ Das Leuchten des Meeres,” published by the Berlin Academy in 1835, has given a very full account of the early literature on phosphorescence, both in marine and terrestrial animals, no less than 436 authors being quoted. The limitation just mentioned is therefore sufficiently warranted. Though it is in the warmer seas of the globe that phosphor- escence is observed inits most remarkable forms—as for instance the sheets of white lizht caused by octiduca, and the vividly luminous bars of Pyrosonza—yet it is a feature which the British zoologist need not leave his native waters to see both in beauty and perfection. Many luminous animals occur between tide- marks, and even the stunted sea-weeds near the line of high water everywhere sparkle with a multitude of brilliant points. As a ship or boat passes through the calm surface of the sea in summer and autumn, the wavelets gleam with phosphorescent points, or are crested with light; while the observer, leaning over the stern, can watch the long trail of luminous water behind the ship, from the brightly sparkling and seething mass at the screw, to the faint glimmer in the distance. On the southern and western shores, again, every stroke of the oar causes a luminous eddy, and sone of the smaller forms are lifted by the blade and scintillate brightly as they roll into the water. The dredge and trawl likewise produce, both in the shallower and deeper parts of our seas, many luminous types of great interest and beauty. . I shall, in the first instance, glance at the various groups of marine animals which possess the property of phosphorescence, and thereafter make some general remarks on the subject. It is found then that this feature is possessed by certain members of the Protozoa, and by the following groups of the Metozoa,—viz. Ccelenterates, Echinoderms, Worms, Rotifers, Crustaceans, Molluscoids, Mollusks, and Fishes. About the middle of last century Baster found that at least three species of what he called microscopic animalcula (** Opuscula Subseciva,” vol. i. p. 31, table 4, Fig. 1), apparently infusoria. were phosphorescent; and fully half a century later, Pfaff noticed that the luminosity of the sea at Kiel was due to certain members of the group just mentioned. Subsequently both Michaelis and Ehrenberg met with phosphorescent infusoria in the Baltic, the latter describing them as species of Peridinium (now Ceratium) and Prorocentrum. The same fact, associated with the absence of Mocéé/uca at Kiel, has again more recently been brought forward by Stein. In our own seas I have been es- pecially struck with this feature in July and August, the whole surface of the sea along the eastern shores of England and Scotland teeming with Ceratium and Peridinium, besides other Infusoria, which form a greenish scum on the interior of tow-nets in inshore water, and for many miles seaward. As the waves curl {rom the sides of the boat in quiet water, the crest of each | sparkles with multitudes of luminous points, which gleam for a ae Sept. 17, 1885 | NATURE 477 moment as the ripple stretches outward, and then disappear ; or, still more vividly, when the plunging vessel sends the sparkling spray all around the bow. If, on removing the tow-net from such water at night it is suddenly jerked, the whole interior is beautifully lit up with a luminous lining, which glows brightly for afew seconds and then fades. I have been unable, nevertheless, to satisfy myself as to the phosphorescence of isolated examples of Ceratéwm, and Mr. Murray (who is inclined to follow Klebs in considering them algze), tells me that he has not been more successful. The most conspicuous member of the first group (viz. the Protozoa), however, is Woctéluca, which for a long time has been associated with luminosity in many seas. The minute size of this little transparent gelatinous sphere, which ranges from } to % of a millimetre, probably gave origin to some of the ancient views that the phosphorescence of the sea originated from the water, and not from any visible organisms. Amongst the first who clearly made known the relationship of this minute body to the phenomenon we are examining was M. Rigaut, a French naval surgeon, who examined it off various parts of the French coasts as well as off the Antilles, and pointed out in a memoir communicated to the Academy that the luminosity of the sea was caused by an immense number of what he termed little spherical polyps, about a quarter of a line in diameter (Fournal des Savants, tome xliii., February, 1770, pp- 554-61). The observations of this acute French surgeon were followed up by many subsequent authors, amongst whom may be mentioned Baker, Martin Slabber, Abbé Dicquemare, Suriray, Macartney, and Baird; while in more recent times Verhaege, De Quatrefages, and Giglioli have specially studied the phosphorescence of the sea caused by Woctzluca. The light given out by this form is occasionally spread over a large area, and is often evident along the margin of the beach, where the broad belts of Noctilucze gleam in the broken water. It is not uncommon in summer on the southern shores of Britain, while it is rare in the northern ; but it stretches into most of the great oceans, and is the cause of that diffused and silvery phosphorescence so well known to voyagers in the warmer seas. At Ostend, Verhaege found the maximum number in a given quantity of water in the warm months, few or none appearing in the winter. The observations of De Quatrefages (‘‘ Observa- tions sur les Noctiluques,” dx. des Sc. Nat., 3° Série, Zool., tom. xiv. p. 226) were made on the shores of France as well as those of Sicily, for he accompanied the distinguished Prof. Henri Milne-Edwards (whose loss science has had so recently to deplore), on his celebrated ‘‘ Voyage en Sicile,” and they were more extensive than those of the previous author. He attributes the emission of the clear bluish light in quiet water, or the white light with greenish or bluish touches in broken water, to any physical agent which produces contraction, the scintillations arising from the rupture and rapid contraction of the proto- plasmic filaments in the interior. Thus, like Verhaege and others, he found no special luminous organ. Moreover, Ehren- berg and De Quatrefages observed that the light emitted by Noctiluca, though apparently uniform under a lens, was broken up into a number of minute scintillations when highly magnified. Mr. Sorby, in examining the light of this form, has been unable to obtain satisfactory spectroscopic results, apparently from its feebleness. Besides Wocti/uca, which was chiefly met with in inshore water, Mr. Murray, of the Challenger, describes various species of Pyvo- eystis (Proc. Roy. So-., vol. xxiv., p. 553, pl. xxi. ; and Narrative, Zool., vols. i. and ii., pp. 935-38), a closely-allied form, and indeed some of which have been thought to be identical with the former. They abound in the open sea, and are the chief causes of its phosphorescence in the tropical and subtropical oceans. The light is stated to proceed from the nucleus, and in this respect diverges from that observed by De Quatrefages in Noctiluca, When shaken in a glass they give out, Sir Wyville Thomson observes (‘‘ Atlantic,” vol. ii. p. 87), the uniform soft light of an illuminated ground-glass globe. Dr. Giglioli, during the voyage of the Italian frigate Magenta, mentions (Att della R. Accad. delle Sc. di Torino, vol. v., 1869- 79, p. 492) that another group of the Protozoa, viz. the Radio- laria, show phosphorescent properties. In the Pacific the genera Thalassicolla, Collozoum, and Spherozounm shone with an inter- mittent greenish light. It is possible that Dr. Baird (Loudon’s Mug. Nat. Hist., vol. iii. p. 312, Fig. 81, c,d), in his earlier paper, refers to the same group when describing an unknown phosphorescent pelagic organism. No group of marine animals is more prominent in regard to phosphorescence than the Czelenterates. The Hydroida are familiar examples (even after many days and in impure water some of these retain this property, a shock to the stem sending off a crowd of luminous points from the trophosome), and, as Mr. Hincks observes, none excels the common Olelia geniculata, which forms pigmy forests on the broad blades of Laminarize all around our shores. In the fresh specimen a touch during summer causes a large number of luminous points to appear on the zoophytes, the stems most irritated emitting beautiful flashes, which glitter like faintly-dotted lines of fire, the points not being harshly separated, but blending into each other, while the shock imparted by the instrument detaches the minute medusoids, which scintillate upward from the parent stem to the summit of the water. Mere blowing on the surface in July, where Lamin- arize abound, suffices to produce the emission of light from the pelagic buds. Moreover, these minute bodies, along with the various species of Ceratium and minute larval forms of diverse kinds, are sometimes swept by the gales landward, and cause phosphorescence where least expected. In the same manner Vaughan Thompson (‘‘ Zoological Researches,” vol. i. part i. mem. iii. p. 48, 1829) found luminous patches on the masts and windward yardarms on board ship, and they gradually mounted upward as the gale increased. Many of the free gonosomes of the Hydroids are as luminous as the polypites, and indeed have been described by some of the older naturalists as one of the. main causes of the luminosity of the ocean, The light in these (e.g. Thaumantias) gleams around the margin and along the four radii. The Ascraspedote Medusz have also been signalised as factors in producing the phosphorescence of the sea, such forms as Pe/agia noctiluca and Pelagia cyanella being especially prominent. Spall- anzani, indeed, made an elaborate series of experiments on the luminosity of the Medusz in his voyage to the Two Sicilies. Some of these, as Dactylometra (Pelagia) quinquecirra, Agass., are noc- turnal in their habits. They are only occasionally found floating at the surface during the day, while at night, in the same localities, the bottom swarms with these large masses of dull phosphor- escence, moving about with the greatest rapidity (Agassiz, ‘North American Acalephe,” p. 49, Cambridge, 1865). Spe- cies of Rhizostoma were likewise observed by Giglioli to have a pale bluish luminosity. The two most abundant Meduse of our eastern shores, viz. Aurelia aurita and Cyanea capillata (both in its young purple and adult brown condition), so far as I can make out, exhibit no luminosity. This agrees with the views expressed long ago by Ehrenberg. The oceanic Hydrozoa (Siphonophora) are likewise characterised by their phosphorescence. Thus Giglioli met with luminosity in Abyla, Diphyes, Eudoxia, Praya and Aglaismoides. Dr. Bennett (**Gatherings of a Naturalist,” p. 69, 1860) has also observed luminosity amongst the Coralligenous Actinozoa, the grazing of a boat on a coral reef causing a vivid stream of phosphoric light. Similar observations were made on Madrepores by Giglioli (Az della R. Accad. d. Sc. di Torino, vol. v. p. 502), the light in this case being bright greenish and enduring some minutes. Amongst the Alcyonarians the luminosity of the common Sea- Pen (Pennatula phosphorea) has been long known, and was studied by Gesner, Bartholin, Adler, and others. In the earlier part of this century Grant made the well-known and oft-quoted description (Brewster's Edin. Fourn. vol. vii. p. 330, 1827), in which he pic- tures a Pennatula “with all its delicate transparent polypi expanded and emitting their usual brilliant phosphorescent light, sailing through the still and dark abysses by the regular and synchronous pulsations of the minute fringed arms of the whole polypi.” But it ought to be balanced by his concluding statement, that the sea- pens are probably stationary, or ‘‘lie at the bottom, and move languidly like Spatangi, Asterize or Actiniz” (certainly the specimens in the St. Andrew’s Marine Laboratory were very helpless). Edward Forbes again observed that the light proceeded from the irritated point to the extremity of the polypiferous portion, and never in the opposite direction, As Dr. George Johnston tells us, Forbes induced Dr. George Wilson to test, along with Professor Swan, the polyps during phosphorescence by a delicate galvanometer, but without result. He thought the luminosity was due to a spontaneously inflammable substance. More recently a series of interesting observations were made by Panceri on the structure and physiology of the luminous organs of this form. His conclusions are (1) that the light emanates from the polyps and zoids ; (2) that the phosphorescent organs are the eight white cords adhering to the outer surface of 478 NATURE a eg f* ay “ae [ Sept, 17, 1885 the stomach, and that these are chiefly composed of cells con- taining a substance of a fatty nature, the oxidation of which causes the light. Panceri’s conclusions further considerably modify Forbes’s views about the direction of the waves or points of lizht. He supposes that the elements which stand in the place of nerves are capable of producing in the luminous batteries of the polyps a momentary oxidation—more rapid and more intense —accompanied by phosphorescence. Like those examined by Professor Milnes Marshall (‘* Report on the Oban Pennatulidz,” p. 49, Birmingham, 1882), the specimens at St. Andrews, after irritation, show aseries of brilliant coruscations which flash along the rows of polyps in a somewhat irregular manner. Two other Alcyonarians, /unicv/ina and OUmbellularia, are equally phosphorescent. Though the former is familiar enough to some of the long liners of the outer Hebrides and west coast, it is rare that either is procured for scientific investigation. Funiculina quadrangularis, according to Forbes (Johnston's Brit. Zooph. vol. i. p. 166), gives out a vivid bluish light, which comes from the bases of the polyps, and appears to be connected with the reproductive system. Wyville Thomson (*‘ Depths of the Sea,” p. 149) describes the specimens procured in the Por- cupine as resplendent with a steady pale lilac phosphorescence like the flame of cyanogen; and always sufficiently bright to make every portion of a stem caught in the tangles distinctly | visible. The same zoologist mentions that the stem and polyps of Umbellularia axe so brightly phosphorescent, that Captain Maclear found it easy to determine the character of the light by the spectroscope. It gave a restricted spectrum sharply included between the lines 4 and D (‘‘ Atlantic,” vol. i. p. 151). Besides the foregoing Alcyonarians, /s¢s and Gorgonta have | been indicated as likewise phosphorescent. Dr. Merle Norman and Dr. Gwyn Jeffreys (whose death since the last meeting of the British Association is a serious loss to science) mention a beautifully luminous /s¢s on board the French ship Ze Travazl/eur; and Sir Wyville Thomson (‘‘ Atlantic,” vol. i. p. 119), with the facile and genial pen which characterised the lamented naturalist, gives a fascinating picture of a long, delicate, simple Gorgonian | which came up in immense numbers in the trawl from 600 | fathoms off the Spanish coast. He conjures up this Gorgonian forest as an animated cornfield waving gently in the slow tidal current, and glowing with a soft diffused phosphorescence, scin- tillating and sparkling on the slightest touch, and now and again | breaking into long avenues of vivid light, indicating the paths of fishes or other wandering denizens of these enchanted regions. Piof. Moseley thinks that this brilliant phosphorescence of the Alcyonarians may be regarded as an accidental production, but that it may be of occasional service. Further, that the deep sea is at any rate lighted up by these Alcyonarians, which would thus form luminous oases round which animals with eyes might possibly congregate (‘‘ Notes of a Naturalist on the Challenger,” Pp. 590). The last group of the Ccelenterates, the Cvenophora, are even more conspicuous than the foregoing in regard to luminosity. It is indeed long since the Abbé Dicquemare descanted on Cydippe (Pleurobrachia) and Suriray on Bereé, while subsequent authors have made it clear that the majority of this group are phos- phorescent. at various stages is one of the most prominent luminous forms during certain seasons. Their enormous numbers make their effects more striking, though the intensity of the phosphorescence is less than that of the Medusee. Quiet seas like Bressay Sound and the Firth of Forth are occasionally covered by a dense layer of these animals. Prof. Allman found that Bero# did not phosphoresce if suddenly taken from light into darkness, but that after they had remained about twenty minutes in obscurity they became luminous. Considerable variety exists in this respect at St. Andrews, some emitting light at once, others showing none. It is probable that this uncertainty is connected with the hygienic condition of the individuals. In foreign seas many brightly luminous species are met with. Thus Prof. A. Agassiz (‘‘ North American Acalephz,” p. 20, Cambridge, 1865) describes Mnemiopsis Leidyi as “ exceedingly phosphorescent, and when passing through shoals «f these Medusve, varying in size from a pin’s head to several inches in length, the whole water becomes so brilliantly luminous that an oar dipped up to the handle can plainly be seen on dark nights by the light so produced; the seat of the phos- phorescence is confined to the locomotive rows, and so excee1- ingly sensitive are they that the slightest shock is sufficient to make them plainly visible by the light emitted from the eight phosphorescent ambulacra.”” The same author (Of. cit. p. 24) mentions that Zesz-arza has a very peculiar bluish light of an exceedingly pale steel colour, but very intense. Giglioli, again, found that the beautiful riband-like Cestus shone with a reddish yellow light, but in Zucharis the latter was intensely blue (Of. ct. p. 495, 495). While many of the preceding group are pelagic at all periods of their existence, the luminous star‘fishes are in their adult condition members of the bottom fauna. The larval stages of the brittle-stars, however, are passed at the surface of the water, where it is probable they add their quota to swell the ranks of the phosphorescent types. Amongst the first to note this property in the brittle-stars was Prof. Viviani, who found on the shores of Genoa a little brittle-star which he termed Asterias noctiluca,+ and which probably is identical with the Amphiura elegans of Leach. Peéron likewise mentions the phosphorescence of his Ophiura phosphorea. Sir Wyville Thomson observed in the Porcupine that the light from Of/iazantha spinulosa was of a brilliant green, coruscating from the centre of the disk along the rays and illuminating the whole outline of the starfish (‘Depths of the Sea,” p. 98). More recently Prof. Panceri of Naples has re-examined the phosphorescence of the species described by Viviani, and he finds that though with the first momentary glow the whole ray is lit up with a greenish light, that the luminous points correspond with the bases of the pedicels and are ranged in pairs along the arms (d/“i della R. Accad. d. Sc. Fisiche e Mathem. di Napoli, 1875, p. 17, pl. iv. figs. 1, 3). In deep water (between twenty and forty fathoms) off our eastern shores, Ophzothrix gleams all over the trawl-net with a pale greenish light; but the adults of the same form between tide-marks give no trace of luminosity. The older authors were familiar with certain luminous annelids which they termed MVereides, such as Verets phos- Phorans. Ehrenberg paid considerable attention to this group, specially referring to Polynoé fulgurans from the North Sea, Nereis noctiluca® and Nereis (Photocharis) cirrigera, the latter species having a photogenic structure in its cirri like the electric organ of the Torpedo. The latter form is probably related to the ubiquitous #zs;Z/’s, which, under various names, has been noticed by many observers. Thus it is very likely the same species that is mentioned by Harmer, in Baker’s ‘‘ Employment for the Microscope,” p. 400, as having been found on oyster shells ; and also by Vianelli, who describes it as a caterpillar-like form amongst seaweeds. Indeed the Syllideans have been conspicu- ous in the literature of phosphorescence from the time of De la Voie (1665, fe Panceri), and Vianelli (*‘ Nuove Scoperte intor- no le Luci dell’ Acqua Marina,” Venezia, 1749), to the recent period of Claparede (‘‘Glanures Zootomiques,” p. 95) and Panceri (O/. czt. p. 8). The structure of the cirri of the phos- phorescent forms, however, gives no support to the opinion of Ehrenberg that they possess a special photogenic structure. The luminous annelids group themselves under five families, | viz. the Polynoidze, Syllide, Cheetopteride, Terebellidz, and | Tomopteridz, and the number may yet be extended to include | other pelagic types. In our own ‘seas, as Prof. Allman observes, Bevoe | In the first family one of the most abundant is Wa mothoé 7nbricata, which lives both between tide-marks and deep water, and is cosmopolitan in geographical distribution. It discharges | bright greenish scintillations from the point of attachment of each dorsal scale ; and thus, under irritation, the flashes are arranged in pairs along the body, or in a double moniliform line. If — severely pinched the worm wriggles through the water, emitting sparks of green light from the bases of the feet. The separated scales also continue to gleam for some time, chiefly at the sur- faces of attachment (scars), near which, in each, a ganglion exists. The same phenomenon is readily produced in a fragment either of the anterior or posterior end of the body. No mucous secretion is emitted, but the light is clearly produced by the will of the animal, and by the agency of its nervous system. A | recent writer, Dr. Jourdan (Zoologischer Anzeiger, March, 2 1885, No. 189, p. 133), has endeavoured to prove that this luminosity in another member of the Polynoidze (viz., Polynoé torguata) is produced by cells secreting a phosphorescent mucus, but this view is by no means applicable in all cases. Besides the species mentioned, various other forms in this family are equally luminous, such as Polynoé scolopendrina, Achloé astertcola, Polynoé lunulata, and a Zetlandic Zznoa. 1 ‘*Phosphorescentia Maris,” Genoa, 1805. p. 5, tab. i. figs. 1, 2 He observes: ‘‘Species hee radiatz instar stellz scintillas in marinis aquis excitasse, quas electrico fluido adscripserunt, admodum probabile est.” = Supposed by some to refer to Noctrluca miliaris. Sept. 17, 1885 | As an example of the Syllide, the common Zusyllis, so often mentioned by previous authors, may be taken. Under irritation a fine green light is emitted from the ventral aspect of each foot, and the scintillations seem to issue from many points at each space, flash along both sides of the worm posterior to the point of stimulation, and then disappear. Under severe irritation the animal remains luminous behind the injured part for nearly half a minute, while the surface of granular light on each seg- ment is larger than usual, and in some instances those of opposite sides are connected on the ventral aspect by a few phosphorescent points. The body behind the irritated region has a paler pinkish hue immediately after the emission of light showing that the luminosity is diffused. In the Cheetopteridee the phosphorescence is remarkably beautiful, bright flashes being emitted from the posterior feet ; but the most vivid luminosity is at a point on the dorsum between the lateral wings of the tenth segment. Here the abundant mucus exuded by the animal can be drawn out as bluish-purple fire of great intensity, which, besides, now and then gleams along the edges of the wing-like processes, and illuminates the surrounding water. A very characteristic odour, somewhat resembling that produced by phosphorus in combustion, is given out by the animal during such experiments. In this connection it may be observed that Quoy and Gaimard mention that an odour similar to that around an electric machine is given out by luminous marine annelids. Amongst the Terebellidze, as first shown by Grube none excel the genus Polyctvrus in the brightness of the phosphorescence and the ease with which it is elicited. Mere blowing on the water of the dissecting-trough suffices to cause in the British Polyczrrus the most vivid pale bluish luminosity, which gleams for a moment along every one of the independent mobile tentacles. Long before Grube, however, had discovered the phosphorescence of Polycirrus, our patient and laborious countryman, Sir J. Graham Dalyell, had noticed it in the group (“ Powers of the Creator,” vol. ii. p. 210), for he mentions that when irritated Zerebel/a figulus gaye out the most copious blue refulgence, intermingled with a reddish flame. Another member of this family, viz. Thelepus, is only faintly phosphorescent in life, but when decom- position has made progress it gleams in the vessel with a pale lambent light, somewhat like phosphorus in air. In the pelagic Tomopteridz certain peculiar structures on the parapodia, formerly supposed by some to be eyes, and by others simply glandular organs, were lately found by Professor Greeff (Zoologischer Anzeiger, 1882, p. 384—87) to be luminous organs, which, though glandular, have a considerable nervous supply, including a ganglion, Panceri’s observations on the luminous annelids of Naples, and the peculiar type Balanoglossus (Enteropneusta) have recently added considerably to our knowledge of thesubject. He specially describes, in Chetopterus, the structure of the phosphorescent glands in the great pinnules and other parts, which produce the luminous mucus. With some reason he concludes that two kinds of phosphorescence are present in annelids, viz., one which is the result of purely nervous action, and another which is due to this #Zs a luminous secretion. A Turbellarian, viz., Plamaria vetust1, was mentioned by Viviani ( Of. cif. p. 13) as luminous, but this feature appears to be rare in the group; and the same may be observed of phos- phorescent Rotifers, one of which (Syzchetla baltica) was de- scribed by Ehrenberg (Of. cé¢. p. 128). Giglioli (Of. cit. p- 498) again, records a Sagztta which showed a feeble luminosity in the posterior region of the body. The minute forms amongst the Crustacea (chiefly Copepoda) were recognised as phosphorescent by Athanasius Kircher in 1640, and have been mentioned by most authors who have alluded to the subject since that date. Thus Viviani gives seven species from the shores of Genoa, and Tilesius no less than nineteen luminous crustaceans from Krusenstern’s voyage. Dr, Baird describes the light given out by those met with in his cruises as brilliant in the extreme, and Vaughan Thompson added considerably to our knowledge of Sapphirina and of the luminous schizopods, an example of which had been discovered by Sir Joseph Banks, and described by Macartney (P27. Trans. 1810, as ‘Cancer fulgens”’). Most authors agree that the minute forms, such as the Copepods, give a sparkling appearance to the surface of the water. The light in these, according to Lesson, proceeds from glands placed on the sides of the thorax; while Giglioli found the luminous organ of the cosmopolitan Sapphirina in the anterior part of the thorax. On the other hand, Captain Chimmo (Zuflectcila, NATURE 479 &c., 1878) thought it was decomposing food in the stomach, and Prof. Moseley (Of. cz#. p. 574.—Naturalist on the Cha/- Zenger’) in certain cases entertained a similar opinion. The phos- phorescence of the Euphausiidze was a prominent feature in the voyage of the Chadlenger, brilliant flashes being emitted on cap- ture from a series of spots along the trunk and tail. Mr. Murray also met with a diffused light in the Farée channel when dredging in the 7yz¢on, and he attributed this to the phosphorescent organs of Nyctiphanes norvegica, M. Sars, one of the same group. Prof. G. O. Sars describes these organs as composed of a series of coloured globules, the lens-like body of which acts as a condenser, and thus enables the animal to produce at will a bright flash of light in a given direction (“ Challenger Narrative,” Zoology, I. part ii. pp. 740—43). Marine phosphorescence has some of its most striking ex- amples amongst the Tunicates. One of the best known instances is that of Pyvesoma, the light from which has been so graphically described by M. Peron, Prof. Huxley, and other naturalists who have had an opportunity of observing it. It proceeds in each member of the compound organism from two small patches of cells at the base of each inhalent tube. These cells contain a substance resembling fat. Sa/sa has frequently been mentioned as a luminous form by many authors, but Delle Chiaje found that in the Mediterranean Salsa pinnata was not phosphorescent ; and amongst the multitudes of Salpze which for some weeks abounded at Lochmaddy in North Uist, neither the former nor the Sa/pa spinosa of Otto exhibited this property, though a spark was occasionally seen in the nucleus in some specimens, probably from the food. Giglioli likewise is doubtful concerning them, but in one instance a brilliant rose-coloured light appeared in the nucleus. Dodfolum, on the other hand, shone with a greenish tint, while examples of 4/fendicularvia which he encountered in yarious seas were chameleon-like in their luminosity, and often gleamed with great brightness. Various mollusks exhibit the property of phosphorescence. Fabricius ab Aquapendente mentions Sef/a, Panceri Zledone, Adler Chama and ‘‘ Ductylus.”’ The best known, however, is Pholas dactylus, which possesses two wavy bands and triangular organs of ciliated epithelium on the inner surface of the mantle. These secrete a luminous substance, soluble in ether and alcohol, which light up the excurrent water. The light is also main- tained for a long time during putrefaction, as in the case of Thelepus. Panceri found that carbonic acid extinguished the light, but that air re-illuminated it, just as Johannes Miiller had previously observed in a vacuum and in air. The light is mono- chromatic, the bands having a constant place in connection with the solar spectrum (from line E to line F). Several Pteropods likewise contribute to the phosphorescence of the sea. Thus Giglioli noticed that a Cleodora gave out a very reddish light, while a Crisezs and a Flyalea were lumi- nous at the base of the shell. He mentions also a large un- known Heteropod (Of. c7é. p. 497) in the Indian Ocean, which glowed with a reddish phosphorescence. Amongst the Derma- tobranchs, Phyllirrhoé has the same property, Giglioli further found that Zoligo sagitfatus and a small Octopus gleamed all over with a whitish luminosity. Phosphorescence in living fishes appears to have been ac- curately observed within a comparatively recent date, though the luminosity of dead fishes has been known from very early times, and has been the subject of many interesting experiments such as those of Robert Boyle on dead whitings (P/z/. Trans. 1667, pp. 591-93), and Dr. Hulme on herrings (Phil. Trans. 1800, p. 161). I do not mean to say that the literature of the so- called phosphorescent fishes is scanty, for it extends from the days of Aristotle and Pliny to modern times, but that the writers have had little reliable evidence in regard to living fishes to bring forward. Thus of upwards of fifty fishes entered by Ehrenberg in his list it is hard to say that one is really luminous during life. In many cases it is probable that the supposed phosphorescence of large forms, such as sword-fishes and sharks, has arisen from the presence of multitudes of minute phosphorescent animals in the water, just as the herring causes a gleam when it darts from the side of aship. Prof. Moseley, for instance, observed in the Challenger that when large fishes, porpoises, and penguins dashed through phosphorescent water, that it was brilliantly lit up, and their track marked by a trail of light. The same feature is observed in hooked fishes, and it is known that fishermen are doubtful of success when the sea is very phosphorescent, for the presence of the net in the water excites the luminosity and scares the herring. 480 NAD OLE a f bo ls / [ Sef. 17, 1885 One of the most striking instances of phosphorescence in living fishes is that of the luminous shark (Sgealus fulgens) found by Dr. Bennett. This is a small dark-coloured shark, which was captured on two or three occasions at the surface of the sea. It emitted without irritation a vivid greenish luminosity as it swam about at night, and it shone for some hours after death. The phosphorescence appears to be due to a peculiar secretion of the skin. The eyes of the shark were more prominent than usual insuch forms. (The Danish naturalist Reinwardt describes a phosphorescent fish (Hemiramphus lucens) from the Moluccas. Fide Giglioli, Of. cit. p. 503.) Little is known with regard to the luminosity of the ‘‘ Pearl-sides ” (Mawrolicus pennanti, Cuv. and Val.) of our own shores, though from its wide distribution this lack of information seems to be remediable. In recent times phosphorescence has generally been associated with deep-sea fishes. Thus in a narrative of the early part of the voyage of the Challenger (NATURE, August 28, 1873) Sir Wyville Thomson mentions ranges of spots or glands producing a phos- phorescent secretion on the body of a fish pertaining to the Sternoptychidz, a species of which is included by |r. F. Day in the British list. Of a new Zchiostoma (one of the Stomiatidz) it is also noted that the two rows of probably phosphorescent dots along the body were red, surrounded by a circle of pale violet (‘* Challenger Narrative, Zoology,” I. vol. ii. p. 42). Dr. Giinther (‘‘ Challenger Narrative, Zoology, I. part ii. p. 905) observes that many deep-sea fishes have round, shining, mother- of-pearl bodies embedded in the skin. These are supposed to be producers of light, and they have been observed to be phos- phorescent in two species of Sternoptychide. He further states that the whole muciferous system is dilated in deep-sea fishes, that is, fishes inhabiting 1000 fathoms or more, and that the entire body seems to be covered with a layer of mucus, the physiological use of which is unknown; it has been noticed to have phosphorescent properties in perfectly fresh specimens. Having thus briefly reviewed the leading features of phos- phorescence in marine animals, a glance may now be taken at the supposed causes and purposes of this provision. I do not deem it necessary to go into detail with regard to the numerous views which have been advanced to account for the phosphorescence of marine organisms, for these range over a very wide area—from its production by electricity, the constant agitation of the water, by putrefaction, by luminous imbibi- tion, to its manifestation as a vital action in the animals, or a secretion of a phosphorescent substance. Ehrenberg con- sidered it a vital act similar to the development of electricity, and sometimes accompanied by the secretion of a mucilaginous humour which is diffused around ; while others, such as Meyen, thought it only a superficial oxidation of the mucous coat, or a luminour secretion from certain glands. Some believed that a liquid containing phosphorus was secreted, and that this under- went slow combustion ; while others explained that it was a nervous fluid modified by certain organs to appear as light. Coldstream thought it was due to an imponderable agent, and that phosphorus or an analogous substance might enter into the organs producing it. De Quatrefages, again, clearly affirms that it is produced in two ways: (1) by the secrction of a peculiar substance exuding from the entire body or a special organ; and (2) by a vital action independent of all material secretion. Panceri was strongly impressed with the importance of fatty matter in the forms he examined—such as Fenmatula, the Medusze, Beroides, Pholades, Chetepteri, and Noctiliu-e—the phosphorescence arising from the slow oxidation of this sub- stance ; the nervous system of the living animal, however, being capable of producing a momentary oxidation more rapid and more intense, accompanied by light. It will be observed that in the Protozoa the structure of the minute but often very abundant animals which furnish the luminosity clearly proves that the presence of a well-defined nervous system is not required for its manifestation, the proto- plasm of their bodies alone sufficing for its development. There are neither glands for secreting it, and in some apparently no fatty matter for slow combustion. In the Ccelenterates the phenomena appear to be more nearly related to nervous mani- festations, though in certain cases the luminous matter possesses inherent properties of its own. While in some annelids, such as Chetopterus and Polyirrus, there are glands which may be charged with the secretion of a luminous substance, it is otherwise with certain Polynoide, in which the emi:sion of light appears to be an inherent property of the nervous system. The irritability in the phosphorescent examples of the latter family, however, varies considerably, some, ¢.g. Polynoé scolop- endrina, being sluggish, while others, like Harvmothoé, are extremely irritable. In the Crustaceans the Inminosity seems to have the nature of a secretion, probably under the control of the nervous system. In Pyvosoma and Pholas dactylus a luminous secretion is also a prominent feature, and in both the latter and the annelids decay excites its appearance, as also is the case, to a limited extent, in fishes. It is evident, therefore, that the causation of phosphorescence is complex. In the one group of animals it is due to the produc- tion of a substance which can be left behind as a luminous trail. The ease, for instance, with which in Pexnafula and other Ccelenterates the phosphorescence can be repeatedly produced by friction on a surface having a minute trace of the material, clearly points to other causes than nervous agency. The action, moreover, clearly affects the organic chemical affinities of the tissues engaged. On the other hand again, as in certain annelids, it is purely a nervous action, probably resembling that which gives rise to heat. With the exception of such as Macartney, the older authors, who in some cases took an imaginative view of the question, connected the emission of light with the special economy of the deep sea. The speculations to this effect are fairly summarised in ‘‘ Brewster’s Edinburgh Encyclopedia,” published in 1830 (Chiefly the views of Dr. Macculloch). Thusit is supposed that total darkness exists at the depth of tooo feet, and that the phos- phorescence of marine animals is a substitute for the light of the sun. Moreover, that by these lights the animals on the one hand are guided for attack, and on the other their power of extinguishing them enables them to escape destruction. Fishes are known to prey chiefly at night, and the writer supposes that the phosphorescence of their prey guides them; for, he says, this luminosity is particularly brilliant in those inferior animals which from their astonishing powers of reproduction, and from a state of feeling little superior to that of vegetables, appear to have been in a great measure created for the food of the more perfect kinds. Dr. Coldstream at a later period (1847) re- produced the same views in his article on animal luminosity (Todd’s ‘*Cyclop. of Anat. and Phys.”). The same notion was brought forward in the ‘‘ Report of the Cruise of the Porcupine” (Proc. Roy. Soc., No. 121, 1870, p- 432), and special reference was made to the young of certain starfishes, which are stated to be more luminous than the adults, that being part of the general plan which provides an excess of the young of many species, apparently as a supply of food, their wholesale destruction being nece sary for the due restriction of the multiplication of the species, while the parent individuals, on the other hand, are provided with special appliances for escape or defence. Thus phosphorescence, it is further asserted (‘‘ Depths of the Sea,” p. 149), im very young Ophiacanthee just rid of their plutei, in a sea swarming with predaceous crustaceans, such as Dorynchus and Munida, with great bright eyes, must be a fatal gift. Some naturalists still appear to hold a similar, though perhaps modified view. Much caution, however, is necessary in theorising on this head. In the first place, phosphorescent animals do not appear to be more abundant in the depths of the sea than between tide-marks or on the surface, the latter perhaps presenting the maximum development of those exhibiting this phenomenon. Very many of the young that have been indicated as so brilliantly luminous become surface-forms soon after leaving the egg, and thus at their several stages more or less affect the three regions—of surface, mid-water, and bottom. A survey of the life-histories of the several phosphorescent groups affords at present no reliable data for the foundation of a theory as to the functions of luminosity, especially in relation to food. No phosphorescent form is more generally devoured by fishes or other animals than that which is not; and, on the other hand, the possessor of luminosity, if otherwise palatable, does not seem to escape capture. An examination of the stomachs of fishes makes this clear, except perhaps in the case of the hersing, which, however, is chiefly a surface-fish. Further, it is not evident that such animals are luminous at all times, for it is only under stimulation that many exhibit the phenomenon. Moreover, the irregularity of its occurrence in animals pos- sessing the same structure and habits in every respect, strengthens the view just expressed. Thus, while P/o/as dactylus has been known from the days of Pliny to be luminous, the common Pholas crispata is not so endowed. Two annelids abound OO “4 Sept. 17, 1885 | NATURE 481 between tide-marks (Harmothoé imbricata and Polynoé floccosa), and closely resemble each other in habits and appearance ; yet one is brightly luminous, while the other shows no trace. Instead of luring animals for prey, or affording facilities for being easily preyed upon, the possessors of phosphorescence in the annelids are often the inhabitants of tubes, or are commen- salistic on starfishes. Indeed, every variety of condition accom- panies the presence of phosphorescence in the several groups, so that the greatest care is necessary in making deductions, especially if these are to have a wide application. In the foregoing brief outline of the remarkable phenomenon of phosphorescence as it affects marine animals, it is apparent that, though a considerable increase in our knowledge has taken place during the last quarter of a century, much more yet remains to be done. I, however, confidently look forward for further advances, in this as well as in other departments, to the marine laboratories of the country—I mean such institutions as those now in working order at Granton, St. Andrews, and Tarbet, as well as the larger establishment proposed to be erected by the Biological Association at Plymouth. These laboratories, it is true, have been tardily instituted, but it is satisfactory to think that at last the zeal and methods of the workers have, and will have, a better field for their exercise than formerly, and that the zoology of the fisheries will obtain that attention which its importance to the country necessitates. SECTION E. GEOGRAPHY. OPENING ADDRESS BY GENERAL J. T. WALKER, C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S., PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. My predecessors in this chair have claimed for geography a range of science which may be said to be practically unlimited ; for it comprehends the history of the earth itself, and of all the life to be met with on the surface of the earth, from the first beginnings of things, and through their subsequent development onwards to their present conditional status ; it is associated in a greater or less degree with every other department of know- ledge and is a remarkable exemplification of the mutual inter- dependence and correlation of the physical sciences, for while all other branches of science are incomplete without some know- ledge of geography, it is incomplete without some knowledge of each and all of them. Such claims on behalf of geography would, not many years ago, have been considered extravagant and exaggerated; a popular encyclopedia which is still of some note defines geo- graphy to be simply the science which describes the surface of the earth, and somewhat querulously complains that geographical treatises contain matter not unfrequently taken from statistics, natural philosophy, and history which it declares to be irrelevant and not properly admissible into such treatises. And in a popular sense geography is still commonly suggestive only of such a knowledge of locality as may be acquired from maps and charts, with their graphical delineations of whatever exists on the surface of the earth, and of the various natural or artificial boundary lines of the peoples and states between whom the surface is divided. But the British Association and the Royal Geographical Society have successfully maintained that scientific geography is not restricted in its scope to a mere knowledge of locality—though that in itself is a very important factor in what- ever appertains to the intercourse and mutual relations of man- kind—but embraces all that relates to the structure and existing configuration of the earth, and takes cognisance of the varied conditions of all the life, both animal and vegetable, which is nurtured and supported by the earth ; it studies the side lights which the general configuration of surface throws on the character of each, locality as a home and support of life, and it examines with special interest the influence which that character has exerted on the social and political conditions of different races and peoples. And geography does not merely devote its attention to the existing order of things as now displayed to our gaze ; in alliance with geology it studies the history of a distant past, when the features of the earth’s surface were not precisely as now, and lands which we see high above our horizon lay deep beneath the ocean, and life existed in other forms, whose mute records we possess in the fossils—the /¢kha-kant or-written stones as’ they are signific- antly called by the people of Afghanistan—which, after long lying entombed among the rocks, are presented to modern sight as revelations of life’s early dawn ; it investigates what Baron Richtofen describes as the reciprocal causal relations of the three kingdoms—land, water, and atmosphere ; it seeks to de- termine the processes by which in some parts of the globe con- tinents were built up with their varied sculpture of mountain and valley, of highly elevated plateau and low lying plain, of lakes and inland seas, and great river systems,—while in other parts land was depressed below the sea level, or broken up into the islands which are now dotting the surface of the ocean ; and it endeavours to trace a process of continuous evolution of life from the primary and simplest types which perished in the early ages of the earth’s history, to the latest and most highly developed types which are now flourishing around us. Going back still further it searches for evidence of the first beginnings of the material universe ; it looks beyond the orbit of the most distant planet of the solar system, and scrutinises the boundless regions of stellar space to find, in the widely scattered particles of the nebulz, the beginnings of new solar systems and new worlds such as ours; there it may be said to behold as in a mirror the formation of our own planet as a fluid igneous mass thrown off with great velocity from its sun, and ripidly revolving, and then becoming spheroidal, and slowly cooling and solidifying, and finally acquiring the crust which was to become an abode for life, the stage whereon man was to play out the drama of his planetary existence, and be held all the while fast imprisoned and out of touch with the surrounding universe. More than this we would seek to know, but in vain; in passing from the early dawn of matter to that of life, science finds its career of wonderful achievement in the one direction exchanged for failure and disappointment in the other ; it cannot discover the origin of life in any of its existing material forms, nor trace to its birthplace the spiritual life which exerts such an influence on what is material ; it cannot ascertain whether man had a prior existence as different from his present existence as the first beginnings of his planet home differed from its present condition; it cannot gauge the truth of the poet’s prescient conception that “« Our birth is but a sleep and a forgetting ; The soul that rises with us, our l.fe’s star, Hath had elsewhere its setting And cometh from afar.” It whispers faint suggestions regarding the possible future of the planet; but when questioned as to what is to follow the coming soul’s setting of man, the planet’s chief glory and dignity, it has nothing to reply, but is hopelessly dumb and inarticulate. Scientific geography embraces a wide range of subjects, wider than can be claimed for any other department of science. Thus the President of this Section has a vast field from which to gather subjects for his opening address. I shall, however, re- Strict my address to the subject with which I am most familiar, and give you some account of the Survey of India, and more particularly of the labours of the trigonometrical or geodetic branch of that survey, in which the best years of my life have been passed. : I must begin by pointing out that the survey operations in India have been very varied in nature, and constitute a blending together of many diverse ingredients. Their origin was purely European, nothing in the shape of a general survey having been executed under the previous Asiatic Governments; lands had been measured in certain localities, but merely with a view to acquiring some idea of the relative areas of properties, in as- sessing on individuals the share of the revenue levied on a com- munity ; but other factors than area—such as richness or poverty of soil, and proximity or absence of water—influenced the assessment, and often in a greater degree, so that very exact measurements of area were not wanted for revenue purposes, and no other reason then suggested itself why lands should be ac- curately measured. The value of accurate maps of individual properties, with every boundary clearly and exactly laid down, was not thought of in India in those days, and indeed has only of late years begun to be recognised by even the British Govern- ment. The idea of a general geographical survey never sug- gested itself to the Asiatic mind. Thus when Englishmen came to settle in India, one of their first acts was to make surveys of the tracts of country over which their influence was extending ; and as that influence increased, so the survey became developed from a rude and rapid primary delineation of the broad facts oi 452 NATURE ° f ij / / { [Sepz. 17, 1885 general geography, to an elaborately executed and artistic de- lineation of the topography of the country, and in some pro- vinces to the mapping of every field and individual property. Thus there have been three orders or classes of survey, and these may be respectively designated geographical, topographical, and cadastral ; all three have frequently been carried on fari passu, but in different regions, demanding more or less elaborate survey according as they happened to be more or less under British in- fluence. There is also the Great Trigonometrical or Geodetic Survey, by which the graphical surveys are controlled, collated, and co-ordinated, as I will presently explain. Survey operations in India began along the coast-lines before the commencement of the seventeenth century, the sailors pre- ceding the land surveyors by upwards of a century. The Directors of the East India Company, recognising the importance of correct geographical information for their mercantile enter- prises, appointed Richard Hakluyt, Archdeacon of Westminster, their historiographer and custodian of the journals of East Indian voyages, in the year 1601, within a few weeks of the establish- ment of the company by Royal Charter. Hakluyt gave lectures to the students at Oxford, and is said by Fuller to have been the first to exhibit the old and imperfect maps and the new and re- vised maps for comparison in the common schools, ‘‘to the singular pleasure and great contentment of his auditory.” The first general map of India was published in 1752 by the cele- brated French geographer D’Anyille, and was a meritorious compilation from the existing charts of coast-lines and itineraries of travellers. But the Father of Indian Geography, as he has been called, was Major Rennell, who landed in India as a mid- shipman of the Royal Navy in 1760, distinguished himself in the blockade of Pondicherry, was employed for a time in making surveys of the coast between the Paumben Passage and Calcutta, was appointed Surveyor of the East India Company’s dominions in Bengal in 1764, was one of the first officers to receive a com- mission in the Bengal Engineers on its formation, and in 1767 was raised to the position of Surveyor-General. Bengal was not in those days the tranquil country we have known it for so many years, but was infested by numerous bands of brigands who pro- fessed to be religious devotees, and with whon Rennell came into collision in the course of one of his surveying expeditions, and was desperately wounded ; he had to be taken 300 miles in an open boat for medical assistance, the natives meanwhile ap- plying onions to his wounds as a cataplasm. His labours in the survey of Bengal lasted over a period of nineteen years, and em- braced an area of about 300,000 square miles, extending from the eastern boundaries of Lower Bengal to Agra, and from the Himalayas to the borders of Bandelkand and Chota Nagpur. ill-health then compelled him to retire from the service on a small pension and return to England; but not caring, as he said, to eat the bread of idleness, he immediately set himself to the uti- lisation of the large mass of geographical materials laid up and perishing in what was then called the India House ; he published numerous charts and maps, and eventually brought out his great work on Indian Geography, the ‘‘ Memoir of a map of Hindos- tan,” which went through several editions ; this was followed by his Geographical Syste u of Herodotus, and various other works of interest and importance. THis labours in England extended over a period of thirty-five years, and their great merits have been universally acknowledged. Rennell’s system of field-work in Bengal was a survey of routes checked and combined by astronomical determinations of the latitude and the longitude, and a similar system was adopted in all other parts of India until the commencement of the present century. But in course of time the astronomical basis was found to be inadequate to the requirements of a general survey of all India, as the errors in the astronomical observations were liable materially to exceed those of the survey, if executed with fairly good instruments and moderate care. Now this was no new discovery, for already early in the eighteenth century the French Jesuits who were making a survey of China—with the hope of securing the protection of the Emperor, which they considered necessary to favour the progress of Christianity—had deliberately abandoned the astronomical method and employed triangulation instead. Writing in the name of the missionaries who were associated with him in the survey, Pere Regis enters fully into the relative advantages of the two methods, and gives the trigonometrical the preference, as best suited to enable the work to be executed in a manner worthy the trust reposed in them by a wise prince, who judged it of the greatest importance to his State. “ Thus,” he says, “we flatter ourselves we have followed ‘ the surest course, and even the only one practicable in prosecuting the greatest geographical work that was ever performed according to the rules of art.” What was true in those days is true still; points whose relative positions have been fixed by any triangulation of mode- rate accuracy present a more satisfactory and reliable basis for topographical survey than points fixed astronomically. Though the lunar theory has been greatly developed since those days by the labours of eminent mathematicians, and the accuracy of the lunar tables and star catalogues is much increased, absolute longitudes are still not susceptible of ready determination with great exactitude ; moreover, all astronomical observations, whether of latitude or longitude, are liable to other than intrinsic errors, which arise from deflection of the plumb-line under the influence of local attractions, and which of themselves materially exceed the errors that would be generated in any fairly executed nienatlaucE of a not excessive length, say not exceeding 500 niles. Thus at the close of the last century Major Lambton, of the 33rd Regiment, drew up a project for a general triangulation of Southern India. It was strongly supported by his commanding officer—Colonel Wellesley, afterwards the Duke of Wellington —and was readily sanctioned by the Madras Government ; for a large accession of territory in the centre of the peninsula had been recently acquired, as the result of the Mysore campaign, by which free communication had been opened between the east and west coasts of Coromandel and Malabar ; and the proposed triangulation would not merely furnish a basis for new surveys, but connect together various isolated surveys which had already been completed or were then in progress. The Great Trigono- metrical Survey of India owes its origin as such, and its simul- taneous inception as a geodetic survey, to Major Lambton, who pointed out that the trigonometrical stations must needs have their latitudes and longitudes determined for future reference just as the discarded astronomical stations, not however by direct observation, but by processes of calculation requiring a know- ledge of the earth’s figure and dimensions. But at that time the elements of the earth’s figure were not known with much exacti- tude, for all the best geodetic arcs had been measured in high latitudes, the single short and somewhat questionable are of Peru being the only one situated in the vicinity of the equator. Thus additional arcs in low latitudes, as those of India, were greatly needed and might be furnished by Lambton. He took care to set this forth very distinctly in the programme which he drew up for the consideration of the Madras Government, remarking that there was thus something still left as a desidera- tum for the science of geodesy, which his operations might supply, and that he would rejoice indeed should it come within his province ‘‘to make observations tending to elucidate so sublime a subject.” Lambton commenced operations by measuring a base line and a small meridional arc near Madras, and then, casting a set of triangles over the southern peninsula, he converted the triangles on the central meridian into a portion of what is now known as the Great Arc of India, measuring its angles with extreme care, and checking the triangulation by base lines measured at distances of two to three degrees apart in latitude. His principal instru- ments were a steel measuring chain, a great theodolite, and a zenith sector, each of which had a history of its own before coming into his hands. The chain and zenith sector were sent from England with Lord Macartney’s Embassy to the Emperor of China, as gifts for presentation to that potentate, who un- fortunately did not appreciate their value and declined to accept them ; they were then made over to Dr. Dinwiddie, the astronomer to the embassy, who took them to India for sale. The theodolite was constructed in England for Lambton, on the model of one in use on the Ordnance Survey ; on its passage to India it was cap- tured by the French frigate, the Dremon/aise, and Janded at Mauritius, but eventually it was forwarded to its destination by the chivalrous French Governor, De Caen, with a complimentary letter to the Governor of Madras. . Lambton was assisted for a short time by Captain Kater, whose name is now best known in connection with pendulum experiments and the employment of the seconds’ pendulum as a standard of length; but for many years afterwards he had no officer to assist him. At first he met with much opposition from advocates of the discarded astronomical method, who insisted on its being sufficiently accurate and more economical than the tri- gonometrical. But he was warmly supported by Maskelyne, the Astronomer-Royal in England; and soon had an opportunity =p] ——— Sept. 17, 1885] NATURE 483 of demonstrating the astronomical method to be fallacious, for its determination of the breadth of the peninsula in the latitude of Madras was proved by the triangulation to be forty miles in error. Still, for several years he never received a word of sympathy, encouragement, or advice either from the Govern- ment or from the Royal Society. A foreign nation was the first to recognise the importance of his services to science, the French Institute electing him a corresponding member in 1817. After this, honours and applause quickly followed from his own country- men. In 1818 the Governor-General of India—then the Marquis of Hastings—decided that the survey should be withdrawn from the supervision of a local Government and placed under the Supreme Government, with a view to its extension over all India, remarking at the same time that ‘he was ‘‘not aware that with minds of a certain order he might lay himself open to the idle imputation of vainly seeking to partake the gale of public favour and applause which the labours of Colonel Lambton had recently attracted ;” but as the survey had reached the northern limits of the Madras Presidency, its transfer to the Supreme Government, if it was to be further extended, had become a necessity. He directed the transfer to be made, and the survey to be called in future the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India. Noticing that the intense mental and bodily labour of conducting it was being performed by Lambton alone, that his rank and advancing age demanded some relief from such severe fatigue, and farther, that it was not right that an undertaking of such importance should hang on the life of a single individual, the Governor-General appointed two officers to assist him—Captain Everest, as chief assistant in the geodetic operations ; and Dr. Voysey, as surgeon and geologist. Five years afterwards Lambton died, at the age of seventy. The happy possessor of an unusually robust and energetic constitution and a genial temperament, he seems to have scarcely known a day’s illness, though he never spared himself nor shrank from subjecting himself to privations and exposure which even Everest thought reckless and unjustifi- able. These he accepted as a matter of course, saying little about them, and devoting his life calmly and unostentatiously to the interests of science and the service of his country. Everest’s career in the survey commenced disastrously. He was deputed by Lambton to carry a triangulation from Hydra- bad, in the Nizam’s territory, eastwards to the coast, crossing the forest-clad and fever-haunted basin of the Godavery river, a region which he described as ‘‘a dreadful wilderness, than which no part of the earth was more dreary, desolate, and fatal.” Indignant at being taken there, his escort, a detachment of the Nizam’s troops, mutinied, and soon afterwards he and his assistants, and almost all the men of his native establishment, were stricken down by a malignant fever; many died on the spot, and the survivors had to be carried into Hydrabad, whence litters and vehicles of all descriptions, and the whole of the public elephants, were despatched to their succour. To recover his health Everest was compelled to leave India for a while and proceed to the Cape of Good Hope, where he remained for three years. He availed himself of the opportunity to inspect Lacaille’s meridional are, which, when compared with the arcs north of the equator, indicated that the opposite hemispheres of the globe were seemingly of different ellipticities. He succeeded in tracing this anomaly to an error in the astronomical amplitude of the are, which had been caused by deflection of the plumb- line at the ends of the arc, under the influence of the attraction of neighbouring mountains. Thus he became aware of the necessity of placing the astronomical stations of the Indian ares at points where the plumb-line would not be liable to material deflection by the attraction of neighbouring mountain ranges. Shortly after his return to India Lambton died, and Everest succeeded him, and immediately concentrated his energies on the extension of the Great Arc northwards. He soon came to the conclusion that his instrumenta! equipment, though good for the time when it was procured, and amply sufficient for ordinary geographical purposes, was inadequate for the requirements of geodesy, and generally inferior to the equipments of the geodetic surveys then in progress in Eurepe. He therefore proceeded to Europe to study the procedure of the English and French surveys, and also to obtain a supply of new instruments of the latest and most improved forms. The Court of Directors of the Honourable East India Company accorded a most liberal assent to all his proposals, and gave him carte blanche to provide himself with - whatever he considered desirable to satisfy all the requirements of science. Everest returned to India with his new instrumental equipment in 1830, a year that marks the transition of the character of the operations from an order of accuracy which was sufficient as a basis for the graphical delineation of a comparatively small portion of the earth’s surface, to the higher precision and refine- ment which modern geodesists have deemed essentially necessary for the determination of the figure and dimensions of the earth asawhole. He immediately introduced an important modifica- tion of the general design of the principal triangulation, which up to that time had been thrown as a network over the country on either side of the Great Arc, as in the English survey and many others; but he abandoned this method, and, adopting that of the French survey instead, he devised a system of meridianal chains to be carried at intervals of about 1° apart, and tied together by longitudinal chains at intervals of about 5°, the whole forming, from its resemblance to the homely culinary utensil with which we are all familiar, what has been called the gridiron system in contradistinction to the network. The entire triangulation was to rest on base-lines to be measured with the new Colby apparatus of compensation bars and microscopes which had been constructed to supersede the measuring chain the Emperor of China had rejected; the base-lines were to be placed at the intersections of the longitudinal chains of triangles with the central meridional or axial chain, and also at the further angles of the gridirons on each side. Latitudes were to be measured at certain of the stations of the central chain, with new a‘tronomical circles in place of the old zenith sector, to give the required meridional arcs of amplitude. Two radical im- provements on all previous procedure were introduced in the measurement of the principal angles, one affecting the observa- tions, the other the objects observed. The great theodolites were manipulated in such a manner as not merely to reduce the effects of accidental errors by numerous repetitions in the usual way, but absolutely to eliminate all periodic errors of graduation by systematic changes of the position of the azimuthal circle relatively to the telescope, in the course of the complete series of measures of every angle. The objects formerly observed had been cairns of stones or other opaque signals ; for these Eyerest substituted luminous signals, lamps by night, and, by day, heliotropes which were manipulated to reflect the sun’s rays through diaphragms of small aperture, in pencils appearing like bright stars, and capable of penetrating a dense atmosphere through which distant opaque objects could not be seen. Everest’s programme of procedure furnished the guiding principles on which the operations were carried out during the period of half a century which intervened between their commencement under his superintendence and the completion of the principal triangulation under myself. The external chains have necessarily been taken along the winding course of the frontier and coast lines instead of the direct and more symmetri- cal lines of the meridians and the parallels of latitude. The number of the internal meridional chains has latterly been diminished by widening the spaces between them, and in two instances a principal chain has been dispensed with because, before it could be taken in hand, a good secondary triangulation had been carried over the area for which it was intended to provide. But these are departures from the letter rather than the spirit of Everest’s programme which has been faithfully followed throughout, first by his immediate successor, Sir Andrew Waugh, and afterwards by myself, thus affording an instance of the impress of a single mind on the work of half a century which is probably unique in the annals of India ; for there, as is well known, changes of personal administration are frequent, and are not uncommonly followed by changes of procedure. ; , The physical features of a country necessarily exercise a considerable influence on the operations of any survey that may be carried over it, and more particularly on those of a geodetic survey, of which no portion is allowed to fall below a certain standard of precision. Every variety of feature, of scenery, and of climate that is to be met with anywhere on the earth’s surface between the equator and the arctic regions has its analogue between the highlands of Central Asia and the ocean, which define the limits of the area covered by the Indian survey. Thus in some parts the operations were accomplished with ease, celerity, and enjoyment, while in others they were very difficult and slow of progress, always entailing great exposure, and at times very deadly. In an open country, dotted with hills and commanding eminences, they advanced as on velvet; in close country, forest-clad or covered with other obstacles to distant vision, they were greatly retarded, for there it became necessary 484 NATURE [ Sept. 17, 1885 either to raise the stations to a sufficient height to overlook all surrounding obstacles, or to render them mutually visible by clearing the lines between them ; and both these processes are more or less tedious and costly. There are many tracts of forest and jungle which greatly impeded the operations, not merely because of the physical difficulties they presented, but because they teemed with malaria, and were very deadly during the greater portion of the year, and more particularly immediately after the rainy seasons, when the atmosphere is usually clearest and most favourable for distant observations. At first tracts of forest, covering extensive plains, were considered impracticable ; thus Lambton carried his network over the open country, and stopped it whenever it reached a great plain covered with forest and devoid of hills; but Everest’s system would not permit of any break of continuity, nor the abandonment of any chain which was required to complete a gridiren ; it has been carried out in all its integrity, often with much sacrifice of life, but never with any shrinking on the part of the survey officers from carrying out what it had become a point of honour with them to accomplish, and the accomplishment of which the Govern- ment had come to regard as a matter of course. We have already seen how the progress of Everest’s first chain of triangles was suddenly arrested because he and all his people were struck down by malaria in the pestilential regions of the Godavery basin. That chain remained untouched for fifty years ; it was then resumed and completed, but with the loss of the executive officer, Mr. George Shelverton, who succumbed when he had not yet reached, but was within sight of, the east coast line, the goal towards which his labours were directed. Many regions, as the ba-in of the Mahanaddi, the valley of Assam, the hill ranges of Tipperah, Chittagong, Arracan, and Burma, and those to the east of Moulmein and Tennasserim, which form the boundary between the British and the Siamese territories, are covered with dense forest, up to the summits of the peaks which had to be adopted as the sites of the survey stations. Asa rule the reaks were far from the nearest habitation, and they could not be reached until pathways to them had been cut through forests tangled with a dense undergrowth of tropical jungle ; not unfrequently large areas had to be cleared on the summits to open out the view of the surrounding country. Here the physical difficulties to be overcome were very considerable, and they were increased by the necessity that arose, in almost every instance, of importing labourers from a great distance to perform the necessary clearances. But the broad belt of forest tract known as the Terai, which is situated in the plains at the feet of the Nepalese Himalayas, was the most formidable region of all, because the climate was very deadly for a great portion of the year, and more particularly during the season when the atmo- sphere was most favourable for the observations, though the physical difficulties were not so great as in the hill tracts just mentioned, and labour was more easily procurable. Lying on the British frontier, at the northern extremities of no less than ten of the meridional chains of triangles, it had necessarily to be operated in to some extent,,and Everest wished to carry the several chains across it, on to the outer Himalayan range, and then to connect them together by a longitudinal chain running along the range from east to west, completing the gridiron in this quarter. But the range was a portion of the Nepalese territories, and all Europeans—excepting those attached to the British embassy at Khatmandu—were debarred from entering any part of Nepal, by treaty with the British Government. Everest hoped that the rulers of Nepal might make an exception in his favour for the prosecution of a scientific survey; and when he found they would not, he urged the Government to compel them to give his surveyors access, at least, to their out- lying hills ; but he urged in vain, for the Government would not run the risk of embarking in a war with Nepal for purely scientific purposes. Thus the connecting chain of triangles— now known as the N.E. Longitudinal Series—had to be carried through the whole length of the Terai, a distance of about 509 miles, which involved the construction of over 100 towers— raised to a height of about 30 feet to overlook the earth’s curvature—and the clearance of about 2,000 miles of line through forest and jungle to render the towers mutually visible. It required no small courage on Everest’s part to plunge his surveyors into this region ; he endeavoured to minimise the risks as much as possible by taking up the longitudinal chain in sections, bit by bit, on the completion of the successive meridional chains, and thus apportioning it between several survey parties, each operating in the Terai for a short time, instead of assigning it to a sinzle party to execute continuously from end to end, as all the other chains of triangles. But notwithstanding these precautions, the peril was great, and the mortality among both officers and men was very considerable ; greater than in many a famous battle, says Mr. Clements Markham, in an eloquent passage in his Memoir of the Indian Suryeys, in which he claims for the surveyors who were employed on these operations —with no hope of reward other than the favourable notice of their immediate chief and colleagues—merit for more perilous and honourable achievement than much of the military service which is plentifully rewarded by the praises of men and prizes of all kinds. Everest retired in 1843, and was succeeded by Waugh, who applied himself energetically to the completion of the several chains of triangles exterior to the Great Arc, for which he obtained a substantial addition to the existing equipment of great theodolites. It was under him that the formidable longitudinal series through the Terai, which had been begun by Everest, was chiefly carried out. He personally initiated the determination of the positions and heights of the principal snow peaks of the Himalayan ranges; and he did much for the advancement of the general topography of India, which had somewhat languished under his predecessor, who had devoted himself chiefly to the geodetic operations. He retired in 1861, and I succeeded to the charge of the Great Trigonometrical Survey. The last chain of the principal triangulation was completed in 1882, shortly before my own retirement. Of the general character of the operations, it may be asserted without hesitation that a degree of accuracy and precision has been attained which has been reached by few and surpassed by none of the great national surveys carried out in other parts of the world, and which leaves nothing to be desired even for the requirements of geodesy; a very considerable majority of the principal angles have been measured with the great 24-inch and 36-inch theodolite, and their theoretical probable error averages about a quarter of a second ; of the linear measure- ments the probable error, so far as calculable, may be taken as not exceeding the two-millionth part of any measured length. And as regards the extent of the trianzulation, if we ignore the primary network in Southern India, and all secondary triangulation, however valuable for geozraphical purposes, we still have a number of principal chains — meridional, longitudinal, and oblique—of which the aggregate length is 17,300 miles, which contain 9,230 first-class angles all ob- served, and rest on eleven base-lines measured with the Colby apparatus of compensation bars and microscopes. This prodigious amount of field-work furnishes an enormous mass of interdependent angular and linear measures ; and eaeh of these is fallible in some degree, for, great as was the accuracy and care with which they had severally been executed, perfect accuracy of measurement is as yet beyond human achievement ; thus every circuit of triangles, every chain closing on a base-line, and even every single triangle, presented discrepancies the mag- nitude of whick was greater or less according as derived from a combination of many, or only of a few, of the fallible facts of observation. Thus, when the field operations were approaching their termination, the question arose as to how these facts were to be harmonised and rendered consistent throughout, which was a very serious matter considering their great number. The strict” application of mathematical theory to a problem of this nature requires the adjustment to be effected by the application of a correction to every fact of observation, not arbitrarily, but in such a manner as to give it its proper weight, neither more nor less, in the final investigation, and in this the whole of the facts must be treated simultaneously. That would lave involved the simultaneous solution of upwards of 4,000 equations between 9,230 unknown quantities, by what is called the method of minimum squares, and I need scarcely say that it is practically impossible to solve such a number of equations between so many unknown quantities by any method at all. Thus a compromise had to be made between the theoretically desirable and the practically possible. It would be out of place here to attempt to describe the method of treatment which was eventually adopted, after much thought and deliberation ; I will merely say that the bulk of the triangulation was divided into five sections, each of which was treated in succession with as close approximation to the mathematically rigorous method as was practically possible ; but even then the mass of simultaneous in- terdependent calculation to be performed in each instance was enormous, I believe greatly exceeding anything of the kind as | | | Sept. 17, 1885] NATURE 485 yet attempted in any other survey. But the happy result of all this labour was that the final corrections of the angles were for the most part very minute, less than the theoretical probable errors of the angles, and thus fairly applicable without taking any liberties with the facts of observation. If the attribute of beauty may ever be bestowed on such things as small numerical quantities, it may surely be accorded to these notable results of very laborious calculations, which, while in themselves so small, were so admirably effective in introducing harmony and precision throughout the entire triangulation. If now we turn once more to what Lambton calls ‘‘ the sub- lime science of geodesy,” which was held in such high regard by both him and Everest, we shall find that the great meridional are between Cape Comorin and the Himalayas, on which they laboured with so much energy and devotion, is not the only con- tribution to that science to which the Iniian triangulatlon is subservient, but every chain of triangles—meridional, longi- tudinal, or oblique—may be made to throw light either on geodesy, the science of the figure of the earth, or on geognosy, the science of the earth’s interior structure, when combined with corresponding astronomical arcs of amplitude. Thus each of the several meridional chains of triangles may be utilised in this way, as their prototype has been, by having latitude observations taken at certain of their stations to give meridional ares ; and the several longitudinal chains of triangles may also be utilised—in combination with the main lines of telegraph—by electro- telegraphic determinations of differential longitudes to give ares of parallel. When the stations of the triangulation which are resorted to for the astronomical observations are situated in localities where the normal to the surface coincides fairly with the corresponding normal to the earth’s figure, the result is valuable as a contribution to geodesy ; when the normal to the Surface is sensibly deflected by local attraction, the result gives a measure of the deflection which is valuable as a contribution to geognosy. Having regard to these circumstances, I moved the Govern- ment to supply the Trigonometrical Survey with the necessary instruments for the measurement of the supplemental astronom- ical ares ; and as officers became available on the gradual com- pletion of the successive chains of triangles, [ employed some of them in the required determinations of latitude and differential longitude. It so happened that about the same time geodesists in Europe began to recognise the advantages to science to be acquired by connecting the triangulations of the different nation- alities together, and supplementing them with arcs of amplitude. The ‘‘ International Geodetic Association for the Measurement of Degrees in Europe” was formed in consequence, and it has been, and is still, actively employed in carrying out this object ; in India, however, the triangulation was complete and connected throughout, so that only the astronomical amplitudes were wanting. They are still in progress, but already meridional chains, aggregating 1,840 miles in length, and lying to the west of the Great Are, have been converted into meridional ares; and the three longitudinal chains, from Madras to Mangalore, from Bombay to Vizagapatam, and from Kurrachee va Calcutta to Chittagong, of which the aggregate length is 2,600 miles, have been converted into arcs of parallel. In the former the opera- tions follow the meridional course of the chains of triangles ; in the latter they follow the principal lines of the electric telegraph, which sometimes diverge greatly from the direction of the longi- tudinal chains of triangles, the two only intersecting at occasional points ; the astronomical stations are therefore placed at the trigonometrical points which may happen to be nearest the telegraph lines, whether on the meridional or on the longitudinal chains, and their positions are invariably so selected as to form self-verificatory circuits which are usually of a triangular form, presenting three differential arcs of longitude ; each of these arcs is measured independently as regards the astronomical work— though for the third arc there is usually no independent telegraph line. but only a coupling of the lines for the first and second arcs —and this has been proved to give such an excellent check on the accuracy of the operations, that it is not too much to say that no telegraphic longitude operations are entirely reliable which have not been verified in some such manner. Through the courtesy of Colonel Stotherd, Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, I am enabled to exhibit two charts, one of the triangulation of India, the other of that of Europe, which have recently been enlarged to the same scale in the Ordnance Survey Office at Southampton for purposes of comparison. The first is taken from the official chart of the Indian Survey, and a shows the great meridional and longitudinal chains and Lamb- ton’s network of principal triangles, the positions of the base- lines measured with the Colby apparatus, the latitude and the differential longitude stations, the triangular circuits of the longi- tudinal arcs, the stations of the pendulum and the tidal operations which will be noticed presently, and the secondary triangulations to fix the peaks of the Himalayan and Sulimani ranges, and the positions of Bangkok in Siam and Kandahar in Afghanistan, the extreme eastern and western points yet reached. The chart of the European triangulation has been enlarged from one published by the International Geodetic Association of Europe; in it special prominence is given to the Russian meridional arc, which extends from the Danube to the Arctic Ocean, and is 25° 20’ in length, and to the combined English and French meridional are, 22° to’ in length, which extends from the Balearic Island of Formentera in the Mediterranean, to Saxavord in the Shetland Islands. The aggregate length of the meridional arcs already completed in India is about equal to that of the English, French, and Russian arcs combined ; but the longest in India is about 1}° shorter than the Russian. As regards longitudinal ares, I believe the two which were first measured in India, and were employed shortly afterwards by Colonel Clarke in his last investi- gation of the figure of the Earth, are the only ones which have as yet been deemed sufficiently accurate to be made use of in such investigations, though arcs of much greater length have been measured in Europe. It would be interesting, if time per- mitted, to set forth the salient points of divergence between the systems of the Indian and the European surveys ; I will only mention that in the southern part of the Russian are, for a space of about 8° from the Duna to the Dneister, a vast plain, covered with immense and almost impenetrable forests, presented great obstacles to the prosecution of the work; the difficulty was overcome by the erection of a large number of lofty stations of observation, wooden scaffoldings which were 120 and even as much as 146 feet high, to overlook the forests. In Indian forests, as the Terai on the borders between British and Nepalese territories, the stations were rarely raised to a greater height than 30 feet, or just sufficient to overtop the curvature, and all trees and other obstacles were cleared away on the lines between them ; this was found the most expeditious and economical process. The stations were very substantial, with a central masonry pillar, for the support of a great theodolite, which was isolated from the surrounding platform for the support of the observer. The lofty Russian scaffoldings only sufficed for small theodolites, and they were so liable to shake and vibration, that the theodolites had to be fitted with two telescopes to be pointed simultaneously by two observers at the pair of stations, the angle between which was being measured. All the modern geodetic data of the:Indian survey that were available up to the year 1880 were utilised by Colonel A. R. Clarke, C.B., of the Ordnance Survey, in the last of the very valuable investigations of the Figure of the Earth which he has undertaken from time to time. It will be obvious that new data tend to modify in some degree the conclusions derived from previous data, for the figure of so large a globe as our earth is not to be exactly determined from measurements carried over a few narrow belts of its superficies. Thus thirty years ago it was inferred that the equator was sensibly elliptic—and not circular, as had been generally assumed—with its major axis in longitude 15° 34 east of Greenwich ; but later investigations indicate a far smaller ellipticity, and place the major axis in west longitude 8° 15’. More significant evidence of the influence of new facts of observation in modifying previous conclusions is furnished by the French national standard of length, the metre, which was fixed at the ten-millionth part of the length of the earth’s meridional quadrant, as deduced from the best geodetic data available up to the end of the last century ; but it is now found to be nearly s;4;5th part less than the magnitude which it is supposed to represent, the difference being about a hundred times greater than what would now be considered an allowable error in an important national standard of measure. The Indian survey has also made valuable contributions to geodesy and geognosy in an elaborate series of pendulum observ- ations for determining variations of gravity, which throws light both on the grand variation from the poles to the equator that governs the ellipticity, and on the local and irregular variations depending on the constitution of the interior of the earth’s crust. They were commenced in 1865 by Captain J. P. Basevi, on the recommendation of General Sabine and the Council of the Royal Society, with two pendulums, one of which the General had 486 swung in his notable operations which extend from a little below the equator to within ro” of the pole. Captain Basevi had nearly completed the operations in India, and had taken swings at a number of the stations of the Great Arc and at various other points near mountain ranges and coast lines, when he died of exposure in 1871 at a station on the high table-lands of the Him- alayas, while investigating the force of gravity under mountain ranges. Major Heaviside swung the pendulums at the remaining Indian stations, then at Aden and Ismailia on the way back to England, and finally at the base station, the Kew Observatory. Afterwards they and a third pendulum were swung at Kew and Greenwich by Lieutenant-Colonel Herschel, who took all three to America, swung them at Washington, and then handed them over to officers of the United States Coast Survey, by whom they have been swung at San Francisco, Auckland, Sydney, Singa- pore, and in Japan. The pendulum operations in India have been successful in removing from the geodetic operations the reproach which had latterly been cast on them, that their value has become much diminished since the discovery that the attraction of the Hima- layan mountains is so much greater than had previously been suspected, that it may have materially deflected the plumb-line at a large number of the astronomical stations of the Great Arc, and injuriously influenced the observations. Everest considered the effects of the Himalayan attraction to be immaterial at any distance exceeding sixty miles from the feet of the mountains ; but in his days the full extent and elevation of the mountain masses was unknown, and their magnitude was greatly under- estimated. Afterwards, when the magnitude became better known, Archdeacon Pratt of Calcutta, a mathematician of great eminence, calculated that they would materially attract the plumb- line at points many hundred miles distant; he also found that everywhere between the Himalayas and the ocean, the excess of density of the land of the continent as compared with the water of the ocean would combine with the Himalayan attraction and increase the deflection of the plumb-line northwards, towards the great mountain ranges, and that under the joint influence of the Himalayas and the ocean the level of the sea at Kurrachee would be raised 560 feet above the level at Cape Comorin. But as a matter of fact the Indian are gave a value of the earth’s ellipticity which agreed sufficiently closely with the values derived from the arcs measured in all other quarters of the globe, to show that it could not have been largely distorted by deflec- tions of the plumb-line ; thus it appeared that whereas Everest might have slightly underestimated the Himalayan attraction, Pratt must have greatly overestimated it. His calculations were however based on reliable data, and were indubitably correct. For some time the contradiction remained unexplained, but eventually Sir George Airy put forward the hypothesis that the influence of the Himalayan masses must be counteracted by some compensatory disposition of the matter of the earth’s crust im- mediately below them, and in which they are rooted ; he suggested that the bases of the mountains had sunk to some depth into a fluid lava which he conceived to exist below the earth’s crust, and that the sinking had caused a displacement of dense matter by lighter matter below, which would tend to compensate for the excess of matter above. Now Pratt’s calculations had reference only to the visible mountain and oceanic masses, and their attrac- tive influences—the former positive, the latter negative—in a horizontal direction ; he had no data for investigating the density of the crust of the earth below either the mountains on the one hand, or the bed of the ocean on the other. The pendulum ob- servations furnished the first direct measures of the vertical force of gravity in different localities which were obtained, and these measures revealed two broad facts regarding the disposition of the invisible matter below ; first, that the force of gravity dimin- ishes as the mountains are approached, and is very much less on the summit of the highly elevated Himalayan table-lands than can be accounted for otherwise than by a deficiency of matter below ; secondly, Ihat it increases as the ocean is approached, and is greater on islands than can be accounted for otherwise than by an excess of matter below. Assuming gravity to be normal on the coast lines, the mean observed increase at the island sta- tions was such as to cause a seconds’ pendulum to gain three seconds daily, and the mean observed decrease in the interior of the Continent would have caused the pendulum to lose 24 seconds daily at stations averaging 1,200 feet above the sea level, 5 seconds at 3,800 feet, and about 22 seconds at 15,400 feet— the highest elevation reached—in excess of the normal loss of rate due to height above the sea. NATURE [Sept. 17, 1885 Pratt was strongly opposed to the hypothesis of a substratum, or magma, of fluid igneous rock beneath the mountains; he assumed the earth to be solid throughout, and regarded the mountains as an expansion of the inyisible matter below, which thus becomes attenuated and lighter than it is under regions of less elevation, and more particularly in the depressions and con- tractions below the bed of the ocean. And certainly we seem to have more reason to conclude that the mountains emanate from the subjacent matter of the earth’s crust than that they are as wholly independent of it as if they were formed of stuff shot from passing meteors and asteroids ; any severance of continuity and association between the visible above and the invisible below appears, on the face of it, to be decidedly improbable. The hypothesis of sub-continental attenuation and sub-oceanic condensation of matter is supported by the two arcs of longitude on the parallels of Madras and Bombay; for at the extreme points of these ares, which are situated on the opposite coast lines, the horizontal attraction has been found to be not landwards, as might have been anticipated, but seawards, showing that the de- ficient density of the sea as compared with the land is more than compensated by the greater density of the matter under the ocean than of that under the land. While on the subject of the constitution of the earth’s crust, I may diaw attention to the circumstance that the tidal observ- ations which have been carried on at a number of points on the coasts of India, as a part of the operations of the Survey, tend to shew that the earth is solid to its core, and that the geological hypothesis of a fluid interior is untenable. They haye been analysed by Prof. G. H. Darwin, with a view to the determin- ation of a numerical estimate of the rigidity of the earth, and he has ascertained that whilst there is some evidence of a tidal yielding of the earth’s mass, that yielding is certainly small, and the effective rigidity is very considerable, not so great as that of steel, as was at first surmised, but sufficient to afford an important confirmation of the justice of Sir William Thomson’s conclusion as to the great rigidity. The Indian pendulum observations have been employed by Colonel Clarke, in combination with those taken in other parts of the globe, to determine the earth’s ellipticity. Formerly there was wont to be a material difference between the ellipticities which were respectively derived from pendulum observations and direct geodetic measurements, the former being somewhat greater than z4,, the latter somewhat less than s},; but as new and more exact data became available, the values derived from these two essentially independent sources became more and more accordant, and they now nearly agree in the value s4;. As a part of the pendulum operations, a determination of the length of the seconds’ pendulum was made at Kew by Mejor Heaviside, with the pendulum which had been employed for the same purpose by Kater early in the present century, when leading men of science in England believed that in the event of the national standard yard being destroyed or lost, the length might be reproduced at any time with the aid of a reversible pendulum. In consequence of this belief an Act of Parliament was passed in 1824 which defined the relations between the imperial and the seconds’ pendulum, the length of the former being to that of the latter—swung in the latitude of London, in a vacuum and at the level of the sea—in the proportion of 36 inches to 39°1393 inches. Thus, while the French took for their unit of length the ten- ~ millionth part of the earths’ meridional quadrant, the English took the pendulum swinging seconds in the latitude of London. In case of loss the yard is obviously recoverable more readily and inexpensively by reference to the pendulum than the metre by reference to the quadrant ; it is also recoverable with greater ac- curacy ; still the accuracy is not nearly what would now be deemed indispensable for the determination of a national standard of length, and it is now generally admitted that every pendulum has certain latent defects, the influence of which cannot be exactly ascertained. Thus the instrument cannot be relied on as a suitable one for determinations of absolute length ; but, on the other hand, so long as its condition remains unaltered, it is the most reliable instrument yet discovered for differential determinations of the variations of gravity. In truth, however, the pendulum is a very wearisome instrument to employ even for this purpose, for it has to be swung many days and with constant care and attention to give a single satisfactory determination ; thus if such a thing can be invented and perfected as a good differential gravity meter, light and portable, with which satisfactory results can be obtained in a few hours, instead of many days, the boon to science will be very great. ony = Sept. 17, 1885] NATURE 487 The trigonometrical operations fix with extreme accuracy two of the co-ordinates—the latitude and longitude—which define the positions of the principal stations ; but the third co-ordinate, the height, is not susceptible of being determined by such oper- ations with anything like the same degree of accuracy, because of the variations of (refraction to which rays of light passing through the lower strata of the atmosphere are liable, as the temperature of the surface of the ground changes in the course of the day. In the plains the apparent height of a station ten to twelve miles from the observer has been found to be upwards of 100 feet greater in the cool of the night than in the heat of the day, the refraction being always positive when the lower at- mospheric strata are chilled and laden with dew, and negative when they are rarefied by the heat radiated from the surface of the ground. At hill stations the rays of light usually pass high above the surface of the ground, and the diurnal variations of refraction are comparatively immaterial, and very good results are obtained by the expedient of taking the vertical observations between reciprocating stations at the same hour of the day, and as nearly as possible at the time of minimum refraction ; but in the plains this expedient does not usually suffice to give reliable results. The hill ranges of central and those of northern India are separated by a broad belt of plains, which embraces the greater portion of Sind, the Punjab, Rajputana, and the valley of the Ganges, and is crossed by a very large number of the principal chains of triansles, on the lines where the chart shows stretches of comparatively small triangles, which are in most instances of considerable length. Thus it became necessary to run lines of spirit levels over these plains, from sea to sea, to check the trigonometrical heights. The opportunity was taken advantage of to connect all the levels which had been executed for irrigation and other public works, and reduce them to a com- mon datum ; and eventually lines of level were carried along the coast and from sea to sea to connect the tidal stations. The aggregate length of the standard lines of level executed up to the present time is nearly 10,000 miles, and an extensive series of charts of the levels derived from other departments of the public service and reduced to the survey datum has already been published. The survey datun which has been adopted for all heights, whether deduced trigonometrically or by spirit-levelling, is the mean sea level as determined, either for initiation or verification, by tidal observations at several points on the coast lines. At first the observations were restricted to what was necessary for the requirements of the survey, and their duration was limited to a lunar month at each station. In 1872 more exact deter- minations were called for, to ascertain whether gradual changes in the relative level of land and sea were taking place at the head of the Gulf of Cutch, as had been surmised by the geo- logical surveyors, and observations were taken for over a year at three tidal stations on the coasts of the gulf, to be repeated hereafter when a sufficient period had elapsed to permit of a measurable change of level having taken place. Finally, in 1875, the Government intimated that as ‘the great scientific advantages of a systematic record of tidal observations on Indian coasts had been frequently urged and ad nitted,” such observa- tions should be taken at all the principal ports and at such points on the coast lines as were best suited for investigations of the laws of the tides. In accordance: with these instructions, five years’ observations have been made at several points, and new stations are taken up as the operations at the first ones are completed. The initiation of the later and more elaborate operations is due in great measure to the recommendations of the Tidal Com- mittee of the British Association, of which Sir William Thom- son was President. The tidal observations have been treated by the method of harmonic analysis advocated by the Committee. The constants for amplitude and epoch are determined for every tidal component, both of long and of short periods, and with their aid tide-tables are now prepared and published annually for each of the principal ports; and further, it is with them that Prof. G. H. Darwin made the investigations of the effective rigidity of the earth, which I have already mentioned. The very remarkable waves which were caused by the earthquake on December 31, 18S1, in the Bay of Bengal, and by the notable volcanic eruptions in the island of Krakatoa and the Straits of Sunda on August 27 and 28, 1883, were registered at several of the tidal stations, and thus valuable evidence has been furnished of the velocities of both the earth-wave and the ocean-wave which are generated by such disturbances of the ordinarily quiescent condition of the earth’s crust. I must not close this account of the non-graphical, or more purely scientific, operations of the great Trigonometrical Survey of India without saying something of the officers who were em- ployed thereon, under the successive superintendence of Everest, Waugh, and myself. A considerable majority were military, from all branches of the army—the cavalry and infantry, as well as the corps of engineers and artillery ; the remainder were civilians, mostly promoted from the subordinate grades. Promi- nent shares in the operations were taken by Lieutenant Renny, Bengal Engineers, afterwards well known in this neighbourhood as Colonel Renny Tailyour, of Borrowfield in Forfarshire, of whom and his contemporary, Lieutenant Waugh, Everest, re- tiring, reported in terms of the highest commendation ; by Reginald Walker, of the Bengal Engineers, George Logan, George Shelverton, and Henry Beverley, all of whom fell victims to jungle fever; by Strange, F.R.S., of the Madras Cavalry, whose name is associated with the construction of the modern geodetic instruments of the Survey; by Jacob—afterwards Government Astronomer at Madras—Rivers and Haig, all of the Bombay Engineers; Tennant, C.I.E., F.R.S., Bengal Engineers, afterwards Master of the Mint in Calcutta ; Mont- gomerie, F.R.S., of the Bengal Engineers, whose name is best remembered in connection with the Trans-Himalayan geo- graphical operations; James Basevi, of the Bengal Engineers, who so sadly died of exposure while engaged on the pendulum operations in the higher Himalayas; Branfill, of the Bengal Cavalry; Thuillier, Carter, Campbell, Trotter, Heaviside, Rogers, Hill, and Baird, F.R.S., all engineer officers ; also Hennessey, C.I.E., F.R.S., M.A., Herschel, F.R.S., and Cole, M.A., whose names are intimately associated with the collateral mathematical investigations and the final reduction of the principal triangulation. The Trigonometrical Survey owes very much to the liberal and even generous support which it has invariably received from the Supreme Government, with the sanction and approval, first of the Directors of the East India Company, and afterwards of the Secretary of State for India. In times of war and financial embarrassment the scope of the operations has been curtailed, the establishments have been reduced, and some of the military officers sent to join the armies in the field ; but whatever the crisis, the operations have never been wholly suspended. Even during the troubles of 1857-58, following the mutiny of the native army, they were carried on in some parts of the country, though arrested in others ; and the then Viceroy, Lord Canning, on receiving the reports of the progress of the operations during that eventful period, immediately acknowledged them to the Surveyor-General, Colonel Waugh, in a letter from which the following extract is taken : “JT cannot resist telling you at once with how much satis- faction I have seen these papers. It is a pleasure to turn from the troubles and anxieties with which India is still beset, and to find that a gigantic work, of permanent peaceful usefulness, and one which will assuredly take the highest rank as a work of scientific labour and skill, has been steadily and rapidly pro- gressing through all the turmoil of the last two years.” The operations have been uninfluenced by changes of personnel in the administration of the Indian Empire, as Governor- Generals and Viceroys succeeded each other, but have met with uniform and consistent support and encouragement. It may well be doubted whether any similar undertaking, in any other part of the world, has been equally favoured and as munificently maintained. In conclusion I must state that I have purposely said nothing of the graphical operations executed in the Trigonometrical and other branches of the Survey of India, because they are more generally known, their results appear in maps which speak for themselves, and time would not permit of my attempting to describe them also. They comprise, jist, the general topo- graphy of all India, mostly on the standard scale of 1 inch to the mile ; secondly, geographical surveys and explorations of regions beyond the British frontier, notably such as are being carried on at the present time on the Russo-Afghan frontier, by Major Holdich and other officers of the Survey ; ¢hirdly, the so- called Revenue Survey of the British districts in the Bengal Presidency, which is simply a topographical survey on an enlarged scale—4 inches to the mile—showing the boundaries and areas of villages for fiscal requirements ; and fowrth/y, the Cadastral Survey of certain of the British districts in the Bengal Presi- dency, showing fields and the boundaries of all properties, on scales of 16 to 32 inches to the mile. There are also certain 488 large scale surveys of portions of British districts in the Madras and Bombay Presidencies, which, though undertaken originally for purely fiscal purposes by revenue and settlement officers working independently of the professional survey, have latterly been required to contribute their quota to the general topography of the country. And of late years a survey branch has been added to the Forest Department, to provide it with working maps constructed for its own requirements on a larger scale than the standard topographical scale, but on a trigonometrical basis, and in co-operation with the Survey Department. But this brief capitulation gives no sort of idea of the vast amount of valuable topographical and other work for the requirements of the local Administrations and the public at large—always toilsome, often perilous—which has been accomplished, quite apart from and in quantity far exceeding the non-graphical and more purely scientific work which I have been describing. Its magnitude and variety are such that a mere list of the officers who have taken prominent shares in it, from first to last, would be too long to read to you. Three names, however, I must mention: frst, that of General Sir Henry Thuillier, who became Suryeyor-General on the same day that I succeeded to the superintendence of the Great Trigo- nometrical Survey, and with whom I had the honour of co- operating for many years; under his administration a much larger amount of topography was executed than under any of his predecessors, and a great impetus was given to the litho- graphic, photographic, engraving and other offices in which the maps of the survey are published ; secondly, that of Colonel Sconce, who became Deputy Surveyor-General soon after my accession in 1878 to the Survey-Generalship, and with whom I was associated for some years, much to my gratification and ad- vantage, in various matters, but more particularly in the esta- blishment of cadastral surveys on a professional basis at a moderate cost, to render them more generally feasible, which was a matter of the utmost importance for the administration of the more highly populated portions of the British provinces ; and ¢hirdly, that of Lieutenant-Colonel Waterhouse, who has for many years superintended the offices in which photography is employed, in combination with zincography and lithography, for the speedy reproduction ex masse of the maps of the Survey, and has done much to develop the art of photograyure, whereby drawings in brushwork and mezzotint may be reproduced with a degree of excellence rivalling the best copperplate engraving, and almost as speedily and cheaply as drawings in pen and ink work are reproduced by photo-zincography. Mr. Clements Markham’s Memoir on the Indian Surveys gives the best account yet published of the several graphical surveys up to the year 1878. In that year the Trigonometrical, Topo- graphical, and the Revenue branches, which up to that time had constituted three separate and almost independent departments, were amalgamated together into what is now officially designated ““the Survey of India.” In the same year the chronicle so well commenced by Mr. Markham came to an end on his retirement from the India office—unfortunately, for it is a work of excel- lence in object and in execution, and most encouraging to Indian surveyors, who find their labours recorded in it with intelligent appreciation and kindly recognition. During the present meeting, several papers by officers of the Survey will be read—one by Colonel Barron, in person, on the cadastral surveys in the organisation of which he has taken a leading share ; by Major:Baird, on the work of spirit-levelling, which he superintends conjointly with the tidal observations ; by Colonel Godwin Austen, on Lieutenant-Colonel Woodthorpe’s recent journey from Upper Assam to the Irawadi river; by Colonel Branfill, on the physical geography of Southern India ; and by Colonel Tanner, on portions of the Himalayas, and on recent explorations in Southern Tibet. Major Bailey will also read a paper on:the forest surveys. SECTION G MECHANICAL SCIENCE OPENING ApDpREss BY B. BAKER, M.INsT.C.E., PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION Two hundred and fifty-seven Presidential Addresses of one kind and another have been delivered at meetings of the British Association since the members last mustered at Aberdeen. I need hardly say that the candid friend who informed me of this interesting fact most effectually dispelled any illusion I may NA TOL = r [Sept. 17, 1885 have previously entertained as to the possibility of preparing an address of sufficient novelty and suggestiveness to be worthy of your attention, and I can only hope that any shortcomings will be dealt with leniently by you. One compensating advantage obviously belongs to my late appearance in the field—I have 257 models of style upon which to frame my address. My dis- tinguished predecessor, Sir Frederick Bramwell, has a style of his own, in which wit and wisdom are combined in palatable proportions ; but were I to attempt this style I should doubtless incur the rebuke which a dramatic critic of Charles the Second’s time administered to a too ambitious imitator of a popular favourite: ‘‘ He’s got his fiddle, but not his hands to play on’t.” I must search further back than last year, therefore, for a model of style, and the search reminds me that I labour under a double disadvantage : firstly, that only two addresses intervene between the present one and that of my partner, Mr. John Fowler, with whom I have so long had the honour of being associated, and whose professional experiences, as set forth in his address, are necessarily so largely identical with my own; and, secondly, that within the same period I have read before this Section two somewhat lengthy papers on the work which is at present chiefly engaging the attention of Mr. Fowler and myself—the great Forth Bridge. Although, for the reasons aforesaid, I am conscious that my address may fail in novelty, I cannot honestly profess to feel a difficulty in preparing an address of some kind, for the subjects embraced under the head of ‘‘ Mechanical Science” are so in- exhaustible that even the youngest student might safely accept the responsibility of speaking for an hour on some of them. Prof. Rankine, addressing you thirty years ago, said it was well understood that questions of pure or abstract mechanics form no part of the subjects dealt with in this Section. With character- istic clearness of conception and precision of language he told you what the term ‘‘mechanical science” meant, and, after thirty years’ interval, his words may be recalled with advantage to every one proposing to prepare an address or report for this Section. ‘‘ Mechanical science,” said Prof. Rankine, ‘‘ enables its possessor to plan a structure or machine for a given purpose without the necessity of copying some existent example; to compuie the theoretical limit of the strength and stability of a structure or the efficiency of a machine of a particular kind ; to ascertain how far an actual structure or machine fails to attain that limit, and to discover the cause and the remedy of such shortcoming ; to determine to what extent, in laying down principles for practical use, it is advantageous for the sake of simplicity to deviate from the exactness required by pure science ; and to judge how far an existing practical rule is founded on reason, how far on custom, and how far on error.” There is thus an ample text for many discourses ; but, as I am not writ- ing a treatise on engineering, but merely delivering a. brief address, I will confine my attention at present to a particular case of the branch of mechanical science referred to in the last clause of Prof. Rankine’s definition, and will ask you to con- sider how far the existing practical rules respecting the strength of metallic bridges are ‘‘ founded on reason, how far on custom, and how far on error.” The first question obviously is, What are the rules adopted by engineers and Government departments at the present time ?—and it is one not easily answered. I have for some time past been re- ceiving communications from leading Continental and American engineers, asking me what is my practice as regards the admiss- ible intensity of stress on iron and steel bridges, and in replying I have invited similar communications from themselves. As a result I am able to say that at the present time absolute chaos prevails. The old foundations are shaken, and engineers have not come to any agreement respecting the rebuilding of the structure. The variance in the strength of existing bridges is such as to be apparent to the educated eye without any calcula- tion. If the wheels of a miniature brougham were fitted to a heavy cart the incident would excite the derision even of our street boys, and yet equal want of reason and method is to be found in hundreds of bridges in all countries. It is an open secret that nearly all the large railway companies are strengthen- ing their bridges, and necessarily so, for I could cite cases where the working stress on the iron has exceeded by 250 per cent. that considered admissible by Jeading American and German bridge-builders in similar structures. ; ‘ In the case of old bridges the variance in strength is often partly due to errors in hypothesis and miscalculation of stresses. In the present day engineers of all countries are in accord as to Sept. 17, 1885 | NATORE 489 the principles of estimating the magnitude of the stresses on the different members of a structure, but not so in proportioning the members to resist those stresses. The practical result is that a bridge which would be passed by the English Board of Trade would require to be strengthened 5 per cent. in some parts and 60 per cent. in others before it would be accepted by the German Government or by any of the leading railway com- panies in America. This undesirable state of affairs arises from the fact that in our own and some other countries many en- gineers still persistently ignore the fact that a bar of iron may be broken in two ways—namely, by the single application of a heavy stress or by the repeated application of a comparatively light stress. An athlete’s muscles have often been likened to a bar of iron, but, if ‘‘ fatigue” be in question, the simile is very wide of the truth. Intermittent action—the alternative pull and thrust of the rower, or of the labourer turning a winch—is what the muscle likes and the bar of iron abhors. Troopers dismount to rest their horses, but to relieve a bar of iron temporarily of load only serves to fatigue it. Half a century ago Braithwaite cor- rectly attributed the failure of some girders, carrying a large brewery vat, to the vessel being sometimes full and sometimes empty, the repeated deflection, although imperceptibly slow and wholly free from vibration, deteriorating the metal, until, in the course of years, the girders broke. These girders were of cast- iron; but it was equally well known that wrought-iron was similarly affected, for in 1842 Nasmyth called the attention of this Section to the fact that the ‘‘alternate strain” in axles rendered them weak and brittle, and suggested annealing as a remedy, he having found that an axle which would snap with one blow when worn would bear eighteen blows when new or after being annealed. So important a matter as the action of intermittent stresses could not escape the attention of the Royal Commissioners appointed in 1849 to consider the application of iron to railway structures, and some significant and sufficiently conclusive ex- periments were made by Capt. Douglas Dalton and others. Cast- iron bars 3 inches square and 13 feet 6 inches span between the supports were deflected, both by the slow action of a cam and the percussive action of a swinging pendulum weight. When the deflection was that due to one-third of the breaking weight, about 50,000 successive bendings by the cam broke one of the bars, and about 1000 blows from the pendulum another. When the deflection was increased from one-third to one-half, about 500 applications of the cam, and 100 blows, sufficed to rupture two of the specimens. Slow-moving weights on bars and ona small wrought-iron box girder gave analogous results ; and the deduction drawn by the experimenters at the time was that “iron bars scarcely bear the reiterated application of one-third the breaking weight without injury, hence the prudence of always making beams capable of bearing six times the greatest weight that could be laid upon them.” Although these experiments were entirely confirmatory of all previous experience, they would appear to have little influenced the practice of engineers, since Fairbairn, more than ten years later, in a communication to this Section, said that opinions were still much divided upon the question whether the con- tinuous change of load which many wrought-iron structures undergo has any permanent effect upon their ul'imate powers of resistance. To assist in settling the question he communicated to the Association the results of some experiments carried out by himself and Prof. Unwin on a little riveted girder 20 feet span and 16 inches deep. Once more the same important but disregarded facts were enforced on the attention of engineers. About 5000 applications of a load equal.to four-tenths of the calculated breaking load fractured the beam with the small ulti- mate deflection of three-eighths of an inch, and subsequently, when repaired, the beam broke with one-third of the load and a deflection of but a quarter of an inch, which sufficiently indicated how small a margin the factor of safety of four, when currently adopted, allowed for defective manufacture, inferior material, and errors in calculation, Still nothing was done, and the general practice of engineers and the Board of Trade regulations continued unaltered. Soon after the introduction of wrought-iron bridges on railways, the testimony of practical working was added to that of experi- ments. In 1848 several girder bridges of unduly light propor- tions were erected in America, and one of 66 feet span broke down under the action of the rolling load in the same manner as Fairbairn’s little experimental girder. Again, in early American timber bridges the vertical tie-rods were often subject to stresses oscillating between 1 ton and fo tons per square inch and up- wards. Many of these broke, as did also the suspension bolts in platforms subjected to similar stresses. In my own ex- perience, dozens of broken flange-plates and angle-bars, and hundreds of sheared rivets, have been the silent witnesses of the destructive action of a live load. Like evidence was afforded by early constructed iron ships deficient in girder strength. Under the alternating stresses due to the action of the waves weak- nesses not at first apparent would, in the course of time be developed, and additional strength, in the way of stringers and otherwise, become imperative. If none of the preceding evidence had been forthcoming, the results of the historical series of experiments carried out by Wohler for the Prussian Ministry of Commerce would alone be conclusive. For the first time a truly scientific method of investigation was followed, and an attempt was made to deter- mine the laws governing the already proved destructive action of intermittent stresses. In previous experiments the bar or girder was alternately fully loaded and wholly relieved of load. Wohler was not satisfied with this, but tested also the result of a partial relief of load. The striking fact was soon evidenced on testing specimens under varying tensions, that the amount of the variation was as necessary to be considered as that of the maximum stress. Thus, an iron bar having a tensile strength of 24 tons per square inch broke with about 100,000 applications of a stress varying from 7/ to 21 tons, but resisted 4,000,000 applications of the 21 tons when the minimum stress was varied from zz/ to 11} tons. The alternations of stress in the case of some test pieces numbered no less than 132,000,000 ; and too much credit cannot be bestowed by engineers upon Wohler for the ingenuity and patience which characterised his researches. As a result, it is proved beyond all further question that any bar or beam of cast iron, wrought iron, or steel may be fractured by the continued repetition of comparatively small stresses, and that, as the differences of stress increase, the maximum stress capable of being sustained diminishes. Various formulz based upon the preceding experiments have been proposed for the determination of the proper sectional area of the members of metallic structures. These formulz differ in some essential respects, and doubtless many experiments are still required before any universally accepted rules can be laid down. Probably at the present time the engineers who have given the most attention to the subject are fairly in accord in holding that the admissible stress per square inch in a wrought- iron girder subject to a steady dead load would be one and a half times as great as that in a girder subject to a wholly live load, and three times that allowable in members subject to alternate tensile and compressive stresses of equal intensity, such as the piston-rod of a steam-engine or the central web-bracing of a lattice girder. If the alternations of stress to be guarded against are not assumably infinite in number, but only occasional —as in wind bracing for hurricane pressures, or in a vessel amongst exceptionally high waves—then the aforesaid ratio of 3, 2, and 1 would not apply, but would more nearly approach the ratios 6, 5, and 4. Hundreds of existing railway bridges which carry twenty trains a day with perfect safety would break down quickly under twenty trains per hour. This fact was forced on my attention nearly twenty years ago by the fracture of a number of iron girders of ordinary strength under a five-minute train service. Similarly, when in New York last year I noticed, in the case of some hundreds of girders on the ‘‘ Elevated Railway,” that the alternate thrust and pull on the central diagonals from trains passing every two or three minutes had developed weaknesses which necessitated the bars being replaced by stronger ones after a very short service. Somewhat the same thing had to be done recently in this country with a bridge over the Trent, but the train service being small the life of the bars was measured by years instead of months. If ships were always amongst great waves the number going to the bottom would be largely increased, for, according to Mr. John, late of Lloyd's, ‘‘many large merchant steamers afloat are so deficient in longitudinal strength that they are liable under certain conditions of sea to be strained in the upper works to a tension of from 8 to 9 tons per square inch, and to a compression of from 6 to 7 tons— stresses which the experiments already referred to proved would cause failure after a definite number of repetitions. Similarly, on taking ground or being dry-docked with a heavy cargo on board, it has been shown that vessels are liable to stresses of over II tons per square inch on the reverse frames, but no 490 NATURE [Sepé. 17, 1885 permanent injury results from such high stresses, because the number of repetitions is necessarily very limited. It appears natural enough to every one that a piece even of the toughest wire should be quickly broken if bent backward and forward to a sharp angle; but, perhaps, only to locomotive and marine engineers does it appear equally natural that the same result would follow in time if the bending were so small as to be quite imperceptible to the eye. A locomotive crank axle bends but 1-34th of an inch, and astraight driving axle the still smaller amount of 1-64th of an inch under the heaviest bending stresses to which they are subject, and yet their life is limited. During the year 1883 one iron axle in fifty broke in running, and one in fifteen was renewed in consequence of defects. ‘Taking iron and steel axles together, the number then in use on the railways of the United Kingdcm was 14,848, and of these, 911 required renewal during the year. Similarly, during the past three years no less than 228 ocean steameis were disabled ty broken shafts, the average safe life of which is said to be about three or four years. In other woids, experience has proved that a very mederate stress alternatirg from tension to ccmpression, if repeated about one hundred million times, will cause fracture as surely as a sharp} ending to an angle repeated perhaps only ten times. I have myself made many experiments with a view to elucidate the laws affecting the strength of iron- and steel-work subject to frequent alte:nations of stress. Perhaps the most suggestive series was one in which I subjected flat steel tars about 3 feet long, in pairs, to repeated bendirgs until one bar broke, and then testing the suviving bar urder Cirect tensile and cempress- ive stresses to ascertain to what extent the metal had deterior- ated. It had come under my notice, as a practical engineer, that if the compression members of a structure were unduly weak the fact became quickly evident, perhaps under the test load ; but if, on the other hand, the tension members were weak, no evidence might appear of the fact until frequent repetition of stresses during several years had caused them to fracture with- out any measurable elongation of the metal. In the case of crank-shafts, also, the fracture is invariably due to a tearing and not a crushing action. It appeared to me, therefore, eminently probable that repetition of stresses might be far more prejudicial to tension than to compression members, and, if so, the fact ought to be taken account of in proportioning a structure. This proved to be the case in my experiments. For example, the companion bars to those which had broken with 18,009 reversals of a stress less than half the original breaking weight behaved, when tested as columns thirty diameters in length, precisely the same as similar bars which had done no work at all, whereas when tested in tension the elongation was reduced from the original 25 per cent. to 2°5 per cent., and the fracture appeared to indicate that the bars had been made of three different kinds of steel imperfectly welded together. With a stress reduced by one-fourth the number of bendings required to break the bars was increased to 1,200,000. In this instance the calculated maximum working stress on the extreme fibres was 43 per cent. of the direct ultimate tensile resistance of the steel, and about 30 per cent. of the stress the tar was capable of sus- taining as a beam under the single application of a load. Of course, the bars failed by tension, and the extreme fibres had thus deteriorated as regards tensile stresses to the extent indi- cated by the above percentages. Tested as a column, however, the injury the bar had received from the 1,200,coo bendings was inappreciable. The ductility was of course very largely reduced, but ductility is a quality of comparatively little importance when a material is in compression. There is no ductility in the slender Gothic stone columns of our cathedrals, which, though heavily stressed, have carried their loads for centuries. As I found repeated bendings raised the limit of elasticity, I rather antici- pated finding an increased resistance from this cause in long columns. ‘This did not prove to be the case, nor did I find any difference in short columns four diameters in length. In addition to the preceding experiments with rectangular bars, I have tested the endurance of many revolving shafts of cast iron, wrought iron, and steel, with similar results. About 5000 reversals of a stress equal to one-half the static breaking weight sufficed generally to cause the snapping of a shaft of any of the above materials. When the stress was reduced and the number of applications increased, I found the relative endurance of solid beams to be more nearly proportional to the tensile strength of the metal than to the breaking weight of the beam, a distinction of great importance where axles, springs, and similar things are concerned. Many of my experiments were singularly suggestive. Thus, it was instructive to see a bar of cast iron loaded with a weight which, according to Fairbairn’s experiments, it should have carried for a long series of years, broken in two minutes when set gently rotating. Also to find a bar of the finest mild steel so changed in constitution by some months of rotation as to offer no advantages either in strength or toughness over a new cast-iron bar of the same section. Although, as already stated, many more experiments are required before universally acceptable rules can he laid down, I have thoroughly convinced myself that, where stresses of varying intensity occur, tension and compression members should be treated on an entirely different basis, If, in the case of a tension member, the sectional area be increased 50 per cent. because the stress, instead of being constant, ranges from mz/ to the maximum, then I think 20 per cent. increase would be a liberal allowance in the case of a compression member. I have also satisfied myself that if a metallic railway bridge is to be built at a minimum first cost, and be free from all future charges for structural maintenance, it is essential to vary the working stress upon the metal within very wide limits, regard being had not merely to the effect of intermittent stresses, but also to the relative limits of elasticity in tension and compression members even under a steady load. Why an criginally strong and ductile metal should become weak and brittle under the frequent repetition of a moderate stress has not yet been explained. Lord Bacon touched upon the subject two or three centuries ago, but you may consider his explanation not wholly satisfactory. He said, ‘‘ Of bodies, some are fragile, and some are tough and not fragile. Of fragility, the cause is an impotency to be extended, and the cause of this inaptness isthe small quantity of spirits.” I am sorry to haveno better explanation to offer, but whatever may be the immediate cause of fragility, no doubt exists that it is induced in metals by frequent bendings, such as a railway bridge undergoes. This fact, however, is not recognised in our Board "of Trade Regula- tions, which remain as they were in the dark ages, as do those of the Ministry of Public Works of France and other countries. With us it is simply provided that the stress on an iron bridge must not exceed 5 tons per square inch on the effective section of the metal. In Fiance it is still worse, as the limiting stress of rather under 4 tons per square inch is estimated upon the gross section, regardless of the extent to which the plates may be perforated by rivet holes, In neither case is any regard had in the rules to intermittent stresses or the flexure of compression members. In Austria the regulations make a small provision for these elements ; and American specifications make a large one, the limiting stresses, instead of being constant at 5 tons, as with us, ranging from about 24 tons to 6} tons per square inch, according to circumstances. It is hardly necessary that I shouid say more to justify my statement that, as regards the admissible intensity of stress on metallic bridges, absolute chaos prevails. Engineers must remember that if satisfactory rules are to be framed, they, and not Governmental departments, must take the initiative. In former days the British Association did much to direct the attention of engineers to this important matter, but, so far as I know, the subject has been dropped for the past twenty years, and I have ventured, therefore, to bring it before you again in some detail. We are here avowedly for the advance- ment of science, and I have not been deterred by the dryness of the subject from soliciting your attention to a branch of science which is sadly in need of advancement. Had I been addressing a less scientific audience I might have been tempted rather to boast of the achievements of engineers than to point out their shortcomings. The progress in many branches of mechanical science during the past fifty years has exceeded the anticipation of the most far-seeing. Fifty years ago the chairman of the Stockton and Darlington Railway, when asked by a Parliamentary committee if he thought any further improvements would be possible on railways, replied that he understood in future all new railways would have a high earth- work bank on each side to prevent engines toppling over the embankments, and to arrest hot ashes, which continually set fire to neighbouring stacks, but in other respects he appeared to think perfection was attained. Shortly before the introduction of locomotives it was also thought perfection was attained when low trucks were attached to the trains to carry the horses over the portions of the line where descending grades prevailed, and all the newspapers announced, with a great flourish of trumpets, W Sept. 17, 1885 | that a year’s experience showed the saving in horseflesh to be fully 33 per cent. Although these views seem childlike enough from our present standpoint, I have no doubt that as able and enterprising engineers existed prior to the age of steam and steel as exist now, and their work was different in direction. In the important matter of water supply to towns, indeed, I doubt whether, having reference to facility of execution, even greater works were not done 2000 years ago than now. Herodotus speaks of a tunnel 8 feet square, and nearly a mile long, driven through a mountain in order to supply the city of Samos with water; and his statement, though long doubted, was verified in 1882 through the abbot of a neighbouring cloister accidentally unearthing some stone slabs. The German Archzological Society sent ont Ernst Fabricius to make a complete survey of the work, and the record reads like that of a modern engineering undertaking. Thus, from a covered reservoir in the hills proceeded an arched conduit about tooo yards long, partly driven as a tunnel and partly executed on the ‘‘ cut and cover ” system adopted on the London under- ground railway. The tunnel proper, more than 1100 yards in length, was hewn by hammer and chisel through the solid lime- stone rock. It was driven from the two ends like the great Alpine tunnels, wishout intermediate shafts, and the engineers of 2400 years ago might well be congratulated for getting only some dozen feet out of level and little more out of line. From the lower end of the tunnel branches were constructed to supply the city mains and fountains, and the explorers found ventilating shafts and side entrances, earthenware socket-pipes with cement joints, and other interesting details connected wifh the water- supply of towns. In the matter of masonry bridges, also, as great works were undertaken some centuries ago as in recent times. Sir John ' Rennie stated, in his presidential address at the Institute of Civil Engineers, that the bridge across the Dee at Chester was the ‘‘ largest stone arch on record.” That is not so. The Dee Bridge consists of a single segmental arch 200 feet span and 42 feet rise ; but across the Adda, in Northern Italy, was built, in the year 1377—more than 500 years ago—a similar segmental arch bridge of no less than 237 feet span and 68 feet rise. Ferario not long since published an account of this, for the period, colossal work, from which it would appear that its life was but thirty-nine years, the bridge having been destroyed for military reasons on December 21, 1416. I believe our American cousins claim to haye built the biggest existing stone arch bridge in the world—that across the Cabin Johns Creek ; but the span, after all, is only 215 feet, or 10 per cent. smaller than the 500- year-old bridge. In timber bridges, doubtless, the Americans will ever head the list, for the bridge of 340 feet span built across the Schuylkill three-quarters of a century ago will pro- bably never be surpassed. Our ancestors were splendid workers in stone and timber, and, if they had been in possession of an unlimited supply of iron and steel I fear there would have been little left for modern bridge-builders to originate. The labours of the present generation of engineers are light- ened beyond all estimate by labour-saving appliances. To prove how much the world is indebted to students of this branch of ! mechanical science, and how rapid is the development of a really good mechanical notion, it is only necessary to refer to the numerous hydraulic appliances of the kind first introduced forty years ago by a distinguished past-President, Sir W. G. Arm- strong. Addressing you in 1854, Sir William Armstrong ex- plained that the object he had in view from the first was ‘‘to provide, in substitution of manual labour, a method of working a multiplicity of machines, intermittent in their action and extending over a large area, by means of transmitted power, produced by a steam-engine and accumulated at one central point.” The number of cases in which this method of working is a desideratum, or even indispensable, would appear to be limitless. I should be sorry, indeed, to have anything to do with building the Forth Bridge if hydraulic appliances were not at hand to do a giant’s work. Let me shortly describe to you what we are doing there at the present time. More than 42,000 tons of steel plates and bars have to be bent, planed, drilled, and riveted together before or after erection, and hydraulic appliances are used throughout. The plates are handled in the shops by numerous little hydraulic cranes of special design, without any complication of multiplying sheaves, the whole arm being raised with the load by a 4-inch direct-acting ram of 6 feet stroke. A total length of no less than 60 miles of steel plates, as beneficial to mankind, though | NATORE 491 ranging in thickness from 14 inches to 2 inch, have to be bent to radii of from 6 feet to 9 inches, which is done in heavy cast-iron dies squeezed together by four rams of 24 inches in diameter, and the same stroke. With the ordinary working pressure of 1000 lbs. per square inch, the power of the press is thus about 1750 tons. Some 3000 pieces, shaped like the lid of a box, 15 inches by 12 inches wide, with a 3-inch deep rim all round, were required to be made of 4-inch steel plate, and this was easily effected in two heats by a couple of strokes of a 14-inch ram. In numberless other instances steady hydraulic pressure has been substituted by Mr. Arrol, our able contractor, for the usual cutting and welding under the blacksmith’s hammer. Hydraulic appliances are also an indispensable part of the scheme for erecting the great 1700 feet spans. Massive girders will be put together at a low level, and be hoisted as high as the top of St. Paul’s Cathedral by hydraulic power. Continuous girders, nearly a third of a mile in length, will be similarly raised. Not only the girders, but workmen, their sheds, cranes, and appliances will be carried up steadily and imperceptibly as the work of erection proceeds, on platforms weighing in some instances more than 1000 tons. It is hardly necessary to say that every rivet in the bridge will be closed up by hydraulic power, the machines being in many instances of novel design, specially adapted to the work. Thus the bed-plates, which in ordinary bridges are simple castings, in the Forth Bridge are necessarily built up of numerous steel plates, the size of each bed-plate being 37 feet long by 17 feet 6 inches wide. To grip together the 47 separate plates into a solid mass, 3800 rivets 1{ inches in diameter with countersunk heads on both sides are required, and, remembering that the least dimension of the bed- plate is 17 feet 6 inches, it will be seen that the ordinary ‘‘ gap”’- riveter would not be applicable. A special machine was there- fore designed by Mr. Arrol, consisting of a pair of girders and a pair of rams, between which the bed-plate to be riveted to- gether lies. A double ram machine had for like reasons to be devised for riveting up the great tubular struts of the bridge. Not merely in the superstructure, but in the construction of the foundations, were hydraulic appliances of a novel character indispensable at the Forth Bridge. Huge wrought-iron caissons or cylinders, 70 feet diameter and 72 feet high, were taken up and set down as readily asa man would handle a bucket. In sinking these caissons through the mud and clay of the Forth compressed air was used. When the boulder-clay was reached the labour of excavating the extremely hard and tenacious mate- rial in the compressed-air chamber proved too exhausting, pick- axes were of little avail, and the Italian labourers who were chiefly employed lost heart over the job altogether. But a giant power was at hand, and only required tools fit for the work. Spades with hydraulic rams in the hollow handles were made, and, with the roof of the compressed air-chamber to thrust against, the workmen had merely to hold the handle vertically, turn a little tap, and down went the spade with a force of three tons into the hitherto impracticable clay as sweetly as a knife into butter. Probably, when addressing you thirty years ago, Sir William Armstrong never anticipated that a number of hydraulic spades would be digging away in an electrically lighted chamber or diving-bell, 70 feet diameter and 7 feet high, 90 feet below the waves of the sea; but still the spades come strictly within the definition of the class of machines, inter- mittent in their action and extending over a large area, which it was his aim tointroduce. It would be possible, indeed, with the appliances at the Forth Bridge, to arrange that the simple opening of a valve should start digging at the bottom of the sea, riveting at a height of nearly 400 feet above the sea, and all the multifarious operations of bending, forging, and hoisting, extending over a site a mile and a half in length. It would not only be impossible to build a Forth Bridge, but it would be equally impossible to fight a modern ironclad with- out the aid of hydraulic appliances. Most of the Presidents of this Section have referred in the course of their addresses to our navy, and certainly the subject is a tempting one, for the pro- gress of mechanical science in recent years could not be better illustrated than by a description of the innumerable appliances which go to the making and working of a modern ironclad. Let me quote a single passage from a pamphlet by a naval officer, which caused a great stir a few years before the Crimean war, that I may recall to your minds what was the speed and what the armament of our fleet at that comparatively recent period. ‘‘Conceive,” said Capt. Plunkett, R.N., ‘‘a British and French fleet issuing simultaneously from Spithead and 492 Cherbourg ; seven hours’ steaming at the rate of six miles an hour will bring them together. A single glance at the heavy and well-appointed tiers of a line-of-battle ship’s guns will satisfy any one that they are no toys to be placed in the hands of novices. Formidable batteries of the heaviest ordnance are there—not a gun under a 32-pounder, and many 68-pounder shell guns.” In little more than a quarter of a century engineers have changed all that, and advanced to 20-knot vessels and 120- ton guns. Archeologists tell us that our predecessors in mechanical science of the Stone Age were apparently a thous- and or more years in finding out that the best way of fitting an axe was to slip the handle through the axe and not the axe through the handle. Engineers of the present day may be ex- cused, therefore, for occasionally illustrating the rapidity of the advance of their science by contrasting the ships of thirty years ago with our modern ironclads. The latest type of battle-ship weighs, fully equipped, about 10,000 tons. There are about 3400 tons of steel in her hull, apart from armour, which, with its backing, will weigh a further 2800 tons. The machinery, largely of steel, is about 1400 tons ; the armament, including ammunition, 1100 tons ; the coals, 1100 tons ; and general equipment, 270 tons. A detailed description bristles with the word ‘‘steel,” and enthusiastic newspaper re- porters sent down to Chatham Dockyard can no more ‘‘spin out their copy ” with Cowper’s oft-quoted lines on the ‘* Launch of a First-Rate” :— ‘Giant oaks of bold expansion O’er seven hundred acres fell, All to build thy noble mansion, Where our hearts of oak do dwell.” A latter-day poet might boast of 700 acres being exhausted by a single vessel, but it would be a coal-field and not a forest. Ac- cepting Prof. Phillips’s estimate of the average rate of formation of coal, it may be shown that a hard-worked American liner during her lifetime burns as much coal as would be produced on the area of 700 acres in a period of 2000 years. Weare thus with our steel ships using up our primeval forests at a far more extravagant rate than that at which our immediate forefathers cleared the oak forests. Coal is the great stimulant of the modern engineer. Pope Pius the Second has left on record an expression of the astonishment he felt when visiting Scotland, in the fifteenth century, on seeing poor people in rags begging at church doors, and receiving for alms pieces of black stone, with which they went away contented. To such early familiarity with coal may, however, be due the fact that Scotland has ever led the way in the development of the-steam-engine, and that at the date of the battle of Waterloo she had built and registered seven steam-vessels, whilst England could boast of none. Probably none but a poet or a painter would wish for a return to our old oak sailing ships. Some few people still entertain the illusion that the picturesque old tubs were better sea-boats than our razor-ended steamers; but, speaking of them in 1846, Admiral Napier said: “The ships look very charming in harbour, but to judge of them properly you should see them in a gale of wind, when it would be found they would roll 45° lee- ward and 43° windward.” Even our first ironclads were not so bad as that, for although, according to the Zzmes, when the squadron was on trial in the Bay of Biscay, the ships rocked wildly to the rising swell and the sea broke in great hills of surf, yet the maximum roll signalled by the worst roller of the lot— the Lord Warden—was but 35° leeward and 27° windward —a total range of 62° as compared with 88° in the old line-of- battle ships. We have heard much about the state of the navy during the past twelve months. A dip into the publications of the British Asso- ciation—which in this, as in other respects, afford a fair indica- tion of what is uppermost in people’s minds—will show that similar discussions have recurred periodically, at any rate since 1830. If we consult Hansard, as I had occasion to do recently, we find the same remark applies to periods long antecedent to 1830. It amounts almost to a religious conviction in the mind of a Briton that Providence will not be on his side unless his fleet is at least equal to that of France and Russia united, What would be said now of a Minister who met an attack on the administration of the navy by demonstrating that we had alf as many line-of-battle ships as Russia : and yet that was literally done less than fifty years ago. Speaking in the House of Com- mons on March 4, 1839, the Secretary of the Admiralty said: NALURE [ Sept. 17, 1885 ‘“For the last six months unceasing attacks have been made upon our naval administration, describing our navy as in a state of the utmost decrepitude, and Tory papers say that shameful reductions have been made in the navy by the present Govern- ment. It will be a consolation to my honourable friends to be assured that we have for years lived unharmed through dangers as great as that to which we are now exposed. In 1817 we had 15 sail-of-the-line in commission, and Russia had 30; in 1823 we had 12, and Russia 37 ; in 1832 we had rr, and Russia 36; and now we have 20, and the Russians 43, having raised our ships to nearly half the number of those of Russia. Now as to our guns. The past twelve months is by no means the first occasion on which the armament of our navy has been attacked. Three years subsequent to the speech of the Secre- tary of the Admiralty just referred to, Sir Charles Napier made a statement from his place in Parliament of so extraordinary a character that I make no apology for quoting his exact words, as a reminder of the past and a warning for the future: ‘‘ At the end of the last war the guns were in such a bad state that, when fired, they would scarcely hit an enemy, and during the latter period of the American war a secret order was issued that British ships of war should not engage American frigates, be- cause the former were in such an inefficient state.” As for him- self, said the plain-spoken old admiral, when he got the order he put it in ‘‘the only place fit to receive it, the quarter- galley.”’ Happily, from our insular position, the change which the pro- gress of mechanical science has wrought in military operations has not been brought home to the people of this country in the same vivid manner that it has to the people of the continents of Europe and America. In the American war, the Franco-Ger- man war, and the Russo-Turkish war the construction and equipment of railway works by engineers was an essential part of all great movements. The Russians, in 1877, constructed a railway from Bender to Galatz, 180 miles in length, in fifty-eight working days, or at the rate or more than three miles per day. Altogether, in the three latter months of that year they laid out and built about 240 miles of railway, and purchased and stocked the line with 110 locomotives and 2200 waggons. ‘They also built numerous trestle bridges, together with an opening bridge and a ferry across the Danube. We have had recent experience of the slowness of primitive modes of transport in the tedious advance of Lord Wolseley’s handful of men in whale-boats up the Nile. It was the inten- tion of the late Khedive, partly from military and partly from commercial considerations, to construct a railway exactly on the line of arlvance subsequently followed by Wolseley. My part- ner, Mr. Fowler, had the railway sent out in 1873, and the works were shortly after commenced. The total length was 550 miles, and the estimated cost, including rolling-stock and repairing- shops, 4,000,000/. Owing to financial difficulties the works were abandoned, but the 64 miles constructed by Mr. Fowler, and the recent extensions of the same by the military, proved of great service to the expedition, even some of the steam-launches being taken by railway to save delays at the cataracts. During the siege of Paris the German forces were dependent upon supplies drawn from their base, and the army requirements were fully met by one line of railway running twelve to fourteen trains per day. Military authorities state that a train load of about 250 tons is equal to two days’ rations and corn for an army corps of 37,000 men and 10,000 horses. The military opera- tions in Egypt have proved that, even in the heart of Africa, railways, steamboats, electric lights, machine guns, and other offspring of mechanical science, are essential ingredients of success. Members of this Section who visited the United States last year not for the first time could hardly have failed to notice that American and European engineering practice are gradually pre- senting fewer points of difference. Early American iron railway bridges were little more than the ordinary type of timber bridge done into iron, and the characteristic features, therefore, were great depth of truss, forged links, pins, screw-bolts, round or rectangular struts, cast-iron junction pieces, and, in brief, an assemblage of a number of independent members more or less securely bolted together, and not, as in European bridges, a solidly riveted mass of plates and angle-bars. At the present moment the typical American bridge is distinctly derived from the grafting of German practice on the original parent stock. Pin connections are still generally used in bridges of any size, but the top members and connections are more European than Se — — ~~ Sept. 17, 18385] NATURE 493 American in construction, whilst for girders of moderate span, such as those on the many miles of elevated railway in New York, riveted girders of purely European type are admittedly the cheapest and most durable. From my conversations with leading American bridge builders, I am satisfied that their future practice and our own will approach still more nearly. We should never think of building another Victoria tubular bridge across the St. Lawrence, or repeat the design of the fallen Tay Bridge, nor would they again imitate in iron an old timber bridge, or repeat the design of the fallen Ashtabula bridge. In one respect the practice in America tends to the production of better and cheaper bridges than does our own practice, and it is this: each of the great bridge-building firms adopts by preference a particular type design, and the works are laid out to produce bridges of this kind. It is an old adage that practice makes perfect, and by adhering to one type, and not vaguely wandering over the whole field of design, details are perfected and a really good bridge is the result. Engineers in America therefore need only specify the span of their bridge, and the rolling load to be provided for, with certain limiting stresses, and they can make sure of obtaining a number of tenders from different makers of bridges, varying somewhat in design, but complying with all the requirements. With us, on the other hand, it is too often the privilege of a pupil to try his *prentice hand on the design for a bridge, and it is no wonder, therefore, that many curious bits of detail meet the eye of an observant foreigner inspecting our railways. The magnificent steel wire rope suspension bridge of 1600 feet span built by Roebling across the East River at New York well marks the advanced state of mechanical science in America as regards bridge-building. It is worthy of note that, at the second meeting of the British Association, held so long back as 1832, there was a paper on suspension bridges, and the author entreated the attention of the scientific world, and particularly of civil engineers, to the serious consideration of the question : “‘How far ought iron to be hereafter used for suspension bridges, since a steel bridge of equal strength and superior durability could be built at much less cost?” ‘*I earnestly call upon the ironmasters of the United Kingdom,” said he, ‘‘ to lose no time in endeavouring to solve this question.” In this, as in many other engineering matters, America has given us a lead. America, is indeed, the paradise of mechanics. When the British Association was inaugurated, years ago, there was, I believe, no intention to have a section for the discussion of mechanical science. Possibly it may have been considered too mean a branch. Even the usually generous Shakespeare speaks contemptuously of ‘‘mechanic slaves, with greasy aprons, rules, and hammers ;” and our old friend Dr. Johnson’s defini- tion of ‘‘mechanical” is ‘mean, servile.’”’ We have lived down this feeling of contempt, and the world admits that the ** greasy apron” is as honourable a badge as the priest’s cassock or the warrior’s coat of mail, and has played as important a part in the great work of civilising humanity and turning bloodthirsty savages into law-abiding citizens. As I have had occasion to refer to Canada and America in the course of my remarks, I cannot refrain from expressing the high appreciation which I am sure every member of this Section entertains of the cordiality and warmth of our reception on the other side of the Atlantic last year. Such incidents make us forget that differences have ever existed between the two countries. I was amused the other day, on reading in Dr. Doran’s ‘‘ Annals of the Stage,” that, in the year 1777, the theatrical company from Edinburgh was captured on its voyage to Aberdeen by an American privateer, and taken off Heaven knows where, for it did not turn up again. This, you will say, was a long time ago; but, if you glance through the speeches of our present gracious Sovereign, you will find one in which her Majesty speaks with ‘‘deep concern” of insurrection in Lower Canada, and of hostile incursions into Upper Canada by certain ‘‘lawless inhabitants” of the United States of North America. This is strange reading, after our last year’s experience. Gentlemen, I may not have carried you with me in some things I have said, but I think you will all agree with me in this: that the statesman who should suffer any slight difference of opinion to develope into a serious breach between ourselves and our brethren in Canada and cousins in America would, to quote the - words of Burke, ‘‘ far from being qualified to be directors of the great movements of this empire, be not fit even to turn a wheel in the machine.” NOTES THE new gallery of fishes at the Natural History Museum is now open to the public, and an addition has been made to the Osteological Gallery by throwing open the pavilion at the west end, in which are exhibited skeletons and skulls of elephants, the giraffe, &c. © A REPORT is current in Rome that the members of the Italian Expedition to Central Africa, under the leadership of Signor Alfredo Massari, have been massacred. THE natural history collections made by the late Dr. Nachtigal, in the course of his tour of annexation on the west coast of Africa, have arrived at Berlin in twenty cases, and the greater part of their contents will be assigned to the new ethnological museum. AN astronomical-mathematical section, under the presidency of Profs. Reye and Christoffel, of Strassburg, has been formed in the Scientific Congress at Strassburg. M. BouquET, a mathematician of some eminence and a Sorbonne professor, died on the roth instant at the age of sixty-six. THE death is announced of Mr. W. A. Guy, M.B., F.R.S., on the roth inst., in the seventy-sixth year of his age. He was fora number of years Dean of the Medical Department in King’s College, and Professor of Hygiene. He was admitted a Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians in 1844, held office as censor in 1855, 1856, and 1866, and as examiner in 1861-3, and in 1861, 1868, and 1875 was appointed Croonian, Lumleian, and Harveian lecturer. Mr. Guy also held a number of other appointments, among which were—honorary secretary to the Statistical Society in 1845, and President in 1873, examiner in forensic medicine at the University of London in 1862, Swiney Prizeman, 1869, and Vice-President of the Royal Society in 1876-7. Mr. Guy devoted much attention for many years to questions of sanitary reform and social science, and in 1878 was appointed one of the Royal Commissioners to inquire into the working of the Penal Servitude Acts ; also in 1879 a member of the Criminal Lunatic Commission. He wasthe author of many essays on physiology and kindred subjects, and also of works of a more general character. Among his principal publications may be mentioned “‘ Principles of Forensic Medicine,” ‘‘ Public Health,” ‘‘ The Factors of the Unsound Mind,” ‘‘ John Howard’s Winter’s Journey,” and his last work, ‘‘ The Claims of Science on Public Recognition and Support.” It may be added that Mr. Guy was likewise editor of Hooper's ‘‘ Physician’s Vade-Mecum.” Cot. PRJEVALSKY has sent the following message, dated July 1, from his camp in Chinese Turkestan :—‘“‘ It is imposs- ible to penetrate into Tibet by the Keria Mountains, the passes through them being impracticable for our beasts of burden, and the Chinese having obstructed the paths with rocks, and having also destroyed the bridges. The native population has given us everywhere a good reception, and, despite the interference of the Chinese, their sympathies with the Russians are openly pro- nounced. We shall pass the present month among the snow- covered mountains between the rivers of Keria and Khoten. About the middle of August we shall go to Khoten, and then by the course of the river of the same name to Aksu. All is well.” THE inaugural address at the commencement of the medical session 1885-86 will be delivered at St. Thomas’s Hospital on October 1, at 3 p.m., by A. O. MacKellar, M.Ch., F.R.C.S., in the theatre of the hospital. AT the request of the Batavian Society of Arts and Sciences, the Government of the Netherlands’ Indies has taken a step 494 which might be imitated by other Governments with advantage. It has distributed fifty copies of Prof. de Hollander’s ‘‘ Hand- leiding bij de Beoefening der Land- en Volkenkunde von Neder. Oost Indié” to its officials in all parts of its colonies, and has instructed them to compare their own observations with the statements in the work, and to report the result. THE German Goyernment has despatched a mission under Baron Pring to the Cheshire salt districts, charged with an investigation of the local industry, and especially of the pheno- menon of land subsidence through brine pumping, Prince Bismarck being about to propose certain legislation affecting similar land- slips in Germany. WITH reference to Mr. G. J. Symons’s letter last week on the subject of the trees in Richmond Park struck by lightning, Mr. Percy Smith writes to the Zimes that ‘‘ the most probable cause of the liability of certain trees to be struck by lightning is that they are bad conductors of electricity. The suggestion that oak trees are struck because they contain iron is both erroneous and absurd. If oak did contain iron it would in all probability increase its conducting power and act as a preservative. If oak contained an estimable quantity of that metal the wood would turn black on exposure to air, on account of the tannin which is present. This blackening may be seen surrounding the iron nails in any oak fence. The contour of the ground, nature of the soil, and the presence or absence of water has more influence in deciding the locality of an electric discharge than the height ofatree. Add to this the difference in conductibility between various woods and we have at once an explanation of the apparent peculiarity of tall trees escaping unharmed while shorter trees are destroyed.” ONE of the proofs commonly advanced for the theory that the cold in northern regions has increased in historic times is that there is an increase of ice on the eastern shores of Greenland ; another is that barley, which was successfully grown in Iceland from its first settlement in 870 down to the middle of the fifteenth century, is no longer cultivated there. It is, there- fore, of much interest to learn from Gloéu; that the Icelandic Government lately attempted to grow barley in the island ona considerable scale, and that the results were very favourable. Norwegian barley from Altenfjord, which is on the extreme north of the barley-growing zone, was planted and was fit for cutting down in eighty-nine days. The decline in the cultivation of barley in Iceland was really due, not to an increase in the cold, but to the fact that cattle-breeding paid better. Attempts are being made to grow other plants: at Reikjavik a botanical garden has been established, and the seeds of 382 kinds of plants which oceur around Christiania have been planted there, It is probable, therefore, that the scanty garden flora of Iceland will be increased in the near future. AT the recent meeting of the French Association at Grenoble, M. de Mortillet read a paper on Tertiary “man before the anthropological section. The question, he said, was not to know whether man already existed in the Tertiary epoch as he exists at the present day. Animals varied from one geological stratum to another, and the higher the animals the greater was the variation. It was to be inferred, therefore, that man would vary more rapidly than the other mammals. The problem}was to discover in the Tertiary period an ancestral form of man, a predecessor of the man of historical times. M. de Mortillet affirmed that there were unquestionably in the Tertiary strata objects which implied the existence of an intelligent being. These objects have, in fact, been found at two different stages of the Tertiary epoch—in the lower Tertiary at Thenay, and in the Upper Tertiary at Otta, in Portugal, and at Puy Courny, in Cantal. These objects proved that at these two distant epochs NATURE e | Sepz. 17, 1885 there existed in Europe animals acquainted with the use of fires and able more or less to cut stone. During the Tertiary period, then, there lived animals less intelligent than existing man, but much more intelligent than existingapes. M. de Mortillet gives the name of axthropithegu?, or ape-man, to the species, which, he maintains, was an ancestral form of historic man, whose skeleton has not yet been discovered, but who has made himself known to us in the clearest manner by his works. A number of flints were exhibited from the strata in question, which had been intentionally chipped and exposed to fire. The general opinion of the savants assembled at Grenoble was that there can be no longer any doubt of the existence in the Tertiary period of an ancestral form of man. AN ingenious instrument for ascertaining the distances of accessible and inaccessible points from the observer and from each other has been invented by Dr. Luigi Cerebotani, a Pro- fessor of the University of Verona. This apparatus consists mainly of a pair of telescopes mounted on a stand and fixed on a tripod for use. The telescopes are both brought to bear on — the object, and a reading is then taken from a graduated scale on the instrument, which, compared with a set of printed tables, gives the distance. By this means the inventor obviates the necessity for the base line, which has hitherto had to be laid down in these operations, and he dispenses with all trigono- metrical calculations. Distances can be measured between far- off objects, and, by means of a sheet of paper fixed on a drawing- board, a rough plan of the country under measurement can be sketched. In the same way the distances of ships at sea or of | moving objects on land can be determined. The apparatus appears to be well adapted for land-surveying, and particularly — for military purposes. In fact, it is stated to have been already — adopted in the German army in the latter connection, and it is — about to be tried by the authorities of our own War Depart- ment. A practical trial was made with this instrument on the Thames Embankment on the 11th inst., when its varied useful- hess was demonstrated. WE have received from the Director of the Batavia Observa- tory a volume containing statistics of the rainfall in the East Indian Archipelago for the year 1884. Rainfall observations were made during the year at 145 stations without interruption, although at the end of the year there were 172 stations, 94 of which were on the islands of Java and Madura. Ir is stated that the Physical and Mathematical Society of Tokio has decided in future to print its official proceedings in Japanese written in Roman letters instead of Chinese cha- racters, although the authors of papers may employ any style or language they please. A similar step is in contemplation by the Japanese Chemical Society. In a note in a late issue of the Bulletin of the United States Fish Commission, Prof. Verrill discusses the ques- tion how long oysters will live out of water. In a fish- monger’s in New Haven his attention was drawn to a large cluster of oysters attached to an old boot which hung in the window from about December 10 to February 25, when he found several of the larger oysters still alive. Most of the smaller and many of the larger ones were dead and dried up ; in the case of the latter the edges of the shells had been broken or chipped. Those that were alive had all been hung up with the front edge of the shell downward and the hinge upward, They had been hanging in the show window, attached to a gas burner, freely exposed to.the air and light. The place was doubtles: cool, but the air must have been dry, and temperature variable. The remarkable duration of the lives of these oysters he attributes to two causes : first, the perfect condition of the edges of the shells, which allowed them to close up very tightly ;_ secondly, th Sept. 17, 1885 | position—suspended as they were with the front edge downward —is the most favourable one possible for the retention of water within the gill-cavity, for in this position the edges of the mantle would closely pack against the inner edges of the shell, effectually closing any small leaks, and the retained water would also be in the most favourable position to moisten the gills, even after part had evaporated. It is also possible that when in this position the oyster instinctively keeps the shell tightly closed, to prevent the loss of water. This incident, says Prof. Verrill, may give hint of the best mode of transporting oysters and clams long distances. Perfect shells should be selected, and they should be packed with the front edge downward, and kept moderately cool, in a crate or some such receptacle which will allow a free circu- lation of air, Under such favourable conditions selected oysters can doubtless be kept from eight to twelve weeks out of water, Mr. Ryder, of Washington, adds that he has had oysters live in the shell for two weeks, where the temperature ranged from 30° to over §o° F., lying on shelves in the cases in his work-room, . exposed the whole time to the air, without showing the slightest —_—s- eee” tendency to decompose. THE schooner Rosario, at New York, reports than on June 23, in lat. 29° 14’ N. and long. 133° 25’ W., at If a.m., two heavy shocks of submarine earthquake were experienced. These were about one minute apart, and the last was much heavier than the first, causing the vessel to tremble violently. The sky was over- cast, and the sea remarkably smooth. THE Russian Geographical Society is said by the St. Peters- burgh journals to contemplate sending a scientific expedition to the Amour for the purpose of studying the surrounding region with regard to its geographical, historical, and commercial features, as well as its mineral resources. If is announced in Brussels that the German Lieutenant | Weissmann, who is in the service of the African Association, has discovered that the River Kassai, which was always believed to join the Congo above the equator station, forms a curve and falls into Lake Leopold IT. ON the night of August 31 to September r temperature fell to a lower point in several districts than is known to have ever before happened so early in the season. Over upper and middle Strathspey in particular the frost was verysevere. At Kingussie the protected thermometer fell to 24°°9 and the exposed to 18°0, while at Grantown the exposed thermometer fell to 15°’0, these being all compared instruments and in good order. At Kin- gussie ice an inch thick was found on the water supplying the hygrometer. In this large district the potato crop is completely destroyed, not only in low-lying situations but also on the high- lying slopes. On the other hand, on crossing from Inverness- shire into Perthshire, the potato crop is safe, the tops being only slightly blackened. At the Ben Nevis Observatory on the same night, with a sky equally clear and cloudless as was over Strathspey, the protected thermometer fell only to 32°'9 and the exposed thermometer to 24°°6, being respectively $°-o and 6°°6 higher than occurred at Kingussie on the same night. THE additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens during the past week include a Barbary Ape (JZacacus tnuus) from North Africa, presented by Miss Bedford; at Bank Vole (Arzicola pratensis) from Essex, presented by Mr. E. Rosling ; a Common Hedgehog (Z7inaceus europeus), British, presented by Master C. Hanrott; a Common Polecat (AZustela putorius), British, presented by Mr. W. Buckley ; an Undulated Grass Parrakeet (Melopsittacus undulatus) from Australia, presented by Malle. de Nujac ; a Smooth Snake (Coronella levis) from Dorsetshire, presented by the Rev. O. P. Cambridge, C.M.Z.S. ; two Douglass’s Horned Lizards (Phrynosoma douglass?) from New Mexico, presented by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt; two Common Chameleons (Chameleon vulgaris) from North Africa, presented by Mr. F. Bland. NATURE ——————— -by Dr. 495 ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA FOR THE WEEK, 1885, SEPTEMBER 20-26 (For the reckoning of time the civil day, commencing at Greenwich mean midnight, counting the hours on to 24, is here employed.) At Greenwich on September 20 Sun rises, 5h. 44m. ; souths, rrh. 53m. 1672s. ; sets, 18h. 2m. 5 decl. on meridian, o° 56’ N.: Sidereal Time at Sunset, 18h. Im. Moon (Full on Sept. 24) rises, 16h. 21m.; souths, 2th. 21m. ; sets, 2h. 27m.* ; decl. on meridian, 12° 12’ S. Planet Rises Souths Sets Decl. on meridian h. m. h. m, h. m. en Mercury... 4 I ELOL5SOn 4) 17/39) 8 51 N. Venus g 12 14 7 19 2 a} ae Sy Mars O 23 8 21 16 19 20 42 N. Jupiter Bol 2 2 ccna eS, ET hae con 15; QaIN. Saturn vy 227 27 cco ONG T4o4Aly <5 1226205 * Indicates that the rising is that of the preceding and the settimg that of the following day. Occultations of Stars by the Moon Corresponding angles from ver- Sept. Star Mag. Disap. Reap. ‘tex to Henttor inverted image h. m. h. m. Co) ° 20 ... 18 Aquarii HO! he OeAyes..19) 55 49 305 Zig BOALC. 77740. 6: ... 22) °8) s.) 28) 22 136 283 2am, BSA. G.8365 -.5. Gk aes Sil 2ice- 16) Ges.) 124, 350 25... « Piscium... pS ee O my s.55 2a) 94 233 BOM Bs ACoA fou OF, cen 20M O) ton 22) 9S 26 299 The Occultations of Stars are such as are visible at Greenwich. Sept. h. f 20 8 Mercury at least distance from the Sun. 22 - Sun in equator. 24 - Partial eclipse of the Moon, but the Moon will set at Greenwich at about sunrise whilst partly obscured by the penumbra and before entering the shadow. SCIENTIFIC SERIALS The Proceedings of the Royal Society of Queensland, 1884, vol. i. parts 2, 3, 4.—We are glad to see that this new Society in one of our leading colonies is advancing rapidly. In the parts before us Mr. Tryon describes certain rock-drawings of the aborigines of Queensland, of a class hitherto undescribed (with plates). Mr. C. W. de Vis, who is one of the most indefatigable contributors, writes on new Australian lizards ; on a new form of the genus Therapon ; on new Queensland lizards; on a new species of Hoplocephalus; on an apparently new species of Halmaturus ; on a new species of Hyla; a description of new snakes with a synopsis of the genus Hoplocephalus ; on the fauna of the Gulf of Carpentaria, and a _conspect of the genus Heteropus. Mr. Bailey gives instalments of his contributions to Queensland Flora. Mr. Broadbent writes on the migrations of birds at the Cape York peninsula, which is a peculiarly favourite spot for observing the migrations of birds from and to New Guinea, for the passage is shortest here. Ethnology is well represented in the numbers before us, for, besides the paper by Mr. Tryon mentioned above, we have one Bancroft on the food of the aborigines of Central Australia, and one by Mr. Duffield on the inhabitants of New Treland and its archipelago, their fine and industrial arts, customs, and language, especially their tattooing. Mr. Knight describes a new species of Parmelia, and Baron von Miiller, the Dendrobium cincinnatum, sp. noy. Mr. Bernays describes exotic fruits new to Queensland. Mr. Pink pleads for the practice of hybridisation of plants; and Dr. Bancroft describes experi- ments with Indian wheats in Queensland. There are numerous other minor contributions. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES PARIS Academy of Sciences, August 31.—M. Bouley, President, in the chair.—On the cyclonic character of the solar spots. in reply to M. Tacchini’s objection, by M. Faye. _ In their normal state the spots, like terrestrial cyclones, are described as of circular form, with funnel-shaped penumbra, concentric circumferences, 496 NATURE [Sep¢. 17, 1835 and vertical axis, varying in size from almost imperceptible pores to abysses large enough to engulph the earth. The me- chanical identity of the two phenomena is thus established, while the absence of this special disposition in the penumbra of certain spots proves nothing against the author’s theory, which accounts both for the development and occasional disappearance of the cyclonic form.—Note respecting M. Bochefontaine’s ex- periment on the origin of cholera, by M. Trécul. A pill con- taining the comma bacillus having been swallowed by M. Bochefontaine with impunity, the author infers that Koch’s germ may not after all be the active principle of cholera. In any case he protests against the ridicule cast upon the experi- menter, whose courageous act*is worthy rather of admiration and reward.—On the part played by the bacilli in the ravages of the vine attributed to Phylloxera vastatrix, by M. Luiz de Andrade Corvo. From his experiments the author concludes that the disease, to which he gives the name of ‘‘ tuberculosis,” is quite distinct from, and independent of, Phylloxera, that it is constitutional and hereditary, and may also be transmitted by contagion, the insect merely playing a secondary part in its propagation.—Octahedrons of sulphur with square base, which is physically a rhombus, by M. Ch. Brame.—On certain points in the physiological action of tanguin, the poison used at ordeals in Madagascar, by M. Ch. E. Quinquand.—Influence of the sun on the vegetation, the vegetable functions and virulence of the cultivated virus of Bacillus anthracis, by M.S. Arloing.—A letter was read by the Perpetual Secretary from King Oscar of Sweden, to the effect that on attaining his sixtieth year, in 1889, he proposes offering a prize of 2500 francs, with a gold medal valued at 1000 franes, to the author of the most important con- tribution to mathematical science. The already nominated judges are a German, a Swiss, and M. Hermite of the Academy. —Experiments with various kinds of wheat, with a view to ascer- tain the most productive variety under normal conditions, by M. P. P. Dehérain. Five varieties yielded the following returns per hectare (24 acres) :— Corn Straw Quintals Hectolitres (Tons) Scholey ... 40°7 bo 49'8 7°323 Scotch red 40°2 48°7 7687 Berwick 37°7 44°8 6°281 Bordeaux 32°3 cor) 39°'8 5°630 Noé Blue 29°6 356 5491 —Account of a meteor observed at Fontainebleau, by M. E. P. Mounier. This meteor was noticed at 7.20 a.m. in a clear sky, describing a parabolic curve from north to south at a velocity much inferior to that of a shooting star. It emitted an intensely white light like that produced by a magnesium wire in combus- tion. Before disappearing it broke into three fragments, which for an instant flared with a still more vivid light, and then suddenly became extinguished. BERLIN Physiological Society, July 3.—Prof. Waldeyer reported on an investigation carried out in his institute by Herr Pischelis into the development of the thyroid gland. The oldest ob- servers, Remak, Kolliker, and, quite recently, His, had found that the thyroid gland was developed medianly from the stomodzerum, a thickening of the wall and then a buttonlike eminence arising thereon, which afterwards became hollow and got transformed into the gland. Seeing the gland was composed of two lateral lobes united by an intermediate piece, Herr His assumed that two protrusions arose from the anterior wall of the stomoderum, coalescing towards the middle. Herren Stieda and Wolfler had afterwards given an entirely different description of the develop- ment of this organ. According to them the thyroid gland was developed from two lateral buds emanating from the branchial cleft, probably from the fourth fissure. In view of this contradiction of authors Herr Born had quite recently resumed this investigation, and had come to the highly surprising con- clusion that the thyroid gland originated both medianly and laterally, the middle part of the gland originating from the uppermost part of the stomodzrum, the lateral portions from the branchial clefts. This fact having no analogy in embryology, Herr Pischelis had scrutinisingly traced the development of the thyroid gland, not only in swine, which had been examined by Herr Born, but also in rabbits and birds. The result was the complete confirmation of Herr Born’s conclusions. Thus was all the ground taken from under the feet of phylogenetic specu- lators regarding the derivation of the thyroid gland. This organ, which was a complete riddle both physiologically and histiolozi- cally, remained inexplicable phylogenetically as well. In the discussion which followed, the effects of the excision of the thyroid glandin men and animals were copiously enlarged on.— Prof. Eulenburg spoke on a communication concerning the influence of the cortex of the cerebrum on the temperature of the body, which had been lately laid before the Society by Dr. Raudnitz, and sought to refute the arguments which had been brought forward by the latter in opposition to the conclusions at which, in conjunction with Herr Landois, he (Prof. Eulenburg) had arrived. The speaker maintained both the exactness of his thermo-electric measurements and the accuracy of his statements in reference to phenomena he had observed regarding the influ- ence of certain parts of the cortex cerebri on the temperature of the part of the body lying opposite. His statements were supported not only by experiments on animals by means of stimulation and cutting, but likewise by a large number of clinical experiences. —Dr. Miillenhoff spoke of the different methods of inyestigat- ing the locomotion of animals, and discussed the advyant- ages afforded in this study by the photographic representation of a large number of individual moments on the part of animals in the act of movement. A rather large series of photographs prepared by Herr Anschiitz in Lissa were shown. They repro- duced the movements of men and horses, of storks dropping into-their nests, lying there, and issuing from them, and of pigeons.—Dr. Salomon next exhibited some beautiful prepara- tions of paraxanthine crystals which he had obtained from urine, and set forth some further qualities and reactions of this xanthine body discovered by him a year ago in the urine. Paraxanthine occurred very sparely ; one thousand litres of urine contained but one grain of paraxanthine. In just as small quantity was another xanthine body present in urine, a body which he had now discoyered and had called provisionally ‘‘ heteroxanthine.” This body was precipitated amorphously in the form of powder or in the shape of poppy-seeds, and with soda formed beautiful crystals. Certain reactions [served to discriminate it from para- xanthine and to range it under the head of xanthine bodies. Of quite peculiar interest was its chemical composition. So far as the elementary analysis had yet gone, heteroxanthine was a methylxanthine, while paraxanthine was a dimethylxanthine, isomeric with theobromine. Seeing, as was known, that coffeine was a trimethylxanthine, by the discovery of the simply methyl- ated xanthine the gap in the series of methylxanthines was filled up. We had now xanthine, methylxanthine = hetero- xanthine, dimethylxanthine = paraxanthine and theobromine, trimethylxanthine = coffeine. CONTENTS PAGE The New Star in Andromeda. By Lord Rosse, F.R.S.; Dr. William Huggins, F.R.S.; W. F. Denning. (Zustrated) . . 5 2. . ~ mo eeel seeiay Letters to the Editor :— Red Rays after Sunset.—George F. Burder . . . 466 Fireball’ —W. F. Denning ~ == (5). eieenenne Pulsation in the Veins.—Dr. J. W. Williams. . . 466 “*Furculum” or ‘‘Furcula.”—Dr. P. L. Sclater . 466 The British Association . 2 Sno) ok ers 466 Section B—Chemical Science—Opening Address by Prof. Henry E. Armstrong, Ph.D., hg Sec.C.S., President of the Section ...... 467 Section C—Geology—Opening Address by Prof. J. W. Judd, F.R.S., Sec.G.S., President of the Section DPOWCES JOMOMSN OES: oc 0 «ele ole Aye Section D—Biology—Opening Address by Prof. W.C. McIntosh, M.D., LL.D., F.R.SS.L. and E., F.L.S., Cor. M.Z.S., President of the Section SeCE ERO fe or sas. o reo 5) 2G {5 Section E—Geography—Opening Address by Gen. J. T. Walker, C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S., President of the Section ....... 2 elke Reo Section G—Mechanical Science—Opening Address by B. Baker, M.Inst.C.E., President of the Section® 7.) ciscaemeyae Perce a oc a le Notes eG lier hed mete me aieias Pee teerer Grae > ) oe tt) Astronomical Phenomena for the Week 1885, September'20-26). 7 See) = +) ee Scientific Serials. ..... Se fol oo sy aie. ek to OES Societiesiand/Academiesieg. em. 2s) =) nee » 495 — NATORE . 497 THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 24, 1885 PUBLIC OPINION AND STATE AID TO SCIENCE A LTHOUGH Sir Lyon Playfair’s address was probably 4 listened to by a large number of members of the British Association as that of a man of science, there can be no doubt that to the vast majority of people outside it came as the utterance of a practical statesman. It was the Chairman of Committees of the House of Commons, the member of Parliament, the man of affairs who spoke, and the address was largely in keeping with these characters, for, as one writer has expressed it, it smells not so much of the laboratory as of the House of Commons. The subject of the endowment of research, of State aid to science, has been before the public for many years, and has been discussed under various cir- cumstances, but it has never attracted at any one time the same earnest and general attention that it has since Sir Lyon Playfair’s address. This is due not less to the pedestal on which the speaker was placed, than to the character and career of the speaker himself. The result has been that the guides and instructors of public opinion all over the country have felt it necessary to address themselves to the subject, and it is therefore possible now to gain some idea of the general drift of the public mind on the question of the claims of science on the State, and of the manner in which these claims should be met, Happily it is a question which men of all shades of opinion can consider without having their vision obscured by party passion and prejudice. As we go on it will be seen that the advocates of the doctrine of /azssez faire are not absent ; but, on the whole, those who have for so long maintained that the country, for the sake of its own happiness and prosperity and in order to maintain its place amongst other nations, must bring the teachings of science to its aid, have every ground for satisfaction. To gauge public opinion on this question, in some measure, we have taken many of the leading journals of the metropolis, and propose to state briefly their views on this particular part of the Presidential Address. As will be seen, all shades of opinion are represented. The 7zmes acknowledges the reproach that countries less wealthy than our own make efforts to encourage science, by the side of which the encouragement afforded in England to science by the State sinks into insignific- ance ; but it urges that, after all, the State is very much what the individuals who compose it choose to make it. Until public opinion exists in an organised and effective shape, the demand for the encouragement of science by the State will be addressed, for the most part, to a faith- less and unbelieving generation. It points, as do a large number of other writers, to our ancient endowments for the benefit of education, and says that, although it may be conceded that they are still largely misapplied, they could be almost indefinitely increased, without direct assistance from the State, if vested interests and lack of intelligent initiative did not so often stand in the way. Until these obstacles are removed by the pressure of an active and enlightened public opinion, the State itself can hardly be expected to do much more than it does. The 7zmzes, there- fore, acknowledges the need, and suggests that it should be VOL. XXXII.—No. 830 met by the proper application of our existing educational endowments. The Standard is as anxious as the President to see our Universities fully, and even lavishly, equipped for the prosecution of research ; but it will not allow that they are so miserably starved as he would lead us to believe :-— “Sir Lyon Playfair falls into the vulgar error of reckon- ing as national expenditure on a given object only the outlay provided from taxation. Our Universities have resources which ought to be set against the State pro- vision made in other countries for the same purposes. We are not, therefore, disposed to join in the outcry against the results of our English system. We believe that private benefactions and private enterprise have done much and are capable of doing more, and doing it better, than the State can do. We are not ashamed of the con- dition of scientific studies in England, and we claim for our countrymen a leading place among those who have built up the fabric of knowledge and promoted the well- being of man.” The Daily Telegraph likewise refers to private munifi- cence which in the past has done in this country what State aid has to do at present in Continental countries, and it urges that scientific people should set before themselves, as their proper aim, to convince public opinion that the teaching of a far greater amount of science is necessary in our schools which are richly enough endowed. The Morning Post maintains that Sir Lyon Playfair has conclusively demonstrated that we do not in respect to scientific education keep abreast of other countries, and in the same proportion as we allow ourselves to be distanced do we deny ourselves the means and the oppor- tunities of developing our industrial and physical re- sources The money laid out in the manner indicated by Dr. Playfair, it says, would be well expended, and would in time be returned a hundredfold to the Imperial Exchequer. The Daily News regards the address as singularly interesting and practical. It is a powerful and, as many will think, a conclusive plea for giving science a larger and a better place in modern life. Sir Lyon Playfair is a practical statesman, and suggests only practical measures. We must not only greatly enlarge our educational machinery, but must at the same time modernise it and bring it into direct relation to modern needs. The Morning Advertiser eulogises the address because every word of it is directed to the one moral, “ Educate, educate, educate.” Never has the cause of scientific education been urged in a manner which commends itself more to common sense and conviction than in the singu- larly well-reasoned monologue wherein Sir Lyon Playfair, from the platform of the British Association, hits a national danger at the same time that he shows the means of correcting it. The Pal/ Mall Gazette pronounces a verdict in favour of Sir Lyon Playfair as clearly and decidedly as the Morning Post. It says :— “No one will be surprised that Sir Lyon Playfair should have selected for the subject ‘of his address the *Relation of Science to the State, and when that is once explained it goes without saying that he made a very cogent plea for an establishment and endowment of science. This plea, it is perfectly certain, cannot be much longer refused. The Laissez-faire Society must Y 498 NATURE oo ; ~ [ Sept. 24, 1885 add a new section to it betimes, for it is inevitable that the liberty of ignorance, which is impoverishing the life of the country at home and letting its trade slip through its fingers abroad, should soon be very rudely interfered with by the State. At present it isa case in this matter of Great Britain contra mundum. Every other civilised country has come to the conclusion by this time that the competition of the world is now a competition of intellect, and has taken steps accordingly. Either we or they must be wrong ; and that it is we is now being brought home to us by the conclusive ‘argument to the pocket. John Bull’s one ambition, according to Mr. Punch, is to “guard his pudding ;’ but then he is beginning to find out that he can only fill his stomach by first filling his head. From the recognition of the vital importance of science to its establishment by the State—in a much less half-hearted fashion than at present—~is in these days a short and inevitable step. The same considerations by which State interference has been justified elsewhere—its greater certainty, its ampler resources, its wider range— are all equally applicable here, and will come to be equally applied.” The Gloée says the “argument” of the address may be conceded. Science deserves from the State all that the State can do for her. Minerva is a sort of alien deity in our intellectual Pantheon, and it is certain that the tendency and pressure of modern conditions impose upon all civilised States, an increasing obligation to learn or to lag. But it questions whether we really are in the evil plight depicted by the President, and points to “the magnificent private endowments of our insular founda- tions”—a source of revenue comparatively non-existent abroad, which, it states, Sir Lyon Playfair strangely ignores. The S¢. Fames’s Gazette thinks that reformers might bend some of their energies to seeing that more tech- nical science and more arts likely to be useful to the craftsman and the mechanic, were brought within the curriculum of the Board Schools. For them we could easily spare some of the literary subjects :-— “With the moral of Sir Lyon Playfair’s scientific sermon, and the journalistic lectures based on it, most people will agree. This is an age of science, and you can do nothing effectual in the practical way, from building ironclads to catching mussels, without a know- ledge of what are called ‘the laws of nature.’ If you do not want your ironclads to be sunk by those of other navies, or your mussel trade to be ruined by foreign com- petition, you will do well to see that the ‘laws of nature’ are properly studied in your schools and colleges. That technical education in this country is not so good as it might be, and as it possibly is elsewhere, may be admitted.” “ But it does not think that this is due to superabund- ance of classics in our system of middle and higher-class education. The Guardian, at the conclusion of a lengthy article devoted to the address, sums up its conclusions on the subject of the relations of the State to science thus :— “On the whole we are inclined to think that the best service the State can render to education is to continue to help it-in the unsystematic and irregular way which has hitherto proved so useful, considering each case as it arises, and adapting its measures to the particular needs which are brought before it. Much more may, no doubt, be done for Science, but it may be done in the same way as before, by grants for special purposes, by expeditions fitted out for costly investigations, perhaps by the foundation of professorships and scholarships. But it would be a misfortune if the free action of individual thought were repressed by being obliged to conform to the rules of a State-imposed system, or if individual exertion and pri- vate munificence were discouraged by the habit, already growing upon us too much, of looking to the State rather than to ourselves for the removal of every difficulty and the promotion of every useful end.” The Atheneum, refers to what has been done by the State for science since the last meeting of the British Association at Aberdeen twenty years ago, and instances the Science and Art Department, the Natural History Museum, grants to the Royal Society, &c., proceeds :— “All this—and much more might be added—shows that British statecraft is not altogether disposed to frown coldly upon science and its devotees. And yet, after all, how little—how miserably little—has been officially done for the promotion of science compared with the magni- tude of our scientific interests and the wealth of our country! It is only by looking abroad and observing what has been accomplished in other lands that we realise our own shortcomings. Germany and France, Switzerland, and some of the other small continental States, have displayed a zeal for scientific progress and a liberal recognition of science which strikingly contrast with our own parsimony. Even when we have under- taken a good work our heart has often failed us in carry- ing it through with dignity and liberality. As a striking and recent example we may refer to the Challenger expe- dition. Here was an expedition splendidly equipped for scientific work at the expense of the nation; and yet, when the results of the expedition come to be published as voluminous reports, they are distributed with so sparing a hand, and are published at so high a price, as to be practically inaccessible to most men of science.” The Saturday Review says that Sir Lyon Playfair’s words are tempered by the consciousness that he may some day be called upon to make them good, and this adds the greater force to the adverse verdict which he is compelled to give, the censure which he cannot help pro- nouncing on the action of the State towards science in England. The reply to the question, What has the State done directly for science? the answer is, But little com- pared with the need, and that little often in the wrong way. As the pocket is said to be the most sensitive part of our race, it is to be hoped that when the British Asso- ciation next meets in Aberdeen its future president will not be forced to repeat Sir Lyon Playfair’s assertion : “ English Governments alone fail to grasp the fact that the competition of the world has become a competition in intellect.” The Spectator speaks of the address as like a sermon preached by a popular clergyman on behalf of science, and wants to know why this branch of thought needs help so much more than art, literature, or pursuits like archeology, or the study of the historic past. It doubts whether in science, as in an army, honourable poverty does not conduce to the highest efforts; and whether richly endowed schools will produce the most successful professors, even in the inferior domain of applied science Wheatstone was great, and was paid? but how much a year, it asks, did Friar Bacon get? or did any body ever pay that early expert in natural science who discovered fire ? “And remembering what the history of thought has been, we cannot but deprecate that spirit of sordidness in which for some years past the claims of science have been ae Sept. 24, 1885 | pressed—the desire for salaries which has been so con- spicuous whenever professors have descanted on the merits of research. We have not the slightest obiection to scientific departments, and quite agree with Sir Lyon Playfair that if the State wants fishes it could learn how to get them better by inquiring of the fishes—who, at least, tell no lies—than of the fishermen, who often do ; but still the picture he draws of the United States Government, with its dozen departments of inquiry into geology, paleontology, ichthyology, chemistry, and the rest, does not inspire us with enthusiasm. It is all very excellent, no doubt ; but it wasall consistent with slavery. France may be handed over to Paul Berts and its judges still take bribes.” The Glasgow Herald pronounces Sir Lyon Playfair’s address a signal success. Those pedantic persons who fail to see the uses of science might find in the address an admirable lesson against the perpetual sneering at what they are pleased to term the abstractions of scientific teaching. Sir Lyon, in a word, has emphasised the teaching that the safety and the progress of every country are one with scientific advance and the growth of scientific precision. On the whole, then, it may be pronounced that the movement in favour of State aid to science, in the interest of the State itself rather than of any particular branch of human knowledge, has advanced and has taken a hold of the public mind. The need is universally acknowledged ; in many quarters it is proposed to meet it by the applica- tion of endowments, ancient and modern, to the changed requirements of the present day; in others—and these amongst the influential—it is boldly declared that the State must link itself, at whatever cost, with science if this country is to hold its high place amongst nations “The same considerations by which State interference has been justified elsewhere—its greater certainty, its ampler resources, its wider range—are all equally applic- able here, and will come to be equally applied.” LEDERER S: LO) DERE LDLLOR [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts. No notice ts taken of anonymous communications. [The Editor urgently requests correspondents to keep their letters as short as possible. The pressure on his space is so great that it is impossible otherwise to insure the appearance even of communications containing interesting and novel facts.) The New Star in Andromeda ON seeing the report in yesterday's Standard of the remark- able change in the nucleus of the nebula of Andromeda, I decided to write to you to mention that, accidentally noticing the nebula on Sunday evening, the 6th, I was struck by its conspicuousness, and set wondering how the ancients came to overlook an object so prominent. As frequent watching for meteors has made that region very familiar to me, it seems likely that an increase in general brightness has occurred, and made me specially notice its appearance. What is of far more interest, however, I have learnt this morning that one of our scholars, Lawrence Richardson, noted and vecorded an apparent change in the nebula, as he saw it in our 4% inch Cooke’s refractor, about 9 p.m. September 1. I append a verbatim copy from his diary of what is perhaps the first English observation of this remarkable phenomenon. J. EDMUND CLARK Friends’ School, Bootham, York, September 9 (Copy) ‘Sept. 1... As a beginning [of the season’s work] looked at Polaris, e Lyre and the great nebula of Andromeda. Noticed a small star in the centre of the latter which I do: not NATORE 499 remember having seen before, and which is not down in a small drawing I made on September 15, 1884. Norwegian Testimony to the Aurora-Souni How widespreid in our days is the belief in the sound of the Aurora in Norway, the following may show. In March, 1885, I despatched some thousand circulars to all parts of the country containing different queries regarding the aurora, and amongst these also the following :—Have you or your acquaint- ances ever heard any sound during aurora, and, in this case, when and in what manner? Up to this date I have received answers to these queries from 144 persons in different parts of the country. Of these there are not less than 92, or 64 per cent., who believe in the existence of the aurora-sound, and 53 (36 per cent.) of these again state they have heard it themselves, whilst the other 39 cite testimonials from other people ; only 21 (15 per cent.) declare they never have heard the sound or know anything about it, and the other 31 (22 per cent.) have not noticed the query at all. 21 negations. There are thus 92 affirmations against The sound is described in these answers in the following manner :— Sizzling (3) Creaking or sizzling An intermediate sound between sizzling and whizzing, some- times as if a piece of paper were torn A kind of sound as when you tear silk Sizzling, th—ss Soft whizzing, alternative with sizzling Soft crackling, sizzling Hissing and crackling : Partly hissing, partly as a kind of rushing whiz Whispering and glistering Strong whiz (3) Whiz or whispering Whiz, or distant, soft, continu- ous whizzing Arather heavy rush, as from a distant waterfall Quiet whizzing, hissing Hissing, or hoy ! hoy ! hoy! Whiz (2) Rush, as from a stream Soft but distant crackling, as from a lighted match-cord Whizzing (5) Whizzing in the air Rush, as when sheep are chased Soft whiz or hissing Soft whiz Soft hissing, soft whiz Whizzing or whistling Rippling Crackling (4) Hissing Hissing noise in the air Crack in the air Din in the air Continuous sounding, rolling din in the air Clashing Flapping, as a flag before the wind Partly as rustling or flapping of sails hanging loose fore the wind, partly as hissing from fire Like the noise from a distant, before the wind-flapping flag, which now and then sends out a creaking sound Like the sound from sails of a ship hanging loose in stormy weather Monotonous whizzing and creaking, as when a sheet flaps before the wind Like burning juniper-boughs Brustling or crackling as if burning juniper As from a feeble burning flame Like burning dried juniper As from the flames of a con- flagration Cutting, hissing as from flames Crackling and creaking, a noise as from a large fire-flame— as, for instance, burning dried boughs Like the sound from a flight of birds Noise as when a bird flaps in the air Strong flapping noise, as when a bird passes very near you Crackling from fire and flapping from wings As of a bird flying through the air with great velocity Whizzing noise, as when strik- ing the air with a whip Noise as from the dart of an arrow Like the buzzing of a bee Roaring noise, as when strong gushes of wind dart through the tree tops of the wood Creaking sound as from the blowing of the wind Distant roar, as from a storm Roaring as from a storm Roaring as from a whirlwind As from a soft-blowing wind Soft breeze Like the soft breeze through a wood Whipping with whisk-brooms Fanning Soft noise, as when fanning with a piece of paper from a distance Soft flapping with a piece of cloth Roaring of the sea Heavy, hollow roar from the sea Sweeping sound, as when dry snow is sweeping over an ice-field As when one holds a cloth by two corners and flaps with it 500 NATURE [ Sept. 24, 1885 Creaking, at other times, as when a sail strikes against the mast or flaps before the wind Partly whizzing, partly as when a sail flaps before the wind As when a sail flaps before the wind As when a thunder-clap passed over us from west to east Soft crackling, as from electric sparks from an_ electrical machine As when stroking a cat’s back against the hairs Christiania, September 16 SopHus TROMHOLT A White Swallow DuRING our walk to-day on the Kendal Road, near Hevers- ham, my brother and Iwere very much surprised to see a white swallow amongst a number of the ordinary kind. The bird’s plumage was entirely white, except the lower part of the breast, which was greyish. We are quite sure of its identity, as it flew around us several times. Can you tell us whether a white swallow is really an uncommon sight ? Mary Briccs Sandside, near Milnethorpe, Westmoreland, September 4 THE HUME COLLECTION OF ASIATIC BIRDS ce some time past the interest of ornithologists has been aroused by the rumour that Mr. A. O. Hume, of Simla, had offered, or intended to give, his celebrated collection of Asiatic Birds to the Trustees of the British Museum ; and | am glad to be able to inform the readers of NATURE that the whole of this collection is now safely housed in the Natural History Museum, the second half having been delivered by the P. and O. Company on the 18th of last month. Those of our readers who are not ornithologists may wish to learn something in the first place about the collec- tion itself and its generous donor. Mr. A. O. Hume, C.B., occupied formerly a high position in the Bengal Civil Service, and devoted for many years his leisure hours to the study of ornithology, and especially of the birds of India. His aim was to form a collection of birds of every part of the British Asian Empire, in which every species should be represented by a complete series of specimens illustrating its range and its variations of colour according to age, season, or | locality. For this purpose he organised a system under which a great number of local observers and collectors (in some years numbering nearly 100) worked for and | with him. He fitted out expeditions with a staff of collectors and taxidermists, under his own leadership or | that of his able former curator, Mr. Davison, into Scinde, Coorg, Manipur, the Malayan Peninsula, Tennasserim, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands ; he acquired by | purchase or donation the Mandelli collection from Sikkim | and Tibet, Brook’s beautiful series from North-Western and Central India, Adam’s Sambhur birds, Bingham’s collections from Delhi and Tennasserim, Scully’s collec- tion from Turkestan. The expense incurred in forming this collection was in proportion to the enthusiasm with which Mr. Hume worked. He had built at Simla a museum for the reception of the collection which should finally form the basis for the preparation of a compre- hensive work on the avifauna of the vast region which he | was exploring. But whilst thus engaged Mr. Hume, with his wonderful activity and ready pen, which had rendered him facile princeps in all matters regarding Indian orni- thology, published numerous papers in an ornithological periodical, Stray Feathers, which he founded and con- ducted for ten or eleven years, as well as several separate works —viz. “Notes on the Indian Raptores,” “ Nests and Eggs of Indian Birds,” “ List of the Birds of India,” “Game Birds of India, Burmah, and Ceylon,” and others. However, during the last few years naturalists, to their great regret, became aware that Mr. Hume’s interest in ornithology began to yield to other important matters of | social and political nature ; and finally, the grievous loss by theft of an enormous mass of ornithological manu- scripts, comprising his materials for “The Birds of the British Asian Empire,” and the whole of his Museum Catalogue, contributed to his determination to abandon his intention of working out his collection, and to present it to some museum where others might utilise the materials he had collected. It is very gratifying that Mr. Hume, “considering the British Museum as the one that has most claims upon him, and Mr. Sharpe as the man most capable in Europe of doing justice to the collection,” offered to present it to the Trustees of that institution. The Trustees, fully aware of the scientific importance of the collection, had no hesitation in accepting the offer. Still, before actually transferring the collection, Mr. Hume was desirous of completely rearranging and placing it in thorough good order, and also of preparing at the same time a Catalogue of the Birds of the Indian Empire containing the results of his long and careful studies. Unfortunately this project could not be carried out owing to the difficulty of finding a competent coadjutor in the work, or rather of obtaining the means of properly remunerating such a person. And as there was great risk in leaving the collection without due curatorial supervision exposed to the deteriorating influences of another rainy season in India, the Trustees obtained Mr. Hume’s consent to transmitting the collec- tion without further delay to England. Mr. Sharpe, who is always ready to sacrifice his personal comfort to duty, started for Simla almost at a moment’s notice, and although, unseasoned as he was, he had to travel and work during the hottest part of the year, he seems to have infused his energy into all who had to help him in the gigantic task of packing the collec- tion. He started on April 25, arrived in Simla on May 21, completed his work by the end of June, and returned to the Museum on August 15, having the satisfaction to find on his return the half of the collection which had pre- ceded him safely lodged in the Museum, while the other half was delivered a week later without loss of, or damage to, any of the cases. The collection comprises about 400 skins of mammals, 63,000 skins of birds, 300 nests, and 18,500 eggs. It was packed in eighty-two cases, the majority with a capacity of 30 cubic feet. Even to those who are used to the inspection of large collections, these figures can hardly convey a correct idea of the magnitude of this addition to the National Museum. Mr. Hume may truly say that such a collection has never been made before ; and such will probably never be made again. Each specimen is , enveloped in a brown paper wrapper with the name of the species and locality written on the outside, proper labels being, besides, attached to the specimen. The skins themselves are in excellent condition, and, thanks to the precautions taken by Mr. Sharpe, they are not likely to harbour or to develop destructive inmates. Specimens which had suffered from damp or insects and to which no special interest was attached, were eliminated during packing. The scientific value of the collection, of course, is not to be measured by the number of specimens only, but by the judgment which determined their selection, by the history attached to many of them, and by the complete- _ ness of the series. We may reasonably assume that it contains about 2000 species, so that on an average each species is represented by some thirty specimens, which number in the majority of the cases would not go beyond a fair illustration of its range and variation. Therefore the number of duplicates which will be eliminated by Mr. Sharpe during the progress of the examination will probably be much smaller than one might anticipate on a superficial inspection ; and I need not say that Mr. Hume’s earnest wish that the series which he has brought together with so much discrimination and care should remain —— — 2 Se Se Sept. 24, 1885 | intact, will be strictly carried out. No doubt a consider- able number of duplicates will be eliminated, and, accord- ing to the wish of the donor, of these a complete set has to be transmitted to the Museum of Comparative Zoology of Harvard College, whilst the remainder are to be utilised for the benefit of the ornithological collection generally. Ornithologists need not go many years back in recalling to their memory the extent of the collection which the late Mr. G. R. Gray had arranged in such a handy fashion in and about his study in the old building at Bloomsbury. What was then regarded a good reference collection has since been enriched by the addition of the Wallace collec- tion from the Indian Archipelago, Capt. Pinwill’s Malayan birds, Sharpe’s African collection, the Gould collection, Salvin and Godman’s European, Australian, and American collections, the Sclater collection, and now by this im- mense collection from every part of the Indian Empire. Years of unremitting labour will be required to get these vast materials into order and to work them out in a manner which will satisfy the aims of so advanced a branch of science as ornithology is at the present day. ALBERT GUNTHER THE FORSTER HERBARIUM [50 Bewusts will learn with pleasure that this herb- arium, a portion of the collections of Cook’s second voyage, has been acquired by exchange from the Liver- pool Corporation for the Kew Herbarium ; and it will be incorporated in the general collection. From the in- troduction to the “ Catalogue of Plants” in the Botanic Gardens at Liverpool, published in 1808, it appears that the proprietors of that establishment possessed, at that date, about 3000 specimens of dried plants, “ collected by the late Dr. Forster in his voyages to the South Seas, with large and valuable contributions from his friends and correspondents.” How these plants came into their possession is uncertain, but they could hardly have been presented to them by Mr. Shepherd, the Curator, as stated by Sir Joseph Hooker in the introductory essay to his “Flora Nove-Zealandiz,” or his name would almost certainly have been mentioned as the donor. At least this may be inferred, because on the very next page a very high tribute is paid to Mr. John Shepherd for his services to the Garden. Be that as it may, the collection will shortly be accessible to botanists generally, thanks to the perseverance of Sir Joseph Hooker and the sensible view of the matter taken by the present members of the Corporation when it was represented to them that these dried plants were practically useless where they were, but would be valuable at a botanical establishment like Kew. This act of the Corporation deserves to be re- corded, because some thirty years ago, when Sir Joseph Hooker was engaged writing his “Flora Nove-Zea- landiz,” he applied to the then custodians of the collec- tion to transmit it temporarily to Kew for comparison and publication, and his request was refused. Botanical investigations in connection with the Cha//- enger expedition again brought to mind the existence of this interesting collection at Liverpool, and it was deter- mined to make another effort to rescue it from oblivion, which was fortunately successful. A few words respecting the botanical collections of Cook’s voyages generally, and of this one in particular, will be welcome to those inter- ested in botany. Sir Joseph Banks and Dr. Solander accompanied Capt. Cook on his first voyage round the world; John Reinhold Forster and George Forster, father and son, were the botanists of the second voyage (1772-75), and Mr. Anderson, the surgeon of the expe- dition, collected a little on the third voyage. From a statement in Sparmann’s “Travels in South Africa,” it seems that Forster the elder undertook the duties of naturalist to the expedition for the sum of 4000/., and he took his son with him, then only seventeen years old, as NALORE 501 an assistant. On arriving at the Cape of Good Hope they fell in with Sparmann, who, at the instance and expense of Forster, was added to the scientific staff, and continued with them until the return to the Cape in 1775. Considerable collections of plants were made in New Zealand, many parts of Polynesia, and the extreme south of America, and smaller collections in some of the Atlantic Islands, including St. Helena, Cape Verd Islands, and Canaries. On returning to England the Forsters soon commenced publishing the botanical results of the expe- dition, and an authenticated set of all the published plants at least was deposited in the British Museum. The Cape plants, however, which they did not publish, are appa- rently not represented there. The first botanical work, “ Characteres Genera Plantarum,” appeared in 1776, and the title-page bears the names of both father and son, and this was the only one published in England. For the rest, the botany was done by the son alone. His “ Florula Insularum Australium Prodromus” appeaied at Gottingen in 1786, and “De Plantis Esculentis Insularum Oceani Australis” at Berlin in the same year, followed by “ De Plantis Magellanicis et Alanticis ” at G6ttingen in 1787. These works, we believe, constitute the whole of the published botany of the expedition, and, though very meagre, are extremely interesting, being the foundation of our knowledge of New Zealand, Antarctic, and Poly- nesian vegetation. The collection now acquiied for Kew is excellently preserved, and the plants mostly named and localised. It comprises altogether 1359 species, 785 of which were collected on the voyage with Cook, and the rest, from various parts of the world, are probably some of those alluded to above as having been presented to Forster by his friends. The collection includes a large proportion of the plants published by the Forsters, but it is not complete. Roughly, there are 187 species from Polynesia, 119 from New Zealand, 21 from the extreme south of America, 23 from the Atlantic Islands, including all those described by Forster from St. Helena, and 9 from Australia. Besides the foregoing, which are all phanerogams, there are 36 ferns, but they include only a small portion of the species described by Forster. In addition to this botanical work George Forster’s name appears on the second title-page of the Narrative of the second voyage as joint author with James Cook. He died, a violent death, we believe, at Paris in 1794, four years before the decease of his father. The philo- sophical writings of the latter, entitled “ Observations made during a Voyage round the World,” London, 1778, deserve special mention W. BOTTING HEMSLEY THE INTERNATIONAL METEOROLOGICAL COMMITTEE HIS Committee held its third meeting in Paris at the Ministry of Public Instruction on September 1 to 8. The Meeting was attended by the President, Prof. Wild (Russia) ; the Secretary, Mr. R.H. Scott; Profs. Buys Ballot (Holland), Hann (Austria), Mascart (France), Mohn (Norway), Dr. Neumayer (Germany), and Prof. Tacchini (Italy). M.de Pinto Capello (Portugal), the only remain- ing member, was unfortunately unable to be present. In addition certain gentlemen were present by invita- tions at some of the meetings, among these we may mention Brigadier-General Hazen (Chief Signal Officer, U.S.A.), Prof. Hildebrandsson (Upsala), and M. Leon Teisserenc de Bort. The following is a brief notice of the most important subjects discussed, with the action taken on each. A valuable report on cirrus observations by the Com- mittee appointed at Copenhagen (1882), MM. Capello, Hildebrandsson, and Ley, was submitted, and will be printed. The subject of Atlantic telegrams was discussed with General Hazen. It was decided to maintain the present 502 NATURE system of reports from ships’ logs which has been carried on since Christmas by the Meteorological Offices of France and this country, and to endeavour to improve it. At the same time a proposal made by M. L. Teisserenc de Bort for the telegraphic transmission of a daily véseemeé of the weather in the New England States was considered. General Hazen expressed perfect readiness to furnish such reports, and it was resolved to procure such telegrams provided the cost of the service could be guaranteed by the European offices which would participate in it. It was decided to recommend that barometrical obser- vations should be corrected for the force of gravity at lat. 45°. A letter from General Hazen respecting the reduction of barometer readings to sea-level, which has been lately circulated, was considered, and two memoranda on the subject from Hamburg and St. Petersburg respectively were handed in and will be printed. It was considered destvab/e, as absolute synchronism in weather observations appears to be unattainable in Europe, that the same hours of local time should be adopted in each country (which would mean a change from 8 a.m. to 7 a.m. in this country). It was decided that each of the International Reduction Tables (proposed by the Committee at its meeting at Berne in 1880) as did not involve any question which is still in an undecided state (such as, ¢.g., hygrometrical tables, or tables of sea-level reduction) should be published. It was decided to recommend that the next Congress should not take place till 1889, and Prof. Mascart stated that probably the French Government would propose that it should be held in Paris. UDGED by the quantity of work which the sections J have put through their hands the Aberdeen meeting has been successful almost beyond precedent. Moreover much of this work has been of the best quality. The addresses come up to a very high standard, and in the first four sections, at least, not a few of the papers were really important original contributions to science, while the discussions in Sections A and B on certain great questions in physics and chemistry were a marked and commendable feature—a feature which, it is hoped, will in time become common to all the sections. Mr. Murray’s lecture on deep-sea research has been justly considered one of the leading events of the meeting; a full report will appear in our columns. At the concluding general meeting a deservedly hearty vote of thanks was accorded to the Aberdonians for their abundant hospitality. Birmingham seems determined to make next year’s meeting a memorable one; and we may remind our readers that Sir William Dawson, of McGill College, Montreal, will be the President. The total number of persons who attended the Aberdeen meeting was 2203. The following is a synopsis of grants of money appro- priated to scientific purposes by the General Committee at the Aberdeen meeting. The names of the members who would be entitled to call on the General Treasurer for the respective grants are prefixed :-— A—Mathematics and Physics THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION *Foster, Prof. G. Carey—Electrical Standards ... £40 *Stewart, Prof. Balfour—Solar Radiation ee ae 20 *Stewart, Prof. Balfour—Meteorological Observations at Chepstow =e ne ot 98 08 a0 25 Darwin, Prof. G. H.—Instructions for Tidal Observa- tions ee ae =n a es Ce xe 50 *Stewart, Prof. Balfour--Comparing and Reducing Mag- netic Observations Ke Be sa és 40 *Forbes, Prof. G.—Standards of Light 20 *Brown, Prof. Crum—Ben Nevis Observatory too: *Armstrong, Prof.—Physical and Chemical Bearings of Electrolysis : 20 B—Chemistr-y M‘Leod, Prof.—Silent Discharge of Electricity into Atmosphere a eG bh 29 *Williamson, Prof. A. W.—Chemical Nomenclature C—Geology *Blanford, Mr. W. T.—Fossil Plants of the Tertia and Secondary Bed... eas 500 0 Hughes, Prof. ‘T. McK.—Caves of North Wales “Etheridge, Mr. R.—Volcano Phenomena in Japan *Grantham, Mr. R. B.—Erosion of Sea Coasts ... He *Bannerman, Mr. H.—Volcanic Phenomena of Vesuvius *Evans, Dr. J.—Geological Record 659 *Etheridge, Mr. R.—Fossil Phyllopoda ... D—Biology *Stanton, Mr. H. ‘T.—Zoological Record EO bes *Murray, Mr. J.—Marine Biological Station at Granton.. *Lankester—Prof. Ray—Zoological Station at Naples ... Cleland, Prof.—Researches in Food Fishes at St. Andrew’s He ts ee *Cordeaux, Mr. J.—Migration of Birds ey Cleland, Prof.—Mechanism of Secretion of Urine tee E—Geozraphy Walker, General J. T.—New Guinea Exploration ... 150 Walker, General J. T.—Investigation into Depth of , Permanently Frozen Soil in Polar Regions ... ms it F—Lconomic Science and Statistics ; Sidgwick, Prof.—Regulation of Wages under Sliding Scales eS é G—WMechanics Barlow, Mr. W. H.—Effect of Varying Stresses on Metals aan io aS 5 fe) H—Anthropology Garson, Dr.—Investigation into a Prehistoric Race in the Greek Islands nae =e nee isa *Tylor, Dr. E. B.—Investigation into North-Western Tribes of Canada oh eae Say des ne *Galton, Mr. F.—Racial Characteristics in British Isles.. * Reappointed. REPORTS Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. Robert H. Scott (Secretary), Mr. F. Norman Lockyer, Prof. G. G. Stokes, Prof. Balfour Stewart, and Mr. G. F. Symons, appointed for the purpose of co-operating with the Meteorological Society of the Mauritius in their proposed publication of Daily Synoptic Charts of the Indian Ocean from the year 1861. Drawn up by Mr. R. 7H. Scott.—The Committee forward, for the inspection of the members of the Association, a copy of the charts for the month of March, 1861, with some specimens for January of the same year, and the complete number for February which appeared some years ago. These documents have recentl arrived from the Mauritius. As the work has now made decided progress the Committee have applied for and obtained the grant of 50/. placed at their disposal by the General Com- mittee. As soon as the requisite documents are received from Dr. Meldrum the Committee will submit a formal account of — their expenditure with the necessary vouchers. } Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Prof. Schuster (Secretary), Prof. Balfour Stewart, Prof. Stokes, Mr. G. John- stone Stoney, Prof. Sir H. E. Roscoe, Capt. Abney, and Mr, G. F. Symons, appointed for the purpose of considering the best methods of recording the direct Intensity of Solar Radiation. The Committee have come to the following conclusions :—(: It seems desirable to construct an instrument which would be | modification of Prof. Stewart’s actinometer adapted for self- registration—the quantity to be observed being, not the rise of temperature of the enclosed thermometer after exposure for a given time, but the excess of its temperature when continuously exposed over the temperature of the envelope. (2) As the grant to the Committee will not admit of the purchase of a heliostat, it will no doubt be possible to procure the loan of such n instrument, and, by making by its means sufficiently numerous SS i Sept. 24, 1885 | comparisons of the instrument proposed by the Committee with an ordinary actinometer, to find whether the arrangement suggested by the Committee is likely to succeed in practice. The Committee would therefore confine their action for the present to the carrying out of such a series of comparisons. (3) The size of the instrument might be the same as that of Prof. Stewart’s actinometer. (4) The instrument should have a thick metallic enclosure, as in the actinometer above-mentioned, and in this enclosure there should be in- serted a thermometer to record its temperature. Great pains should therefore be taken to construct this enclosure so that its temperature shall be the same throughout. (5) The interior thermometer should be so constructed as to be readily susceptible of solar influences. It is proposed to make it of green glass (a good absorber), and to give it a flattened surface in the direction perpendicular to the light from the hole. (6) It seems desirable to concentrate the sun’s light by means of a lens upon the interior thermometer, as in the ordinary instru- ment. For if there were no lens the hole would require to be large, and it would be more difficult to prevent the heat from the sky around the sun from interfering with the determination. Again, with a lens there would be great facility in adjusting the amount of heat to be received by employing a set of diaphragms. There are thus considerable advantages in a lens, and there does not appear to be any objection to its use. Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Profs. G. H. Darwin and F. C. Adams, for the Harmonic Analysis of Tidal Observations, Drawn up by Prof. G. H. Darwin.—** Record of Work during the past Year.” The edition of the computa- tion forms referred to in the second report is now completed, and copies are on sale with the Cambridge Scientific Instrument Company, St. Tibbs’ Row, Cambridge, at the price of 25. 6d. each. Some copies of the first report, in which the theory and use of these forms are explained, are also on sale at the same price. A few copies of the computation forms have been sent to the librarians of some of the principal scientific academies of Europe and America. In South Africa, Mr. Gill, at the Cape, and Mr. Neison, at Natal, are now engaged in reducing observa- tions with forms supplied from this edition. A memorial has been addressed to the Government of the Dominion of Canada, urging the desirability of systematic tidal observation, and the publication of tide-tables for the Canadian coasts. There seems to be good hope that a number of tide-gauges will shortly be set up on the Atlantic and Pacific coasts, and in the Gulf of the St. Lawrence. The observations will probably be reduced accord- ing to the methods of the British Association, and the predic- tions made with the instrument of the Indian Government. Major Baird has completed the reduction of all the tidal results obtained at the Indian stations to the standard forms proposed in the Report of 1883, and Mr. Roberts has similarly reduced a few results read before the Association by Sir William Thomson and Capt. Evans in 1878. Allthese are now being published in the Froceedings of the Royal Society, ina paper by Major Baird and myself. A large number of tidal results have been obtained by the United States Coast Survey, and reduced under the superintendence of Prof. Ferrel. Although the method pursued by him has been slightly different from that of the British | Association, it appears that the American results should be comparable with those at the Indian and European ports. Prof. Ferrel has given an assurance that this is the case; never- theless, there appears to be strong internal evidence that, at some of the ports, some of the phases should be altered by 180°. The doubt thus raised will probably be removed, and the paper before the Royal Society will afford a table of reference for all —or nearly all—the results of the harmonic method up to the date of its publication. The manual of the tidal observation promised by Major Baird is now completed, and will be pub- lished shortly. This work will explain fully all the practical difficulties likely to be encountered in the choice of a station for a tide-gauge, and in the erection and working of the instrument. Major Baird’s great experience in India, and the success with which the operations of which he has had charge have been carried out, render his advice of great value for the prosecution of tidal observation in other countries. The work also explaius the method of measuring the tide diagrams, entering the figures in the computation forms, and the subsequent numerical opera- tions, Second Report of the Committe, consisting of Prof. Balfour Stewart (Secretary), Mr. F. Knox Laughton, Mr. G. $. Symons, NATURE 593 Mr. R. 7, Scott, and Mr. Fohnstone Stoney, appointed for the purpose of cooperating with Mr. E. F. Lowe in his project of establishing a Meteorological Observatory near Chepstow on a permanent and scientific basis.—Since their re-appointment in 1885 this Committee have met twice, and have placed them- selves in correspondence with Mr. Lowe, to whom the following letter was written by their Secretary : ‘‘ The Committee request me to point out to you that the main feature of your proposal, which interests the British Association and the scientific public generally, is the prospect which it holds out of the establishment of a Permanent institution, by means of which meteorological constants could be determined, and any secular change which may take place therein in the course of a long period of years be ascertained. It will be for you and the local authorities to _decide what amount of work of /ocal interest should be con- templated, and on this will the scale of the observatory mainly depend. The Committee are therefore unable to say what amount of capital would be required. They would point out four conditions which they hold to be indispensable :—(1) The area of ground appropriated should be sufficient to ensure freedom from the effects of subsequent building in the neighbour- hood. (2) A sufficient endowment fund of at least 1507. annually should be created. (3) The control should be in the hands of a body which is in itself permanent as far as can be foreseen. (4) The land for the site shall be handed over absolutely to the aboye- mentioned governing body. Until the precise amount of the local meteorological requirements is ascertained and further progress is made in the scheme the Committee consider that they would not be justified in any more prominent action than that which they have already taken. Report of the Committee, consisting of Profs. A. Fohnson (Secretary), #. G. MacGregor, #. B. Cherriman, H. T. Bovey, and Mr. C. Carpmael, appointed for the purpose of promoting Tidal Observations in Canada.—Yhe Committee, in order to strengthen their representation to the Canadian Government on the necessity of establishing stations for continuous tidal ob- servations, deemed it well to get the opinions of Boards of Trade and ship-owners and ship-masters. On inquiry it ap- peared that the Montreal Board of Trade were at the very time considering the question, which had been brought independently before them. On learning the object of the Committee they gave it their most hearty support, and addressed a strong memorial on the subject to the Dominion Government. The Boards of Trade of the other chief ports of the Dominion also sent similar memorials. The ship-owners and masters of ships, to whom application was made, were practically unanimous in their testimony as to the pressing need for knowledge on the subject. The representations were made through the Minister of Marine, with whom an interview was obtained, at which a memorial was submitted. Copies of the answers of the ship- masters (a large number of which had been received) were sub- mitted at the same time. The reply of the Minister of Marine stated that, owing to the large outlay on the Georgian Bay Survey and on the expedition to Hudson’s Bay during the past summer (1885), the Government did not propose to take action in the matter of tidal observations at present. The Committee have reason to believe that if the financial prospects improve by next session of Parliament the Government will take the matter into earnest consideration ; they therefore suggest that the Com- mittee be reappointed. Seventeenth Report of the Committee, consisting of Profs. Everet and Sir W. Thomson, Mr. G. F. Symons, Sir A. C. Ramsay, Dr. A, Getkie, Mr. F. Glaisher, Mr. Pengelly, Prof. Edward Hull. Prof. Prestwich, Dr. C. Le Neve Foster, Prof. A. S. Herschel, Prof. G. A. Lebour, Mr. Galloway, Mr. Foseph Dickinson, Mr. G. F. Deacon, Mr. E. Wethered, and Mr. A. Strahan, appointed for the purpose of investigating the Rate of Increase of Underground Temperature downwards in various Localities of Dry Land and under Water. Drawn up by Prof. Lverett (Secretary).—TVhe present Report is for the two years since the summer of 1883. Observations have been taken in a deep bore at Richmond, Surrey, by Mr. Collett Homersham, C.E., the engineer of the boring, on the premises of the Rich mond Vestry Waterworks, on the right bank of the Thames, and about 33 yards from high-water mark. The surface is 17 feet above Ordnance datum. The upper part consists of a well 253 feet deep, with an internal diameter of 7 feet at top and 5 feet at bottom, which was sunk in 1876 for the purpose of sup- plying water to the town of Richmond, and carried down to the 504 NATURE | Sepz. 24, 1885 chalk. From the bottom of the well a 24-inch bore-hole was | lower part of the bore prevents any downward convection of sunk to the total depth of 434 feet, thus penetrating 181 feet into the chalk. This portion of the work was completed in 1877. Above the chalk were tertiaries, consisting of 160 feet of Lon- don clay, 60 feet of the Woolwich and Reading beds, and some underlying sands. The water yielded at this stage was about 160 gallons a minute, and, when not depressed by pumping, was able to rise 4 or 5 feet above the surface. Its ordinary level, owing to pumping, was about 130 feet lower. In 1881 the Rich- mond Vestry determined to carry the bore-hole to a much greater depth, and the deepening has been executed under the direction of Mr. Homersham. The existing bore-hole was first enlarged and straightened, to enable a line of cast-iron pipes, with an internal diameter of 16} inches, having the lower end driven water-tight into the chalk at a depth of 438 feet, to be. carried up to the surface. The total thickness of the chalk was 671 feet. Below this was the upper greensand, 16 feet thick ; then the gault clay, 2013 feet thick; then ro feet of a candy rock, and a thin layer of phosphatic nodules. Down to this point the new boring had yielded no water. Then followed a bed 874 feet thick, consisting mainly of hard oolitic limestone. Two small springs of water were met with in this bed at the depths of 1203 and 1210 feet, the yield at the surface being 1} gallons a minute, with power to rise in a tube and overflow 49 feet above the ground. A partial analysis of this limestone rock showed it to contain 2°4 per cent. of sulphide of iron in the form of pyrites. At the depth of 1239 feet this limestone rock ended, and hard red sandstone was found, alternating with beds of variegated sandy marl or clay. After the depth of 1253 feet had been attained, the yield of water steadily increased as the boring was deepened, the overflow at the surface being 2 gallons a minute at 1254 feet, 8 gallons at 1363 feet, and 11 gallons at 1387 feet. It rose to the top of a tube carried 49 feet above the surface, and overflowed ; and a pressure-gauge showed that it had power to rise 126 feet above the surface. The diameter of the bore was 16} inches in the chalk, 133 inches in the gault, 11} inches in the oolitic limestone, and at the depth of 1334 feet it was reduced to a little under 9 inches. At 1337 feet the method of boring was changed, and, instead of an annular arrangement of steel cutters, a rotary diamond rock- boring machine was employed. The bore-hole, with a diameter of 8} inches, was thus carried down to 13674 feet, at which depth, lining tubes having to be inserted, the diameter was re- duced to 7{ inches, and this size was continued to 1447 feet, at which depth the boring was stopped. The bore-hole was lined with strong iron tubes down to the depth of 1364 feet ; and those portions of the tubes that are in proximity to the depths where water was struck were drilled with holes to admit the water into them. Three observations of temperature taken with an inverted Negretti maximum at the depth of 1337 feet, awhen the bore-hole was full of water, recorded 752 FE. In the first observation, March 25, 1884, the ther- mometer was left for an hour and a quarter at the bottom of the bore-hole, and three weeks had elapsed since the water was disturbed by boring. The second observation was taken on March 31, when the thermometer was 54 hours at the bottom. In the third observation special precautions were taken to pre- vent convection. The thermometer was fixed inside a wrought- iron tube, 5 feet long, open at bottom. The thermometer was near the lower end of the tube, and was suspended from a water-tight wooden plug, tightly driven into the tube. There was a space of several inches between the plug and the ther- mometer, and this part of the tube was pierced with numerous holes to allow the escape of any cold water which might be carried down by the tube. The tube was one of a series of hollow boring-rods used in working the diamond drill-machine. By means of these it was lowered very slowly, to avoid disturb- ance of the water as much as possible ; and the tube containing the thermometer was gradually worked through the sand at the bottom of the bore-hole. The lowering occupied five hours, and was completed at noon on Saturday, June 7. Cement, mixed with sugar, for the purpose of slow setting, was imme- diately lowered on to the surface of the sand, and above this a mixture of cement and sand, making a total thickness of 3 or 4 feet of cement plugging. The thermometer was left in its place for three full days, the operation of raising being commenced at noon of Tuesday, June 10, and completed at 5 p.m. The thermometer again registered 754° F., exactly the same as in the two previous observations which were taken without plugging. It would therefore appear that the steady upflow of water in the colder water from above. The boring has since been carried to the depth of 1447 feet, with a diameter reduced to 7} inches, and Mr. Homersham lowered the thermometer to the bottom without plugging. It remained down for six days (February 3 to 9, 1885), and gave a reading of 763° F. The water overflowing at the surface had a temperature of 59° F. To deduce the mean rate of increase downwards, we shall assume a surface temperature of 50°. This gives for the first 1337 feet an increase of 254°, which is at the rate of r° F. in 5274 feet, and for the whole 1447 feet an increase of 262°, which is at the rate of 1° F. in 54‘1feet. These results agree well with the Kentish Town well, where Mr. Symons found in 1100 feet an average increase of I° in 55 feet. Mr. Galloway has furnished observations taken during the sinking of a shaft to the depth of 1272 feet in or near the Aber- dare valley, Glamorganshire. The position of the shaft is on the slope on the east side of the valley, about midway between the bottom of the valley and the summit of the hill which separates it from the Merthyr valley. The mouth of the shaft is about 800 feet above sea-level. Observations were taken at four different depths—546 feet, 780 feet, 1020 feet, and 1272 feet—the thermometer being in each case inserted, and left for twenty-four hours, in a hole bored to the depth of 30 inches at a distance not exceeding 24 yards from the bottom of the shaft for the time being. About eight hours elapsed between the com- pletion of the hole and the insertion of the thermometer. The strata consist mainly of shales and sandstone, with a dip of 1 in 12, and the flow of water into the shaft was about 250 gallons per hour. The first of the four observations was taken in the fireclay under the Abergorkie vein ; the second in strong “‘ clift ” (a local name for argillaceous shale) in disturbed ground ; the third in bastard fireclay under a small rider of coal previously unknown ; the fourth in ‘‘clift”” ground two yards above the red ash vein, which overlies the 9-foot seam at a height of from 9 to 12 yards. The observations were as follow :—At 546 feet, 56° F. ; 780 feet, 594° F. ; 1020 feet, 63° F. ; 1272 feet, 664° F. Comparing consecutive depths from 546 feet downwards, we have the following increments of temperature :—3}° in 234 feet, giving 1° for 67 feet ; 3° in 240 feet, giving 1° for 69 feet ; 33° in 252 feet, giving 1° for 72 feet ; showing a remarkably regular rate of increase. A comparison of the first and fourth observa- tions gives an increase of 104° in 726 feet, which is at the rate of 1° F. in 69'1 feet. As a check upon this result we find that this rate of decrease reckoned wpwards from the smallest depth (546 feet) would give a surface temperature of (56—7°9=) 48°"I, which, as the elevation is 800 feet, is probably very near the truth. Mr. Garside has sent an observation of temperature taken by himself in the roof of the Mersey tunnel in August, 1883. The temperature was 53°, the depth below Ordnance datum being 92 feet. A great quantity of water from the river was percolat- ing through the sides of the tunnel. On August 13, 1854, he verified his previous observation in Denton Colliery (15th Report). The second observation was made at the same depth as the first (1317 feet), in the same pit and level, and under the same circumstances, except that the thermometer was allowed to remain fourteen days in the hole bored for it, instead of only six hours. The temperature observed was the same as before— namely 66°, Mr. Garside has also supplemented his previous contribution to our knowledge of the surface temperature of the ground in the East Manchester coal-field (16th Report) by two more years’ results from the same observing stations. The differ- ence between them agrees well with the generally accepted rate of 1° for 300 feet, and indicates about 48° as the surface tempe- rature at small elevations, such as 30 feet. The pits in the East Manchester coal-field from which we have observations—namely, Astley Pit (Dukinfield), Ashton Moss, Bredbury, Denton, and Nook Pit, are all sunk in ground at elevations of between 300 and 350 feet. It would therefore appear that the assumption of a surface temperature of 49°, which we made in reducing these observations, is about 2° in excess of the truth. A very elaborate paper on ‘* Underground Temperature ’”’ has recently been com- municated to the Royal Society by Prof. Prestwich. He is disposed to adopt 1° F. in 45 feet as the most probable value of the normal gradient. Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. W. T. Blanford and Mr. F. S. Gardner (Secretary), on the Fossil Plants of the Tertiary and Secondary Beds of the United Kingdom. Drawn Sept. 24, 1885] INA GRE up by Mr. F. S. Gardner, F.G.S., F.L.S.—The report opens with a list of all the principal works on the British Tertiary flora down to the year 1885. The number of species that had been more or less described were :—From the Thanet beds, 3 ; from the Reading beds, 9; from Sheppey, 108 ; from Alum Bay, &c., 43 ; from Bournemouth (deducting those not peculiar), 11; Bovey Tracy, 50; Upper Eocenes, 13; Mull, 9; Antrim, about 16; making a grand total of 262 species, not a tenth part of which, Mr. Gardner anticipates, would survive a rigorous examination. The study of only one group of plants—the Gymnosperms—has been the serious business of the past three years ; for not only have I had to study, but in the majority of cases to find the specimens as well. I trust that the results attending the expenditure of the grant I have been favoured with may be considered satisfactory, and these I now proceed to detail. Bracklesham Flora.—Two visits have been made to Selsey. The beds, it is well known, are marine, but a few ter- restrial fruits are from time to time procured from them. I was able to make a large collection of fossil shells while looking for plants, which, being from the highest beds, are less known, and are interesting as illustrating the passage from the Bracklesham to the Barton fauna, which is more gradual, I think, than is supposed. The surface of one of these beds is dotted over with fossil Posidonzas, a marine monocotyledonous plant identical with the species now inhabiting the Mediterranean. It had not been previously recorded as a British fossil, though another species is abundant in the contemporary beds of the Ca/caire grossier of the Paris basin. In our species the rhizomes radiate from a centre, whilst in the French and other European fossil species they are long and branching. They are found among beautiful Ze//ina shells, preserving, to a large extent, their banded colours. The only other fossil plant to record here is a Nipadites, which, unlike those of the Bournemouth beds, is large, flattened, and oval. Readin; Beds.—A considerable portion of the grant has been expended in working these beds with, I am pleased to report, the happiest results. The flora is found in the Katesgrove pit, on the banks of the Kennet, immediately beneath the mottled clay. The matrix is a fine porcelainous fuller’s earth inter- stratified with sand, and the beds seem very local. The limit of the pit being reached, it is not probable that any part of the beds will be exposed for long. I have illustrated a beautiful specimen—one of several—of Anemia subcrefacea, Sap., from these beds. This fern is highly characteristic of the lower Eocenes in France, but had only previously been found in the middle Bagshot beds of Bournemouth in this country. I have also illustrated another fern (?) from these beds, of which I have only as yet found asmall fragment. ‘The figures are therefore taken from specimens found many years ago by Prof. Prestwich. Other valuable additions to the Reading flora are some splendid specimens of a conifer, which I can see no ground for distin- guishing from Zuxodium heterophyllum of China. Another interesting specimen from Reading is a pine leaf of two needles, about the size and substance of those of P. maritima, the first pine foliage, I believe, ever found in the English Eocene. One leaf bed is almost wholly made up of leaves of PZutonis, and a bed above is fairly sprinkled with fruits of the same. Fruits are very abundant, and incluje four kinds of leguminous pods, and there are many flowers. As a result of this work the Reading flora no longer appears so completely distinct from that of Bournemouth. Woolwich Beds.—\ regard these as thoroughly distinct in age from those of Reading. I have not found, in the course of two visits paid for the purpose, any bed worth collecting from, though I think such must exist at Lewisham. Studland Beds.—\Ne were able to reach a leaf bed in the Lower Bagshot at Studland, and to obtain a great number of specimens, nearly all of whieh are quite new tome. ‘They are mostly dycotyledonous leaves and fruits, which will require time to determine. There are no Coniferze among them, and I am only able to add one fern—a Lygodium, very near to that of Bournemouth—to the Chrysodium langeanum, procured abund- antly by me ten years ago in a different bed at the same locality. Hordwell Beds.—\ have to add Salvinia to the flora, not previously found fossil in England, and exclusively confined to the Miocene in Austria and Switzerland. E Barton Beds.—A new species of pine from Highcliff was discovered quite unlike those hitherto found at Bracklesham. The beds are rapidly assuming an angle of repose, and becom- ing deeply buried under @éér7s, so that some of them are no longer visible except by making excavations. Though the Barton series is one of the most interesting of our Eocene formations, the detailed bedding has not been worked out like that of the Bracklesham series below and the Headon series above, and the greatest misconceptions seem to prevail as to the number of species of fossils that it contains. Bournemouth Beds.—Five series of leaves were obtained this year by Mr. Keeping and myself, the most noteworthy of which are some specimens of Godeya which exceed any I had previously seen. I have illustrated a new and very distinct species of Adiantum, a fragment of what may be Gymnogramma, and a trifid group of Polvpodium leaves, which seem to be different from cither of the species previously recorded. The London Clay.—Mr. Shrubsole has kindly sent me some of the best of the fruits that have been found. I have not made any complete studies of them yet, but they promise to afford results of the highest value, Among a few recognised is the very unmistakable seed of Verschaffeltta, a genus of palms from Seychelles quite new to fossil floras. Gurnet Bay Beds,—I have been able to ascertain that another fern rivals Anemia subcretacea inrange, Chrysodium langeanum, which extends from the town of Bagshot upwards into the Bemb- ridge beds. The plants are as a rule dreadfully macerated and chopped up. Among them are small fragments of a G/etchenia, which, though not very beautiful, is a very important fern, coming from the horizon. By far the most important discovery, however, is that of Doliostrobus, the first really extinct conifer that I have met with in British Eocenes. It belonged to the tribe of Avaucariee, and its identification has been thoroughly confirmed by correspondence and the interchange of specimens with Dr. Marion, the well-known botanist of Marseilles. It is certain that during the Eocene period, as the temperature increased from the base upward to the Middle Bagshot, when the maximum of heat seems to have prevailed, there was a tendency for the plant world to move northward. It is equally certain that in the later half of the Eocene, as the temperature began to decrease, the movement was in the opposite direction, and we find in the European Miocenes of Switzerland and Italy a number of plants that at an earlier period were growing in the far north. Report of the Committee, consisting of H. Bauerman, F. W. Rudler, and Dr. H. Johnston Lavis, for the Investigation of the Vilcanic Phenomena of Vesuvius, by H. Fohnston Lavis, M.D., F.G.S., Reporter.—The unfortunate outbreak of cholera in Naples and the stringent local quarantine measures prevented work on Vesuvius being carried out during the autumn of 1884. Nevertheless, daily observations were made of the variations in the activity of the volcano, of which a careful record. has been kept. All important changes of the crater-plain, and in the cone of eruption, haye been photographed. Descriptions of the small eruption of May 2 of 1883 have already been given in Nature, and the results of a microscopical examination of the sides of the remarkable hollow dyke then formed will soon be published. The Naples section of the Italian Alpine Club have generously undertaken to publish a journal of Vesuvius, which will contain reproductions of the photographs exhibited. The third sheet of the geological map of Vesuvius and Monte Somnia (scale r : 10,000) has been completed by the reporter, and is exhibited at the meeting. The relationship of the varying activity of a volcano in a Strombolian state of activity to baro- metric pressure, the lunar tides, and rainfall, cannot but be regarded as important in solving some questions of vulcanology. Instrumental means of measuring such present so many practical difficulties that a scale of activity has been drawn up, which requires only a few minutes to learn, can be practised by any one with good eyesight and moderate intelligence who is within visual range of the volcano, and, above all, requires no further outlay than pen, ink, and paper. The objections will be men- tioned after describing the process. Ist degree, a faint red glimmer above the main vent interrupted by complete darkness ; 2nd degree, the glimmer is continuous, but the ejection reaches hardly above the central crater rim at the most ; 3rd degree, glimmer continuous and well marked ; the ejections are distinctly discernible as they rise and then fall on the slopes of the cone of eruption and roll down its slopes; 4th degree, the ejections reach a considerable height, are brilliant, and light up the top of the great cone ; 5th degree, verging on an actual paroxysmal 506 NATURE [ Sept. 24, 1885 eruption, the ejections are shot up very high, being only very slightly or not at all influenced in their course by a strong wind. Each explosion follows with much rapidity, and corresponds with the ‘‘boati” heard all around the west, south, and south-east slopes of the mountain. The objections to this method of regis- tering the variations in the activity of a voleano are : (a) cloud- cap, which may for days cut off the view; (4) after a great eruption, resulting in a deep crater, the changes of activity would be invisible from the neighbourhood of the mountain ; (c) it is only applicable after dark, so that usually only one observation a day can be made; (¢@) should lava be flowing from a lateral outlet, as is often the case, the level of the fluid in the chimney would vary as the outflow took place with greater or less rapidity, dependent on its blocking the passage more or less. The reporter thinks it desirable to introduce a description of this method into the report, so that it may be made use of in the case of other suitable volcanoes. Report of the Committee, cousisting of Prof. Ray Lankester, Mr. P. L. Sclater, Prof. M. Foster, Mr. A. Sedgwick, Prof. A. M. Marshall, Prof. A. C. Haddon, Prof. Moseley, and Mr. Percy Sladen (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of arranging for the occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples. —In the Report read last year at Montreal it was announced that a scheme was on foot for the building of a large physiolo- gical laboratory in connection with the Zoological Station at Naples, and for the purchase of a new sea-going steamer, to be equipped as a floating laboratory. Your Committee are now able to report that both these projects are steadily advancing towards attainment. For the physiological laboratory the Municipality of Naples has made a grant of 400 square metres of ground, and the Italian Parliament has voted the sum of 50,000 lire towards the cost of building. In addition to this assistance from the Italian Government, a union of the maritime provinces of South Italy is about to be formed for the purpose of contributing towards the cost of the new laboratory, and of maintaining two tables there for the use of natives of the prov- inces concerned. The new steamship, which it is hoped will shortly be in the possession of the station, will form a further addition to the capabilities of the establishment This under- taking is in the hands of an influential committee in Germany, organised for the purpose of collecting subscriptions, and by whom the vessel will be presented to the station. It is intended that the steamer should be of 300 to 400 tons burden, with engines of I50 to 200 horse-power, and be fitted up in all respects as a floating laboratory. With such a vessel it will be perfectly practicable to remain weeks or months in any desired locality, and distance from home will be no obstacle, as natural- ists will live and work on board. Concurrent with these strides of the Zoological Station, improvements in the general manage- ment, in methods of work, and in instruments of research are constantly being made. The general efficiency of the establish- ment is so well known that it will suffice to say that the whole organisation of the station is in a state of active and prosperous vitality. The best evidence of this is furnished by the accom- panying lists :—(1) of the naturalists who have occupied tables during the past year, and (2) of the publications resulting from work carried out at the station. The General Collections.—Additions have been again received from Capt. Chierchia, who has, since the last Report, sent two collections of specimens from the Pacific and Indian Oceans. Other collections have been likewise received from Lieut. Cer- cone, Lieut. Orsini, and Lieut. Colombo, from the Atlantic, the Red Sea, and the Mediterranean respectively. Some of the material previously obtained by Capt. Chierchia has already been utilised by Count Béla Haller in a paper on the molluscan kidney, recently published ; and the same author is at present preparing a monograph on the Patella. In like manner the Pteropoda have been investigated by Dr. Boas, of Copenhagen, whose monogiaph upon the subject is now in the press. Since the last Report the British Association table has been occupied by Mr. Wm. E. Hoyle, who, although limited in time, was enabled to prosecute researches on the embryology of the Cephalopoda, and to collect material from which important results may be expected. The report forwarded by Mr. Hoyle is appended :— Report on the Occupation of the Table, by Mr. William E. Hoyle.—I reached Naples on April 6, 1885, and left on the 28th of the same month. In so short a time it was obviously im- possible to make anything of the nature of a complete inyesti- gation in a subject of such magnitude and difficulty as the embryology of the Cephalopoda; it seemed, herefore, that the opportunities afforded me could best be utilised by collecting material for subsequent examination. Of this I had an abund- ant and immediate supply, thanks to the kindly forethought of your secretary, who had given notice to the authorities of the station of the nature of the work I had undertaken, so that they had a quantity of ova ready for my use. The greater part of my time was spent in extracting embryos from the egg and pre- serving them in various fluids, and a fairly complete series of developmental stages of Zoljgo and a good many embryos of Sefia were thus obtained. When the young Cephalopods have reached a stage at which the rudiments of the arms are clearly visible, it is moderately easy, after a little practice, to extricate them by making an incision into the egg-membrane with a fine scalpel ; but previously to this period they so nearly occupy the whole interior of the egg that it is almost impossible to obtain them uninjured. A quantity of such eggs I preserved whole by a method suggested to me by Dr. Jatta, who is at work upon a monograph of the Cephalopoda of the Bay of Naples. The strings of eggs are placed whole in weak solution of chromic acid (about 0°25 per cent.) for a few hours, and then in distilled water for twenty-four hours, after which they are preserved in alcohol. The embryos can then be extracted much more readily than when fresh. Some time was devoted to examining and drawing the embryos in the fresh condition, and in watching the process of segmentation in oligo and Sefia. I observed the presence of the ‘* Richtungsblaschen” in the former, which, so far as I am aware, has only been noted in a Russian memoir on the development of Sefiola by Ussow. A number of blasto- derms in process of segmentation were preserved according to a method proposed by Ussow, for the knowledge of which I am indebted to Dr. Edward Meyer, who kindly translated it for me from the original. The egg, without removal of the membranes, is placed in 2 per cent. solution of chromic acid for two minutes, and then in distilled water, to which a little acetic acid (one drop to a watchglassful) has been added, fortwo minutes longer. If an incision be now made into the egg-membrane the yolk flows away and the blastoderm remains ; if any yolk still cling to it, it may be removed by pouring away the water and adding more. The blastoderms thus prepared show, when appropriately stained, fine karyokinetic figures, of which I hope shortly to publish an account. The reduction of the collected embryos to serial sections and their examination will of course occupy some time, but I hope in a few months to prepare some account of the results obtained from them. Report of the Committee, consisting of Prof. Huxley, Mr. Sclater, Mr. Howard Saunders, Mr. Thiselton Dyer, and Prof: Moseley (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of promoting the Establishment of Marine Biological Stations on thé Coast of the United Kingdom.—The Committee has received the sum granted (150/.) from the Treasurer of the Association, and has paid it to the funds of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, as the most direct means of promoting the speedy establishment of a marine laboratory in a most favourable situa- tion on the British coast—namely, Plymouth. An excellent site for a laboratory has been granted to the Marine Biological Asso- ciation by Government, at Plymouth, A sum of 8000/. has been raised by subscriptions and donations, the Government has promised to aid the working of the laboratory by an annual subsidy, and there is every prospect of success. It is probable that the building of the laboratory will commence in November. Report of the Committee, consisting of the Rev. Canon Tristram, the Rev. F. Lawrence, and Mr. Famis Glaisher (Secrelary), appointed for the purpose of promoting the Survey of Palestine.— The Survey of Eastern Palestine has been carried on during the last year privately by Herr G. Schumacher, C.E., assisted by Mr. Laurence Oliphant, who has also furnished the Committee with valuable notes of personal exploration in the district now called Junlau—the ancient Gaulanitis. The portion surveyed by Herr Schumacher consists of about 200 square miles, and covers an area previously quite unknown. The map, which is now in the hands of the Committee, is accompanied by voluminous memoirs and a great number of sketches, drawings, and plans of ruins figured for the first time, which it is proposed to publish, with the memoirs, in October. The map of the Wady Arabah has been laid down in the Society’s sheets; the geological memoirs ccmpiled by Prof. Hule after his expedition of 1883-84 are nearly ready, and will be issued before the end of the year ; and the Society has been enabled to secure Mr. Chichester Hart’s Sept. 24, 1885 | NATURE 507 Natural History memoir, made from new observations during the same journey. In addition the Committee have received from Mr. Guy Le Strange, and published, observations and notes made by him during a recent journey east of Jordan. The results of the survey, so far as it has been completed, will appear in a map reduced to a scale of about three miles to an inch, showing the country on both sides of the river Jordan, instead of on the western side only. This portion of the work is under the direction of Col. Sir Charles Wilson, K.C.M.G., F.R.S. The Society has also issued during the last year a popular account, by Prof. Hule, of his recent journey, called ‘*‘ Mount Seir,” and reprints of Capt. Conder’s popular books, ‘* Tent Work in Palestine” and ‘“‘Heth and Moab.” Finally, the Committee have completed the issue of their great work, the ** Survey of Western Palestine,” with the last volumes of “* Jerusalem,” the ‘‘ Flora and Fauna,” and a portfolio of plates showing the excavations and their results. SECTION H ANTHROPOLOGY OPENING ADDRESS BY FRANCIS GALTON, F.R.S., ETC, PRESIDENT OF THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL INSTITUTE, PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION THE object of the Anthropologist is plain. He seeks to learn what mankind really are in body and mind, how they came to be what they are, and whither their races are tending ; but the methods by which this definite inquiry has to be pursued are extremely diverse. Those of the geologist, the antiquarian, the jurist, the historian, the philologist, the traveller, the artist, and the statistician, are all employed, and the Science of Man pro- gresses through the help of specialists. Under these circum- stances, I think it best to follow an example occasionally set by presidents of sections, by giving alecture rather than an address, selecting for my subject one that has long been my favourite pur- suit, on which I have been working with fresh data during many recent months, and about which I have something new to say. My data were the Family Records entrusted to me by persons living in all parts of the country, and I am now glad to think that the publication of some first-fruits of their analysis will show to many careful and intelligent correspondents that their pains- taking has not been thrown away. I shall refer to only a part of the work already completed, which in due time will be pub- lished, and must be satisfied if, when I have finished this address, some few ideas that lie at the root of heredity shall have been clearly apprehended, and their wide bearings more or less dis- tinctly perceived. I am the more desirous of speaking on heredity, because, judging from private conversations and in- quiries that are often put to me, the popular views of what may be expected from inheritance seem neither clear nor Just. The subject of my remarks will be ‘‘ Types and their Inherit- ance.” JI shall discuss the conditions of the stability and in- stability of types, and hope in doing so to place beyond doubt the existence of a simple and far-reaching law that governs hereditary transmission, and to which I once before ventured to draw attention, on far more slender evidence than I now possess. It is some years since I made an extensive series of experiments on the produce of seeds of different size but of the same species. They yielded results that seemed very noteworthy, and I used them as the basis of a lecture before the Royal Institution on February 9, 1877. It appeared from these experiments that the offspring did 7zo¢ tend to resemble their parent seeds in size, but to be always more mediocre than they—to be smaller than the parents, if the parents were large ; to be larger than the parents, if the parents were very small. The point of convergence was considerably below the average size of the seeds contained in the large bagful I bought at a nursery-garden, out of which I selected those that were sown. The experiments showed further that the mean filial regression towards mediocrity was directly proportional to the parental deviation from it. This curious result was based on so many plantings, conducted for me by friends living in various parts of the country, from Nairn in the north to Cornwall in the south, during one, two, or even three generations of the plants, that I could entertain no doubt of the truth of my conclusions, The exact ratio of regression remained a little dowbtful, owing to variable influences; therefore I did not attempt to define it. After the lecture had been published, it occurred to me that the grounds of my misgivings might be urged as objections to the general conclusions. I did not think them of moment, but as the inquiry had been surrounded with many small difficulties an 1 matters of detail, it would be scarcely possible to give a brief and yet a full and adequate answer to such objections. Also, I was then blind to what I now perceive to be the simple explan- ation of the phenomenon, so I thought it better to say no mor upen the subject until I should obtain independent evidence. It was anthropological evidence that I desired, caring only for the seeds as means of throwing light on heredity in man. [ tried in vain for a long and weary time to obtain it in sufficieut abundance, and my failure was a cogent motive, together wil!1 others, in inducing me to make an offer of prizes for family records, which was largely responded to, and furnished me last year with what I wanted. I especially guarded myself against making any allusion to this particular inquiry in my prospectus, lest a bias should be given to the returns. I now can securely contemplate the possibility of the records of height having been frequently drawn up in a careless fashion, because no amount of unbiassed inaccuracy can account for the results, contrasted in their values but concurrent in their significance, that are derived from comparisons between different groups of the returns. An analysis of the records fully confirms and goes far beyond the conclusions I obtained from the seeds. It gives the numerical value of the regression towards mediocrity as from 1 to } with unexpected coherence and precision, and it supplies me with the class of facts I wanted to investigate—the degrees of family likeness in different degrees of kinship, and the steps through which special family peculiarities become merged into the typical characteristics of the race at large. The subject of the inquiry on which I am about to speak was Hereditary Stature. My data consisted of the heights of 930 adult children and of their respective parentages, 205 in number. In every case I transmuted the female statures to their corre- sponding male equivalents and used them in their transmuted form, so that no objection grounded on the sexual difference of stature need be raised when I speak of averages. The factor [ used was 1°08, which is equivalent to adding a little less than one-twelfth to each female height. It differs a very little from the factors employed by other anthropologists, who, moreover, differ a trifle between themselves ; anyhow it suits my data better than 1°07 or 1‘0o9. The final result is not of a kind to be affected by these minute details, for it happened that, owing to a mistaken direction, the computer to whom I first entrusted the figures u-ed a somewhat different factor, yet the result came out closely the same. I shall explain with fulness why I chose stature for the subject of inquiry, because the peculiarities and points to be attended to in the investigation will manifest themselves best by doing so. Many of its advantages are obvious enough, such as the ease and frequency with which its measurement is made, its practical constancy during thirty-five years of middle life, its small depen- dence on differences of bringing up, and its inconsiderable in- fluence on the rate of mortality. Other advantages which are not equally obvious are no less great. One of these lies in the fact that stature is not a simple element, but a sum of the accu- mulated lengths or thicknesses of more than a hundred bodily parts, each so distinct from the rest as to have earned a name by which it can be specified. ‘The list of them includes about fifty separate bones, situated in the skull, the spine, the pelvis, the two legs, and the two ankles and feet. The bones in both the lower limbs are counted, because it is the average length of these two limbs that contributes to the general stature. The cartilages interposed between the bones, two at each joint, are rather more numerous than the bones themselves. The fleshy parts of the scalp of the head and of the soles of the feet conclude the list. Account should also be taken of the shape and set of many of the bones which conduce to a more or less arched instep, straight back, or high head. I noticed in the skeleton of O’Brien, the Trish giant, at the College of Surgeons, which is, I believe, the tallest skeleton in any museum, that his extraordinary. stature of about 7 feet 7 inches would have been a trifle increased if the faces of his dorsal vertebree had been more parallel and his back consequently straighter. : The beautiful regularity in the statures of a population, when- ever they are statistically marshalled in the order of their heights, 508 NATURE is due to the number of variable elements of which the stature is the sum. The best illustrations I have seen of this regularity were the curves of male and female statures that I obtained from the careful measurements made at my Anthropometric Laboratory in the International Health Exhibition last year. They were almost perfect. The multiplicity of elements, some derived from one progeni- tor, some from another, must be the cause of a fact that has proved very convenient in the course of my inquiry. It is that the stature of the children depends closely on the average stature of the two parents, and may be considered in practice as having nothing to do with their individual heights. The fact was proved as follows :—After transmuting the female measurements in the way already explained, I sorted the children of parents who severally differed 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, or more inches into separate groups. Each group was then divided into similar classes, showing the number of cases in which the children differed 1, 2, 3, &c., inches from the common average of the children in their respective families. I confined my inquiry to large families of six children and upwards, that the common average of each might be a trustworthy point of reference. The entries in each of the different groups were then seen to run in the same way, except that in the last of them the children showed a faint tendency to fall into two sets, one taking after the tall parent, the other after the short one. Therefore, when dealing with the transmission of stature from parents to children, the average height of the two parents, or, as I prefer to call it, the ‘* mid- parental ” height, is all we need care to know about them. It must be noted that I use the word parent without specifying the sex. The methods of statistics permit us to employ this abstract term, because the cases of a tall father being married to a short mother are balanced by those of a short father being married to a tall mother. I use the word ‘‘ parent” to save a com- plication due to a fact brought out by these inquiries, that the height of the children of both sexes, but especially that of the daughters, takes after the height of the father more than it does after that of the mother. My present data are insufficient to determine the ratio satisfactorily. Another great merit of stature as a subject for inquiries into heredity is that marriage selection takes little or no account of shortness or tallness. There are undoubtedly sexual preferences for moderate contrast in height, but the marriage choice appears to be guided by so many and more important considerations that questions of stature exert no perceptible influence upon it. This is by no means my only inquiry into this subject, but, as regards the present data, my test lay in dividing the 205 male parents and the 205 female parents each into three groups—tall, medium. and short (medium being taken as 67 inches and upwards to 70 inches)—and in counting the number of marriages in each poss- ible combination between them. The result was that men and women of contrasted heights, short and tall or tall and short, married just about as frequently as men and women of similar heights, both tall or both short ; there were 32 cases of the one to 27 of the other. In applying the law of probabilities to investigations into heredity of stature, we may regard the married folk as couples picked out of the general population at haphazard. The advantages of stature as a subject in which the simple laws of heredity may be studied will now be understood. It is a nearly constant value that is frequently measured and recorded, and its discussion is little entangled with considerations of nur- ture, of the survival of the fittest, or of marriage selection. We have only to consider the mid-parentage and not to trouble our- selves about the parents separately. ‘The statistical variations of stature are extremely regular, so much so that their general con- formity with the results of calculations based on the abstract law of frequency of error is an accepted fact by anthropologists. I have made much use of the properties of that law in cross-testing my various conclusions, and always with success. The only drawback to the use of stature is its small variability. One-half of the population with whom I dealt varied less than 1°7 inch from the average of all of them, and one-half of the offspring of similar mid-parentages varied less than 1°5 inch from the average of their own heights. On the other hand, the precision of my data is so small, partly due to the uncertainty in many cases whether the height was measured with the shoes on or off, that I find by means of an independent inquiry that each observation, taking one with another, is liable to an error that as often as not exceeds 4 of an inch. It must be clearly understood that my inquiry is primarily into [ Sept. 24, 1885 the inheritance of different degrees of tallness and shortness. That is to say, of measurements made from the crown of the head to the level of mediocrity, upwards or downwards as the case may be, and not from the crown of the head to the ground. In the population with which I deal, the level of mediocrity is 684 inches (without shoes). The same law, applying with sufficient closeness both to tallness and shortness, we may include both under the single head of deviations, and I shall call any particular deviation a ‘‘ deviate.” By the use of this word and that of ‘‘mid-parentage,” we can define the law of regression very briefly. It is that the height-deviate of the offspring is, on the average, two-thirds of the height-deviate of its mid- parentage. If this remarkable law had been based only on experiments on the diameters of the seeds, it might well be distrusted until con- firmed by other inquiries. If it were corroborated merely by the observations on human stature, of which I am about to speak, some hesitation might be expected before its truth could be recognised in opposition to the current belief that the child tends to resemble its parents. But more can be urged than this. It is easily to be shown that we ought to expect filial regression, and that it should amount to some constant fractional part of the value of the mid-parental deviation. It is because this explana- tion confirms the previous observations made both on seeds and on men, that I feel justified on the present occasion in drawing attention to this elementary law. The explanation of it is as follows. The child inherits partly from his parents, partly from his ancestry. Speaking generally, the further his genealogy goes back, the more numerous and varied will his ancestry become, until they cease to differ from any equally numerous sample taken at haphazard from the race at large. Their mean stature will then be the same as that of the race ; in other words, it will be mediocre. Or, to put the same fact into another form, the most probable value of the mid- ancestral deviates in any remote generation is zero. For the moment let us confine our attention to the remote ancestry and to the mid-parentages, and ignore the intermediate generations. The combination cf the zero of the ancestry with the deviate of the mid-parentage, is that of nothing with some- thing, and the result resembles that of pouring a uniform pro- portion of pure water into a vessel of wine. It dilutes the wine to a constant fraction of its original alcoholic strength, whatever that strength may have been. The intermediate generations will each in their degree do the same. The mid-deviate of any one of them will have a value intermediate between that of the mid-parentage and the zero value of the ancestry. Its combination with the mid-parental deviate will be as if, not pure water, but a mixture of wine and water in some definite proportion had been poured into the wine. The process throughout is one of proportionate dilutions, and therefore the joint effect of all of them is to weaken the original wine in a constant ratio. We have no word to express the form of that ideal and com- posite progenitor, whom the offspring of similar mid-parentages most nearly resemble, and from whose stature their own respect- ive heights diverge evenly, above and below. He, she, or it, may be styled the ‘‘generant” of the group. I shall shortly explain what my notion of a generant is, but for the moment it is sufficient to show that the parents are not identical with the generant of their own offspring. The average regression of the offspring to a constant fraction of their respective mid-parental deviations, which was first ob- served in the diameters of seeds, and then confirmed by observa- tions on human stature, is now shown to be a perfectly reason- able law which might have been deductively foreseen. It is of so simple a character that I have made an arrangement with one movable pulley and two fixed ones by which the probable aver- age height of the children of known parents can be mechanically reckoned. This law tells heavily against the full hereditary transmission of any rare and valuable gift, as only a few of many children would resemble their mid-parentage. The more ex- ceptional the gift, the more exceptional will be the good fortune of a parent who has a son who equals, and still more if he has a son who overpasses him. ‘The law is even-handed ; it levies the same heavy succession-tax on the transmission of badness as well as of goodness. If it discourages the extravagant expectations of gifted parents that their children will inherit all their powers, it no less discountenances extravagant fears that they will inherit all their weaknesses and diseases. The converse of this law is very far from being its numerical a Sept. 24, 1885 | NATURE 509 opposite. Because the most probable deviate of the son is only two-thirds that of his mid-parentage, it does not in the least follow that the most probable deviate of the mid-parentage is 8, or 13 that of the son. The number of individuals in a popu- lation who differ little from mediocrity is so preponderant, that it is mcre frequently the case that an exceptional man is’ the somewhat exceptional son of rather mediocre parents, than the average son of very exceptional parents. It appears from the very same table of observations by which the value of the filial regression was determined, when it is read in a different way, namely, in vertical columns instead of in horizontal lines, that the most prohable mid-parentage of a man is one that de- viates only one-third as much as the man does. There is a great difference between this value of } and the numer- ical converse mentioned above of #; it is four and a half times smaller, since 43, or $, being multiplied into 3, is equal to . Let it not be supposed for a moment that these figures invali- date the general doctrine that the children of a gifted pair are much more likely to be gifted than the children of a mediocre pair. What it asserts is that the ablest child of one gifted pair is not likely to be as gifted as the ablest of all the children of very many mediocre pairs. However, as, notwithstanding this explanation, some suspicion may remain of a paradox lurking in these strongly contrasted results, I will explain the form in which che table of data was drawn up, and give an anecdote connected with it. Its outline was constructed by ruling a sheet into squares, and writing a series of heights in inches, such as 60 and under 61, 61 and under 62, &c., along its top, and another similar series down its side. The former referred to the height of offspring, the latter to that of mid-parentages. Each square in the table was formed by the intersection of a vertical column with a horizontal one, and in each square was inserted the number of children out of the 930 who were of the height indicated by the heading of the vertical column, and who at the same time were born of mid-parentages of the height indicated at the side of the horizontal column. I take an entry out of the table as an example. Inthe square where the vertical column headed? 69- is intersected by the horizontal column by whose side 67- is marked, the entry 38 is found ; this means that out of the 930 children 38 were born of mid-parentages of 69 and under 70 inches, who also were 67 and under 68 inches in height. I found it hard at first to catch the full significance of the entries in the table, which had curious relations that were very interesting to investigate. Lines drawn through entries of the same value formed a series of concentric and similar ellipses. Their common centre lay at the intersection of the vertical and horizontal lines, shat corresponded to 68} inches. Their axes were similarly in- clined. The points where each ellipse in succession was touched by a horizontal tangent, lay ina straight line inclined to the vertical in the ratio of $; those where they were touched bya vertical tangent, lay in a straight line inclined to the horizontal in the ratio of 3. These ratios confirm the values of average regression already obtained by a different method, of 3 from mid-parent to offspring, and of 4 from offspring to mid-parent. These and other relations were evidently a subject for mathe- matical analysis and verification. They were all clearly depend- ent on three elementary data, supposing the law of frequency of error to be applicable throughout ; these data being (1) the measure of racial variability, (2) that of co-family variability (counting the offspring of like mid-parentages as members of the same co-family), and (3) the average ratio of regression. I noted these values, and phrased the problem in abstract terms such asa competent mathematician could deal with, disentangled from all reference to heredity, and in that shape submitted it to Mr. J. Hamilton Dickson, of St. Peter's College, Cambridge. I asked him kindly to investigate for me the surface of frequency of error that would result from these three data, and the various particu- lars of its sections, one of which would form the ellipses to which I have alluded. I may be permitted to say that I never felt such a glow of loyalty and respect towards the sovereignty and magnificent sway of mathematical analysis as when his answer reached me, confirming, by purely mathematical reasoning, my various and laborious statistical conclusions with far more minuteness than I had dared to hope, for the original data ran somewhat roughly, and I had to smooth them with tender caution. His calculation corrected my observed value of mid-parental regression from 1 A matter of detail is here ignored which has nothing to do with the main principle, and would only serve to perplex if I described it. i Be 1756) ellipses was changed 3 per cent., their inclination was changed less than 2°. It is obvious, then, that the law of error holds throughout the investigation with sufficient precision to be of real service, and that the various results of my statistics are not casual determinations, but strictly interdependent. In the lecture at the Royal Institution to which I have referred, I pointed out the remarkable way in which one generation was succeeded by another that proved to be its statistical counterpart. I there had to discuss the various agencies of the survival of the fittest, of relative fertility and so forth; but the selection of human stature as the subject of investigation now enables me to get rid of all these complications, and to discuss this very curious question under its simplest form. How is it, I ask, that in each succéssive generation there proves to be the same number of men per thousand who range between any limits of stature we please to specify, although the tall men are rarely descended from equally tall parents, or the short men from equally short? How is the balance from other sources so nicely made up? The answer is that the process comprises tw opposite sets of actions, one concentrative and the other dispersive, and of such a char- acter that they necessarily neutralise one another, and fall into a state of stable equilibrium. By the first set, a system of scattered elements is replaced by another system which is less scattered ; by the second set, each of these new elements becomes a centre whence a third system of elements are dispersed. The details are as follows :—In the first of these two stages, the units of the population group themselves, as it were by chance, into married couples, whence the mid-parentages are derived, and then by a regression of the values of the mid-parentages the true generants are derived. In the second stage each generant is a centre whence the offspring diverge. The stability of the balance between the opposed tendencies is due to the regression being proportionate to the deviation ; it acts like a spring against a weight. teen A simple equation connects the three data of race variability, of the ratio of regression, and of co-family variability, whence, if any two are given, the third may be found. My observations give separate measures of all three, and their values fit well into the equation, which is of the simple form— the relation between the major and minor axis of the pk 2 2 w rr +f = where v = 3, p = 1°7,f = 15. ; It will therefore be understood that a complete table of mid- parental and filial heights may be calculated fom two simple numbers. , It will be gathered from what has been said, that a mid-parental deviate of one unit implies a mid-grandparental deviate of 3, a mid-ancestral unit in the next generation of 3, and so on. I reckon from these and other data, by methods that I cannot stop to explain, that the heritage derived on an average from the mid-parental deviate, independently of what it may imply, or of what may be known concerning the previous ancestry, 1s only 3. Consequently, that similarly derived from a single parent is only i, and that from a single grandparent is only 7’5- The most elementary data upon which a complete table of mid-parental and filial heights admits of being constructed are (1) the ratio between the mid-parental and the rest of the ancestral influences, and (2) the measure of the co-family variability. : I cannot now pursue the numerous branches that spring from the data I have given, as from a root. I will not speak of the continued domination of one type over others, nor of the per- sistency of unimportant characteristics, nor of the inheritance of disease, which is complicated in many cases by the requisite concurrence of two separate heritages, the one of a susceptible constitution, the other of the germs of the disease. Still less can I enter upon the subject of fraternal characteristics, which I have also worked out. It will suffice for the present to have shown some of the more important conditions associated with the idea of race, and how the vague word “type” may be defined by peculiarities in hereditary transmission, at all events when that word is applied to any single quality, such as stature. To include those numerous qualities that are not strictly measurable, we must omit reference to number and proportion, and frame the definition thus :—‘‘ The type is an ideal form towards which the children of those who deviate from it tend to regress.” The stability of a type would, I presume, be measured by the 510 strength of its tendency to regress ; thus a mean regression from 1 in the mid-parents to 3 in the offspring would indicate only half as much stability as if it had been to $. The mean regression in stature of a population is easily ascer- tained, but I do not see much use in knowing it. It has already been stated that half the population vary less than 1°7 inch from mediocrity, this keing what is technically known as the ‘‘ prob- able” deviation. The mean deviation is, by a well-known theory, 1°18 times that of the probable deviation, therefore in this case it is 1°9 inch. The mean loss through regression is 4 of that amount, ora little more than 0°6 inch. That is to say, taking one child with another, the mean amount by which they fall short of their mid-parental peculiarity of stature is rather more than six-tenths of an inch. With respect to these and the other numerical estimates, I wish emphatically to say that I offer them only as being service- ably approximate, though they are mutually consistent, and with the desire that they may be reinvestigated by the help of more abundant and much more accurate measurements than those I have had at command. There are many simple and interesting relations to which I am still unable to assign numerical values for lack of adequate material, such as that to which I referred some time back of the superior influence of the father over the mother on the stature of their sons and daughters. The limits of deviation beyond which there is no regression, but a new condition of equilibrium is entered into, and a new type comes into existence, have still to be explored. Let us consider how much we can infer from undisputed facts of heredity regarding the conditions amid which any form of stable equilib- rium, such as is implied by the word ‘‘ type,” must be established, or might be disestablised and superseded by another. In doing so I will follow cautiously along the same path by which Darwin started to construct his provisional theory of pangenesis ; but it is not in the least necessary to go so far as that theory, or to entangle ourselyes in any questioned hypothesis. There can be no doubt that heredity proceeds to a consider- able extent, perhaps principally, in a piecemeal or piebald fashion, causing the person of the child to be to that extent a mosaic of independent ancestral heritages, one part coming with more or less variation from this progenitor and another from that. express this aspect of inheritance, where particle proceeds from particle, we may conveniently describe it as ‘‘ particulate.” So far as the transmission of any feature may be regarded as an example of particulate inheritance, so far (it seems little more than a truism to assert) the element from which that feature was developed must have been particulate also. Therefore, wher- eyer a feature in a child was not personally possessed by either parent, but transmitted through one of them from a more distant progenitor, the element whence that feature was developed must haye existed in a particulate, though impersonal and latent, form in the body of the parent. The total heritage of that parent will have included a greater variety of material than was utilised in the formation of his own personal structure. Only a portion of it became developed ; the survival of at least a small part of the remainder is proved, and that of a larger part may be inferred by his transmitting it to the person of his child. Therefore the organised structure of each individual should be viewed as the fulfilment of only one out of an indefinite number of mutually exclusive possibilities. It is the development of a single sample drawn out of a group of elements. The conditions under which each element in the sample became selected are, of course, un- known, but it is reasonable to expect they would fall under one or other of the following agencies: first, self-selection, where each element selects its most suitable neighbour, as in the theory of pangenesis ; secondly, general co-ordination, or the influence exerted on each element by many or all of the remaining ones, whether in its immediate neighbourhood or not ; finally, a group of diverse agencies, alike only in the fact that they are not uniformly helpful or harmful, that they influence with no constant purpose—in philosophical language, that they are not teleological ; in popular language, that they are accidents or chances. ‘Their inclusion renders it impossible to predict the peculiarities of individual children, though it does not prevent the prediction of average results. We now see something of the general character of the conditions amid which the stable equilibrium that charac- terises each race must subsist. Politica! analogies of stability and change of type abound, and are useful to fix the ideas, as I pointed out some years ago. Let us take that which is afforded by the government of a colony which has become independent. The individual colonists rank To | NATURE [Sepé. 24, 1885 as particulate representatives of families or other groups in the parent country. The organised colonial government ranks as the personality of the colony, being its mouthpiece and executive. The government is evolved amid political strife, one element prevailing here and another there. The prominent victors band theniselves into the nucleus of a paity, additions to their number and revisions of it ensue, until a body of men are associated capable of conducting a completely organised administration. The kinship between the form of government of the colony and that of the parent state is far from direct, and resembles ina general way that which I conceive to subsist between the child and his mid-parentage. We should expect to find many points of resemblance between the two, and many instances of great dissimilarity, for our political analogy teaches us only too well on what slight accidents the character of the government may depend when parties are nearly balanced. The appearance of 9 new and useful family peculiarity is a boon to breeders, who by selection in mating gradually reduce the preponderance of those ancestral elements that endanger reversion. The appearance of a new type is due to causes that lie beyond our reach, so we ought to welcome every useful one as a happy chance, and do our best to domicile and perpetuate it. When heredity shall have become much better and more generally understood than now, I can believe that we shall look upon a neglect to conserve any valuable form of family type as a wrongful waste of opportunity. The appearance of each new natural peculiarity is a faltering step in the upward journey of evolution, over which, in outward appearance, the whole living world is blindly blundering and stumbling, but whose general direction man has the intelligence dimly to discern, and whose progress he has power to facilitate. THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE + qp ees meeting of 1885 of the American Association for the Advancement of Science was held at the Ann Arbor University. The total attendance (according to Science) of members was not a large one, the number reaching only to 365; the number of papers was 176. Two changes in the organisation were made; by one, the section of histology and microscopy was abolished, as it has been urged for some time that a special science of microscopy does not exist, the microscope being rather a tool to be used by scientific men in various branches. The other change was in the name of the section of mechanics, the words “and engineering” being added to the title, that it may be more clearly understood by Americans that those interested in all branches of engineering are invited to take part in the proceedings. As this was the first meeting since the action of the Government in regard to the Coast Survey, the question was generally discussed. The matter was referred to a committee, which offered to a general session of the Association the following resolutions, which were unanim- ously accepted :— WHEREAS, The attention of this Association has been called to articles in the public press, purporting to give—and presum- ably by authority—an official report of a Commission appointed by the Treasury department to investigate the condition of the U.S. Coast Survey Office, in which report the value of a certain scientific work is designated as ‘‘ meagre.” AND WHEREAS, This Association desires to express a hope that the decision, as to the utility of such scientific work, may be referred to scientific men. Resolved, That the American Association for the Advancement of Science is in earnest sympathy with the Government in its every intent to secure the greatest possible efficiency of the public service. E Resolved, That the value of the scientific work performed in the various departments of the Government can be best judged by scientific men. , Resolved, That this Association desires to express its earnest approval of the extent and high character of the work performed by the U.S. Coast Survey—especially as illustrated by the ' For early copies of the addresses and papers we are indebted to the editor of Sczence. : 4 Sept. 24, 1885] NATURE EL gravity determinations now in progress—and to express the hope that such valuable work may not be interrupted. Resolved, That this Association expresses, also, the hope that the Government will not allow any technical rule to be esta- blished. that shall necessarily confine its scientific work to its own employés. Resolved, That in the opinion of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the head of the Coast Survey should be appointed by the President, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, should have the highest possible standing among scientific men, and should command their entire confidence. Resolved, That copies of these resolutions shall be prepared by the general secretary, and certified by the President of the Association and by the permanent secretary, and shall be for- warded to the President of the United States, the Secretary of the Treasury, and given to the press. Various improvements with the object of securing a more rapid despatch of business were either suggested or adopted ; thus members are to be elected by a standing committee instead of in general session, and it is proposed to restrict general sessions of the Association to the beginning and close of the meeting, and to limit the public reading of committee reports in general session to such as seem to the standing committee specially desir- able from their interest or importance. The next meeting will be held at Buffalo, beginning August 18, 1886, under the presidency of Prof. Edward S. Morse, of Salem. We regret much that it is impossible for us to repro- duce in full the President’s address and the sectional reports ; the obvious pressure on our space at the present time will only enable us to refer to a few salient topics. The President’s address was delivered by Prof. J. P. Lesley, of Philadelphia. We find the following striking observations on the “‘dead-work ” of science :— There is a topic which I think should be frequently considered by all who engage in scientific pursuits, and by none so earnestly as by those who are ambitious to reach the higher points of view, from which to survey and describe those systematic combina- tions of phenomena which are more or less panoramic: I allude of course to generalisers or discoverers of natural laws, and the professional teachers of such laws: while those who deal in itemised science, the mere observers of isolated facts, discrimin- ating specimens and naming genera and species in the animal, vegetable, or mineral worlds, and especially such as occupy themselves with geographical and geological studies in detail, stand in less need of having it pressed upon their attention, because in their case it insists upon its own necessity. I allude to what is technically known among experts as “dead-work.” This topic has to be treated in the most prosaic style. To descrike dead-work is to narrate all those portions of our work which consume the most time, give the most trouble, require the greatest patience and endurance, and seem to produce the most Insignificant results. It comprises the collection, collation, com- parison and adjustment, the elimination, correction, and re- selection, the calculation and representation—in a word, the entire first, second, and third handling of our data in any branch of human learning—wholly perfunctory, preparatory, and me- chanical, wholly tentative, experimental, and defensive—without which it is dangerous to proceed a single stage into reasoning on the unknown, and futile to imagine that we can advance in science ourselves, or assist in its advancement in the world. It is that tedious, costly, and fatiguing process of laying a good foundation which no eye is ever to see, for a house to be built thereon for safety and enjoyment, for public uses or for monu- mental beauty. Itis the labour of a week to be paid for on Saturday night. It is the slow recruiting, arming, drilling, victualling, and transporting of an entire army to secure victory in one short battle. It is the burden of dead weight which every great discoverer has had to carry for years and years, un- known to the world at large, before the world was electrified by his appearance as its genius. Let us examine it more closely : it will repay our scrutiny. Those of you who have been more or less successfully at work all your lives may get some satisfac- tion from the retrospect: and those who have commenced careers should hear what dead-work means, what its uses are, how indispensable it is, how honourable it is, and what stores of health and strength and happiness it reserves for them. My propositions, then, are these :—(1) That, without a large amount of this dead-work, there can be no discovery of what is rightly called a scientific truth. (2) That, without a large amount of dead-work on the part of a teacher of science, he will fail in his efforts to impart true science to his scholars. (3) That, without a large amount of dead-work, no professional expert can properly serve, much less inform and command, his clients or employers. (4) That nothing but a habitual per- formance of dead work can keep the scientific judgment in a safe and sound condition to meet emergencies, or prevent it from falling more or less rapidly into decrepitude ; and (5) That in the case of highly-organised thinkers, disposed or obliged to exercise habitually the creative powers of the imagination, or to exhaust the will-power in frequently-recurring decisions of diffi- cult and doubtful questions, dead-work and plenty of it is their only salvation ; nay, the most delicious and refreshing recrea- tion; a panacea for disgust, discouragement, and care; an elixir vitze ; a fountain of perpetual youth. . . . First, then, is it so that scientific truths cannot be discovered without a large amount of preliminary dead-work? Surely no one in this assembly doubts it who has established even one original theory for himself, or won for it the suffrages of judges capable of weighing evidence. Now the immense disproportion in numbers between theories broached and theories accepted is the best proof we could have, not only of the value and necessity of dead-work, but of the scarcity of those who depend upon it as a preparatory stage of theorising. And, moreover, not theories only, but simple statements of fact believed and dis- believed—that is, finally accepted or finally rejected—exhibit the like numerical disproportion, and betray a general careless- ness or laziness of observers ; at all events their manifest lack of appreciation of the value and necessity of the dead-work part of observation, which imperatively must precede any clear mental perception of the simplest phenomenon, before the attempt is made to establish its natural relationships, and present it for acceptance as a part of science. No ; dead work cannot be delegated. The man who cannot himself survey and map his field, measure and draw his sections properly, and perfectly represent with his own pencil the characteristic variations of its fossil forms, has no just right to call himself an expert geologist. These are the badges of initia- tion ; and the only guarantees which one can offer to the world of science that one is a competent observer and a trustworthy generaliser, Nor has one become a true man of science until he has already done a vast amount of this dead work ; nor does one continue in his prime, as a man of science, after he has ceased to bring to this test of his own ability to see, to judge, and to theorise, the working and thinking of other men. But enough of this. My second proposition was that no teacher of science can be successful who does not himself encounter some of the dead work of the explorer and discoverer ; who does not discipline his own faculties of perception, reflection, and generalisation, by field- work and office-work, independently of all text-book assistance ; who does not himself make at least some of the diagrams, tables, and pictures for his class-room, in as original a spirit and with as much precision of detail as if none such had ever been made before, and these were to remain sole monuments of the genius of investigation. What the true teacher has to do first and fore- most is to wake up in youthful minds this spirit of investigation ab initio. The crusade against scholastic cramming promises to be successful ; but the crusade against pedagogic cramming has hardly yet been organised. How is the scholar to be made an artist if the teacher cannot draw? The instinct of imitation in man is irresistible. Slovenly drawing on the blackboard— sufficient evidence of the teacher’s imperfect information and inaccurate conception of facts, the nature of which he only thinks he understands—can do little more than raise a cold fog of suspicion in the class-room, by which the tender sprouts of learning must be either dwarfed or killed. But even slovenly diagrams are preferable to purchased ones ; for whatever dimin- ishes the dead-work of a teacher enervates his investigating, and thereby his demonstrating, powers, and lowers him toward the level of his scholars. Were I dictator I should drive all teachers of science out into the great field of dead-work ; force them to go through all the gymnastics of original research and its description, and not per- mit them to return to their libraries until their notebooks 512 NA TORE. [ Sept. 24, 1885 were full of their own measurements and calculations, sketch- maps and farm-drawings, severely accurate and logically classi- fied, to be then compared with those recorded in the books. What teachers fail to keep in mind isthis: that learning is not knowledge ; but as Lessing says: Learning is only our know- ledge of the experience of others ; knowledge is our own. No man really comprehends what he himself has not created. Therefore we know nothing of the universe until we take it to pieces for inspection, and rebuild it for our under- standing. Nor can one man do this for another; each must do it for himself; and all that one can do to help another is to show him how he himself has morsellated and recomposed his small particular share of concrete nature, and inspire him with those vague but hopeful suggestions of ideas which we call learning, but which are not science. My third proposition was that an expert in practical science can command the respect and confidence of his professional fellows, and through their free suffrages buld up his own repu- tation in the learned and business worlds, only in exact propor- tion to the amount of good dead-work to which he voluntarily subjects himself. For, although the most of it is necessarily done in secrecy ana silence, enough of it leaks out to testify to his honest and diligent self-cultivation ; and enough of it must show in the shape of scientific wisdom to make self-evident the fact that he is neither a tyro nor a charlatan. More than once I have heard the merry jest of the Australasian judge quoted with sinister application to experts in science. When a young col- league, just arrived from England, asked him for advice, he answered : Pronounce your decisions, but beware of stating your reasons for them. Many an ephemeral reputation for science has been begot by this shrewd policy ; but the best policy to wear well is honesty ; and honesty in trade means selling what is genuine, well-made, and durable ; and honesty in science means, first, facts well proved, and then conclusions slowly and painfully deduced from facts well proved, in sufficient number and order of arrangement to exhaust alike the subject and the observer. Reap your field so thoroughly that gleaners must despair. Fortify your position, that your most experienced rival can find no point of attack. Lay your plans with such a super- fluity of patient carefulness that fate itself can invent no serious emergency. Demonstrate your theory so utterly and evidently that it shall require no defender but itself. Die for your work, that your work may live for ever. Forget yourself, and your work will make you famous. Enslave yourself to it, and it will plant your feet upon the necks of kings, and your mere Yes or No will become a law to multitudes. This is what the dead- work of science, when well done, does for the expert in science. My fourth proposition—that only the habitual performance of dead-work can preserve the scientific intellect in pristine vigour, and prevent it from becoming stiffened with prejudices, inapt to receive fresh truth, and forgetful of knowledge already won— hardly needs discussion. Human muscles become atrophied by disuse. Men’s fortunes shrink and evaporate by mere invest- ment. I pray you to imagine what I wish to say, for it all amounts to this—that the grass will surely grow over a deserted footpath. Let me hurry to the close of this address, which I have found too serious a duty for my liking, and perhaps you also have found it too personal a preachment for yours. One more suggestion, then, and I have done. My fifth proposition was that the wearied and exhausted intellect will wisely seek refreshment in dead-work. The physiology of the brain is now sufficiently well under- stood to permit physicians to prescribe with some assurance for its many ills, and to regulate its restoration to a normal state of health. Its tissues reproduce themselves throughout life if no extraordinary oyer-balance of decay takes place, if there be no excessive and too long-continued waste. For the majority of mankind, nature provides for the adjustment between consump- tion and reproduction of brain matter, by the alternations of day and night, noise and silence, society and solitude; and also by the substitution of the play of fancy in dreams, for the work of the judgment and the will in waking hours. We follow the lead of nature when we seek amusement as a remedy for care. We bring into activity a rested portion of the brain, to permit the wearied parts of it to restore themselves unhindered. In Section A Prof. Newton, of Yale, read a paper upon “The Effect of Small Bodies passing near a Planet upon the Planet’s Velocity.” The former researches of Prof. Newton upon meteors are recognised among astronomers as our principal source of knowledge about the character, distribution, and motion of these minute bodies with which the solar system is filled, especially those which strike our atmosphere and are burned up as meteors. The possible effect of these upon the rotation of the earth, and the revolution of the earth and moon in their orbits, has been subjected to elaborate investigation at the hands of several mathematical astronomers. The recent publications of Mr. Denning, of Bristol, claiming the fixity of long-continuing radiant points of meteor streams, have raised the question of the existence of broad streams of meteoroids moving swiftly through stellar space outside of solar attraction ; and any new investiga- tion bearing upon any of these points is more than usually timely. In this paper Prof. Newton has discussed the effect upon the earth’s motion of those bodies which do not pass near enough to the earth to be drawn into its atmosphere, but still near enough to be drawn out of their course, and swung for a time in hyperbolic orbits around it. He began by saying that the results of the investigation might perhaps be considered negative as far as measurable quantities in the solar system are concerned, but that they had a mathematical interest, and might possibly have a bearing upon somewhat similar questions in molecular physics, like the kinetic theory of gases. The mathe- matician and astronomer must be referred to the paper itself, and the results of popular interest may be briefly summarised as follows :—Considering, first, the case of a cylindrical stream of small bodies evenly distributed, and all moving in the same direc- tion with a common velocity past the earth supposed to be in the axis of the cylinder, it is shown that they will communicate to the earth in each unit of time a velocity along the axis: (1) that is proportional to the density of the group ; (2) that decreases as the velocity increases nearly inversely as the square of the velocity ; (3) that increases as the logarithm of the radius of the cylinder, the radius being measured by a unit differing from the earth’s radius by a small quantity, which is a function of the velocity. Second, in the case of a widely-extended group of small bodies evenly distributed in space, and having speeds all equal, but directed towards points evenly distributed over the celestial sphere with the earth moving ina right line through them, it is shown that, for those which do not strike the earth, but only affect it by their attraction, the effect will be an exceedingly minute acceleration of the earth’s motion, if the latter zs ess than that of the bodies, even though the group is infinite in extent. If the earth’s velocity zs greater than that of the bodies, their total effect will consist of two parts: a very minute retardation of the earth’s motion, depending in amount upon the absolute velocity cf the bodies; and another retardation depending upon the assumed extent ofthe group. In cenclusion, the effect of bodies striking the earth or moon is manifold greater than that of those only passing near ; and since it has before been shown that any admissible magnitude of meteroids would make the effect upon the moon’s mean motion of those which strike it only a minute fraction of the observed acceleration, still less can any action of those passing near the moon have any appreciable effect. Papers were also read by Prof. Harkness on the flexure of transit instruments ; by Prof. Hough, describing some improve- ments recently introduced in the printing chronograph, first designed and brought into use by himself at the Dudley Observa- tory in 1871, by Prof. Burkitt Webb, describing a method of using polar coordinates, by transferring the origin from the centre to the end of the unit radius, thus substituting (7-1) for 7, and then using the length of the arc and the distance out from its end upon the radius vector, as w and y are used in rectangular coordinates. He found this a very convenient transformation in the application of polar coordinates to the discussion of Amsler’s planimeter ; and, pointing out, that by substituting infinity for unit-radius in the equations thus transformed, they were reduced to those of rectangular coordinates, he thought this transforma- tion of polar coordinates might be found generally useful. In this section also Mr. Rockwell presented some results of his observations for time and latitude with the almucantar, an instrument devised by Mr. Chandler, of the Harvard College Observatory, a year or two ago, which promises at least to furnish an entirely new and radically different method of attack- ing the question of absolute positions of the stars, and very probably far to surpass all others in accuracy, on account of its freedom from systematic errors. The results thus far published by Mr. Chandler seem fully to confirm all that was expected of the in- strument ; and it is probably not too much to say, that it is the most important addition of the present century to the instruments and methods used in the determination ef absolute star positions. Sept. 24, 1885 | NATORE 2 o 51 The sources of systematic error would seem to be almost wholly reduced to those of varying personal equation in the observation of transits at all speeds and at all inclinations and directions over horizontal wires, and to possible systematic difference in atmo- spheric refraction in different azimuths. Mr. Rockwell exhibited some results, simply copied from his observing-books, illustrat- ing the methods of reduction for time and latitude observations, and showing the degree of accuracy that can be attained by the instrument in both these directions. They served to show that the instrument when duplicated will give equally good results with the one first constructed ; and their consideration gave rise to a very interesting discussion, participated in by many members, as to the character of work the instrument might be expected to do, in the course of which Mr. Rockwell answered, in a very entertaining way, many questions, put by various members, as to the details of observing and reducing, which were not before clearly understood on account of the novelty of the work. One of the most important problems which the instru- ment is specially adapted to investigate, and one which we hope Mr, Chandler will soon find time to undertake, is the determina- tion of the declination of fundamental stars south of the equator, tying them to northern stars at corresponding zenith-distances below the pole. This would seem to be by far the best, perhaps the only, method of connecting these together in a way that shall be free from systematic error. In the Physical Section, the first paper read was by Prof. Langley, on the spectra of some sources of invisible radiations, and on the recognition of hitherto unmeasured wave-lengths. This was followed by one by Mr. Brashear on a practical method of working rock-salt surfaces for optical purposes. Prof. H. S. Carhart presented a paper on surface transmission of electrical discharges, which was an ingenious revision of work by Prof. Henry. Prof. E. L. Nichols presented some further notes on the chemical behaviour of magnetic iran, a continuation of work described in a paper at the Philadelphia meeting. Major H. E. Alvord of Mountainville, New York, presented the results of telemetric observations at Houghton Farm. This is a method by which changes in temperature are transmitted and recorded electrically; and Major Alvord’s results show that, with increasing experience, the records fol- lowed more and more satisfactorily the observations made on the mercurial thermometer. Prof. T. C. Mendenhall called attention to the modifications and improvements already made or desired in electrometers, especially with reference to their use in observations on atmo- spheric electricity. Observations of this kind have been made regularly for the last year or two; but, as Prof. Mendenhall well said, the meaning of the variations recorded is still a mystery. Prof. A. E. Dolbear read three papers: in one he described a method of studying contact-theory of electricity by means of the telephone. He has found that a click is produced in the telephone every time the circuit is broken between two heterogeneous materials, as copper and zinc. In another paper he referred to his success in employing a Bernstein incandescent lamp for projection purposes ; and in the third he described a new galvanic element of high electromotive force and great constancy, consisting of carbonin a saturated solution of bichromate of potash, and sulphuric acid and zinc in a saturated solution of ammonic chloride ; nitric acid could be used in place of sulphuric. Mr. A. J. Rogers presented a paper on electro- lysis of the salts of the alkaline earth. Prof. E, D, Nicholls has, by means of a spectro-photometer, described at a previous meeting, compared the spectrum of the unclouded sky with that of the light reflected by magnesium carbonate, illuminated by direct sunlight. Prof. Wead exhibited a combined spectro-photometer and ophthalmospectrescope. In the Chemical Section Prof. Nichols delivered an address on chemistry in the service of public health. Amongst the papers are :—Prof. Noyes, on para-nitrobenzoic sulphuride ; Dr. Wiley, on a method of estimating lactic and acetic acid in sour milk or fowmzss; Mr. Young, on the thermo-chemical reaction between potassic hydrade and common alum. A gene- ral discussion took place on the question of what is the best initiatory work for students entering upon laboratory practice, and also, To what extent is a knowledge of molecular physics necessary to one who would teach th2oretical chemistry ? In the Section of Mechanical Science Prof. Webb delivered an address on the second law of thermo-dynamics. Mr. Wagner presented an elaborate paper on electric light tests, giving an ! October 2 and 3. account of his work in testing the efficiency of two electric-light plants. Prof. Cooley explained and illustrated a method of testing indicator-springs. Prof. Thurston’s paper on cylinder condensation is described as being of great scientific and prac- tical value. In the Section of Geology and Geography the address was by Prof. Edward Orton, and the subject, Problems in the study of coal, with a sketch of recent progress in geology. There were, in all, twenty-seven papers in this Section, none being geogra- phical. Stratigraphy received the lion’s share of attention, the most important paper on this subject being one by Prof. Henry S. Williams. The address to the Biological Section was by Dr, Wilder, on Educational Museums of Vertebrates. The Section opened with two papers by Prof. L. E. Sturte- vant as the result of observations and experiments at the New York agricultural experiment station. The first, on the hybrid- isation and cross-fertilisation of plants. In the second— “* Germination Studies ’—the author gives, as a result of many trials with commercial seeds of our common plants, that very extended series of trials must be made with each species in order to obtain the desired accuracy in results. An interesting paper on the biological deductions from a com- parative study of the influence of cocaine and atropine on the organs of circulation, by Dr. H. G. Beyer, U.S.N., was read before the Section. “On the Brain and Auditory Organs of a Permian Theomorph Saurian” was the title of an interesting paper by Prof. E. D. Cope. The author called special attention to the morphology of the brain, the character of the cranial walls and the auditory apparatus. The disputed question of the bisexuality of the pond-scums (Zygnemacez) was discussed by Prof. C. E. Bessey, of the University of Nebraska, who concluded that these organisms do not possess true bisexuality. **On the Process of Cross-fertilisation in Campanula amert- cana” was the title of a paper presented by C. R. Barnes. A paper on aquatic respiration in soft-shelled turtles (Aspido- nectes and Amyda) was presented by Profs. Simon H. and S. Phelps Gage as a contribution to the physiology of respiration in vertebrates. Prof. C. E. Bessey read a paper on the inflorescence of Cuscuta glomzrata. Prof. Gage addressed the Section (G) on Microscopy and Histology on the limitations and value of histological investiga- tion, and Mr. Dall discoursed to the Anthropological Section on the native tribes of Alaska. The papers in this section were very numerous, many of great interest, and all naturally devoted to anthropological questions connected with the North American continent. NOTES THE National Sanitary Congress commenced its autumn meeting at Leicester on Tuesday, when the president, Prof. De Chaumont, F.R.S., gave an address on the work of the Sanitary Institute. THE portrait of the late George Bentham, subscribed for by several of his friends, has been presented to the Herbarium, Royal Gardens, Kew, on behalf of the subscribers, by Sir John Lubbock. The picture is a successful reproduction, by Miss Merrick, of the original in the possession of the Linnean Society. WE regret to notice the death of M. Breton des Champs, one of the French Government engineers, a mathematician and scientific writer who played a prominent part in connection with the Newton forgeries. In combination with his friend Leverrier, M. Breton des Champs exploded these frauds, which were so dis- graceful to the good name of the French Academy of Sciences. He discovered the books from which the so-called ‘‘ forger with long ears” had copied the assumed letter sold to M. Chasles. THE Essex Field Club will hold its sixth annual cryptogamic and botanic meeting in Epping Forest on Friday and Saturday, On the Saturday afternoon and evening there 514 will be an exhibition of fungi and other plants, fresh and pre- served, with micro-objects; and papers will be read by Dr- Wharton and Mr. Worthington Smith. The following botanists, among many others, are expected to be present, and will act as ‘‘ referees’ in various departments of plant-lore :— Prof. Boulger, Dr. Braithwaite, Dr. M. C. Cooke, Rey. J. M. Crombie, Rev. Canon Du-Port, Messrs. J. L. English, Henry Groves, F. J. Hanbury, E. M. Holmes, David Houston, A. Vaughan Jenn- ings, Frederick Oxley, W. W. Reeves, Worthington G. Smith, C. A. Wright, Dr. Spurrell, Dr. H. T. Wharton, &c. Those wishing to attend should communicate with the hon. secretary, Mr. W. Cole, Buckhurst Hill, Essex, who will forward pro- grammes giving full particulars. THE Trustees of the Gilchrist Lectures Fund have arranged for courses of six lectures in each of five Lancashire towns— Blackburn, Lancaster, Chorley, Colne, and Padiham, and for similar courses in Greenock, Paisley, Stirling, Alloa, and Kil- marnock—all to be delivered during October and December. No lectures will be given during November in consequence of the General Election in that month. The lecturers entrusted with the work are: Prof. R. S. Ball, Rev. W. H. Dallinger, Prof. W. C. Williamson, Dr. Andrew Wilson, and Mr. W. Lant Carpenter. Each course includes three lectures on bio- logical and three on physical subjects, oxyhydrogen lantern illus- trations being freely used, and in some cases experiments also. As usual the charge for admission will be one penny, and the largest available rooms are secured for the lectures, special measures being taken to insure the attendance of working men. There will probably be similar courses in five Midland towns in the spring. WE are informe d that the vacant Chair of Physics and Engineering in University College, Bristol, has been filled by the appointment to the post of Prof. John Ryan, M.A., King’s College, Cambridge, D.Sc. Lond on, and Member of the Insti- tute of Mechanical Engineers. Dr. Ryan, who is a practical engineer, has hitherto held the appointment of Professor of Mechanics and Engineering in University College, Nottingham. At Bristol he succeeds Prof. Thom pson, now Principal of the Finsbury Technical College, and Prof. Hele Shaw, recently appointed to the Professorship of Engineering in University College, Liverpool. Mr. F. C, LEHMANN, a German botanist, who has travelled or over ten years in Central and South America for the purposes of scientific researches, has arrived safely at Panama, from Europe, which he lately visited in order to arrange with other scientific colleagues to assist him in the classification of his ex- tensive collection of objects of natural history. Mr. Lehmann was about to proceed to the Cauca, where he intends to remain for several years, with his domicile in Popayan. He proposes the continuation of former labours and minute researches into the botanico-geographical conditions of the Flora of Tropical America. THE exceedingly unusual character of the following announce- ment, coming from the United States, will attract attention. We take it from Scéence:—‘*On account of the lack of funds necessary to maintain its activity, the Astronomical Observatory of Beloit College, Wisconsin (Prof. J. Tatlock, jun., director), has been closed.” THE experiments for the electrical illumination of the Palais Royal are very successful. The number of incandescent lights used is 150. The Théatre Francais, ThéAtre du Palais Royal, and Council of State have agreed to the deed of agreement signed by the shopkeepers, so that thousands of lamps will soon be in operation. But before taking a final decision, the sub- scribers are trying every description of incandescent lamp. NATURE like period three more. | fourth day. | [ Sept. 24, 1885 A SERIES of science lectures has commenced at the Royal Victoria Hall, Waterloo Bridge Road, and promises to be as successful as any previous one. On September 29, W. J. Harrison, F.G.S., will lecture on ‘*Stone Tools and the Men who used them.” On October 6, Mr, A. H. Fison will lecture on ‘‘Some Other Worlds.” On October 13, Prof. H. G Seeley, F.R.S., will lecture on ‘‘ Coal.” WE learn from the London and China Telegraph that a work on which Dr. Dudgeon of Peking has been engaged for upwards of ten years, has just been issued in eighteen Chinese volumes. It comprises a translation of Gray’s ‘‘ Anatomy” and Holden’s “*QOsteology.”’ There are in addition two volumes of plates, comprising 600 cuts, which have occupied the time of two men for two years and a half. The whole of these cuts have been made at the expense of the Chinese Foreign Office, and the work has been published in a series issued by the Foreign Language College at Peking. It is proposed to establish in connection with this college a medical school and hospital to provide proper practitioners for the service of the army, navy, and palace. A REPORT on carp-culture in China has been made by Dr. Macgowan to the Carp-Culture Association of the United States. Pisciculture, it appears, was cultivated at a very early period, being regarded as a branch of agriculture. The carp is, of all fish, the most frequently reared by artificial means in China, but nearly every species of CyJrinid@, bream, tench, roach, gold- fish, &c., is soraised. A treatise on fish-rearing has been at- tributed to a Minister of the fifth century before our era, bat it it appears to have been really written eight centuries later. The work says that of the five modes of rearing animals by far the most productive and valuable is fish-breeding. The pond used for this purpose (it goes on) should be an acre in extent (the depth is usually less than eight feet), and nine stone islets, each having eight inlets or bays, a yard below the surface of the water, should be constructed in it; then twenty gravid carp and four males, each three feet long, are to be deposited in it noise- lessly in the month of March. Two months later a turtle should be placed in the pond, two months later a couple, and after a By this time there will be 360 carp. The turtles are to prevent their being transformed into dragons and flying away. The object of the islets and bays is to afford greater space for the fish in their sinuous voyages, for the more a fish travels the fatter and bigger he becomes. The Chinese author then makes the following calculation: in the following year the pond will be found to contain 150,000 carp 1 foot in length, 450,000 3 feet, 10,000 2 feet. In the third year 100,000 I foot, 50,000 2 feet, 50,000 3 feet, and 40,000 4 feet. A thousand of those that are 2 feet in length should be re- tained for replenishment, and all the rest be sent to market. In another year their number will exceed all calculation, and they require no feeding, hence the value of carp culture. All the varieties, we are told, come from the black species. Those destined to become white change to silver or yellow, while the others turn first red and then golden. Some of the white sort are so nearly transparent that their viscera are visible. Much of the art of rearing them consists in affording due amounts of shade and sunshine in the course of their. growth, and in changing their water, not more than half of which is to be removed every In the earliest times the practice, which continues to-day, was introduced of planting mulberries on the margins on which apiaries were placed, the droppings from which fed the fish, while the leaves of the trees first nourished silkworms and then goats. These droppings are said to impart a peculiar flavour to the fish. A CONSIGNMENT of soles and brill has lately been despatched by the National Fish Culture Association to the American — —— = ee Sept. 24, 1885] NATURE 515 Government as a slight recognition of the presentations of ova made by them to this country. There is a great dearth of flat fishes in the United States, and at the instigation of the Com- missioners-of Fish and Fisheries many attempts have been made to forward young specimens for propagation from England. Hitherto these efforts have not met with success, it being exceed- ingly difficult to transmit live soles, as they are less tenacious of life than their congeners. We hope that Prof. Baird, who has received notice of the despatch of this valuable gift, will not be again disappointed. The fish have been placed in charge of an experienced pisciculturist, who will accompany the s.s. Republic, by which vessel they have been sent, and who will bring back a number of American species with a view to acclimatising them in this country. THE Royal Commissioners of the Colonial Exhibition, to be held next year at South Kensington, have issued circulars to the Governors of our Colonies requesting them to send the various species of fish indigenous to their respective countries for exhi- bition. Special preparations will be made at the close of October for receiving them. The arrangements will necessarily be of an elaborate nature, as the tanks will have to be constructed in such a manuer as to provide for the exigencies of each species and the regulation of high and low temperatures according to the climatal necessities of the fish. SPECIAL interest is just now centred at the Aquarium in the incubation of the ova of some of the dogfish which have recently spawned. The eggs, which resemble filbert nuts in shape, are to be seen in a special tank, which presents a sight of much edification. The formation of the fish inside the ova is plainly perceptible, every part of them being apparent. The fish in the Aquarium are now being fed at 6 o’clock, partly on a new dietary specially invented by Mr. W. Burgess, of Malvern Wells. THE Marquis of Lorne has successfully planted some whitefish in a specially constructed lake on the Isle of Mull. The fish form part of those reared by the National Fish Culture Associa- tion this year. His Lordship reports that the fish are doing well. AT a lecture delivered by Mr. W. Oldham Chambers, F.L.S., at the Hull Town Hall last week on fish culture, living speci- mens of the whitefish and other foreign species of fish were exhibited, and excited much interest amongst the audience. A RECENT Bulletin of the United States Fish Commission contains the following interesting account of the destruction of young trout by mosquitoes: ‘‘In the middle or latter part of June, 1882, I was prospecting on the head-waters of the Tumichie Creek, in the Gunnison Valley, Colorado. About 9 o'clock in the morning I sat down in the shade of some willows that skirted a clear but shallow place in the creek. In a quiet part of the water where their movements were readily discernible, were some fresh-hatched brook or mountain trout, and circling about over the water was a small swarm of mosquitoes. The trout were very young, still having the pellucid sack puffing out from the region of the gills, with the rest of the body almost transparent when they would swim into a portion of the water that was lighted up ‘by direct sunshine. Every few minutes these baby trout—for what purpose I do not know, unless to get the benefit of more air—would come to the surface of the water, so that the top of the head was level with the surface of the water. When this was the case a mosquito would light down and immediately transfix the trout by inserting its proboscis, or bill, into the brain of the fish, which seemed incapable of escaping. The mosquito would hold its victim steady until it had extracted all the life juices, and when this was accomplished, and it would fly away, the dead trout would turn over on its back and float down the stream. I was so interested in this before unheard-of destruction of fish that I watched the depredations of these mosquitoes for more than half an hour, and in that time over twenty trout were sucked dry and their lifeless bodies sent floating away with the current. It was the only occasion when I was ever witness to the fact, and I have been unable by inquiry to ascertain if others have observed a similar destruction of fish, I am sure the fish were trout, as the locality was quite near the snow line, and the water was very cold, and no other fish were in the stream at that altitude. From this observation I am satisfied that great numbers of trout, and perhaps infant fish of other varieties in clear waters, must come to their death in this way ; and if the fact has not been heretofore recorded it is important to those interested in fish- culture.” A TELEGRAM from Rome, September 21, states that repeated shocks of earthquake have occurred in Benevento. The in- habitants are terror-stricken, and are encamped in the open country. THE Russian Official Messenger states that the city of Namangan, in Ferghana, has been visited all through the summer by repeated shocks of earthquake, which have hitherto been of very rare occurrence there. The strongest shocks took place on April 17 and August 4, but no very serious conse- quences resulted. ON September 12, at 9.30 p.m., a magnificent meteor passed over the city of Stockholm, going from south to north. Its light was very brilliant. On account of the limited area of observa- tion it was impossible to tell whether it burst near the city or not. Durine the month of August enormous swarms of ants passed over the town of Solothurn in Switzerland. They came from the Jura mountains, and formed a cloud, consisting of seventy-five perpendicular columns, in which the ants circled around in spiral form. The swarm lasted for twenty minutes, the height of the cloud being upwards of ninety feet. Millions of them fell to the ground, however, without making any visible change in the phenomenon. ACCORDING to the Bergen Adresseblad, fishermen at the island of Mogster, on the coast of the province of Bergen, on the west coast of Norway, have lately seen large floating blocks of ice at sea, which are believed to be parts broken off from icebergs in the North Atlantic. Such a phenomenon has never before been observed in these parts. THE Swedish journal Norrbottens Kuriren states that the water is falling rapidly in the Gulf of Bothnia, a phenomenon to which we have on several occasions referred. As a further proof of this the journal states that a stone in the archipelago by the coast which fifty years ago at lowest tide was barely visible above water is now at mean tide three feet above it. WE have pleasure in noticing the issue of No. 43 of the first part and Nos. 29-31 of the second part of the well-known “Encyklopeedie der Naturwissenschaften” from the house of Eduard Trewendt, Breslau. The former brings forward Dr. A. Reichenow’s ‘‘ Handworterbuch der Zoologie, Anthropologie, und Ethnologie,” from article ‘‘ Heteronereis” to ‘‘ Icteridze.” Among other articles embraced within this interval are valuable contributions on the development of the organs of by Prof. Griesbach; on ‘‘ Hypnotismus,” by Jager; on ‘‘Januten,” “‘Japaner,” ‘‘ Javanen,” by Dr. yon Hellwald; on ‘‘ Hissarlik,” ‘*‘ Hohlefels,” ‘‘ Hohl- keit,” by Prof. Mehlis. Nos. 29 and 31 of the second part, again, continue the ‘*‘ Handworterbuch der Chemie,” while the 3othnuniber continues the ‘‘ Handworterbuch der Mineralogie, hearing Prof. Gustav 516 Geologie, und Palaontologie.” The two chemical numbers treat with all the fullness and thoroughness characteristic of this estimable work ‘‘ Dichte,” ‘‘ Didym,” ‘‘ Diffusion,” ‘‘ Dinte,” “‘Diphenylverbindungen,” ‘‘ Dissociation,” ‘* Diinger,” and ““Kisen,” and the accompanying woodcuts illustrating any diffi- cult experiments in the text add materially to the practical value of the articles. The new number, finally, of the Mineralogical, Geological, and Palzontological Dictionary contains important contributions on ‘‘ Reptilien” and ‘‘ Rhizopoden,” by Rolle ; on “‘Salze,” by Kenngott; on ‘‘Schichtenlehre” and “Schwankungen im Niveau vom Meer und Festlande,” by von Lasaulx—articles distinguished not more by fullness and compactness of matter than by clearness of dan. ne WITH unflagging vigour and learning the new Italian quarterly, La Nuova Scienza, prosecutes the mission it has undertaken of building up an exact philosophy on the foundation of the natural and historical sciences. In the last number for June, 1885, the articles of chief interest, all contributed by the indefatigable editor, Prof. Enrico Caporali, are: Modern Italian thought, German anticlerical evolution, and the Pithagoric formula in cosmical evolution. The last-mentioned paper deals with the evolution of gravitation, of heat, of electricity, chemical affinity, lower organic force, higher organic force, sentient force, social authority ; fatalist and free evolution. Itis held in general that all evolution is due more to internal energy than to outward conditions, in opposition to Herbert Spencer’s theory of me- chanical causes. THE address of Mr. W. H. Dall, vice-president to the Anthro- pological Section of the American Association for the Advance- ment of Science at Ann Arbor, last month, has been printed as a separate pamphlet. The subject of the address was ‘‘The Native Tribes of Alaska.” THE additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens during the past week include a Macaque Monkey (MJacacus cynomolgus 6 ) from India, presented by Mr. A. Cornet; a Red Kangaroo (Macropus rufus 2) from Australia, presented by Mr. G. Wylie ; a Bonelli’s Eagle (Wisaetus fasciatus) from North Africa, presented by Capt. W. R. Taylor, s.s. Ampusa ; two Tawny Owls (Syrnium aluco), European, presented by Mr. H. Lee; a Nightjar (Caprimulgus europeus), European, presented by Mr. Cuthbeth Johnson ; a Robben Island Snake (Coronella phocarum) from South Africa, presented by the Rey. G. H. R. Fisk, C.M.Z.S.; seven Blue-bearded Jays (Cyanocorax cyanopogon) from Para, purchased ; a Beisa Antelope (Oryx betsa 2), born in the Gardens. ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA FOR THE WEEK, 1885, SEPTEMBER 27 TO OCTOBER 3 (For the reckoning of time the civil day, commencing at Greenwich mean midnight, counting the hours on to 24, is here employed. ) At Greenwich on Sept. 27 Sun rises, 5h. 56m. ; souths, rrh. 50m. 51°3s.; sets, 17h. 46m. ; decl. on meridian, 1° 48’ S.: Sidereal Time at Sunset, 18h. 13m. Moon (three days after Full) rises, rgh. om.* ; souths, 2h. rm. ; sets, gh. 13m. ; decl. on meridian, 10° 42’ N. Planet Rises Souths Sets Decl. on meridian oh tity h. m. h. m. oon Merennysman20) ce LL) or 17 33 5 36N. Venus OP SYA Baa Sel, 1023 18 50 16 17/9. Mars (ike) hag teh us 16) $3.3) TO aN Jupiter Apso cee Lilie ot 17 29 4 46N. Satura! | be, 22.0 anelOn (Gg 14 17 22 19N. * Indicates that the rising is that of the preceding day. NAT OPE [Sept. 24, 1885 Occultations of Stars by the Moon Corresponding Sept. Star Mag. Disap. Reap. angles oe inverted image h. m. h. m. ° o 28 ... 48 Tauri 6 Tyree en 33 273 28 ... y Tauri 4 23/46)... (© 43 en s0R2 79 PO} aon fly MENT Go 6c. 4 40h. 5 4b |. waORzos 29)... 10 Danrl) co. (ss0 4h Wie ASA SI ccc) 5) 20 ee ee ae 20/52. DiAdG.eX3Or 5 5 41 6 51 - 109 324 30 ... I1r Tauri... 54 3 12.3.5 4 17) egeaoe 30s. Uy wane. 6 yice OY 53 341 Oct. 2. A Geminoxrum) p34) OS Ol) 30 248 + Occurs on the following day. The Occultations of Stars are such as are visible at Greenwich. Sept. h. 27a oe AtO), Mercury in conjunction with and o° 52 north of Jupiter. Oct. I II Saturn in conjunction with and 4° 15’ north of the Moon. 3 19 Mars in conjunction with and 5° 4’ north of the Moon. THE ASTRONOMICAL ASSOCIATION HE Astronomical Association held their eleventh general meet- ing this year at Geneva from Aug. 19 to 22 inclusive, and the representatives of so many nations were present that the meeting fully bore out the character of an international one. Among the fifty members, or thereabouts, attending were: Struve, from Pulkowa ; Newcomb, from Washington ; Christie, from Greenwich ; Dunér, from Lund; Pechule, from Copen- hagen ; Tietjen, from Berlin; Kriiger, from Kiel ; Schur, from Strassburg ; Tisserand, from Paris; Sporer, from Potsdam. The office-bearers were: Auwers, from Berlin, President ; Schonfeld, from Bonn, and Seeliger, from Munich, Secretaries ; Bruns, from Leipzig, Treasurer: while Bakhuyzen, from Leiden, Gyldén, from Stockholm, and Weiss, from Vienna, were honorary members of the Committee. Prof. Oppolzer, who was also a member of the Committee, was unable to attend. The first sitting was opened by President Auwers in the aula of the University at 10 in the forenoon of the rgth, Among the scientific reports of the Committee the full commu- nications of Prof. Weiss on the present state of the computations of the orbits of the comets were of special interest. Of the 12 periodical comets returned at different times to their perihelion, $ had again been regularly determined by the same calculators. Of the remaining four three were removed from our present care: Biela’s, which, as was known, had been lost to observation, and the comets of Halley and Pons-Brooks, whose next perihelion lay too remote in the future. There was, conse- quently, but one periodical comet—Brorsen’s—to be taken ac- count of, As to the remaining non-returning comets, of the 168 which had appeared in this century 41 were to be re- garded as settled, 23 had their orbits pretty well determined ; in the case of 58 comets a new calculation of the orbit was desirable for various reasons, and in all 46 had yet to be cal- culated definitely. There was, therefore, a wide field of labour open. Prof. Weiss accordingly sought to commend to the Society the establishment of a common calculation bureau for the settlement of the questions at issue, while the exact detailed treatment of a particular comet should in future, as hitherto, be left to the initiative of a single calculator. In the discussion follow- ing this address, Staatsrath Struve argued against the founding of such a bureau on the ground that the comets were of too peculiar a nature to accommodate themselves to the methodic treatment of a cal ulation bureau. No resolution was taken on the question. This report was followed by communications of a business character on the great zone undertaking of the Society. These communications were of no great extent, the undertaking being already in near prospect of completion. The photometric sur- vey of the heavens by Prof. Pickering, of Harvard College, read by Prof. Auwers, was heard with special interest. Next followed the scientific addresses. Dr. Schram, Observer Sept. 24, 1 885 | NWA TORE 517 in the Austrian Triangulation, communicated a table calcu- lated by him, which would shortly be published, a table which materially lightened the approximate calculation of an eclipse for a particular spot on the surface, according to Oppolzer’s elements. Prof. Weiss then communicated the publication of the second volume of the Azma/s of the Vienna Observatory, and followed this up with the remark that the meridian circle, which was sixty years old, was now very much in need of repair; but, unfortu nately, there was no money at disposal for this purpose. After the President had o,ened the second sitting at ten o’clock on August 20, he communicated a report on the photo- graphic mapping of all the stars of the ‘* Bonner-Durch- musterung ” which Gill (of the Cape Observatory) had begun, and of which about roo plates were already to hand. The time taken for the exposure of each plate amounted on an average to one hour. After various deliberations of a more private character the discussion turned on Resolution VI. of the Meridian Conference of Washington. The President declared emphatically that the question could be considered in this assembly only from an astronomical standpoint. The question was simply whether it were desirable for the astronomer to transfer the beginning of the day to midnight, and to this question the discussion should be restricted. At the outset the President announced that the Com- mittee of the Society, with the exception of one member not present (Oppolzer)—that is, in the proportion of seven to one—had voted against the adoption of the proposal. Staatsrath Struve (from Pulkowa) at once opposed the restriction advanced by the President, which, he thought, involved a one-sided treatment of the matter. It was to their advantage, he asserted, not to seclude themselves from the rest of the world. Magnetic and meteorological observers, he said, counted their day from midnight. Many astronomers, more- over, he continued, worked by day, and most observations were made between six and twelve in the evening. The change was defended by men eminent in science. The reform assuredly met a deeply-felt want. The question was ‘‘ Should they make this sacrifice or not ?” Prof. Sporer, of Potsdam, mentioned that he always counted his observations from midnight. Prof. Newcomb, of Washington, spoke at considerable length on the question, and rather against than in favour of the adoption of the proposal of universal time. Prof. Weiss, of Vienna, was of opinion that the sacrifices demanded of astronomers by this reform were too great, and that the advantages were more than counterbalanced by the disad- vantages. He laid stress on the fact that astronomers were wont to make their calculation of time from the moment when the time-determining object—the spring point—the mean sun—passed the meridian. That was also the true point of commencement. The observations which were of interest to the public at large, might be given in universal time, whereas with their more esoteric observations they might adhere to the old reckoning. The astronomer should keep by himself, and pay no attention to claims of intercourse. Prof. Safarik, of Prague, said, ‘‘ Why should we make a sacrifice on behalf of the public that feels no concern with our labours ?” Prof. Kriiger, of Kiel, thought that altogether there were but few necessary points of relation between the astronomer and the public—points, however, which could be readily taken account of if the public desired it. Dr. Dunér, from Lund, argued that by a change of date it would be impossible not to make a sudden break in astronomical labours that had hitherto been carried on uninterruptedly, to whatever time of day or night the commencement of the day was transferred. He concluded by expressing his opinion that the sacrifices demanded were too great. Geheimrath Auwers expressed himself as personally opposed to the change, principally in order to avoid a discontinuity in the calculation of time which might, later on especially, lead to sensible errors. Prof. Bakhuyzen, of Leiden, was refused a hearing, because he wanted to speak of seamen, who have the reform specially at heart. Staatsrath Struve remonstrated against this proceeding, and argued that the question ought not to be treated onesidedly. At the Washington Conference seamen had the majority of repre- sentation, and opinion had there been almost unanimously expressed in fayour of the reform. desire of world. Prof. Gyldeén, of Stockholm, argued that the change must give rise to vexatious errors unless it were universally carried out on one line. As the realisation of this idea was, however, more than could be looked for at present, he would now have to vote against the universal time. He believed, nevertheless, that in twenty or thirty years hence the majority of astronomers would be in favour of the universal time. Prof. Tietjen, of Berlin, thought that in the Berlin Year- Book at all events, no such change would find place before 1900. Staatsrath Struve maintained that in the Royal Astro- nomical Society the majority were in favour of the universal time. Dr. Pechule, of Copenhagen, was also of opinion that it would be well for astronomy to accommodate itself to the rest of ‘the world; but only when all were of one mind should the innovation be simultaneously and universally intro- duced. Prof. Folie, of Brussels, thought that in all reforms there were some stragglers, and in his opinion it was the duty of astronomers energetically to take the initiative in the good cause. After some recapitulatory observations of the President the discussion closed, No resolution whatever was passed on the subject. It may be worth while mentioning here in respect of this subject that in the reading of the protocol it was affirmed that all the members of the Committee who were present were opposed to the adoption of the universal time. Objecting to this declara- tion, Dr. Pechule stated that Prof. Gyldén had only voted against the zmediate adoption, while he entirely approved the principle of the proposed reform. The protocol had accordingly to be altered so as to give effect to this statement. The series of scientific addresses was resumed by Dr. Mittag- Leffler, from Stockholm, who communicated the mathematical prize exercises which, under the auspices of King Oscar II., had been instituted by a special Commission. Staatsrath Struve handed, for circulation, photographs of the great refractor of 30 inches aperture, which a short time ago had been mounted in Pulkowa, and expressed his complete satisfaction with the result. Prof. Newcomb had thoroughly studied the instrument for seven days continuously, and corroborated Staatsrath Struve’s views regarding the value of the instrument, entering into various details on the matter. Prof. Tisserand, of Paris, spoke of a purely theoretical examination of the rotation of the earth. Dr. Steinheil spoke on the calculations of Galileo’s telescopes of new construction. Prof. Sporer, of Potsdam, gave a somewhat long address on the new views regarding the physics of the sun. The following day was devoted to a common trip around the Lake of Geneva, Col. Emile Gautier, at present Director ot the Geneva Observatory, engaging at his own cost the saloon steamship Winkelrzed for this purpose, The dinner, which was served on board ship, gave opportunity for expressing the warmly-felt thanks of so many guests to their generous host for the entertainment he had provided them during the continuance of the Congress. On the last day of the meeting, Saturday, August 22, the pro- ceedings of a business character were brought toa close. The statutory order respecting the raising of the fee for life-1 ember- ship to 185 marks was adopted. As the place of meeting for 1887, Kiel was fixed on. The new election of a committee made no change in its former composition. The scientific addresses were opened by Prof. Gyldén, who spoke of a graphic representation of planetary orbits. Prof. Newcomb followed with an address on perturbations and their numerical calculation. Prof. Bakhuyzen made communications respecting his treat- ment of Schroter’s observations of Mars. He came to the con- clusion that since Schréter’s time ‘‘Huggin’s Inlet” had probably changed considerably, whereby the hypothesis that Mars is in large pirt covered with fluid received material support. Dr. Miiller, of Potsdam, spoke on modern photometric apparatuses, and examined in particular those of Zollner, He was swayed by the rendering astronomy useful to the rest of the 518 NATURE e P [ Sept. 24, 1885 Pickering, and,Pritchard, entering into a searching ‘criticism of them. The sources of error of the most considerable systematic deviations in the results obtained with these instruments were not yet sufficiently known, and it would therefore be well to mark out a number of stars of which thorough observations should be taken by the different observers with the use of all the three instruments. Prof. Seeliger, of Munich, spoke of theoretical, and in part also practical, investigations he had commenced, which for the present had shown that the Lambert law respecting the reflective power of illumined surfaces, the basis hitherto of all photo- metric experiments, was entirely false. He reserved his more complete exposition of the matter till the close of his labours in this direction? Prof. Safarik observed that some astronomers to whom he had communicated his ‘‘ fluorescence plates,” whose intermediate junction of eye-piece annulled the secondary spectrum, had given him a favourable report regarding their use. He was always ready, hesaid, to place other plates at the disposal of any who desired them. Prof. Weiss announced that he was engaged in the pre- paration of a catalogue of 4500 stars which had formerly been observed at Geneva, a catalogue which was now approaching its completion. President Auwers once more expressed thanks for the friendly reception the Association had met with at Geneva and proposed to the meeting that they should rise from their seats in honour of Col. Gautier. The proceedings were then declared to be concluded. EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES ‘THE pride taken in popular education in the United States | makes any digest of their experience valuable ; and education, as carried on in their cities, the subject of a recent Circular of Information from the Bureau of Education, is necessarily the branch of it most interesting in our crowded island. Dr, Phil- brick, the writer of it, has been, in Boston, a most successful school superintendent, an officer who undertakes the active duties of both School Board and Government Inspector, and one without whose services cities are here said to be behind the times. The uncertainty of a good choice of members for a School Board by popular election in the United States makes this office the more important ; women having, as a rule, de- clined to counteract corrupt votes by their own. Every branch of education is treated upon here. Technical instruction, both as provided in Paris and in the United States, is largely and systematically considered ; from the shape it takes in the school, where it simply replaces the gymnasium to boys over thirteen years of age, to the apprentice school which really attempts to supersede the worn-out system from which it gets its name by a more scientific and intelligent teaching of a few trades, among which building in its various branches, necessarily so important in anew country, is always one chosen. School museums are re- commended, both of natural history and of technolegy ; the decoration also of schoolrooms with statuary, &c., now provided for the purpose at low prices, a list of which is appended. The rules to be observed in building are a digest of both European and American experience, valuable to every one concerned with the architecture of schools of any class; and we may just note Dr. Philbrick’s conclusions—that increased centralisation and ;-ermanency are found desirable ; that speaking F rench or Ger- man is unnecessary to 90 per cent. of secondary scholars ; and that high school education is bad for girls. ‘‘ Free and uni- form” is Dr. Philbrick’s ideal. He believes that the work of elementary schools can be so revised that the higher subjects will be a simple continuation of the lower ; so that a complete elementary course shall be just the same as the first few years of a university education. Higher stages are never to be com- menced till after the age of fourteen. Free high schools, ‘*the most truly democratic of all our institutions,” are being used by youths who go back to farm work, contending that in no way does a classical education unfit a man for manual labour and attending meetings of ‘‘old boys” whose common interest in the school helps to obliterate social distinctions. Such schools are to be provided for the mechanic to carry on his studies therein in the evening ; while for higher students manual labour, especially the use of carpenters’ tools, is to replace the gymna- sium, and be pursued afterwards in evening technical schools ; and thus study and labour will complement each other, and the daily toil of the poor man is raised to the level of the rich man’s recreation. Military and fire drill are to be taught, and replace out-door games. We fear that an elementary course complete in itself and different from university rudiments, although per- petuating class distinctions, will probably be a necessary evil for some time yet, and also that paralysis for lack of competition must be incurred where pupils are required to attend the school in their own district of their own city—this necessitating uni- formity of books for the sake of families removing. A PREAITSTORIC CEMETERY DUNFERMLINE correspondent writes that another ceme- tery of prehistoric times has been discovered on the estate of Pitreavie. About two and a half miles to the north-east of the former discovery a number of workmen were, some days ago, engaged in collecting: rough stones to form an embankment. Ere the work had proceeded far it was noticed that the stones, which lay on a moor, formed a circle, partly covering a mound 200 feet in diameter. In the centre of the mound, and about 36 inches below the surface, a cyst measuring 46 inches in length and 24 inches in width was found. ‘The cyst was three-parts filled with a dark mould, and in it was discovered a beautifully- formed urn which stands 5 inches in height and measures 6 inches across the mouth. There was nothing in the urn but soil, but in the cyst some large calcined bones were found. Explora- tions were continued in the vicinity of the cyst and within the stone circle, with the result that no fewer than eleven other urns were found. All these urns contained calcined human bones and much vegetable charcoal, both in dust and in pieces, and numerous pieces of burnt bones were also found in the mound—a circumstance which indicates that a good many in- terments had taken place without urns. The urns measured from 5 to 12 inches in height, are hand-made, and of the type usually known as ‘‘ food-vessels.” They have everted rims, and are ornamented with varied designs, formed by oblique lines and dots on the upper part, and encircling projecting rings at the bulged part. ‘The urns are of a reddish colour, but the pottery section shows a black interior with a mixture of coarse sand. There are several interesting features attached to the discoveries. In the first cemetery a row of cysts with an urn in each were discovered—circumstances which unmistakably indicate the pre- dominance of inhumation oyer that of cremation. No bones were found in the urns. In the second discovery only one cyst was found, and eleven of the urns were simply buried in the mounds, and all contained burnt bones—facts suggestive of cremation. The second discovery corresponds more than the first with most of the prehistoric local cemeteries which have been laid bare in the county of Fife. The chronological rela- tionship between the two kinds of interment—inhumation and _ cremation—as presented to us in the two Pitreavie cemeteries, opens up a most interesting field of inquiry to the enthusiastic archzeologist. Dr. Worsaae, the late distinguished archzeologist, says cremation was the outcome of higher and more advanced religious principles than characterised the people of the Stone Age, who were in the habit of burying their dead in dolmens and other megalithic tombs, with food-vessels, weapons, orna- ments, and such articles as were supposed to be serviceable beyond the grave. Founding upon Di. Worsaae’s idea, it is not unreasonable to assume that the two discoveries under notice belong to the Stone and Bronze ages. The urns are all in the hands of the proprietor of the estate, Mr. Beveridge, and are likely to be handed oyer to the National Society of Antiquaries. SCIENTIFIC SERIALS Annalen der Physik und Chemie, No. 8, July 15.—This con- tains the following :—On the time-relations of the formation of the electric residuum in paraffin, by C. Dietericii-On the quantity of electrical elementary particles, by E. Budde.—On the theory of thermo-electric forces, by the same.—On a deduc- tion from the laws of electro-dynamic points, suggested by Gauss, by the same.—On some applications of theory of change of form in a body when it is magnetically or dielectrically polar- ised, by G. Kirchhoff.—Determination of some coefficients of friction and experiments on the influence of magnetisation and electrification on the friction of liquids. The values ‘obtained - Sept. 24, 1885 | NATURE 519 from swinging disks were always greater than from an outflow- apparatus. Experiments in which sulphate of manganese solu- tion was let flow from a capillary tube placed between mag- netic poles, and others in which the capillary tube, of flint glass coated with shellac, was brought into the field of a condenser (the liquid being sulphide of carbon), showed no alteration of the coefficient of friction.—On the solubility of salt mixtures, by F. Riidorff’ Of the pairs of salts examined, some were found to be forced from their common solutions when an excess of one or the other salt acted on these, but in other cases only those pairs of salts were forced out which separate from the common solution either in double salts or in mixed crystals.— On the theory of fluorescence, by E. lommel. He answers some objections of Herr Wiillner to his theory.—Spectral photometric researches on some photographic sensitisers. He finds the sensitising colouring-matters divisible into: (1) those which gradually absorb the spectrum from the violet onwards, and are like the ordinary photographic ; (2) those which have a regular absorptive action over great parts of the spectrum from the violet, but photographically show a maximum of sensitisation in the yellow ; and (3) those which show an absorption band in the spectrum and a local increase of sensibility to light there- abouts (coincidence not exact).—Correction of new formulz, by W. Wernicke.—Remarks on Herr Melde’s acoustic experimental researches, by A. Else.-—Alteration of the influence machine, by E. Lommel. _He gets a spark of 12 cm.—On an inaccuracy of the theory of the gold-leaf electroscope, by T. Habler. Pro-cedings of the Boston Society of Natural History, vol. xxiii., part 1.—Mr. Bouvé contributes notes on gems, especially the garnet, hiddenite (an unnamed gem of a light yellow colour, a representative of the mineral spodumene, of which hiddenite is a green variety), and others.—Dr. S. Kneeland read a paper, illustrated by the stereopticon, on the subsidence theory of earthquakes as evidenced by the Ischian catastrophes of 1881 and 1883.—Prof Crosby has a long paper on the relations of the conglomerate and slate in the Boston Basin; Mr. Bouvé on the genesis of the Boston Basin and its rock formations ; Messrs. Dickerman and Wadsworth on an olivine-bearing diabase from St. George, Maine ; Prof. Shaler on the origin of kames, akind of gravel deposit, also known as Eskers, and often called in America, Indian ridges. He supposes that at the close of the glacial period the re-elevation of the land must have been ac- complished with very great suddenness.—Finally, Prof. Hyatt contributes a lengthy paper on the larval theory of the origin of cellular tissues. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES PARIS Academy of Sciences, September 7.—M. Bouley, Pre- sident, in the chair.—Researches on isomerism in the aromatic series: Action of the alkalis on the phenols of mixed function, by M. Berthelot.—Studies on the mode of action of the sub- nitrate of bismuth in the staunching of sores, by MM. Gosselin and Heérat.—Note on the fluorescence of some rare earths, by M. Lecoq de Boisbaudran. The author arrives at conclusions differing in several respects from those of Mr. Crookes, but reserves for the present an exposition of the grounds which induce him to infer that yttria is not the efficient cause of the fluorescence —On apparent anzesthesis and retarded sensations in hysterical, epileptic, and other nervous subjects, by M. V. Reyvillont.—Letter announcing the discovery of a new star in the nebula of Andromeda, by M. Lajoie.—Note on the changes recently observed in the nebula of Andromeda, by M. G. Bigourdan.—Observations of Brooks's new comet and of the new planet, 250, made at the Paris Observatory (equatorial of the west tower), by M. G. Bigourdan —Table of the chief elements of the ten regular polyhedric figures, one illus- tration, by M. Em. Barbier. — A new map of the solar spectrum, by M. L. Thollion. This work, which has occupied four years of incessant labour at the Observatory of Nice, comprises the whole of the solar spectrum between A and $—that is, about one-third of the prismatic spectrum. It is over ten metres long and includes 3200 lines, or double the number contained in Angstrém’s Atlas. In the preparation of this plan the author’s aim has chiefly been to determine as far as possible the present state of the solar spectrum, to serve as a starting-point for future observation. The physicist will by its means be able to record subsequent changes in the spectrum with the same certainty that the astronomer determines the changes taking place in stellar regions.—Account of the “ Ane- mogene,”’ an apparatus invented for generating aérial currents analogous to those of the terrestrial atmosphere, by Mer. Rougerie, Bishop of Pamier. This instrument takes the form of a miniature globe, which, by rotating around its axis in the air, is made to produce by its mechanical action currents resembling those observed on the greater part of the oceanic basins. The currents are indicated by vanes placed at intervals of 5°, like the compass-cards of the thirty-two winds prepared for the French navy by M. Brault. A list is given of all the trade winds, ascending and descending currents, and other normal atmo- spheric phenomena reproduced with more or less accuracy by this apparatus.—On the period of latent excitation of some smooth muscles in the invertebrates, by M. Henry de Varigny. —On the so-called “‘ vidian” nerves in birds, by M. F. Rochas. —On the anatomy and vital functions of Zruncatella trunca- tuda, by M. A. Vayssigre.—On the marine annelids of the Bay of Algiers, by M. C. Viguier.—On the anatomical structure of the Ascidians (genera Saracenia, Darlingtomia, and Nepenthes), by MM. Edouard Heckel and Jules Chareyre.—Note on the black rot recently introduced from the United States into the vineyards of Herault, by MM. P. Viala and L. Ravaz.—On the earthquake-shock felt at Orleans on August 16, by M. E. Renou. —M. H. Gadeau de Kervill announced that he had obtained a hybrid from a tame pigeon and a ring-dove, presenting in a modified form nearly all the special features of both parental types. September 14.—M. Bouley, President, in the chair.—Dis courses pronounced at the obsequies of the late M. Bouquet on September 11, by MM. J. Bertrand and Hermite.—On the fluorescence of some rare earths, continued, by M. Lecoq de Boisbaudran.—Descripiion of the model of a new integraph serving to trace an integral curve (y =/f(x)dx + C), any curve (y= /(x)) being given, one illustration, by MM. D. Napoli and Abdank-Abakanowicz. This integraph is capable of numerous applications, and may render great services to the engineer's art. It traces mechanically and with great precision the funicular curves or polygons which play so large a part in the problems of statics. Such problems as the centre of gravity, momenta of inertia, elastic curves and the like, are solved with great rapidity and accuracy.—On submarine countermines, by M. A. Treve.—On the new star in the nebula of Andromeda. Observations of Brooks’ comet made at the Observatory of Paris (equatorial of the West Tower), by M. G. Bigourdan.—Numerical tables intended to facilitate the calculation of the ephemeridesofthe minor planets, by MM. O. Callandreau and L. Fabry.—On the mixed haloid and other derivatives of methylene, by M. Louis Henry.—On the fermentation of bread-stuffs, by M. Aimé Girard. From numerous researches instituted to determine the true character of the phenomenon by which the dough is changed into bread, the author concludes that the transforma- tion is the result of alcoholic fermentation.—Researches on the morphology and anatomy of ferns, by M. P. Lachmann.—Dis- position of the artesian waters in the Wed Rir’ and throughout the Lower Sahara in general, by M. G. Rolland. In this paper the author sums up the results of observations continued for a period of six years on the underground supplies in the vast de- pression of the Shott Melrir in Algeria and Tunis.—A pplication of the laws of thermo-chemistry to geological phenomena : ores of manganese, by M. Dieulafait.—Note on a therapeutic opera- tion, to which the name of ‘‘dielectrolysis” has been given, by M. A. Broudel.—Trigonometric study of a pyramid whose base is the triangle of Pythagoras, by M. G. Petrowitsch. The sides of the base being respectively related as the number 3, 4, 5, the faces of the pyramid satisfy the relation 3? + 43 + 53 = 6%) the number 6 being the measure of the right-angled triangle of the base. BERLIN Physiological Society, July 17.—In consequence of a doubt expressed on a former occasion in the Society, Dr. H. Virchow had examined more minutely the eye of the frog, and had come to the conviction that it possessed a beautiful ciliary muscle with long fibres, which, as in the case of all other animals, composed the posterior and outer part of the ciliary body. The ciliary body, as was known, filled out the corner arising from the choroid, which closely adjoined the sclerotic, curving itself round to the iris at the point where the sclerotic passed into the cornea, and, besides the muscle, consisted of 520 the pigmentary fold and a network of fibres, the ligamentum pectinatum iridis, which Dr. Virchow had searchingly investi- gated in a large number of animals. This network of fibres was so little developed in man as hardly to merit any considera- tion there. In other classes of animals, however, it attained a very remarkable development. The speaker gave a more de- tailed description of the course of the fibrous lines of the net- work, which presented a great multiplicity in the different animals. The fibres separated by larger interstices now pur- sued a principally posterior direction, now spread radiating from their place of origin at the union of the sclerotic and cornea, now they were developed more anteriorly, reaching far into the iris. By means of numerous diagrams and several preparations these anatomical relations were illustrated in greater detail. In regard to the physiological significance of this net- work of fibres the speaker was of opinion that they performed a mechanical function, but he dissented from the assumption put forth by some authors that the ligamentum pectinatum was the tendon of the ciliary muscle. Such an assumption was at variance with the fact that in the case of man, whose eye pos- sessed powerful ciliary muscles, the ligamentum pectinatum was but weakly developed, whereas in other animals witha very weak ciliary muscle it was strongly developed. The fibres of the liga- mentum pectinatum might operate as antagonists to the ciliary muscles in those cases in which they were especially directed posteriorly. In such cases, on the other hand, in which the fibres were developed more to the anterior side and passed into the iris, they would probably serve as antagonists to the musculus sphincter pupillz. It was still more probable that by their radiation towards the membrana limitans they afforded support and hold to the fibres of the ligamentum suspensorium of the lens, establishing themselves at the other side of this membrane. This relation was brought very close by the course of the fibres, particularly in the case of the anthropoids.—Herr Aronsohn made some additions to his former communications on the physiology of the sense of smell. The most minimal quantities of clove oil and bromine, which dissolved in c°6 per cent. of common salt solutions, he was yet able to smell distinctly, tallied very well with the most minute quantities which Valentin had found perceptible by the sense of smell in the air. By electrical stimulation of the olfactory nerve he had also been able to call forth distinct sensations of smell in some other trustworthy persons. The physiological common salt solution of the temperature of 40° C. he had previously found to be entirely indifferent to the olfactory nerves. Were a part of the common salt replaced by other salts, then, according to the nature of the salt, different, mostly somewhat large, quantities of the salt (osmodic equivalents) had to be taken in order to form an in- different solution. These osmodic equivalents Herr Aronsohn had now exactly determined for a series of salts. Finally, in order to demonstrate that there were special fibres in the olfactories for special smells, he had hebetated his own sense of smell for a certain quality of smells, that, namely, of sul- phuret of ammonium, and had convinced himself that, though, indeed, no longer able to perceive this smell, he was yet very well able to smell ethereal oils: —Dr. Benda spoke of a series of preparations of sensory and motory nerve-endings which he had exhibited in the Demonstrating Hall. They were prepared ac- cording to a new process recommended by Dr. Meys. The process consisted in adding arsenic acid to a chloride of gold and potas- sium. By means of this reagent the nerve-endings were made very beautifully visible, but in this way the epithelia were destroyed, and in order to preserve these likewise, Dr. Benda had further added to the fluid either chromic acid or alcohol. The ex- hibited preparations showed very clearly that the medullary motory nerves ended in Kiihne’s terminal plates, besides which in one case a marrowless, and certainly sensory, nervye-fibre, ending in a bifurcated ramification, could be distinctly traced. Marrowless fibres ended in an umbellate form, each single fibre on the muscle passing into a button-like swelling. These fibres, Dr. Benda held to be motory. There were further shown the nerve-endings in the papillze of the tongue, in the Paccinian cor- puscles, in the cornea, and in the skin of the neck.—Dr. Kossel spoke of some important chemical relations of the cell nucleus, of that constituent of it, namely, which morphologists denoted as chromatine, and chemists asnucleine. As products of decom- position of the nucleine he had formerly obtained three nitro- genous bases: xanthine, hypoxanthine, and guanine. Quite recently he had obtained, though, to be sure, only in very small quantities, from the nucleine, a fourth base, namely, adenine, NATORE [ Sept. 24, 1885 discovered by him some time ago in the glands of the abdomen, After he had prepared 3 g. of this substance, he treated it with nitrous acid, and received as a product of the decomposition of adenine, hypoxanthine. When he treated guanine in the same manner he received xanthine. It was therefore probable that the first products of decomposition of the nucleine were adenine and guanine, and that from these, first hypoxanthine and then xanthine were formed. The chemical relations of these four bases were best rendered evident by their chemical formule :— =C,H,N, | = C,H,N,O = C,H,N,O = C;H,N,O, All the four bases stood in intimate relation to prussic acid, CHN, which by the action of caustic alkali was obtained from them in very large quantities, while other albuminous bodies under similar treatment yielded very little prussic acid, or none at all. It was doubtless of great importance that nuclei ne stood in such intimate relation to cyanogen. What part, how- ever, the cyanogen bodies played in the cell nucleus was as yet unknown. Guanine Xanthine Adenine Hypoxanthine VIENNA Imperial Academy of Sciences, June 5.—On the -deter- mination of the halogens of organic bodies, by K. Zulkowsky.— On the products of reduction of the nitro-azo-compounds and on azo-nitrolic acids, by T. V. Janovsky.—On the action of rock-crystal in the magnetic field, by T. Tumlirz.—On the dis- tribution of heat on the earth’s surface, by R. Spitaler.—Myco- logical researches, by H. Zukal.—Ideas on the prophylaxis and therapeutics of cholera, by L. Kastner.—On the fossil chalk- elements of the Alcyonidz and Holothuridz and other recent forms, by Ph. Pocta.—On the temperature of the Austrian alpine regions, by T. Hann.—Determination of the trajectory of the Comet VIII. 1884, by S. Oppenheim. June 11.—On the behaviour of liquid and gaseous bodies under the greatest variations of atmospheric pressure, by C. Puschl.—On the electrical resistance of copper at the lowest temperature, by S. Wroblewski.—On the formation and disso- lution of white blood-corpuscles (a contribution to the theory of leukcemia), by M. Loewit.—On the basalt of Kollnitz (in the Layant valley, Carinthia), and on its vitreous cordierite-enclosures, by K. Prohaska.—Report on the experiments on the use of boiling oxygen, nitrogen, carbon oxide, and atmospheric air as refrigeratives, by K. Olscewski.—On the destruction of tartaric acid at higher temperatures under the presence of glycerine, by K. Tavanovitsch. . June 18.—Experiments on the chemical action of light, by T. M. Eder.—On the volumetric determination of phenol by bromine, by K. Weinreb and C. Bondi.—On the anatomy of Tyroglyphide, by A. Nalepa.—On the decomposition of didy- mium into its elements, by C. Auer von Welsbach. CONTENTS PAGE Public Opinion and State Aid to Science 497 Letters to the Editor :— The New Star in Andromeda.—J. Edmund Clark 499 Norwegian Testimony to the Aurora-Sound.—Dr, Sophus Tromholt| . - 7. \. & = \: a) ie A White Swallow.—Mary Briggs. ....... 500 The Hume Collection of Asiatic Birds. By Dr. Albert Giinther, F.R.S. ONE oo | SS The Forster Herbarium. By W. Botting Hemsley 5o1 The International Meteorological Committee. . 501 The British Association Cho edo so 5 502 Reports 2 sige se erie) 6) =, eee Section H—Anthropology—Opening Address by Francis Galton, F.R.S., &c., President of the Anthropological Institute, President of the Section 507 The American Association for the Advancement of Science 0. 506 ea Bel fe Ferree veto > m0) pene aa Notes: 20a ate Seo sit ecco aot eee ns Astronomical Phenomena for the Week 1885, September 27 to October3 ........+s.-+-. 516 The Astronomical Association. ......-. 516 Education in the United States : - = ES A Prehistoric Cemetery - =.=. -- «= - «9 3) 508 Scientific Serials). 5-4 yee ene © 14) ol eee Societies and Academies. ......+.+: «4. =. S19 NALURE G2 THURSDAY, OCTOBER 1, 1885 NORTH AMERICAN WATER-BIRDS The Water-Birds of North America. By S. F. Baird, T. M. Brewer, and R. Ridgway. Two Vols., 4to. (Boston: Little, Brown, and Co., 1884.) XPECTATION was roused some years since when tidings came that the “ North American Birds” of Prof. Baird, Dr. Brewer, and Mr. Ridgway, of which three volumes had been brought out in 1874, was in pro- cess of completion, and at last there appeared two quartos of goodly size under the title of “The Water-Birds of North America,” which are not only the sequel to the work just named, but are also issued in continuation of the publications of the Geological Survey of California, of which a single volume on the land-birds of that State, edited by Prof. Baird from the notes of Dr. J. G. Cooper, saw the light in 1870. But, to complicate the matter further, the two quartos now before us form vols. xii. and xiii. of the “ Memoirs of the Museum of Comparative Zoology ” at Harvard. How all this came about is ex- plained in the introduction by Prof. Whitney, the Cali- fornian State Geologist ; but the only part that need concern us is the not surprising but still much-to-be- regretted fact that the cost of bringing out the volumes treating of the land-birds of North America was so great as to deter the publishers from continuing the work at their own risk. Most fortunately, then, the combination just mentioned was effected with the result we now see ; but it still remains a reproach and humiliation to those interested in birds—not only in North America alone but all the world over—that so excellent a performance was not more encouraged by them. The obstinacy of the public in preferring a bad book to a good one is perhaps observable in almost every science, but that this obstinacyis nowhere more marked than in the case of natural history, and of ornithology in particular may be because it is one of the most popular branches of science, and because nine- tenths of those who pursue it hardly realise the fact that it is capable of serious study. Howbeit we may be sure that the old adage, “ Populus vult decifiz,” was not first uttered by a man without worldly knowledge, and to this day experience tells us that it is as true as ever. It will take a long time yet to persuade people that they had better be well informed by an author who writes a book be- cause he knows his subject, than by a badly-informed one who gets up his subject in order to write a book about it—though even this is perhaps saying too much, for many an author, on ornithology at least, has never taken the trouble to learn the rudiments of what he pre- tends to teach, and if he have but enough self-assurance he will get his claim to instruct allowed by those who are more ignorant than he is. To all who have been concerned in the production of the text of the two volumes before us we must offer our hearty congratulations, as it is impossible for us to ap- portion to each anything like his proper share of merit. Besides the naturalists already named, Frof. Whitney states, in his introduction, that in revising the not wholly completed manuscript he has had the assistance of Mr. Allen, so long known as head of the ornithological ! VOL. XXxII.—NO. 831 department of the Harvard Museum, and that gentleman is therefore entitled to our thanks as much as any one of the others ; but moreover it is also advisable to look back to the original preface of Prof. Baird, in which he states that “the most productive source” of the new information published in this work “has been the great amount of manuscript contained in the archives of the Smithsonian Institution in the form of correspondence, elaborate reports and the field-notes of collectors and travellers.” The most important of these, he goes on to say, are those by the iate Mr. Kennicott, and several residents in the then Hudson’s Bay Company’s Territory—Messrs. Mac- Farlane, Ross, Lawrence Clark, Strachan Jones, and others—besides Messrs. Dale, Bannister, and Henry Elliott in regard to Alaska and its islands. Now this being the case with respect to the former volume, which treated of the land-birds only, the importance of .the labours of these gentlemen ought to be far more manifest in the present volumes, which deal with the water-birds, since an overwhelming majority of them have their home in the vast northern regions of the continent, and are only winter-visitants to most of the States and Territories of the Union. A good deal to our disappointment we find it otherwise. It may be that the late Dr. Brewer, who is believed to have been responsible for the “ bio- graphical ” portion of these as of the former volumes, had not at his death completed the examination of the unpub- lished materials at his disposal ; but certainly there is not so much information from American sources as we had hoped or even expected. On the other hand, European authors are freely, not to say redundantly, laid under contribution for such species as are common to the two continents, which it is needless to say are many. Of this we do not complain, though we confess we should rather have learned how these species behave themselves on the other side of the Atlantic ; but there is a want of discrimination as to the opportunities possessed by the different observers quoted, and a lack of proportion as to the value of their observations. We do not say that this is not pardonable, perhaps it was unavoidable; but it is unfortunately no less a drawback ; and, to make it worse, several instances might be cited in which absolutely contradictory asser- tions are reprinted without any attempt to indicate which is thought to be the more worthy of belief ; while a good many of the statements to which this objection does not apply are but vain repetitions. Passing to the descriptive part of the work, we do not hesitate to declare that, so far as we have been able to test it, it is excellent. The “specific characters” given seem really to deserve their name, since they indicate the species, and are not, as has lately become so common, drawn from an individual example. Moreover, they are sufficiently brief to be useful, for we have unfortunately entered upon days when specimens are described at a length that absolutely precludes the practical application of the description. Nothing marks more distinctly the difference between a naturalist and a book-maker than the being able to perceive and to tersely express the characters that are essential to the differentiation of a species. Among ornithologists, merely to cite the example of one who is gone, it seems to have been this faculty that gave the late Mr. Gould such a wonder- ful pre-eminence among his contemporaries. Others Z 522 NATURE [Oc¢. 1, 1885 unquestionably far surpassed himas scientific ornithologists, indeed the scientific value of his works is very slight ; but hardly any one had such an eye for a species, or could in a dozen words or so point out how it could be recognised. It is no doubt in consequence of this that so few of the species described by him have failed to be considered good by his successors. The ornithologists of the New World are in one respect very fortunate. They are not encumbered by the enormous dead weight of synonomy that is so burdensome to their brethren of effete Europe ; and, thanks to the steadfastness with which the North Americans follow the use of a nomen- clature fixed by authority, they will probably be for ever exempt from much of the evil which afflicts the more independent writers of the Old World, almost each of whom likes to be a law unto himself. Whether the nomenclature now accepted in the United States and in Canada be founded on the best principle is a matter that need not be here discussed. It has been reduced to a practice the real advantage of which none can doubt. But that this state of things is possible arises in great measure from the fact that in one sense a very small number of North American birds have an ancient history such as is possessed by nearly all the European species, though of this ancient history the compilers of synonymy in general give but a feeble notion. Few things are more misleading than a long list of synonyms, such as is too often regarded as a test of an author’s industry and knowledge. It almost always happens that in a list of this kind bad accounts and good are made to appear as though they stood, as it were, on an equal footing, and it not unfrequently occurs that a reference to the best account of a species may be wholly omitted, while a fan- tastic name introduced by some compiler or catalogue- maker, who perhaps never examined or even set eyes on a specimen, receives notice as if it were an important contribution to the history of the creature. If Americans suffered from this grievance to the same extent as Europeans do, we suspect that the ingenuity of the former would lead them to find some remedy for it, but they may bless their stars that they are comparatively free from it. Every well-informed ornithologist knows that the systematic arrangement of birds presents a series of puzzles which as yet defy solution. Still, some steps towards the clearing away of the old trammels have been taken by various persons, and a few positions that may be looked upon as established have been gained. We are sorry to find so little in these volumes suggestive of further advance. The writers seem to be still enchained in the toils which the artificial system of Sundevall drew around the subject, and in the very brief space—barely two pages —thereto devoted, we have “altricial” and “precocial,” “cymnopzedic,” and “ dasypeedic” groups spoken of as if they were to be believed in. It is true that the arrange- ment adopted is said to be “not strictly natural ;” but in the same paragraph are some other statements as to affinities or the reverse that we hope the author may live to repent. However we freely admit that the main object of these volumes is not to teach systematic ornithology, and therefore perhaps the less said on that contentious subject the better. They will, there can be no doubt, admirably fulfill the chief purpose for which they are intended, and enormously further the study of birds in English-speaking America. It would be out of place here to enter upon any minute criticism of their contents, and, while indicating in a general way, as we have attempted to do and as we conceive we are in duty bound, some of their shortcomings, we can strongly recommend them as on the whole justifying the high degree of expectation that had prevailed concerning them prior to their publi- cation. Assuredly we shall have to wait long before another so comprehensive and, taking it all in all, so excellent an account of “The Water Birds of North America” is likely to make its appearance, and once more we tender our thanks to each and every one of those who have been concerned in the work, though we may perhaps make a reservation in regard to the wood- engraver. LETTERS TO THE EDITOR [ The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts. No notice is taken of anonymous communications. [The Editor urgently requests correspondents to keep their letters as short as possible, The pressure on his space is so great that it ts impossible otherwise to insure the appearance even of communications containing interesting and novel facts. | The New Star in Andromeda THE information furnished by a photograph of the Great Nebula in Andromeda taken last year may be of value, particu- larly in relation to the presumed variability of the new star. An examination shows that no star brighter than about the 15th magnitude was then in the position now occupied by the new star. This photograph was a trial plate taken on August 16 between toh. and r1h., with an exposure of 30 minutes of the 3-foot reflector. With this exposure the impression of the nebula is very Scale o'r inch = 100”. small for such a bright object as it appears in the telescope, being limited to about 2 minutes of arc around the nucleus , (which was bright and round), not much more than is shown on a photograph of the Crab nebula with the same exposure, and not nearly so much as, thougha little brighter than, a photograph of the Dumb-bell nebula taken a few days after. A greatnumber of stars are to be seen. A defect in the apparatus then being used for the first time has caused a tilt of the plate and:a conse- Oct. 1, 1885 | quent want of sharpness on one side, but the definition in the centre of the field is not injured. To give some idea of the stars that can be seen and the value that may be given to photographic evidence of the existence or non-existence of faint stars, I give some particulars of this photo- graph. Without a magnifier 124 stars are to be seen within a radius of twenty minutes of arc from the nucleus. I have traced these (see Fig. 1) so that they can be identified in the telescope ; some of them may not be less than 13th magni- tude, possibly fainter ; the bright stars marked B, c, D, and & being shown in Argelander’s maps of the Northern Heavens. 8B and C are at the present time about the same brightness as the new star, and can be well used to watch any variation in its light (when first seen by me on September 3 the new star was very much brighter than B or Cc, almost as bright as a star I have called A in my note-book that is just beyond the smaller nebula). Using a magnifier to detect any fainter stars I find six near the nucleus : these I have shown as black dots on Fig. 2, using a Fie. 2. Scale 074 inch = 100”. circle to show the stars near the nucleus that appear on Fig. 1, and a cross ( x) to indicate the place of the new star. At this particular place there is not the slightest indication of any differ- ence in the regular shading of the deposited silver from the denser part of the nucleus to the faint edge. The six stars indi- cated are extremely faint in the photograph and difficult to see, but I have no doubt of their real existence ; from a com- parison with other photographs I estimate them of about 15th magnitude, perhaps fainter. It may be that some of these may be identified at Birr Castle. From the absence of scale and orientation of the sketch given by Lord Rosse on p. 465 com- parisons cannot be made, but a reference to the note-books would enable this to be done. A. A, ComMMON DurineG last week I examined on three evenings the spec- trum of this star apparently in the nebula. It appears to be continuous, extending from about D, as far as, or perhaps a little past F. Both Mr. Perey Smith and I are able to confirm Lord Rosse’s conviction of the existence of a bright line or band. We compared its position with spark spectra, and feel satisfied that its position is not far from the bright line of the spark in air near to, and on the more refrangible side of D. The slit was of course necessarily wide, and the spectrum faint, so that this must only be considered as approximate. Gro. M. SEABROKE Temple Observatory, Rugby, September 29 In the first evenings of September I observed the new nucleus of the nebula in Andromeda: I find it of the 8th magnitude. With a little Maclean’s star spectroscope applied to the ro-inch refractor the spectrum of the nucleus is continuous, with suspected brighter bands. On the nights of Sept. 14 to 16, with 340 and 470 enlargements, | found to the east of the nucleus, and 15” to 18” distant from it, a faint object, probably a second nucleus, of 12th to 13th magnitudes. A. Ricco Palermo Observatory The Proposed Change in the Astronomical Day In your account of the proceedings at the recent meeting of the Astronomische Gesellschaft at Geneva (NATURE, vol. xxxii. p. 517) Dr. Struve is reported to have stated ‘‘that in the NAL RE 523 Royal Astronomical Society the majority were in favour of the universal day.” There appears to be some mistake here: the Royal Astronomical Society as a body has not expressed any opinion on the subject. And, judging from the individual ex- pressions of opinion which have been published, I should imagine that here, as at Geneva, the majority of real workers in our science (with the probable exception of those engaged on solar work) would be opposed to the proposed change. But how the majority of the Fellows of the Royal Astronomical Society could vote on the question it is impossible to say. My desire that a wrong impression on this subject, arising from a statement reported to have been made by such a high authority as Dr. Struye, should not be spread abroad, must be my excuse for trespassing thus far on your space. A. M. D. DownIneG Royal Observatory, Greenwich, S.E., September 26 A Tertiary Rainbow Pror. Tarr remarks, in his recently-published work on “Light,” that rainbows due to three or more internal reflections ““are too feeble to be observed.’’ It may therefore be worth recording that a tertiary bow was clearly visible from Thandiani Hill, Punjab, one evening last week (August 17). The bow extended over an are greater than a semicircle, but was broken in two places. The colours were as distinct as in many an ordinary bow. The condition of the sky was specially favourable for seeing a tertiary bow. The sun was low, and on nearly the same level with it there were several horizontal layers of cloud of consider- able extent, whose nearer, unilluminated sides were therefore dark enough to serve as a good background for the bow. There was also a cloud in front of the sun itself, partially reducing its brightness. T. C. LEwis August 25 A White Swallow On August 3 I saw a white swallow flying among its fellows over a mill-pond at Garioch’s Ford, Auchterless, Aberdeenshire. When I repassed on the following day it was still there, and it appeared to my brother and to me to be ev¢ively white: other- wise I should suggest that the one seen in Westmoreland on September 4 (NATURE, No. 830, p. 500) might be the same bird on its southward pilgrimage. If it is true that the albino bird is never courted or paired (‘‘ Descent of Man,” chap. xiv.) we are not likely ever to see many white swallows. Mirfield, Yorks, September 28 ALEX. ANDERSON THE enclosed paragraph from Yarmouth, in the Vorfolk News of this day, will have interest for your correspondent at Milne- thorpe. HUBERT AIRY Stoke House, Woodbridge, September 26 Rara Avis.—A cream-coloured specimen of the swallow (Hirundo urbica) was shot on Caister Road, on Monday morning last, by Mr. A, Patterson. It is now in the hands of Mr. Bb. Dye of Row 60 for preservation. Durinc the summer of 1883 Mr. Cooper, of Bromwich, observed a white swallow throughout the season at a place within the city on the banks of the Severn. J. Li. Bozwarp Worcester, September 28 THE ANNUAL CONGRESS OF THE SANITARY INSTITUTE OF GREAT BRITAIN he subjects dealt with by the Sanitary Institute of Great Britain at its annual meetings cover a wide field, and the Leicester gathering of this year, under the presidency of Prof. de Chaumont, F.R.S., forms no ex- ception to the rule. ‘The first aim of the Institute is, through its various agencies, to assist and indeed to lead in the improvement of public health, and the President did well to prove, by mortality statistics, how great a saving of life can be effected by the adoption of efficient sanitary measures, and how remunerative expenditure in this direction proves itself to be. The result of the sani- tation carried out in the Army, and which is so much due 524 NATURE [Oct. 1, 1885 to the labours of the late Dr. Parkes and to those of his successor, Dr. de Chaumont, is that, comparing the results of thirty years ago with those which now obtain, there is a saving in the home Army of two battalions per annum. Some substantial progress is also being made in the same direction as regards the general public, and when it is more fully understood that preventible diseases as a rule destroy those members of the population who are most remunerative in so far as the State is concerned, and that, speaking generally, each such premature death means a loss of at least too/, even parsimonious members of sanitary authorities will not mind expending a little more of the public money in so good a cause. Leicester was well chosen for this year’s gathering, for in many respects the town has acquired some reputation in health matters. It may be regarded as the head- quarters of the anti-vaccination party; it prides itself, not without cause, on the efforts it has made to control the spread of infectious diseases ; and it takes precedence amongst those English towns in which autumnal diarrhoea is so fatal to the infantile population. As regards the question of vaccination it would be premature to draw any general inferences from the Leicester results, for although during recent years only a comparatively small portion of the infantile population have been vaccinated, yet a vast majority of the inhabitants are fairly well protected against small-pox, and it is by no means so very strange that a disease which usually recurs in an epidemic form only after a lapse ot years, should for a time remain absent from Leicester. Still, we frankly admit that the day of reckoning has been somewhat long in coming; but there are exceptional reasons for this. And in the first place we would note that Leicester is not so free from small-pox as is generally imagined. The Registrar-General’s returns have, it is true, long shown an almost absolute blank as regards small-pox mortality there, but it must be remembered that the Leicester Small-pox Hospital, where the deaths from this disease take place, is not in the borough, and hence that the mortality occasioned is registered in alto- gether another district. Then again, the sanitary authority of Leicester, by the aid of a system of compulsory notifi- cation of infectious diseases, acquire the earliest know- ledge as to the existence of cases of small-pox, and having provided themselves with an isolation hospital, the patients are at once removed, and their houses and clothing are efficiently disinfected. It may be said that any other town could do the same, and so vaccination would become unnecessary. But this is not so. Re- moval to hospital is only compulsory under conditions which, were objection raised to it by the people, would make this early isolation impracticable, and all popula- tions are not so proud of their defiance of one of the laws of the country as to submit without resistance to the steps which are held necessary in order to prove that this law is a superfluous one. But Leicester goes much further than this. The authorities not only remove the sick, but they remove the healthy members of the sick person’s family, and hold them in a species of quarantine until they know that they have escaped infection. Such a step may be very desirable from a health point of view, but it is altogether illegal, and it is quite certain that if any attempt were made to enforce such a system in other parts of the kingdom it would be resisted. The majority of the nation would also hold it to be unnecessary ; and the recent publication by the German Government of the Report of a Commission showing that since re-vaccination was made compulsory in 1874 nota single death from small-pox has occurred in their Army, affords ample evidence that the simple operation of vaccination can fully meet all the difficulty. But little further light was thrown, at the meeting, upon that obscure zymotic diarrhcea which annually causes so large a mortality in Leicester. But Dr. E. W. Buck, who has made the subject a special study, probably pointed out the essential cause of this fatality by showing how a large portion of the population of Leicester was exposed to the influence of a water-logged soil charged with de- composing organic matter. Temperature so largely influences this mortality that it was at one time regarded as its sole cause ; but it is certain that a high temperature alone is powerless to produce it, whereas the effect of temperature on such conditions as obtain in Leicester must be very potent in favouring the development of organic germs, such as are now supposed to lie at the root of the evil. Extensive inquiry is needed as to this subject, and we hope that the results of the investigation which have been conducted for some years past by the Medical Department of the Local Government Board will soon be made public. Amongst the many other matters of interest which were dealt with at the Congress is that of the provision of dwelling-accommodation for the working classes, and in view of the steadily extending practice of massing to- gether vast numbers of human beings in great buildings where storey is piled upon storey, the warning uttered by Mr. Gordon Smith, President of the Engineering and Architectural Section, and the occupant of an important official appointment which adds weight to his opinion, should receive careful consideration. He asserts that in this class of buildings there has been an excessive infantile death-rate, and it is certain that the provision of ample open space about dwellings, which is, as regards ordinary dwellings, being more insisted on than ever, is especially necessary in the interests of child-life, which is so extremely sensitive to such insanitary surroundings as influence the quality of the air breathed. The question of a rational system of burial was dis- cussed at the last meeting of the Congress in connection with a paper by the Rev. F. Lawrence, who quoted the authority of the burial service of the Church of England as suggesting a system which would allow of the rapid action of the soil upon the dead, and who advocated burial at a depth of three or four feet only in coffins designed to ensure speedy perishability, and laid singly at a depth of three or four feet only from the surface. The advocates of cremation were naturally represented, but the progress of this method for the disposal of the dead is hindered by considerations which it is not easy to overcome. Foremost amongst these stands the difficulty of tracing cases of poisoning, and, even if the public were ready to assent generally to post-mortem examinations before the cremation was carried into effect, no such examination as is usually carried out could be trusted to decide whether this species of crime was the cause of death or not. Indeeed, in many cases of poisoning the most skilled pathological and chemical knowledge is required in order to avoid error. On the whole, such discussions as have taken place at Leicester tend to improvement in matters where change is desirable in the interests of public health, and the Institute may be con- gratulated on the results of their recent meeting. INSECT RAVAGES {Pas preservation of our garden and field crops from the attacks of injurious and destructive insects is a study which Miss E. A. Ormerod has made specially her own and which she has carried out with such signal suc- cess. Miss Ormerod’s labours in popularising the subject so as to bring it within the knowledge of all classes in any way connected with agricultural and gardening pur- suits aie too well known to need even a reference, so thoroughly has she at heart the welfare of our food crops and field produce that she has taken other steps, besides the dissemination of her well known books, to bring the importance of the subject before those who are not likely to be reached by the works in question. We refer to the Oct. 1, 1885 | NATURE 925) prize offered by her at an agricultural show held at Frome last year, the result of which was satisfactory in drawing a considerable amount of attention to the subject, and one of the outcomes of which has been the preparation of a series of object lessons, so to speak, which have been elaborated from the plan of Mr. W. H. Haley, who took the prize at Frome last year. The plan ot these lessons is as follows :—One insect is taken as an example and the life-history of this particular insect is illustrated by showing the creature in all its stages of development where practicable, or by neat and accurate-coloured drawings of pupa, larva, and perfect insect, each stage of which is carefully labelled, then a spray or twig of the plant attacked, or a model showing the insect’s ravages is given, and in many cases also the parasites which attack the insect itself. Beneath this is carefully printed the life-history of the particular insect, and an enu- meration of the plants upon which it feeds ; and, finally, under the head of “Prevention and Remedies,’ some brief but concise instructions how to proceed to rid one’s crops of the pest. All this is arranged on a cardboard mount 12 inches long by 8 inches wide, and placed in a box with a glass cover, so that one insect only is treated of in one case, thus making the information imparted very clear, and preventing all confusion. Of the insects treated in this way are the turnip and cabbage gall weevil, turnip moth, turnip fly, cabbage aphis, large white cab- bage butterfly, cabbage moth, vine beetle, bean beetle, pea and bean weevil, winter moth, American blight on apple, magpie moth on gooseberry, celery-leaf miner, silver moth, beet or mangold fly, click beetle and wire- worms, goat moth, lacky moth, daddy-long-legs, and onion fly. Twenty of these cases have recently been prepared by Mr. Mosley, of Huddersfield, under the superintendence of Miss Ormerod, and are now in the museum at Kew, and a set of ten of a similar character are to be placed in the Aldersey School of the Haberdashers’ Company at Bunbury, Cheshire, where plain teaching on such subjects is being satisfactorily carried on. J; Rave AMERICAN AGRICULTURAL GRASSES? H OWEVER complicated the systematic synonymy of the Graminez may be, the popular nomenclature of the grasses is probably in an even more unsatisfactory state. Inthe former case the name of the author ap- pended to the scientific name of the plant is usually sufficient to dispel any ambiguity as to what particular plant is meant, even though that plant may have received half a dozen systematic names from as many different botanists. In the case of the trivial name, however, even this means of identification is lacking, and it is no un- common circumstance to find the same name applied to several different grasses, each one of which may, more- over, have one or two additional names. To those who are studying the grasses in their agricultural aspect this confusion is very perplexing, particularly as both the English and the American agricultural journals usually refer to a grass byits trivial name. The difficulties which surround this subject are well exemplified in the volume before us. For example, in American agricultural publi- cations the term “ salt-grass ” is frequently met with, and we searched this volume in the hope of finding out the species so denominated. But instead of one we find no less than four distinct species, in as many genera, called “salt-grass,” namely, Vilfa depauperata, Sporobolus atroides, Brizopyrum spicatum (Distichlis maritima), and Spartina juncea. Yo an English agriculturist foxtail means Alopecurus pratensis only, whereas in America * “The Agricultural Grasses of the United States.” By Dr. George Vasey, Botanist of the Department of Agriculture ; also, ‘‘ The Chemical Composition of American Grasses,” by Clifford Richardson, Assistant Chemist. (Washington; Department of Agriculture, 1384.) the name is also given to A. geniculatus, Hordeum murt- num, H, Jubatum, and Setaria setosa. Rye-grass in England is Lolium perenne; in America the term is applied in addition to four species of Elymus. Blue grass is the name given to four distinct species of Poa, varying considerably in their agricultural value, and one of these, P. prazenszs, often spoken of as Kentucky blue- grass, is also called “June grass,” “spear grass,” and “red top,” the last name being equally applied to Agros- tts vulgaris. Bunch grass is more vague in its applica- tion, for it embraces at least six species in five genera, while in Canada the same name is given to two other grasses, Elymus condensatus and Keleria cristata, the former of which is known in the United States as “siant rye grass.” The term “goose grass,” which in England is restricted to the rubiaceous hedgerow weed Galiwm Aparine, is, in America, applied to Poa annua, which is also called annual spear grass, and to Panicum Texanum, further known as Texas millet. The grass Holcus lanatus, which to all English farmers is known as Yorkshire fog, is variously termed velvet grass, velvet mesquite, satin grass, and meadow soft grass, this last term being also current in England. There are about 600 species of grasses in the United States, a few only of these having been introduced. The work under notice embraces descriptions of 120 species, each accompanied by a plate. Of these, about forty, included under twenty-six genera, are identical with British species. Five additional British genera are re- presented, but not by British species; these are Elymus, Melica, Spartina, Stipa, Triodia. About a dozen British genera do not appear, the most noteworthy among these being, perhaps, Brachypodium, Briza, and Cynosurus. Two dozen of the genera enumerated are extra-British ; the chief ones are Andropogon, Aristida, Bouteloua, Buchloé, Danthonia, Muhlenbergia, Paspalum, Sorghum, Sporobolus, and Zizania. The so-called buffalo grasses are Bouteloua oligostachya, Stipa spartea, and Buchloé dactyloides ; the first two may be gathered in quantity by any one who travels across the Canadian prairies, but the last-named, which is regarded as the true buffalo grass, does not extend into Canada. In upwards of 100 pages of text we find collected much information both of botanical and of agricultural interest. The structural and economic characters of each grass figured are detailed at some length, but Dr. Vasey has, perhaps wisely in a work of this kind, made no attempt at classification. Though systematic synonyms are seldom given, there is a lavish display of trivial ones, for which the agricultural reader, at all events, will be grateful. Orthographic blunders are rather numerous, and the index might be more complete. The term chartaceous (“the texture resembling paper or parchment in thick- ness”) is, we believe, not current on this side of the Atlantic ; let us hope we may do without it. The chemical analyses are of much agricultural interest, and readers should compare the results here given with those obtained by Wolff in his analyses of German grasses. The figures before us serve to show how con- siderably the same gramineous species may vary in com- position according to the soil and climate in which it is grown, this point being specially illustrated by analyses of Phleum pratense and Dactylis glomerata, each from half a dozen different localities. How variable is the composition of gramineous herbage generally is well shown in the following table, in which are given the highest and lowest percentages of the constituents named, obtained in 136 analyses of different species of grasses :— Dry substance Highest Lowest Ash 19°24 3°57 Katies Pan wee 5°77 1°48 Nitrogen free extract 6601 34°01 Crude fibre... 37°72 17°68 Albuminoids 23°13 2°80 526 A process which has been the means of throwing much light on problems in vegetable physiology and agricultural chemistry, namely, a comparison of the analyses of a plant and of its separate members in different stages of growth, has been applied to fifteen familiar species of grasses, and the results are tabulated and briefly dis- cussed. Many useful suggestions, some of them of the highest practical importance, are to be met with in these pages. Here is one by Prof. Asa Gray which refers to the Teosinte, or Guatemala grass, Luchlena lurxurians, a native of Mexico and Central America, and has the true ring of progress about it :— “To make the 7vosimf¢e a most useful plant in Texas and along our whole south-western border the one thing needful is to develop early-flowering varieties, so as to get seed before frost. And this could be done without doubt if some one in Texas or Florida would set about it. ‘What it has taken ages to do in the case of Indian corn, in an unconscious way, might be mainly done in a human lifetime by rightly directed care and vigorous selection.” This volume is highly creditable to its authors, and it adds one more to the many useful publications which have emanated from the United States Department of Agriculture. W. FREAM THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CCILIANS tes a letter recently published in the Avbetten aus den zoologisch-sootomischen Institut in Wurzburg, Messrs. P. B. and C. F. Sarasin give a preliminary account of the development of Zficrium glutinosum as observed at Peraderinia in Ceylon, where these naturalists have taken up their quarters near the celebrated Botanical Gardens. Since the original discovery by Johannes Miiller of the larval form of the Czcilians, almost the only information obtained on this important subject is a short account of the gilled larve of Cectlia compressi- cauda by Peters, founded on specimens procured by Jelski in Cayenne. The brothers Sarasin show that Epzcréum is not vivi- parous, as is Cecilia, but oviparous. In the most advanced stage before hatching the embryo is provided with very long blood-red external gill-filaments, and has also a distinct tail with_a strong fin. The gill-filaments are shed previous to the hatching, after which the young Ceecilians make their way to the neighbouring stream, and live in the water, breathing by means of gill-slits. After they leave the water their gill-slits close up, and they breathe by lungs. The brothers Sarasin compare these Czcilians to Urodeles, in that they pass through the perennibranchiate stage in the egg. As larvae they are derotrematous, and in the adult stage become true land-animals like Salamanders. Our authors also show that the spermatozoon has a spiral filament, and that there is a fourth gill-arch, from which the pulmonary artery is given off. Both these facts tend to show that the Czecilians are more nearly allied to the Urodeles than to the Anurous Amphibians. THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION REPORTS Fifth Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. R Etheridse, Mr, Thomas Gray, and Prof. ohn Milne (Secretary), appoint:d for the purpose of investigating the Earthquake Phenomena of Fapan,. (Drawn up by the Secre'ary).—On account of an excursion which I have ‘the intention of making during the coming summer to Australia and New Zealand, I am compelled to draw up this report a month earlier than usual. As the only time when the work of attending to observations and experi- ments repays itself is during the winter months, I may safely say that fmy intention of shortening the time usually devoted to NATURE 4 ' ’ r a earthquake observations is not likely to involve any serious loss. ~ The number of earthquakes felt during corresponding periods in two previous years and this last year were respectively twenty-six, thirty-nine, and eighty, and not only have the earthquakes been numerous, but some of them have been pretty stiff, as is testified by the fact that on several occasions chimneys fell and walls were cracked. The work done during the last year is briefly as follows :— Seisnac Experiments.—Seismic experiments were commenced in conjunction with Mr. T. Gray in 1880. The movements then recorded were produced by allowing a heavy ball, 1710 lbs. in weight, to fall from various heights up to thirty-five feet. Subsequently many experiments were made by exploding charges of dynamite and gunpowder placed in bore-holes. During the last year, whilst working up the long series of records which accumulated, several laboratory experiments were made to investigate the methods to be employed when analysing the diagrams of earth motion. The first of these experiments consisted in projecting a small ball from the top of a tall flat vertically-placed spring, and at the same time causing the spring to draw a diagram of its motion. From the distance the ball was thrown its initial velocity could be calculated. From the diagram, either by calculation on the assumption of simple harmonic motion or by direct measurement, the maximum velocity of movement could be obtained. These three quantities practically agreed. The most important result obtained by these experiments was that they indicated an important element to be calculated in earthquake or dynamite diagrams, and, further, that in these diagrams the first sudden movement, which invariably has the appearance of a quarter-oscillation, ought apparently to be considered as a semi-oscillation. The second set of experiments consisted in determining the quantity to be calculated from an earthquake diagram which would give a measure of the overturning or shattering power of a disturbance. For this purpose a light strip of wood was caused by means of a strong spiral spring and a heavy weight to move horizontally back and forth with the period of the spring. On this strip small columns of wood were stood on end, and it was determined how far the spring had to be deflected and then suddenly released to cause overturning. ‘The more important results of all these experiments are :— I. Effect of Ground on Vibration.—(1) Hills have but little effect in stopping vibrations. (2) Excavations exert consider- able influence in stopping vibrations. (3) In soft damp ground it is easy to produce vibrations of large amplitude and consider- able duration. (4) In loose dry ground an explosion of dynamite yields a disturbance of large amplitude but of short duration. (5) In soft rock it is difficult to produce a disturbance the amplitude of which is sufficiently great to be recorded on an ordinary seismograph. Il. General Character of Motion.—(1) The pointerof a seismo- graph with a single index first moves in a normal direction, after which it is suddenly deflected, and the resulting diagram yields a figure partially dependent on the relative phases of the normal and transverse motion. These phases are in turn dependent upon the distance of the seismograph from the origin. (2) A bracket seismograph indicating normal motion at a given station com- mences its indications before a similar seismograph arranged to write transverse motion. (3) If the diagrams yielded by two such seismographs be compounded, they yield figures containing loops and other irregularities not unlike the figures yielded by the seismograph with the single index. (4) Near to an origin, the first movement will be in a straight line outwards from the origin ; subsequently the motion may be elliptical, like a figure 8, and irregular. The general direction of motion, is, however, normal. (5) Two points of ground only a few feet apart may not synchronise in their motions. (6) Earthquake motion is probably not a simple harmonic motion. Ill. Normal Motion.—(t) Near to an origin the first motion is outwards. Ata distance from an origin the first motion may be inwards. (2) At stations near the origin the motion inwards is great2r than the motion outwards. At a distance the inwards and outwards motion are practically equal. (3) At a station near the origin, the second or third wave is usually the largest, after which the motion dies down very rapidly in its amplitude, the motion inwards decreasing more rapidly than the motion outwards. (4) Roughly speaking the amplitude of normal motion is inversely as the distance from the origin. (5) Ata station near an origin the period of the waves is at first short. It becomes longer as the disturbance dies out. (6) The semi- [ Oct. 1, 1885 | Oct. 1, 1885] oscillations inwards are described more rapidly than those out- wards. (7) As a disturbance radiates the period increases. Finally it becomes equal to the period of the transverse motion. From this it may be inferred that the greater the initial disturb- ance the greater the frequency of waves. (8) Certain of the inward motions of ‘‘shock” have the appearance of having been described in less than no time. (9) The first outwards motion, which on diagrams has the appearance of a quarter- waye, must be regarded as a semi-oscillation. (10) The waves on the diagrams taken at different stations do not correspond. (11) At a station near the origin, a notch in the crest of a wave of shock gradually increases as the disturbance spreads, so that at a second station the wave with a notch has split up into two waves. (12) Near the origin the normal motion has a definite commencement. At a distance the motion commences irregu- larly, the maximum motion being reachéd gradually. IV. Transverse Motion.—(1) Near to an origin the transverse motion commences definitely but irregularly. (2) Like the normal motion, the first two or three movements are decided, and their amplitude slightly exceeds that of those which follow. (3) The amplitude of transyerse motion as the disturbance radiates decreases at a slower rate than that of the normal motion. (4) Asa disturbance dies out at any particular station the period decreases. (5) As a disturbances radiates the period increases. This is equivalent to an increase in period as the intensity of the initial disturbance increases. (6) As we recede from an origin the commencement of the transverse motion becomes more indefinite. V. Relation of Normal to Transverse Motion.—(1) Near to an origin the amplitude of normal motion is much greater than that of the transverse motion. (2) As the disturbance radiates, the amplitude of the transverse motion decreases at a slower rate than that of the normal motion, so that at a certain distance they may be equal toeach other. (3) Near to an origin the period of the transverse motion may be double that of the normal motion ; but as the disturbance dies out at any given station, or as it radiates, the periods of these two sets of vibrations approach each other. VI. Maximum Velocity and Intensity of Movement.—(1) An earth particle usually reaches its maximum velocity during the first inward movement. A high velocity is, however, sometimes attained in the first outward semi-oscillation. (2) The intensity of an earthquake is best measured by its destructive power in overturning, shattering, or projecting various bodies. (3) The value $ =—— — (I — cos é v? = $¢,/a* + 6° X (— used by Mallet and other seismologists to express the velocity of shock as determined from the dimensions of a body which has been overturned, is a quantity not obtainable from an earthquake diagram. It represents the effect of a sudden impulse. (4) In an earthquake a body is overturned or shattered by an accelera- tion, f, which quantity is calculable for a body of definite dimensions. The quantity f as obtained from an earthquake : : v Vi : : diagram lies between — and —*, where v is the maximum velo- a@ city, is the quarter-period, and @ is the amplitude. (5) The initial velocity given in the formula v? = = (for horizontal pro- jection) used by Mallet as identical with v? in 3, are not identical quantities. (6) In discussing the intensity of movement I have used the values - - (7) The intensity of an earthquake at first decreases rapidly as the disturbance radiates ; subsequently it decreases more slowly. (8) A curve of intensities deduced from observations at a sufficient number of stations would furnish the means of approximately calculating an absolute value for the intensity of an earthquake. VII. Vertical Motion.—(1) In soft ground vertical motion appears to be a free surface-wave which outraces the horizontal component of motion. (2) Vertical motion commences with small rapid vibrations, and ends with vibrations which are long and slow. (3) High velocities of transit may be obtained by the observation of this component of motion. It is possibly an explanation of the preliminary tremors of an earthquake and the sound phenomenon, (4) The amplitude and period of vertical wayes as observed at the same or different stations have been measured. VIII. Velocity.—(1) The velocity of transit decreases as a NATURE 527 disturbance radiates. (2) Near to an origin the velocity of transit varies with the intensity of the initial disturbance. (3) The rate at which the normal motion outraces the transverse motion is not constant. (4) As the amplitude and period of the normal motion approach in value to those of the transverse motion, so do the velocities of transit of these motions approach each other. (5) That the ratio of the speed of normal and transverse motions is not constant is shown from a table of these velocities calculated for different rocks from their moduli of elasticity. IX. Miscellaneous.—(1) At the time of an earth-disturbance, currents are produced in telegraph lines. (2) The exceedingly rapid decrease in the intensity of a disturbance in the immediate neighbourhood of the epicentrum has been illustrated by a diagram. (3) For the duration of a disturbance due to a given impulse in different kinds of ground, reference must be made to the detailed descriptions of the first four sets of experiments. Experiments on a Building to resist Earthquake Motion.—In the Report of last year I described a house which rested at its foundations upon cast-iron balls. These balls were ro-inch shell. The records obtained from an instrument placed inside this house showed that, although it was subjected to consider- able movement at the time of an earthquake, all sawdden motion had been destroyed. Although the balls did very much to mitigate earthquake motion, wind and other causes produced movements of a far more serious nature than the earthquake. To give greater steadiness to the house, 8-inch balls were tried, and then I-inch balls. Finally the house was rested at each of its piers upon a handful of cast-iron shot, each 4-inch in diameter. By this means the building has been rendered astatic, and, in consequence of the great increase in rolling friction, sufficiently stable to resist all effects like those of wind. The shot rest between flat iron plates. That the house had peculiar foundations would not be noticed unless specially pointed out. From these experiments it seems evident that it is possible to build light one-storied structures of wood or iron in which, relatively to other houses, but little movement will be felt. Observations in a Pit 10 feet deef.—The instrument placed in this pit is similar to all the other instruments, and is installed in a similar position. Comparing the maximum amplitudes, maxi- mum velocities, and maximum accelerations obtained in the pit with those obtained at about thirty feet distance, they are for one particular earthquake respectively in the ratios of 1 : 43, {:52, and 1:82, In most earthquakes the extent of motion has. been too small to admit of measurement, and that there had been any movement could only be detected by holding the plate on which the record was written up to the light and glancing along it lengthways. This investigation tends to confirm the view which I have previously put forward, that an earthqual:e at a short distance from its epicentrum is practically a surface disturbance, principally consisting of horizontal movements. The vertical motion is small, and is best seen in the preliminary tremors either of an actual earthquake or of a dynamite ex- plosion. From a practical point of view these results must be of the greatest importance to those who have to erect heavy structures in earthquake districts. Buildings in Earthquake Countries.—As during the last few years so much destruction both to life and property has taken place in various parts of Europe, it seems that an epitome of the results of observations and experiments carried on in Japan relative to construction in seismic districts might not only be interesting, but possibly it might also be of practical value. When erecting a building it appears that we ought first to reduce as far as possible the quantity of motion which ordinary buildings receive ; and, second, to construct a building so that it will resist that portion of the momentum which we are unable to keep out. To reduce the momentum which usually reaches a building the following may be done :— (1) Institute a seismic survey of the district or area in which it is intended to build, and select a site where experiment shows that the motion is relatively small. (2) For heavy buildings adopt deep foundations (perhaps with lateral freedom), or at least let the building be founded on the hardest and most solid ground. It is perhaps because the tops of the hills in Fokio are harder than the plains that they have relatively the least motion. A building only fartially isolated may be exceedingly dangerous from the fact that motion entering in the unprotected | side will make the excavations (cuttings, valleys, &c.) upon the opposite side into free surfaces which will swing forward through a range greater than they would have swung had the excavations 528 not existed. (3) For light buildings, especially if erected on soft ground, where the range of motion is always great, if the structure rests on layers of fine cast-iron shot, it cannot possibly receive the same momentum as a building attached to the moving ground. To resist the effects of momentum which cannot be cut off a building : (1) Bear in mind the fact that it is chiefly stresses and strains which are applied horizontally to a building which have to be encountered. A vertical line of openings like doors or windows in a building constitute a vertical line of weakness to horizontally-applied forces. (2) Avoid coupling together two portions of a building which have different vibrational periods, or which from their position are not likely to synchronise in their motion. If such parts of a building must of necessity be joined, let them be so joined that the connecting link will force them to vibrate as a whole, and yet resist fracture. Brick chimneys in contact with the framing of a wooden roof are apt to be shorn off at the point where they pass through the roof. Light archways connecting heavy piers will be cracked at the crown. To obviate destruction due to these causes a system of construction similar to that to be seen in several of the buildings of San Francisco, Tokio, and Yokohama may be adopted. This essentially consists of tieing the building together at each floor with iron and steel tie-rods crossing each other from back to front and from side to side. (3) Keep the centre of inertia of a building or its parts as low as possible. Heavy tops to chimneys, heavy copings, and balustrades on walls and towers, heavy roofs and the like are all of serious danger to the portion of the struc- ture by which they are supported. When the lower part of a building is moved, the upper part by its inertia tending to remain behind often results in serious fractures. All the chimneys in Tokio and Yokohama which have fallen in consequence of their ornamental heads have been replaced by shorter and thicker chimneys without the usual coping. The roof of a portion of the Engineering College rests loosely on its walls, and has therefore a certain freedom. In Manila many heavy roofs have been replaced by roofs of sheet iron. Walls may be lightened in their upper parts by the use of hollow bricks. Such vertical motion as may exist is also partly obviated by light superstruc- tures. Vertically-placed iron tie-rods give additional security. If these and other rules which are the result of experiment and observation could be adopted in earthquake countries, it is certain that the loss of life and property might be greatly diminished. Earth Tremors and Earth Pulsations.—Notwithstanding the untrustworthiness of level observations, they neverthe- less have given results of interest. (1) The bubbles from time to time move back and forth without apparent reason. Considerable changes have sometimes been observed before an earthquake. (2) The greatest movement of the bubble of a level takes place during the colder part of the year, which is the season of earthquakes, and also the season when the barometric gradient between Siberia and the Pacific is the steepest. (3) The bubble of a level continues to move long after the sensible motion of-an earthquake has ceased, enabling us to study the slow movements which bring an earthquake to a close. (4) When the barometer is very low, as, for instance, during a typhoon, the bubble of a level may be distinctly seen to pulsate back and forth through a range of about ‘5 mm. In September of last year, in conjunction with Mr. W. Wilson, C.E., and Mr. Mano, of the Imperial College of Engineering, I carried an instrument to the summit of Fujiyama, which is about 12, 365 feet in height, where I succeeded after many failures in recording automatically earth tremors and earih pulsations. But we were unable to remain for more than five days. The results of interest connected with these observations are :—(1) That the movements on the top of the mountain were much greater than those which I usually observe in Tokio. (2) The tremors, or slight swing-like movements of the instrument, did not necessarily accompany the wind. (3) That during the heavy south and south-east gales the direction of displacement of the pointer was towards the south-east, which is the same result as would be obtained if the bed-plate of the instrument were raised on the south-east side, or if the mountain had tipped over to the north-west. My colleague, Mr. T. Alexander, treating Fuji as a conical solid made of brick, with a wind-load of 50 Ibs. on the square fuot, found the slope and deflection of a point 100 feet below the apex of the cone. This calculated slope was two or three times greater than the greatest deflection which I measured. As it is difficult to imagine that a mountain could suffer deflection by a wind pressure, I will not insist upon NATURE [ Oct. 1, 1885 the fact that deflection actually occurred. It is certainly curious that the results of calculation and observation should point 1n the same direction. Report of the Committee on Electrical Standards, consisting of Prof. G. C. Foster, Sir W. Thomson, Prof. Ayrton, Prof. F. Perry, Prof. W.G. Adams, Lord Rayleigh, Prof. O. F. Lodge, Dr. Fohn Hopkinson, Dr. A. Muirhead, Mr. Preece, Mr. H. Taylor, Prof. Everett, Prof. Schuster, Dr. F. A. Fleming, Prof. G. F. Fitzgerald, Mr. R. T. Glazzbrook, Prof. Chrystal, Mr. H. Tomlinson, and Prof. Barnett, with Mr. Glazebrook as Secretary.—The Committee reported that the Secretary has had constructed a series of coils to serve as standards in terms of the legal ohm. These standards, in accordance with the resolution of the Committee, were con-tructed on the supposition that the value of the legal ohm is r’o112 B.A. units. The comparisons were made by the methods given in the reports for 1885 and 1884, and the values found were— No. Resistance Temperature 100 999515 I4'I 101 998845 I4'l 102 10°00415 16°7 103 10°00352 16°75 104 100°0304 16°05 105 100°0436 16°05 106 1000°694 17°4 107 1000°677 17°45 108 10006°8 17°35 109 10006°8 17°35 These standards have also been compared with mercury-tube resistances constructed by Mr. Benoit, of Paris, and a difference of ‘00049 legal ohm was found. The legal ohm standards, as constructed by the Committee, exceed by this amount those constructed in Paris. Six coils have been compared with the standards during the year, and the values are given. The Com- mittee hope that arrangements may be made for issuing standards of electromotive force, and for constructing and issuing standards of capacity. In conclusion, they ask to be reappointed, with the addition of the names of Prof. J. J. Thomson and Mr. W. N. Straw, with a renewal of the unexpended grant of 5o0/. Report on Electrical Theortes, by Prof. J. J. Thomson.—This report deals exclusively with those theories which only profess to give mathematical expressions for the forces due to a distribu- tion of currents. Those theories which profess to give mechanical explanation of these forces are not considered. There was not sufficient time to consider both classes of theories, and it is evident that the mathematical theory must be settled before we can get a satisfactory mechanical one. As to the general result of the inquiry, we may say that all that has been proved is that it is absolutely necessary to take into account the currents in the dielectric ; and that the action of these, as well as other currents, must be given by some form of the potential theory—that is, the theory propounded by F. E. Neumann and generalised by Von Helmholtz. But nothing definite is known as to what we should take as the measure of these electric currents, and which of the many forms of the potential theory is the right one. We hardly require experimental proof that alteration in the polarisation of the dielectric, at any rate if the dielectric be other than the ether, produce effects analogous to those produced by an ordinary current flowing through a conductor. For the polarisation of a dielectric by an electromotive force produces a change in the structure of the dielectric. This is shown by the alteration in volume experienced by glass and other bodies when placed in the electric field, and also by the breaking down of the dielectric when the strength of the field is great enough. Now, if we move a magnet we shall, since we produce an electromotive force in its neighbourhood, produce a change in the structure of the dielectric around it because we alter its state of polarisation. It follows, then, from the principle of action and reaction, that if we alter the state of polarisation of the dielectric we shall alter the state of motion of the magnet. So that an alteration in the polarisation of the dielectric produces a magnetic force. We can show in a similar way that an alteration in the polarisa- tion must produce all the effects produced by an ordinary con- duction current. We know nothing, however, about the mag- nitude of the current which is equivalent to a change in the state of polarisation. It seems natural to suppose that the in- tensity of the current is proportional to the rate of change of the electromotive force. Let us suppose that it equals » (rate of z — — Oct. 1, 1885 | NATURE Se, change of the electromotive force). The quantity » has never been experimentally determined, but two hypotheses have been made as to its value by Maxwell and Helmholtz. According to Maxwell 7 = «/4m, where « is the specific inductive capacity, and, according to Helmholtz, 7 is also a function of x. There is very little experimental evidence for either of these theories. For Maxwell’s theory, perhaps the best evidence is that, if we assume the electro-magnetic theory of light, the refractive index should, if 7 = «/47, equal the square root of a specific inductive capacity, which is very approximately the case for a good many substances. Maxwell's assumption has the great advantage of getting rid of all discontinuity in the currents ; and, when this is the case, all forms of the potential theory lead to the same result. So that, if we could prove Maxwell’s theory experi- mentally, it would be a complete theory of electro-dynamic action. If it should turn out, however, that Maxwell’s theory is not true, then we should have to go on further and determine which of the several forms of the potential theory is the true one ; as, if the currents are not closed, the different forms of the theory lead to different results. It would seem that the most important thing to be done in electro-dynamic theory is to de- termine whether 7 = «/47 or not, and the author has des_ribed two ways in which this may be done. If Maxwell’s theory should prove not to be true, we must go on to determine the value of for all dielectrics, and which of the forms of the potential theory is the true one. Report on Standards of White Light.—Various experiments have been made by the Committee. The members have come to the conclusion that the standard candle as defined by Acts of Parliament is not in any sense a standard. The spermaceti used is not a definite chemical substance, and is mixed with other substances. Also the constitution of the wick is not properly defined. The Committee have considered the relative merits of different proposed standards, and have come to the conclusion that for comzer.ia/ purposes the pentane standard of Mr. Vernon Harcourt is the best. Although the Committee wish their opinion on this point to be known to the Board of Trade and the public, they do not recommend the adoption of any particular standard until further experiments on radiation have been made. Several experiments are enumerated which they propose to make. They ask reappointment, with a grant of 50/. towards the proposed researches. Report of the Committee on Meteoric Dust.—Experiments have been made at the Scottish Marine Station by means of an apparatus in which the wind blows through gratings of fine platinum wire. The moisture deposited is collected and examined for suspended particles. Funnels have also been placed at different localities for catching rain. The presence of carbonaceous matter is most marked. In smaller quantities occur quartz, felspar, mica, tourmaline, garnet, glassy particles resembling Krakatoa dust or pumice, and small round magnetic particles about 1—5ooth of an inch in diameter, They resemble similar larger particles got from deep-sea deposits at the greatest distance from continental land. None are of cosmic origin. Usually they have a small nucleus in the interior, but are fre- quently hollow. Further observations are to be made at various stations all over the world. Report of the Committee on Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis.—The chief additional observations made during the year were with regard to rainfall and wind. Vhe amount of water substance deposited, in whatever form, has been collected by specially-designed gauges and measured every hour since June 24, 1884. In the end of October the anemometers designed by Praf. Chrystal were added to the instruments. But during seven months—-November, 1884, to May, 1885—no anemometer could indicate results, with the exception of thirty days. This is owing to the deposition of ice-crystals. The greatest speed indicated during three days was on the night of April 24. The mean speed for 12 hours was 74 miles per hour, the speed for one particular hour being 81 miles per hour. The highest tem- perature reached, 60°'1 F., occurred at 2 p.m., August 9; and the lowest, r1°"1 F., at midnight, February 16. The coldest week—average temperature, 16°°2 F.—was the one ending on February 21. The changes of temperature, particularly in winter, were caused, not by direct solar influence, but by the passage of cyclones or anticyclones over the observatory. Indeed in the stormy months of winter this may be taken to be accu- rately the case. In summer the afternoon minimum ot atmo- spheric pressure was 0007 inches above the mean for the whole day, but in winter it was below the mean. During twelve months there were 464 hours of sunshine, being about 11 per cent. of the total possible amount. Heavy rainfalls frequently occur. The longest for one hour was on December Io, 1884. The largest daily fall occurred then also, being 4°264 inches. On an average, a fall of at least one inch occurred one day in seven. Report of the Committee on Solution, Secretary Dr. W. W. J. Nicol.—lhe subjects discussed in this Report are ;—(r) Molecular volumes, (2) saturation, (3) supersaturation, (4) vapour pressures, and (5) expansion of salt solutions. (1) The results of a series of experiments show the molecular volume of a salt in dilute solution to be a quantity composed of two constants : one for the metal and the other for the salt radical ; hence the same volume change is produced by replacement of one metal or salt radical by another metal or salt radical. Wa'er of crys- tallisation is not to be distinguished from the solvent water, but the water of constitution possesses a volume different from that of the rest of the water—results showing the existence in solu- tion of the anhydrous salt in contradistinction to the view that a hydrate, definite vr indefinite, is formed in solution. (2) Saturation is reached when the further addition of salt would produce diminution of the mean molecular volume of the mole- cules already present. (3) The so-called supersaturated solu- tions are simply saturated or non-saturated solutions of the anhydrous salts, the only truly supersaturated solutions being those which result from the fact that, when a hot solution-is cooled, a finite time is required for the excess of salt to crystallise out, The Report of the Committee appointed to investigate by means of Photography the Ultra-violet Spark Spectra emitted by Metallic Elements and their Combinations under Varying Conditions, drawn up by Prof. Hartley, F.R.S., was presented by him to the Section; in it an account is given of the results of the investigation of the changes in the character of the spectra of the metals produced by variation in the strengths of the solutions of their salts—e.g. chlorides, nitrates, or sulphates. The study of a very considerable number of the photographs of such spectra shows the strength of the solution to have a marked effect on their character, the more dilute the solution the smaller the number of lines; further, that under the same spark con- ditions, similar solutions of the same strength emit the same spectrum. Solutions containing I per cent., 1I-1oth, 1-1o0o0th, and I-1oooth of the metal were used ; solutions of the latter strength seldom gave a spectrum of more than three or four lines, and with solutions containing less than r-roth per cent. the diminution in the number of lines is usually very marked. The spectrum reaction may be utilised for the quanti- tative analysis of minerals, and yields results more reliable than those obtained by ordinary methods. The reaction is extremely delicate, and in the case of magnesium one part of the metal in 10,000 millions of solution can be detected by the appearance of two characteristic lines. Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Profs. Williamson, Dewar, Frankland, Crum Brown, Odling, and Armstrong, Drs. Hugo Miller, F. R. Fapp, and H. Forster Morley, and Messrs. A. G. Vernon Harcourt, C. E. Groves, F. Millar Thomson, H. B. Dixon (Secretary) and V. H. Veley, re- appointed for the purpose of drawing up a Statement of the Varieliis of Chemical Names which have come into use, for Indicating the Causes which have led to their Adoption, and for Considering what can be done to bring about some Convergence of the Views on Chemical Nominclature obtaining among English and Forcign Chemists.—An account of the authorship of some of the various systems of nomenclature which have been devised for the purpose of distinguishing between compounds formed by the union of the same elements in different proportions has been given in the “* Historical Notes” prefixed to the Second Report of this Committee. Among these systems the use of the termination ows and zc, to denote respectively lower or higher degrees of saturation of one element or group with another element or group, is perhaps that which has met with the widest acceptance. This system further directs that when electro-negative groups, the names of which end in ews and zc, unite with electro-positive groups to form salts, these termina- tions are to be changed into 7¢e and ave respectively. It would be ill-advised to attempt on etymological grounds to change a system so firmly established as that involved in the present use of the prefixes Zyfo and hyfer. No ambiguity can arise from 53° NATURE [Oct. 1, 1885 the use of terms about the meaning of which every one is agreed, and their mere etymological accuracy is, in view of this all- important consideration, of secondary importance. Asa metal rarely—if ever—forms more than two salifiable oxides, the ozs and 7c terminations generally suffice for purposes of distinction so far as the salts of metals are concerned. The practice of further employing these terminations in the case of acid-forming oxides does not lead to confusion, since these oxides are distin- guished by the name anhydride (or acid). Thus we have CrO Cr,03 CrO3 Chromous oxide. Chromic oxide. Chromic anhydride, (Chromic acid.) Indifferent oxides have frequently been classified and named by regarding them as compounds of salifiable, with acid-forming oxides, Cr,O, being termed chromic chromate. For stages lower than ows, the prefixes Aygo and s#b are employed. Custom appears to haye restricted Ayo chiefly to acids and to acid- forming oxides, sé to salifiable and to indifferent oxides. With regard to the termination ows, the minor question arises, how far this termination ought to be written in the forms zows and cous. The answer is: as seldom as possible. ‘‘ Cupreous” has generally given way to ‘‘cuprous”; no one writes ‘“chromious” (although the name of the metal is ‘‘ chrom- ium”); and there is no reason why such names as ‘‘ ruthenious ”’ and ‘‘iridious” should not equally be shorn of their super- fluous penultimate syllable. A further question, concerning which considerable difference of opinion has prevailed, is whether any ous or ic terminations ought to be employed in the names of salts of which only one class is known—thus magnesic sulphate instead of magnesium sulphate, There is something to be said here for both systems ; and, as the diversity of practice does not lead to confusion, and consequently does but little harm (beyond in each case offending the ears of those accustomed to the opposite system), the question need not be regarded as a vital one. In the case of carbon compounds, however, there is a distinct advantage in affixing 7c to the names of the positive radicals in ethereal salts. A neglect of this precaution leads to ambiguity—at all events in the sfcAe7 name. Thus, though there is no ambiguity in the name e//yl phenjlacetaie when written, yet the ear cannot distinguish between it and ethylphenyl acetate. This ambiguity is obviated by the use of the termination ze—thus, ethylic phenylacetate and ethylphenylic acetate. In the use of the terminations ows and zc to distinguish different series of acids and acid-forming oxides, with the excep- tion of one or two isolated eases, almost perfect unanimity has ) revailed. To sum up, the ovs and zc terminations when em- ployed for purposes of distinction in cases where two series of oxides, acids, salts, &c., are known, have been almost free from ambiguity, and for this reason deserve to be retained. On the other hand, in cases where only one series is known, those chemists who have employed one or other of these terminations have occasionally differed as to which ought to be used: the difficulty may be solved, as it has been done by some chemists, by avoiding the use of any termination in such cases. In com- plex cases where the above modes of naming prove inadequate, recourse may be had to numeral designations. These appear especially admissible in cases where an oxide occurs which is intermediate between the ows and the éc stage, and at the same time cannot be classed as a compound of oxides already classi- fied and named. Jn applying numeral designations it is most important to select only such as are free from hypothesis and which afford correct information. In this respect chemists appear not to have been sufficiently careful of late years. Asan example, arsen- tous oxide may be quoted ; this compound is frequently termed “arsenic trioxide,” the formula being written As,Ox,, and it is tacitly assumed that the molecule contains three oxygen atoms. There are three objections to this name :—(1) That, assuming the formula on which it is based to be correct, it affords no in- formation as to the number of avsenic atoms associated with the three oxygen atoms ; (2) that it involves the assumption that arsenious oxide does not vary in molecular weight, whatever its physical state ; and (3) that the formula of gaseous arsenious oxide is As,O;. In employing numeral designations to indic- ate molecular composition in cases where this is established, it is therefore important to express the number of atoms of each constituent element, as dicarbon hexachloride, C.Clg. But* in the case of solid and liquid bodies of whichthe molecular weight is unknown, or which may vary with temperature, the name should merely indicate the relative proportions in which the constituents are associated ; or, more explicitly, the name should indicate the proportion of the radical associated with what may be termed the characteristic element of the compound. No difficulty oceurs in the case of the chloride, or analogous com- pound, of the monad elements generally, these being termed mono-, di-, tri-, tetra-, penta-, or hexa-chloride, &c., according as combination is in the proportion of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6 atoms of chlorine to 1 atom of the characteristic element. The appli- cation of this system would involve the use of the names tin dichloride and iron trichloride (not sesqui-chloride) for starmous and ferric chlorides respectively, names which accurately express the relative proportions of metal and of chlorine in these com= pounds without any hypothesis as to their molecular compo- sition, which in the case of the former compound, at all events, certainly depends on temperature. It will, however, involve a slight departure from the existing practice when applied to oxides, sulphides, and other compounds of polyad elements ;! thus oxides of the type (R,)”’O would be termed /emi-oxides, since they consist of the characteristic element and oxygen in the proportion of ove atom of the former to /a/fan atom of the latter. Oxides of the type (R,)"O, would be termed sesgzé- oxides, since the characteristic element and oxygen are present in the proportion of ove of the former to ove and a half of the latter. Oxides of the type R,O; would be termed sesterti-oxides, as they contain oxygen and the characteristic element in the proportion of ¢wo and a half atoms of the former to ove of the latter. Oxides of the types RO, RO,, ROs, and RO,, would be termed respectively zono-, di-, tri-, and ¢etr-troxides. The remainder of the report treats of the various systems which have been proposed for the naming of acid, basic, and double salts. Report of the Commuttee appointed for the purpose of inquiring in to the Rate of Erosion of the Sea-Cousts of England and Wales, and the Influence of the Artificial Abstraction of Shinglé or Material in that Action (C. E. De Rance and W. Topley, Secretaries).—The Committee has, during the past year, received several Returns relating to the south and east coasts of England. Most of those relating to the coast south of the Thames are printed. The thanks of the Committee are especially due to Major-Gen. Sir A. Clarke, who has instructed tke officers of the Royal Engineers stationed around the coast to supply the Com- mittee with such information as they may possess or be able to obtain. Further returns are expected from the same depart- ment and from other official sources; the Committee therefore think it best to defer any general Report until more complete information is obtained. The Memorandum drawn up by Mr. J. B. Redman so fully sets forth the work of the Committee, and the importance of the inquiry referred to it, that this is now printed. ‘lhe Memorandum by Mr. G. Dowker, on East Kent, gives a sufficiently complete account of the changes of the coast in this district ; changes which are of especial historical import- ance and interest. Mr. Whitaker has drawn up a list of works relating to the coast-changes of England and Wales, which will be of great service to the Committee and to those who may assist in the work. ‘The Committee would again ask for the assistance of any who, by long residence or other means, have special knowledge of changes on any part of the English and Welsh coast. Printed forms of questions can be obtained from the secretaries or from any member of the Committee. Third Refort of the Committee, consisting of Sir Ff. Hooker, Dr. Giinthr, Mr. Howard Saunders, and Mr. Sclater (Secre= tary), appointed for the purpose of exploring Kilima-njaro and the adjoining mountains of Equatorial Africa,—In their last report, presented at Montreal, the Committee stated the arrangements that they had made with Mr. H. H. Johnston for undertaking an expedition to Kilima-njaro, and gave extracts from Mr. Johnston’s letters showing the progress of his expedition up to May, 1884. Mr. Johnston gave an account of his expedition to the Royal Geographical Society at their meeting on January 26, 1885, in which he states that in consequence of the desertion of two natives whom he had taken out with him from Zanzibar as collectors, the collections were not so large as the Committee could have wished. Capt. Shelley prepared a report on the birds collected by Mr. Johnston, and Mr, F. D. Godman on the butterflies of his collection, after which the first sets in both these collections were handed over to the British Museum, as were also all the other zoological collections, with a request to the director that reports might be prepared for publication on such portions of them as seemed to be of sufficient interest. Reports on the zoological collections made by Mr. H. H. Oct. 1, 1885 | : NATURE 531 Johnston have already been published in the Procezdings of the Zoological Society for this year. The botanical collections were handed over to the Royal Herbarium at Kew, where they were arranged, named, and a set sent to the British Museum. The report upon them is ready, and will be presented to the Linnean Society for publication. Prof. Bonney has kindly undertaken to report on the rock and mineral specimens collected by Mr. Johnston, and his report is presented herewith, and will be read in the Geological Section. Mr. H. H. Johnston has in pre- paration a volume containing a narrative of his expedition and a summary ofthe results arrived at, which will shortly be ready for issue. The sum of 25/7. granted to the Committee at the Montreal meeting has been returned to the treasurer. Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. E. B. Tylor, Dr. G. M, Dawson, Gen. Sir F. H. Lefroy, Dr. Daniel Wilson, Mr. Horatio Hale, Mr. R. G. Haliburton, and Mr. George W. Bloxam (Secretary), appointed for th? purpose of investigating and publishing Reports on the Physical Characters, Languages, Industrial and Social Condition of the North-Western Tribes of the Dominion of Canada.—The Committee have been in active correspondence with missionaries and others stationed among the Indians, but the unsettled state of the country during the past year has made it impossible to do more than collect materials for a preliminary report; the Committee, therefore, ask that they may be reappointed with a continuance of the grant. Report on the Blackfoot Tribes. Drawn up by Mr. Horatio Hale.—The tribes composing the Blackfoot Confederacy, as it is commonly styled, have been until recently less known than any others. A correspondence was opened with two able and zealous missionaries residing among these Indians. The Rey. Albert Lacombe, widely and favourably known as Father Lacombe, Roman Catholic Missionary among the Siksika, or proper Blackfeet Indians, and the Rev. John McLean, Missionary of the Canadian Methodist Church to the Blood and Piegan (or Kena and Piekané) tribes. Father Lacombe has been many years a missionary in the Canadian North-West, and hasa very extensive knowledge of the tribes of that region. His elaborate work, the ‘‘Grammar and Dictionary of the Cree Language” ranks among the best contributions to American philology. Mr. McLean has been engaged in his missionary duties for five years, has prepared a grammar of the Blackfoot language, and is at present occupied in translating the Scriptures into that tongue. The unfortunate troubles of the past season have for a time interrupted the correspondence, and the principal portion of the report on these Indians will therefore have to be deferred for another year. Some other sources of information, however, have been examined, particularly the valuable official reports and maps of the Canadian and United States Indian Depart- ments. Fifty years ago the Blackfoot Confederacy held among the western tribes much the same position of superiority which was held two centuries ago by the Iroquois Confederacy among the Indians east of the Mississippi. The nucleus, or main body is still composed of three tribes, speaking the proper Blackfoot language: the Siksika, or Blackfeet proper; the Kena, or Blood Indians; and the Piekané, or Piegans (pronounced Peegans), a name sometimes corrupted to ‘* Pagan” Indians. To these are to be added the Sarcees from the north, and the Atsinas from the south. The Sarcees are an offshoot of the great Athabascan stock, which is spread over the north of British America, through Oregon and California into Northern Mexico. The Atsinas, who have been variously known as Fall Indians, Rapid Indians, and Gros Ventres, speak a dialect similar to that of the Arapohoes, who now reside in the ‘Indian Territory ” of the United States. It is a peculiarly harsh and difficult lan- guage, and is said to bespoken only by those two tribes. None of the Atsinas are now found on Canadian territory, and no recent information has been obtained concerning them, except from the map which accompanies the United States Indian Report for 1884, and on which their name appears on the American Blackfoot Reservation, The five tribes were reckoned, fifty years ago, to comprise not less than 30,000 souls, the terror of all the western Indians on both sides of the Rocky Mountains. It was not uncommon for thirty or forty war parties to be out at once against the Salish (or Flatheads) of Oregon, the Upsarokas (or Crows) of the Missouri Plains, the Shoshonees of the far south, and the Crees of the north and east. The country-which the Blackfoot tribes claimed properly as their own comprised the valleys and plains along the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains, between the Missouri and the Saskatchewan, the favourite resort of the buffalo, whose vast herds afforded the Indians their principal means of subsistence. In the year 1836 a terrible visitation of the small-pox swept off two-thirds of the people, and five years later they were supposed to count not more than 1,500 tents, or about 10,000 souls. Their enemies were then recovering their spirits, and retaliating upon the weakened tribes the ravages which they had formerly committed. In 1855 the United States Government humanely interfered to bring about a complete cessation of hostilities between the Blackfoot tribes and the other Indians, and framed a treaty for them, accompanying the act by a large distribution of presents. Dr. F. V. Hayden, in his account of the Indian Tribes of the Missouri Valley, states : ‘‘ From my own experience among them, and from information derived from intelligent men who have spent the greater portion of their lives with them, I am con- vinced that they are among the most peaceable and honourable Indians in the West ; and in an intellectual and moral point of view they take the highest rank among the wild tribes of the plains.” This favourable opinion of Dr. Hayden is entirely in accordance with the testimony of the Indian agents and other officials of the Canadian North-West. Atthe present time, while constantly harassed on their reserves by the incursions of thievish Crees and other Indians, they forbear to retaliate, and honourably abide by the terms of their treaty, which binds them to leave the redress of such grievances to the Dominion authorities. Since the general peace the numbers of the Blackfeet have apparently qeen on the increase. Dr. Hayden reports the three proper Blackfeet tribes as numbering in 1855 about 7ooo souls. The present population of the three Canadian Reserves is computed at about 6000, divided as follows: Blackfeet proper, 2409 ; Bloods, 2800; Piegans, Soo. On the American Reservation there are stated to be about 2300, mostly Piegans. This would make the total population of the three tribes exceed 8000 souls. The adopted tribe, the Sarcees, have greatly diminished in numbers through the ravages of the small-pox. This tribe, now numbering less than 509 souls, have their Reserve near Calgary. They are reputed to be less cleanly and moral than the proper Blackfeet tribes. in this respect their habits and character correspond with those of other Athabasean tribes. During the past five years, as is well known, a great change has taken place in the condition of the north-western tribes through the extermination of the buffalo. The Blackfeet have been the greatest sufferers from this cause. The buffalo were their main dependence. Suddenly, almost without warning, they found themselves stripped of nearly every necessary of life. The change was one of the greatest that could well befall a community. The Governments both of the United States and of Canada came to the rescue; but in the former country the urgency of the case was not at first fully understood, and much suffering ensued. The agent on the Blackfoot Reservation in Montana (Major Allen) states in his official report that when he entered upon his duties in April 1884 he found the Indians in a deplorable condition. The supplies of food which had been sent for them had proved insufficient, and before these could be renewed many died from actual starvation. Some stripped the bark from the saplings which grew along their creeks, and ate the inner portion to stifle their sense of hunger. On the Canadian side, fortunately, the emergency was better understood. Col. McLeod, an able and vigilant officer, was in charge of the Mounted Police at that time, and through his forethought the necessary preparations were made. In 1879 and 1880 the buffalo disappeared from that region. Arrangements were at once made for settling the Indians on Reserves, and for supplying them with food and clothing, and teaching them to erect wooden houses and cultivate their lands. Daily rations of meat and flour were served out to them. Ploughs, cattle, and horses were furnished to them. Farm instructors were placed among them. The Indians displayed a remarkable readiness to adapt them- selves to the new conditions. According to the reports of all the agents, they have evinced a quickness to learn and a persevering industry which place them decidedly in advance of the other Indian tribes of that region. In 1882 more than 500,000 Ibs. of potatoes were raised by the three Blackfoot tribes, besides considerable quantities of oats, barley, and turnips. The Piegans had sold rooo dollars’ worth of potatoes, and had a large supply on hand. ‘‘ The manner in which the Indians have worked,” writes the agent, “‘is really astonishing, as is the interest they have taken, and are taking, in farming.” Axes and 532 other tools were distributed among them, and were put to good use. In November, 1882, log-houses had ‘‘ gone up thick and fast on the Reserves, and were most creditable to the builders.” In many cases the logs were hewn, and in nearly all the houses fireplaces were built.. In the same year another official found comfortable dwellings, well-eultivated gardens, and good supplies of potatoes in root-houses. Most of the families had cooking stoves, for which they had sometimes paid as much as 50 dollars. He ‘‘saw many signs of civilisation, such as cups and saucers, knives and forks, coal-oil lamps, and tables ; and several of the women were baking excellent bread and performing other cooking operations.” Three years before these Indians were wild nomads, who lived in skin tents, hunted the buffalo, and had probably never seen a plough or an axe, The Blackfeet have been known to the whites for about a century, and during that period have dwelt in or near their present abode. There is evidence, however, that they once lived further east than at present. The explorer Mackenzie, in 1789, found them holding the south branch of the Saskatchewan, from its source to its junction with the north branch. He speaks of four tribes—the Picaneaux, Blood, and Blackfeet. and the Fall Indians (Atsinas), which latter tribe then numbered about 700 warriors. Of the three former tribes he says: ‘* They are a distinct people, speak a language of their own, and, I have reason to think, are travelling north-west, as well as the others just mentioned (the Atsinas) ; nor have I heard of any Indians with whose language that which they speak has any affinity. Mr. McLean’s inquiries confirm this opinion of the westward movement of these Indians in comparatively recent times. “The former home of these people,” he writes, ‘‘was in the Red River country, where, from the nature of the soil which blackened their mocassins, they were called Blackfeet.” This, it should be stated, is the exact meaning of Szfsika, from stksinam, black, and ka, the root of egkatsh, foot. The meaning of the other tribal names, Aeva and Piekané, is unknown. This westward movement has probably been due to the pressure of the Crees, who, according to their own tradition, originally dwelt far east of the Red River, in Labrador and about Hudson’s Bay. They have gradually advanced westward, pushing the prior occupants before them by the sheer force of numbers. ‘This will explain the deadly hostility which has always existed between the Crees and the Blackfeet. M. Lacombe, however, expresses a doubt as to their former sojourn in the Red River region : ‘‘ They affirm, on the contrary, that they came from the south-west, across the mountains—that is from the direction of Oregon and Washington Territory. There were” (he adds) ‘‘ bloody contests between the Black- feet and the Nez-percés, as Bancroft relates, for the right of hunting on the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains.” Mr. McLean, who mentions the former residence of the Blackfeet in the Red River country as an undoubted fact, also says: ‘*It is supposed that the great ancestor of the Blackfeet came across the mountains.”’ Here are two distinct and apparently con- flicting traditions, each having good authority and evidence in its favour. One of the best tests of the truth of tradition is to be found in language. Mackenzie, well acquainted with the Crees and Ojibways, who speak dialects of the great Algonkin stock, recognised no connection between their speech and that of the Blackfeet. Another traveller (Umfreville), whose book was published in 1791, gave a list of forty-four words of the Blackfoot language. Albert Gallatin, whose ‘‘ Synopsis of the Indian ‘Tribes” appeared in 1836, examined this list of Umfre- ville, and pronounced it sufficient to show that the language of the Blackfeet was ‘‘ different from any other known tous.” A few years later, having received from an Indian trader a more extended yocabulary, he corrected his former statement, and showed that there was a clear affinity between the Blackfoot speech and the language of the Algonkin family. More recently the French missionaries made the same discovery. M. Lacombe writes to me: ‘‘ The Blackfoot language, although far from, belongs to the same tamily as, the Algic, Ojibway, Santeux, Maskegon, and Cree. We discovered this analogy by studying the grammatical rules of these languages.” ‘Thus some of the ablest and most experienced of North American linguists have at first supposed the Blackfoot language to be distinct from all others, and have only discovered its connection with the Al- gonkin family by careful study. M. Lacombe has been good enough to send me a pretty extensive vocabulary of Blackfoot words, compared with the corresponding words in the Cree and Ojibway languages. He has added many paradigms of NATURE [ Oct. 1, 1885 grammatical forms in the Blackfoot, compared with similar forms in the Cree and Ojibway tongues. The Blackfoot language is thus shown to be, in its grammar, purely Algonkin. The re- semblance is complete in the minutest forms, But when we turn to the vocabulary, by which the first judgment of a language is necessarily formed, the origin of the early error becomes apparent. Many of the most common words are totally different from the corresponding words in the Algonkin languages. Others, found on careful examination radically the same as the corresponding Algonkin terms, are yet so changed and distorted that the resemblance is not at first apparent. Of this variation and distortion the numerals afford a good example. Other words in ordinary use show the total unlikeness in some cases and the distorted resemblance in others. The possessive pronoun ‘‘ my” is expressed by the same prefix 77 (or 7’) in all three languages. Pursuing this trace we compare the personal pronouns, and find a close resemblance, the difference being mainly in the terminations. In the possessive prefixes the re- semblance is still more notable. Thus in the Blac} foot language n'olas means ‘‘my horse, or dog” (the same word, oddly enough, applying in this form to both animals) ; and in Cree n'?em has the same meaning. ‘These words are thus varied with the possessive pronouns and in the two numbers :— Blackfoot Cree My horse (or dog) n’otas ntv’em thy) = BS k’otas kit'em his’ * 55 5 otas otema our 35 n’otasinan n’t’eminan your ,, k’otasinan kitemiwaw their ,, Pr otasiwaw otemiwawa my horses (or dogs) n otasiks n’emak thy ,, 3 k’otasiks kit’emak hiss. Si otasiks otema Our 5. re notasinaniks n’t’eminanak your ,, on kotasiwaweks kitemiwawok their ,, otasiwaweks otemiwawa It will be seen that the close resemblance in grammar is as striking as the wide difference in the vocabulary. These facts admit of but one explanation. They are the precise phenomena to which we are accustomed in the case of mixed languages. In such languages—our English speech is a notable example—we expect the grammar to be derived entirely from one source, while the words will be drawn from two or more. Further- more, wherever we find a mixed language we infer a conquest of one people by another. In the present instance we may well suppose that when the Blackfoot tribes were forced westward from the Red River country to the foot of the Rocky Mountains they did not find their new abode uninhabited. It is probable enough that the people whom they found in possession had come through the passes from the country west of those mountains. If these people were overcome by the Blackfeet, and their women taken as wives by the conquerors, two results would be likely to follow. In the first place, the language would become a mixed speech, in grammar purely Algonkin, but in the vocabu- lary largely recruited from the speech of the conquered tribe. A change in the character of the amalgamated people would also take place. The result of this change might be better inferred if we knew the characteristics of both the con- stituent races. But it may be said that a frequent, if not a general, result of such a mixture of races is the production of a people of superior intelligence and force of character. The circumstances thus suggested may account, not only for the peculiarities of the language and character of the Blackfeet tribes, but also for the different traditions which are found among them in regard to their origin and former ahode. It would be very desirable to trace that portion of the Blackfoot vocabulary which is not of Algonkin origin to its source in the language of some other linguistic stock. The religion of these tribes (ap- plying this term to their combined mythology and worship) resembles their language. It is in the main Algonkin, but includes some beliefs and ceremonies derived from some other source. ‘The primitive creation,” writes M. Lacombe, ‘‘is attributed to a superior divinity, whom they call the Creator (Apistotekin). This divinity, however, is in some manner identi- fied with the sun (Va/av). The earth itself is believed to be a divinity of some kind, for, in their invocations, if they call the sun ‘our father’ (Ainnon), they call the earth ‘our mother’ (Kikristonnon). It seems also that the moon is considered to be one and the same divinity with the sun. At any rate, in the Oct. 1, 1885] NATURE ai)3) invocations it is designated by the same name, Mifés. Yet it is often said to be the ‘old woman,’ the consort of the sun. The whole of this is confused enough in the minds of the Indians to render them unable to give, when ques- tioned, exact explanations. As to the secondary crea- tion, the Indian account runs: At a certain time all the earth was covered with water. The ‘Old Man’ (Wafiw) was in a canoe, and he thought of causing the eaith to come up from the abyss. He used the aid of four animals. The musk-rat dived, and remained so long under water that when he came to the surface he was fainting, but brought a little particle of earth between the toes of his paw. This particle the ‘ Old Man’ blew into the size of the whole earth. It took him four days to complete his work. The ‘Old Man’ worked two days more to make the first woman, for after the first day’s work he had not succeeded in making anything graceful.” This Napiw, or ‘‘ Old Man,” adds Father Lacombe, ‘“‘ appears again in many other traditions and legendary accounts, in which he is associated with the various kinds of animals, speaking to them, making use of them, and especially cheating them, and playing every kind of trick. According to the account of the Indians, the ‘‘Old Man” came from the south-west, across the moun- tains ; and after a prolonged sojourn in these countries he went toward the north-east, where he disappeared, and nobody has heard of him since. Those who have read Schoolcraft’s “* Algic Researches,” Mr. Leland’s ‘‘ Algonquin Legends,” and, above all, Dr. Brinton’s ‘‘ Myths of the New World,” will re- cognise in Napiw the most genuine and characteristic of all the Algonkin divinities. In every tribe of this widespread family, from Nova Scotia to Virginia, and from the Delaware to the Rocky Mountains, he reappears under various names—Mana- bosho, Michabo, Wetuks, Glooskap, Wisaketjack, Napiw—but everywhere with the same traits and the same history. While these beliefs are all purely Algonkin, the chief religious cere- mony of the Blackfoot tribes is certainly of foreign origin. This is the famous ‘‘ sun-dance.” That this ceremony is not properly Algonkin is clearly shown by the fact that among the tribes of that stock, with the sole exception of the Blackfoot and a few of the western Crees, it is unknown. Neither the Ojibways of the lakes nor any of the numerous tribes east of the Mississippi had in their worship a trace of this extraordinary rite. The form of government among the Blackfeet, as among the Algonkin tribes generally, is exceedingly simple, offering a striking contrast to the elaborately complicated systems common among the nations of the Iroquois stock. Each tribe has a head-chief, and each band of which the tribe is composed has its subordinate chief ; but the authority of these chiefs is little more than nominal. The office is not hereditary, the bravest or richest are commonly chosen ; but in what manner the election is made is not stated. The term ‘‘ confederacy ” commonly applied to the union of the Blackfoot tribes is somewhat misleading. There is no regular league or constitution binding them together. ‘‘ The tribes are separate,” writes Mr. McLean, ‘‘and the bonds of union are the unity of religious belief, social customs, and language. They united against a common enemy, but I have never heard of their fighting against each other.” Father Lacombe’s account is similar. ‘‘ The Blackfeet,” he writes, ‘‘ have no league or con- federation, properly so-called, with councils and periodical re- unions. They consider themselves as forming one family, whose three branches or bands are descended from three brothers. This bond of kinship is sufficient to preserve a good understand- ing among them.” They can hardly be said to have a general name for the whole community, though they sometimes speak of themselves as Sawketakix, or ‘‘men of the plains,” and occa- sionally as iVetsefoyé, or ‘* people who speak one language.” SECTION A.—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS Discussion on the Kinetic Theory of Gases.—A most valu- able and interesting discussion took place in this section on the kinetic theory. As at present applied the theory gives a much larger ratio for the specific heats of a gas than experiment allows. And the more complex a gaseous molecule becomes, the greater, according to theory, must be the ratio of its intrinsic to its translational energy. The object of the dis- cussion was t» determine whether the theoretical conclusions were legitimate, or the experimental facts incorrectly observed. It would seem that the theoretical conclusions are not correct, because they are founded upon inadmissible assumptions ; and also that the facts require more thorough investigation. Prof. Crum Brown opened the discussion upon lines already indicated in our present volume, p. 352. The ratio of the specific heat of mercury vapour at constant pressure to that at constant volume is 5/3. This gives, on the dynamical theory, only three degrees of freedom to the molecules: which must be the three translational freedoms. To prevent rotation, the molecules may be regarded as perfectly smooth, rigid, and spherical, But then the radiation cannot be “accounted for. Similarly in diatomic gas the ratio is 7/5—ziving three transla- tional and two rotational freedoms ; but again, not accounting for vibration of the atoms, either on the one hand, as parts of the molecules, or, on the other hand, in themselves. Boltzmann’s theorem asserts that the energy of a molecule is equally distributed amongst the different degrees of freedom. So if, in addition to the six degrees of freedom of a rigid body in space, the molecules have twenty or thirty others, it would seem that the dynamical theory must be abandoned, as there would not be sufficient energy for translational motion. The suggestion that radiation is caused not by vibration of the particles, but by disturbance of the ether due to the motion of the molecule through it, is scarcely admissible. Difficulties again arise from the theoretical conclusion that energy of each kind is distributed among the molecules according to some form of the law of probability. For them, in a mixture of gases, we should always have some molecules in a condition favourable for combination. Also there should be no such sharp temperature and pressure limits for combination as exist—e.g. in the case of phosphorus and oxygen. Hydrogen and oxygen can be kept very long at a temperature near that of combination, without any chemical action occurring. Prof. G. D. Liveing, in a paper on kinetic theory, said that the first doctrine leading to difficulties arises from assumptions, and is not a necessary part of the theory. The final distribution is the result not only of circumstances which vary, but of laws of force which are determinate. So there will be a tendency finally to limitation of the distribution of the energy in the dif- ferent degrees of freedom. The dissipation of energy is the result of such laws limiting the reversibility of transmutations. Boltzmann’s result will vot follow if we consider other laws in addition to the conservation of energy. Indeed, the probability for it would be #7. Boltzmann also does not distinguish dif- ferent kinds of motion—such as those of liquefaction, vaporisa- tion, and dissociation. Those of translation and vibration even are often classed together. Yet the former three take place only after a certain accumulation of energy in the system ; and the same may be true of the different vibrational degrees of freedom. The constancy of the specific heats of some gases for large ranges of temperature indicates a constant Jrofortional distribu- tion of energy among the different degrees of freedom. But the proportion need not be that of equality. It is quite possible that mercury vapour at those temperatures at which its specific heat has been measured has no sensible vibrational energy. Experiments upon the emissivity of the more perfect gases show that they have, at ordinary temperatures, much less vibrational than translational energy; so that they may have only one, or, at most, two modes of vibration. The theoretical relation be- tween the number of degrees of freedom in gases and their specific heats possibly requires revision. Still, it only limits the number of degrees sensibly exercised at the temperatures at which the specific heats were measured. As regards the distribution of energy amongst the molecules, it is almost impossible to evade the conclusion that great differ- ences of motion will exist, even although no particular law of distribution be assumed. Still, it is quite possible that there may be laws regulating the actions in encounters which prevent the excessive accumulation of any one kind of motion. Again, some molecules at 100° may have the average translational motion of molecules at 600°, but not that of vibration. So that very few molecules may have, at the same time, excess of motion of both kinds. Further, since this excess of energy is acquired at the expense of neighbouring molecules, the probability of there being at the same place two atoms of hydrogen and one of oxygen, in a mixture of these gases, in the average condition of those at the higher temperature, is infinitesimal. And yet again degrees of freedom exercised at the higher temperature alone may never be exercised by any molecule at the lower temperature ~ on the average. Differences of pressure in the two masses of the same gas at the same temperature are on the dynamical theory only diff rences 534 NATURE 4 [Oct. 1, 1885 of average free paths, so that it is difficult to imagine how any of the molecules in the more compressed gas can be said to be in the state, as to pressure, of the average molecules in the less dense gas. The free path of a molecule of the denser gas may at any instant be the same as the average free path of the molecules of the less dense gas; but its average free path will not be the same as theirs, and it is this that determines the pressure. In a system consisting of phosphorus and oxygen the possibility of chemical combination implies the possibility of an atom of phosphorus acquiring the same motion of translation, both as to speed and direction, as several atoms of oxygen, and of their jointly taking up the vibrational motions proper to an oxide of phosphorus at the temperature of the system, and that the transformations of energy involved in all this should be attended on the whole with a degradation. Since a diminution of the pressure of a gas means a degradation of its energy, this may facilitate combination when the mere fact of the molecules having instantaneous free paths of greater or less length would not suffice to produce such a result. Sir W. Thomson remarked that Boltzmann’s theorem was trae in one particular case, but a proof of this case could be arrived at without the aid of the theorem, so that this does not prove the truth of the theorem. On the other hand, he had never seen any reason for believing in it at all. If we take an absolutely elastic globe and cause it to rebound between two parallel absolutely smooth and hard planes in a region where gravity does not act, it will go on moving between the two. But he does not believe that this will continue for ever. The translational energy of the ball will get transformed into energy of higher and higher modes of vibration, so that at last the ball will come to rest, as it will be impossible for this energy to be retransformed into translational energy. Prof. J. J. Thomson said that he thought the reason that the ratio of the specific heats of a gas, as found by experiment, did not agree with the value given by Toltzmann’s theorem, was | because Boltzmann’s theorem was not true. Boltzmann, in his theorem about the distribution of energy in agas the molecules of which consisted of dynamical systems with 7 degrees of freedom, assumed that there were no limits to the velocity which any co-ordinates could have, and therefore that the limiting velocity which any co-ordinate could have was independent of the velocity of any of the others. Now it was easy to see that in some cases there must be limits to the velocities, for, take the case of a molecule consisting of two atoms attracting each other with a force varying inversely as the square of the distance between them, then, if the relative velocity ex- ceeded a certain value, the atoms would describe hyperbolas about their common centre of gravity, and the distance between them would increase indefinitely—in other words, the molecule would breakup. Again, if we considered the case of a series of balls con- nected together by springs and fastened to a system which vibrated much more quickly than the natural period of vibration of | the balls, then, if all the impacts fell on this systen, the dynamics of the case, as investigated by Stokes and Sir William Thomson, showed that any disturbance would not be equally dis- tributed among the balls, but that the energy in the balls would diminish in geometrical progression as we went away from the system at the end. It seemed, to say the least, rash in a case of this kind to assume that the velocity of any of the balls far away from the system was independent of those preceding it. He had devised a molecule which it was easy to see would not obey Boltzmann’s theorem. A was an envelope to the bottom of which a feeble spring was fixed, the other end of which was attached to a heavy weight, B. To this weight a strong spring was attached, to the other end of which a light weight, C, was fixed. such a length that it cnly extended beyond the envelope when the \prings were stretched. This system would have two \ \ periods of vibration—a quick one corresponding to the upper sphere, and a slow one corresponding to the lower one. Then if allthe molecules were stated, so that the amplitude of the quick vibration of C was much greater than the slow one, it was easy to see that the mean energy of the upper sphere would be greater than the mean energy of the lower ones, while, according to Boltzmann’s theorem, these two quantities ought to be the same. It might be mentioned that any co-ordinate which only entered the expression for the energy through its differential coefficient could be eliminated from the expression occurring in Boltz- mann’s theorem and the method applied to the remaining co- ordinates, so that, even if Boltzmann’s method was unobjection- able the result need not apply to co-ordinates of this kind. With regard to the second of the difficulties mentioned by Prof. Crum Brown, he thought that the point raised presented no difficulty if we took Williamson and Clausius’s view of chemical combination. According to this view it was necessary to consider the number of molecules dissociated as well as the condition of the molecules ; and though, if we took two gases at any temperature, it was true that there were a finite number of their molecules whose energy did not differ much from the mean energy of the molecules at the temperature at which these combined, yet it did not follow that a finite proportion of these were dissociated, and if there were not we could not expect them to combine. If the collision between two molecules in nearly the same condition was more efficacious in splitting up the molecules into atoms than a collision between molecules in widely different conditions, then we should not expect a finite proportion of the molecules in any state widely different from the mean to be dissociated. Prof. W. M. Hicks said that one of the greatest objections to Boltzmann’s theorem appeared to him tobe the difficulty in believ- ing that the mean energy ofany vibration whatever of an atom was susceptible of unlimited increase, and referred to the case of a vortex ring inside a rigid spherical shell, where such ener, could not be made to exceed a particular limit. Asa matter of fact it was not proyed that Boltzmann’s theorem must correspond to the actual state, but only that an arrangement given by his theorem, if a possible one, was a permanent one. He stated that if the momenta could not exceed definite limits, Watson’s proof could easily be modified to show that the energy was not distributed equally amongst the degrees of freedom. On the other hand, it was not permissible to assume all momenta con- sistent with the equation of energy as existent. As an example, the case of a system of mutually attracting spheres might be taken. Here the equation would admit of the infinite velocities due to infinitely near approach of the centres, which would in the actual case be prevented by the finite size of the spheres. Further, any particular system might possess other integrals of the equations of motion, which would introduce further limita- tions. Prof. Osborne Reynolds remarked that the kinetic theory is only supposed to be true in as far as the assumptions on which it was based represented the actual circumstances. In these assumptions no account whatever was taken of any resistance to which the molecules in their motions might be subjected, other than that which arose from the mutual encounters. Whereas it was perfectly well known and certain that there must be such resistances connected with the radiation of heat—these resist- ances, applying only to motions of certain character, z.e. to the vibratory motions, whatever these may be. Neglecting these resistances, the kinetic theory points to the conclusion that the | mean energy in each one of these vibratory motions would be the same as in each one of the translatory motions. In the same way, neglecting resistance, a pendulum continuously struck at varying intervals with a hammer of a given weight and moving | ata given speed would possess the same mean energy whether the intervals were to be measured by years or seconds. But | experience at once showed that with friction, the shorter the | interval between the blows and the smaller the friction, the greater would be the mean energy of the pendulum. So, taking resistance into account, it would follow from the kinetic theory that the mean energy in the so-called degrees of freedom | would be greatest in those in which the diffusion of energy was A rod of small mass was fastened to C, of | greatest and the resistance least, while it would be least in those in which the rate of communication was least and the resistance greatest. Hence, in any gas, the mean energies of translation, in which there is most rapid communication and no appreciable resistance, will be much greater than the mean energies of —_” Oct. 1, 1885] NATURE Sas vibration to which there is all the resistance consequent on the radiation, and in all probability but little communication. The same answer applies to difficulties raised as to the dis- tribution of motion. The assumed distributions leave out of consideration all resistances, and resistance, however slight, would cut off the extreme velocities. Mr. H. B. Dixon said that, by a series of observations made on a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen at intervals of 1000 hours, he had obtained evidence of combination at temperatures below that of dissociation. Constant Gravitational Instruments. — Sir W. Tinomson showed and explained constant gravitational instruments for measuring electric currents and potentials. In one instru- ment for measuring currents he employs the principle that a mass of soft iron of dimensions and shape not differing too much from a sphere, experiences, in a field of magnetic force, a pull from a place of weaker to a place of stronger force. The variation of the field is produced by variation in the dimensions of the conductor through which the current passes. In an instrument for measuring high potentials he used one pair of opposite quadrants placed vertically. The quadrants are con- nected to one pole of the instrument whose potential is required, and the needle, the lower end of which can be weighted, is joined to the other pole. On the Dilatancy of Media composed of Rigid Particles in Contact, by Prof. Osborne Reynolds.—In the account which Prof. Reynolds gave of his paper, he did not submit a complete dynamical theory, but discussed a very fundamental property of granular masses. To this property he gives the name of dilatancy. It is exhibited in any arrangement of particles where change of bulk is dependent upon change of shape. In the case of fluid matter, as we know it, change of shape and volume are independent. In solids they are sometimes not separable. With granular masses the result is different—change of shape always produces change of volume. And further, in every case, if change of volume is prevented any change of form is im- possible. If we suppose the component granules to be spherical, no gran- ule can change its position without disturbing the adjacent ones —for the granules are all supposed to be perfectly rigid, and to be absolutely in contact—and the internal particles are fixed if the external ones are. In illustration Prof. Reynolds showed a model of connected spherical bodies arranged in crystalline form. This model showed the arrangement of the particles corresponding to (say) the condition of least possible density of the whole mass (about one-half the density of the separate spheres). The shape could then be altered to that which cor- responds to maximum density—the change taking place by sliding of the particles one upon another. Between the extreme states there are intermediate stages of equilibrium corresponding to maximum-minimum positions, where alteration in one direc- tion produces decrease of density, and in the other increase of density. In a complete treatment of the problem, friction must be closely considered; but in the experiment shown it is not of consequence, the result being independent. The above state- ments will be true of any continuous mass of granules if we hold the boundaries. This principle of the dilatancy of such granular media explains many phenomena ofcommon occurrence. For example, take a sack of corn ; if set on end, it remains perfectly flexible, . but if placed on its side it becomes hard, and its shape will not alter. Now take an indiarubber sack, fill it with corn—it remains perfectly flexible in all positions. The reason for this difference of behaviour is that in the former case the boundary of the granular mass is inextensible, while in the latter it allows increase of internal volume. So if it be possible with an extensible envelope, to impose a maximum volume upon the contents, effects similar to those obtained with the inextensible boundary may be expected: and this can be done. If we place some shot (No. 6 was used in the experiment) in a thin india- rubber bag, and add a certain amount of water, we obtain the result wished. For if the amount of water added be such that the spaces between the granules when in close arrangement are all filled by it, while with a wide arrangement the amount is not enough, a point will be reached in passing from the first to the second arrangement such that any further change of shape, and consequently of volume, would produce a vacuum. When this stage is reached the whole mass becomes perfectly hard. Prof, Reynolds illustrated this in a very beautiful manner by means of a ball of shot to which a glass tube open at the end was fitted. With a close arrangement of the shot, the water, which was coloured, stood high in the tube ; but when pressure was applied to the bag, the level was lowered. This was shown also by the lecturer with a ball containing sand instead of shot. The water level sank till the whole was at maximum density, and, still more pressure being applied, the level again rose, the maximum having been passed. In these experiments about 6 per cent. of the water was free at the top of the ball with the close arrange- ment of granules. When another ball containing 20 per cent. of free water was used, the hard condition could only be approximated to by pressure, and then passed. So Jong as the maximum is not passed in this case the ball springs back to its original state when the pressure is released. But if the maximum be passed, it will not spring back. If some of the water benow let out, the maximum cannot be passed, except by shaking, and, if the flattened ball be then turned on edge, it will bear a pressure of a hundredweight without change of shape. When the dilatant material, such as shot or sand, is bounded by smooth surfaces, the layer of grains adjacent to the surface is in a condition differing from that of the grains within the mass. This layer can slide between the one succeeding it and the sur- face, so that its displacement will cause much less dilatation than would be caused by the sliding of a layer within the mass. Hence, if two parts of the mass are connected by such.a surface, certain conditions of strain may be accommodated by a stream- ing motion of the grains next the surface. Thus, if into a glass funnel partially filled with shot and held in a vertical position more shot be furced from below, the particles will flow up all around the sides—not rising in the centre as might have been thought. As the foot presses upon the sand, when the falling tide leaves it firm, that portion of it immediately surrounding the foot becomes momentarily dry. When this happens the sand is filled, completely wp to its surface, with water raised by capillary attraction. The pressure of the foot causes dilatation of the sand, and so more water is required. This has to be obtained either by depressing its level against the attraction or by drawing it through the interstices of tlhe surrounding sand. As this latter requires time, for the moment the capillary forces are overcome, and the surface of the water is lowered below that of the sand, leaving it dry until a sufficient supply has been obtained irom below, when it again becomes wet. On raising the foot we generally see that the sand under and around it becomes wet for alittle time. This is because the sand contracts when the dis- torting forces are removed, and the excess of water escapes at the surface. In referring to the re-ults which might be expected to follow from a recognition of the property of dilatancy the author said that it places a hitherto unknown mechanical contrivance at the command of those who would explain the fundamental arrange- ment of the universe, and one which seems to promise great things besides possessing the inherent advantage of great sim- plicity. He then proceeded to explain, in a general way, how bodies in such a medium would—in virtue of the dilation caused in the medium—attract each other at a distance, with a force depending on the distance, which might well correspond with the force of gravitation. Further, owing to the existence of a region close to the body in which the density varies several times from maximum to minimum, the mutual force might under- go a change from attraction to repulsion, and this more than once as the bodies approach—a condition which seems to account for cohesion and observed molecular force far better than any previous hypothesis. The transmission of distortional waves becomes possible if the medium be composed of small grains with large grains inter- spersed. ‘The separation of two such sefs of grains leads to phenomena closely resembling the phenomena of statical elec- tricity. The susceptibility of such a medium for a state in which the two sets of grains are in conditions of opposite distortions may explain electrodynamic and magnetic phenomena, while the observed conducting power of a continuous surface for the grains of a simple dilatant medium closely resembles the con- duction of electricity. In remarking upon Prof. Reynolds’s paper Sir W. Thomson pointed out an interesting question. Take a cube of spheres in the condition of maximum volume, and let every sphere touching the boundary be glued to it to prevent slipping. Other states are possible in the interior, but can we pass continuously to ° o 530 NAT ORE [ Oct. 1, 1885 another condition, the boundary being held firm? Prof. Reynolds replied that he believed that he had got the result that it could not be done if we have a continuous medium. As other prob- lems for solution, Sir W. Thomson suggested the theory of the hour-glass—what fixes the constant time for the sand running ? and why does a substance sink deeper in a quicksand than in a viscous fluid of the same density ? On Calculating the Surface-Tensions of Liquids by means of Cylindrical Drops or Bubbles, by Prof. Pirie-—There are two methods by which the surface-tension of liquids are calculated. One involves the measurement of the height to which the liquid rises in a cylindrical tube of known diameter. The other in- volves the measurement of the height of a certain point of a drop of the liquid above a flat surface upon which it is placed. This point is the point of contact of the tangent plane when it becomes vertical. The former method is objectionable, because the results might be vitiated by the presence of a very small quantity of grease in the tube, or by electrification, &c. The latter, too, is not in a satisfactory state. Gay Lussac’s results were in no degree different from those obtained by the ordinary method. Quincke’s measurements are good, but his mathematics are misleading. To obviate the mathematical difficulties the author makes use of long drops—that is, drops obtained by placing portions of the liquid upon a concave cylindrical surface. The advantage is that the differential equation used in the calculation is immediately integrable. In remarking upon this paper Prof. Stokes said that Worthington has shown, by extending Quincke’s result, that the theory agrees with experiment. On the Surface-Tension of Water which contains a Gas dis- solved in it, by Prof. Pirie.—-This question is important, for no liquid is usually free from gas in solution. Prof. Pirie finds that the surface-tension is unaltered so long as the specific gravity of the water is unaffected by the dissolved gas. It is strongest in the pure liquid. On the Thermodynamic efficiency of Thermopiles, by Lord Rayleigh.—The question has often arisen whether or not the dynamo may be replaced by an arrangement of thermopiles. There is a great difficulty due to the conduction of heat. Let ¢ and /, be the temperature of the hot and cold junctions; e¢ the electromotive force of one pair per degree Centigrade, and Z the total E.M.F., hence we have ne (t—t)=E£. From this equation the author obtains by means of Joule’s law the expression ne(¢—t,)? 4, for the useful work done externally. And again, if 7, 7, 04, », represent the specific electric resistance and the cross-sectional area of the metal bars, while / is their length, To obtain the efficiency the above work must be compared with that done by the apparatus regarded as a perfect heat engine working between the same temperature. The ratio is a2) Ct) t@\o, on/\7, 7s where 2’, v7, are the specific thermal resistances. The effi- ciency therefore is independent of (¢—4,), of 2, and of 7; and also of the absolute values of 0), o2, 7, 7), 7, and 7's. Putting in numerical values for a thermopile of iron and German silver, Lord Rayleigh got 300 as the value of the above ratio. Since e? is involved, this number may be somewhat reduced ; but high va es of e are usually associated with high internal resistance. There is therefore no possibility of the thermopile becoming a useful generator of electricity on a large scale. On Molecular Distances in Galvanic Polarisation, by Mr. J. Larmor.—Mr. Larmor’s method inyolves the electro-chemical equivalent of the liquid used, and so differs from the two methods previously adopted. He has obtained extremely accordant results. Cootinys of Wires in Air and Vacuum, by Mr. J. T. Bottomley. —Mr. Bottomley finds that the medium has a most marked cooling effect. An electric current passed through a wire, when surrounded by air at atmospheric pressure, heated it only to Be Gros feb ( 80° C. But when the air-pressure was of an atmo- 19 (10)° sphere, the wire became red hot. The temperature did not alter much until the pressure became I-rooth of an atmosphere. An Account of Levelling Operations of the Great Trigono- metrical Survey of India, by Major A. W. Baird.—This paper opened with an account of the methods formerly used in the determinations of relative height by the survey. The errors affecting these methods and the means adopted for their elimina- tion were then pointed out. Various lines of level carried out to connect tidal stations lying north and south indicated a differ- ence of sea-level at the stations. This difference cannot be due to false levelling of the instruments produced in consequence of the illumination of the spirit-level by the sun, for the same end of the line was not always brought out highest, and along one line no difference of level was perceptible. The discrepancy in one case amounted to three feet along the line from Bombay to Madras. The two weakest parts of this line were re-levelled, giving the same results as before. Consequently it would appear that the error is caused by local attractions influencing the instruments in greater degree than the more distant ocean. On the Rainfall of the British Islands, by Mr. A. Buchan.— Mr. Buchan pointed out that the greatest differences in local climates arise from differences in the rainfall. For example : the mean temperatures of Skye and the Moray Firth coasts for any month are not much different, but the rainfall in Skye is about four times that at the Moray Firth. The former is one of the latest and poorest grain-producing districts in Scotland, and the latter is just the reverse. The inquiry was based on ob- servations of rainfall made at 1o8o stations in England and Wales, 547 in Scotland, and 213 in Ireland. They extend from the year 1860 to the year 1883. The regions of heaviest rainfall, giving an average of 80 inches or upwards annually, were four: Skye and a large portion of the mainland to the south-east as far as Luss, on Loch Lomond ; the greater part of the Lake District ; a long strip, including the more mountainous part of North Wales ; and the mountainous district in the south-east of Wales. The West Highlands is the most extensive region of heavy rainfall in the British Islands. Its mountainous coast-line faces the rain-bringing winds of the Atlantic, and the air, being cooled in its passage up the lochs and valleys, the moisture is precipitated. At Glencoe, in this district, the heaviest rainfall in Scotland occurred—128°5 inches. The smallest rainfall was in a large portion of the south-east of England. The average rainfall for the last half of the period from 1860 to 1883 was comparatively high, chiefly in the eastern districts. On a Remarkable Occurrence during the Thunderstorm of August 6, 1885, by Mr. W. H. Preece.—A house at St. Cuth- bert’s, ten miles from Wolverhampton, is connected with that town by telephone, and is also lighted by electricity. The dining-room was lighted by a single lamp in multiple are with some others. The telephone wire was connected to the light- ning-conductor as an earth. When the storm occurred, the dining-room lamp flashed up and went out, while a loud report was heard. The lightning-rod made bad earth, and it is be- lieved that it had been struck, and that part of the discharge had entered the telephone circuit and then sparked across to the electric-light circuit. It did not seem to have divided, but to have passed entirely along the one branch, including the dining- room light, the platinum wire of which was volatilised and deposited on the interior of the glass, forming a good mirror. M:teorology of Ben Nevis, by Mr. A. Buchan. —Mr. Buchan remarked that Ben Nevis possesses great advantages as a meteorological station because of its great height and its summit being only about four miles horizontally distant from a sea-level station. Also it is in the track of the Atlantic storms, which exercise so great an effect on the weather of Europe, especially in autumn and winter. The observations made on the moun- tain are for the purpose of determining more fully the great movements of the atmosphere and the dependence of the weather upon them. Mr. Buchan called attention to the great importance of abnormal values in the thermometric and hygro- metric observations especially. The recurring periods of warmth characteristic of Ben Nevis do not occur at lowerstations. The fohn peculiar to Switzerland occurs on Ben Nevis, and is clways associated with heavy rainfall in the neighbourhood. When a cyclone prevailed at the foot of the mountain there is on anticyclone at the top, and wice versd. On some of the Laws which Regulate the Sequence of Mean Temperature and Rainfall in the Climate of London, by Dr. “Oct. ‘T, 1885] NATURE 537 Courteney Fox.—The laws enunciated in this paper are deduced empirically from observations extending over the last seventy years. Even as detached laws they are of great value; but their importance is more evident when we consider that, as the author remarks, it is from such material that the future science ‘of meteorology must be built up by cautious induction. Given that a certain month of season is in certain condition as regards temperature or rainfall, Dr. Fox seeks to determine what may be predicted of the succeeding period as regards these qualities. He finds that, if a spring or a summer be very cold, the succeed- ing season will be cold; and warm autumns succeed very warm summers. The fact of a very dry August being followed by a wet September is unique. The following table shows other results obtained. Characteristics. | Month. Month following. Very cold | Jan, April, June, 7 July, Aug., Sept., Dec. | so Very warm | Jan. Dry June, July, Aug., Warm Very dry June, July, Warm Very wet Jan., March. April, | Warm May, July Cold In addition the author records what follows when a given moath has marked temperature and moisture characteristics simultaneously. Characteristics Month Month following —————a | Warm and wet | Nov., Dec., Wet | Jan., Warm Warm and dry | June, July, | Warm | Aug., | Wet Cold and wet | July, Aug., | Cold Cold and dry Dec., Cold Nov. Dry | A very cold and very wet summer is succeeded usually by a cold autumn. Domestic Electric Lighting, by W. H. Preece, F.R.S. Elec- trician G. P.O.—After referring to the full details of the lighting installation of his house in Wimbledon, given to the section at the meeting at Montreal, Mr. Preece referred generally to the experiences he had gained during the past twelve months. The secondary batteries upon which he had mainly relied exceeded his expectations in the services they rendered. They returned 70 per cent. of the energy put into them without any apparent diminution whatever in their E.M.F. They showed no signs of deterioration and gave no trouble whatever. He used his gas engine for charging only two days a week. He had experienced no fault with the wiring of his house. He had used only the very best materials, and had attended personally to the insulation of the system. It was periodically tested and found to be good. He referred in severe terms to the cheap and nasty wire which was so frequently and ignorantly used, and feared that the preju- dice against the electric light would increase when failures from this cause arose. None but the very best materials should be used, and the joints should be seen to by experts. He had de- voted considerable attention to the problem of distributing light, and had succeeded so far that while his rooms were beautifully illuminated the eye was not irritated by regarding a bright source of light. ‘lhe lamp he used was a 50 volt 10 candle power glow lamp, and it was, as a rule, so fixed that the eye never saw it. He had arrived at the use of these lamps after careful considera- tion and many trials of other lamps. ‘They secured greater safety in the leads, and involved less capital in batteries through the use of low E.M.F. He ran his lamp at an E.M.F. about 2 per cent. less than the normal E.M.F. He did this to secure long life to his lamps. The breakage had been very small. The E.M.F. and current which will give a lamp a normal life of 1,000 hours and a certain candle power should be determined by every maker. The sixth power of the current will give the candle power and the twenty-fifth power the life with any other current. The great advantage of batteries is that the proper cur- is ensured. If lamps are ran too low there is a waste of power, if too high there is a waste of lamps. We are now gradually ac- quiring a thorough knowledge of the number of Watts which should be expended in each lamp to secure the maximum economic efficiency. He had introduced into the charging lead and into the discharging lead a Ferranti meter, so that he was able to record exactly the quantity of electricity passed through the batteries and that passed through the lamps. This beautiful meter is based on Ampere’s laws which determine the attraction and re- pulsion of currents. A small phosphor-bronze vane is immersed in a bath of mercury, through which the current flows radially, fixed in a magnetic field. The mercury rotates and carries with it the vane. The rate of rotation varies directly with the strength of current and the number of rotations are recorded by a counter, which can be read off directly. So far he was per- fectly satisfied with its performance. As regards expense, ex- cepting the first cost, he did not find much addition to his ex- penditure for illumination. His electric light was costing him about 50/. a year for gas, wages, oil, and lamps. It was the cheapest luxury he indulged in. The great advantages were the comfort and cheerfulness it engendered, and as cheerfulness was the main element of health he thought that the electric light would prove a serious rival to the doctor. There was no one who valued health and comfort who should neglect to apply the electric light to his home, when it was brought, as it has been by the success of the secondary batteries, within his means. It was said that he, as an expert, could make things go which would fail in ordinary hands; but he mentioned several cases where coachmen, butlers, gardeners, and grooms had been found Eecetly competent and intelligent enough to attend to every- thing. Discussion on Standards of White Light.—This discussion was not so well sustained as the discussion on the kinetic theory. All the speakers agreed with the adoption of the pentane standard for commercial purposes. For scientific purposes a definition in terms of energy was deemed necessary. The eye cannot be used as an accurate instrument. On this point Prof. Stokes referred to the fact that if two equal areas differently coloured seem to have equally intense illumination, we have only to alter the size of the common area to destroy the apparent equality of intensity. On Photometry with the Pentane Standard, by Mr. A. Vernon Harcourt.—Mr. Harcourt described the construction of the pentane standard light, and the method of using it for photo- metric purposes. In the course of his remarks he referred to the meaning of the expression ‘‘ white light.” Any so-called standard of white light is more nearly a standard of yellow light. He had never got a satisfactory definition of the expression, but supposed it to be such light as we have in ordinary daylight. The Constitution of the Luminiferous Ether on the Vortex Atom Theory, by Prof. W. M. Hicks.—The simple incompress- ible fluid necessary on the vortex atom theory is quite incapable of transmitting vibrations similar to those of light. The author has therefore considered the possibility of transmitting waves through a medium which consists of this fluid modified so as to contain small vortex rings closely packed together. The rings are supposed to be composed of the same material as the rest of the fluid, to be very small compared with the wave-length, and to be at distances from one another also small compared with the wave-length. Their motion of translation is als» taken to be so comparatively slow, that very many waves can pass over any one before it has much changed its position. Such a medium would probably act as a fluid for large motions. The vibration in the wave front may be (1) swinging, such as a ring oscillating on a diameter ; (2) transversal vibration of the ring ; (3) vibra- tions perpendicular to the plane of the rings; (4) apertural vibrations. Of these (3) seems to be impossible. If 7 be the radius of the rings, / the distances of their planes, w their cyclic constant, and v the velocity of translation, the author found w 7) - MCS —i(— 5 TONG? wir? Ses SVE 7(5) whilst for (4) in case of rings arranged parallel to a wave-front— For (1) . Hor(2)ce 475 wrt? (22 + 47°)! On a Photometer made with Translucent Prisms, by Mr. J. uc rent once determined can never be exceeded, and thus efficiency | Joly.—In this photometer each side of the prism is illuminated 538 NATURE cr by one of the lights to be compared, the edge being turned to the observer. The great advantage here is that the two illu- minated parts are placed in sharp juxtaposition. On a Point in the Theory of Double Refraction, by R. T. Glazebrook.—The author suggested that the theory of double refraction given by Lord Rayleigh, in which the ether is sup- posed to have an effective density different in different directions, might be modified so as to agree with Fresnel’s theory, if it be not necessary to assume that the ether offers an infinite resistance to compression, but only that, as compared with its rigidity, its compressibility is very great, and further that in a crystal the light vibrations are normal to the ray, not to the wave normal, as was pointed out by Boussinesq and referred to by Ketteler in some of his papers. On a New and Simple Form of Calorimeter, by Prof. W. F. Barrett.—The bulb of a thermometer is made in the shape of a double cup. In this cup is placed the substance whose specific heat (say) is to be determined. The stem of the thermometer is horizontal, and rests on a fulcrum so that the weight of the sub- stance may be determined by using the apparatus as a balance. Special precautions are taken in determining the temperature of the substance when placed in the cup, and to prevent evapora- tion, &c. The specific heat is then given by the ordinary equation, WS(T - 0)= C(6 - 2), the constant C being determined by experiment once for all. SECTION B—CHEMISTRY On the Non-Existence of Gaseous Nitrogen Trioxide, by Prof. Ramsay.—After pointing out the inconclusive character of Lunge’s argument in support of the existence of gaseous nitrogen trioxide, inasmuch as the use of any reagent may either decom- pose the gas or react with the products of its dissociation—viz. NO and N,O,(NO,), as though they consisted of N,O, itself, the author shows the only criterion of the existence of this gas to be its vapour density. He finds that NO, may be mixed with NO without effecting any change in volume, and therefore no combination, or only a very slow combination, can take place between these gases. The vapour density of the first portion of the gas obtained by distilling liquid N,O 3 is found to be 22°35, a result which accords fairly well with what the density should be, supposing it to be a mixture of N,O,, NO., and NO, having the empirical composition N,O,. Supposing the gas weighed to contain no N.O,, an assumption not warranted by facts, and consist of NO and NO,, then, in order to make the specific gravity 22°35, 17°63 per cent. of N,O, must be added to the mixture. These facts the author considers as deciding the point against the existence of gaseous nitrogen trioxide. Observations on some Actions of a Groves Gas Battery, by Prof. Ramsay.—The action of an ordinary Grove’s gas battery can be explained by supposing that, at the point of contact between the platinum, hydrogen, and liquid, a decomposition of the water molecule takes place, its oxygen uniting with the hydrogen gas to form water, whilst the hydrogen is liberated from molecule to molecule until the free gas arrives at the point of contact of the platinum, the oxygen, and liquid ; here it unites with the oxygen gas, forming water. If the liquid in the battery be coloured with indigo sulphuric acid, the author finds the indigo in contact with the hydrogen to undergo no changes, whereas that in contact with the oxygen is discoloured, a change probably due to the oxidation of the indigo to isatine. Hydrogen, therefore, in uniting with oxygen, does not bleach indigo. Now if, inzthe ordinary gas battery, the acid be re- placed by a saturated solution of sodium chloride and hydrogen, and chlorine be substituted for hydrogen and oxygen, the indigo is found to be bleached on both sides, the bleaching taking place from above downwards, and taking place at once on admitting the chlorine, but some time is required before the reduction by the hydrogen is evident. These experiments show that when hydrogen unites with chlorine it is in a more active state than when it unites with oxygen. To explain this difference the author suggests that, when a molecule of hydrogen unites with a molecule of chlorine, atomic hydrogen exists for a moment, and this, in presence of indigo, reduces it to indigo-white. In the case of hydrogen and oxygen the union of two molecules of the former with one molecule of the latter may be effected with- out the hydrogen assuming the atomic condition, whereas the oxygen must assume the atomic or nascent condition, to which the bleaching of the indigo may be ascribed ; or it may be that ozone or hydrogen peroxide are formed. These phenomena may, therefore, be regarded as chemical evidence corroborative of the following method of expressing the union of these gases with one another :— H,+Cl,=HCl+HCl 2H, +0,=H,0 + H,O. On the Spontaneous Polymerisation of Volatile Hydrocarbons at the Ordinary Atmospheric Temperatures, by Sir H. E, Roscoe, LL.D., F.R.S.—The attention of the author was drawn by Mr. Staveley, of West Bromwich, to a camphor-like solid, formed from the more volatile liquid hydrocarbons, produced by de- composing crude phenol at a red heat. The change from the liquid to the solid state was, at first, supposed to be due to the influence of the oxygen of the air, but investigation has shown the solid to be a hydrocarbon having the formula C,)H,9, and the change to be one of polymerisation. This solid hydro- carbon undergoes a further polymeric change when heated in a sealed tube at 180°. The author finds also that the first runnings of ordinary coal tar, which distil below 30°, are, on keeping in sealed tubes, converted spontaneously into this solid hydrocarbon Coe. On some New Vanadium Compounds, by J. T. Brierley.—The compounds described form a series of well-defined crystalline salts of purple or dark green colour, possessing a metallic lustre, which contain both the oxides V,O, and V,O;, and may be regarded as vanadate-vanadites. These salts are formed by adding a caustic alkali to the dark green liquid formed by adding hypovanadic sulphate to a solution of an alkaline meta- vanadate. The composition of the sodium, potassium, and ammonium salts are represented by the following formula :— 2V,0,. V,O; . 2Na,0+13H.O ., 2V.0, . V,0;2K,0 +6H,0, and 4V,0,.2V,O; . (NH,),0+ 14H,0. The Essential Food of Plants, by T. Jamieson, F.C.S., F.I.C.—Whilst no doubt exists as to the essential character of the elements of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen as con- stituents of the food of plants, the evidence in support of the elements phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, calcium, sulphur, iron, and chlorine to be regarded in this light cannot be con- sidered conclusive. A little consideration shows the two elements, iron and chlorine, have but little claim to be con- sidered as essential to the food of plants, and the experiments, of which an account was given in this paper, were made by the author with the view of vindicating the right of the five remain- ing elements to be so considered. These investigations were conducted at an experimental station in Sussex and also at one in Aberdeenshire, the nature of the soil in both cases being specially favourable. The method adopted consisted in observ- ing the effects on plants grown in similar soil and under similar conditions, when supplied with manures, containing all these elements and comparing the results with those obtained when one or other of these elements was withheld. These experiments seem to provide proof that sulphur must be discarded from the list of essentials, while some doubt is thrown on even lime and magnesia. At the same time striking confirmation is afforded of the essential characters of both phosphorus and potassium. A Plea for the Empiric Naming of Organic Compounds, by Prof. Odling, M.A., F.R.S.—Verbal translations of the struc- tural formulz assigned to organic compounds possess certain advantages as names for the several compounds. ‘Thus, they are applicable to all organic compounds of which the structural formulze are made out ; they are the only sort of names applic- able to complex isomeric compounds ; and their use cannot be dispensed with wholly in the case of even less complex com- pounds. Notwithstanding these advantages, structural names constitute unsuitable names for general use, more especially as applied to fundamental hydrocarbons, alcohols, and acids. They are objectionable for this use by reason of their length, com- plexity, and want of ready indicativeness ; by the circumstance of their being based on conceptions of chemical constitution of a kind pointed out by experience as eminently liable to change ; and by the further circumstance of their representing a one- sided and, so far, an untruthful notion of the bodies designated. Structural names, expressing other than a distorted view of the constitution of all but a few of the most simple of organic bodies, are impracticable by reason of their length and complexity. Hence, to avoid the distortion inseparable from the use of any single structural name for an organic body, the only expedient is the assignment to each body, in proportion to its complexity, of an indefinite number of structural names, a proceeding almost [ Oct. 1, 1885, Oct. 1, 1885] NATURE 9/9) 7 tantamount to not assigning it any particular name at all. Although from their number and complexity, organic bodies can only be designated by names which do in some measure describe and characterise them, the primary purpose of a name is un- doubtedly to designate, and not to describe. Accordingly, with a view to the prompt mental association of object with name, brief empiric names, based on the origin and properties of bodies, are, wherever practicable, to be preferred to structural names. As regards isomeric bodies, they may to a large extent be advantageously distinguished from one another by means of significant letters or syllables prefixed to the name common to the different isomers. But the suggested use of the particular letters a, B, y, each in a special sense ; also a general resort to the particles hydro-, oxi-, and hydroxi- as name-components ; and, more especially, the innovation of substituting the word **hydroxide” for the long-established word ‘‘hydrate”’ are practices open to grave objection. The Periodic Law, as Wlustvated by certain Physical Proper- ties of Organic Compounds, by Prof. Thos. Carnelley, D.Sc.—In this paper the author shows that the physical properties of the normal halogen and alkyl compounds of the hydrocarbon radi- eals exhibit numerous relationships, which, with one exception, are similar to those which he has shown to exist between the normal halogen or the alkyl compounds of the elements. It appears that the physical properties of the following four classes of compounds obey the same rules:—(1) The halogen com- pounds of the elements—z.e. of elements with elements. (2) The alkyl compounds of the elements. (3) The halogen com- pounds of the hydrocarbon radicals. (4) The alkyl compounds of the hydrocarbon radicals—z.e. of hydrocarbon radicals with hydrocarbon radicals. The relationships referred to have been tested in no less than 6117 cases, 5 per cent. only of which are exceptions. Suevestions as to the Cause of the Periodic Law, and the Nature of the Chemical Elements, by Prof. Thos. Carnelley, D.Sc.—The truth of the periodic law of the chemical elements is now gener- ally allowed by most chemists. Nevertheless, but little has been done towards attaining a reasonable explanation of the law. The object of this paper, therefore, is to offer a few suggestions on this subject. Granting the truth of the periodic law, we cannot help theorising as to its cause, and thence by a natural step as to the nature of the elements themselves. Even long before the discovery of the law many chemists had pointed out certain numerical relationships existing between the atomic weights of bodies belonging to a given group, and had hence supposed that the elements belonging to the several natural groups were not primary, but were made up of two or more simpler elements. These conclusions, however, were more or less fragmentary, and referred only to particular groups of | elements. In the light of the periodic law the author has made a general extension of the fragmentary conclusions of Dumas, and has brought that law into juxtaposition with an extended generalisation of the analogy of the elements with the hydro- carbon radicals. His conclusions are based on the relationships which he has observed to obtain between certain physical pro- perties and the atomic weights of the elements, and those of their compounds (see previous paper). A careful consideration of the points submitted leads almost irresistibly to the conclusion that the elements are analogous to the hydrocarbon radicals in both form and function. ‘This is a conclusion which, if true, would further lead us to infer that the elements are not ele- ments in the strict sense of the term, but are built up of (at least) two primary elements, A (= carbon at. wt. 12), and B (ether at. wt. —2), which by their combination produce a series of compounds (viz. our present elements), which are analogous to the hydrocarbon radicals. If the above theory of the constitution of the elements be true, the periodic law would follow as a matter of course, and we should therefore be able to represent the elements by some such general formula as Ay Bon+(2-xj, analogous to that for the hydrocarbon radicals, Cy Hen+(e-x), In which #=the series, and x the group to which the element or hydrocarbon radical belongs.! Assuming the truth of the theory here advanced, it is ‘interesting to observe, that whereas the hydrocarbons are compounds of carbon and hydrogen, the chemical elements would be compounds of carbon with ether, the two sets of bodies being generated in an exactly analogous manner from their respective elements. There would ™ Cf. Abney’s researches on the infra-red absorption spectra of carbon compounds (Prac. Roy. Soc., 31, 416). also the article on the Decomposition of Didymium by Welsbach in Nature, vol. xxvii. p 435. hence be three primitive elements—viz., carbon, hydrogen, and ether. Finally, it may be stated that this theory would remove the chief objections which have been urged against the periodic law, whilst the existence of elements of identical atomic weights and isomeric with one another would be possible. May not Ni and Co, Ru and Rh, Os and Ir, and some of the rare earth metals be isomers in this sense ? The Value of the Refraction Goniometer in Chemical Work, by Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S.—The principal points illus- trated and enforced in this communication were (1) that the index of refraction and length of spectrum are important physical properties of any substance ; (2) the specific refraction and specific dispersion may be serviceable : (@) in determining the purity of a substance, (6) in the analysis of such a mixture as ethyl and methyl alcohols, (c) as a guide in the investigation of organic compounds, (@) as arbiter between rival views as to the consti- tution and structure of particular chemical compounds. Refraction of Fluorine, by G. Gladstone.—From a comparison of the observations on fluorspar, cryolite, and several artificial fluorine compounds, the author shows the refraction equivalent of fluorine to range from 0°3 to 0°8, the mean of the whole series of determination being 0°6. Thus, taking the highest estimate, the specific refraction of this element is scarcely equal to half that of any other substance. Note on the Conditions of the Development and of the Activity of Chlorophyll, by Prof. Gilbert, LL.D., F.R.S.—An account of some experiments made in conjunction with Dr. W. J. Russell, which show a close connection to exist between the formation of chlorophyll and the amount of nitrogen assimilated by plants ; the amount of carbon assimilated is not, however, in proportion to the chlorophyll formed, unless a sufficiency of mine:al substances, required by the plants, is available. In cases where both nitrogenous and mineral manures were applied a lower proportion of nitrogen assimilated and chlorophyll formed over a given area was observed, which is no doubt due to the greater assimilation of carbon and consequent greater formation of non-nitrogenous substances, although the amounts of nitrogen assimilated and chlorophyll formed were as great, if not greater. . On the Action of Sodium Alcoholates on Fumaric and Maleic Ethers, by Prot. Pardie, Ph.D., B.Sc.—By the action of sodinm methylate on ethylic fumarate, methylic methoxysuccinate is formed, from which methoxysuccinic acid can be obtained, a crystalline solid melting at 1or°—103°; this same acid is obtained from the products of the reaction of sodium methylate on etaylic maleate or hydric methylic maleate, Similarly an ethoxysuccinic acid is obtained by the action of sodium ethylate on ethylic fumarate, also by its action on Aydric ethylic maleate. Thus fumaric and maleic acids yield alkyloxy-succinic acids, which are identical with one another, or, if not identical, resemble one another so closely that their isomerism must be of the same character as that of substances which differ from one another only in their optical and crystallographic characters. On Sulphine Salts derived from Ethylene Sulphide, by Orme Masson, M.A., D.Sc. (Edin,).—Ethylene sulphide, when heated at 160°, is converted into diethylene sulphide S(C,H,),S, an ethereal solution of which, when mixed with methyl iodide, unites with the latter to form diethylene sulphide methyl sulphine todide S(CyH4),S.C Hal, which is a crystalline compound soluble in water, but insoluble in alcohol or ether. From this compound a series of the saw/phime salts have been prepared, which resemble the salts of trimethyl sulphine in their behaviour when heated, but differing from these compounds in the ease with which they are decomposed by caustic alkalis with the formation of diethy/- ene sulphide methyl sulphine hydroxide (CzH4)95,CH30H. The compounds obtained by Dehn (Azalen, Supp. iv. 83) by heat- ing together ethyl sulphide, ethylene bromide, and water to- gether in sealed tubes, and styled ‘‘sulphinic salts” by him, were, in all probability, dimethylene sulphine-methyl-sulphine derivatives. On an apparently new Hydrocarbon from Distilled Fapanese Petroleum, by Dr. Divers and T. Nakamura,—A description of a yellow solid hydrocarbon found amongst the final products of the distillation of the petroleum from the wells at Sagara. The hydrocarbon melts at 280°-285°, and has a composition expressed by the formula (C,Hs),. The Composition of Water by Volume, by Dr. A. Scott, M.A., D.Sc.—After pointing out the desirability of renewed deter- minations of the exact proportions in which hydrogen and oxygen combine with one another, inasmuch as neither of these 540 NATURE [Oct. 1, 1885 gases obey Boyle’s law exactly, the author gave a description of the apparatus he had employed in making such determinations, which allowed the use of considerable volumes of these gases. The results obtained show the ratio not to be exactly that of I vol. of oxygen to 2 vols. of hydrogen ; but the proportions are I : 17994 or I : 1°9935 ; or, if the impurity be supposed to exist in the oxygen alone, then the ratio is 1:1°996. The gases were examined as to their purity, the results indicating the presence of ‘2 c.c. to *3c.c. of foreign gas in the 450 c.c. used. In a communication entitled Ov Solutions of Ozone and the Chemical Action of Liquid Oxygen, Prof. Dewar gave a descrip- tion of the apparatus and method employed by him in the lique- faction of such gases as oxygen, &c., and after discussing the conditions required for the successful conversion into the liquid state of the so-called permanent gases, he gave an account of some experiments made with liquid oxygen. At —130° liquid oxygen loses the active characters possessed by this element in the gaseous state ; it is without action on phosphorus, sodium, potassium, solid sulphuretted hydrogen, and solid hydriodic acid. Other substances appear to undergo similar changes at very low temperatures ; thus liquid ethylene and solid bromine may be brought in contact without any action taking place, whereas gaseous ethylene and liquid bromine unite directly at the ordinary temperatures. Hautefeuille and Chapuis by subjecting a mixture of carbonic anhydride and ozone to great pressure obtained a blue liquid, the colour of which is due to the ozone. If ozonised air be passed into carbon disulphide at — 100°, the liquid assumes a blue colour, which disappears if the temperature be allowed to rise, and at a certain point a decomposition, resulting in the production of sulphur, takes place. The best solvent for ozone is a mixture of silicon tetrafluoride and Russian petroleum. These solutions of ozone are without action on metallic mercury or silver. Prof. Dewar, in remarking on the liquefaction of nitric oxide, stated that a comparison of its curve of liquefaction with that of methane shows the pressure to increase more rapidly with the temperature in the case of nitric oxide than in other gases, a fact which would appear to indicate, that at low tem- peratures the molecule of nitric oxide is of greater complexity, and probably exists as N.O,. An account was given of some of Cailletet’s experiments on the electrical conductivity at low tem- peratures, which seemed to indicate that as the limit — 220° was approached ordinary electrical conductors become almost perfect conductors. On the use of Sodium or other Soluble Aluminates for Softenin: and Purifying Hard and Impure Water, and Deodsrising and Precipitating Sewage, Waste Water from Factories, &c., by F. Maxwell Lyte, F.C.S., F.I.C.—The advantages attending the use of sodium or other soluble aluminates for the above purposes are dependent upon their easy decomposition with the produc- tion of a precipitate of hydrated alumina, which removes organic matter, and further by their use the temporary hardness may be completely destroyed, and the permanent hardness reduced. Some New Crystallised Combinations of Copper, Zinz, and [ron Sulphates, by J. Spiller, F.C.S.—The author gave an account of the preparation of a large series of double sulphates of copper and iron, zine and iron, and copper and zinc. In a communication on Barium Sulphate as a Cementing Material for Sandstone Prof. Clowes pointed out that, although Bischof mentioned instances of foreign sandstones in which the material cementing the sand grains together was barium sulphate, it appeared that up to the present time no such sand- stone had been met with in the United Kingdom. Having learned that opinions differed regarding the calcareous nature of certain new red sandstone beds in the neighbourhood of Nottingham, he undertook to examine the chemical composition of these sandstones, and procured specimens of the sandstone from different levels. On being analysed, the sandstone was found to contain barium sulphate in varying proportions, at present being determined, while some of the lower beds also contained calcium carbonate. In some of the sandstone beds the barium sulphate was very unequally distributed, forming a network or a series of small masses more or less spherical in shape. In such sandstone the sand grains between the sulphate streaks and patches were quite loose, the result being that the weathered surface presented a honeycombed appearance. To explain the presence of the barium sulphate he suggested that it might have been deposited along with the sand ; but if such had been the case it had certainly undergone a physical change, as it now existed in a firm, compact, and crystalline condition. It would, therefore, appear that it had been either deposited from aqueous solution or that it had been rendered crystalline by a slow percolation of a solvent liquid through the sedimentary deposit, or owed its origin to the action of water containing calcium sulphate passing through sandstone cemented originally with barium carbonate. NOTES BoTAnists will learn with very great regret of the death of Mr. Edmond Boissier, the learned and indefatigable author of the ‘‘ Flora Orientalis,” and many other important works on Systematic Botany. We have received no particulars, but we imagine his death must have been somewhat sudden, for the event was quite unexpected by his friends in this country. As recently as the month of August Prof. Oliver heard from him, the communication relating to the Supplements to the ‘‘ Flora Orientalis,” on which the deceased botanist has been for some time engaged, and in which he wished to incorporate the botanical results of Dr. Aitchison’s latest investigations in Afghanistan. Boissier’s career as a botanist may be said to have commenced with his travels in Spain in 1837, when he collected the materials published in his ‘‘ Voyage Botanique dans I’Espagne,” a richly illustrated work which appeared at intervals from 1839 to 1845. He subsequently travelled and botanically explored various parts of South-eastern Europe and Asia Minor. Independently of his larger works he pub- lished, separately, diagnoses of the exceedingly large number of undescribed species he found from within the limits of his «Flora Orientalis,” the first volume of which appeared in 1867, and the last in 1881. This work alone is sufficient to place the author in the first rank of a school of distinguished systematists, now alas fast disappearing without leaving a corresponding rising generation to take up the work where they have left it. Like the late Mr. Bentham, M. Boissier was in a position to give his undivided attention to the science he had chosen, and like him he laboured unceasingly ; and it is to be hoped that the supplement to the ‘‘Flora Orientalis” is in a sufficiently forward state for publication. Among other things the vast genus Luphorbia furnished materials for several valuable works, including a monograph of all the species, and a folio volume containing figures of 120 species. Mr, Edmond Boissier was a Foreign Member of the Linnean Society, having been elected in 1860; and from his constant readiness to give others the benefit of his extensive knowledge, he enjoyed the esteem and admiration of a wide circle of botanists. THE death is announced, at the age of seventy-eight years, of Mr. John Muirhead, one of the very few survivors of the early days of telegraphy, and closely connected with its practical development. Mr. Muirhead, in conjunction with Mr. Latimer Clark and Mr. W. M. Warden, of Birmingham, founded the house now known «as Latimer Clark, Muirhead, and Co., more than a quarter of a century ago. It was from this manufactory that Mr. Muirhead introduced the form of battery which bears his name, a form so eminently portable and practical that it has become the model for most of the existing batteries, while con- tinuing itself to be largely employed. A Times telegram dated Philadelphia, September 27, states that the President of the United States has asked Prof. Alexander Agassiz to accept the post of Superintendent of the Coast Survey. A REMARKABLE memoir on the development of the sternum in birds, prepared by Miss Beatrice Lindsay, of Girton College, and communicated to the Zoological Society of London by Dr. H. Gadow at their meeting on June 16 last, will appear in the forthcoming number of the Society’s Proceedings. Miss Lindsay, Oct. 1, 1885] NAT@RE after close investigation of the embryonic condition of different stages in five types of bird-structure (the ostrich, guillemot, gull, domestic fowl, and gannet), has come to the conclusion that the keel of carinate birds is a special outgrowth of the true sternum peculiar to birds, and is not homologous with the episternum or interclavicle of reptiles, as has been held by Gotte and others. There are no traces whatever in the embryonic stages of the ostrich, according to Miss Lindsay’s observations, of the exist- ence of any rudiments of the clavicles or keel. It follows that the view held by some morphologists that the ostrich may be a degraded descendant of some carinate form can no longer be supported. THE Edinburgh International Industrial Exhibition will be opened on May 4 next. A CORRESPONDENT of the Zzes in a recent article on the new Electorate, describes the fishermen at Staiths, a village on the Yorkshire coast, lying between Whitby and Saltburn. The people, he says, are imbued with all manner of quaint super- stitions. They have a firm belief in witchcraft, the witch being wholly unconscious of his or her power of evil. Until recently— and it is said that the custom is still secretly maintained by some of the older inhabitants—it was customary, when a smack or coble had had a protracted run of ill-fortune, for the wives of the crew and owners of the boat to assemble at midnight, and, in deep silence, to slay a pigeon, whose heart they extracted, stuck full of pins, and burned over a charcoal fire. While this operation was in process the unconscious witch would come to the door, dragged thither unwittingly by the irresistible potency of the charm, and the conspirators would then make her some propitiatory present. Again, it is of frequent occurrence that, after having caught nothing for many nights, the fishermen keep the first fish that comes into the boat and burn it on their return home as a sacrifice to the Fates. All four-footed animals are considered by the Staiths folk as unlucky, but the pig is the most ill-omened of quadrupeds. If when the men are putting their nets into the boats the name of pig is by accident men- tioned, they will always desist from their task and turn to some other occupation, hoping thus to avert the evil omen, and in many cases will renounce the day’s expedition altogether. The sight of a drowned dog or kitten, too, as he goes towards his coble will always keep a Staiths fisherman at home ; and, what is still more curious, if as he walks to his boat, his lines on his head or a bundle of nets on his shoulder, he chances to meet face to face with a woman, be she even his own wife or daughter, he considers himself doomed to ill-luck. Thus, when a woman sees a man approaching her under these circumstances she at once turns her back on him. If a fisher sends his son to fetch his big sea boots, the bearer must be careful to carry them under his arm. Should he by inadvertence place them on his shoulder his father will inevitably refuse to put out to sea that day. An egg is deemed so unlucky that the fishermen will not even use the word, but call it a roundabout ; and, fearless as are the fishers in their daily struggling with the dangers of the sea, yet so fearful are they of nameless spirits and bogies that the writer was assured he could not find in the whole fishing colony of Staiths a volunteer who for a couple of sovereigns would walk by night to the neighbouring village, a couple of miles distant. WE have received the report of Miss Pogson, the meteoro- logical reporter to the Government of Madras, for the year 1884-85. It contains remarks on the various stations scattered over the Presidency, together with the usual tables. Part of the observer's work is to train learners, who afterwards take charge of the local stations. One of these, it is interesting to notice, is on the Laccadives, which islands are inaccessible during a great part of the year. The assistants officials, in most cases are native 541 ALL the legal steps have been taken by the French Govern- ment for entering into possession of the late M. Giffard’s fortune, which is to be devoted to the good of science. The fortune is valued at 200,000/, after paying about 100,000/. in legacies to friends, family, or scientific societies. The decree is ready and will shortly appear in the Fowrnal Officiel. Several projects have been proposed already for utilising this large sum of money, but it is very likely nothing will be done before taking the advice of the French Academy of Sciences. ON September 12, just after sunset, a remarkable tnirage was seen at Valla, in the province of Sudermania, Sweden. It appeared first as a great cloud-bank, stretching from south-west to north, which gradually separated, each cloud having the appearance of a monitor. In the course of five minutes one had changed to a great whale blowing a column of water into the air, and the other to a crocodile. From time to time the clouds took the appearance of various animals, and finally that of a small wood. Subsequently they changed to a pavilion, where people were dancing, the players being also clearly visible. Once again the spectacle changed, now into a lovely wooded island with buildings and parks. At about nine o’clock the clouds had disappeared, leaving the sky perfectly clear. The air was calm at the time of the display, the temperature being 6° C. THE aquarium at the Inventions Exhibition has lately been entirely restocked, the latest arrivals being a fine selection of bass weighing Io lbs., some large specimens of Crustaceans, and an assortment of flat-fish of all descriptions. There is also on view a diversified collection of foreign freshwater fish presented by the General Import Company. Capt. VIPAN’s aquarium of foreign fishes at Stibbington Hall, Wansford, is a most valuable one, and includes unique and rare specimens of fish from all parts of the world, which are retained with the utmost care, the temperature of the water being regu- lated to suit the natural necessities of the various fish. This aquarium is considered to be one of the most unique in the United Kingdom, and increases in value annually on account of periodical additions to the collection. THE taxidermist who has had charge of the work upon the body of ‘‘ Jumbo,” who was recently crushed between two trains, states that the elephant’s stomach contained many English coins—gold as well as silver and bronze. His tusks had by the collision with the train been driven nearly through the skull. According to later accounts as to the accident, Jumbo at the last moment faced and charged the locomotive. The elephant’s skin was found to be an inch and a half thick, and it weighed 1537 lbs. The skeleton weighs 2400 lbs., and the total weight of the body was over 6 tons. Messrs. SWAN SONNENSCHEIN AND CoO. announce, for the season 1885-6, the following publications :—‘‘A Treatise on Animal Biology,’ by Prof. Adam Sedgwick, Fellow and Lect. of Trin. Coll., Camb. (illustrated) ; ‘‘ Practical Botany,” by Prof. Hillhouse, of Mason Coll., Birm., based upon the work of Prof. Strasburger (largely illustrated) ; a translation of Profs. Negeli and Schwendener’s work, ‘‘The Microscope in Theory and Practice,” with several hundred woodcuts ; an ‘¢ Alpine Flora,” a pocket handbook for botanists and travellers, by Mr. A. W. Bennett, B.Sc., M.A. ; an illustrated ‘* Hand- book of Mosses,” by Mr. J. E. Bagnall; a ‘‘ Star Atlas,’ by the Rev. T. H. Espin ; further parts of Mr. Howard Hinton’s ** Scientific Romances”; an entirely new and partly re-written edition of Prof, Prantl and Vines’s ‘‘ Text-Book of Botany” ; “‘From Paris to Pekin over Siberian Snows,” an account of the Asiatic wanderings of M. Meignan, by Mr. William Conn; “«The Wanderings of Plants and Animals,” an adaptation from the German work of Prof. Victor Hehn, by Mr. James Stally- 542 NATURE [Oct. 1, 1885 brass, tracing (chiefly by means of etymology) the history and the migration of European plants and animals to their home in Asia. Messrs, Crospy Lockwoop AND Co, make the following announcements for the approaching publishing season :—‘“ Electro- Deposition,” by Alexander Watt, author of ‘‘ Electro-Metal- lurgy”; ‘‘The Prospector’s Handbook, a Guide for the Prospector and Traveller in Search of Metal-bearing or other valuable Minerals,’? by J. W. Anderson, M.A., F.R.G.S. ; ‘*The Engineman’s Companion, a Practical Educator for Enginemen, Boiler Attendants, and Mechanics,” by Michael Reynolds ; ‘‘ The Combined Number and Weight Calculator,” by Wm. Chadwick, Public Accountant ; ‘‘ Our Temperaments, their Study and their Teaching, a Popular Outline,” with illus- trations, by F.R.C.S.E. ; ‘‘ The Artist’s Tables of Pigments,” by H. C. Standage ; “Land and Marine Surveying,” by W. Davis Haskoll (entirely new edition); ‘‘ The Metal Turner's Handbook, a Practical Manual for Workers at the Foot Lathe,” by Paul N. Hasluck (second edition, revised), being the first volume of a new series of ‘‘ Handbooks on Handicrafts.” THE ‘‘Sun” Knife-cleaner has some points which deserve notice. It is supported on a light cast-iron standard, the upper portion of which is bored out and faced to make the bearing where alone perfect fit is required. A cast-iron spindle is fitted into this bearing, and supports upon a flattened face two spring disks made of cast steel finely tempered, dished in the centre and having rays upon them like the spokes of a wheel, which turn slightly outwards at their ends, so as to form a tapered space adapted to the wedge form of the length of the knife. These springs are so mounted upon the spindle that the rays of the one are opposite to the space, between the rays of the other. The spindle is terminated by a screw upon which a thumb nut is fixed to hold the handle in position and keep the working parts together. By means of this screw the springs can be pressed more or less closely together as required. Leather rings are riveted to the inner faces of the springs, and form the surfaces upon which the knives are cleaned and polished ; the rivets are in the dished portion of the springs and so out of the way of the knife-blade ; the polishing powder is supplied through a hole in the face of the front spring. The knife whilst being cleaned is supported below a wrought-iron piece cast into the standard and passed in and out of the machine. The difficulty in clean- ing a knife is due to its double wedge form. A knife is a long wedge from the tip to the shoulder, and a short wedge from the edge to the back, and it is evident that the pressure brought to bear upon it must be of an elastic character, so as not to grind the knife away. As regards the length of the knife this is effected by the outward taper of the rays of the springs. The two leather rings between which the blade is passed in and ont being pressed against the blade of the knife by the rays of the springs as described, it is evident that there is an elastic pressure upon it; the spring on the one side diminishes in its bearing pressure, as that on the other side increases, and hence an equable pressure is applied to all parts of the blade, as is proved by the excellent polish produced. A small portion of powder being supplied through the hole in the front spring, the knife is placed with its edge downwards below the wrought-iron support and passed slowly in and out of the machine between the leather disks with the left hand, whilst the right hand is employed in turning the handle of the machine in the direction of the hands ofaclock. In this way from one inch to two inches in depth of the surface of each leather (depending upon the size of the machine) presses elastically upon the blade. This being the greatest frictional resistance at any moment between the blade and the polishing surfaces, the labour of cleaning is reduced to a minimum, while the knife can be polished to the shoulder owing to the leathers being bevelled. Special tools have been designed for cutting and bending the wrought-iron supports in one opera- tion, for cutting and bevelling the leathers, and riveting and fitting them to the springs. These machines are swpplied in four sizes. ; IN contrast to the weather in Southern Norway during May and June (NATURE, vol. xxxii. p. 354) the weather of July was warmer and more normal, the mean temperature of the month— viz. 17°1° C, being 0°5° above the normal, 16°6°. This is chiefly due to the southern winds prevalling in the first part of the month. On July 21, however, the weather changed, northern and north-western winds prevailing, with clear and dry air, and in consequence of the great radiation, the temperature fell severa] times very low during the second part of the month. The minimum temperature—viz. 6°4° C.—was registered at Christiania on the night of the 22nd., and the highest—viz. 29° C.—on the 6th. The rainfall was 40 per cent. below the normal. With the exception of the coast towards the Naze, the month has been cold throughout the land on the whole, the most unfayour- able parts being the west coast, where the temperature was 1° C, below the normal mean. In the mountains and in East Fin- marken it sank several times below o°% The rainfall in the southern and eastern parts was below the average, but in th northern and north-western parts it was above it. The greatest rainfall was registered in Finmarken, where, in Alten, for instance, it was 142 per cent. above the average. THE additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens during the past week include a Macaque Monkey (Macacus cynomolgus 6 ) from India, presented by Mrs. Paterson ; a Humboldt’s Lagothrix (Lagothrix humboldti) from the Upper Amazons, presented by Mr. F. J. Hammond ; two Macaque Monkeys (AZacacus cyno- molgus) from India, presented respectively by Mr. F. Debenham and Miss Lucy McArthur ; two West Indian Agoutis (Dasyprocta cristata), seven Crab-eating Opossums (Dédelphys cancrivora), two Rough Terrapins (Clemmys punctularia), two Brazilian Tortoises (Zvstudo tabulata), two VTeguexin Lizards (eins teguexin), two Tuberculated Iguanas (Lexana tuberceiata), nine Giant Toads (Bufo agua) from Trinidad, presented by Mr. F. J. Guy ; two Palm Squirrels (Scéwrus palmarum) from India, pre- sented by Mr. A. Bellamy; a Great Kangaroo (/acropus giganteus 8), a Rufous Rat Kangaroo (Hypsiprymnus refescens) from New South Wales, a Roan Kangaroo (JJacropus eru- bescens 2) from South Australia, presented by Mr. C. Czarnikow, F.Z.S. ; a Common Crossbill (Zoxia curvirostra), British, pre- sented by Mr. H. S. Eyre; a Green Lizard (Lacerta veridts) from Jersey, presented by Mr. G. V. Colliver ; a Guinea Baboon (Cynocephalus sphinx) from West Africa, two Bonnet Monkeys (Macacus sinicus) from India, two Aélian’s Wart Hogs (Phaco- cherus africanus 6 36) from Africa, deposited ; a Garnett’s Galago (Galago garnetti) from East Africa, a Harnessed Ante- lope (Zragelaphus scriptus 9 ),an Elate Hornbill (Ceratogymna elata) from West Africa, a Puff Adder (Vipera ariefans) from South Africa, a Lacertine Snake ( CaVlopeltis lacertina), European, an Aldrovandi’s Lizard (Plestiodon auratus) from North-West Africa, purchased; a Leopard (/é/is fardus), born in the Gardens. ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA FOR THE WEER, 1885, OCTOBER 4-10 (For the reckoning of time the civil day, commencing at Greenwich mean midnight, counting the hours on to 24, is here employed.) At Greenwich on October 4 Sun rises, 6h. 8m. ; souths, 11h. 48m. 37°5s. ; sets, 17h. 29m. ; decl. on meridian, 4° 31’ S.: Sidereal Time at Sunset, 18h. 29m. Oct. 1, 1885 | NATORE 543 Moon (New on October 8) rises, th. tom.; souths, 8h. 31m. ; sets, 15h. 41m. ; decl. on meridian, 12° 2’ N. Planet Rises Souths Sets Decl. on meridian h. m. Sire h. m. eet Mercury... 5 10 Ir 18 17 26 0 43 .N. Venus 955 14 17 18 39 19 4.9. Mars oO 15 8 0 15 45 18 47 N. Jupiter ASIC e-5-, RLOUSSIy=.2, e753 4 12N. Sati. h2TZ5" ce. SUAS) cs, SIBLSL 22 18N. * Indicates that the rising is that of the preceding day. Oct. h. j Got, 1 ND Jupiter in conjunction with and 1° 25’ north of the Moon. Jaweease 720) Mercury in conjunction with and 0° 20! north of the Moon. HEREDITY At the February meeting of the Swedish Anthropological So- ciety Prof. Wittrock read a paper on the hereditability of colour of the eyes. The speaker had been requested by Prof. Alphonse De Candolle, of Geneva, to make observations on this point, which, together with those made in Switzerland, North Germany, and Belgium, had formed the material for M. De Candolle’s paper, ‘* Hérédité de la couleur des yeux dans1l’espece humaine” (Archives des Sctences Physiques et Naturelles, 3° période, t. xii., Genéve, 1884). From the same the remarkable fact was derived that brown eyes were more common in men than women ; of the individuals examined 41°6 per cent. of men and 44°2 per cent. of women had brown eyes. Further, in families where the parents had the same colour of eyes 80 per cent. of the children of parents with brown eyes had brown eyes, whilst of children of parents with blue eyes 93°6 per cent. of them had eyes of that colour. The unconformity was no doubt due to atavisme or the hereditary influence of ancestors. Of the children of parents of whom the father had brown and the mother blue eyes 53°3 per cent. had brown, whilst where the reverse was the case 55°9 per cent. had blue eyes. As the per- centage of brown-eyed children of parents with bi-coloured eyes was highest, it seemed as if brown eyes were always on the increase to the detriment of blue ones. It appeared also from these researches that women with brown eyes have better pro- spects of marrying than those with blue. 52 per cent. of the married women had brown eyes, and only 48 per cent. of them blue—a circumstance which is the more remarkable as the number | of women with brown eyes in Italian Switzerland is only 44 per cent. Anotherremarkable discovery was that the average number of children of parents with eyes similar in colour was 2°7, whilst that of those with different colour was 3°18, which was an addi- tional proof of the fact that children of parents with similar organisation were as a rule of weak constitution. Comparing the colour of the eyes of the children where the parents were bi-coloured, with those of each of the latter, it was discovered that the eyes of the father were inherited by 48°8 per cent. of the children, and those of the mother by 51°2 per cent., which, divided between sons and daughters, showed that 47 per cent. of the former and 49°5 per cent. of the latter inherited the eyes of the father, whereas 53 per cent. of the sons and 50°5 per cent. of the daughters inherited those of the mother. Since Prof. Candolle had published his paper, he (the speaker) had con- tinued his researches in Sweden, and from the material he had collected he had discovered results differing from Prof. Can- dolle’s. Of the individuals reported to him 29°6 per cent. of the men and 30°7 per cent. of the women had brown eyes, so that even in that country the latter were more numerous than the former, but this was ro doubt due to the circumstance that he had been most anxious to obtain particulars from bi-coloured parents. In accordance with Candolle’s results, 75°6 per cent. of children of parents both with brown eyes inherited this colour, whilst of those with blue eyes 97 per cent. inherited that colour. It was but natural that this should b2 the case in Sweden, where blue eyes predominated. As regards the bi-coloured parents the case was different in Sweden too. If the father had brown and the mother blue, 59°9 per cent. of the children had brown eyes, whilst where the reverse was the case 53 per cent. of them had brown ones. These figures were the reverse of Candolle’s. But of a// bi-celoured parents 56 per cent. of the children had brown eyes, z.¢. that in Sweden too the latter are on the increase. He could not say what 7é/e the colour of the eyes played in the selection of a wife in Sweden, as he had no statistics of the dis- tribution of brown eyes in general, but there was a tendency similar to that stated above, as, of the parents embraced by these researches, the majority of wives had brown eyes. With refer- ence to the number of children in Sweden of con-coloured and bi-coloured parents, that of the former was 4°49 and that of the latter 4'03, whilst 52°6 per cent. of the children inherited the eyes of the father and 47°4 per cent. those of the mother; of the sons 51°8 per cent. inherited the eyes of the father, and 48°2 per cent. those of the mother, which figures as regards the daughters were respectively 53°5 and 46°5 per cent. This shows that in Sweden the eyes are not pre- dominantly inherited from the mother alone, and that the off- spring of equally-constituted parents should not be weaker. The speaker stated in conclusion that he is continuing his researches. He excludes children under ten years of age from the same, and classifies blue-grey or grey eyes as blue. UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE Pror. W. GryLus ADAMS, F.R.S., will deliver a Course of Lectures at King’s Colleze, London, on Heat and Light, during the Academical Year 1885-6. A Course of Practical Work in Electrical Testing and Measurement, with especial reference to Electrical Engineering, will be carried on under his direction in the Wheatstone Laboratory. There will also be a Course of Lectures on Mechanics and the Principles of Energy. The Wheatstone Laboratory is open daily from I to 4, except on Saturdays. For further particulars apply to Prof. Adams, King’s College, London. THE following appointments have recently been made at the Victoria University, Owens College, Manchester:—To the Professorship of Mathematics: Mr. Horace Lamb, M.A., F.R.S., late Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, and Pro- fessor of Mathematics in the University of Adelaide. To the Professorship of Anatomy: Mr. Alfred H. Young, M.B., BAR. C.S. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES PARIS Academy of Sciences, September 21.—M. Bouley, Pre- sident, in the chair.—On the development of cholera in India, by M. Gustave Le Bon. In support of Prof. Peter's view that European differs from Asiatic cholera only in the greater in- tensity of the causes producing it, the author argues that both forms might break out spontaneously in any country through the volatile germs arising from putrified organic matter. In his former researches he showed that, apart from these germs, there exists a series of volatile alkaloids which, when introduced by respiration, produce almost fulminating effects. These researches throw much light on the accidents attending the exhumation of bodies long buried and on the spread of typhoid or analogous fevers. The facts recently observed by M. Le Bon during a sudden outbreak of cholera at Kombakonum, in the south of India, tend to confirm this hypothesis. In India itself cholera rages almost exclusively amongst the native populations ; the English, who reside in large cantonments, where sanitary arrange- ments are scrupulously attended to, being seldom attacked. That cholera and intermittent fevers are propagated chiefly by bad water is apoint on which opinion is unanimous in that country, and the author’s personal experience places it beyond all reason- able doubt.—Elements of Brooks’s comet, by M. R. Radau. _ These elements, according to observations made at Cambridge and Paris, are found to be :— T = 1885, August 10°30457 ; mean Paris time. m™-8= 43 047 Q = 204 33 77 Mean equinox of 1885'0. t= 59 22 30 logg = 9°87694 —Note on anew stellar spectroscope, by M. Ch. V. Zenger. This instrument is constructed on a new principle, and chiefly in- tended to measure simultaneously and accurately the angle of position and the distance of double stars situated very close together.—On the process of fertilisation in the Cephalopods, 544 NAT OCRE [ Oct. 1, 1885 by M. L. Vialleton.—On the anatomical organisation of the urs in Cephalotus follicularis, by MM. Jules Chareyre and Edouard Heckel. BERLIN Physiological Society, July 31.—Prof. Fritsch spoke on the functions of the sebaceous glands, raising a protest against the conception, represented quite recently by Herr Unna, that these glands served only to lubricate the hairs, while the globiform glands, commonly called the sudoriparous glands, lubricated the skin and induced the formation of the subcutaneous fat, and that, finally, the perspiration was discharged by the sweat-pores, or, rather, the extreme ends of the straight canals into which the sweat found its way out from intercellular spaces through the stomata. A whole series of anatomical, histological, and physio- logical grounds were brought forward against this view both by the speaker and, in the course of the discussion on the subject, by Prof. Du Bois-Reymond, Prof. Waldeyer, Dr. Gad, and Dr. Lassar. All known observations and experiments were, on the contrary, they maintained, in favour of the view that the sebaceous glands provided fat for the skin, while the globiform glands had the production of sweat assigned to them.—Dr. Wey] reported on the results of a chemical examination of the cholesterin, the composition of which had not hitherto been ascertained, although this substance had been discovered more than a hundred years ago, and had since been traced in the most varied organs of the animal body and eyen in plants. The most searching investigation down to the present of cho- lesterin had been made by Herr Zwenger, who, by treatment with sulphuric acid and nitric acid, had found combinations which he had distinguished and chemically characterised as cholesterylene and cholesterone. By repeating these experi- ments Dr. Weyl had achieved much purer derivatives of the cholesterin, in particular chloric and bromic combinations, in very pure crystals, which rendered exact elementary analysis possible. This led to the result that the derivatives of cho- lesterin were found to be hydrocarburets belonging to the great class of the terpenes—that is, they were products of condensa- tion or polymerisations of the simple terpene (C;H,). Even though it were not yet possible to state precisely the number of the C;H, which had become polymerised in the several cholesterin derivatives, the speaker yet thought he had suffi- cient ground for assuming that the composition (C;H,)"H.O was the one proper to the cholesterin itself. Substances which, both by their reactions and their percentage compositions, were denot- able as terpenes, might also be obtained from the choleic acid, a circumstance which pointed to the more intimate relation between cholesterin and choleic acid.—Dr. Biondi communicated the results of an investigation carried out by him in the Institute of Prof. Waldeyer with a view to throwing light on the origin of the spermatozoids in the seminiferous canals—a question on which the views of physiologists were so widely divergent. By appropriate use of appliances for hardening, fixing, and colouring, among which the advantages of Flemm- ing’s fluid had to be mentioned with quite special prominence, Dr, Biondi arrived at results which corroborated none of the views formerly put forth, but which explained the earlier observed facts. In accordance with these results it had been endeavoured diagrammatically to distribute the contents of the seminiferous canals into columns, which, proceeding from the wall towards the central cavity, might be grouped into three layers. In the first stage of development, a stage always met with, in particular, in animals not yet ripe, the extreme layer lying on the wall of the canal consisted of round, primitive cells, the second layer, proceeding inwards, of round mother- cells, which were very rich in caryokinetic figures, and the third innermost layer consisted of a larger number of small round daughter cells. In a second stage of development observable in ripe glands the nucleus of the daughter cells were seen converted into spermatozoids, the exterior half of the nucleus becoming the head and the other interior half the middle part and tail of the spermatozoon. The protoplasm of the daughter cells took no part in this transformation, and enveloped the bodies of the spermatozoa, making them cohere into bundles from which the tails of the spermatozoa projected towards the central canal. These masses of protoplasm enveloping the bodies of the spermatozoa altogether resembled the figures described by the earlier observers as ‘‘ Spermatoblasten.” In this stage the above diagrammatically assumed column consisted, from the outside inwards, of the primitive cell, the mother cell, and the bundle of spermatozoa. In the next stage of deve- lopment the formation of the spermatozoa, arising always in the same manner from the nucleus of the daughter cells, was pushed farther outwards, so that the column now consisted of but one large round cell on the outside and bundles of spermatozoa on the inside. The formation of the seminal corpuscles advanced still further, and at last the whole column, as far as the wall of the canal, consisted of spermatozoa, the bodies of which were agglutinated into bundles by masses of protoplasm, their tails being directed in- wards. Primitive cells out of neighbouring columns now inter- calated themselves between the wall of the canal and the spermatozoa, pushing the latter towards the middle. By the development of the mother and daughter cells the spermatozoa were quite pressed and discharged into the central canal. The process thus described then began anew. It must, however, be observed that in nature there was no separation into columns and layers such as was here diagrammatically described. It was only for the sake of clear representation that the processes succeeding each other in time were thus exhibited as divided in space. Dr, Biondi had examined this structure of the semin- iferous canals, and this development of the spermatozoids in the bull, the swine, the cat, the rabbit, the guinea-pig, the rat, and other mammalia; and in all these cases he had found alike the same results. Prof. Waldeyer testified that Dr. Biondi had attained to these results quite independently and had communicated and demonstrated them to him as early as February of this year. It was only on his advice that Dr. Biondi had further examined a longer series of animals before publishing his results. A few days ago, continued Prof. Waldeyer, he had received a letter from Prof. Griinhagen in Konigsberg, in accordance with which he (Prof. Griinhagen) had attained to the same results on spermatogenesis as had Ur, Biondi, to whom, of the two independent discoverers, was due the title of priority.—Dr. Blaschko briefly explained a series of microscopic preparations he exhibited, which served to show that between the epidermis and the cutis there lay no cementing substance ; but just as it was long known that in the case of the epidermis cells they had processes grooving themselves digitately into one another, so here, too, the processes of the epidermis and cutis cells were seen to intertwine with one an- other and form a network, the meshes of which were particularly large in an cedematous skin.—Dr. Lassar demonstrated micro- scopic preparations of skin which he had excided from a patient suffering under lichen ruber. In the copious protoplasm (the exudation of the inflammation) surrounding the canals of the epidermis there were seen, after colouring with fuchsine and Bismarck-brown, an uncommonly large number of micrococci, distinguishing themselves particularly by their remarkable small- ness. CONTENTS North American Water-Birds .......... Letters to the Editor :— The New Star in Andromeda.—A. A. Common, F.R.S.; Geo.M.Seabroke; A. Ricco (//lustvated) 522 The Proposed Change in the Astronomical Day.— A. M. D. Downing. .-..- -)2 ees A Tertiary Rainbow.—T. C. Lewis. . Part re A White Swallow.—Alex. Anderson; Hubert Airy; J. Li. Bozward ©. . ) = eee The Annual Congress of the Sanitary Institute of Great Britain 2.2 . 2 59s a 47 o5e) ey Insect Ravages 2. i 293 27 209 fonseeeet neg American Agricultural Grasses. By Prof. W. Fream 2.2 5 53. 2. 5. so ts) ce tal a The Development of the Cecilians. ....... 526 The British Association :— ReportS’ | 5 0.56 “ey ee wet ees © een eS 2 Section A—Mathematics and Physics. . . .. ++ 533 Section B—Chemistry .). - 1.95 (4 -) eee SO Notes*. 0. 5 2 6 «cele we ce) | oe 6) Se ya Astronomical Phenomena for the Week 1885, October 4=10'.00 5) 6 ie = fe Leet fe fe ee eg Heredity %., 2... «© (yc se soy feueiiciiee tees tnre nace me mE University and Educational Intelligence ..... 543 Societies and. Academieésis, 3. =... + «@ < =) asa NARGRE 345 THURSDAY, OCTOBER 8, 1885 MR. GRIEVE ON THE GAREFOWL The Great Auk, or Garefowl (Alca impennis, Linn.), zts fitstory, Archeology, and Remains. By Symington Grieve, Edinburgh. 4to, pp. x. 141, and Appendix, pp. 58. (London: Jack, 1885.) GREEABLY to the wish of the editor of NATURE that I should notice in its pages the lately-published volume whose title stands above, I undertake a responsi- bility of a kind which is for me as delicate as can be imposed upon anybody. It has long been no secret that for more than five-and-twenty years—since, indeed, the premature death, in 1859, of my friend and fellow-traveller, the late Mr. JOHN WOLLEY—I have had it in hand to prepare and eventually to produce a monograph of the presumably extinct species of bird, into the investigation of whose history he had thrown himself with all the energy of his character. During that time I am not conscious of having ever lost an opportunity of adding to my store of information on the subject, in doing which I was for several years assisted by the zeal of the late Mr. G. D. Rowley ; and, though always having in view the ultimate publication of the monograph originally con- templated by Mr. Wolley, I never hesitated to supply any inquirer with the particulars for which he asked—as may be seen on reference to the publications of Dr. Victor Fatio1 and of Prof. Wilhelm Blasius*—both of whom I rejoice to think I was able in some measure to help. Neverthe- less, each attempt to elucidate the natural history of the Garefowl only added to the number of still unanswered or unanswerable questions relating to it ; and, amid numerous other occupations or duties, I have with difficulty been able to keep myself abreast of the ever-increasing contri- butions to the subject—many (I may say most) of them proving on investigation to have little or no foundation ; and those which had the least, or none at all, generally giving the greatest trouble. Apology, I feel sure, is needed for an introduction so egotistical as that contained in the foregoing paragraph ; yet without it, or something like it, I fear my remarks on the book before me may be misunderstood. The force of circumstances has compelled me to set up a very high standard; and, when that standard has not been ap- proached by any writer on the subject, it is almost im- possible for me not to see his shortcomings, though many another man might find in him no fault at all. I there- fore wish at once torecord my opinion that in the present work the author has done the best that in him lies, and especially that his book, so far as it goes, is an honest book. If, after working at the subject for more than a quarter of a century, a man still finds himself unable, from one cause or another, to publish the results of his labour, it does not follow that he should be hard upon anybody else who, with perhaps as many distractions, makes a praiseworthy attempt to set before the world what is known of the lost species, though he may not have devoted to the task a tenth of the time. Moreover, Mr. T Bull. Soc. Orn. de la Suisse, ii. pt. 1, pp. 5-70, 73-85. 2 Ver. f. Naturw. zu Braunschweig, W. pp. 89-115; Journ. fiir Orn., 1884, pp. 58-176. VOL. Xxx11.—No. 832 Grieve begins his preface with the words : “In submitting these pages to the public, the author has fears that they will not bear severe criticism.” I regret to say that regard to truth obliges me to declare that this isso; but I have no wish to be the severe critic, and it will be best here to describe the plan and scope of the work, which is obviously well chosen. Mr. Grieve begins with a very appropriate dedication to Prof. Steenstrup, that venerable biologist who first wrote a history '—he modestly called it only a “contribution ” to a history—of Alca zmpennis that was in accordance with facts, and was worthy of the subject, of science, and of himself. The amount of indebtedness to him, due from all his successors in the investigation—but not always acknowledged—is not to be overrated. Hard as they may have found their work, it has almost entirely lain in clothing the form that he constructed ; and, though there has been plenty of false tailoring, his outlines have proved to be true in almost every particular. In the dedication Mr. Grieve very justly states that he has not “much to relate that is new to British ornithologists ;” but his desire has been “to bring within the reach of all, mate- rials that at present are difficult of access.”* These pre- liminaries over, the geographical range of the species— first in American and then in European waters—is entered upon, care being taken to warn the reader against the popular misconception that it was ever a bird of the high north, and then is given a description of its remains as found in the New World and in the Old. Under the last category come four chapters treating respectively of the discovery of its bones in Caithness, and in Oronsay, of the period to which the kitchen- midden on that island containing them presumably belongs, and of the single fragment found near Whitburn- Lizards, on the coast of Durham, by Mr. Hancock, which fragment, being the greater portion of the maxilla of what seems to have been an exceptionally large example, now in the Museum at Newcastle-on-Tyne, is very delicately figured (p. 64). After this Mr. Grieve enters upon a con- sideration of the bird’s habits and of the regions in which it lived, and then proceeds to catalogue at some length (pp. 76-114) its existing remains—whether bones, skins, or egg-shells. Then follow three chapters on the uses to which the bird was put by man, on the names by which it has been known, with their possible origin and meaning, and on the period during which it lived. No fewer than nine appendices are added—all more or less of the nature of pidces justificatives—while an excellent index, with re- marks on the accompanying chart, completes the volume, which is illustrated by several woodcuts and a couple of coloured plates representing the two eggs that doubtless came to Edinburgh in 1819 with Dufresne’s collection, when it was bought by the University there, and, having been transferred to the Museum of Science and Art in the northern capital, were first publicly noticed by Major Feilden in 1869. There cannot be a dispute as to the great pains which the author has taken with this work, but it would be in- expedient here to attempt any criticisms of its details, to an abundance of which exception may be taken. The I Vidensk. Meddel. Naturh. Forening i Kyébenhavn, 1855, pp- 33 to 118. * Here may be added that, if report speaks truly, so strong has been this desire on the part of the author, that the book is sold to the public at less than cost price. AA 546 NATURE [ Oct. 8, 1885 fact seems to be that up to a certain point the story of the Great Auk can be worked up and told by any one willing to labour at it. Beyond that point the difficulties begin. Mr. Grieve appears to be hardly aware of the existence of these difficulties, though some of them have been hinted at, if not pointed out, by his predecessors. The most serious charge that can be brought against him is that he has needlessly raised fresh difficulties for future investigators. Mistakes that have taken years of labour to correct, and the correction of which has been pub- lished, are again set agoing, just as if no progress in that direction had been made; and, even worse than this, some new assertions, or at least suggestions, are hazarded that have, I am persuaded, no firm ground. No doubt on some of these points I may be prejudiced; but according to my knowledge I perceive that on too many questions Mr. Grieve has been unable to distinguish between good evidence and bad. However, there is in this book a distinct gain to all historians of the Gare- fowl, and that is the information here first placed on record by Mr. Champley of Scarborough, who is known to have interested himself for many years in all that con- cerns this species. I most sincerely wish that I could accord higher praise to this work than I have beenable to do, for Mr. Grieve’s enthusiasm in the cause deserves greater success. It is seldom that any one but a Fennimore Cooper or a Charles Kingsley feels the romance that clings around the history of an expiring race. Most men—men of science especially—nowadays believe in the survival of the fittest, and are content to let the dead bury their dead. The moral lesson I do not venture to draw, and in conclusion have only to ask pardon of the readers of NATURE for putting myself so forward in this article. ALFRED NEWTON “THE WAVE OF TRANSLATION” The Wave of Translation in the Oceans of Water, Air, and Ether. By John Scott Russell, M.A., F.R.S, (London: Triibner and Co., 1835.) "JHE late Mr. J. Scott Russell was one of the most prominent and gifted naval architects which this country possessed in the middle of the present century. His name will long be remembered as the builder of the Great Eastern, the early advocate of the longitudinal system of framing iron and steel ships: the ingenious and eloquent expounder of the “wave-line” principle of design; and for many improvements in the theory and practice of iron steamship construction. His person- ality was at once striking and attractive, and his abilities were of an original and versatile kind. He was the author of a massive work upon naval architecture; and of numerous papers read before various learned societies. No one exercised greater influence than Mr. Scott Russell in promoting the cause of scientific education in naval architecture, and in stimulating and helping students, by numerous speeches and writings, to acquire a general and clear knowledge of the laws upon which the qualities of ships depend. Mr. Scott Russell’s writings were always interesting. He possessed the rare faculty of making the driest and most complicated of subjects intelligible, and even fascinating. Where he may not be correct in the hypo- theses, or justified in the sweeping generalisations, he sometimes hastily put forward, he is usually suggestive, and provocative of thought upon the part of his readers. He was a vigorous and clear—though with a tendency to be a too rapid—thinker ; and there are no writings upon naval architecture which have the power of fixing the attention and stimulating the intellect in a greater measure than those of Mr. Scott Russell. We regret to say that the present work is not likely toadd to the reputation of its author. It exhibits des défauts de ses gualités in their most pronounced form ; and if we were asked for an example of Mr. Scott Russell at his very weakest and worst we could hardly do better than refer to that portion of this book which has not been before pub- lished. One-half of the volume is devoted to a reprint of the Report made by Mr. Scott Russell to the British Asso- ciation in 1842-43, in which a description is given of the “solitary wave of translation,” which he discovered for himself in 1834, and the properties of which he did much to investigate and make known. This Report is not only. printed z7 extenso, but Part I. of the work consists exclu- sively of extracts from it. The same matter appears twice over—once as Part I. of the boo‘, and once as portions of the British Association Report. The Report describes the knowledge possessed by Mr. Scott Russell in 1843 of “the varieties, phenomena, and laws of waves, and the | conditions which affect their genesis and propagation.” This may be interesting from a biographical point of view, but its present scientific value is not great. Many things have happened since the date of this Report, such as the theoretical investigations of Airy, Stokes, Rankine, Froude, eminent French mathematicians, and others; and numerous observations have been made of the forms and properties of waves by scientific officers of our own and foreign navies. These constitute a mass of information which the present work completely ignores. One half of the book is taken up with the reprint of the British Association Report referred to, and with those ex- tracts fromit of which Part I.ismadeup. The remaining half contains the only new matter now published. This is divided into two sections, one being “on the analogy between the solitary wave in water and the sound wave in_ air,” and the other “on the great ocean of ether and its relation to matter.” The less said of these chapters the better. The following is an instance of how Mr. Scott Russell frames a theory or invents a hypothesis : “I am so impressed with the truth of this law, that the velocity of this solitary wave in any fluid is due to the depth of the fluid in which it moves, whether thick or rarefied, that I hazard the hypothesis, that in the unknown element which pervades the universe, and which, though unknown, is the cause and medium of the most familiar phenomena of everyday life, proceeding on the same basis of calculation as in the air and water occurs, we shall find that the ethereal ocean should be given a height of 5,000,000,000 miles, and that the corresponding velocity of the solitary wave through that ocean would be 1,000,000,000 feet per second.” An atomic theory is framed upon the following basis : “The law of attractive force in the atom, in conformity with the law of Newton, is according to the sguare of the Oct. 8, 1885 | NATURE 547 nearness, and I propose to take as the law of repulsive force, the cube of the nearness. 1 think I am justified in taking this as the true law of repulsion of atoms of matter, because I find from the researches of eminent chemists that all free gases do so expand as to double their bulk by an increase of the distance of the particles, in the ratio of the cube of their nearness, or as 111 cube to 367.” Then the theory of heat that is put forward ap- pears to be a kind of material theory : “ We may therefore define heat as ¢he effort of ether to resist crowding. . Ether existing all around us in a normal state may be called free ether. Ether enclosed by force in limited space surrounded by material atoms is imprisoned or stored ether; its greater or less degree of crowding or storing means degrees of heat, and the quantity of crowding among the atoms indicates the specific heat of these atoms, and sometimes the specific heat of that kind of matter.” One more extract and we have done :—“ Even Sir Isaac Newton’s calculations of the speed of sound fell. roo feet short of the truth, and therefore corresponded to an error of a miie in the height of the atmosphere, and he could invent nothing better to account for the error than this sudden inflammation of the atmosphere. To this the reply is that the existence of the solitary wave of transla- tion was not known to Newton, that the nature of its genesis and propagation could not therefore be calcu- lated ; but that present knowledge of the nature and laws of this wave completely explain and accurately measure its phenomena without the introduction of any hypo- thesis contradicted by fact.” We have said enough to show the character of this treatise, and we will conclude by repeating that we are sorry to see a posthumous work by so eminent a man as the late Mr. Scott Russell, containing nothing more to justify its publication than a reprint of his well-known, and imperfect, views in 1843, upon wave motion, and a fanciful interpretation of great physical laws. It is a pity that greater skill and discretion were not brought to bear upon the production of this volume. OUR BOOK SHELF Publication of the Norwegian Commission of the Measure- ment of Degrees tn Europe. (1) Geodetical Operations, Part IV. (2) Tidal Observations, Part III. THE first of these publications contains an account of the northern portion of the trigonometrical work undertaken to connect the side Stokvola-Haarskallen with the side Spaatind-Neeverfjeld. The former side is directly con- nected to the base measured in 1864 near Levanger, as described in Parts I. and III. of the “ Geodetical Opera- tions.” A trigonometrical survey of this part of the country had already been made in 1835-6 by Gen. Broch, and it was at first hoped that this survey could be utilised, but on closer investigation it was found that the observations were not of sufficient precision to meet the requirements of the Commission for the Measurement of degrees in Europe, for which this work was to a great extent under- taken. The old stations were, however, utilised in the northern part of the triangulation ; there the signals were well-built masonry cylinders. In the southern portion, however, the stations had in many cases entirely dis- appeared and had to be reconstructed. A careful descrip- tion of each station is given, and in every case, with one or two exceptions, the signal could not be placed at the centre of the station ; the usual measurements for reduc- tion were therefore made, and apparently with more than usual care. The observations were taken with a 1o-inch universal instrument made by Olsen and with a 12-inch theodolite made by Reichenbach. It would appear that the graduation of these instruments is not of a very high order ; at any rate, the differences in the readings are rather large, frequently exceeding 10”: but in extenuation it must be said that the instruments were too small for the work and that the observations were made under con- siderable difficulties, owing to sea-fog and snow. There is nothing special to remark in the method adopted to adjust the observations, it being the usual method founded on the principle of least squares. It is shown that the mean error of the finally-adjusted angles is 0”'547 + 0-029. A diagram of the triangulation is given, from which it is seen that most of the triangles are well-condi- tioned ; a few, however, are more elongated than they should be for good work, the triangle Munken, Stokvola, Haarskallen, especially so; for instance, the angle at Munken is 5° 12’ 57”°416. It should also be observed that several of the stations are determined by only two intersections. The longest side measures about sixty miles. The second publication is the third report of the Nor- wegian tidal observations, and contains the results of the work done at Oscarsborg in 1880-1 and at Stavanger, Bergen, Kabelvaag, and Vard6 in 1883. This report is simply a continuation of Reports I. and II., already noticed in NATURE ; it contains nothing but tables, and there is nothing in it that calls for special notice. LETTERS TO THE EDITOR [ The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents, Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts. No notice ts taken of anonymous communications, [The Editor urgently requests correspondents to keep their letters as short as possible. The pressure on his space ts so great that it ts impossible otherwise to insure the appearance even of communications containing interesting and novel facts. | On the Influence of Wave-Currents on the Fauna of Shallow Seas For many years past I have endeavoured, without much suc- cess, to call attention to the widely-spread influence of waves on the bottoms of shallow seas. To the geologist this action signi- fies denudation, and accounts, among other things, for the wholesale destruction of marine fauna so often exemplified in the rocks. To the zoologist it signifies a factor in evolution of immeasurable magnitude. On seeing the abstract of Prof. Moseley’s lecture on the fauna of the sea-shore in NATURE, I troubled you with my letter of July 6 ; now that the full report has appeared, equally reticent as to the significance of wave-currents, I ask leave to add somewhat to my former letter. The difficulty in arousing interest in this subject arises from the fact that, though the phenomena of wave-disturbance are well known to mathematicians, natural history text-books com- monly agree in asserting either the non-existence, or unimport- ance, of such disturbance. Thus the question has remained unheeded. My own experience in the matter is as follows :—Holding the orthodox view of the peaceful repose existing on the sea-bottom, I commenced cruising, some twenty years ago, on that excellent natural experimental tank, Torbay. I soon found, to my.sur- prise, that the local fishermen and dredgers were as confident that the waves greatly disturbed the bottom as naturalists were of the reverse. Having kept my eyes open in this direction, I submitted a paper to the Devonshire Association in 1878, de- scriptive of the levelling action of the waves on the six-fathom area of Torbay (Zrans. Dev. Assoc., vol. x. p. 182). With the kind assistance of Lord Rayleigh I was enabled to show that theory and observation were in complete accords a 548 NATURE [ Oct. 8, 1885 to the energy evinced by the waves in the particular instance under consideration. Having learned from Lord Rayleigh that wave-action at the sea-bottom takes the form of reciprocal currents, I was led to make some experiments and observations on the formation of ripple-mark. In the course of this investigation I was soon impressed with the conviction that these alternate currents held at their mercy the marine fauna exposed to their attacks, and that the zoological side of the problem was at least as important as the geological. Accordingly, an outline of the subject in its zoological aspect was included in a paper on ripple-mark read to the Royal Society in 1882 (Proc. R.S., vol. xxxiv. p. 1). Having come into possession of confirmatory evidence of the action of waves at a depth of forty fathoms in the English Channel, I submitted the facts to the British Association at Southampton in the same year, 1882. This paper, sent in to Section A, was handed on to Section C, a mathematical friend suggesting to me the reason, and a very good reason too, that mathematicians required no evidence on the point contended for. However, the transfer only went to prove that the geo- logists were as sceptical as to the existence of wave-action at forty fathoms, as the physicists were satisfied as to that fact. This paper, amplified, appeared in the Zyvavsactions of the Devonshire Association for 1883 (vol. xv. p. 353). The zoological aspect of the question was submitted to the British Association at Southport in 1883; and again to the Linnean Society in 1884, in a paper ‘‘On the influence of wave-currents on the fauna inhabiting shallow seas.”” In this paper, profiting by experience, I made no attempt to prove the fact of wave-action from observation, but relied entirely on a valuable letter with which I had been favoured by Prof. Stokes, Sec.R.S. Neither at the British Association nor at the Linnean Society was any exception taken to my arguments in support of the importance of wave-action on the fauna affected ; nor, so far as I am aware, has my position been shaken since. Now that Prof. Moseley’s important lecture has appeared, discussing the fauna of the sea-shore without reference to the ever-regulating wave-currents, there is considerable risk that less experienced students of natural history will in like manner pass over this promising field of research as not worthy of their attention. Prof. Moseley states, and states truly, that the littoral fauna is adapted in various ways to withstand ‘‘the action of the surf, the retreat of the tides, the numerous enemies”; but, beyond the reach of surf and tidal fall, agents which only affect the narrow belt of sea contiguous to the shore, the alternate currents set up by ocean waves search out the armour and test the defences of all small animals living on those extensive marine areas, exposed to the ocean swell, where the depth of water does not exceed fifty fathoms. With respect to enemies, the waves themselves are perhaps the most formidable, as they attack and occasionally destroy whole colonies at once, whereas predatory foes rather affect the individual. For instance, let such helpless mollusks as Alysia or Pleurobranchus wander over the sandy bottom of Torbay, as they sometimes do: the first easterly gale will sweep them out of existence. In fact, the waves so invariably prevent 4flysia punctata growing to its full size on the British coast, that a full- grown specimen taken in protected Guernsey waters has been considered a distinct species—viz. A. defilans. Similar large specimens have occurred under the shelter of the Torquay har- bour works, but these, by a series of odontophores and shells, I have been able to connect with the common 4. punctata, Prima facze it would appear that the shells of certain mollusks are more especially adapted to resist animate foes; but a close examination will often prove the contrary. Take the cases of the oyster, mussel, venus, and limpet: these mollusks are all helpless in the presence of their living enemies: the oyster perishes by the attacks of boring-sponges ; the mussel is de- stroyed wholesale by starfishes ; the venus is perforated by car- niyorous gastropods at their leisure; whilst the limpet, easily detached when taken unawares, is said to be destroyed by birds. All four are, however, admirably adapted to resist wave-currents, each in its respective habitat. The conclusion that the shells of mollusks are so constructed as to have comparatively but little reference to living foes is supported by the interesting fact mentioned by Prof. Moseley, that hard shells tend to disappear in pelagic and deep-sea regions. That is to say, they disappear where predatory enemies abound, but where the great non-predatory enemies, the waves, are powerless or not existent. Occasionally we find the supposed protection against living enemies to be greatly in excess of requirements—e.g. the case of the solen, whose power of burrow- ing is far greater than requisite for escape from birds, but which is none too great for the evasion of waves and currents tearing away the sand in which the mollusk dwells. Wave-action tends to differentiate species. This can be seen in such obvious cases as Cardium aculeatum and C. norvegicum, Venus dione and V, chione. One of each of these pairs has chosen the mooring method of defence with anchor-like spines, the cther that of facile penetration with smooth, unresisting shell surfaces. As these two methods are opposite in action and any compromise tends to inefficiency, the wave-currents must necessarily influence the mollusks in the direction of divergence. Instances of habits and forms protective against wave-currents could be multiplied almost ad infinitum, and, as the subject is a very interesting one, I still live in hopes that it may yet be taken up and worked out by trained observers qualified for the task. ARTHUR R. Hunt Torquay, September 28 Prehistoric Burial-Grounds THE account given in this week’s NATURE (p. 518) of the dis- covery of a prehistoric burial-ground at Pitreavie has recalled to my memory the description of a similar find made in the eleventh or twelfth century by the monks of Noyon, and related to us us by Guibert, who was abbot of this foundation at the time. I believe that it is the earliest detailed account of any such discovery that has come down to our days ; and it will be noticed that the leading features of this cemetery are almost exactly identical with those of the Pitreavie one. I am not aware that this passage has attracted the attention of modern writers upon prehistoric times. Guibert, the author quoted, was born in 1053 and died in 1124, having been Abbot of Noyon for about twenty years. After stating his own conviction that his monastery was extremely old, he continues :— **Quam opinionem, si nulla litteralis juvaret traditio, sup- peteret profecto affatim peregrina, et non, putamus, Christiani nominis sepulchrorum inventa contextio. Circa enim ipsam et in ipsa basilica tantam sarcophagorum copiam conjunxit antiquitas, in multam loci famositatem tantopere expetiti, cadaverum inibi congestorum commendat infinitas. Quéa enim non tn morem nostrorum ordo adisponitur sepulchrorum, sed circulatim in modum corolle sepulchrum unius multa ambiunt, in quibus | gquedam reperiuntur vasa, quorum causam nesciunt Christiana tempora. Non possumus aliud credere nisi quod fuerunt gentium, aut antiquissima Christianorum, sed facta gentili more.” GuIBERT!I Novig. de Vita Sua, L. ii. cap. 1. I may add that in Guibert’s time there was a very old written tradition which ascribed the foundation of Noyon to a certain ‘rex insulze Britanniz,” who was (so ran the legend) a con- temporary of our Lord’s. This tradition is, of course, worthless from a historical point of view, but certainly testifies to the extreme antiquity of the place; and shows that, long before Guibert’s time, the inhabitants of Noyon had dim recollections of their prehistoric greatness, which naturally, in an age of Christian credulity, centred around the era of our Lord. T. A. ARCHER 158, Walton Street, Oxford, September 30 MARS, {UPITER, AND SATURN XN} 71ITH Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn in the morning sky VW i the telescopist has a varied assortment of brilliant objects to which he may devote his attention. The great distance of Mars during the ensuing opposition will have the effect of limiting the apparent diameter to a low value, but the chief markings are so conspicuous as to be visible notwithstanding this inimical effect. Indeed during the preceding opposition, which was equally un- favourable, some of the more delicate features appear to have been recovered. At Milan Signor Schiaparelli has partly confirmed his previous results as to the singular duplication of the “ canals,” and Mr, Knobel has obtained Oct. 8, 1885] NATURE 549 a series of valuable sketches, which are reproduced in the last volume of the Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society. With regard to Jupiter the declination of the planet will be somewhat Jess than during the opposition of 1884-5, but the configuration of the belts and the peculi- arities of the variable spots will doubtless continue to be exhibited with nearly similar prominence as in previous years. Saturn, situated in Gemini, and having consider- able N. declination, will present a grand display, the rings being still widely open and inviting that close and sys- tematic scrutiny which is so much needed either to affirm or negative some of the questionable details suggested by recent observations. Observers of Mars are extremely fortunate in possessing such valuable memoirs and charts as those of Schiaparelli, Terby, Green, and others, which form a comprehensive and accurate basis of future reference and comparison. The seeming permanency of the chief lineaments on Mars and their distinctness of outline have permitted observers to assign their forms and positions with great nicety. But this has been found practically impossible in respect to any of the other planets of our system. Their markings are of so variable a tendency or so un- certain and _ ill-defined, owing probably to their atmo- spheric character, that it is out of the question to frame representative views that will serve to express the appear- ances observable at any future time. We have accumu- lated a vast number. of delineations, including many peculiar forms, but these exhibit so much discordance as to prove that any attempt to arrange them with the same consistency as those of Mars must for the present be utterly futile. What is essentially required in furtherance of our knowledge of areographic features are delineations in which the more delicate alternations of light and shade are faithfully portrayed. The ensuing opposition, though not offering the most favourable inducements for attain- ing this end, may yet be utilised as likely to afford its share of corroborations to old features and perhaps indi- cate some modification of the outlines attributed them by former observers. Mr. Marth’s valuable ephemerides in the Monthly Notices supply the data wherewith the passages of certain prominent markings across the central line may be readily calculated from night to night. Drawings effected at the telescope and subsequently attested by the charts, or independent projections made on the basis of the new drawings and then compared with previous work will be important as furnishing fresh confirmations and additions to oldrecords. Whatever plan is adopted, observers must not regard existing delinea- tions as Perfectly reliable and prejudice the judgment by endeavours to discern the outlines of the spots precisely as they have already been figured. Our work should be pursued apart from such influences, the aim being rather to correct and extend past results, than to follow them with implicit faith and mould our new seeings on the same pattern. Though much has been accomplished by the consecutive labours of the many able and earnest students of Martian features, the present state of our knowledge is not only incomplete, but considerable un- certainty exists as to the more difficult formations com- prised in the physical aspect of this planet. Jupiter, with so great a diversity of atmospheric pheno- mena, some of them rapidly variable, and all influenced by the quick rotation of the planet, gives prospect of being the subject of increased investigation. Late in the preceding opposition the great red spot which had so nearly disappeared and had, during the winter of 1884-5, assumed the appearance of a red ellipse with interior light cloud, showed unmistakeable evidences of increasing condensation. The ellipse grew perceptibly darker, and the central light cloud disappeared, so that at the end of the opposition the spot had almost regained the striking aspect it presented a few years ago. The question now is has this well-known feature continued to gain ascend- ancy during the time the planet has been lost in the sun’s rays? Observations in October will furnish a definite answer to this question, and the planet should be con- fronted with our best telescopes as early as possible, so that the necessary evidence may be obtained. The spot will pass the central meridian of Jupiter at about the following times, and ought to be well seen in small instru- ments unless some great changesin an unexpected direc- tion have affected its position or appearance in the interim since the last observation made here on the evening of July 8 :-— Red Spot Red Spot Da a € Gare Date Cantal - Ao) Ih a se) h m. Oct. 7 18 34 Oct. 29 16 48 12 17 43 31 18 26 17 16) 52 Nov. 3 15 56 19 18 30 5 17 34 24 L739) 7 TORTS) 26 TON 07, fe) 16 43 With reference to the white spots bordering the dark belts, and the other definite markings, they will doubtless be remarked as heretofore. Their singular vagaries of motion and appearance call for renewed study. The varying intensity and colour of the belts and their dis- position in latitude should be carefully assigned on several dates during each opposition. If this method could be persistently followed during many years it would supply the material either for tracing out periodical recurrences, or proving such changes to be intermittent in character. During the past opposition of Jupiter much attention was directed to the transits of the satellites and their shadows. When near mid-transit, III. and IV. are often seen as black spots, I. is visible as a grey spot, while II. is rarely, if ever, visible otherwise than as a bright spot. These anomalies have never received a satisfactory ex- planation, and further observations are much required as to the relative tints of the satellites when on Jupiter and the variations noticeable in different transits. Saturn, though not presenting such an extent of con- spicuous detail as Jupiter, is yet equally deserving of systematic study. The rings and numerous array of satellites compensate for lack of detail in the belts. The outer division in the ring, called after Encke, supplies us with a crucial test object, and one which perhaps has originated more difference of opinion amongst observers than any other planetary detail of which the existence is well assured. Either this division must be liable to fluctuate at short intervals or the evidence afforded by various telescopes is most conflicting, and suggests how careful we should be before accepting individual results when not corroborated or supported by undeniable testimony. : During the last few oppositions a very definite narrow dark belt has bounded the southern side of the equator, and this has attracted more comment than usual owing to its compact and very obvious appearance. This belt exhibits no distinct spots, though one or two observers have delineated it with marked condensations. The fainter belts nearer the pole are so very feeble that their existence is sometimes questionable. Indeed the features of this planet are of extreme delicacy, and require not only very steady air but a thoroughly good eye and in- strument to trace them in their more minute forms. Some of them are doubtless variable and have given rise to the contradictions we have referred to. As to the satellites they comprise test objects for telescopes of all calibre. The identification of these bodies may be suit- ably effected at any hour by means of Mr. Marth’s ephemerides (Wonthly Notices, June, 1885). W. F. DENNING NATURE [Oct. 8, 1885 RADIANT LIGHT AND HEAT? Ill. (Continued) Absorption—Terrestrial Applications. ET us next consider the absorption spectra of sub- stances, that is to say, the absorption lines which substances at ordinary temperatures produce in the spectrum of light from a high temperature source, such as the sun or the electric arc. This absorption may either be general or selective ; it may be spread over a large portion of the spectrum, or it may act specially over a very limited district or line. It is in the latter case that we derive most advantage by studying absorption spectra, and there are many substances which may be known at a glance by means of their peculiar absorption. Professor Stokes has shown, for instance, that blood may at once be distinguished from other solutions of similar tint by means of the characteristic dark bands which it produces. By means of a spectrum microscope Mr. Sorby thinks that the thousandth part of a grain of blood may be detected, and the same observer asserts that wines of different vintages can easily be distinguished from one another in the same way. It thus appears that the absorption spectrum may in many cases furnish us with an efficient and simple means of ascertaining adulteration, for the presence of inferior substances which escape detection by the taste or sight will at once be recognised when spectrum analysis is employed. Russell, Gladstone, Abney, Festing, and others have studied with much success the spectra of solid and liquid bodies. The absorption spectra of gases and vapours at low temperatures have been studied by various physicists, and amongst them by Janssen, Roscoe, Schuster, and Locwyer. Brewster, as we have seen, was the first to observe the effect produced on the solar spectrum by nitrous acid gas; other gases have since been tried in the same way, and many of these give out channelled or fluted absorption lines similar to those given out by nitrous acid gas. In fine, various researches lead us to conclude that gases, and more especially vapours, are in a state of greater molecular complexity at a low than at a high temperature, for at a low temperature they have a prominent absorp- tion for many kinds of rays, whereas at a high temperature they have no such strong absorptive power, but absorb and radiate only a few definite spectral lines. This simplification produced in spectra by the rise of temperature has been greatly insisted on by Lockyer, and will again come under our review when we have discussed the celestial applications of spectrum analysis. Meanwhile, I cannot do better than quote the words of Lockyer in his Treatise on the Spectroscope and its applications (NATURE Series) :—“ We may state generally (says that observer) that beginning with one element in its most rarified condition, and then following its spectrum as the molecules come nearer together, so as at last to reach the solid form, we shall find that spectrum become more complicated as this approach takes place, until at last a continuous spectrum is reached.” Before concluding this division of my subject, it will be necessary to allude to the absorptive effect produced by the earth’s atmosphere on the light and heat of the sun. This is a point of great practical as well as scientific importance, more especially if we reflect that the atmo- sphere is a covering of variable composition, and that the variable element (aqueous vapour) is one which no doubt exercises a large absorptive influence upon the rays of the sun. But there is another element of variability in the sun itself, for we more than suspect that the amount of radiant energy which we receive from our luminary depends to some unknown extent upon the state of his surface, and may thus be different in years characterised by a maximum number of sun spots, and in years charac- terised by a small number of these phenomena. An * Continued from p 425. additional complication is introduced by the suspicion that one of these causes of variability may react upon the other in such a way that in those years when the radiation of the sun is intrinsically most powerful (if there be such) an ab- normally large amount of aqueous vapour may be dis- solved in the air, so that we may have on such occasions an increased absorption as well as a large intrinsic radia- tion, and the one of these causes may thus, to a great extent, cover or conceal the other. Bearing these points in mind, I shall divide my remarks into two sections. I shall treat, 2 the first place, of the means which we have at our disposal for estimating the whole amount of radiant energy which reaches us from the sun at any station, whether this be near the level of the sea or at an elevation above it. In the second place, 1 shall allude to the means we have at our disposal for estimating the amount of any one kind of radiant energy that reaches us from the sun. An instrument by means of which we may ascertain the amount of the sun’s radiant energy is called an Actinometer. I have recently suggested such an instrument for measuring the heating effect of the sun, which has been tried at various stations, and appears to work well. It consists of a thick hollow cube of brass, surrounded with felt, and then again with a covering of polished brass. Into the interior of this chamber a suitable thermometer is inserted, its bulb being exactly in the centre. There is a small hole in one of the sides, through which the heat of the sun condensed by a lens is made to fall upon the bulb of the thermometer, the instrument having a motion in altitude and azimuth so as to enable it to catch the sun readily. The exposure is made for a definite time, as given by a good chronometer. Instruments of this kind have been established in various places and at various elevations, and we shall certainly be able to derive from them information of im- portance as regards the meteorology of the place. To what extent we shall be able by their means to separate between the two apparent causes of solar variability, namely, that due to an intrinsic change in the sun itself, and that due toa change in the constitution of the earth’s atmosphere, is perhaps an open question. It may be hoped that such an instrument may at least enable us to advance the problem, even if it prove insufficient to bring it to a complete solution. Again, Professor Sir Henry Roscoe has invented an instrument intended to record the effect of the sun in blackening chloride of silver. He is able to prepare a paper of a standard sensitiveness, which, by an auto- matic arrangement, is exposed for known intervals of time. This is an instrument from which we shall no doubt obtain valuable information, more especially as the more refrangible rays of the sun play an important part in terrestrial economy. Still, however, it does not at first sight escape the objection above mentioned, or enable us to discriminate between the two apparent causes of solar variability—the celestial and the atmospheric. It has been remarked by the Solar Physics Com- mittee, in their report to the British Government (page 65) that by comparing with a standard certain def- nite regions of the solar spectrum, unabsorbed by any of the constituents of the earth’s atmosphere, we might be able to ascertain any variation in the quantity or in the quality of the true solar radiation. This leads me to inquire what means we have at present of estimating the amount of any particular kind of ray which we receive from the sun. In the first place, we have the recent extension by Captain Abney of the powers of photography, in virtue of which it is not too much to assert that we can now obtain a complete map of the solar spectrum, with its absorption lines extending greatly beyond the visible spectrum on either side. We have also the invention and successful construc- Oct. 8, 1885 | NATURE 551 tion by Professor Langley of his Bolometer, which is an instrument for detecting and measuring small quantities of radiant heat much more sensitive than the thermopile. It depends upon the fact that the electrical resistance of a metalis increased as it rises in temperature. Suppose, now, that two circuits conveying equal and Opposite currents meet in a galvanometer, the needle will of course remain at rest. If, however, a portion of one of these two circuits be heated, its resistance will be increased, and the current passing through it will thus be diminished. The two opposing currents will now no longer balance each other, and in consequence the gal- vanometer needle will be deflected. In the bolometer the two circuits each contain a sheet of extremely thin platinum foil, so that a very small romeo a a er ey WT MIO shaded curve above the spectrum represents the obser- vations made by Professor Langley with his Bolometer at the foot of the mountain. We have next a dotted curve derived from observations at the top of the moun- tain, and, finally, another representing the probable curve of solar energy above the limits of the atmosphere. It follows from these curves that if we could view the sun beyond the limits of the atmosphere the light would be decidedly blue. There can be no doubt that the improved process of photography devised by Captain Abney, and the Bolo- meter of Professor Langley, furnish us with excellent differential instruments by which we may compare at any place and moment the relative distribution of solar energy over the various parts of the spectrum. If either of these observers could produce such a uniformity in his process that his results of to-day should be exactly comparable with those ten or twelve years afterwards, then his method would go far to obtain for us the requisite information regarding solar variability. But I fear that we cannot expect this, at any rate for some time to come. As it is, we learn by the foregoing diagram what are the regions of the solar spectrum most affected by the selective absorption of the components of the earth’s atmosphere, fer Professor Langley imagines that the gaps in the shaded curve are caused by this means. Let me now venture, in conclusion, to make the following suggestion. By aid of the information furnished by the instruments now described, let us select certain regions of the spectrum for which in the shaded curve there are no gaps, and in the spectrum below it no corresponding dark lines ; that is to say, regions for which there is no selective absorption. Now let us throw the energy from these selected regions either upon the standard sensitive paper of Roscoe’s actinometer, or upon the thermometer of a suitable heat-actinometer, or upon both. We shall by this means greatly simplify the problem under consideration, since these instruments will now be recording the intensity from year to year of those por- tions of the solar spectrum which are not subject, as far as we know, to selective absorption from the variable constituent of the atmosphere of the earth. It is possible that the rays which blacken chloride of silver are rays on which this variable constituent exercises aM ASS — =s Hi ——— MI I} little or no selective absorption, although the general absorption of these rays is no doubt very considerable : ULNA T Fic. 10. quantity of radiant heat falling upon these may produce a considerable result. These sheets may be compared to the two faces of the pile, and if the one be heated we shall have a current in the one direction, while if the other be heated we shall have a current in the opposite direction. By this instrument Professor Langley has determined with much precision the exact distribution of energy in the solar spectrum. But he has done more than this: he has carried his instrument up to the top of Mount Whitney, in America, and has thus procured us much information regarding the absorbent effect of the various constituents of the earth’s atmosphere. The following diagram (Fig. 10) exhibits the result of his researches. In it the lower band represents the solar spectrum as obtained by a perfect method. The in this case no special adaptation to the chemical actino- meter would be necessary. To conclude, I think we may entertain a well-grounded hope that by patience and persistence in these or similar means, we shall ultimately arrive at a definite solution of this very interesting and important problem. BALFOUR STEWART (To be continued.) NOTES THE Geological Congress met last week at Berlin. England was represented by Messrs. Geikie, Hughes, Bauermann, Hinde, Marr, Topley, White, Woodall, Lieut.-Col. Tabuteau, and Se NATURE [ Oct. 8, 1885 Capt. Shelley. Altogether there were 248 members, represent- ing Germany, Austria, Belgium, Spain, the United States of America, France, India (Mr. Blanford), Italy, Japan, Norway, Holland, Portugal, Roumania, Russia, Sweden, and Switzer- land. Mr. W. H. WuITe, who has succeeded Sir N. Barnaby as Director of Naval Construction, has entered upon his duties at the Admiralty. WE regret to learn of the death of Walter Weldon, F.R.S., the eminent technical chemist, in his fifty-third year. Mr. Weldon’s name is well known in connection with the Weldon process for the regeneration of the manganese peroxide used in the generation of chlorine, and with the consequent revolution in the production of bieaching-lime, affecting favourably such important industries as the cotton and paper trades. THE Annual Exhibition of the Photographic Society was opened on Monday; the exhibits are up to the average of recent years. Sir JoHN Luspock unveiled on Thursday last, at Birming- ham, a marble statue of the late Sir Josiah Mason, which has been placed in the square between the Science College and the Town Hall. Referring to the Mason College, Sir John said that such an institution was all the more needed on account of the extraordinary manner in which science is still neglected in our public schools, There were, indeed, according to the Tech- nical Commission, only three schools in Great Britain in which science is fully and adequately taught. The majority of schools devoted to it less than three hours out of forty. Scientific men claimed for it six hours, which, with the same number for mathematics, ten for modern languages, and two for geography, would still leave no less than sixteen for classics. He advocated the general teaching of science, because it would add to the interest and brightness of life, would purify and ennoble the character, and because, with our rapidly-increasing population, it was almost a necessity, if our people were to be maintained in comfort. As regards the first point, it was quite a mistake to regard science as dry and uninteresting. Sometimes it might destroy a poetical idea, such as the ancient Hindoo theory of rivers—that Indra ‘‘ dug out their beds with his thunderbolts and sent them forth by long continuous paths.” But the real causes of natural phenomena were far more striking, and con- tained more real poetry than any that had occurred to the un- trained imagination of mankind. Not our happiness only, but in many cases our very life itself depended on our knowledge of science. Huxley had well asked, ‘‘ Whether, if it were per- fectly certain that the life and fortune of every one of us would one day depend on our winning a game of chess we should not all learn something of the game. Yet it is a very plain truth that the life and fortune of every one of us depend on our knowing something of the rules of a game in- finitely more difficult. It is a game which has been played for untold ages, every man and woman of us being one of the two players. The chessboard is the world, the pieces are the phe- nomena of the universe, the rules of the game are what we call the laws of nature. The player on the other side is hidden from us. We know that his play is always fair, just, and patient. But also we know, to our cost, that he never over- looks a mistake, or makes the smallest allowance for ignorance. To the man who plays well the highest stakes are paid with overflowing generosity, but one who plays ill is checkmated— without haste, but without remorse.” The national necessity for science was most imperative. Even now we required to purchase food to the amount of 150,000,000/, a year. A century hence our coal would be approaching exhaustion, our population would be trebled, and we should require, to speak moderately, 400,000,000/. to pay for food. Nothing but the development of scientific training and appliances would enable us, under these circumstances, to maintain our population in happiness and comfort. We had, in fact, the choice between science and suffering. Mr. H. H. JOHNSTON appeals in the Z¢mes for subscriptions to make good the loss which Mr. H. O. Forbes has sustained while embarking at Batavia for his exploring journey in New Guinea. The boat which was carrying all his baggage on board ship suddenly capsized, and the unfortunate explorer in a few seconds lost all his equipment, a loss which it would probably take about r050/. to replace. Mr. Forbes, it may be remem- bered, was subsidised by the Royal, the Scottish, and the Australian Geographical Societies, while the British Association at Aberdeen has madea grant of 150/. to help to replace his loss. What excellent work Mr. Forbes is capable of doing for science is shown in his recently-published work on the Malay Archi- pelago. He lost no time in getting to Brisbane, and has doubt- less there obtained on credit such articles as will enable him to go on with his work, as according to the latest news he is again on his way to New Guinea. Subscriptions may be sent to the Secretary, Royal Geographical Society, Savile Row, W. In a few days the rock in the Hell Gate entrance to New York harbour, from Long Island Sound, is to be blown up by a party under the command of General Newton, United States Engineer. For nine years the work of ex- cavation has been in progress. The rock has been honey- combed with chambers, the surface being still supported by columns of rock, into which dynamite cartridges have been fitted. Some 45,090 of these cartridges cased with copper have been laid. The work of distributing the cartridges began in July, 1884, and has just been completed, 275,000 lbs. of dynamite having been used. The explosion is to be brought about by means of an automatic detonator, placed upon Flood Rock, an electric connection with the land being established. It is expected that the explosion will pulverise the whole of the rock, without making much commotion in the water, or doing harm beyond a distance of 1000 feet. The ¢ébris will afterwards be removed, so as to make a channel 26 feet deep at low water. Flood Rock and the adjacent reefs under water which will be destroyed cover a space of nine acres. THE Rev. M. F. Billington, of Chalbury Rectory, Wim- borne, Dorset, writes to the 7zmes under date September 29 :— “*This afternoon, at 5 o’clock precisely, we witnessed from this hill, of 365 feet altitude, a most perfect reflection in the clouds of a ship in full sail. The Purbeck Hills, situate about thirteen or fourteen miles to our south-west, shut out our direct view of the sea in that direction, and in all our long experience of many beautiful views of the coast line we have never before observed this curious phenomenon. It lasted for about three minutes, and then slowly faded out of sight.” On September 29, between § and 9 p.m., a mirage somewhat similar to that described last week (p. 541) was again observed by many persons at Valla in Sweden. The entire lower part of the north-western horizoa shone with a lurid glare, above which was a cloud-bank assuming the most remarkable forms. From time to time animals, trees, and shrubs were seen. Soon a bear changed into an elephant, and soon a dog into a horse. Later on groups of dancers were seen, men being distinguished from women. of which was a valley, and nearer still a park with sanded paths. At about 9.30 the cloud sank into a mass, and the phenomenon disappeared. THE Royal Microscopical Society will meet at King’s College, W.C., on Wednesday, the 14th inst., at eight o’clock, when the Further north the cloud formed an oak forest, in front » Oct. 8, 1885] following papers will be read :—Dr. Maddox: On the Feeding of Insects with Bacilli. Mr. T. B. Rossiter: On the Gizzard of the Larvee of Corethra plumicornis. ARRANGEMENTS are being made for the establishment of a Zoological Garden in Christiania. DuRING last week a series of experiments were carried out upon North Sea trawling vessels with a view to lighting them by electricity. The attempt was on the whole satisfactory. The introduction of electric light into fishing-boats would prove invaluable, but the heavy expenditure involved in such a scheme would exclude its general usage. THE United States Fish Commission report a great decrease in the halibut and cod fisheries of America. The cause for this is attributed either to low temperatures of water or the destruc- tion of fry by reckless fishing. A general falling off of flat-fish is reported from Germany this year, and a diminution in the herring fishery is recorded from Belgium. The increased number of fishermen off Holland and the destruction of immature fish has produced a bad effect upon the fishery of that place. THE National Fish Culture Association have made arrange- ments to import a large consignment of carp from Germany for the purpose of acclimatising them to the waters of the United Kingdom. Numerous applications have been made from all parts for supplies of these fish, which are far superior to our own species. In Germany, China, France, and America carp farm- ing is extensively prosecuted with highly satisfactory and remunerative results. WE have received the report for the summer session of 1885 of the Queenwood College Mutual Improvement Society. It describes in detail the various excursions of the session, and would make an admirable guide for the parts of Hampshire and the Isle of Wight visited. WE have received from the author a pamphlet containing a geological sketch of the Island of Antigua, by Mr. Purves, which was originally contributed to the Bud/etin of the Royal Museum of Natural History of Belgium. Prior to this paper the only information on the subject was contained in a paper by Dr. Nugent, published in 1819, and by Prof. Hovay, published in the American Journal of Science in 1839. The pamphlet is illustrated by a geological sketch map. THE Queen has been pleased to grant to Prof. W. Chandler Roberts, F.R.S., of the Royal Mint, authority to use after his paternal name the name of his uncle, the late Major N. L. Austen, J.P., of Haffenden and Combourne, in the county of Kent. THE additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens during the past week include a Toque Monkey (Macacus pileatus 6) from Ceylon, presented by Mr. Septimus Smith; a Green Monkey (Cercopithecus callitrichus 8) from West Africa, a Macaque Monkey (MJacacus cynomolgus 2 ) from India, presented by Mr. S. T. K. D. Potter, F.R.G.S. ; six Indian Fruit Bats (Preropus medius) from India, presented by Mr. W. Jamrach; two Canadian Skunks (Mephitis mephitica) from North America, presented by Dr. C. Hart Merriam, C.M.Z.S. ; a Common Badger (JZ¢es faxus), British, presented by Lord Egerton of Tatton, F.Z.S. ; a Ring-necked Parrakeet ( Paleornis torquata) from India, presented by Mrs. Douglas ; a Common Barn Owl (Strix flammea), British, presented by Miss Linda Raven; two Common Guinea-Fowls (Mumida cristata), British, presented by Mr. C. H. Hopwood, M.P. ; a Loggerhead Turtle ( 7ha/asso- chelys caouana) from the Atlantic Ocean, presented by Mr. A. Duncan Fraser ; four Hog-nosed Snakes (/eterodon platyrhinos), a Say’s Snake ( Coronella suyi), two Snakes ( Coluber alleghani- ensis), an American Black Snake (Coluder constrictor) from NATURE 553 Indiana, North America, presented by Mr. F. J. Thompson ; a Greater Sulphur-crested Cockatoo (Cacatwa galerita) from Australia, a Great Bird of Paradise (Paradisea apoda) from the Aroo Islands, a Common Cormorant (Fhalacrocorax carbo), British, an Emu (Dromeus nove-hollandiz) from Australia, a Gigantic Salamander (AZegalobatrachus maximus) from Japan, deposited. OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN THE SATELLITES OF URANUS AND NEPTUNE.—In Appen- dices I and II. of the Washington Observations for 1881, Prof. Asaph Hall has published the results of his investigation of the orbits of the outer satellites of Uranus, Odevon and Titania, and the satellite of Neptune. The satellites of Uranus were amongst the first objects observed with the 26-inch refractor of the Naval Observatory, after it was mounted in November, 1873. The first series during the oppositions of 1874 and 1875 were discussed by Prof. Newcomb, with the view to the determination of the mass of the planet, and the formation of tables of the motions of the satellites, which were published in the Washington Observations for 1873. Remarking that as the earth would be nearly in the plane of the orbits in the year 1882, and observations made about that year would probably afford a good determination of the position of this plane, Prof. Hall commenced a new series in March, 1881, which were continued through the foar opposi- tions until the end of May, 1884 ; these observations were made with magnifiers of 606 and 888 ; in fair conditions of the atmo- sphere the outer satellites are stated to be easily observable with the Washinzton instrument. A comparison of the measures with Prof. Newcomb’s tables showed that those tables required but small corrections, which were found by equations of condi- tion in the usual manner. It should be mentioned that the tables were founded mainly upon Prof. Newcomb’s own measures ; those by Prof. Hall in the years 1875 and 1876 are included in his recent discussion. For the position of the nodes and inclination of the orbits of the satellites, Prof. Hall finds— N = 165°°81 + 0° o142¢ I 75°30 — 0° 001 4t ¢ being the number of years from 1883/0. The mean value of the mass of Uranus by the observations of I Il : Ir aw. I neo Oberon is 22603? and by those of 7ztania, 22833' or, combining I 22682" This value, though somewhat smaller than those previously ob- tained, Prof. Hall thinks is as good as he could obtain with the filar-micrometer of the large refractor, and he does not consider that there would be much gained by a continuation of the measures. He mentions that during the oppositions of the planet from 1881 to 1884, which were es, ecially favourable for the search after new satellites, he made careful examination on several good nights along the orbit plane of the known satellites, without finding any new ones. The orbits of O¢eron and Titania appear to be sensibly circular. Prof. Hall's discussion of the elements of the orbit of the satellite of Neptune is founded upon his own observations during the oppositions of 1875 and 1876, and those of 1881—84 ; in addition, he has made use of Prof. Holden’s measures in the interval 1874 December—1878 November, and has also dis- cussed those of Lassell and Marth taken at Malta in 1863 and 1864. Prof. Newcomb’s elements are corrected by the formation of equations of condition and their solution, as in the case of the satellites of Uranus. The following are the principal results :— the values with their respective weights, the final result is N = 184°°32 + 0°'0095¢ I = 120705 + 0°0005¢ ¢ being counted from 1883'0. Comparing the observations of 1881—84 with those of Lassell and Marth, the periodic time is found to be §°876839 mean solar days ; that deduced by Mr. Hind, which was adopted by Prof. Newcomb in his tables, is 5°8769 days ; the small difference would produce a change of about 5° in the true position of the satellite in its orbit at the beginning of next century, and Prof. Hall leaves it to future observations to decide whether his correction is required. 304 The values of the mass of Neptune from his measmes at different oppositions, and from’ those of Lassell and Marth and of Holden differ sensibly. The mean result from Hall’s own observations is t ; he remarks that his distances are gene- 2 rally smaller than those of other observers, and believes that, in order to eliminate the effect of such personal equation from the determination of the mass of a planet, the only way will be to | increase the number of observers and to take a mean of their results. Hall’s value approaches nearly to that found by Prof. Newcomb, 19380 ° On favourable nights examinations of the region about Nep- tune were made, but no other satellite was detected. VARIABLE Stars (1).—The following Greenwich times of geocentric minima of Algo] have been deduced from elements corrected by the later observations of Schmidt :— h. m. h. m. November 8 « 5 7 | December 7 7 16 II II 56 18 xeoe S83 14 8 45 21 15 22 17 5 34 24 Laut 28 16 49 27 9 0 December I 13 38 30 5 49 4 Io 2 (2)R Leonis will now be approaching a maximum ; there would appear to be indications of a sensible perturbation in the period during the last twenty years or more. (3) V Piscium, one of Argelander’s supposed variables, is now favourably placed for observation ; his estimates vary from 6°7 m. to 9m. ; the posi- tion of this star for 18850 is in R.A. rh. 48m. 18s., Decl. + 8° 12'9. (4) Argelander’s formula of sines makes a maximum of Mira Cet2 due on December 19, but it may probably occur earlier. ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA FOR THE WEER, 1885, OCTOBER 11-17 (For the reckoning of time the civil day, commencing at Greenwich mean midnight, counting the hours on to 24, is here employed. ) At Greenwich on October 11 Sun rises, 6h. 20m. ; souths, 11h. 46m. 418s. ; sets, 17h. 14m. ; decl. on meridian, 7° 11' S.: Sidereal Time at Sunset, 18h, 36m. Moon (three days after New) rises, 9h. 4om. ; souths, 14h. 28m. ; sets, 19h. 13m. ; decl. on meridian, 15° 18’ S. Planet Rises Souths Sets Decl. on meridian . m, h. m. h. m. Bo 2, Mercury... 5 55 Hie) 17 15 4355 Venus - £0 17, I4 23 18 2 21 2858. Mars Odd =. 7 40 15 27 17 44 N. Jupiter SibAly aa OUTS 16 38 3 38 N. Batu. .... 21 8*>... 5 a6 13 22 22 18N. * Indicates that the rising is that of the preceding day. Phenomena of Fupiter’s Satellites Oct. h. m. Oct. h. m. re 4 37 IV. ecl. disap.| 14 4 50 I. tr. egr. 13 4 51 I. ecl. disap. | 16 A 7 II. testes The Phenomena of Jupiter's Satellites are such as are visible at Greenwich. Oct. h. [ie ig Venus in conjunction with and 6° 23 south of the Moon. 16 fe) Mercury in superior conjunction with the Sun. 17 2 Venus at greatest distance from the Sun, GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES ACCORDING to the report by Lieut. Wissmann on his last exploration in the Congo region, the Lower Kassai constitutes a magnificent fluvial artery, frequently of enormous breadth, and leads without obstacle into the heart of the new Congo State. Between the station of Kwamouth and the confluent of the Lulua and above the station of Luluaburg the Kassai, with a breadth of about 600 kilometres, is everywhere open for naviga- tion. It runs through a country of wonderful fertility, presenting NATURE [Oct. 8, 1885 alternately plains and virgin forests, and inhabited by a dense population. With abeut one exception the travellers have been received everywhere with eagerness by peaceable tribes, all dis- posed to trade. During the forty-two days employed in the voyage from Luluaburg to Kwamouth the health of the expedi- tion was excellent. There was no loss of life, except that two natives were drowned in the rapids of the Lulua. Tke five white men and the 200 Negroes of the Expedition arrived all in good health at Léopoldville on July 16. THE current number of Pefermann’s Mittheilungen contains the conclusion of M. Thoroddsen’s paper on a lava desert in the interior of Iceland. It supplies certain geographical and scien: tific observations of the writers, such as the superficial dimen- sions, height, &c., hydrography, climate, geology, volcanoes, glaciers, botany, and zoology of the interior of Iceland. Herr Has-enstein describes, with a large map, Bohndorff’s journeys in Central Africa between 1874 and 1883. The usual geo- graphical information for the month, and account of the litera_ure concludes the number. THE most interesting contribution, however, to /e/ermann this month is a short prefatory sketch on the history of the great geographical house of Perthes of Gotha, September 11 being the centenary of its foundation. In 1801 the first geographical work was published by Perthes, and in 1809 he published a large atlas by Prof. Heusinger. Under the second proprietor, Wilhelm Perthes, who was head of the establishment between 1816 and 1853, the publications of the house assumed their geo- graphical and cartographical character. In 1817 appeared the first edition of Stieler’s Atlas, consisting of fifty maps, and between 1823 and 1831 a supplement of twenty-nve more was added. This Atlas has now for nearly seventy years been the principal work published by the house of Perthes. It has been kept up to date, and the number of the maps, which in 1862 was 84, grew in 1871 to 90, and in 1879 to 95. The total number of maps, old andnew, amountsto 197. Besides Stieler, Berghans (1797-1884), Spruner and Sydow supported Perthes. In 1832 Berghans’s great atlas of the extra-European countries appeared, It was a financial failure, but it carried the name of the house abroad, and laid the foundation of its world-wide fame. In 1838 the publication of the same author's Physical Atlas in 93 maps was completed. Between 1837 and 1852 Spruner’s Historical-geographical Atlas appeared, and was fol- lowed by various editions. Wilhelm Perthes died in 1853, and Bernhardt Perthes reigned in his stead for only four years, leaving a posthumous son, the present Justus Perthes. Peter- mann, who died in 1878, commenced his celebrated Aittheii- ungen in 1855. The publications of the house since that date are well-known to all geographers; Behm’s ‘‘ Geographical Year-Book,” and Behm and Wagner's ‘‘ Population of the Globe,” are works of world-wide celebrity. On Fiiday last, after an absence of nearly three years, the Danish exploration expedition to the east coast of Greenland, under Lieutenants Holm and Garde, returned to Copenhagen in the ship Cons/ance from Godihaab. We have from time to time given particulars of the progress of this exptdition, the chief object of which was to penetrate as far north along the east coast as possible, and to attempt to reach certain native settle- ments known to exist between latitudes 65° and 66° N. The expedition has fulfilled all expectations, besides the collection of a valuable scientific material, Lieut. Holm having wintered in lat. 65°-66°, the highest point reached being lat. 66°08° N., the northernmost ever reached by Europeans. Lieut. Holm is stated to have made some very valuable geographical and ethno- graphical discoveries, having spent last winter among East Greenlanders never before visited by Europeans. He hasnamed the stretch of coast explored, King Christian [X.’s Land. A WRITER who has travelled widely through Tonquin and Southern China describes, in a recent number of the Republique Francaise, the route from Lao-Kai, on the Red River, to Meng- tsze in Yunnan. Premising that the river from the mouth to Lao-Kai, on the Tonquin border, is tolerably well known, he refers to the various routes for getting into South-Western China, but is far from enthusiastic about any of them, although he thinks that France in Tonquin has as much chance of getting the China trade as any of her rivals in the south. The wniter then describes the route along the river from Lao-Kai to Manhao, the head of the Red River navigation. From this point the road to the plateau of Yunnan is said to be mountainous and Oct. 8, 1885] NATURE 555 ee a EOE EEE EEE ee ee difficult in the extreme. The article is of special valu2 at the present moment, when the question of trade routes int» South- Western China has assumed so much prominence. THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION SECTION C—GEoLocy Some Resuits of a Detailed Survey of the Old Coast-Lines near Trondhjem. Norway, by Hugh Miller, F.G.S., H.M. Geological Survey.—During a short visit to Norway in October, 1884, it appeared to the author that the best way to help to a solution of the vexed questions connected with the coast-terracing of Nor- way was to execute a careful survey of a few square miles of some suitable coast-region upon a sufficiently large scale. The neighbourhood of Trondhjem is remarkably well suited to this purpose. The map employed was partly a municipal chart on the scale of I-10,000, and partly an enlargement of the Ordnance map. ‘The limit of all the terraces and marine deposits is the fanous “‘strand line” west of the town, a double range of old coast-cliff cut in the rock of the mountain-side. Its upper line is 580 feet above the sea, and answers to the “ marine limit” over Norway generally. Numbers of level terrace-lines have been incised—chiefly in greenish clays, like brick-clays—all along the arable slopes east of the town between this rock- terrace and the sea. Aove the Bay of Leangen, two miles east of town and river, and far beyond all erosive influence of the latter, thirty of these lines were mapped one above another in the first 300 feet of ascent, a distance of one and a half mile. Many of these are small but extremely distinct, the earthy clays being well suited to retain sharp impressions of successive sea- margins, which these unequivocally are. The present coast-line, neatly etched out by the waves in Trondhjem and Leangen Bays, is the key to these tiers of older ones. It also resembles them in having made little or no impression where the coast becomes rocky, the lines of incision in both cases stopping short at oice when they reach the harder material. The old coast- lines are most numerous in well-sheltered positions. Thus a sinzle pair of large terraces in an exposed situation east from Christiansten, where they face the open water of the fjord and the prevalent north-westerl, storms, is represented in the recess above Leangen Bay by ten or twelve. The same fact is brought out on rising from this recess to the higher and more exposed ground. Thus, while thirty-three or thirty-four terrac*s are mapped below 350 feet (approximate) elevation, only niie or ten appear between that level and the rock-terraces of the upper marine limit, the numerical average height of the terraces thus risinz by more than a half. In recesses of the coast further east, but beyond the map, these upper terraces seem to be preserved in considerably greater numbers. The number actually mapped was forty-three, or, with the two rock-terraces, forty-five. The largest nunhber of terraces hitherto described at any one place in Norway seems to have been eighteen. Some of the general conclusions of the author are as follows :—-(1) These terraces are all post-glacial, 7.¢. formed since the rock-glaciation of the dis- trict. This is confirmed by the coadition of the high coast-cliff, which has been cut in ice-rounded rock, but is not itself glaciated. It appears, however, from the fauna of the raised shell-banks of the country (as worked out by Sars and Kjerulf), in which recent shells do not rise above 380 feet, that the seas of the upper levels were still glacial; and, though the Trondhjem fjord was free from land-ice, other deeper fjords and higher coasts may still have had glaciers coming into conflict with the sea, and producing the glaciated rock-terraces described by Sexe. All the evidence obtained discountenances Sexe’s view that these rock-terraces were cut out by glaciers, as well as Carl Petersen’s that they were rasped out by floating ice coasting the shores. On the clay terraces coast-ice has left no more sign of its presence than the winter freezing of our British rivers leaves upon our river-terraces. (2) If the coun'ry was upraised by a succession of elevatory jerks, as supposed by most geologists from Keilhau downwards, most of these would seem to have been small—much smaller, at least, than is supposed by Kjerulf. It is improbable that even Leanzgen Bay was secluded enough to contain a record of all the oviginw coist-lines. The longer pauses and greater storms may have effaced an unknown number by a process of excision exemplified in all its stages by the map. It is hard to say, in fact, where the subdivision would end if all were preserved. The smaller terraces remind the eye of the incised lines and little planes engraved on the sandbanks bordering the rivers after a flood, in which case there is no periodicity in the subsidence of the waters, (3) The preserva- tion or excision of the terraces thus seems to depend as much upon local circumstances—exposure to storms, resistance of coast-line, &c.—as upon anything else. It is impossible at present to predicate which of them shall in any given place remain. Whether elevation by jerks, therefore, b> postulated or not, all hope of correlating these terraces throughout the country must be deferred until their heights have been accurately determined by level. The measurements hitherto made, not even excepting those of Profs. Kjerulf and Mohn, are probably inadequate for the purpose. This observation seems to apply also to the terraces graven in rock. In their aneroid measure- ments of the upper strand-line at Trondhjem these observers differ by 55 feet. (5) On entering the mouth of the Trondhjem Valley the terraces come under an influence other than that of the sea-waves. The valley was worked out, in deposits partly levelled out by the sea, according to the laws of river-terracing under the accelerating influences of a falling sea-level. The processes of automatic river-terracing are beautifully exemp- lified within the district mapped in the deep lobe-shaped curve of the river just before it enters the sea. The terraces have been added one after another to the point of the lobe of land thus surrounded, which is known as Oen. The Glacial Deposits of Montrose, by Dr. J. C. Howden. — These consist, in order of age—(1) a marine clay containing fossils of a purely Arctic type, apparently the bottom of a deep sea. Above this is seen the estuarine clay, beneath which, how- ever, are often found deposits of peat. Over the estuarine clay is a bed of stratified sand, and above that a dense non-fossiliferous Carse Clay, varying in thickness from 4 to 6 feet. The sequence of these deposits was held by the author to indicate interglacial periods. Trish Metamorphic Rocks, by G. H. Kinahan, M.R.1.A.— This paper is an epitome of what is known as to the age of the Irish Metamorphic rocks. Barium Sulphate as a Cementing Material in Sandstone, by Prof. Frank Clowes, D.Sc.—The author described the ‘‘ Hem- lock stone” and other similar blocks of Lower Keuper sandstone in the neighbourhood of Nottingham. They stand out in hard masses from the more easily denuded sandstone around them. Analysis has shown that the cementing material of the upper part is barium sulphate. This being practically insoluble with- stands denudation and protects the lower part from waste, this lower part being mainly cemented by calcareous matter. Bischof has proved the occurrence of barium sulphate as a cementing material in some foreign sandstones, but the fact is probably new in Britain. ia On Dep Borings at Chatham. A Contribution to the Deep seated Gelozy of the London Basin, by W. Whitaker, BAX, F.G.S., Assoc. Inst.C.E.—A few years ago the Admiralty made a boring in the Chatham Dockyard extension, to the depth of 9033 feet, just reaching the Lower Greensand, and in 1883-84 followed this by another boring near by. After passing through 27 feet of Alluvium and Tertiary beds, 682 of chalk, and 193 feet of Gault, the Lower Greensand was again reached ; but, on continuing the boring, was found to be only 41 feet thick, when it was succeeded by a stiff clay, which, from its fossils, is found to be Oxford clay, a formation not before known to occur in Kent. At its outcrop, about seven miles to the south, the Lower Greensand is 209 feet thick, aid is succeeded, a little further south, by the Weald Clay, there 600 feet thick. Not only, however, has this 600 feet of clay wholly disappeared, but also the whole of the next underlying set of deposits, the Hastings beds, which crop out everywhere from beneath the Weald Clay, and are also some hundreds of feet thick. More than this, the Purbeck Beds, which underlie the Hastings Beds near Battle, are absent, and also the Portlandian, Kimme- tidze Clay, Corallian, &c.; beds which have been proved above the Oxford Clay in the sub- Wealden Boring, to the great thickness of over 1600 feet. We are therefore faced with a great northerly thinning of the beds below the Gault, a fact agreeing in the main with the evidence given of late years by yarious deep wells in and near London. Three other deep borings have been mide or are being made near Chatham, all of which have passed through the Chalk into the Gault, and one has gainzd a supply from the sand beneath. The practical bearing of the Chatham sectioa is, however, to enforce the danger of counting on getting large supplies of water in the London Basin 556 NATURE [ Oct. 8, 1885 from the Lower Greensand by means of deep borings at any great distance from its outcrop. Even if Lower Greensand occur at all in such places, it will probably be in reduced thick- ness, and therefore with reduced water-capacity. American Evidences of Eocene Mammals of the “* Plastic Clay” Period, by Sir Richard Owen, K.C.B., F.R.S., G.S., &c.—In the year 1843 a fragment of a lower jaw with one entire molar of a mammal was dredged up off the Essex coast. A canine tooth of the same was found in a well-sinking near Camberwell, in piercing the ‘‘ plastic clay.” The author had described the above as belonging to an animal of the Lophiodont family, and proposed for it the generic name Coryphodon. Shortly after- wards De Blainville had noticed certain fossils as ‘‘ probably Coryphodont,” but had referred them to Lophiodon anthra- cotherium. Ten years later Prof. Hébert had recognised two species of Coryphodon in the plastic clay of France. Explora- tions by Leidy, Marsh, and Hayden, in the ‘‘ Mauvaises Terres ” of Nebraska had led to the discovery of a large hoofed mammal allied to Coryphodon, to which the name Zifanotherium had been given, and Prof. Cope has now recognised, from Evanstown, Wyoming, seven species of Coryphodon. From these materials, which have been rendered accessible to European palzon- tologists by the superb volume of reports recently issued by the United States Government, the author is enabled to give a general description of this family of hoofed mammals of large size which flourished in early Eocene times. To the details of this the major part of the paper is devoted. Some Results of the Crystallographic Study of Danburit:, by Dr. Max Schuster.—In studying the characters of the faces and the structure of the Danburite crystals found in Switzerland the author has met with vicinal faces of a peculiar kind, for which he proposes the term ‘‘ transitional faces” (7ichermak Min. Mittheil., vi., 1884, p. 511). Attention is called to the fact that these faces are easily affected by those causes which produce an unequal development of fices otherwise symmetrically dis- posed, and an illustration is given of the way in which their indices are numerically related to those of the principal faces of the crystal. Notice of an Outline Geological Map of Lower Egypt, Arabia Petrea, and Palestine, by Edward Hull, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. —The map exhibited was enlarged from that which accompanies the author’s book, ‘‘ Mount Seir, Sinai, and Western Palestine,” giving a narrative of the expedition sent out into these countries by the Palestine Exploration Society in 1883-84. It embraces a region extending from the valley of the Nile on the west to the table-land of Edom (Mount Seir) and Moab, including the Jordan, Arabah Valley, and the mountains of Sinai. Its northern limit is the Lebanon. The main lines of fault and dip of the strata are also indicated. A topographical and geological map of the Arabah Valley on a scale of about six miles to one inch was in preparation, and would accompany the Geological Report now in the press for the Palestine Exploration Society. A Preliminary Note on a New Fossil Reptile recently dis- covered at New Spynie, near Elgin, by Dr. R. H. Traquair, F.R.S.—Of this most important fossil the author had as yet only seen a photograph submitted to him by Prof Judd, the Pre- sident of the Section. This photograph represents pretty nearly a vertical longitudinal section of a reptilian skull, of which one very prominent feature is the presence of a large conical tusk in the upper jaw, projecting downwards and forwards, immediately behind the premaxillary part of the skull. This tusk is seen only in impression, but the cast of the internal cavity which is well shown indicates that it grew from a permanent pulp. No evidence of any other teeth is visible, and the whole appearance | of the skull as seen in the photograph, with the position and shape of the tusk, indicate that the reptile here represented, if not actually belonging to the genus Dicynodon, is certainly a member of the group of Dicynodontia. Geologists will not underrate the importance of this discovery in its bearing on the question of the age of the reptiliferous sandstone of Elgin. On the Average Density of Meteorites compared with that of the Earth, by the Rey. E. Hill, M.A., F.G.S.—The average density of the meteorites which fall on the earth is attempted to be calculated. Different methods give as results 4°55, 4°58, 4°84, 5°71, the last value being influenced by the size of one particularly large metallic specimen. The average density of the earth is usually regarded as 5°6. Meteorites are samples of the materials of space. A mass of them would aggregate into a body of density not widely differing from that of the earth. The densities of the other planets are not inconsistent with a like origin, Consequently any theory of the genesis of the earth from pre-existing materials involves a probability that an im- portant part of its nucleus is metallic. On the Occurrence of Lower Old Red Conglomerate in the Promontory of the Fanad, North Donegal, by Prof. Edward Hull, LL.D., F.R.S., Director of the Geological Survey of Ireland.—The district in which the Old Red Conglomerate occurs is formed of ridges and valleys of metamorphic rocks, consisting of beds of quartzite, schist, crystalline limestone, and trap, chiefly diorite. It lies between Lough Swilly and Mulroy Bay, and is washed on the north by the waters of the Atlantic. The remarkable tract of the Old Red Conglomerate, recently discovered by the officers of the Geological Survey, is far remote from any mass of the same formation, and it is unrepresented on any geological map hitherto published. The beds consist of red and purple sandstones and conglomerates, made up chiefly of quartzite pebbles and blocks, but also containing others of limestone and trap ; all derived from the surrounding metamor- phic series. They occupy an area of over two miles in length and half a mile across, extending along the northern base of Knock Alla, a ridge of quartzite which traverses the promontory from side to side. The beds dip against the base of the moun- tain, against which they are let down by a large fault, and they terminate along their northern edge by an unconformable super- position on beds of quartzite and limestone. They reach a total thickness of about Soo feet. From the position of these beds it becomes evident that they are unconnected with any of the recognised basins of Lower Old Red Sandstone, either in Scot- land or Ireland, and may, therefore, be regarded as having been formed in an isolated basin, which, following the example of Dr. Geikie, I may be allowed to name ‘‘ Lake Fanad.” The tract will be a new feature on geological maps of Treland. On Bastite-Serpentine aud Troktolite in Aberdeenshire ; with a Note on the Rock of the Black Dg, by Prof. T. G. Bonney, D Se., LL.D., F.R.S., Pres.G.S.—Bastite-serpentine (as noticed some time since by Prof. Heddle) occurs near Belhelvie and on the shore near the Black Dog. The author describes the micro- scopic structure of this, showing that it consists of olivine and its alteration products, enstatite in various stages of alteration, and a mineral of the spinellid group. Associated with this in the Belhelvie district is a fairly normal troktolite, consisting of a_plagioclastic felspar allied to anorthite, olivine, more or less altered, and a little diallage. It closely resembles the typical Volpersdorf rock, but has rather less magnesia and more alumina, corresponding chemically more nearly with a rock de- scri>ed by the author from Coverack Cove, Cornwall. He is of opinion that the two rocks differ somewhat in age, though probably the earlier was still at a high temperature when the latter was intruded, and he inclines to the view that the ser- pentine is the older rock of the two. The Black Dog has been incorrectly described as consisting of ‘‘ crystals of ¢a/e matted in such confusion as to form both a tough and hard rock.” The rock really consists of quartz, sillimanite, two kinds of mica, an iron oxide (hematite ?), and most probably some dichroite, with perhaps a little kyanite. In short, the rock presents a very close resemblance under the microscope to some specimens of the well-known ‘‘ cordierite gneiss” of Bodenmais. On the Re-discovery of Lost Numidian Marbles in Algeria and Tunis, by Lieut.-Col. Playfair, H.M. Consul-General for Algeria and Tunis. —The author explained that the name itself was a misnomer, as they are not found within the limits of Numidia proper, but in the province of Africa and in Mauritania. Most of the ‘‘ Giallo antico” used in Rome was obtained from Simittu Colonia, the modern Chemton, in the valley of the Medgérda, the quarries of which are now being extensively worked by a Belgian company; but the most remarkable and valuable marbles are found near Kleber, in the province of Oran, in Algeria. There, on the top of the Montagne Grise, exists an elevated plateau, 1500 acres in extent, forming an un- interrupted mass of the most splendid marbles and breccias which the world contains. Their variety is as extraordinary as their beauty. There is creamy white, like ivory ; rose colour, like coral ; Giallo antico ; some are as variegated as a peacock’s plumage ; and on the west side of the mountain, where there has been a great earth-movement, the rock has been broken up and re-cemented together, forming a variety of breccias of the most extraordinary richness and beauty. On some Roch-Specimens from the Islands of the Fernando Noronia Group, by Prof. A. Renard, LL.D.—The rock-speci- Oct. 8, 1885] NATURE Deis mens described in this communication were collected by Mr. J. | because a rock which is now, both macroscopically and micro- G. Buchanan, during the voyage of the Challenger. The islands have been described by Darwin in his ‘‘ Geological Observa- tions on Volcanic Islands” (2nd edition, p. 27). after having explained the geological structure, gives lithological descriptions of the chief types of the rocks, which may be re- ferred to the phonolites (St. Michael’s Mount). These pho- nolites are composed of sanidine, augite, nepheline, hornblende, magnetite, nosean, and titanite. The rocks of Rat Island are basalts with nepheline. The constituent minerals are augite and olivine. The ground-mass is almost entirely composed of nepheline. Biotite and apatite occur as accessory constituents. The little island known as Platform Island is also basaltic, with a doleritic texture. It is composed of labradorite, augite, olivine, magnetite, and biotite. This rock has undergone alterations. Preliminary Note on some Traverses of the Crystalline District of the Cental Alps, by Prof. T. G. Bonney, D.Sc. LL.D., F.R.S., Pres. G.S.—During the past four years I have made several traverses of the Central Alps from north to south, and venture to lay before the Section the general results as bearing in some respect on the geology of the Highlands. (1) The ordinary rules of stratigraphy as learnt from most lowland districts are commonly quite inapplicable to the Alps. The most highly crystalline and the older beds often form the higher parts of a mountain region, the newer the lower. The newer beds frequently appear to underlie and dip regularly beneath the older. Gigantic folds, overturns, and overthrust faults abound. The true stratigraphy of a district can only be worked out by the exercise of patient and cautious induction from observations extended over a wide area. (2) The non-crystalline rocks of the Alps are of various ages. There are some of Carboniferous age, but the great period of continuous deposition generally begins with some part of the Trias. The conglomerates, which often occur at the base of the non-crystalline deposits, indicate that the principal metamorphism of the crystalline series was anterior to both these epochs, There is at present no reason to suppose that either in the Central Alps or for some distance on each side are there any representatives of the earlier Paleeozoics. I believe that the conglomerates at the base of the Carboniferous contain fragments of the later crystalline rocks of the Alps as well as of some of the earlier—though I do not assert that these crystalline rocks have undergone no modifications since Carboniferous times. (3) In the heart of the principal Alpine chains, and apparently at the base of everything, are coarsely crystalline gneisses. These differ little from granites, except that they generally—almost always—exhibit a certain foliation, and occa- sionally seem to be interbedded with thin seams of micaceous schists or flaggy fine-grained beds. (4) On examination we find reason to believe that both the latter are generally due to crushing. Their strike agrees with that of the apparent foliation in these older rocks, and with that of a foliation which is also present in the newer crystalline rocks. This corresponds with the strike of the main physical features of the district, and with the cleay- age in the included troughs of sedimentary rock. It runs for great distances with remarkable uniformity. (5) This ap- parent foliation is due to the devolopment of extremely thin films of a micaceous mineral. In many cases it causes the rock to bear the aspect of a highly micaceous schist ; yet, on examining a transverse section, the rock is distinctly seen to be a crushed gneiss—?.¢. though so conspicuous, it is a mere varnish. As it thus differs materially from a true foliation, it would be convenient to give it a name, and I should propose to call it the ‘‘sheen surface.” It is, in fact, a kind of ‘‘cleavage folia- tion,” that is, a foliation due to cleavage, and subsequent to it. (6) The pressure which has produced this ‘‘sheen surface” has in many cases affected the orientation of the minerals, which are present in the true ‘‘foliation” layers ot the more distinctly foliated, z.e. mineral-banded, rocks. (7) In the crystalline schists very commonly the ‘‘ sheen sur- face” corresponds with the original foliation surface, as in the slates the cleavage sometimes does with the bedding. This is due to the fact that the axes of the great folds often make a very high angle with the horizon. (8) Thus a non-foliated crystalline rock may be rendered to some extent foliated by pressure (fol- lowed by a certain amount of mineralisation): z.e. some gneisses may be formed by crushing from granites, some schists out of other igneous rocks. It may obliterate an earlier foliation, or it may intensify it, or it may produce an independent and more fissile foliation. In this sense gneiss may be said to pass into granite, The author, scopically, a gneiss may prove to be a granite which has in some parts yielded to pressure more than in others. (9) As we pass outwards from the great central granitoid masses we come to gneisses and schists where the evidence of some kind of stratifi- cation becomes more marked ; bands of crystalline limestone, quartzite, and granulite being associated with mica schist of many kinds—simple, garnetiferous, staurolitic, actinolitic, and the like— the bands of different mineral character and composition varying from mere streaks to layers up to many yards in thickness. In fact the above-named rocks are associated exactly as limestones, sandstones, and clays are associated in the ordinary sedimentaries. (10) Although the crushing of a crystalline rock z# sit, or the squeezing and shearing of a breccia or conglomerate of crystall- ine fragments, occasionally gives rise to local difficulties, these are on a small scale, and sedimentary beds belonging to the Palzeozoic or later periods of deposition are generally readily distinguishable from the whole of the crystalline series. Though folded and faulted in the most extraordinary manner, the members of the two series can generally be separated and in the Alps there is no evidence of a mingling of the one with the other in the process of rolling out or squeezing to- gether ; so that, after patient study and microscopical examina- tion, we can generally decide without hesitation whether a particular set of rocks has originated from the crystalline or the sedimentary series. I do not say that we can always decide whether a schist or a gneiss has originated from an igneous rock or from an older schist or gneiss, but I think that in the Alps we can say that it has originated from one of these. Fortunately, intrusive rocks are very rare in the Paleozoic and later deposits in this part of the Alps. (11) Thus, although the Tertiary meta- morphism of the Alpine rocks is very important, it is more pre- tentious than real, and its effects seem to have been the greatest where it has found a rock already crystalline to act upon. Hence I believe that every true gneiss and schist in the Alps is much older than the Carboniferous, and is probably older than any member of the Palaeozoic period. The Direction of Glaciation as ascertain:d by the Form of the Strie, by Prof. H. Carvill Lewis.—As there seemed to be a dis- agreement between certain Scotch geologists and the Irish geologists regarding the inferences as to direction of glaciation to be deduced from the form of glacial strize, the author was led to bring forward some observations of his own, made in America and in Great Britain, which threw light upon the disputed point. Well-preserved strice are frequently blunt at one end and taper- ing at the other, the shorter ones sometimes resembling the characters used in the cuneiform inscriptions. This form may be seen in strize of all sizes—from those several yards in length, when the blunt end may be an inch or more in breadth, to the finest scratches, where a microscope is necessary to detect any difference between the two ends. As shown in the Reports of the Boulder Committee of the Royal Society of Edinburgh (Fifth Report, pp. 18-20, 29, 58 ; Seventh Report, p. 18) and elsewhere, certain Scotch geologists regard the blunt end as the point of impact of the striating agent, and as therefore facing the direction from which the motion came. On the other hand the Irish geologists (‘* Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Ireland,” Explanation to sheets 86, 87, 88, p. 55; Explanation to sheet 193, p. 18, &c.) interpret the shape of the strice as in- dicating motion in the opposite direction, believing the tapering end to point to the direction from which glaciation proceeded. The point at issue is of importance, especially in outlying islands and elsewhere, where other indications of the direction of glacia- tion fail. In Pennsylvania, which is crossed from east to west by the terminal moraine of the great ice-sheet, and where the glaciation is uniformly in a southward direction, the author had observed that the blunt ends of the strice, where flat surfaces were studied, were always io the south (‘‘On the Terminal Moraine in Pennsylvania and Western New York.” Report Z, Second Geological Survey of Pennsylvania, pp. 33, 85, 86, 107, 275). Incertain instances the mode of formation of the striz was also indicated by their shapes, which showed that a stone pushed along under the glacier had ground in deeper and deeper until in some cases it stopped or hopped out, in other cascs was ground down to another cutting edge, and in others /urned over, and began its work of engraving by a fresh and sharp corner. The peculiar gorges at the farther end of certain strize showed a sort of slow rocking motion in some stones before they finally turned over. The author’s observations in Ireland, both at localities where there could be no doubt as to the direction of 558 glacial movement, and at localities where such direction was not previously known, led to conclusions entirely in harmony with those already reached in Pennsylvania and with those held by the Irish geologists. One of the best examples falling under the former category was among the local glaciers in the mountains of the Dingle promontory, a region not invaded by the great confluent ice-sheet of central Ireland. The striated beds of these small glaciers, beginning in a ‘‘ corey ” and bounded below by a semicircular terminal moraine, are beautifully defined and afford good opportunities for strize study. It was found that ov upward slopes or in flit surfaces the strie as a rule are blunt at the end towards which the motion was directed, but that in davn- ward slopes the reverse is generally thz case. While this rule does not hold good for every individual scratch at a given locality, it has been found most useful when applied to striated surfaces in general. At Glengariff, where some finely striated surfaces occur, a number of tracings were taken directly from the rock, which clearly show the broader ends of most of the striz to be to the south, the direction towards which the glacial stream advanced. Similar observations were made at several localities south of the Shannon. Finally, as an instance where the direc- tion of glaciation was previously unknown, certain strize were described which the author had observed on the top of the cliffs facing the Atlantic at Kilkee. These point N. 58° W. and S. 58° E., and the question to be determined was whether the glaciation proceeded from the Atlantic towards the land or whether it went north-westward and out to sea. The form of the stricee alone decided it. Their broad blunt ends were as a rule toward the north-west, the surface being horizontal, a fact which, taken in connection with other observations made about the mouth of the Shannon, showed that a great ice stream had flowed westward along the valley of the Shannon, and had opened out fan-shaped as it plunged into the sea. Th? Geolozy of Duvness and Eriboll, with special Reference to the Highland Controversy, by B. N. Peach, F.R.S.E., and J. Morne, F.R.S.E., Geological Survey of Scotland.—With the permission of the Director-General of the Geological Survey, the authors gave an outline of the geological structure of ihe Durness-Eriboll region, illustrated by a series of horizontal sec- tions. They showed that the Silurian strata of Durnes; are arranged in the form of a basin, bounded on the east side by powerful faults disconnecting them from the same series in Eriboll. The order of succession in the two areas is identical, from the basal quartzites to the horizon of the limestone group. On the west side of Loch Eriboll the basal quartzites rest un- conformably on the Archzean gneiss, but on the eastern shore there is conclusive evidence of the repetition of various members of the Silurian series by a remarkable system of reversed faults, culminating in a great dislocation which has thrust the Archeean gueiss over the truncated edges of the quartzites, fucoid beds, serpulite grit, and basal limestone. Reference was made to the effects of these mechanical movements on the Silurian rocks, and to the :developments of new planes of schistosity in the gneiss above the thrust-plane. At intervals small patches of the basal quartzites are met with throughout this mass of Archzean gneiss, which are abruptly truncated by great reversed faults ; but in the district between Eriboll and Assynt the whole Silurian succession from the basal breccia to the lowest lime- stone oceurs repeatedly above the first great thrust-plane, separated by wedges of highly-sheared gneiss. It was shown that the alteration produced by each successive displacement gradually becomes more pronounced as the observer passed eastwards across the area. The old north-west strike of the Archean gneis; gave place to a new foliation running more or less parallel with the strike of the thrust-planes ; the felspathic basal quartzites and the ‘‘pipe-rock” pass into quartz schists and mica schists, and the Silurian limestone is felted with the crushed Archzan gneiss, Reference was next made to the out- crop of the great thrust-plane extending from the Whitten Head coast far to the south, which ushers in a highly schistose series with a north-north-ea t and south-south-west strike. After describing the lithological characters and orde« of succession of the eastern schists, the authors stated that the new planes of foliation had been superinduced by the mechanical movements that took place between Lower Silurian and Old Red Sandstone time, and that along these new planes a re-arrangement and re- crystallisation of mineral constituents took place, resulting in the production of crystalline schists. Applying the knowledge thus obtained from the study of the eastera schists to the un- disturbed Archain masses, they had found conclusive evidence NAT ORE of similar mechanical movements. Each plane of schistosity exhibits the parallel lineation like slickensides trending in the same direction oyer a vast area, while the minerals were oriented along these lines. From a consideration of these phenomena the authors inferred that regional metamorphism need not necessarily be confined to any particular period, and further that the planes of foliation or schistosity in those areas which had been subjected to regional metamorphism were evidently due to enormous mechanical movements which had induced molecular changes in crystalline and clastic rocks. The Highland Controversy in British Geology : its Causes, Course, and Consequences, by Chas. Lapworth, LL.D., F.G.S., Professor of Geology and Physiography, Mason College, Birmingham.—The author gave a résumé of the views of the earlier geologists respecting the geological age and possible mode of formation of the High- land metamorphic rocks; and sketched, in brief, the rise and progres; of the controversy between Sir Rod. Murchison and his followers on the one hand, and Prof. Nicol, of Aberdeen, on the other, till its temporary close in 1861, by the publication of the Highland Memoir of Murchison and Geikie. He then reviewed the reopening of the controversy by Dr. Hicks in 1878, and the work of the Archzean geologists, up to the date of publi- cation of Dr. C. Callaway’s paper in 1883, in which Nicol’s view of the great physical break between the Palzeozoic rocks and the Eastern or Upper Gneissic series was shown to be correct, but the so-called Eastern gneiss was provisionally erected into a new Archzean system, the Caledonian, having the Arnaboll gneiss as its lower member. The author next gavea summary of his own views as deduced from his personal study of the Durness Eriboll district in 1882 and 1883, and published in 1884, illustrating these by coloured maps and sections. He held that (exception being made of the local Torridon Sand- stone) the only rock-formations in the Durness-Eriboll area are, as Nicol originally contended: (1) The Archean or Hebridean gneiss; and (2) The Palozoic quartzites, fucoid beds, and limestones, But the so-called upper gneiss or eastern meta- morphic gneiss appears to be composed of elements derived from one or other of the foregoing There is no conformable ascending succession from the Palzeozoic rocks into this Eastern Metamorphic series. The line of contact i:, generally speaking, a plane of dislocation, and where this is wanting the Paleozoic rocks rest unconformably upon one of the members of the eastern gneiss. The present physical relations of the eastern metamorphic series are the effect of lateral crust creep, by which the eastern metamorphic rocks have been forced over the Palzeozvic rocks in grand overfaults to the west, often for many miles. This Eastern Metamorphic series is conposed of two petrological members, the Avnadoll gneiss to the west, and the Sutherland schists and gneisses to the east, having between them a series of variegated schists possessing characters common to both. The Arnaboll gneiss is simply the easterly extension of the Hebridean of the west The remainiag gneisses and schists of the eastern m2tamorphic series are main!y composed of re- metamorphosed Hebridean, with ‘included patches of igneous and Palzozoic material. The planes of schistosity which divide the layers of the Upper Gneissic series are not planes of bedding, but planes of dislocation. The dip and strike of these planes have been given to them sinc2 Silurian times by the agency of the great earth-movements. In some instances the original stractures of the rocks are still recognisable ; usually, however, they are wholly obliterated : the old minerals have disappeared as such, and new minerals have been developed, The Eastern Gneissic series has thus no pretension whatever to the title of a sedimentary rock-system. It is a petrological roc’s-massif, a metamorphic compound, composed of local elements of very different geological ages. In all their essentials these views appear to agree with the far more contended and minute results worked out independently, and published by Messrs, Peach and Horne in November 1884. In the second part of his paper the author gave a summary of the work accomplished amonz the metamorphic rocks of the Alps and Eastern Germany by Heim and Lehmann; and de- scribed the several types of rock-metamorphism found in the Eriboll district, as worked out by himself The Arnaboll (Hebridean gneiss) can be trace 1 stage by stage from spots where it retains its original strike and petrological characters, to others where it acquires the normal strike and mineralogical features of the ordinary Sutherland schists. The old planes of schistosity become obliterated, and new ones are developed ; the original crystals are crushed and spread out, and new secondary minerals, [ Oct. 8, 1885 : f Oct. 8, 1885] NATURE 559 mica aud quartz, are developed. The most intense mechanical metamorphism occurs along the grand dislocation (thrust) planes, where the gneisses and pegmatites resting on those planes are crushed, dragged, and ground out into a finely-laminated schist (AGlonite, Gr. mylon, a mill) composed of shattered fragments of the original crystals of the rock set in a cement of secondary quartz, the lamination being defined by minute inosculating lines (fluxion lines) of kaolin or chloritic material and secondary crystals of mica. Whatever rock rests immediately upon the thrust-plane, whether Archzan, igneous, or Paleozoic, &c., is similarly treated, the resulting mylonite varying in colour and composition according to the material from which it is formed. The variegated schists which form the transitional zones between the Arnaboll gneiss and Sutherland mica-schists are all essen- tially mylonites in origin and structure, and appear to have been formed along many dislocation planes, some of which still show between them patches of recognisable Archean and Paleozoic rocks. These variegated schists (Phyllites or Mylonites) differ locally in composition according to the material from which they have been derived, and in petrological character according to the special physical accidents to which they have been subjected since their date of origin—forming frilled schists, veined schists, glazed schists, &c., &c. The more highly crystalline flaggy mica-schists, &c., which lie generally to the east of the zones of the variegated schists, appear to have been made out of similar materials to those of the variegated schists, but to have been formed under somewhat different conditions. They show the fluxion-structure of the mylonites ; but the differential motion of the component particles seems to have been less, while the chemical change was much greater. In some of these crystalline schists (the augen-schists) the larger crystals of the original rock from which the schist was formed, are still individually recog- nisable, while the new matrix containing them is a secondary crystalline matrix of quartz and mica arranged in the fluxion- planes. While the m/onites may be described as microscopic pressure-breccias with fluxion-structure, in which the inter-titial dusty, siliceous, and kaolinitic paste has only crystallised in part ; the azgen-schists are pressure-breccias, with fluxion-struc- ture, in which the whole of the interstitial paste has crystallised out. The mz/oni’es were formed along the thrust-planes, where the two superposed rock-systems moved over each other as solid masses ; the azgen-schists were probably formed in the more central parts of the moving system, where the all-surround- ing weight and pressure forced the rock to yield somewhat like a plastic body. Between these augen-schists there appears to be every gradation, on the one hand to the mylonites, and on the other to the typical mica-schists composed of quartz and mica, Like the mylonites, the crystalline augenites and mica- lites present us with local differences in chemical composition (calcareous, hornblendic, quartzose, &c.), suggestive of Archzean, igneous, or Palzeozoic origin. They also show similar structural varieties due to secondary physical changes (frilled, veined, glazed, &c.), as well as others due to the presence of special minerals (garnet, actinolite, &c., &c.). On certain Diatomaceous Deposits (Diatonite) from the Peat of Aberdeenshiie, by W. Ivison Macadam, F.C.S., F.S.C., &c., Lecturer on Chemistry, School of Medicine, Edinburgh.—The material was found below the peat in certain districts of Aber- deenshire, but principally in the basin in which lie Lochs Kinnord and Dawin. After removal of the surface peat-fuel, the lower and more highly mineral portion was cut in blocks and air-dried. The substance then consisted of almost pure Diatom- acea bound together by the rernains of Spragnum, Equisetacea, &c. Besides being found underlying peat the substance was also obtained on the shores of Loch Kinnord, and the more pure Diatoms were thickly distributed over the bottom of the deeper portions of the lake; these latter, however, from the want of the binding obtained from the marsh plants above mentioned could not be rendered readily available for market. An interesting point regarding these deposits was that whilst in Loch Kinnord an abundant supply of the Diatoms could be obtained, in the neighbouring Loch Dawin scarcely a single Diatom (recent or fossil) was found. This was probably due to the fact that whilst the feeding waters of Loch Kinnord flowed from hilis consisting of a coarse and much disintegrated granite, and consequently | contained a considerable portion of soluble silica, the Loch Dawin waters were obtained from hornblendic mountains, and held much less soluble silica in solution. The material was principally used for the manufacture of dynamite, and a con- siderable quantity had been forwarded to the works for this purpose. Unfortunately, however, dynamite had fallen to a great extent out of use, being replaced by the more powerful blasting gelatine, and thus what had at one time appeared as if it would prove an important local industry had entirely fallen away. Other uces, however, could be found for the material, such as the manufacture of ultramarine, for which, from the very small proportion of iron present, the diatomite has more especially to be recommended. As an absorbent it was of fully double the value ol the ordinary German varieties of ‘‘ kieselguhr.” On Some Ricent Earthquakes on the Downham Coast, and their Probable Causes, by Prof. G, A. Lebour, M.A., F.G.S.—For the last two years frequent slight shocks, resembling those of earthquakes, and accompanied by rum- bling noises, have been felt at Sunderland. Much discussion has arisen as to the cause of these, but that they are due to natural causes is now quite certain. Sunderland stands upon magnesium limestone, from 300 to 400 feet thick beneath the town; the rock is riddled with cavities of every size, some so small as to give a vesicular character to the stone, some large and forming true caverns. These cavities are partly due to the washing out of marly matter, partly to solution of the limestone, Every thousand gallons of Sunderland water contains one pound of stone ; in this manner about forty cubic yards of magnesian limestone are yearly pumped up by the Water Company, and of course a much larger quantity is removed by natural channels, This action enlarges the cavities ; the sides and roof fall in, thus accounting for the shock. The same explanation applies to the “breccia gashes” which are exposed along the shore. These are fissures filled with breccia. Quite recently similar shocks to those here referred to have been observed at Middlesborough. Pumping the brine from the salt deposits, 1c09 to 1200 feet below the surface, may produce cavities into which the rock falls. Some Examples of Pressure-Fluxion in Pennsylvania, by . Prof. H. Carvill Lewis. —The three localities in Pennsylvania described in this paper lie in an area which had been especially studied by the author for some years back and had led him to conclusions similar to some of those recently announced as the result of studies in North-Western Scotland, which have justly attracted widespread attention. (1) a zone of ancient crystalline rocks extends across South-Eastern Pennsylvania, near Phila- delphia, which is generally believed to underlie the lowest Cambrian strata and to be of Archzean age, This zone is about a mile wide where it crosses the Schuylkill River, south of Conshohocken, and it is from this point to Westchester, some twenty miles westward, that the present remarks especially apply. Although in many portions exhibiting a distinct gneissic lamination, the rocks of this zone are held by the author to be of purely eruptive origin, consisting of syenites, acid gabbros, trap granulites, and other igneous rocks, often highly meta- morphosed. It is the outer peripheral portion of this zone to which attention is here directed. While the rocks are massive in the centre, this outer portion has been enormously com- pressed, folded, and faulted, with the result of producing a tough-banded, porphyritic fuato gneiss identical with the ‘milonite” of Lapworth or the ‘‘ sheared gneiss” of Peach and Horne. So perfect is the fluxion structure that the rock resembles a rhyolite. As in the ‘‘ banded granulite” of Lehmann, elongated feldspar ‘‘ eyes” lie in flowing streams of biolite grains and broken quartz, the streams often parting and again meeting around the porphyritic ‘‘eyes.” Occasional crystalline eyes of hornblende remain, but most of it has been converted into biotite. A point of especial interest is that the feldspar of the eyes is quite colourless and free from inclusions, like the sanidine of recent lavas, while, on the other hand, the feldspars of the inner and massive portions of the zone, out of which this outer portion has been reformed by pressure fluxion, are full of inclusions and have the ‘‘ dusty” appearance so common in ancient feldspars. The fresh-looking feldspar eyes are therefore believed to have been subsequently formed as a result of a recrystal/isation of the old material under the inflnence of pressure fluxion. In similar manner the biotite has been made out of the old hornblende, garnets have been developed, and the quartz has been granulated and optically distorted by pressure. The influence of pressure is also seen in certain Cambrian strata in the immediate vicinity, where a sandstone containing cylindrical casts of scolithus linearis, apparently identical with the ‘‘pipe-rock” of North-Western Scotland, has, like it, been compressed to such a degree that the vertical casts are flattened out and elongated in the dircction of lamination 560 to several times their original length. stone quartz while sericite planes. The In the same sand- pebbles have been pulled out and flattened, has been largely developed along the cleavage pressure can be shown to have been directed mainly from the south-east. (2) The second locality is in the midst of the Laurentian area of Buck’s County, and is known as Van Artsdalen’s Quarry. A mass of crystalline limestone is here mingled with an eruptive diorite in such manner as to show that it had actually flowed like an igneous rock, and had caught up inclusions. The results of extreme metamorphism are exhibited in the development in the lime- stone of graphite, wollastonite, and other minerals. The chemical changes and interchange of elements which might result from a loosening of molecular combinations under extreme pressure and their subsequent ‘‘ regulation” into new compounds were discussed as among the phenomena of mechanical meta- morphism. (3) As an American instance of the conversion of an intrusive diabase dyke into amphibolite schist, analogous to the case recently described by Teall, a long narrow belt of sphene-bearing amphibolite schist in the City of Philadelphia was adduced. This belt with distinctive mineralogical cha- racters cuts across the metamorphic mica schists of the region unconformably, and is believed by the author to be a highly metamorphosed intrusive dyke of Lower Silurian age. The original augite or diallage has been completely converted into fibrous hornblende, and the influence of pressure is shown in the perfectly laminated character of the schist in the close foldings produced, and in the minute structure of the rock. Some interesting details of the latter having been photographed, diagrams constructed from these were exhibited. These showed that the rock was traversed by a parallel series of slips and crushings, and that about such lines of faulting and crushing there was a peculiar arrangement of the lines of hornblende crystals, not very unlike the arrangement of iron filings about the poles of a magnet, such as could not be satisfactorily explained by any theory of aqueous deposition, but pointed to a lamination by pressure. SECTION D—BroLocy On the Cause of the extreme Dissimilarity between the Faunas of the Red Sea and Mediterranean notwithstanding their recent connection, by Prof. Edward Hull, LL.D., F.R.S.—The faunas of the Mediterranean and of the Red Sea are so unlike that if the beds of the two seas were upraised, and their contents ex- amined, naturalists would probably refer them to distinct geologi- cal periods. The dissimilarity is greater than was formerly sup- posed. In Woodward's ‘‘ Manual of the Mollusca” it is stated that seventy-four species of mollusks are common to the two seas, but Prof. Issel, of Genoa, places the number at eighteen, or about 2 per cent. Equal differences exist if we compare other great groups of life; in fact, as Prof. Haeckel well ob- serves, the fauna of the Red Sea is related to that of the Indian Ocean, the fauna of the Mediterranean to that of the Atlantic. This extreme dissimilarity would not surprise us if it were not for the proofs of recent connection between the two seas. Evi- dence of old sea margins, up to about 220 feet above the present sea-level, are frequently found along the Nile and in the valleys and plains of Philistria. As many of the marine forms found in these deposits still exist, the date of the submergence may be safely referred to that of the Pliocene; but it continued to a later period, and (in the author’s opinion) it to some extent re- mained to the time of the Pharaohs. The existing fauna prob- ably date; back to Eocene times, when the ocean spread widely over the area in question. In the Miocene period the main out- lines of land and sea as we now find them were marked out, the deposits of this age being here small and local. Under the ex- tremely different conditions existing in the two areas, the fauna during and after the Miocene period became differentiated. The connection re-established during and after the Pliocene period was insufficient to destroy these differences, although it allowed a mingling of forms to some extent. The maximum submergence was about 220 feet; but as the summit level between the two seas is about 50 feet, the depth of water would only be about 170 feet at the maximum. Only littoral and shallow-water forms would cross in the adult state ; but many forms inhabiting deeper water in the adult state might have crossed when in the free-swimming larval state. When the land again rose, and the marine straits were finally effaced, the different physical condi- tions of the two seas would again come into effect. The difference NATURE [Oct. 8, 1885 of temperature is now very considerable, and probably was much greater during the Glacial period, especially if, as appears probable, the eastern or Levant basin of the Mediterranean were separated from the others; for into this would flow the cold waters of the Black Sea and of Central Europe, whilst the Red Sea would receive warm water, and be itself exposed to the rays of a tropical sun. It would be an interesting subject of inquiry—Which of these faunas most closely resembles that of the original stock ? On the Tay Whale (Megaptera longiman2) and other Whales recently obtained in the District, by Prof. Struthers.—Prof. Struthers gave a description of the various parts of the anatomy of the whale. In addition to the Tay whale members of three other whales recently obtained in the district were exhibited for the purpose of comparison, and the analogy of its structure to that of other animals was specially referred to in order to show its identity with the mammal. Prof. Flower joined in the discussion which followed, aud remarked that they now had an idea at least as to the origin of the whale : it carried its pedigree in every part of its body. It had been thought that the mammals that live upon land had been derived from progenitors that formerly lived in the sea, and that the mammals may have passed through an aquatic or marine stage before they took to land, but the observations of anatomy showed that this cannot haye been the case. There was no doubt that the whale had been derived from a four-footed land mammal. All observa- tions, for example, had shown that at some period of their life whales have a hairy covering, generally in the region of the mouth, that hairy covering being functionless and very often lost even before birth. In the same way whales at an early stage of their existence are furnished with a complete set of teeth, the rudiments of the teeth of the land mammal. The organ of smell, although in a rudimentary state and in some species almost entirely gone, also points to the origin of the whale. Some Points in the Anatomy of Sowerby's Whale, by Prof. Turner.—Prof. Turner remarked that JZesoplodon bidens, or Sowerby’s whale, of which he had dissected two specimens, was now for the first time dissected so that the viscera of this whale were seen by any anatomist, or that its tail and paddle, or fin, had been figured. The tail presents a very material difference from the customary tail in the cetacea in having the posterior border smooth instead of notched. Dr. Turner called attention in detail to the intestinal and limb structure of this species of whale, showing the affinity or resemblance of the cetacea to the reptilious and the amphibious, particularly in reference to the corpus. Prof. Flower said he was glad to find that Prof. Turner had found some intention for the muscles of the corpus. For all that they were very rudimentary as compared with the same muscles in other animals, and he thought that he might have to modify his views on this point as he had had to do in regard to many other things throughout life. Prof. Marsh, of Yale College, said the intermediary bone pointed out by Prof. Turner interested him much. On the Cervical Vertebre of the Greenland Right Whale, by Prof. Struthers.—The reduced condition of the upper and lower transverse processes was commented on, and the meaning of their different parts explained; also the completely fused con- dition of the bodies of the seven vertebra. A nearly similar condition of the neck of the Pilot Whale (Glodicephalus melas) was demonstrated, showing in the young condition the two body epiphyses on the rudimentary vertebrae. Other specimens illus- trated the fibrous condition of the transverse processes in the Narwhal and Beluga. On the Development of the Vertebre of the Elephant, by Prof. Struthers. —The point was that in the anterior vertebrae the neural arches meet behind the body, covering it deeply, and shutting it entirely out from forming any part of the wall of the spinal canal. On the Development of the Foot of the Horse, by Prof. Struthers. —Dr. Struthers called attention to the fact that the epiphysis of the rudimentary metacarpal and metatarsal bones is not at the upper or functional end, but at the reduced end or ‘‘ button,” from which only a slender ligament proceeded. This he con- sidered a most interesting fact, one which completed the chain of evidence of the descent of the horse. There was a reason why the epiphyses should be there in the hipparion and previous forms from which the horse of the present day was descended. The development of the corresponding bones in man, the cetacea, and various other mammals, was given in illustration. Oct. 8, 1885 | NATURE 561 A specimen was shown of a two-toed horse. The valuable researches of Prof. Marsh on the descent of the horse were specially alluded to. Dr. Stiuthers demonstrated another fact connected with the development of the foot of the hors:—that the first phalanx, or pastern bone, has an epiphysis at both ends. ‘On the Viscera of Gymnotus electricus, by Prof. Cleland.— Independent of its electric organs, this fish has a number of remarkable internal peculiarities. The curious spongy protuber- ances of the mucous membrane of the buccal cavity are well known to zoologists. The two swimming-bladders are remark- able for their relation to the kidneys; the anterior swimming- bladder being a small structure between their anterior extremities, and the larger posterior swimming-bladder being situated alto- gether behind their under hinder ends, while the duct of the latter ascends by the left side of the renal outlet, to be joined by the duct of the other bladder before entering the gullet. The pylorus also is remarkably contracted. But the most striking and altogether curious arrangements are seen on the ventral wall ofthe abdomen. The intestine passes forward the whole length of the abdominal cavity to the vent, and on its under side is a long renal duct as wide as itself, and opening immediately behind the vent ; while, opening into this duct close to its out- let, are the ducts of the two ovaries, which lie one on each side, their morphologically anterior extremities placed posteriorly, as if in process of development these organs had been pulled around from their proper sub-vertebral position until completely inverted. The Spiracle of Fishes in its relation to the Head, as devel- oped in the Higher Vertebrates, by Prof. Cleland.—A very extraordinary mistake can be shown to be prevalent among embryologists, to the effect that the spiracle corresponds with the tympanum and external auditory meatus in the higher verte- brates. This is not the case. The spiracle is pre-oral; the tympanum is post-oral. The apparent sequence of the spiracle with the branchial clefts occurs, as Balfour described it, in the embryo of the dog-fish; but for all that, and although it has rudimentary external gills attached to its margins in the embryo, it is in front of the mandibular arch and above the maxillary lobe. Between the middle and lateral frontal processes is the nostril ; between the lateral frontal process and the mandible is the space into the upper part of which the eyebal! projects, and from which the lachrymal duct is developed ; while between the first and second visceral lobes is the external ear; and it is highly probable that the upper part of the first branchial cleft is homologous with the clefts in front of and behind the lateral frontal process. Thus a certain amount of homology would exist between the spiracle of fishes and the lachrymal duct. Ls the Commissural Theory of the Corpus Callosum Correct ? by D. J. Hamilton, M.B., Professor of Pathological Anatomy, Aberdeen University.—The results recorded by the author were obtained by certain special methods of preparation. They went to prove that the corpus callosum is not an inter-hemi- spherical commissure, as is generally supposed, but that it is in reality the decussation of a particular system of fibres on their way downwards to join the inner and outer capsules. These fibres are not to be confounded with the motor and other direct fibres derived from the cerebral cortex, and which decussate at some point lower down. The Evirence of Comparative Anatomy with regard to Localisation of Function in the Cortex of the Brain, by Alex. Hill, M.A., M.B. Cambridge.—The object of the paper was to show that the theory of the localisation of function in the cortex of the brain must be submitted eventually to comparative anatomy for proof. The key to the arrangement of the lower parts of the central nervous system is to be found, as the author had elsewhere shown, in its segmental disposition: the grey matter is disposed in clumps the cells of which bear a definite numerical relation to the fibres of body nerves. The problem discussed in the present paper was the relation of the grey matter of the cortex to this lower grey matter, and therefore to the body nerves. Is each region of the cortex equally in rela- tion with all the segments of the ‘‘ central grey tube”? or is the cortex also divided up into areas, the superficies of each of which varies as the amount of grey matter in the clump of the lower system with which it is related, and therefore as the number of fibres in its associated nerve. For this investigation guides to the delimitation of the cortex are necessary, and no others are available for the purpose if the fissures fail. The homological value of the fissures is, however, established by the study of adult and foetal brains. They are remarkably constant in their arrangement throughout animals of the same type, and in animals of different type they are very constant with regard to the order of their appearance, their progressive extension and permanent depth. The author of the paper expressed himself content, on account of the precision with which the fissures respond to the ordinary tests of homology, to place himself un- conditionally in their hands, and the boundaries of the various regions of the cortex being thus marked out, it remains to devise a system of mensuration by which the superficial area of each region of the cortex may be determined for comparison with the cross-sections of the several nerves. As yet no satisfactory method of measurement has been devised, but even in the absence of exact data important results'can be obtained by the observation of the brains of such animals as are conspicuous for excess or deficiency in the development of the muscular system or of one or more of the senses. As examples of such results Mr. Hill exhibited diagrams of the braiis of the sheep, cat, pig, dog, and otter, enlarged from tracings of the pictures in Leuret and Gratiolet’s Atlas. It was shown that, although it is im- possible, as yet, to map out the brain into areas associated with the several nerves, it is quite possible to predict from the appear- ance of the brain the principal sensory and motor endowments of the animal to which it belonged. In the main Mr. Hill’s results confirm those already obtained by Ferrier and other experimental physiologists ; they seem, however, to show that they are open to correction in certain important points with regard to the areas allocated to the senses of smell, hearing, and facial sensation. The Action of Cold on Microphytes.—Prof. M ‘Kendrick, Glasgow. gave an interesting account of the methods of trying to destroy small organisms like bacteria, not as is commonly done by heat, but by cold. It is known that by means of Coleman’s cooling machine meat may be kept from putrefying for a considerable time, but in attempting to sterilise a putrescible solution by means of cold, it was found that, though in some cases putrescence was delayed, in no case were the organisms completely destroyed. Organic fluids were exposed to tempera- tures more than 120° below o° F., but on thawing they were found to contain living organisms still. Thus the hope of pre- serving putrescible matter by means of cold—an important economical result—is, so far as investigation yet goes, destroyed. The organisms under cold seem to be in a nearly solid state, though we cannot call it a crystalline state. In a paste solution the water is crystallised under cold, the paste remaining spongy. Possibly cold may separate from these minute organisms the water they contain, and this water is again absorbed on thawing. Meat under cold becomes very friable, while yet minute frag- ments of it show the same microscopic constitution of muscle. It is well known that frogs have been found in blocks of ice and been revived. Frogs have been frozen at 20° F. in about half an hour. On thawing slowly the animal, in two instances, completely recovered. When it was frozen for longer than half an hour it did not recover ; but, though reflex action was gone, there remained some irritability both in nerves and muscles. It was found also that certain vital functions may be arrested by cold, and thus conceivably higher organisms may be kept vitally inert for an indefinite time. Experiments were also tried on warm-blooded animals. A rabbit subjected to a temperature 100° below 0° F, recovered. No temperature lower than 73° below o°? F. has been obtained in free atmosphere. Prof. M‘Kendrick gave a short sketch of the literature of the subject. The Action of Ozonised Air upon Micro-Organisms and Albumen in Solution, by J. J Coleman, F.1.C., F.C.S.—This paper described a number of experiments conducted by the author in conjunction with Prof. McKendrick, F.R.S., being supplementary to their joint investigation upon the influence of cold on microphytes. Air artificially impregnated with ozone by means of a Ruhmkorff coil, so as to contain a much larger percentage of ozone than any natural atmospheric air, was passed continuously through a 1 per cent. solution of white of egg placed in a glass flask, the inlet and outlet tubes of which were carefully plugged with cotton wool previously to commencing the experiment. It was found that a stream of air containing an amount of ozone equal in weight to the albumen in solution passed through 100 c.c. of the liquid for thirty hours, failed in producing the slightest trace of oxidation, and that the ozonised air passed through the liquid quite unaltered. During the course of the experiment and for six days following the development of micro-organisms ceased, but at the end of that time, and not- withstanding the cotton wool plugs, the liquid became slightly 562 NATURE turbid from the presence of organisms. As dilute hydrogen peroxide is without action upon albumen, the conclusion seems inevitable that albumen is practically indestructible by any atmo- spheric agency without previous splitting up by micro-organisus, and further, that whilst micro-organisms cannot develop, and are probably killed in an ozonised atmosphere, these spores are not easily destroyed by its agency. These results confirm the surmise of the late Dr. Angus Smith that putrefaction is a necessary preliminary to oxidation in all cases of watwral river purification. Prof. Burdon Sanderson, Dr. W. B. Carpenter and Capt. Douglass Galton all commented upon the practical value and interest of this paper, Capt. Douglas Galton observing that the sooner organic matter of sewage is got on to land the better. The Use of Graphic Representations of Life-Histories in the Teaching of Botany, by Prof. Bower.—This was a paper referr- ing to a series of diagrams prepared by the author to bring in review the chief facts in the life-history of the moss, fern, equi- setum, Sc/aginel/a, a conifer, and an angiosperm. Prof. Bower pointed out that these diagrams could be extended to include lower forms, and that they are only intended for use affer the student has mastered the facts in detail in the laboratory. Having described the diagrams and referred to some interesting processes of vegetative reproduction in the mosses and ferns, the author then proposed for discussion a series of questions as to the advisability of employing such diagrams, or of extending their use. The discussion which followed was taken part in by Sir J. Lubbock, Profs. Bailey Balfour (Oxford), M‘Nab (Dublin), Trail (Aberdeen), Mr. Marshall Ward (Owens College), and others, and several suggestions were proposed for rendering Prof. Bower’s graphic representations still more graphic. A New Theory of the Sense of Taste, by Prof. J. Berry Hay- craft.—The author showed that ‘‘ quality ” in this sense depends upon the nature of the atoms found in the sapid molecule. A study of the periodic law demonstrates that similar tastes are produced by combinations which contain elements such as lithium, sodium, potassium, which show a periodic recurrence of ordinary ,hysical properties. Among the carbon compounds those which produce : imilar tastes are found to contain a common “‘oroup” of elements. Thus organic acids contain the group CO.OHB, the sweet substances CH,.OH. There is no relation between quality of sensation and gross molecular weight, except that substances of either very small or very great molecular weight are not tasted at all. On the Hybridisation of Salmonide at Howieloun, by Francis Day.—During the last eleven years Sir J. R. Gibson-Maitland, at Howietoun, near Stirling, has devoted much attention to this subject, and gone to great expense in order to efficiently carry out the many experiments he has instituted, while he has like- wise afforded the author facilities for personally watching many of them, and furnished him with data as well as with specin ens. When we consider that the ova of teleostean or bony fishes have, as a rule, to be fertilised by the milk of the males diffused in the surrounding water, it is not difficult to believe that this fluid from the male of one genus might come into contact with the eggs from fish of another species, genus, or even family, and a hybrid offspring be thus occasioned. But the size «f the micropyle of the ovum and that of the spermatozooid of the milt must be of conforming capacities, or fertilisation would be a physical im- possibility. It would appear from the experiments made that the following conclusions may, with more or less probability, be drawn :—(t) Salmon and trout, trout and char, and different species of char, may interbreed and give rise to fertile hybrids. (2) Hybrids raised from Lochleven trout eggs fertilised by salmon milt, breed in their fourth year, similar to young female salmon lept under the same conditions. (3) The anodromous instinct is not lost in these trout and salmon hybrids. (4) Judg- ing from the period of breeding in the foregoing hybrids, the male element is prepotent. (5) In hybrids raised from Loch- leven trout eggs fertilised by the milt of the American char, the male element would appear to be prepotent, if we judge simply by the colour of the offspring. (6) In hybrids raised from American char eggs fertilised by the milt of the Lochleven trout, the female element would appear to be prepotent, if we judge simply by the colour of the offspring. (7) In hybrids raised from American char eggs fertilised by the milt of the British char, the male element would appear to be prepotent, if we may judge simply by the colour of the offspring. (8) In all instances of hybridisation between different species, as between salmon and trout, or trout and char, numerous instances of mal- formation and great mortality oceur among the offsprin much less when two forms of char are intercrossed. (9) In crossing hybrids both the eggs and milt were found to be fert but the malformations and mortality very great. The pare however, at Howietoun are not yet of sufficient age to admit am safe deductions on this head. (10) The age of the parent ex cises great influence on the vitality of the offspring, for, when very young, we may expect a large percentage of malformations, as well as dropsy and other diseases of the offspring, : Chinese Insect White Wax, by A. Hosie.—The author beg with a reference to the European and Chinese writers who mention Chinese insect white wax, and then proceeded to say that, although the province of Ssu-chuan, in Western China, — where he has been stationed for the last three years, is the chief wax-insect and wax-producing country in the Empire, insects — and wax are found in other provinces. Mr. Hosie was called upon by the Foreign Office to collect for Sir Joseph Hooker specimens connected with, and all possible information on, the — subject of this industry, and he states that the present paper is a revision, with additions, of a Report already published in a~ Parliamentary paper in February last. He describes the insect- producing country, the tree on which the insects are propagated, the insects themselves, and their transit from the valley of Chien- chang, their breeding-ground, in the west cf Ssu-chuan, across the mountains to Chia-ting Fu, the habitat of the wax tree. This t:ee is then described, and details are given of the treat- ment of the insects, their suspension on the trees, the depositing of the wax, and of a parasite on the insects. The method of removing the wax from the branches of the tree and of preparing it for market is then explained. The author then detailed the result of an examination of the insects after tne wax has been fully deposited, finally passing to the annual quantity of insect white wax produced, its value, and uses. On the Size of the Brain in Extinct Animals, by Prof. O. C. Marsh.—Prof. Marsh, of Yale College, said that for fifteen years he had directed his attention to the subject of the size of the Lrain in extinct animals. In every instance he found that the mammals from the lower Tertiary had very small brains. He carried out his investigation into the upper Tertiary, and found that the brain was much larger in the pliocene than in the miocene. All the tertiary mammals had small brains; there was a gradual increase in the size of the brain during this period ; and this increase in the size was generally in the cerebral hemi- sphere or higher portions of the brain. In some groups the convolution of the brain had gradually become more complex. In some the cerebellum and the olfactory lobes had even dimin- — ished in size. There was now evidence that the same general law of brain growth holds good for birds and reptiles from the Jurassic period to the present time. The brain of an animal belonging to a vigor: us race fitted for a long survival was larger than the average brain of that period in the same group, and the brain cf a mammal of adeclining race was smaller than the average brain of its contemporaries of the same group. The small animals now existing had proportionally larger brains than the larger animals, and young animals had proportionally larger brains than adult animals. They found some interesting examples which threw light on this question, For instance in_ the Eocene they had an animal, the oldest known ancestor of the rhinoceros, ard it had an exceptionally large brain. Taking all the facts together it seemed as though this train growth was an important element in the survival of animals. If the animal became large and unwieldly with a small brain, it would be— liable to suffer from any change of climate. In other words, in — early times the big brain conquered as it is the big brain th conquers in civilisation to-day. Prof. Flower said it was satis- factory to find a case where the facts worked out coincided with — previously-formed theories, because that was not always the case, and sometimes the facts or the theories had to go to the ~ wall. In this case they had no such difficulty ; and they had to thank the American Government for the way in which it had taken up Prof. Marsh’s work and were disseminating it. : On the Systematic Position of the Chameleon and its Affinities with the Dinosauria, by D’Arcy W. Thompson, B.A. —The authcr belicves that the great anatomical differences which separate the Chameleon from all other Lacertilia are connec with marked resemblances to the Dinosauria, especially tl group Sauropoda. The shoulder-girdle is quite identical with that of (e.g.) Brontosaurus, but differs wholly from that of the Lacertilia in the simple form of the scapula and coracoid, the — absence of coraco-scapula fenestrations, of clavicle and inter- — Oct. 8, 1885] : clavicle. Equally marxed affinities with the Dinosauria may be traced in the carpus and tarsus, sternum, pelvis, and skull. While similarly the comparatively large size of the cerebellum, the absence of a urinary bladder, and the presence of pulmonary diverticula or rudimentary air-sacs, are all foreshadowings of ornithic structure. The Origin of the Fishes of the Sea of Galilee, by Prof. Hull.— Of the abundant fishes of the Sea of Tiberias nearly one-half of the species are peculiar to the lake and its tributaries, while of the rest only one, Blennius lupulus, belongs to the ordinary Mediterranean fauna ; two others are found in the Nile; seven other species occur in the rivers of South-Western Asia ; and ten more are found in other parts of Syria. Tristram considered that this assemblage pointed to a close affinity of the fauna of the Jordanic basin with that of the rivers of tropical Africa ; but what most struck the observer was perhaps the speciality of the species to Jordanic waters, sixteen out of a total of thirty-six species being peculiar. Assuming that the forms which are common to Jordanic and other waters had been distributed in a manner similar to that by which they had to account for the distribution of lacustrine forms in other parts of the world, they had yet to account for the presence of the forms which were special and peculiar. After referring to the formation of the Jordanic basin, Prof. Hull argued that by the subsidence of the floor of the sea along the line of the Jordan valley an inland lake was formed whose waters were first derived from those of the ocean itself, in which were enclosed the fishes, mollusks, and other forms which inhabited these waters themselves. law of ‘‘ descent with modification” would come into operation, and they might suppose that throughout the Miocene and Plio- cene periods the process of modification in form, colour, and habit gradually proceeded. The fittest forms would survive, and differentiation between those of the outer and inner seas would result in an almost entire specific change. Prof. Hull also read a paper on the cause of the extreme dissimilarity between the faunas of the Red Sea and Mediterranean, notwith- standing their recent connection. The St. Andrews Marine Laboratory.—Prof, M‘{ntosh stated briefly the structure and arrmmgement of the marine laboratory at St. Andrews, and made some general remarks on the work done during the last nine months there. A great many of our food fishes, he said, were carefully examined in regard to the development of the eggs and the growth of the young fishes. About twenty species were examined in this way. They expe- rienced some difficulty with some of the forms, on account of their voracity, particularly with the cod. They found that a cod of five inches long would swallow a cod of three inches, and if it could not get it all down at once, it would keep it in its throat till the head part was digested, and then draw in the tail. Mollusca were studied chiefly in connection with the develop- ment of the mussel, but he might say that very hazy notions were held in regard to it. Some larger forms were also ex- amined, including porpoises and sharks. One porpoise was extremely interesting. He had noticed it for some time in the bay, and that its motions were very peculiar. He could not make out what it was doing there so constantly in shallow water. But some days afterwards a larse female was caught in the salmon nets, and they found that it was a female giving milk. Its milk was of a most interesting kind, ani formed the subject of examination and analysis by Prof. Purdy. It was as dense as cream, and of a deep yellow colour. On a Chemical Difference between Living and Dead Proto- plasm, by Dr. Oscar Loew, of Munich.—Protoplasm, it was found, contains certain aldehyd groups, which account for the extreme mobility and readiness of chinge in living protoplasm. These aldehyd groups can be reduced by very dilute alkaline solutions of silver salts. Spirogyra, one of the lower a/ge, acts on this solution in a peculiar way. Living protoplasm reduces the | salt, while dead protoplasm doesnot. The specific gravity of the protoplasm of Sfzvogyra was increased, and was found to c ntain silver deposited in its interior. Argyria, or the effect of nitrate of silver on the human subject in certain diseases, was found in these a/ee. Thus was shown a specific chemical difference between living and dead protoplasm. Ordinary poisons, such as prussic acid and strychnine, have no such striking effect on lower organisms, but a poison to all protoplasm is hydroxylamyl. Prof. Burdon-Sanderson said that this investigation had more importance than might at first appear, for it had arisen out of the epoch-making paper of Pfliiger. Pfliiger concluded that there must be a chemical change in the transition from living to The | NATURE 563 dead protoplasm, and Dr. Loew took up the question as to what exactly this change was. His investigations are an important step in deciding this most important question. Prof. Stirling said this gave us a new test for living protoplasm. The chief thing to settle was what exactly causes reduction of the silver. Digestion of Proteids in Plants, by Sidney Martin, M.D. (Lond.), B.Sc., M.R.C.P.—OF proteolytic ferments occurring in plants two kinds have been described—one acting like animal pepsin, and occurring in carmivorous plants, in the seeds of vetches, hemp, flax, barley, and malt, and the fruit of the fig, Ficus cerica ; the other acting like animal trypsin (pancreatin) and occurring in the juice of the green fruit of Carica papaya (the papaw tree). The use of these ferments in the plant economy has only been surmised by testing their action on animal proteid, from which they form peptones. It is a question whether they form peptones from the proteid occurring in the individual, and from two considerations. It is doubtful whether a true peptone exists in plants—by which I mean a proteid soluble in water, and not precipitated by boiling, nitric acid, or acetic acil and potassic ferrocyanide. Vines (fourmal of Physiology, vol. iii.) concludes that the body called vegetable peptone is hemialbumose (Meissner’s a-peptone). It is also evident that the action of these ferments on the proteids will be slow in comparison to the action of animal proteolytic ferments ; thus there might appear the proteids intermediate between albumen and peptone, which Kihne and Chittenden call albumoses (Zeitschrift f. Biologie, Ba. xx.). These questions I attempted to settle in the case of the papaw juice. I first of all extracted the proteids, which consisted of a globulin, corre- sponding to animal paraglobulin ; two albumoses, which I pro- pose to call a- and 8-phytalbumose. The B form is precipitated ; the a form is not thrown down by boiling ; a vegetable a/bumen corresponding to egg-albumen. The effect of pure papain (the proteolytic ferment of the papaw juice) was tested on each of these bodies, but from none of them was a true peptone formed ; only a body corresponding to Meissner’s 6-peptone. The very slow proteolysis explains the limitation of the forma- tion of the final products of proteid change. Leucin and tyroin were formed. Full details of methods and results will be found in the forthcoming Yournal of Physiology, September 14, 1885. On the Application of the Anatomical Method to the Determina- tion of the Materials of the Linnean and old Herbaria, by Prof. L. Radlkofer.—Prof. Radlkofer spoke generally of the anatom- ical method of botanical study, and dwelt on the results that had already been accomplished by it. With the aid of the anatomical system he advocated an extensive review of the herbaria of the country with reference to the writings of their former possessors. The:e herbaria should henceforth not merely be preserved ; there should be the diffusion of new light on their contents so as to become useful to every one in a scientific sense, even to those who are unable to look through them. At some length he demonstrated the value of anatomical characters in systematic botany, and concluded with an appeal to all English botanists to direct their attention and their influence to the accomplish- ment of the work. In th: accomplishment of this the British Association might, perhaps, give substantial assistance. No'es on Experiments as to the Formation of Starch in Plants under the Influence of the Electric Light, by Mr. M. Ward, of the Owens College, Manchester.—The experiments, Mr. Ward said, were made not so much to determine a point already determined generally—that plants can be grown under the influence of the electric light—as to discover how far the electric light can be used for teaching pwposes and investigations in the laboratory so to speak as an artificial sunlight. It would obviously be of enormous advantage to the vegetable physiologist if experiments could be easily performed under the influence of electric light. He explained the experiments he had made in the laboratories at the Owens Colleze, Manchester, and at the residence of Mr. W. Crossley, of Bowden (who kindly placed a powerful arc lamp at his disposal), on this interesting subject, and described the means that had been employed in devising and conducting the experiments. Under a powerful are light the results had been fruitful ; but small ciusters of Swan lamps had yielded no satisfactory results, at any rate at low temperatures. The sub- ject requires still further examination, however, and Mr. Marshall Ward intimated that he intended to carry on the experiments, so that at a future date he might be able to convey more detailed information than could be given in a paper of a preliminary character. The plants employed were hyacinth potato, Alge, 564 NA TORE [Oct. 8, 1885 faba, Phaseolus, Dicentra, and the vine, and some interesting remarks on methods, &c., were made in the discussion which followed. On the Coloration of the Anterior Segments of the Maldanide, by Allen Harker, F.L.S., Professor of Natural History, Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester.—The author, while studying the circulation and respiration of annelids at the zoological station at Naples, had been specially interested in the Maldanide, from their partially tubiculous habit and the brilliant coloration of their anterior segments. The bands of colour usually orna- ment the anterior segments, beginning with the second or third, and continuing to the ninth; but the distribution of the coloured bands differs widely in the different species. The colour in living or freshly-killed specimens is of a rich rose madder colour, shading off in each segment to a brighter rose-pink hue. Quatrefages attributed a physiological value to these coloured bands, describing them as being connected with the respiratory function. In connection with the whole subject of cutaneous respiration in annelids, it appeared important to settle this question, and the author made sections of the anterior segments in the Maldanidz, and finds the colour to be due to a special pigment, whose behaviour under various reagents he described. On the other hand the author has studied the blood-vessels and their distribution in the living chzetopod, and is satisfied that it extends equally in those portions of the cuticle which are un- coloured as in those which are. The coloured bands do not appear, therefore, to be in any way connected with the function of respiration. SECTION E—GEoGRAPHY The Indian Forest School, by Major F. Bailey, F.R.G.S., Royal Engineers, Director of the School.—It is only within the last twenty-five years that a special State department has ad- ministered the Indian forests. The staff was at first composed of men who had received no professional education, but they were able to do all that was then needed, and they accomplished work of great value. But as a result of their work the State became possessed of large forest areas, from which a permanent supply of produce had to be secured, and which had therefore to be managed systematically. At this time nothing was known of systematic forestry in England or in India, and an arrange- ment was made in 1866 under which candidates for the Indian Forest Service were trained on the Continent. The arrange- ment with the French Government is still in force, but it has | now been decided to undertake the instruction in England. Great progress has been made in Indian forestry, which is mainly due to the professionally-trained men with whom the Forest Department has been recruited, but up to 1869 nothing bad been done towards the education of the subordinate ranks. As work requiring professional skill became necessary over large areas, it was found that the ‘‘ divisions” must be broken up into a number of smaller executive charges under natives of the country, and that they must receive a professional education. In 1869 Mr. Brandis made proposals to organise the subordinate grades and to train men at the Civil Engineering Colleges, and several other attempts were made in the same direction, but without marked success. In 1878 Mr. Brandis proposed to establish a Central Forest School, and his proposals were accepted by Government. The chief object of the School was then to prepare natives of India for the executive charge of forest ranges, and to qualify them for promotion to the superior staff, but it was hoped that the school might ultimately be used to train candidates for the controlling branch. The chief forest officers of provinces fwere to select candidates and send them to be trained at the School. None but natives of India were to be admitted. A number of forests near Dehre Dun were grouped together as atraining ground and placed under a separate con- servator, who was also appointed director of the school. A board of inspection was appointed. The first theoretical course was held in 1881, and they have been held every year since then. The present system is that the candidates, who must be in robust health, are selected by conservators of the forest or by the director of the school. They must serve in the forests for at least twelve months before entering the School. Candidates for the ranger’s certificate must have passed the entrance exami- nation of an Indian University on the English side ; candidates for the forester’s certificate pass a lower examination. The course of training for these two classes extends over eighteen and twelve months respectively. Men who gain the certificates return to their provinces, and are employed there. The course of instruction for the ranger’s class embraces vegetable physio- logy, the elements of physics and chemistry, mathematics, road making and building, surveying, sylviculture, working plans, forest utilisation, forest botany, the elements of mineralogy and geology, forest law, and the elements of forest etiology. The course for foresters is much more simple. The preparation of manuals is in progress, and a library, museum, chemical labora- tory, observatory, and forest garden have been established. The period of probation in the forest before entry into the School has a twofold object : firstly, to enable the theoretical course to be understood ; secondly, to eliminate men who are unsuited to a forest life before time and money have been spent on their training. As a rule, the students are employés of the Forest Department, and they draw their salaries and maintain them- selves while at the School. No instruction fees are charged. It would not at present be possible to get condidates whose main- tenance and education are entirely paid for by their friends. Nine men who have left the School have appointments of from 125/. to 200/. a year, and this ought to draw eligible candidates. Conservators of forests say that the men trained at the School are markedly superior to their untrained comrades. The area of reserved forests has largely increased of late, and the prospects of the students are very good. During the session of 1884 there were forty-six students of all classes at the School, of whom eight were from Madras, and seven from native States, the chiefs of which have been induced by the establishment of the school to take measures for the protection of their forests. The School has now been made an imperial institution, and this is a great advantage in every way. The expenses of the School in 1884 are said to have been rgrt/, On Fourneyings in South-Western China, by A. Hosie.—In the autumn of 1881 Mr. Hosie was appointed Her Majesty’s Agent in Western China, and reached Ch‘ung-ch‘ing, in the province of Ssit-ch‘uan, in January, 1882. From this point he made three journeys in South-Western China. In the spring of 1882 he proceeded through Southern Ssii-ch‘uan and Northern Kuei-chou, the Chinese ‘‘ Switzerland,” to Kuei-yang Fu, the capital of the latter province, whence he journeyed westward in the footsteps of Margary to the capital of Yiinnan. From Yiinnan Fu he struck north-east through Northern Yiinnan, following for days here and there the routes of Garnier and the Grosvenor Mission. At last he descended the Nan-kuang:River and reached the right bank of the Great River, the local name of the Upper Zangtsze, at a point below Hsii-chou Fu, an im- portant city at the junction of the Min River and the Chin-sha Chiang, or River of Golden Sand. Here he took boat and descended the Great River to Ch‘ung-ch‘ing, his starting-point. In February, 1883, Mr. Hosie again left Ch‘ung-ch‘ing, and proceeded north-west to Ch‘éng-tu, the capital of the province of Ssit-ch‘uan, by way of the brine and petroleum wells of Tzit-liu-ching. From Ch‘éng-tu he journeyed west and south- west through the country of the Lolos, skirting the western boundary of Independent Lolodom. From Ning-yiian, locally called Chien-ch‘ang, and lying in a valley famous, among other things, as the habitat of the white-wax insect, he passed south- west through the mountainous Cain-du of Marco Polo, in- habited in great part by Mantzii tribes, and struck the left bank of the Chin-sha Chiang two months after leaving Ch‘ung-ch‘ing. From this point Ta-li Fu, in Western Yiinnan, was easily reached. From Ta-li Fu Mr. Hosie jurneyed eastward to Yiinnan Fu, which he had visited the year before, and then struck north-east through Western Kuei-chou to the Yung-ning River, which he descended to the Great River. Lu Chou, an important city at the junction of this river with the T‘o River, was soon reached, and the Great River was again descended to Ch‘ung-ch‘ing. This journey occupied four months. In June, 1884, Mr. Hosie again left Ch‘ung-ch‘ing, and from Ho Chou, a three days’ journey to the north of that city, he struck west- ward through a beautifully cultivated and fertile country to Chia- ting Fu, on the right bank of the Min at its junction with the T‘ung River. Chia-ting is famous as the great centre of seri- culture in Ssii-ch‘uan, and as the chief insect wax-producing country in the Empire. A day’s journey west of Chia-ting is the famous Mount O-mei, rising 11,100 feet above the level of the sea. This mountain, which is sacred to the worship of Buddha, Mr. Hosie ascended in company with crowds of pil- grims. He then proceeded south, skirting the eastern boundary of Independent Lolodom, to the River of Golden Sand, the left bank of which was struck at the town of Man-i-ssu, between Oct. 8, 1885 | NATURE 565 forty and fifty miles above P‘ing-shan Hsien—the highest point reached by the Upper Yangtsze Expedition in 1861. From Man-i-sst Mr. Hosie descended the Chin-sha Chiang and the Great River to Ch‘ung-ch ‘ing. Antarctic Discovery, by Admiral Sir Erasmus Ommanney, C.B., F.R.S.—The object of this paper is to draw atten- tion to the neglect of the Antarctic region as a field for explora- tion. The author gives a summary of the work which has already been done by Cork, Bellingshausen, Weddell, Biscoe, Balleny, Wilkes, Dumont d’Urville, James Ross, and Nares (in the Challenger). The author refers to a paper by Dr. Neumayer on the subject, the substance of which was reproduced in NATURE (vol. vii. p. 21). The author concludes as follows :— Ihave thus laid before you but a very imperfect description of these voyages ; to give the details of the scientific results would occupy a separate paper. But I have endeavouied to demon- strate how large a field remains open for discovery. I think, from all we now know, we may infer that the South Pole is capped by an eternal glacier; and, from the nature of the soundings obtained by Ross, it would appear that the great ice- wall along which the ships navigated was the termination of the glacier—the source from which the inexhaustible supply of ice- bergs and ice-islands are launched into the Southern Ocean, many of which drift to the low latitude of 42°. The fact of finding the volcanoes of equal proportions to Etna or Mont Blanc creates a zest for further research regarding that awful region on which neither man nor quadruped ever existed. No man has ever wintered in the Antarctic zone. The great desideratum now before us requires that an expedition should pass a winter there, in order to compare the conditions and phenomena with our Arctic knowledge. The observations and data to be collected there throughout one year could not fail to produce matter ‘of the :deepest importance to all branches of science. I believe that such an achievement can be accomplished in these days with ships properly designed and fitted with the means of steam propulsion ; nor is it chimerical to conceive a sledge party travelling over the glacier of Victoria Land towards the South Pole, after the example of Nordenskjéld in Green- land. Another interesting matter requires investigation, from the fact that all the thermometers supplied for deep-sea tempe- ratures to Ross were faulty in construction, as they were then not adapted to register accurately beneath the weighty oceanic pressure. Moreover, another magnetic survey is most desirable in order to determine what secular change has been made in the elements of terrestrial magnetism after an interval of forty years and more, when taken by Ross. In fact, there exists a wide field open for investigation in the unknown South Polar Sea. This paper will, I trust, be the prelude for others to follow in arousing geographers and this powerful Association in promoting further research by despatching another South Polar expedition, having for its object to secure a wintering station. No other nation is so capable of providing and carrying it out. Even in the Australian colonies there exists the spirit and the means for such a noble enterprise. Projected Restoration of the Retan Maris, and the Province, Lake, and Canals ascribed to the Patriarch Foseph, by Cope Whitehouse, M.A., F.A.G.S.—The Berlin Geographical So- ciety has published, in its Zeitschrift for May, 1885 (No. 116), the latest map of Egypt, from the Fayoum to Behnesa, and from the Nile to the Little Oasis. The text by Dr. Ascherson gives credit for a considerable area to the topographical observa- tions presented to this society at Montreal. So much of the Reian basin as lies between the Quasr Qeriin and the Quasr Reian has not been visited by any European except the author of this paper (1882, 1883). It is now an accepted fact that there is a depression south of the Fayoum, not less than 150 feet below the level of the Mediterranean, with a superficial area at the level of high Nile of several hundred square miles. It is irregular in shape, curving like a horn from a point near Behnesa to the ridge which separates it from the Fayoum. In the south- ern part are two, and perhaps three, patches of vegetation, wild palm-trees, and ruins of Roman and early Christian date. This part was visited by Belzoni, May 22, 1819; Caillaud, Novem- ber 24, 1819; Pacho and Miiller, 1823-24; Sir G. Wilkinson, 1825; Mason Bey, 1870; and Ascherson, March 27, 1876. Dr. Ascherson determined by aneroid observations that his camp was 29 metres below the sea. Caillaud found ruins about + 38m., or about the level of high Nile in the valley on the same latitude. The aneroid, theodolite, and other observations of March 6 and April 4, 1882, and April, 1883, by the author of this paper, established a depth of —175 to —180 English feet. The greatest depth is probably under the western cliffs south of the Haram Medhiret el-Berl. No previous explorer had conceived it possible that this might have been a lake within historic times. The level of the ruins, as determined by Caill- aud, shows that the ancient station of Ptolemais might have been, as represented in the text and maps of Claudius Ptolemy, on a horn-shaped lake about 35 miles long and 15 wide, with a maximum depth of 300 feet, fed by acanal, partly subterranean, from Behnesa, as well as by a branch of the present Bahr Jusuf communicating with it through the Fayoum. ‘The lower plain of the Fayoum had been, at that time, fully redeemed, and the present Lake of the Horn reduced to such insignificant dimen- sions as to be unnoticed. The restoration of the Reian basin of Lake Meeris and the drainage by evaporation of the Birket el- Queriin would bea repetition in modern times of the best results reached in the Greco-Roman period, perhaps 3000 years after the first effort to utilise these two unique basins for storage and drainage. On Batho-hypsographical Maps, with Special Reference to a Combination of the Ordnance and Admiralty Surveys, by E. G. Rayenstein.—The batho-hypsographical map, which exhibits the vertical configuration of the solid surface of the earth, above as well as below the ocean levels, is a product of modern times. It was Gerard Mercator who first inserted soundings upon a chart in 1585, but nearly two centuries passed away before Cruquins, in 1728, introduced the fathom-lines with which we are all familiar. Buache, and after him Ducarla, first suggested the introduction of contours upon maps, and their idea was realised in 1791 by Dupain-Triel on a map of France. The combination of these two descriptions of contoured maps we owe to modern German geographers, and more especially to Berghans, Von Sydow, and Ziegler. Cartographers, in effecting this com- bination, had hitherto quite lost sight of the fact that the heights on maps are referred to high or mean water, whilst the depths on charts represent soundings reduced to low water. This rough method gave satisfactory results when dealing with maps on a small scale, but a more rigid method would have to be applied when it was desired to combine accurate surveys like those made by the Ordnance and Admiralty Departments. The so-called mean level of the sea was not a suitable datum level, and it would be necessary to carry on tidal and other scientific observations on a far more comprehensive plan than had been done hitherto if a really satisfactory batho-hypsographical map of the British Islands were to become attainable. These various supplementary surveys, tidal observations, &c., it was to be hoped, would expand into a comprehensive scientific survey of the British seas. What has been done for the Geography of Scotland, and what remains to be done, by H. A. Webster.—After remarking on the unsatisfactory state of the Ordnance Maps, Mr. Webster said that in regard to the depth of our lakes and rivers—and the submerged portion of a valley is geographically as interesting as the sub-aérial portion—absolutely no data are supplied by the Ordnance Survey. Nor, with a few individual exceptions, do they exist in an accurate and trustworthy form anywhere else. It was an open secret that, when this omission was pointed out to the Government by the Royal Societies of London and Edinburgh, the Lords of the Treasury refused, and again refused, to authorise a bathymetric lake and river survey being carried out, either by the officers of the Ordnance Survey or by those of the Hydrographic Department. Such a refusal could not be permanently accepted. It was to be hoped that when the Government was next urged to move in the matter they would be asked for more, and not for less, We requird not only a hydrographic survey done once and for all (thovgh that was worth the doing) ; we required a systematic registration of hydrographic facts throughout the country, in order that the true régime both of lakes and rivers may be known in detail and with scientific precision. The ignorant niggardliness of the British Government was in striking contrast to the conduct of those of some foreign countries. In Switzerland, for instance, there was a regular system of inland hydrographic observations, by which the régime of all the principal rivers was annually recorded and rendered easily intelligible by a series of graphic bulletins. In regard to a Swiss river we could tell the volume at any period of the year at several important points, and could compare the facts of 1884, for instance, with those of any year in the last two decades. Every one knew what a vast body of interesting data had for generations been accumulating about 566 NATURE [Oct. 8, 1885 such rivers as the Po and the Rhone, and many had no doubt heard of the system of hydrographic stations recently established by the Italian Government in the basin of the Tiber. Why should we not endeavour to learn something definite and precise about the character of our own rivers? The investigation was only the natural complement, on the one hand, of the physical structure of the country, and, on the other hand, of its meteoro- logy. Our Scottish Meteorological Society had now succeeded in establishing meteorological stations throughout the country ; let hydrographic stations bear them company along our principal rivers. Rainfall and river discharge were mutually illustrative. On Overland Expeditions to the Arctic Coast of America, by John Rae, M.D., F.R.S.—The following table shows the approximate amount of geographical work done by the expe- ditions under— G.M. . G.M. G M. 1821. Franklin & Richardson ~. onfoot .. 35 imcanoes 415 450 "1826. x a3 nae * +» go inboats 955 1045 Total . 1495 in boat >. fin boat | are fe BACIC jens > i { on el eo 722 \on.eoastinee. 772 f= 2 3 bease&Simpson(H B.Co.) onfoot .. 95 inboats 722 817 ‘ fsledging ) a \Rae als lah ey)) sey aco jon foot fc” 2223 in boats 369 1492 ~4.) Grand total ... 4029 A Word or Two on the Best and Safest Route by which to attain a High Nos thern Latitude, by John Rae, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S., &c.—The plan proposed is that the route by the west shore of Spitzbergen should be taken by one, or perhaps two, steamers similar to the fine vessels used in sealing and whaling at the present time. That after forcing the ice “pack” at the north-west end of Spitzbergen, a north-east course towards Franz-Josef Land should be followed. That a depot of coals should be placed at a convenient harbour in North Spitz- bergen. Extracts are given from Parry’s ‘‘ Narrative,” 1827, pp. ror and 148, showing how open and small the ice was in latitude 82° 45’ N. The southern drift of the ice that so obstructed the advance of Parry’s boats will be no great impedi- ment to a powerful steamer, whilst if she gets helplessly fixed in the pack she will drift homewards with it. No well-equipped and powerful steamer has tried this route. FAPANESE TATTOOING “THE last number (Heft 32, May, 1885) of the AZt/thetlungen der deutschen Gesellschaft fiir Natur- und Volkerkunde Ostastens is almost wholly occupied by a paper of a most ex- haustive character by Dr. Baelz, a physician in the service of the Japanese Government, on the physical qualities of the Japanese. A previous paper by the same writer gave the results of his in- ve:tigations into Japanese skeletons. For the purposes of the present paper he obtained numerous anthropometrical measure- ments—about 2500—based on a scheme which included seventy- nine measurements in the case of each individual. It is noticeable that Broca confined himself to little more than a third of this number, Virchow’s scheme contemplated thirteen, and at the most thirty-eight, Weissbach sixty-seven, and Quetelet, in his anthropometry, gives eighty-two measurements. The skeleton plan of the paper is as follows: 1. Skin and hair: the colour of the skin and its cause, artificial colouring, including tattooing, the characteristics and nature of the hair; 2. The pkyszgue in general, including the carriage and gait of both sexes, weight, size, and growth; 3. Measurements of the body and limbs. In the discussion of the results set forth in this section the author expresses the opinion, based on his own investigations, that in general the value of these anthropometrical measurements is much exaggerated by anthropologists and ethnographers. The tattooing of the skin by Japanese, generally those of the lower classes, has attracted much observation from Europeans, due partly to the extraordinary elaboration and artistic skill displayed, partly to the fact that the occupations and customs of the class in which tattooing is most practised are such as to render it necessary frequently to wear none but the most * Actually two expeditions—one east, the other west. * Dease and Simpson had to pass over about 500 miles of previously traced coast before getting to new ground, but Franklin and Richardson were on Per eronnG at once on reaching the coast. 3 Of the coast, &c., traced by Rae, 1123 miles were done by sledging, believed to be the most Jaborious of Arctic work. indispensable garments, This subject has never, so far as we are aware, been examined with so much thoroughness and care as by Dr. Baelz. He says that among the various peoples which have, in the course of centuries, reached a high standard of culture the Japanese are probably the only race which have retained generally the practice of tattooing and have brought it toa state of highly artistic development. Up toa few years ago the practice was so widespread that in Tokio alone there are estimated to have been, possibly still are, 30,000 men who were tattooed. This decoration is not confined, as in Western countries, to a small part of the body, but it covers the whole back and a considerable part of the limbs. The head, neck, hands, and feet are never tattooed, a cireumstance of importance in explaining the practice. It was confined to the lower classes ; amongst the better classes it was considered unworthy to disfigure the body in this way. It was widely spread amongst the workmen in great towns and coolies, and even to-day it is exceptional to find an old man of either of these occupations who is not tattooed. The objects illustrated were various : amongst the most common were large dragons, lions, battle scenes, beautiful women, historical occurrences, flowers, &c. Dr. Baelz states that he never saw obscene pictures tattooed. The colours employed are black, which appear blue, and various shades of red. ‘The first is obtained from Indian ink, the usual Japanese writing material, the red from cinnabar. When a man wishes to undergo the process he looks out in a popular picture-book some illustration which takes his fancy, or he evolves something from his own imagination, and goes with it to the artist. The latter makes his arrangements, and sketches the picture on the skin. If he is skillful at his calling he sketches the merest outline, and straightway introduces all the cletails ; but if he is not so confident in himself he first draws the whole picture on the skin. There is no special ceremony attending the work as in some of the South Sea Islands, nor is there any religious signification what- ever in the process. The artist uses for the purpose exceedingly fine, sharp sewing needles, fixed firmiy, four, eight, twelve, twenty, or forty together, in a piece of wood. They are arranged in several rows ; when there are forty they stand in four rows of ten each. The points are quite even, except when it is desired to produce a light or dark shading, when the needles are arranged in corresponding lengths. This combination is said to be especially painful. The skin, at the place where the puncturing is going on, is stretched between the thumb and first finger of the operator, who holds between the third and fourth fingers of the same hand a writing brush with ink or cinnabar, as may be required, on it. He holds the wood containing the needles in his right hand, and, having put the colour on them, he rests the hand on the thumb of his left hand, end then proceeds with’ ex- traordinary rapidity to puncture the skin, stopping every now and again to put on the fluid anew. Dr. Baelz counted on one oceasion ten punctures per second, and as there were ten needles the person being tattooed received one hundred punctures per second. The wonder is that with such speed excellent pictures, with various degrees of shading, can be produced, but such is the fact. A skillful operator can in this way puncture the back or breast and stomach of a grownman ina day. A few hundred thousand punctures are necessary for this purpose. The patient, if he may beso styled, does not suffer so much pain as might be expected. The puncturesare not very painful, they tickle rather than hurt. No blood is drawn; a circumstance which shows that the needles do not reach the cuticle, and which also explains the slight pain of the operation, and the possibility of enduring it. This, however, is not the case always, for in many parts of the body where the skin is tender, or where a deeper shade is required, some clammy blood comes slowly to the surface, and the operation becomes painful. This occurs most frequently at the knees and elbows. To be well tattooed, therefore, is taken as a sign of manly vigour and endurance. As soon as the sitting is over the punctured parts are bathed with warm water, which produces a slight pain. The colour then comes out more clearly than before, and the patient can do as he likes. No special diet is ordered. A few hours after the operation he often has a slight feverish feeling, but this soon leaves him. After about three days the skin scales off like bran, but the tattooed parts are never irritable or sensitive, and the man goes about his work as usual. There are cases in which women have been tattooed, but these are very rare. The women are mostly dissolute who allow this to be done ; but it is said that the colours come out with great clearness and beauty on the comparatively fair skins of women. Recently tattooing has been prohibited by law under the impression Oct. 8, 1885 | that it is a barbarous custom unworthy of a civilised people. But Japanese tattooing is so superior to that of all other nations that European sailors are said to look forward to it as the principal advantage in a visit to the land of the Rising Sun. This being the method in which the practice is carried out, Dr. Baelz comes to discuss its oigin and meaning. The oldest reference we have to tattooing in Eastern Asia states that a Chinese prince, about three thousand years ago, who was nomin- ated heir to the throne against his will, had himself tattooed in order to render his succession impossible. But at the present day the practice in China and Korea has fallen into desuetude, while in Burmah it still appears to be in vogue. In 1872,a man was exhibited in Europe who had been a prisoner amongst the Burmese, and who was tattooed from the crown of the head to the sole of the foot. The practice is still prevalent amongst the South Sea Islanders and the American Indians. In his work on the origin of writing, Wuttke seeks to show that tattooing is a kind of writing ; but however correct this theory may be in the case of the tattooed peoples known to him, it certainly does not hold good in the case of the Japanese. The signification of the practice, says Dr. Baelz, amongst the latter is quite distinct from that which it has amongst other peoples. In the first place, amongst the South Sea Islanders and the Indians, tattooing has a religious, a symbolical meaning ; it is a ceremonial, frequently a sacred process. There is nothing of this in Japan—neither ceremony, nor other peculiar meaning; it is done for cosmetic purposes and for no other. Again, amongst other peoples tattooing was a species of distinction ; it marked the heroes, leaders, chiefs, of the tribe. In Japan it marks a man of the lower classes. Elsewhere, also, the uncovered parts of the body, such as the face, neck, hands, &c., are the favourite spots for tattooing ; in Japan it is only the portions usually clothed which are tattooed. It isnoticeable that amongst the Ainos the tattoo- ing takes place on the exposed parts of the body, and that it is largely practised by women, two circumstances which distinguish it irom the practice amongst the Japanese, and in which the Ainos resemble other northern peoples such as the Esquimaux, the Ostiaks, and others. In answer to the question, What meaning has the practice amongst the Japanese, as distinct from other races ? the author replies that in Japan tattooing is a gar- ment, a decoration. Various proofs of this statement are advanced, amongst them being the following : only those parts of the body are tattooed which are usually covered ; all workmen do not tattoo themselves, but exclusively those whose work causes excessive perspiration, and who can, therefore, work best in a semi-nude state, such as runners, grooms, bearers, &c., and amongst these the practice prevails only with those who have connection with large towns, where nudity would be objection- able. Their garments are tattooed on their bodies, and they appear clothed without clothes before the public. The peasants are never tattooed. Again, the colours of the tattooing corre- sponds with that of the dress ; it is the same dirty, dark blue. This theory never suggested itself to the Japanese : they thought that it must have come from China, and that it was a species of punishment. It was, it is true, at one time the custom to tattoo marks into criminals, but this was confined to a ring on the elbow. It would not explain the spread of the practice amongst certain classes in certain directions. Dr. Baelz’s theory that it is merely a Substitute for dress, and as the wearing of clothes is now compulsory, tattooing has lost its meaning. As for its origin, the peoples around the Japanese, the Ainos and the Loochooans, have practised it ; and the Japanese navigators who travelled far and wide in the Eastern seas in the sixteenth century might well have seen it elsewhere. The Japanese dis- covered, says Dr. Baelz, that man can paint a figure on his skin which the rain cannot wash away, the sun wither, or even all- devouring Time destroy, and with their instinctive artistic skill they gradually developed and perfected the original rude figures in idea and execution. At first few only wore this blue skin- dress, but these few appeared to their companions decorated and clothed (a tattooed person does not appear actually naked), and as such a garment was cheap and lasting, and every man could have it according to his own fancy, tattooing became the fashion. It may be added here that among the Igorrotos of the mountanious districts in the north of Luzon tattooing is also exceedingly elaborate, although it consists rather of a series of lines, curves, &c., than of one large, elaborate picture. Dr. Meier, in a paper read not long since before the Anthropological Society of Berlin, described the Igorrotos as tattooing the hands, arms, breast, and also part of the legs. The back is untouched NALTORE | 567 except by one tribe. A picture of the sun, as a number of con- centric circles on the back of the hand, is the commonest object represented. The process takes place at puberty, and is a long one, as the punctures (which are made witha three-pointed instru- ment which is clumsy in comparison with the Japanese needles) become inflamed and take a long time to heal. The tattooing of the Buriks, a tribe of Igorrotos, takes three or four months to com »lete. It may not be out of place here to refer to Dr. Baelz’s aocount of the Japanese use of moxa, which, like tattooing, comes into his section dealing with the skin. On the bodies of almost every Japanese, and sometimes on every part of the body, one sees round white spots. These are the moxa spots, produced . by burning the flesh with a species of plant, with the object of curing some affection. This is a universal popular specific in Japan, which is its home, although moxa is to be found used elsewhere. Jt was introduced from Japan to Europe by the Portuguese and Spaniards, and the name is Japanese. In May the leaves of the Artemisia Chinensis are powdered and dried, and the mass cut into small blocks or pieces. One of these is laid on the body and set on fire, burning slowly away. At first it naturally produces a sore, more or less deep, according to the intensity of the heat ; soon this heals, leaving the scar for ever. The belief in the efficacy of this process is universal, and, Dr. Baelz thinks, not altogether misplaced, for the moxa acts much as our blisters do. Moreover, from the accounts of those who have gone through the cure, it is by no means so painful as one would anticipate from the heroic nature of the remedy. SCIENTIFIC SERIALS American Fournal of Science, August.—Origin of coral reefs and islands, by James D. Dana. ‘The arguments recently raised by Dr. A. Geikie against Darwin’s theory of subsidence as an explanation of the formation of afoé/s, or barrier reefs inclosing a lagoon, are discussed and shown to be largely based on mis- understandings of the facts. It is pointed out that local eleva- tions within the sinking area are not evidence against a general subsidence, such local disturbances and faults being almost necessary concomitants of subsidence. The conclusions as to changes of level in the large Pacific groups south of the equator agree mainly with Darwin’s views, and the subsidence indicated, according to him, by afo//s, is shown to be real, not an apparent sinking due to change of water-level.—On the meteorite of Tomatlan, Jalisco, Mexico, by Charles Upham Shepard. The striking peculiarity of this stone, which fell in August 1879, is the prevalence everywhere of octahedral crystals of nickeliferous iron. The specific gravity of the two fragments examined was 3°47—4.43.—On the widespread occurrence of allanite as an accessory constituent of many rocks, by Joseph P. Iddings and Whitman Cross. From its mode of occurrence and association the authors conclude that allanite must now be added to the group of primary, accessory rock constituents, similar to zircon, sphene, and apatite, though much rarer than any of these. In some regions it appears to be quite uniformly distributed through certain types of rock, such as the porphyrites and allied porphy- ries of the Ten Mile District, Colorado.—Crystals of analcite from the Phcenix Mine, Lake Superior Copper Region, by Samuel L. Penfield. These crystals, which occur thickly grouped together on calcite and native copper associated with tabular crystals of apophyllite, are of all sizes from minute particles up to one centimetre in diameter. The small ones are simply tetragonal trisoctahedrons of the form (211), 2 — 2; the larger ones are of the same form, but with the planes differently arranged.—On a differential resistance-thermometer, by T. C. Mendenhall. This instrument has been devised and constructed for the study of certain problems connected with meteorology, especially the observation of soil and earth temperature, and the use of which would not demand greater skill than that of the ordinary meteorological observer. It consists essentially of a mercurial thermometer, not unlike ordinary forms, except that the bulb is greatly enlarged, so that the stem may have a diameter of about a millimetre, still leaving the scale tolerably open. By its means observa- tions may be taken in less than a minute, no time being con- sumed in the preparation of liquids of known temperature at the observing station, as in the use of the thermo-junction on the resistance coil.—Impact friction and faulting, by George F, Becker. The author discusses the phenomenon of ‘‘step 568 WAT ORE [Oct. 8, 1885 faults,” as described in Mr. Geikie’s ‘‘ Text-Book of Geology,” p- 532, which he concludes to be not merely local, but of gene- ral occurrence.—A standard of light, by John Trowbridge. Objections are raised to the standard adopted at the Paris Con- ference of 1881-4—that is, the light emitted by a surface of platinum at the point of solidification. A more satisfactory standard might be an incandescent strip of platinum radiating a definite amount of energy, this energy being measured at a fixed distance, which will best agree numerically with the absolute system of measures now universally adopted in heat and elec- tricity.—On hanksite, a new anhydrous sulphato-carbonate of sodium from San Bernardino county, California, by W. Earl Hidden. This new Californian mineral has a density of 2°562, hardness 3°—3'5, and is readily soluble in water, yielding an abundant precipitate of barium sulphate when barium chloride is added to the solution. The author names it ‘‘hanksite,” after Prof. Henry G. Hanks, whose name is so intimately asso- ciated with the mineralogy of the Pacific coast.—Mineralogical notes, by Edward S. Dana and Samuel L. Penfield. The chief subjects of this paper are the analysis of a Jarge crystal of hanks- ite from California and an artificial crystallised lead silicate from the Desloge Lead Company, St. Francois County, Mis- sourl.—On the amount of moisture which sulphuric acid leaves in a gas, by Edward W. Morley.—Local deflections of the Drift Scratches in Maine, by G. H. Stone. Traces of these indications of secondary glaciation have been observed, especi- ally in the Sebasticook Valley, the Belfast and St. George River districts.—Successional relations of the species in the French Old Tertiary, by Otto Meyer. In these, as well as in the corresponding American formations, many animal and vegetable species can be traced along through the succeeding strata, the latter being apparently connected by descent with the earlier forms. The paper is accompanied by a comparative table of Lower, Middle, and Upper Eocene and Oligocene forms illustrating this principle. The American Naturalist for August contains notices of some human remains found near the City of Mexico, by Mariano de la Barcena.—Eyolution in the vegetable kingdom, by L. F. Ward.—The relations of mind and matter, by Charles Morris.—A ffinities of Annelids to Vertebrates, by E. A. Andrews. —The use of copper by the Delaware Indians, by J. C. Abbott. —WNotes of recent literature, &c. Bulletin de 1 Académie Royale de Belgique, June.—Note on some derivatives of tetrabromuretted hydrocamphene, by M. De la Royere.—On certain developments of algebraic series ; the general formulas of these developments and their application to special cases, by M. J. Deruyts.—Researches on the action of a beam fixed at both ends and subjected to a movable over- charge, by M. G. Leman.—Questions of indeterminate analysis, by M. E. Catalan.—Note on the motions of the human brain, by M. Léon Frédéricq.—A new process of vivisection for the physiological study of the thoracic organs, by the same author. —On the optical properties of Ludwigite (RyFeB,O,,)), by M. A. F. Renard.—Determination of the coefficient of compress- ibility for some fluids and of the variations of this quantity under different temperatures, by M. P. De Heen. Rendiconti del Reale Istituto Lombardo, July 23.—On the causes and treatment of certain ophthalmic affections (pre- liminary note), by Dr. R. Rampoldi.—An exposition of the third paragraph of Riemann’s memoir on the theory of the Abelian functions, by Prof. Giulio Ascoli.—Further researches on the neutralising agents of the tubercular virus, by Prof. G. Sormani and Dr. E. Brugnatelli.—Toxico-chemical affinities and differences of gelseminina and strychnine, by Dr. C. Raimondi.—On the phenomenon of etherification by double decomposition, by Prof. G. Bertoni.—The mental infirmities and last days of Torquato Tasso, by Prof. A. Corradi.—Note on an artistic palimpsest of the fourteenth century, by Prof. G. Mongeri.—Meteorological observations made in the Brera Observatory, Milan, for the month of July. Rivista Scientifico-Industriale, July.—On the solar spots, their origin, nature, and harmless character, by Prof. Annibale Ricco.—Application of the telephone to the study of vibrating columns of gas, by Prof. Fossatii—A contribution to the study of etherification by double decomposition, by Prof. Giacomo Bertoni.—Geological constitution of Mount Vincigliata in the Fiesoli range, by C. del Lungo and R. Cocchi. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES PARIS Academy of Sciences, September 28.—M. Bouley, Pre- sident, in the chair.—Equilibrium of the moon, by M. F. Tisserand. In this paper calculations are submitted in support of M. Ch. Simon’s theory, supplemented by M. Poisson, that, neglecting the excentricity of the lunar orbit, the axis of rotation is displaced in the interior of the moon in such a way as con- stantly to oscillate in the plane perpendicular to the main axis directed towards the earth.—Note on earthquakes, by M. A. d’Abbadie. The author gives an account of the seismic movye- ments observed by him last winter in Egypt, where the seismo- graph was exceptionally active. He urges a systematic study of these phenomena in France, such as has already been com- menced by M. E. de Rossi in Italy, and by Mr. Milne in Japan. —Researches on the nitric cellulose substances (gun cotton, &c.), by M. Ch. Er. Guignet. The constituents and properties are described of the four distinct nitric cellulose bodies hitherto determined, all of which may be regarded as derivatives of the cellulose Cy,H4)O4), where 4eq., 6eq., Seq., or 10eq. of water are replaced by the same number of equivalents of hydrated nitric acid.—Memoir on the treatment of phylloxera by means of the organic sulphurs and the polysulphides of ammonium obtained by dissolving powdered sulphur in the night-soil of cesspools, by M. J. Jullien. as inexpensive, thoroughly efficient, and applicable to every de- scription of soil_—Note on an unpublished document by Sergio Venturi, dated February 26, 1610, on the invention and the theory of the telescope, recently edited by M. G. Govi. This letter, addressed by the writer to the Marquis John Baptist Manso at Naples, is specially interesting as being anterior to the earliest publications of Galileo on the telescope which had just been invented by Lippersheim in Holland.—Note on the separation of liquefied atmospheric air into two distinct fluids, by M. S. Wroblewski.—Description of two new types of con- densing hygrometers, by M. Georges Sire. The essential character of these hygrometers is that the moisture is precipit- ated on a bright metallic surface without solution of continuity. Perfect equality of temperature is secured in both instruments by the agitation of the volatile fluid and the thinness of the walls of the cylindric tube.—Genesis of the crystals of sulphur in square tables (five illustrations), by M. Ch. Brame. The author’s experiments on the genesis of the square tables of sulphur show the direct passage from the curve to the straight line in the development of these crystals.—Morphology of the mandibule of the hymenoptera, by M. Joannés Chatin. This organ of the hymenopterze is shown to be perfectly analo- gous in all its parts to that of the grinding insects.—Note on the application of thermo-chemistry to the explanation of geo- logical phenomena, continued ; iron ores, by M. Dieulafait. CONTENTS PAGE Mr. Grieve on the Garefowl. By Prof. Alfred Newton, F.R.S.. 2.0. ss <<, os) el ‘Phe Waveiof branslation” = 2 jo0s)saeeeeee 2 5546 Our Book Shelf :— ‘Publication of the Norwegian Commission of the Measurement of Degrees in Europe”. ....- 547 Letters to the Editor :— On the Influence of Wave-Currents on the Fauna of Shallow Seas.—Arthur R. Hunt ....... 547 Prehistoric Burial-Grounds.—T. A. Archer. . . . 548 Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. By W.F. Denning. . 548 Radiant Light and Heat, III. (Continued) By Prof. Balfour Stewart, F.R.S. (Z/lustrated) . . ... . 550 Notes RR ter Msc rs SSL Our Astronomical Column :— The Satellites of Uranus and Neptune ...... 553 Variable Stars . HEOMCAT eo oad 0 oe Neo a: Astronomical Phenomena for the Week, 1885, October7—L7 arent einai m-iee Pah oon stl Geographical Notes eel onan ote Gea oe ee The British Association :— Section G—Geology = © iis) sl-lonteme inne 555 Section D—Biology ........ . ses 500 Section E—Geography . . . «5 + + «+ = «+ « (504 Japanese Tattobing) (95 =) autje ©) pe) tel > eNO ScientifciSerials)-y-enen ene eiione «3 6) oer Societies and Academies, 2)... <> wi.» » «> (eMemengnG This treatment is described NARPO TE 569 THURSDAY, OCTOBER 1885 15, COMPARATIVE ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY Comparative Anatomy and Physiology. By F. Jeffrey Bell, M.A., Professor of Comparative Anatomy at King’s College, London. (London: Cassell and Co., Limited, 1885.) HIS work is one of a series of ‘‘ Manuals for Students of Medicine,” each of which is to be “ compact and authoritative ”— embodying the most recent discoveries,” and also to “contain all the information required for the medical examinations of the various colleges, halls, and universities in the United Kingdom and the Colonies.” On behalf of those of our readers who may be unfamiliar with the demands of certain of the examining bodies referred to above, it may be well to state that nothing but a résumé of all that is known in the subject could meet the requirements of the case. That which the publishers demand, and which the public therefore has a right to expect under the conditions laid down, is an _ ultra- condensed digest of all authoritative work in zoology and physiology. Incredible though this may appear to any one acquainted with the bibliography of the subject, Prof. Bell’s manual is so far satisfactory that we cannot but congratulate the publishers upon their choice of an author, whose work in connection with the Fournal of the Royal Microscopical Society and the Zoological kecord render him far excellence the man for this opus mirabilis. When it is stated that there are but 548 pp. to the book it will be clear that it must be a vast collec- tion of facts, little being left as to style or originality for that criticism which the author invites. The method of treatment, however, is somewhat novel, and in our opinion open to comment. The author divides his work into fourteen chapters. Of these the first is introductory ; the second is devoted to the Amceba as a physiological study ; the third to “the general structure of animals,” that is, to a consideration of the “broader characteristics of the groups into which the animal kingdom has been divided.” Those which remain are devoted, each to one of the great systems of organs and to development. In estimating the value of this volume, it must be clearly borne in mind that it is a book intended for beginners. Chapter II. is written for biological babes, and it will be clear to any one who reads the volume that the author would have the student familiarise himself with the facts in the order in which they are presented to him. This being so, it is a pity that Chap. I. should have been so largely devoted to the subtle details of ceil- . structure; the beginner is lost in descriptions of the “ cytod” and the “cell,” for each of which broad differ- ences are dogmatically formulated, such as would tend to bias the mind of the average student. Draw hard lines by all means for the beginner, but not in such delicate mattersas these. Only by working from the known to the unknown, can the student of science ever hope for success ; the order of his elementary studies must be a recapitu- lation of that in which the science itself has advanced— he must here begin with gross anatomy, and we believe that to treat first of the subtle details of cell structure is VOL. XXXIL—NO. 833 to do violence to the cause of inductive science. A some- what similar comment may be offered upon the manner in which the great phyla are dealt with in Chap. III. Having devoted nearly half the chapter to defining these, the author proceeds (pp. 58, 59) to deal with types of each. He prefers to commence with the Echinodermata, dealing thus “first of all” with the “most aberrant” phylum. If the Echinoderms are dismissed as a stumbling block, why not the Brachiopods, the Polyzoa, and certain other creatures well known to zoologists? These are all wisely relegated to the end of the chapter, as “ groups of animals which in the present state of our knowledge cannot be satisfactorily placed with any of the great phyla” (p. 100). Just so, but why not put the Echinoderms there also If the student is to be allowed the exercise of any judg ment in the matter, he cannot be expected to deal with the aberrant before he is familiar with the normal, and more stereotyped grades of organisation. Although the work is professedly a text-book of com- parative anatomy and physiology, the latter branch has suffered much in the process of condensing, necessary we presume in order to keep the book within the prescribed limits. At the commencement of each chapter a concise definition of that system of organs to be dealt with com- paratively is given, together with a brief description of their functional activity; but the field of comparative histology is sorely neglected. The author neither fur- nishes the required information on this subject, nor does he take for granted that his readers have worked through even the broad principles of it. The student is occasion- ally referred (Ex. pp. 368 and 372) to Klein’s “ Manual of Histology ”—a fellow volume to the one now before us ; but as that work deals with the subject altogether from a special human-anatomist’s point of view, the reader is at a loss to make much of the subtle differences in the com- parative anatomy of, say, shells and teeth, until he knows more precisely than he is here informed what is involved in an exoskeleton and a tooth. Similarly, the statements made (p. 258) concerning the vertebrate excretory system are altogether too brief and dogmatic. The student is merely informed that Meso and Metanephros exist ; of their adult structure he learns little or nothing, and in the face of such descriptions of the essential structure of an excretory organ as are given, he would be at a loss to make much of that of the vertebrate at any rate for himself. Chapters V. and VI. are also at a disadvantage from this curtailing of the histological portion of the subject. The definition of the blood given (p. 181) would not convey to the beginne /’s mind a notion of its real complex nature ; he would rather infer that it is merely “ the result of the process of digestion,” in function “respiratory as well as nutrient.” Least successful of all the definitions given of great systems is that (pp. 393-94) of the nervous system, and it is exceedingly unfortunate that (p. 411) the nerves should be described as bringing or carrying “messages.” A fascinating conception of the nervous activity this may be, but it is a commonplace one, well known to every teacher of physiology ; the mischief attendant upon its use is patent, and it is highly desirable that special efforts should be made to secure its abolition. Its adoption in this work is therefore greatly to be regretted. Prof. Bell’s book is fully up to the date of writing, and the subject-matter is for the most part judiciously BB 57° Tle Op See) (Occ mir anos selected and arranged ; but in a volume where so much of fundamental importance to the student is recorded, we could wish to see more discretion used in the transcription of certain hypotheses. We frequently find the most elementary facts set down side by side with the most daring generalisations. Nowhere is this more con- spicuous than on p. 85, where Hubrecht’s well-known Nemertean-Vertebrate hypothesis is referred to. The author mentions this with a caution it is true, but its intro- duction in the manner adopted, and with the illustrations given, is out of place. Again, a teacher is not justified in telling a novice as a frocés verbal in an elementary text- book that “ the Echinodermata, the Arthropoda, and the Mollusca form (p. 84) three very distinct branches or phyla, the common ancestor of which is to be sought for only in a simple worm.” Neither is he justified in asserting (p. 403) without further qualification than is here given, that “with the exception, then, that in Peripatus and Proneomenia, the anterior end of the nerve-cords is enlarged into a cerebral mass, we should appear to be able to see no essential difference between them and a Craspedote Medusa, save in fact that the Medusa has a complete nerve ring.” Statements such as the above may prove in the long run to be expressive of the truth, but if introduced into a text-book, efforts should be made to convey to the mind of the student some notion of what they involve. The beginner is too ready to rely upon his teacher and his text-book at all times, and the admixture of elementary facts with startling hypotheses is—in a work of this order—directly opposed to the true scientific prin- ciple. The natural tendency to generalise prematurely needs to be checked rather than otherwise, and if coun- tenanced by a teacher, it must lead to fallacies greater and more mischievous, than were those of the catastrophic school. There is a dangerous sketchiness about certain portions of this work. For example, on pp. 185 to 193 there is instituted a brief comparison of the great blood-vessels in the leading groups of animals. The descriptions given would lead one to infer that the ‘antennary, hepatic, and sternal arteries of the Crustacean, and the auricles of Mollusca, are serial homologues of the circular com- missures of a worm (here called “ transverse”) ; this is in fact stated (pp. 186, 189) to be the case. The argument used above applies equally well here, and we are at a loss to imagine the state of him who, with the aid of this book, shall try to ascertain the actual condition of these vessels in the admittedly all-important worm. When we reflect upon the advisability of placing this work in the hands of the average medical student, it must be admitted that it is not calculated to be of much service to him during his ordinary student life, except as a cram-book for the examination-room. The author has, by the terms of his agreement, pledged himself to produce a précis of all that is of first importance on the subject. The work will be very valuable as a remembrancer and book of reference to those who already know something definite of the broad principles of the science, and we conceive of it as calculated to be of especial service to geologists and others, whose work among the “dry bones” occasionally needs the light from within. So far as the medical student is concerned, it must be admitted that he is overtaught, and it is monstrous to reflect that there exist systems of medical education, such as have necessi- tated the production of this book as a “ Manual for Students of Medicine.” The days for “signing up” attendances on long courses of lectures upon zoology and botany are—or ought to be—numbered ; and if, as is most desirable, the biological leaven is to be introduced into the medical curriculum, it can only be done to good purpose along lines such as have been successfully laid down, mainly by Prof. Huxley. There is undoubtedly a need of a sound elementary book, which shall be up to date, on “the general structure of animals,” and Chap. III. of this volume supplies the want ina measure. The paucity of certain parts of this, however, is a serious obstacle to its adoption, for diagnoses such as are given for the Scaphopoda (p. 82), for the Copepoda (p. 68), and for the Siphonophora, are of little avail. Taking the book as a whole, the success with which the author has performed his task will be obvious to any one cognisant of the immensity of the field. Small errors cannot well be excluded from a work of this kind, but the volume contains some which ought to be rectified as soon as possible. For instance, there is no good ground for stating (p. 359) that the sesamoids are “no doubt to be explained by a reference to the primitively multiradiate condition of the vertebrate limb,” and there is something akin to a contradiction in the assertion (p. 140) that the teeth are “developed from cells of epiblastic origin,” and that there is ‘a community of origin between what have been well called dermal denticles and what we call teeth.” One remarkable instance of the manner in which errors of observation may be spread and distorted in the process of abstracting, is to be found on pp. 301 and 377, where we read that the telson “sometimes, though very rarely (Scyllarus), dears minute appendages.” We mention this as the author lays stress upon it, and unless we are mis- taken in the identity of the paper from which the above idea has been culled,! an attempt was merely made to show —and that unconclusively—that “the telson is a true body segment with lateral appendages, which are modified by cohesion and adhesion.” He who abstracts cannot be expected to verify the accuracy of every statement he reproduces—life is too short for that—but a matter such as the above should not have been allowed to pass. In defining the Arachnida (p. 72) it is stated that “the mouth is never placed so far back that any of the appendages become antennary organs.” This is but one view of a complicated and deeply involved question, and, even should it chance to be true in the end, it is but a deduction at the most, and its use here as a definition is unwarrantable. This same deduction underlies the statements made on p. 303 under a similar head, and also the insertion of the foot- note uncalled for to p. 224. The first mention of the “transverse processes” of the vertebra (p. 314) as “given off” from the centrum is to be regretted, as it leads up to a complete misunderstanding of the nature of the component parts of the adult vertebra ; and, passing (pp. 324-25) from a somewhat jerky description of the vertebral column, it is doubtful how far it is wise to usher in so complex a subject as that of the skull, by a direct appeal to embryology. The statement (p. 325) that the trabeculz “never form more than an ¥ Garrod, ¥ournal of Anatomy and Physiology, May 1871. Oct. 15, 1885 | NATURE 571 imperfect roof” in the region of the fore-brain, hardly accords either with fact or with the characters delineated in Fig. 138. In dealing with another complex matter— the origin of the foetal membranes—the student’s attention is abruptly transferred (p. 509) from the vitelline mem- brane to the amnion, and that in such a manner that he would scarcely follow what is really meant. Closely allied is the description of the germinal layers, and we doubt if the bare statement (p. 34) that “the outer and inner layers undertake the functions which their position entails on them” is justifiable. The work is got up in good style. The technical terms are printed in large type, but the choice of these is not always happy; on p. 5, for instance, in describing the movements of living protoplasm, we find the words “stream” and “gliding” set up in large letters; while, on p. 12, where the time-honoured terms “ ontogeny ” and “phylogeny” cannot well be dispensed with, neither they nor equivalents are employed—in fact, but for the aphorisms quoted on p. 13, the arguments used under the head of “development” would hardly carry conviction. Considering the nature of the book there are very few typographical errors. The more important are: p. 49, the description of Aspidogaster as “ecfoparasitic ;” p. 138, the “ anterior posterior of the digestive tract ;” and, p. 501, “the cephalous Mollusca, such as the mussel,” &c. The illustrations are, for, the most part, fairly good. Fig. 11, representing, as it does, only one-half of an anemone, is not easily intelligible to the reader, and the student should be informed what the right half of Fig. 22 is intended to illustrate. Fig. 66 illustrates but feebly part of an important subject—Mammalian odontology—which is poorly dealt with. Figs. 36, 42, 81, 82, 101, 170, and 192, are all out of place in a work of this kind. They convey little or no impression to the mind of the student, and are bare schemes such as an observer might construct for use in his own private notebook side by side with actual drawings of the facts observed. Diagrams such as Fig. 101 should never be shaded up, as if indicative of actual appearances. To sum up. The author has successfully produced, at immense labour, a volume, of service to those who already possess a practical knowledge of the broad prin- ciples of the subject. A “Manual for Students of Medicine” it emphatically is not, except under that atrocious and misdirected rég7me of parrot-work not yet extinct. For this the system, and not the author, is to blame ; he has performed a good service, the return for which will but ill repay him. Gy Bo H. BRITISH DAIRY FARMING British Dairy Farming. By James Long. (London: Chapman and Hall, 1885.) HIS very readable volume is from the pen of one who evidently understands the highly technical subject to which he has devoted himself. Writing upon agri- culture has too often been attempted by mere theorists, and as an inevitable consequence practical men have been contented to cursorily scan and forthwith consign both book and author to oblivion. In this department more than in many others those who know are not book-writers and those who are book-writers do not kaow. Mr. Long is happily able to exercise the discernment which comes of knowledge in the marshalling of his facts and the quality of his suggestions. In his introductory chapter he gives solid statistical reasons why we should as a com- munity endeavour to “ produce more and import less,” and the subsequent chapters are devoted to a review and com- parison of our dairy system and those of our Continental neighbours, much to the advantage of the latter. The genius of the English farmer does not appear to have as yet shone into his dairy. His fields, his machines, his cattle stalls, his animals, have each and all been the ad- miration and the model of Europe and America. But he pauses on the threshold of his dairy and, we may add, his hen-house. These are, he thinks, the proper domain of the dairy-maid or the housewife, and the farmer is done with the milk when he has set it down at his dairy door. It is a case parallel with that of our czzszme. We produce the finest beef and mutton, but we are only too constantly reminded of the forcible old proverb that while God sends meat the Devil sends cooks. There is some ground for hope that we shall, if only by force of competition, be compelled to further elaborate our products. English cheese is excellent, but itis lamentably wanting in variety, and certainly is much too apt to be regarded as one of the necessaries rather than as one of the amenities of our daily fare. Butter-making offers fewer facilities for inno- vation, but much requires to be done before we can suc- cessfully compete with the butter-makers of Denmark, Normandy, and Brittany. It is to cheese-making that Mr. Long devotes the largest share of his space. In England the principal cheeses may be almost told off upon the digits of one hand : they are “Stilton, Cheshire, Cheddar, Gloucester, Derby, and Leicester.” The two last are, however, a little less definite than the first four, and we do not quite see their right to continue a list so well begun. Derby and Leicester are, no doubt, very good cheeses, but if they are to be admitted to stand in the same relation to English dairying as Stilton and Cheddar, we think Mr. Long might well have in- creased his list by adding Cutherston, Dorset-blue, North Wilts, and other cheeses well known to thousands of admirers. The principal English cheeses are, however, undoubtedly the first four mentioned in Mr. Long’s list, and, with the exception of the Stilton, none of them can compare, in the estimation of an epicure, commozsseur, or gourmand, with the soft, rich, palatable cheeses imported to this country under a puzzling variety of appellations. The chief interest of Mr. Long’s book consists in his minute workable descriptions of the manufacture of a large number of cheeses, which indeed appear to be as numerous and various as are different sorts of wines. The book is well illustrated, and the “ plant” required for carrying on the manufacture of some of the cheeses is complicated and expensive. Still, there appears to be no reason why similar cheeses should not be successfully made in England, and it is not improbable that the pro- cesses would be further improved in English hands were the matter once taken up. Take, for example, Camembert :— “The rennet is added to the milk at a temperature similar to that at whichitis drawn from the cow: itis heated ina tub, anda portion of the morning’s milk is added to the milk 572 NALORE [ Oct. 15, 1885 of the previous evening. . . . When the rennet is added the milk is gently stirred with a long spoon for two or three minutes ; a wooden cover is then placed on each pan, and it is left for five or six hours. . . . The curd is then taken out by spoonfuls and put into cylindrical white metal moulds which cost about 4s. 6d. a dozen, and which are open at both ends. These are previously placed upon rush mats upon slightly inclined tables, and which have on the lower extremity a small gutter which carries off the whey into a receptacle beneath. . . . When the curd has remained two days in moulds the cheese possesses con- sistency enough to enable it to be moved with ease. Then the left hand is placed beneath it, and, assisted by the right hand, cheese and mould are turned, so that the top face is placed at the bottom, in contact with the mat. At the end of thirty-six to forty-eight hours from filling, the cheeses are taken out of the moulds and salted. ... When salted, they are placed upon the wooden shelves above the draining tables, and here they are left for two or three days until they are ready to be sent to the Aé/ozr.” We have quoted the foregoing passage in order to show that there is nothing more complicated in the making of a French Camembert cheese, nor yet so complicated, as in the making of an English Cheddar. Whether by fol- lowing Mr. Long’s directions an English dairyman could produce the correct type and flavour can only be demon- strated by trial, but probably a cheese would be produced suitable to English methods which would add to the variety of our dairy products and find a ready market. Mr. Long also describes the manufacture of various other cheeses, among which are Pont l’Evéque, Livarot, Mignot, Boudon, Brie, Géromé, Coulommiers, Mont d’Or, Void, Suisse, St. Remy, Gervais, St. Marcellin, Jour iac, Gex, and a large number of others, the mere mention of which would occupy more space than we can spare. Mr. Long has certainly contributed a handy text-book which it is hoped will find its way among and be studied by dairy farmers. JOHN WRIGHTSON OUR BOOK SHELF Chain Cables and Chains. By Thomas W. Traill, C.E., R.N., the Engineer-Surveyor to the Board of Trade. (London : Crosby Lockwood, and Co., 1885.) IN the volume before us we find the business of chain cable-making in its several branches well explained and illustrated ; nor does the aim of the author end here. There is information given which is most useful to sur- veyors and inspectors, and we recommend all who have to deal either with the manufacture, inspection, or testing of chain cables to study the work. The volume contains many well-executed plates, showing good, bad, and indifferently-formed links, &c., for various kinds of cables, also tables of the best dimensions of each part of each link and shackle used in cables from 7-16th to 2} inches, the dimensions being given in decimals to two places, and also calculated to thirty-second parts of aninch. We find also exact copies of certificates given by the several public proving establishments, seven plates in all, more than one example being quite unnecessary, varying as they do only in colour and the name of the town in which the establishment happens to be. After a few pages giving an outline of the general manufacture and the methods of welding the links, we have a long historical chapter of the early uses of metallic chains, in which we are told that their uses date back to the time of Pharaoh and King Solomon; but it was not until 1808 that chain cables were used on board ship ; at this time a chain cable was used in a vessel called the Ann and Isabella, of 221 tons, built at Berwick, and owned by Joshua Donkin. This cable was made by Robert Flinn, in North Shields, perhaps the first artificer in chain cables. In the year 1833 the first machine for testing iron cables in a Government yard was put down at Woolwich, and in 1834, although chain cables were almost in general use, the rules of Lloyd’s Registry only specified the length, and it was not until twelve years afterwards it was part of the surveyor’s duty to see that they had been properly tested. The author gives a very interesting account of the progress of manufacture and general adoption of iron cables. We then find the various Acts of Parliament pertaining to their use given in full. All public proving establishments are now under the management of Lloyd’s Committee. The method of proving chain cables is as follows :-— From every length of 15 fathoms of the cable to be proved a piece consisting of three links is taken and sub- jected to an appropriate breaking-strain. If the piece so selected fail to withstand such a breaking-strain, another piece of three links is taken from the same 15-fathom length and tested in a like manner. If the first or second of such pieces withstand the breaking-strain, the remain- ing portion of the 15 fathoms of cable is then subjected to the tensile strain. If it is faund that after the applica- tion of the tensile strain the cable is without defects or flaws, it is then stamped as proved with the distinguishing marks of the proving establishment ; on the other hand, should the cable fail to stand the appropriate tests, it is rejected. Mr. Traill condemns the overtesting of cables, considering that the material is injured by so doing, and we agree with him in saying :—“ A moderate test is all that is not detrimental. Proving the iron from which the cable is made, and breaking a sufficient number of samples, is what can and should be done to prove the actual quality and reliability of a chain.” The volume does great credit to the publishers, being well printed on good paper. We can safely recommend this work to all in any way connected with the manufac- ture of chain cables and chains as a very good book. United States Coast and Geodetic Survey. Determination of Gravity at Stations in Pennsylvania, 1879-1880. Appendix No. 19. Report for 1883. THIS appendix is a portion of the Annual Report of the U.S. Survey, and contains the pendulum observations made in 1879-1880 by Mr. C. S. Peirce at three stations in Pennsylvania—namely, at the Alleghany Observatory, at Ebensburg, and at York. The observations form part of a series undertaken in connection with the Geodetic Survey of the United States. A Repsold reversible pen- dulum was used and oscillated zz vacuo, using various kinds of supports. At York a series of experiments were made to determine the effect of the flexure of the support. It appears from a previous report (Appendix No. 14 of 1881) that Mr. C. S. Peirce maintained against MM. Plantamour and Hirsch in Switzerland, that the oscilla- tions of the support have a marked effect on the time of oscillation of the pendulum, and he accordingly under- took an exhaustive series of experiments to prove his point, and to measure the allowance to be made. The experiments given in Appendix No. 19 are only a small portion, and are in fact re-published from Appendix No. 14, with some few corrections. The question was disposed of in Appendix No. 14, and it was clearly shown that the flexure of the support ought to be taken into account, and it is evident, therefore, that the stiffness of the support is of vital importance. Experiments were also made at York to determine the relative value of the method of transits and a method of eye and ear coin- cidences invented by Mr. Farquhar; the method is not described, but appears to be far less accurate than the method of transits. The effect of substituting steel Oct. 15, 1885 | NATURE 573 cylinders for the usual knives was also tried, and every care taken to prevent the inclusion of dust, but the results were very unsatisfactory. The results obtained are as follows :— Length of second’s pendulum reduced to sea-level at the equator. Metre. Alleghany Observatory eid 09909384. Bbensburge ses) so cen bss oes 0°9910672 Morks ees cs *s: O'QQIOIS At Alleghany, the effect of a valley was not taken into account, as there was no topographical survey available ; the necessary correction will slightly increase the above value. LETTERS TO THE EDITOR [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts. No notice ts taken of anonymous communications. [The Editor urgently requests correspondents to keep their letters as short as possible. The pressure on his space ts so great that it is impossible otherwise to insure the appearance even of communications containing interesting and novel facts.| The Presence of the Remains of Dicynodon in the Triassic Sandstone of Elgin In my address to the Geological Section of the British Asso- ciation I was fortunately able to announce a discovery which is of the very greatest interest both to geologists and biologists. As this discovery was made only a few days before the com- mencement of the meeting at Aberdeen, and after the draft of the address was in type, it does not appear in your columns; I will therefore ask you to insert this note upon the subject. Visiting the ‘‘Cutties Hillock” quarry near Elgin early in September, I found that the workmen had recently obtained a new specimen of a reptile, in which the head was preserved. On examining this I found that there were clear indications of two large canine teeth in the upper jaw with permanent pulp cavities. These characters and the general form of the skull left scarcely the smallest doubt in my mind that the remains must belong to a reptile closely allied to Dicyzodon. From the examination of a photograph which I submitted to him, my friend Dr. Traquair was able to fully confirm this conclusion, and to lay a pre- liminary note on the specimen before the Geological Section at Aberdeen. I hope that ere long he will be able to give a com- plete description of it. As Dicynodonts have hitherto been only found in South Africa, in India, and in the Ural Mountains, this discovery is an exceedingly important one. Seeing that doubts have been expressed concerning the Triassic age of the South African deposits, the occurrence of the very characteristic African form in the Trias of Western Europe is an important link in the chain of evidence by which these beds have been correlated. It is interesting, too, to be able to point out that the sandstones of Elgin, concerning the age of which such a great amount of controversy has taken place, have now yielded reptiles belonging to no less than four orders—namely, the Lacertilia, the Croco- dilia, the Dinosauria, and the Dicynodontia. J. W. Jupp An Earthquake Invention WHILE on a visit to the Melbourne Observatory I saw NATuRE of July 2 containing two letters from Prof. Piazzi Smyth, intended to expose a piratical attempt on the part of a “* B.A, man” to adopt an idea of Mr. David Stevenson with regard to the construction of houses to withstand earthquake motion. The publication of the first of these letters is at the request of Mr. D. A. Stevenson. The piracy referred to by Prof. Smyth is a brief note in a paper written by myself. My name is at the head of it (see Refort to the B.A. 1814). Prof. Smyth complains that I have not taken notice of a paper written some twenty years ago by Mr. D. Stevenson. I regret to say that I am not acquainted with that paper, and how Prof. Smyth expects that I should be when living 10,009 miles away from collections of European books, I fail to see. I am, however, acquainted with very much relating to aseismic or aseismatic tables, and if I made reference to the work of Mr. David Stevenson, I must necessarily have referred to the work of others. As every report which I have hitherto written for the British Association has been in the form of notes which have subsequently been expanded in special papers, an historical account of aseismic tables would have been out of place. Prof. Smyth is apparently only acquainted with the work of Mr. D, Stevenson. Under the head of aseismic tables I include ball and plate seismographs, the lamp tables in certain Japanese lighthouses, two model houses which I constructed in Japan, together with the model lighthouse spoken of by Prof. Smyth, and my own dwelling house. dl of these involve the same principles, and they only differ in their dimensions. (1) Ball and Plate Seismographs.— Of these seismographs I have constructed several types. At the time of an earthquake, in consequence of acquiring a surging movement, they fail to give reliable records. ‘They have been independently invented and described as original by many. Mr. Briggs, of Launceston, Tasmania; Dr. Verbeck, of Tokio, Japan; Mr. T. Gray, of Glasgow ; Mr. D. A. Stevenson, of Edinburgh, &c., have all been authors of such instruments. Mr. D. A. Stevenson recently figured and described his form of seismograph in the pages of NaTuURE. If we overlook certain mechanical defects in this instrument, as, for instance, attaching a recording index to the edge of the ‘‘steady plate” rather than at its centre ofinertia, the resemblance of Mr. Stevenson’s con- trivance is strikingly like a seismograph the photographs and descriptions of which existed in several societies and libraries in Britain prior to the appearance of Mr. Stevenson’s invention. After reading Mr. Stevenson’s description I did not ask for the publication of an ‘‘interesting”’ and ‘‘ well-put” letter, accus- ing Mr. Stevenson of having appropriated the ideas of others, but I furnished him with copies and references to papers in the Transactions of the Seismological Society and other periodicals where mention was made of this type of instrument. (2) Lamp Tables.—As 1 have been an officer in the Public Works Department of Japan for the last ten years, where I have every facility of knowing what the performance of the lamp tables at the lighthouses has been at the time of severe earth- quakes, I trust that some credence may be given to what I may say on this subject. When I last made inquiries about these tables, I found that they were all regarded as failures and one and all had been clamped. If Mr. Stevenson would like to have details respecting these failures I shall, on my return to Japan, have great pleasure in making them public. Mr. Mallet, in his “ Palmieri’s Vesuvius,” very distinctly states that he was consulted by Mr. Stevenson respecting the Sapanese structures, and that the principles indicated hy him (Mallet) were followed out in their construction. As Mr. Mallet is dead, perhaps Mr. Stevenson or Prof. Smyth will kindly enlighten us as to the meaning of this passage. Although I have made seismology a speciality for some years, I must confess that I am as yet in the dark as to who was the first inventor of the aseismic joint. To me it appears that there have been many inventors. (3) Jodels.:—My first model was about as large as a good- sized dog kennel. For a short-period oscillatory movement the house resting on its rollers remained at rest. Prof. Smyth speaks of Mr. Stevenson having imitated earthquake moti»n by the blows of a sledge-hammer. Although Prof. Smyth regards the blows of a sledge-hammer as an admirable illustration of earthquake motion, any one acquainted with the true nature of earthquake motion would decline to recognise Mr. Stevenson’s test as any test whatever. (4) Butlding.—The only duzlding placed on free foundations with which I am acquainted is the one I have erected in Tokio. At first it rested on balls, and, like Mr. Stevenson’s lamp tables, it was for certain reasons a failure. Now it rests on spherical grains of cast-iron sand. It is now astatic, and I regard it asa success. At the time of an earthquake the motion outside the house is usually about six times what it is inside. A description of it will be found in the Resorts of the British Association for 1885. ae what I have now said it will be clear that I have no desire to claim the authorship of the aseismatic joint. Detailed reference to the obscure and manifold authorship of what has hitherto proved a failure would certainly have been out of place in the report to which Prof. Smyth has referred. Had Messrs, Stevenson and Smyth been acquainted with the nature of earthquake motion, a few of the more important facts in the history of the ball and plate joint, and the details of the 574 failure of the tables in the Japanese light-houses, I feel sure that much of the objectionable innuendo to which I_haye been sub- jected would never have been penned. JoHN MILNE s.s. Wathora, Hobart, Tasmania P.S.—The above has been written whilst at sea, and I have neither had opportunity to refer to books or papers. On my return to Japan I shall be glad to continue the history of the ball and plate joints, should it be required. Tremble-terre du 26 Septembre, 1885 UNE seule secousse a été constatée le 26 Septembre a oh. 58m. du matin; elle a été composée de 2 a 3 oscillations, de direction variable suivant les localités. Le centre de la secousse a été dans le milieu du Valais, ott son intensité a été appréciée comme trés-forte, mais ou il n’y a cependant pas eu de dégats materiels ; il faut lui attribuer le No. VI. de l’échelle qui évalue en dix degrés V'intensité des tremblements de terre. La secousse s’est étendue vers le nord jusqu’a Schwenden et Zweisimmen dans le Simmenthal, a2 Chateau d’Oex, Aigle et Yvorne ; dans les Alpes vaudoises elle a été fort bien sentie dans les vallées de l’Avencon, de la Gryonne, de la Grande-eau, et de la Savine. Dans tout le reste du canton de Vaud le tremble-terre semble avoir passé inapercu, tandis qu’il nous est signalé de deux localités fort distantes, Geneve et Nidau; il est cependant probable que la secousse de Nidau a précédé de quelques minutes la grande secousse du Valais; d’aprés un obseryateur trés précis la secousse de Nidau a eu lieu a oh. 53m. En méme temps que le sol de la Suisse était ainsi ebranle, les appareils trés délicats de l’observatoire sismique de Rome, qu’ avaient été en repos Jes jours précédents, ont signale des vibra tions du sol vers t heure du matin; et dans le méme nuit un violent tremblement de terre rayageait la ville de Nicolosi pres de Catane en Sicile. F.-A. FOREL Morges, 8 Octobre Larve of Cerura vinula Last year I was rearing up some larvee of Cerura vinula, the Puss Moth, from the egg, and I determined, while I had the chance, to write a life-history of them. On examining the egg closely I found a small hole in the apex of each, and I thought at the time that this was probably caused by ichneumons, and therefore I laid the eggs by in a small box that I might capture the ichneumons when they made their appearance. Great was my surprise, then, when { found that the young larvee came out as usual. I therefore determined to get some more eggs and to find out whether this hole in the apex was caused by the mandibles of the larva inside, but I found that the larva did not emerge by this hole, but by a fresh one made in the side of the egg. And I find that all Puss Moth eggs have this hole in the apex. T am now hoping to get some eggs of moths belonging to the same family (e.g. Cerura furcula and bifida) to see if they also are perforated in this way. I should be much obliged if any one who has got any of these eggs would kindly let me know whether this is the case. This hole reaches through the shell of the egg, but is covered, on the inside (of the egg) with a thin tissue, like that which is found in birds’ eggs. I have carefully examined several scientific books, but have been unable to find this fact mentioned ; therefore I should be much obliged if any one could throw a light on this mysterious fact. I unfortunately have none of these eggs to forward as examples ; but, as they are pretty common in May end June on poplar trees, I have no doubt that such of your readers as are interested in the subject will be able to examine them for them- selves. Cyrit B. Hotrman Hunt Draycott Lodge, Fulham, October 9 Pulsation in the Veins I AM quite satisfied that the pulsatory movement in the veins, to which my former communication referred, is not in any way abnormal, as suggested by Mr. Williams (p. 466). In a@/Z cases, without exception—and they have been a good many—in which I have had opportunity for the observation, the minute v7s7ble evidence of the pulsatory action has been present, and I have NATURE [Oct. 15, 1885 invariably been able to count the pulse of the individuals, as in the experiment detailed in my former letter. The mirror experiment was tried on my own hand. And a medical friend who applied the sphygmograph in the usual way informed me that my pulse was free from any abnormality. It is to be borne in mind that the pulsatory indications with which my paper is concerned are exceedingly minute and would escape the perception of nine persons out of ten—requiring an eye educated to appreciate very minute differences of shade and colour. Ido not think that the bristles or sealing-wax thread which a correspondent (p. 437) kindly suggests, or even the orthodox sphygmograph would have a chance of effectually exhibiting them. I say shade and colour: for when a vein free from turgidity, and not sensibly altering the smooth surface of the skin, is seen only by its blue track, a modification of the tint is perceptible (to an educated eye) ; and the blue varies in intensity with the pulsatory action, sufficiently for the success of the pulse-counting experiment. J. HippisLey Stoneaston Park, October 4 Stonehenge In Nature, vol. xxxii. p. 436, R. Edmonds associates Stonehenge with the metonic cvcle, and quotes from Diodorus Siculus, whom he says flourished about 44 B.C. Would not the latter part of the first century A.D. be more accurate? He gives in his extract from Diodorus Siculus a quotation from Hecatzus, whom he confuses with Hecatzeus of Miletus, when it was Hecatzus of Abdera to whom Diodorus referred. Hecataeus of Miletus flourished about 500 B.c., and Hecatzeus of Abdera about 300. Mr. Charles Elton, M.P., in his ‘‘ Origins of English History,”’ gives the very same extract, and says that ‘‘ We cannot admit that the work of Hecatzus is on the subject of Ancient Britain,” and estimates its value in the following extract from the works of an eminent Polish scholar (Lélewel, Pythéas, 45): ‘‘ Hécatée a publié un fameux ouvrage dont le titre décele une vieille idée poétique rajeunie sous sa plume. ~ Elle devait s’allier aux nouvelles découvertes et y prendre une place éminente au détriment de la science et du bon sens. Heécatée, énumerant tous les étres mystérieux de la géographie septentrionale, en- richit leur nomenclature d’une riviére Scythique récem- ment trouvée en Orient par le conquérant, qu'il a appelée Parapamisos ; et plus encore des promontoires et des files Celt- iques, qu'il a probablement puisées dans les rélations véridiques de Pythéas pour les entrelacer dans les plages superboréennes.” The quotation from Diodorus is from his second book, but the whole of this second book is dedicated solely to a descrip- tion of Asia ; and it is not until the fifth book is reached that he describes the British Isles, and with a very considerable degree of accuracy. (See Fergusson’s ‘*Rude Stone Monu- ments,”’ p. 8). I do not think, either, that ‘‘Nine Maidens” is simply an abbreviation of ‘* Nineteen Maidens,” for, like ‘‘ Nine Ladies ” of Stantin Moor, in Derbyshire, it is a memorial circle. Stone Henge, moreover, is much more probably a memorial circle, as its original name implies—‘‘ Stan Hengis” ; and com- memorates the massacre of Vortigern’s chiefs by Hengist in 462 A.D. The Rollright circle probably commemorates the victory of Rollo over Eadward, circ. 913, whilst Avebury and Hakpen (520), Kit’s Coty House (455), Long Meg and her Daughters (508-520), Stanton Drew (508-520), Arthur’s Table, Arbor Lowe, Cumrew, Salkeld and Mayborough commemorate some of the victories of Arthur. That this is reasonable may be mentioned the facts that coins of Claudius Gothicus (270 A.D.), Constantine the Great, Constantine junior, and Valent- inian have been found at one or other. Milverton, Leamington Sanpb. S. STANLEY The Forecasting of Barometric Variations IN a paper published in the Yowal of the Royal Meteoro- logical Society, vol. x., p. 219, 1884, I pointed out that during a series of years the barometric variations in Western India had presented certain features which, had they been known at the beginning of 1876, and, indeed, at the beginning of 1872, would have made it possible to have calculated with a consider- able degree of precision and reliability the general course of the barometric variations from 1872 up to 1883, in some cases three Oct. 15, 1885] months, and in some cases even twelve months beforehand. The facts brought forward in that paper were of such a nature that, as will be readily understood, I wished very much they could be found to occur generally, But it was undoubtedly better to restrict their application to the area and period dealt with in the paper. It having been shown, however, that at one period and over a certain area quantitative relations had existed between previous and subsequent barometric variations, it is natural to suppose that quantitative relations may be found to exist at other periods and over other areas also. The question arises, Can the facts brought forward in the above-mentioned paper serve as a guide to future investigation? I think to a certain extent they can. The paper pointed out that there was a remarkable approach to an annual symmetry in the abnormal variations of the baro- meter in Western India during many of the years under observa- tion. It supposed that this symmetry would have occurred every year during that period had it not been masked by larger variations of another character; and it was mainly by acting on this supposition and noting the departure from symmetry in any given year, and by considering that departure as being an index of the variation that was about to come, that the position of the barometer in the subsequent year was calcu- lated. The paper attempted to explain the occurrence of this annual symmetry in two ways: (1) By supposing it to be a constant phenomenon connected with the annual double oscilla- tion known to be present in the normal barometric curve ; and (2) by supposing it to be a chance phenomenon, characterising a phase in the march of barometric variations, and persistent during the period dealt with, but not necessarily to be found in any other period. After further reflection I am inclined to believe that the latter is the correct explanation. And here I think may be a guide to future investigation. It seems very likely that barometric variations may always be passing through phases which are persistent for several years, And, during the continuance of each phase the abnormal baro- metric curve will necessarily approach more or less to a certain annual type. In the cases dealt with in my paper that type chanced to be of a symmetrical form, sufficiently remarkable to strike the eye at once. The regularity of its form made it com- paratively easy to be dealt with. An irregular type would of course be less easy to recognise and less easy to be dealt with. But it is obvious that if such types do exist and persist for several years in succession, then, by catching the type as the barometric phase comes in and by noting the departures from it each year, in a manner similar to that adopted with the symmetrical type I had to deal with, these departures may serve also in a similar manner as indices of the coming variations. Of course the methods of calculation would have to be purely arbitrary and specially devised for each barometric phase. If barometrical curves would yield to strictly mathematical methods, the problem of season-forecasting could be regarded as in a fair way of being solved. But it has never yet been found possible to resolve them entirely into regular periodical oscillations ; and I believe they will always have to be arbitrarily dealt with. Melbourne, July 21 A. N. PEARSON Transmission of Sound In connection with the subject of mechanical telephones, which has been occupying public attention lately, there is a note by Mr. Miller in a recent number of NaTuRE, regarding cer- tain experiments made in 1878 on the propagation of sound. With reference to this, Prof. Wernhold, of Chemnitz, writes to me, saying that as early as 1870 he had shown that human speech could be transmitted very distinctly through stretched wires or threads, and mentions that the results of his researches were published in an article on ‘‘ The Transmission of Human Speech through an Iron Wire,” in Carl’s ‘‘ Repertorium fiir Experimental Physik,” Band vi., Serie 168. As your corre- spondent will probably like to refer to this, may I ask you to kindly publish this letter ? W. E. AYRTON Central Institution, Exhibition Road, London, October 12 Are there Rabbits in the Western Islands? PRoF. THOROLD ROGERS in his interesting book on ‘‘ Work and Wages” mentions the relatively high value of rabbits in the thirteenth century, and suggests that they were then a recent introduction to England. It is well known that several islands on the west coast of Scotland haye no rabbits upon them—for Nat RE 57 instance, Kerrera, which seems to point to the same conclusion. It would be interesting to know whether this is really the fact or not ? HERBERT ELLIS 112, Regent Road, Leicester, October 4 THE HELL-GATE EXPLOSION ROBABLY the largest chemical mechanical experi- ment ever thought of was successfully performed last week in New York Harbour by the removal of the obstruction known as Hell Gate, or Flood Rock, a con- siderable-sized island, as stated by the papers, about nine acres in extent, in Long Island Sound. The agent em- ployed for this immense engineering work is a preparation or preparations of nitro-glycerine, and there is no doubt that this is the only explosive compound which could have been used for the purpose on account of the very enormous quantity required and the peculiar nature of the explosion of this substance. All the compounds or prepara- tions of nitro-glycerine produce by explosion whatare known as local eftects only, as distinguished from gunpowder, the effects of which are much more gradually developed on ignition, but extend, owing to the slower and larger wave of disturbance, to a much greater distance. ‘The legitimate use of nitro-glycerine is for purposes such as this, where a disruptive action is required. The operations leading up to the final explosion have been some years in progress. They have consisted in forming a system of tunnels at a considerable depth under low-water level in the solid rock, and the charging of these tunnels with dynamite and mixtures known as rackarock, of nitro-glycerine with compressed gun-cotton. Twenty-four galleries were driven through this island, some of them 1209 feet long, and these were intersected by some forty-six others. These tunnels were about 10 feet high and 8 feet wide, and the roof of rock above them varied from 10 to 25 feet in thickness. The quantity of rock to be removed by the explosive was about 275,000 cubic yards, the quantity removed by tunnelling being about 80,000 cubic yards. A good deal of trouble has been occasioned during the course of the mining work by fissures, which have had to be stopped by wooden plugs in most instances. The explosive was charged into holes drilled into the roof and supporting, walls and pillars at different angles, with a view to dis- rupt the strata of rock as much as possible. The holes to be charged were about 9 feet in length and 2% inches in diameter. The holes were charged first with the blasting gelatine or rackarock and filled to the ends with a dynamite cartridge, to which the detonator and electric wire were attached. In all fourteen thousand cartridges of a total weight of fourteen tons were em- ployed. Near observers describe the explosion as being accompanied by a dull roar, but with only the slightest shaking of the ground, even at a moderate distance. An- immense quantity of water was bodily raised up to heights estimated variously at 150 to 200 feet. The results, as far as can be ascertained, are very satisfactory, the rock having been very thoroughly broken up, so that it can easily be dredged away. After the example of an experiment on this scale, carried out without the least accident, perhaps it may occur to those in authority that we have on our own coasts dangerous rocks, not of the extent of Flood Rock, which might with immense advantage be similarly “ chemically” removed. Had gunpowder been the only explosive available, at least five times the quantity by weight of the nitro- glycerine preparations used in this experiment, would have been necessary and the results would not have been by any means so local or perhaps so satisfactory. After this the engineer may find it to his advantage to cultivate more the acquaintance of the chemist and his products than has been hitherto the case. 576 NATURE (Oct. 15, 1885 SUBMARINE DISTURBANCE HE following is an extract from the Meteorological fs log kept by Capt. R. J. Balderston on board the ship Belfast :-— ‘.“ On December 22, 1884, at about ten minutes to 3 a.m., local ship’s time, or 21d. 19h. 6m. Greenwich mean time, the ship Belfast, of Liverpool, was shaken by an earth- quake which lasted from about 75 to 90 seconds. The vessel at the time was in latitude 34° 34’ north and longi- tude 19° 19’ west, the island of Madeira bearing true S.E., distant 145 miles. “The shaking of the ship was accompanied by a loud rumbling noise, which, as heard from the cabin, resembled the sound which would be made by the rolling of large, empty, iron tanks about the decks, but which, as heard from the upper deck and in the open air, was as that of not very distant thunder, and it appeared to fill the whole of the air. “T did not hear the commencement of the thunderous sound, and cannot say on what compass-bearing of the visible sky it commenced, but it travelled rapidly through the air and towards the S.W. “ The vibration of the vessel and the noise were greatest during the first 50 or 60 seconds; the former then died gradually away and ended in the very faintest tremor, while the latter, as it travelled south-westward through the atmosphere, died out with a low roar as it appeared to sink beyond the horizon. “The helmsman found the steering- wheel much shaken as he held it, and in the cabins and cook-house, tin ware, crockery ware, and other light articles were rattled about. “This little earthquake occurred three days prior to the commencement of the earthquake which caused so much loss of life and property in Spain. “ Meteorological Office, October 9” THE BOTANICAL GARDENS IN JAVA URING the last few years so many useful and im- portant improvements have been made in the botanical gardens at Buitenzorg and Tsi-Bodas that it might not be amiss if the attention of the readers of NATURE were again drawn to these valuable seats of systematic and philosophical research. On entering the gardens at Buitenzorg the stranger is at once struck with the wealth and luxuriance of the vegetation he sees, the great height of the trees whose trunks and branches are in many cases covered with heavy creepers, the dense copses of the different species of bamboo, the eccentric-looking screw-pines and the handsome palm trees ; but the scientific observer is also struck with the care that has been taken to arrange all these many varieties of tropical plant life in, as far as possible, their systematic order, and that each specimen has its scientific, and in many cases its Malay name also, clearly and distinctly printed on a little board by its side. It is not difficult for any one to find his way about the garden, and in a very short time he can discover the par- ticular family or group of plants which he may desire to study. Many families have probably more representa- tives in these gardens than in any in the world. The Sapatacez, for instance, so rarely seen in Europe, are here represented by a great variety of genera and species, and the Palmacez, the Rubiacez, the Burseracez, the Orchidacez, and other families have now a large number of rare and interesting representatives. The herbarium which is attached to the garden con- tains a large collection of dried plants and seeds collected together from the many expeditions into the little or unknown parts of the archipelago and from other sources. Attached to the herbarium there is a comfortable and convenient little library which contains most of the mportant botanical books and journals. The laboratory, which, thanks to the energy of Dr. Treub, the director, is now completed, is a large, lofty and, for these climes, particularly cool room, and is well fitted out with reagents and apparatus for carrying on botanical research. The generous invitation which Dr. Treub has issued to naturalists and to which the attention of the readers of NATURE has already been directed has at- tracted several scientific men of different nationalities, and some excellent research has already been made in this laboratory. When I arrived in Buitenzorg Dr. Treub was at Tsi- Bodas; so, after spending a few days in study in the gardens, I made the journey across the mountains to pay him a visit. The road from Buitenzorg to Tsi-Bodas crosses the Poenchuk Pass and is full of interest and beauty. On the way the traveller passes quite close to the Talaga Werner, the crater of an extinct volcano which is now filled with water, and forms a most beautiful little lake hidden in the dense foliage of the mountain slopes. The path from the road to the lake is through a dense wood of fine forest trees, and amongst the undergrowth is found many fine shrubs and plants which are not found in the low-lying country beneath. The gardens at Tsi-Bodas are situated on the slopes of the Gedeh Mountains, at an altitude of 5000 feet, and here I found Dr. Treub at work in the comfortable little house which is attached to the gardens. From this spot a very wide range of vegetation may be studied, from the rich and varied vegetation of the plains to the interesting vegetation of the Gedeh and Pan- geranso peaks, at an elevation of 10,000 feet. In the gardens themselves a very fine collection of Coniferz from America, China, Australia, and other parts of the world has been got together, and spaces have been cleared for the growth of the various species of Eucalyptus, Cinchona, and other plants. Year by year the surround- ing forest is being encroached upon by these gardens to make room for new importations. I was extremely sorry that I could not prolong my stay at Tsi Bodas, but I had to return to Batavia to catch the Molucca boat. I saw, however, enough to convince me of the great importance of these gardens for the advancement of our botanical knowledge and the great opportunities they afford for research into all branches of the science. I need hardly say that the climate in this region is ex- tremely pleasant and invigorating, and the neighbouring village of Sindanlaya is much resorted to by Europeans and others whose health has suffered on the coasts or low-lying districts of the Archipelago. At Buitenzorg the climate is by no means unpleasant or unhealthy, but as it lies a few thousand feet lower than Tsi-Bodas, it is naturally a good deal warmer; but I am assured that several Europeans have worked there for several years without feeling their health the least bit affected. It is hardly necessary to add that every one who has come over to Java to work in these gardens has been amply repaid for the time spent in the long journey over the sea, for the insight which can be gained here into what tropical botany really is is one which can be gained nowhere else in the world so well, and leaves an impres- sion which is not likely to be forgotten in a lifetime. Batavia, July SYDNEY J. HICKSON ON CERTAIN NEW TERMS OR TERMS USED IN A NEW OR UNUSUAL SENSE IN ELEMENTARY UNIVERSAL GEOMETRY. Point, Line, Plane, Space, Extension LINE may as usual be understood to mean a right line unless the contrary is stated. Representable extension will comprise the concepts corresponding to the first four terms above written. So Oct. 15, 1885] understood, the term @ sface is susceptible of a more precise meaning than is usually attributed to it: its intrinsic equation is given by Cayley’s theorem of squared distances. It is a homaloid or flat of the 3rd as a plane is such of the 2nd, a line of the rst, and a point of the zeroth order. The phrase space of the 4th order ought accordingly to be superseded if we would avoid using the same word in two different senses—z.e. in a wider and narrower sense. Extension of the 4th order is the proper expression to take its place, and so in general we ought to speak of extension of any given order z, and drop the phrase space of 72-dimensions. Figure, Plasm, Enclosure A figure may exist in extension of any order. When pervasively limited by homaloids, simple and closed, I had proposed to give toit the Zrovészonal name of plasm, but Dr. Ingleby has supplied me with the more appro- priate, or at least more simple, term, eclosure. On the number and nature of simple regular enclosures in extension of any order, consult a remarkable memoir by Prof. Stringham* of the University of California (formerly of the Johns Hopkins University), in the third volume of the American Fournal of Mathematics. Homaloid, Flat, Niveau, Absolute Measure of Distance Homaloid, the term long ago introduced by the writer of this note, az, suggested by the late lamented Clifford, are now well understood, and need no new explanation ; but it is well to bear in mind the zztrinsic eguation which serves to define them Zo wit A homaloid in extension of the nth order is definable by means of an equation of the second order (naturally expressible in the language of determinants), in which (z+1) points are the standards of reference, and the squared distances from these of any other point in the homaloid are the coordinates. Observe that the squared length is the absolute measure of distance de¢ween two points. The distances of each from the other are not equal but opposite quantities differing in algebraical sign. A niveau is a very convenient term to signify the homaloid of the dowest order that can be drawn through a given point-group and is always wazgue; the order of the homaloid which is the #zveaz toa group of 2 points cannot exceed w — I. Curves, surfaces, &c., of the 1st, 2nd, and mth znd. A plane (or simple) curve is of the first kind ; “a twisted curve,” “ courbe gauche,” or a curve in extension of the 3rd order, of the second kind, and in general a curve in extension of the 7th order is a curve of the (#—1)th kind. Similarly we may define a simple surface as one of the first kind, and a surface in extension of the zth order as one of the (#—2)th kind; and so in general a figure of variety 7+ (¢ being 1 for a curve, 2 for a surface), in exten- sion of the order 7, is one of the (z—z)th kind.f * Mr. Stringham, a native of ‘‘the bloody land” of Kansas, studied mathematics and fine art under Peirce and Norton, at Harvard, obtained a fellowship at the Johns Hopkins University, and completed his studies under Klein in Leipsic. In his memoir he has given perspective drawings of the bounding solids about a vertex of the regular figures in quaternary extension, such solids being supposed to be previously rotated round the vertex into the same sface, which of course may be done just a3 the bounding planes about a vertex of a regular figure in ternary extension may be rotated round that point into the same A/ane. + A curve may be called a one-dimensional, a surface a two-dimensional, a solid a three-dimensional cox¢inuzme and, andsoon. Thus a solid is to a space what a surface is to a plane and a curve to a right line. t The ordinary systems of geometry, whether Euclidian or Non-Euclidian (Ultra-Euclidian would be the more correct term), contemplate figures as contained in homaloids of some order or another ; but this limitation has an empirical origin, and is not an essential ingredient of the pure theory of form ; for instance, a curve, Ze. a unidimensional continuum, may, and in general will, be such as cannot be contained in a homaloid of any number of dimensions whatever ; it might be said that the order of its #/veax in such case is infinite; but this would be a mere verbal quibble—the right view NALRGRLE S47 Curve, Locus, Assembly, Envelop, Environment A curve is that which is common to a locus of points and an assemblage of tangents ; the locus is the exvelop of the assembly, and the assemblage the exvzronment of the locus. Lines and Points A line may be used in the double sense of a locus or direction. In the latter signification an Euclidian or objective line is the union of two lines running in contrary directions and an analytical line is a half-line, a “ semi- droite,” meaning, of course, a half-Euclidian line. So a point may mean either a position or an infinite assembly of lines (containing or) contained in it ; used in the latter sense, it might temporarily be termed a fencz/- point. There are half or split points, as there are half or split lines. Thus the infinite extremities of the asymptotes to a hyperbola are half-points, the union of two of them being the correspondent to a single point in any ellipse of which the hyperbola is a perspective image. Coordinates, Homogeneous and Correlated Homogeneous systems of coordinates may be distin- guished into absolute and proportional. In the former the absolute magnitudes of each are material, in the latter their ratios only. Also into direct and inverse. Direct coordinates are measured by given multiples of the distances of a variable point from fixed homaloids ; inverse by given multiples of the distances of a variable line, plane, &c., from fixed points. Correlated systems of direct and inverse coordinates are those in which my “universal mixed concomitant” (Clebsch’s connex) Ex-+ ny + (2 (for greater clearness I confine myself for the moment to a particular diagram- matic case) equalled to zero expresses a line whose inverse coordinates are &, 7, ¢, when these are made constant and a point (pencil-point) whose direct coordinates (when it is regarded as denoting position) are x, y, 2 when these in their turn are made constant. If the distances of a point from the sides of the triangle of reference are /, 7, 2, and of a line from the angles of the same triangle \, p,v, and if the direct coordinates being c/, dm, en, and the inverse ones yA, dp, ev, and the distances of the angles from the sides 7, g, »— cyp = aog = cer. 1, 7m, 23; r, p, v are correlated systems. If Z' ni! n' p'; 1, m,n, p the direct coordinates of two corresponding points in a homography are connected by the Matrix J7 and )'p'v' wr’; A, pw, v, 7 (the inverse coor- dinates of two corresponding planes of the same homo- graphy) by the Matrix 47’, then if the two systems of coordinates are correlated, JZ and JZ’ will be opposite matrices.* Of course the like will be true in extension of all orders: thus ex. gv. in the case of a plane if for a given homography Zl’: alt+bm-+cn :m': dl+em+fn ia’: gl+hm-+kn Ns (ch — fh) + (fe — dh) p+ (dh — eg)v tip’: (ch — 6k) X+ (ak — cg) p+ (bg — ah)v zi: (Of — ce) X+ (ed — af) p+ (ae — bd)v being that it is sams niveau. The radical distinction therefore is not between the common Euclidian geometry and its generalisation (the so- called Non-Euclidian) but between the Homaloidal and the Anhomaloidal geometries. * In other words, for two point line, point-volume, &c., schemes homo- graphically related, employing correlated systems of proportional co- ordinates, the matrix which serves to express the relation between the direct coordinates of the first scheme and those of the second may be taken the transverse of the matrix which does the same between the inverse coordinates ot the second and those of the first. This is an important and as far as I am aware a new ¢heovert. 578 NATURE [Oct. 15, 1885 provided that 7, 7,7; \, yw, v are correlated systems of coordinates. Images: Reciprocats or Polar Reciprocals lt is very convenient to speak of any function which equated to zero expresses a figure as an zage* of such figure ; thus ex. gv. Ex + ny + G may be spoken of as an image of the line &, n, ¢ and of the point 2, y, z. A curve being the concept common to a Jocus and an assembly (the common ground, so to say, of the existence of each of them), will be capable of being imaged in terms of either direct or inverse coordinates. If the two coordinate systems are supposed to be correlated (as they ought always to be) then any two homogeneous functions which are reciprocal, or, let us say, conjugate to one another (each in common parlance the polar reciprocal of the other) will be images—the one of the curve under its aspect as a /ocus, the other of the very same curve under its aspect as an assemblage. Reduced Perpendicular Distances An extremely convenient system of homogeneous co- ordinates of a point is where each coordinate is the distance from one of the boundaries of the fundamental enclosure divided by the distance of that boundary from the opposite angle. Such coordinates may be termed coordinates of reduced distance or reduced coordinates ; they are analytically defined by their sum being unity. If a, be the two vertices which correspond to the co- ordinates of reduced distances, the squared distance of any two points, x y, z,...; x, y’ 2',... in extension of any order is capable of being expressed by the formula 3 (ab)? (x — x') (y' — 9), which, as far as I have been able to ascertain, is nowhere stated in the books, except for the case of trilinear coordinates. Exchangeable Figures Two figures indistinguishable from each other by any of their internal properties, but incapable of occupying the same place (such as the left- and right-hand glove or shoe) have received the very awkward and misleading name of symmetrical figures ; I propose to call them exchangeable figures, inasmuch as in the nature of things, as they are in themselves (without regard to the limitation of the human faculties), they may be made to pass into eachother’s places by a semi-revolution about a suitable homaloidal | axis. The Point-Pair at Infinity, Lines and Planes of Null It has been already shown in these columns that the “absolute” in a plane has full right to be called the | point-pair at infinity, in analogy with the received ex- pression of the /zve at iufinity, and those who have con- sidered what has been here stated under the head of reciprocity will see good grounds for admitting that the line | at infinity ought to be regarded as a complete line, 7.2. as made up of two analytical “ semi-droites.” Every line through either half of the absolute besides the property of being infinitely distant from any point in the finite region may be termed a “ne of null, in the sense that the distance between any two points in such line is zero. In like manner any plane /fouching the absolute in ex- tension of the 3rd order, besides being infinitely distant from the finite region, is in the same sense a plane of null; in it, form is divorced from content, for a figure of any shape being described upon such plane, its content will be 227. Plurt-duality : Contatning and Contained In extension of z dimensions each continuum of A dimensions stands in a relation of reciprocity to one of * When an zmage is given, its object is absolutely determined, but not vice versa, Since an image may ke magnified or diminished at will by the introduction of a constant factor. Z—\—1 dimensions, the total number of these- “ dual- z+1 zi CAC . s z am ities ” being when z is odd and > when 7 is even I being its own reciprocal). It is very convenient in connecting reciprocal geometrical statements to ignore the difference between (and to regard as exchange- able and equivalent) the terms contazning and contained 7 as applied to heterogeneous continua; indeed the ordinary distinctive use of these words suggests an erroneous conception ; as ex. gv. of a line being made up of points or a plane of lines. A point may be said to contain every line or plane which passes through it, and a line every point which lies on it, and every plane which passes through it: as an example of this extended locu- tion the order, rank, and class of a surface may be defined as follows—viz. the order and class as the number of its point and plane elements respectively contained in any given line; the rank as the number of its line elements contained in common by any given point and plane which contain one another. A plane-section of a surface is the totality of its point- or line-elements contained in a plane and similarly a point-section (an enveloping cone), the totality of its plane- or line-elements contained in a point : hence in- differently the class of any plane-section or the order of any point-section of a surface is its rank.* J. J. SYLVESTER NOTES ALL the five French academies will celebrate by a banquet the ninetieth anniversary of the foundation of the Institut, which was established on October 25, 1795, by the Conseil Leégislatif and Directoire Executif of the French Republic. The actual organisation is not quite the same as the original, great altera- tions having been made in 1814, and only partially abolished on subsequent occasions. THE death took place last month of General J, J. Baeyer, President of the Central Bureau for European Triangulation and of the Royal Prussian Geodetic Institute. General Baeyer had reached the age of ninety-one years. A biography of some length will be found in the Astronomische Nachrichten, No. 2687. M. RoBIN, a member of the Paris Academy of Sciences and of the French Senate, died last week. He had devoted his exertions to microscopy, and was professor to the School of Medicine. * The word s/read, to signify an unlimited expanse of discontinuous points and so used by Dr. Henrici, is, Iam informed, originally due to the late Prof. Clifford. In ignurance of this fact, on hearing that Henrici had been attacked for his use of the word, I stated my belief that it must have been borrowed from my use of it to signify a limited portion of a tissue of equi-spaced points, such as that which is turned to so profitable account ingay constructive theory of partitions in the American Fournal of Mathematics. I did not know at the time that Clifford had used the word, nor that Dr. Henrici’s treatise preceded by several years the publication of my memoir above referred to. This erroneous oral statement seems to have found its way by some more or less circuitous channel to the columns of the Saturday Review ina notice of a criticism, by Mr. Dodgson, of Dr. Henrici’s geo- metrical manual in the Scientific Series. Dr. Ferrers (the Master of Caius College, Cambridge) was the first to apply a spread to demonstrate in- tuitively a celebrated arithmetical theorem of reciprocity due to Euler, Mr. Durfee a quarter of a century later led the way to a further and more pregnant use of the same by showing how to trisect a symmetrical spread bounded by two right lines and a broken line into a regular square and two quasi-triangular appendages, to which I superadded the notion of mult.secting it into a succession of angles. Another pupil of mine at the Johns Hopkins University (Mr. Ely) has laid the foundation of a new theory of partitions, by studying the various modes of decomposing a solid spread of discontinuous points ; his memoir on the subject is to be found ina recent volume of the American Mathematical ¥ournal. By means of the trisection method I obtained zxter alfa a new expansion of (1 — v2)(1 — 27 . (1 — x72), which, on making =< unity and # infinite leads immediately ‘to Buler’s celebrated pentagonal-power series, and other results of a totally novel kind by the multisection method : so that a spread may justly be regarded as a potent instrument or magical mirror for extending old and bringing to view new truths in the wonderland :of partition and elliptic-function series. Oct. 15, 1885] NATURE 579 By invitation of the Lieutenant-Governor of the Isle of Man Prof. Boyd Dawkins recently visited that island in order to report on its antiquities and the best means of preserving them. The result is given in a short communication to the Lieutenant- Governor, in which Prof. Dawkins indicates the present con- dition of the various classes of remains. He points out what should be done for their preservation, and advises that the island Legislature should pass an Act similar to the ‘‘ Ancient Monu- ments Act” of the ‘‘ neighbouring islands” of Great Britain and Ireland. The advice given by Prof. Dawkins is sound, and “it is creditable to the Lieutenant-Governor that he has shown so much intelligent zeal in the matter. We are glad to note that he intends to follow up his action by introducing a bill into the Council with a view to carrying out Prof. Dawkins’s recom- mendations. THE last publication of the Japanese Meteorological Obser- vatory which has reached us contains the monthly summaries and monthly means for 1884, and is accompanied by forty-one maps, showing the isobars, isotherms, and prevailing winds. These volumes must demand unusual care on the part of the compiler, for they are printed in Japanese as well as English, and contain a mass of meteorological data of all sorts. We observe that three new stations have been added during the year, one in the north of Yezo, and the other, which should prove a valuable station, is at Fusan, the port of Corea recently opened to Japanese trade. This constant annexation of new territory by the Tokio Meteorological Bureau is to be highly commended. A RECENT issue of Coszos contains an account of the Jesuit establishments at Zikawei near Shanghai, the meteorological publications of which have frequently been noticed in NATURE. The central establishment of the Jesuits in China is at Funkadoo in Shanghai, but about six miles away at Zikawei (Siccawei) they have a large adjunct, containing their schools, an orphanage, and a college. In the course of its existence the place has been twice sacked, but it was again rebuilt. In 1870 the fathers began with the rudiments of a meteorological observatory, of which Father Dechevrens was the founder, and has been to the present moment the director, Gradually, by purchase and by presentations from various Governments, the observatory became tolerably well equipped, and it is now a magnetic and meteoro- logical station of the first order, making with excellent instru- ments observations on atmospheric pressure, temperature, humidity, evaporation, rain, winds, solar radiation, terrestrial magnetism in its various manifestations, &c. It issues a monthly Bulletin containing the observations, and a 7észmé and discussion of the meteorological events of the month. Thanks of the numerous missionaries scattered over the neighbouring provinces, who correspond with the director, the peculiar atmospheric movements in the China seas are beginning to be understood. Quite recently (as mentioned at the time in NaTuRE) he has taken advantage, with the assistance of Sir Robert Hart, of the Telegraphs, to establish a regular daily weather service, for the benefit of mariners. The observatory is situated in a vast plain, where the horizon alone stops the view, and where atmospheric movements are not complicated by ranges of hills. A tower 33 metres in height has been erected, and the Beckley anemo- meter, constructed in 1884 by Munro, of London, is placed on a platform 7 metres higher. The observatory has gone on developing year by year, and there is little doubt that it will soon include in its field astronomical observations. The Buddetins are printed at the mission printing-press, which is included in the establishments at Zikawei, the printers being young Chinese. The monthly Bulletins form a considerable yolume at the end of the year, and that for 1884, which has lately been issued, is the tenth in the series. WITH regard to-the new star in Andromeda Dr. Sophus Tromholt relates the following curious story in a Norwegian journal :—‘‘ When the interesting discovery had been mate in 1877 that Mars was accompanied by two moons, it was shortly afterwards pointed out that Swift, in ‘Gulliver’s Travels,’ relates that the Liliputian astronomers had discovered the two satellites (Voltaire, too, in a work in which he describes the experiences of two terrestrial beings on Mars, says that they saw the two moons unknown to mundane astronomers, but he has probably: borrowed the idea from Swift), A similar remarkable proof that poets may also be prophets in astro- nomy has just come to light with regard to the new star in Andromeda. In the Hungarian periodical Losoncat Phintx for 1851 is a story by Maurus Jokai, the celebrated author, in which he refers to this star. Jokai makes an o!d Malay (?) relate that the Evil Spirit, Asafiel, revealed to King Saul and his sons the star in the nebula, and predicted that those who could not see it should perish in the impending battle. The Malay also reveals the star to his li-teners and describes its position so accurately that there cannot be any doubt of the Andromeda nebula being the one referred to, although it is not named. The story, according to Jokai, rests on a biblical or Jewish legend. On the writer of these lines asking one of the greatest living authorities on biblical research whether the bible contains any reference to the point, he is informed that there is absolutely no such refer- ence in that book, and that it is hardly possible that the nebula is mentioned in any Jewish legend. It is first mentioned by a Persian astronomer of the tenth century, and was first discovered in Europe in 1612. It would be exceedingly interesting to ascertain whether any Jewish tradition has preserved the men- tion of a star in the Andromeda nebula, as from this might be concluded that the new star is a variable one with a long period. I intend to inquire of Jokai whether his story is founded on any tradition or only an outcome of the author’s imagination, but even should the latter be the case the story is a very curious one.” ALGOLOGY is becoming a favourite science with some Russian botanists. After the valuable researches of Dr. Gobi on the algee of the Gulf of Finland, several memoirs have been pub- lished by MM. Reinhardt and Rishavi on those of the Black Sea, and we find now in the last issue of the JZemozrs of the Novorossian Society of Naturalists (ix. 2) an elaborate paper, by M. Reinhardt, being contributions to the morphology and classi- fication of the Black Sea alge. The paper is the first of a series. Following Bornet and Thuret’s example given in their ‘‘ Notes Algologiques,” the author publishes his observations on separate species, without awaiting the time when he will be enabled to publish a more complete work. In the morphological part of his paper, M. Reinhardt discusses the development of a few Chloro- phyllez, and enters into more details with regard to some of the Cyanophycez, and especially the Phzeosporew (the conjugation of Ectocarpus siliculosus and the growth of Sphicelaria). As to the Rhodophycez, only short remarks, especially as to pores in their external covering, ae given. The chief attention has been devoted, however, to the Bacillariacez, and the paper contains a good deal of new observations on the structure of gelatinous colonies, the structure of the cell and its proto- plasmatic parts, and the auxospores. The systematical part will appear in a next issue. The paper is accompanied by eleven tables engraved in Germany. THE same volume contains a very interesting paper on the development of Rotifers, by the Director of the Sebastopol Zoological Station, Miss Pereyaslavtseff. This subject has been rather neglected until now, and M. Zaleski’s paper on the history of the development of the Brachionus urceolaris could not be considered as a complete solution of the question. Miss 580 NATURE (Oct. 15, 1885 Pereyaslavtseff’s method differs from most of those hitherto recorded : she does not select one or another phase of develop- ment as being the most important, but, placing several Rotifers | and Lepadelle under the object-glass of a microscope, she waited until one of them would lay an egg, and the development taking about three days from the beginning of the segmentation until the issue of the new animal from the egg, she observed it continually throughout the first thirty to thirty-five hours, with only short interruptions of two to three hours in the observation of subsequent phases. This method has of course its incon- venience by preventing sleep for two nights. It cannot be applied also to those Rotifers which live an errant life. These last do not survive confinement, and must be kept in watch- glasses until they lay their eggs, which last are then brought under microscopic investigation. Ten different species were studied in this way, and proved to undergo the same develop- ment, so that Rotifer inflata has been given as a type of the development of the egg. The stages are all figured in forty- eight drawings on a plate accompanying the memoir. THE same volume contains, moreover, three papers on geo- logy : one by M. Sintsoff, on Tertiary fossils from Novorossia, being a description of the following new species: Anodonta unzoides, Scrobicularia tellinoides, Ervilia minuta, Neritina pseudo-Grateloupana, and several others formerly described ; it also contains a list of the fauna of the intermediate Ponto- Sarmatian deposits of the region, Another, by M. Miklashevsky, gives some information on the Government of Tchernigoff ; and athird, by M. Andrusoff, deals at length with the geology of the Kertch peninsula, and throws some new light on the confused geo- logy of the Crimea. It appears from the author’s researches that the Tertiary deposits of the Crimea may be subdivided into the following: (a) the true Congerie deposits (Pontri), consisting of iron-bearing clays, equivalent in West Europe to the deposits of Hidas and Arpad, and of limestones, sandstones, and m11!s equivalent to the Dreissena triangularis deposits of the Vienna basin, the D. rostriformis deposits of Ploeshti and the upper Siebenbirgen deposits ; (4) the Ponto-Sarmatian intermediate group of the Kertch limestone, equivalent to the lower Sieben- biirgen deposits; (c) the Sarmatian group, equivalent to the same of Roumania, Turkey, and Austria-Hungary ; and (¢) the Upper Mediterranean, equivalent to the Leythakalk, the Badner Tegel, &c. It would result from the above, and from what is known about South Russia and the Crimea, that during the older Miocene period both were a continent. Later on they were invaded by a sea penetrating from the west, and a narrow gulf limited in the south by the Yaiba hills, extended towards the East. During the Sarmatian epoch the subsidence continued, followed soon by an upheaval towards the end of that period, which upheaval led to the formation of narrow, less settled bays, like those we see now on the Kuban, at the place formerly occupied by the Sarmatian Gulf. The Garner and Science Recorder's Fournal is the title of a new scientific monthly, edited by Mr. A. Ramsay, and pub- lished by W. E. Bowers, Walworth. A Socrety for the Advancement of Science has been formed in Bergen, numbering about a hundred members, the President being Dr. Danielsen. Mr. ARTHUR S. PENNINGTON’S Manual of British Zoo- phytes, to be published immediately by Messrs. L. Reeve and Co., will include not only the Hydroida but also the Actinozoa and Polyzoa found in Great Britain, Ireland, and the Channel Islands. The same publishers announce an illustrative volume of ‘‘Collections and Recollections of Natural History and Sport,” by the Rey. G. C. Green. WE have received the sixteenth annual Report of the Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists’ Society, forming part 1, vol. iv. of the Transactions, Amongst the published papers is a presi- dential address by Mr. Francis Sutton, F.C.S., on the nitrifica- tion of soils by means of minute living organisms ; and the same gentleman also contributes a most valuable paper on the varieties of sugar, natural and artificial; Mr. Horace B. Wood- ward, F.G.S., gives a paper on the earthquake of April, 1884, which made itself so severely felt in the counties of Norfolk and Suffolk; Mr. F. D. Power, who visited the Norfolk coast during the period of the autumnal migration, in his ‘* Ornitho- logical Notes from Cley and Blakeney,” shows the wonderful influx of birds, some of which are generally supposed to be of the greatest rarity, which takes place on the eastern coast at that period ; amongst Mr. Power’s list of rarities occurs the blue- throated warbler, of which he says he must have seen from eighty to one hundred individuals, and the barred and ictarine warblers. Mr. J. H. Gurney, jun., also contributes some valu- able facts bearing upon the vexed question of migration, for the observance of which the Norfolk coast is so favourably situated. Mr. Southwold furnishes his usual review of the herring fishery from the ports of Yarmouth and Lowestoft, from which it appears that the enormous number of 505,005,600 fish were taken by the fishermen using those two ports ; the same gentle- man also contributes a paper on the white-beaked dolphin, a Cetacean which has been procured on several occasions on the east coast. The ‘‘ Ornithological Notes” of Mr. Hy. Stevenson, F.L.S., are in continuation of a series extending back for many years ; and a most interesting memoir of John Scales is contri- buted by Prof. Newton, forming one of a series of memoirs of naturalists of whom the county of Norfolk has since the com- mencement of the present century produced so many notable examples. AN experiment has recently been tried at the Inventions Ex- hibition Aquarium by Mr. W. August Carter with a view to discovering how far fish are prone to sleep. After close examina- tion he found that amongst freshwater fishes the roach, dace, gudgeon, carp, tench, minnow, and catfish sleep periodically in common with terrestrial animals. The same instincts were found to actuate marine fish, of which the following were observed to be equally influenced by somnolence—viz. the wrasse, conger eel, dory, dogfish, wrasse bass, and all species of flat fish. Mr. Carter states that, so far as he can discover, the goldfish, pike, and angler fish never sleep, but rest periodically. Desire for sleep amongst fish varies according to meteorological conditions. Fish do not necessarily select night-time for repose. THE specimens of fish collected for the International Ichthyo- logical Museum, which is being formed by the National Fish Culture Association, now number about 500. They include many rare fish as well as those of extraordinary growth and formation. Many of the specimens are the finest to be seen in London, having been specially caught for the Association by qualified ichthyologists and agents. The work of setting the fish out in glass jars is now being commenced, and it is hoped to be able to exhibit them to the public shortly. WE have received the third and concluding part of Dr. Hann’s paper before the Berlin Academy of Sciences on the temperature of the Austrian Alps. The tables contain monthly and yearly averages of temperature for 382 stations in the Austrian Alps and the neighbourhood reduced to the true (24-hour) average, and to a thirty-year period (1851-80). Of the stations 277 were below 1000 metres, 88 lay between 1000 and 2000, while 17 were over 2000 metres in height. The data obtained at all these stations over a period of years are here worked up and arranged. The present part contains over 160 4 Oct. 15, 1885 | NATURE 581 pages, so that the whole paper would make a considerable volume dealing with temperatures in the Alpine regions of Austria. M. p’ABBADIE begs us to state that the earth-tremors observed in his apparatus (NATURE, vol. xxxii. p. 568) about two miles north of the Spanish frontier coincided with the many earth- quakes in the south of Spain. There were no such phenomena in Egypt. THE additions to the Zoological Society's Gardens during the past week include a Bonnet Monkey (AZacacus sinicus 6) from India, presented by Mr. L. C. Phillips ; a Ring-tailed Coati (Nasua rufa &) from South America, presented by Lieut. W. ¥F. Tunnard, R.N. ;.a Black Wallaby (Halmaturus ualabatus 6 ) from South Australia, presented by Mr. R. E, Wootton Isaacson ; a Javan Cat (Felis javanensis) from Java, presented by Capt. T. H. Franks ; a Puma (Felis concolor 6) from South America, presented by M. Rodolfo Aranz ; two West Indian Rails (Avamides cayennensis) from Brazil, presented by Mr. J. C. Fraser; a Levaillant’s Amazon (Chrysotis levaillanti) from Mexico, presented by Mr. H. D. Astley, F.Z.S.; a Silver Pheasant (Zuplocamus nycthemerus):from China, presented by Mrs. James ; three Robben Island Snakes (Coronella phocarum), a Hoary Snake (Coronella cana), a Elaps (Z/aps hygie), a Reddish Pentonyx (Pelomedusa subrufz) from South Africa, seven Geometrical Tortoises (TZestudo geometrica) from the Orange River, South Africa, presented by the Rey. G. H. R. Fisk, C.M.Z.S. ; a Rose-crested Cockatoo (Cacatua moluccensts) from Moluccas, deposited ; a Blue and Yellow Macaw (dra ararauna) from Trinidad, received in exchange ; eight Summer Ducks (x sponsa, 48 42) from North America, purchased ; a Bennett’s Wallaby (Halmaturus bennetti?), born in the Gardens. ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA FOR THE WEEK, 1885, OCTOBER 18-24 (For the reckoning of time the civil day, commencing at Greenwich mean midnight, counting the hours on to 24, is here employed.) At Greenwich on October 18 Sun rises, 6h. 31m. ; souths, rrh. 45m. 9"9s. ; sets, 16h. 59m. ; decl. on meridian, 9° 47’ S.: Sidereal Time at Sunset, 18h. 48m. Moon (two days after First Quarter) rises, 14h. 51m. ; souths, 2oh. om. ; sets, th. 17m.* ; decl. on meridian, 10° 27’ S. Planet Rises Souths Sets Decl. on meridian . m, - m. h, m. Gi aay Mercury ... 6 37 II 51 T7005 9 43S. Venus LOL 97, 14 30 18 23 23 20S. Mars o 6 7 38 15 10 16 38 N. Jupiter 3 35 9 54 16 13 3) (GING Saturn ZO 4rtae., © (440 12 57 ZZ aUTNs * Indicates that the rising is that of the preceding and the setting that of the following day. Phenomena of Jupiter's Satellites Oct. h. m Oct. h. m. Zier ae 2a letra: ino: 22 4 10 I, occ. reap. The Phenomena of Jupiter’s Satellites are such as are visible at Greenwich. Oct. h. 200e ce ao) Saturn at least distance from the Sun. ZONE lS Saturn stationary. GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES THE work done by Lieut. Wissmann in his exploration of the Kassai River, the great southern tributary of the Congo, is second in importace only to the discovery of the Congo itself. It will seriously modify the conjectural geography of that part of Africa. He found the river to be of immense volume, and navigable from its junction with the Lulua. He found the Sankuru and the Lubilash to be one river, which, instead of flowing northwards to the Congo, turns westwards, and joins the Kassai. As it approaches the Congo Kassai receives the great Koango, and enters the main river by the Kwamouth, after receiving the water of Lake Leopold. Thus the river which on Stanley’s last map joins the Congo west of Stanley Falls cannot be the Lubilash, and, moreover, must be of no great length. This discovery of Lieut. Wissmann, along with that of the Mobangi by Mr. Grenfell, greatly increases the navigable waterway of the Congo system. THE September number of Petermann’s Mitthetlungen has for its principal article the first part of an account of Paulitschke and Hardegger’s journey to Harar, by Dr. Paulitschke. It is accompanied by a map of the districts traversed. The present instalment describes the circumstances under which the journey was undertaken, the preparations at Zeila, where the English consul was able to put the travellers in friendly communication with Abu Bakr, the Governor of Zeila, who gave them the most important help, and the details of the journey as far as Bussa, on the frontier of the Northern Gallas country. Dr. Schinz asks the question whether Namaqua-Land or Nama-Land is correct, and decides in favour of the latter. ‘‘Namaqua” is a Dutch corruption ; the term ‘‘ Nama” is applied to Hottentots in general, without any distinction of sex; ‘‘namaqua” is properly ‘‘namagu” or ‘‘namaga,” the nominative and dative plural of ‘‘nama” ; ‘‘qua” is therefore doubly wrong as a suffix, and Namaland is the proper term. M. Rabot writes on the Stor Borgefjeld in Nordland in Norway, and the usual literary and geographical news brings the number to a con- clusion. THE last number (Band xxviii. No. 29) of the Afitthezlungen of the Geographical Society of Vienna contains a paper on the ethnic members of the western Somali and north-eastern Galla tribes, by Dr. Paulitschke, accompanied by a map; six letters from Dr, Lenz on his Congo expedition, and the first part of a paper by Herr Jiilg on the erosive action of the sea on coasts ; the bibliography of Africa for the last half year, and the usual notices of geographical works conclude the number. M. BRAN DE SAINT PoL-Ltas, who was sent on a scientific mission to Tonquin and Java, returned to France towards the close of September. He brought back with him numerous specimens of the flora and fauna of the districts through which he travelled. THE chief geographical societies in Germany have resolved to erect a monument to the late Dr. Nachtigal on Cape Palmas, where he lies buried. It is intended to have it so large that it will serve as a landmark to seamen. THE Godeffroy Museum at Hamburg, illustrative of the natural history of the South Sea Islands, has been sold to the Ethnographical Museum of Leipsic. THE GREAT OCEAN BASINS? I ‘THE ancients, down to the time of Aristotle—and most of them for a long time afterwards—regarded the earth as a great plain surrounded on all sides by the mighty, deep, gently- flowing stream of the ocean. In the geography of the Homeric age there was not supposed to be any communication between the Mediterranean and this all-encircling ocean river. When, in consequence of the ex- cursions of the Phcenicians, the communication through the Pillars of Hercules became known, ideas respecting the outer sea gradually changed. At first, curiously enough, the Atlantic Ocean was regarded as muddy, shallow, and little agitated by the winds—a belief apparently associated with the supposed subsidence of the legendary island of Atlantis. The world, as known to the ancients down to about 300 years before Christ, is represented in this map of Hecatzus. There seems to be no doubt that the spherical form of the earth was known to some philosophers even before the time of Aristotle—the proof that the earth is a sphere being indeed easy to minds that had received a mathematical training—but these have been few in all ages, and an idea so directly opposed to the apparent evidence of the senses could only be expected to win its way with difficulty. Indeed, at the present day the majority of even educated people are unable to give any reason for their belief that the earth is a sphere, other than that navigators are now in the habit of sailing around it. * Lecture delivered at the Aberdeen meeting of the British Association by Mr. John Murray, Director of the Challenger Reports. 582 NATURE [ Oct. 15, 1885 However, we find that Erathosthenes, Posidonius, and other learned Greeks, who flourished between one and two centuries before our era, were in possession of ideas concerning the figure and position of the terrestrial globe which do not differ mate- rially from those of the modern geographer. They had con- siderable knowledge of the great wide sea, a clear perception of the diurnal recurrence of the tides, of their monthly cycles of variation, and correctly ascribed these changes to the influence of the moon. They speculated on the circumnavigation of the globe, and thus anticipated by many centuries the project of Columbus of sailing direct from Spain to the Indies. During the century immediately preceding the Christian era, and during the dark and middle ages, there was a large acquisi- tion of information with respect to the superficial extent of the ocean. But, when we look back on the history of knowledge concerning our planet, there is to be found no parallel to the impression produced in men’s minds and conceptions by the discovery of America, and the circumnavigation of the world, a few years later, by Magellan and Drake. The influence of these events and the great ideas associated with them, can be traced throughout the literature of the Elizabethan period ; Shakespeare appears to have had the mental picture of the great, solid, floating globe continually before him. His spirit seemed «|. . « blown with restless violence round about The pendant world.” To the great mass of people the circumnavigation of the globe was the practical demonstration that the earth was swung in space, supported alone by some unseen power ; it was the con- clusive proof of its globular form—a fact which must be regarded as the fundamental principle of all scientific geography. The rage for geographical exploration which set in after the discovery of America brought the phenomena of the ocean into greater prominence, but the science of the sea can hardly be said to have commenced till the seventeenth century, when Hooke and Boyle undertook their experiments as to the depth of the sea and the composition of ocean water; and _ several naturalists gave descriptions of the animals and plants inhabit- ing the shallow waters surrounding the land. During the eighteenth century there was again a large acquisition of know- ledge concerning the ocean, for the navigator was busy with the study of the winds, currents, and tides; while the two Rosses with other explorers and scientific men made most praiseworthy endeavours to investigate the greater depths of the sea during the first half of the present century. The vast abysmal regions of the great ocean basins, however, lay all scientifically unexplored, when about twenty years ago their systematic examination was undertaken by expeditions sent forth by our own country and by the Governments of the United States, Germany, Italy, France, and Norway. It is not easy to estimate the relative importance of the events of one’s own time, yet in all probability the historians of the reign of Victoria will point to the recent discoveries in the great oceans as the 1nost important events of the century with respect to the acquisition of natural knowledge, as among the most brilliant conquests of man in his struggle with nature, and doubtless they will be able to trace the effect of these dis- coveries on the literature and on the philosophic conceptions of our age. A mantle of mystery and ignorance has been cleared away from the eleven-sixteenths of the earth’s surface covered by the ocean, and in its place we have much definite and accurate knowledge of the depths of the sea. The last of the great out- lines showing the surface features of our globe have been boldly sketched ; the foundations of a more complete and scientific physiography of the earth’s surface have been firmly laid down. This evening we will endeavour to pass in review some of the chief phenomena of the great ocean basins, and attempt to bring before you some of the more important results arrived at by the many distinguished men who have been engaged in oceano- graphical researches during recent years. If it be remembered that the greatest depth of the ocean is only about five miles, and that the height of the highest mountain is likewise about five miles above the level of the sea, while the globe itself has a diameter of 8000 miles, the comparative insig- nificance of all the surface inequalities of the earth is at once forced on our attention. . <2). PEMA 2. ou PPM Gaiehe cS Astronomical Phenomena for the Week, 1885, October 18=24 eee os te 6 a ote) ey Geographical Notes .-... . - . a Oe Sees The Great Ocean Basins, By John Murray. . 581 New Process of Liquefying Oxygen. By M. L. Cailletet. (2i/istrated) ©... «2. Notes from the Otago University Museum. By Prof. T; Jeffery Parker. . . 5 «9 5 3 2 GROG The British Association :— Section H—Anthropolopgy ........:.. 580 SciencelinvgRussiay 0. eee ae a) toa Ee Scientific Serials. .... ® e gelves chdet yeu (010 (ee EG Societies and Academiesin 3 23 2 6) == - « © = -mSOm NATG@RE 993 THURSDAY, OCTOBER 22, 1885 AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGY Reizen en Onderzoekingen tn Noord-Amerika. Van Dr. H. F. C. Ten Kate, Jun. (Leyden: Brill, 1885.) Prehistoric America. By the Marquis de Nadaillac. Translated by N. D’Anvers. Edited by W. H. Dall. (London: Murray, 1885.) The Lenape Stone; or, the Indian and the Mammoth. By H.C. Mercer. (New York: Putnam, 1885.) R. TEN KATE (son of the celebrated Dutch painter) has published the account of his late anthropological journey in the regions about Arizona and New Mexico. His exploration was supported by the Government of Holland, for whose Rijks Museum at Leyden he brought home a collection illustrating the peculiar civilisation of the Pueblo Indians and their wilder neighbours of the plains ; also by several scientific bodies, among them the Anthropological Society of Paris, for which he took body-measurements of the various tribes he met with. Belonging to the school of ob- servers who depend on the measurement of skulls as a means of classing the natives of America into stocks of the general Mongoloid race to which they primarily belong (p. 432), he has to deal with the interesting problem, what relation the ruder and fiercer tribes bear to the comparatively cultured and peaceable dwellers in the pueblos. This, however, is confused by the fact that among neither is the type uniform. Dr. Ten Kate (p. 173) recognises among the Apaches two or three varieties, one more Mongolian and especially seen among the women, the others more of the bold- featured Redskin-type. The brachycephalic and occipit- ally flattened skull which he considers especially charac- teristic of the Pueblo Indians, enables him to contradict (p. 155) the opinion that the handsome Pimas belong to these. But then he finds it necessary to divide the Pueblos into much the same Mongolian and Redskin types (see his remarks on the Moquis, p. 253). On the whole his observations do not seem incompatible with the view that the difference between the roving Indians of the skin tents and the tillers of the fields around the towns of mud-brick houses depends less on race than on differ- ence of stage of civilisation, itself due in great measure to the respective circumstances of a wild life of war and plunder or a tame life of peace and industry. That the neighbourhood of the nations of Old Mexico may have influenced the civilisation of the Pueblo tribes is likely enough, but Dr. Ten Kate argues on grounds both of skull-measure and language (pp. 265, 221) against any identification of Zunis or Moquis with Aztecs. Indeed, it is the general experience of anthropologists, in spite of resemblances in such matters as the step-pattern on the pottery, that the language, customs, and religion which the natives of Zuni or Tehua have preserved since the Spanish Conquest, show original and peculiar types which are not to be accounted for as borrowed from Mexico. Thus the designs on the earthen water-vessels, when explained, prove not to be copies of Mexican ornaments, but mostly direct symbolic pictures, a spiral for the whirlwind, a semicircle with descending lines for a VOL. XXxXII.—No. 834 rain-cloud, &c. This even affects the argument that the celebrated “‘cliff-dwellings” of the district were the strongholds of the ancestors of tribes such as the Moquis, who claim to continue and interpret the designs on their pottery (p. 265). Dr. Ten Kate had the good fortune of visiting Hualpé with Major Powell and seeing the Moqui snake dance (p. 242). He was allowed to go down the estufa to see the paraphernalia of the dancers and the vessel of drink taken as prophylactic against rattlesnake- bites, and his account of the dance itself, particularly as to the way in which the rattlesnakes are carried in the mouths of one set of dancers while another set by tickling them with feathers prevents their striking, is much in the same terms as that given by Capt. Bourke (see NATURE, vol. xxxi. p. 429). Mr. Cushing was still at the pueblo of Zuni under his Indian name of Ténatsali or “‘ Medicine Flower,” and with his guidance Dr. Ten Kate had oppor- tunities of studying the social life of the interesting matri- archal community. The main features of the family system are now clear, as to the young man being chosen by the young woman as “hers to be” (yz/uk’tantha) and his being taken by her father into the house as pupil (talahi) ; thus he passes into the position of a husband who can be sent back to his home, and the father of children who belong to their mother and inherit only from her. But in this and other accounts there are indi- cations of what is evident to every traveller who has visited a Zuni home—that the father after all has real power even in that matriarchal household. It is to be hoped that Mr. Cushing, when he gives the world his long-expected treatise on Zuni language, manners, and religion, will be able to make the practical working of the matriarchal life more perfectly intelligible to the pre- judiced patriarchal mind of the white man. Dr. Ten Kate inspected characteristic tribes throughout the New Mexican district, from these comparatively high Zufis down to the low Utes, noting details of customs and other anthropological material which at times illustrate the effects of intercourse through a yet wider range of culture. Thus the wooden plough and creaking ox-cart of ancient Rome, introduced into America by the Spanish con- querors, are to be seen at work in the fields around the pueblos ; and white men passing near an Indian cairn still throw each a stone upon it for luck (p. 271). The well-known questions as to America before the time of Columbus may be counted on more than ever to arouse the interest of even the “ general reader ””—whether and how the natives came across from Asia, whether they made or imported the peculiar civilisations of Mexico and Peru, and so on. Thus it was quite werth while to trans- late the Marquis de Nadaillac’s “ Amérique Préhistorique,” with its summaries of information and _ illustrations borrowed from the best sources. The work has been improved by being edited by Mr. W. H. Dall, whose own researches in the Aleutian region form one of the most interesting chapters in the anthropology of America. In the first place, the interesting though as yet hardly clear evidence is fairly given as to man’s existence in America before the recent geological period. One of its most curious details is the description by Ameghino the geo- logist (p.29) of his finding human remains on the banks of the Rio Frias, some twenty leagues from Buenos Ayres, associated with charcoal, potsherds, and stone arrow- (exe 594 Wea DT Ones [ Oct. 22, 1885 heads, near the carapaces of gigantic extinct armadillos (Glyptodon) which had served as ready-made roofs to the pits in the ground which formed the dwellings of the ancient savages of the Pampas. It seems that, though the relater was a well-known geological explorer, his account was received with such incredulity, even in the district, that the Argentine Scientific Society refused to allow a paper to be read before them. The present volume, however (p. 477), contains particulars of a further dis- covery of the same kind, a human skull and most part of the skeleton haying been found below an _ inverted Glyptodon carapace. This is not indeed conclusive, on account of the frequent displacement of the Pampas soi] by floods, and even were the contemporaneity of man and Glyptodon made out, the upper bed containing the remains of this huge edentate may be more recent than the qua- ternary date. But no doubt there will be more finds, and it may help the discussion to point out that there seems nothing improbable in a man’s living under a Glyptodon shell four or five feet long, inasmuch as there is classical authority for such habitations in the Old World. The natives of Ceylon, according to Elian, could live under their great turtle-shells as roofs; so Pliny mentions the Chelonophagi of the Persian Gulf covering their huts with the shells of turtles and living on the meat. It is to be feared that the late Dr. Lund’s researches in the limestone caves of Brazil, claimed as _ proving that the American man was a contemporary of the extinct megatherium and horse, were not made ac- curately enough to be relied on now, but it is well to keep them in view to encourage similar research. On the northern continent, Dr. Abbott’s rude implements of argillite trap are the most remarkable objects claimed as the work of Glacial man, and they have proper description and drawing here, while every other discovery worthy of any consideration receives it. As is usual in French works, proofs of the high geological age of man are re- ceived somewhat more readily than in our more sceptical English literature. An unusually full account is given of the shell-heaps which fringe the coasts of both Americas, sometimes fifty feet thick and more, so as even to be valuable for the supply of lime to the builders of neigh- bouring towns. The high age of some of these rubbish- heaps is shown by elevation of the ground having lifted them high above the sea-level where the shell-fish were doubtless cooked and eaten, while the cannibal habits of the rude savages of the shores are shown by the usual evidence of human bones split for the marrow. Probably the more recent heaps are those characterised by tobacco- pipes, and stone pestles and mortars like those in which the modern Indians bruise seeds. This seems at least a reasonable opinion notwithstanding that such stone pestles and mortars have been put forward as evidence of man inhabiting California far back in the Tertiary period. M. de Nadaillac’s chapters on the mound-builders and clif-dwellers, and the nations of Mexico and Peru, give much popular information. The original French work discussed at some length the native American legends of deluges and other catastrophes, commemorating the mythic forefathers of nations and introducers of religious laws, and arts; but the American editor, with better judgment of the historical value of these tales, has pared them down, leaving the reader to form his judgments on more solid matters. Should a new edition of “ Prehistoric America” be demanded, it will be well to have the press more carefully corrected. So well-known a living authority as Prof. Marsh figures as “March,” and it is with an effort that one recognises the ancient Chinese emperor “To-hi” under the designation of “ Fo-Fli.” At p. 271, M. de Nadaillac yields to the common temptation of finding the name of the Vahuza nation in the name of the country Axahuac, as if it meant “the country of the Nahuas by the water ;” but this is grammatically im- possible, and indeed the etymology of A-zahuac, meaning simply “near the water,” is quite indisputable. The interest felt by Americans in the antiquity of man on their continent is shown by the appearance of forged relics. The so-called “Lenape Stone” is one of the flat perforated stones known as gorgets, common in Indian graves, but on it is scratched a rude representation of hunters attacking a mammoth. When it was produced, Mr. Carvill Lewis at once called attention to the obvious point, that the mammoth is a palpable imitation of that of the cave of La Madeleine, whereas the hunters are imitated from the childish modern American Indian pictures on bark or deerskin. The artistic power of the men of the mammoth-period is shown by its being un- consciously conveyed through the hand of so stupid a copyist. E. B. TYLOR PHYSIOLOGICAL PLANT ANATOMY Physiologische Pflanzenanatomie im Grundriss dargestellt. Von Dr. G. Haberlandt. (Leipzig: Wilhelm Engel- mann, 1884.) HEN one recognises the immense importance of continually keeping before the student, the fact that from whatever standpoint the plant is viewed, physiological considerations must never be lost sight of, one cannot but welcome the appearance of Dr. Haber- landt’s text-book on physiological plant anatomy, and one is disposed to do so with more than ordinary favour, recalling those chapters on physiological organography which appeared some three years ago in Prof. Sachs’s “Vorlesungen.” The subject is one to which Dr, Haberlandt has specially devoted himself, the present volume being in fact the most recent of a series of detailed publications. On this account it is not sur- prising to find that much of the subject-matter is not new, and that of the twelve sections into which the book is divided five have already appeared in the article in Schenk’s handbook entitled ‘“ Die physiologischen Leistungen der Pflanzengewebes.” Dr. Haberlandt’s aim on the present occasion is to publish as complete an account as may be, of the present history of the subject, and the great point upon which he insists, is that the whole anatomical structure and the mode of arrangement of the various tissues composing the plant, are simply so many illustrations of the phenomenon of adaptation to physiological needs. The first two sections are devoted to the consideration of the cell and the formation of tissues. The third treats of the tegumentary system, and as far as regards the epidermis special stress is laid upon Westermaier’s dis- covery that the epidermal cells serve for the storage of water, in addition to their well-known protective function. Oct. 22, 1885] NATURE 395, The important influence of cuticular wax and epidermal hairs upon transpiration is also discussed. In Section IV. the mechanical system is considered. With much of the subject-matter of this section we have been acquainted since the appearance of Schwendener’s classic ‘‘Das mechanische Princip ;” but it is of interest to note that in the fungi, e.g. Usnea barbata, evidence exists of a mechanical tissue which in the higher plants takes the form of sclerenchyma, collenchyma, and bast. The absorptive system includes roots, rhizoids, and like structures ; attention being also drawn to the absorptive tissue of the scutellum. This organ in Ariza niznor is peculiar on account of the pronounced development of the absorptive cells, and their striking resemblance to root hairs. Section VII. deals with the assimilative system, and oneis much struck by the marked manner in which the whole structure of the leaf illustrates the principles of which Dr. Haberlandt is the exponent. The pallisade layers are naturally regarded as being the chief seat of assimilative activity, and it is pointed out that the cells below these layers, which are of the nature of spongy parenchyma, and contain comparatively few chlorophyll grains, are distinguished by the remarkable manner in which they abut on to the pallisade cells. Their special function appears to be to conduct or absorb the products of assimilation, and to be the means of conveying them to other parts of the plant. They are in consequence designated as receptive or conducting cells (Aufnahme oder Sammelzellen). The infoldings which occur in numerous pallisade cells and are so well developed in the leaf of the various species of Pinus, have for their object the increasing of surface-area, and consequently also the number of chlorophyll grains in the cell. Some space is devoted to the consideration of the con- ducting system, which includes the parenchyma of the cortex. and pith, the medullary ray parenchyma, &c., the vascular bundles and laticiferous tissue. Dealing with the vascular bundles from the point of view of physiological anatomy, a special terminology has been adopted. The whole bundle is known as the Mestom, the xylem as the Hadrom, and the phloem as the Leptom. The idea of Mestom includes purely vascular tissue, and excludes the mechanical sclerenchymatous and fibrous tissue (stereom), consisting usually of prosenchymatous cells (steréides), such as occur ac- companying the bundles of most monocotyledons. Dr. Haberlandt’s experiments demonstrate that in the moss stem the central strand of tissue is to be regarded as consisting of rudimentary hadrom, having for its function the conduction of water. To the layer surrounding the vascular bundle in roots, &c. (endodermis of De Bary) is applied the term “protective sheath,” or “ protective layer,” on account of its function with relation to the bundle. For a more complete understanding of the nature of laticiferous tissue we are again indebted to Dr. Haber- landt, whose observations upon this point appear to be of extreme importance. These observations demon- strate that in many of the thick-leaved Euphorbias, those portions of the laticiferous cells which enter the leaf become repeatedly branched in the leaf-tissue, and in such a manner that the extremities or blind ends of these branches abut directly on to the pallisade parenchyma cells, and are thus brought into the closest possible relation with the seat of greatest assimilative activity. The natural inference as to the function of laticiferous tissue has consequently everything to be said in its favour. In Section IX. the intercellular space system is dealt with, and the various forms of stomata and their me- chanism described. Much importance must necessarily be attached to this system when one bears in mind the relation of transpiration and gaseous diffusion to plant- life. The remaining sections are devoted to the secretory and excretory organs, and to the phenomena attending the normal and abnormal mode of increase in thickness of the stem and root. The few remarks that have already been made are sufficient to show that the book contains numerous points of much interest. It is, moreover, carefully written, and furnished with a copious bibliography. We cannot conclude this review without pointing out as Dr. Haberlandt has so fitly done, the importance of recognising that in every system there is not only the chief, but also the subsidiary, function, and that in con- sidering any one of them which is especially significant, the less pronounced but still existing functions must be kept in mind. By such means alone will the true advance of physiological anatomy be maintained. W. G. WILLIAM HEDLEY William Hedley, the Inventor of Railway Locomotion on the Present Principle. By M. Archer. Third Edition. (London: Crosby Lockwood and Co., 1885.) N this little book the author endeavours to place on record more exact facts with regard to the invention of the locomotive, and to give prominence to the name of the man who first made the locomotive a practical and financial success. Richard Trevithick is perhaps the only man, before Hedley’s time, who narrowly missed the fame now accredited to Stephenson and Hedley. In 1808 Trevi- thick constructed a circular railway in a field, now forming the southern half of Euston Square. On this railway he placed a locomotive of his own construction, having flanged wheels, a tubular boiler, and a vertical cylinder, driving by means of a cross head the hinder pair of wheels. This engine was attached to a coach, and the few people who would venture in it were taken round the railway at so much per head. After running for a few weeks, a rail broke, causing the engine to leave the rails, and turn over on its side. At this time Trevithick had expended all his means, and was compelled to give up his endeavours to convince the public of the many advantages to be obtained from the use of the locomotive ; had he been backed up by influential men, no doubt he would now be known to fame as its inventor. Many men before Hedley’s time had tried their utmost to make a workable locomotive, such as would supersede horses on a colliery railway. Trevithick, Blenkinsop, and Chapman all exercised great ingenuity in their de- signs, but success was as far off as ever, owing to the general idea prevailing that some mechanical connection must exist between the engine and the railway, believing 596 that the mere adhesion between the smooth wheels and smooth rails was completely insufficient to prevent slipping. In the year 1812 William Hedley was viewer at the Wylam Colliery, and in order to reduce the working expenses he endeavoured to construct an engine to haul the coal waggons from the colliery to the river, and to do it cheaper than by horse haulage. At this time he had a knowledge of what others had done in this direction, but was forcibly impressed with the idea that the weight of an engine was sufficient for the purpose of enabling it to draw a train of loaded waggons. After having made successful experiments to prove the idea correct, he set to work and constructed his first engine, which, when completed, did not prove a success owing to shortness of steam, and a second one was made. The second one, the well-known “ Puffing Billy,” was put to work in May, 1813, and was a complete success. This may be safely called the first practical and efficient locomotive ever constructed. It had a return-tube boiler of wrought iron, vertical cylinders, and was placed on four wheels. Very soon after the engine commenced to work the exhaust steam was turned into the chimney to create a blast on the fire. This engine worked nearly continuously until 1862, when it was bought, and has now found an honourable resting-place in South Kensington Museum. Puffing Billy was put to work in 1813, nearly a year before Stephenson’s first engine was tried at Killingworth in 1814, thus proving without doubt that William Hedley was the first man to construct the first practically suc- cessful locomotive engine, and the first economical substi- tute for animal power. It should not be thought that our author claims for Hedley the fame of being the first to develop the railways. Puffing Billy was at work sixteen years before the cele- brated Rainhill contest took place, and ten years before locomotives were allowed to work the goods traffic on the Stockton and Darlington Railway. Stephenson’s success may be dated from the Rain- hill contest in 1829; and he was one of the first men to bring the present railway system forward and develop it. At the same time William James must not be forgotten ; he surveyed the Manchester and Liverpool Railway before Stephenson was placed in charge of the Railway Works, and had it not been for a difference of opinion on certain technical points, William James would have been the engineer of the line until open for traffic. Again, William James went to see Stephenson’s engine, before Stephenson came to Liverpool, finding him an intelligent working man and the engine a success, he brought Stephenson to Liverpool, where he eventually commenced his successful career. The author is to be congratulated on having proved his case, and in the preface he truly says: “ Without William Hedley, George Stephenson might have lived in vain. It was William Hedley who gave the locomotive its life and power, and made the work of other men possible.” The book is very interesting, and is useful as a book of reference, the appendix containing extracts from the opinions of many writers, and letters from men able to give information on the subject. This little book will prove useful to all who wish to know the facts concerning William Hedley and his inventions. TN ey oles NATURE [ Oct. 22, 1885 LETTERS TO THE EDITOR [ The Editor does not hold himself responsiblefor opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts. No notice is taken of anonymous communications. [The Editor urgently requests correspondents to keep their letters as short as possible. The pressure on his space ts so great that it is impossible otherwise to insure the appearance even of communications containing interesting and novel facts. Shotfiring in Mines FOR some time past I have been conducting a series of shot- firing experiments at Dowlais and elsewhere on behalf of the Royal Commission on Accidents in Mines. Towards the end of August last Prof. C. G. Kreischer, of Freiberg in Saxony, visited me at Cardiff for the purpose of conferring with me on the coal-dust question. The experiments at Dowlais have a direct bearing on that subject, so, after pointing out to Prof. Kreischer the perfectly private nature of the investigation and the delicate position in which I would be placed were the results allowed to transpire through any channel other than the Royal Commission, and having received his assurance that such a con- tingency was impossible as far as he was concerned, I asked him to accompany me to Dowlais, so that he might witness some of the experiments on August 28 and September 1. On the second (?) day Prof. Kreischer asked my permission to write to his friends in Germany, suggesting that they might make a few similar experiments privately in an apparatus that had been set up at Zwickau, at the expense of the Saxon Govern- ment, for the purpose of conducting a series of experiments with coal-dust. He again assured me that no publication of results would take place until after those obtained here were made known, and offered, if I had the least doubt as to the integrity of his friends, not to put it in their power to anticipate our results by not writing to them at all. I did not feel justified in resisting such an appeal to my trust- fulness, and agreed to his proposal. A few days ago I received the following letter, which I shall be glad if you will kindly publish, along with my answer. Sir F. A. Abel is the inventor of the dynamite water-cartridge, and not myself, as might be inferred from the article in Glickauf. W. GALLOWAY Freiburg, October 2, 1885 HOCHGEEHRTER FREUND.—Es war mir unméglich wieder nach Cardiff zuriickzukehren da wir uns zu lange im Durham- reviere aufgehalten hatten und die Zeit meiner zulassigen Bleibens in England sich allzusehr dem Ende zuneigte. Leider bin ich dadurch um das Vergniigen gekommen noch einmal mit Ihnen ~ persOnlich verkehren zu k6nnen, doch hoffe ich, dass wir uns bald einmal wieder sehen, vielleicht in Zwickau. Die Schiessversuche mit Wasserbesatz und Pulver. der Versuchsstrecke haben sowohl in Zwickau als auch in Neunkirchen zu guten Resultaten in so fern geftihrt als die Gasen nicht entziindet wurden. Versuche mit Pulver und Wasserbesatz in der Plauitzer Kohle ergeben aber in so fern keine guten Resultate, als die Schiisse nicht werfen. Leider hat Assesser Nonne, welcher den Versuchen beiwohnte, ganz gegen unsere Verabredung sogleich die Resultatej dieser ersten Versuche in einer kurzen Notiz im Giickauf veroffent licht, jedoch ohne ihre Prioritat zu nah zu treten, da Sie besonders darin erwahnt sind. Ich hatte ausdriicklich vor jeder Publica- tion gewarnt ehe die Ihrige nicht erschienen sei, ein ordinarer Character kimmert sich aber um so etwas nicht. Bei spaterer Veroffentlichung der Zwickauer Versuche kann eventuel darauf Bezug genommen werden. Nochmals fiir alle Liebe und Freundschaft, die sie mir so vielfaltig erwiesen haben bestens dankend, Verbleibe ich mit herzlichem Gliickauf, Thr, Ergebenster, C. G,. KREISCHER Herrn Bergingenieur Galloway, Cardiff Cardiff, October 9, 1885 DEAR PROFESSOR KREISCHER,—I have received your letter of the 2nd inst. I observe that the friends to whom you sent a description of the shot-firing experiments have violated the con- ditions under which I gave you permission to make your com- munication to them by already publishing their results, as if ee di Oct. 22, 1885 | NATURE Bo7 they were in some sort original. You mention as a kind of palliative that, although my priority is not distinctly admitted, my name is mentioned in a prominent manner. Personally I consider this a very small affair. Long experi- ence of having my name mentioned in a similar manner, or mixed up with the names of others, or altogether omitted in connection with certain coal-dust matters in which I have un- deniable priority, has hardened me ; and I confess that this part of your letter gave me noconcern. But although I could afford to pass it over in this way as far as I am myself concerned, I cannot adopt the same course when the interests of some of the members of the Royal Commission on Accidents in Mines are also at stake. I must therefore ask you to give me a token of your good faith by restraining your friends from publishing anything further until the English Royal Commissioners shall have seen fit to make known the results obtained here. At the same time also I would suggest it asa simple matter of duty on your part to take immediate steps to let it be known to those before whom your friends’ communications have appeared that the credit, if any, of the original investigations in this case rests with Sir Frederick Abel and Mr. W. Thomas Lewis quite as much as with me. Believe me yours very faithfully, W. GALLOWAY Herr Bergrath Kreischer, Professor der Bergbaukunde, Freiberg, Sachsen The Resting Position of Oysters In books on Conchology, such as Woodward’s ‘‘ Manual of the Mollusca” and Jeffrey’s ‘‘ British Conchology,” it is stated that the oyster rests in the natural state on its left valve, which is the larger and more convex. In this respect it is pointed out the oyster differs from the animals belonging to the genera Pecten and Anomia, which rest on the right valve, the Anomias being firmly attached by muscle with the flat right valve applied closely to the surface of attachment. In his lecture on oysters at the Royal Institution, which was published in Nos. 1 and 2 of the Znglish Jlustrated Magazine, Prof. Huxley also states that oysters rest on the left or convex valve, the flat right valve acting as a kind of operculum. Examination of oysters from the Firth of Forth has convinced me that this statement is erroneous. I do not know on what evidence the current belief of conchologists is founded. The evidence which appears to me conclusive is that the right flat valve is always quite clean, while the convex valve is covered with worm tubes, Styela grossularia, and Hydroids. The latter are in this con- nection the most important ; it would be impossible for specimens of Sertularia and Thuiaria 4 or 5 inches long to grow, as I have found them on almost every oyster, in the central part of the left valve, if that valve were the lower in position. On examin- ing Pectens I found that they resembled the oyster in the con- trast between the surfaces of the two valves, the upper convex one being covered with Balanus and other fixed animals, the lower being almost clean. It is generally stated that the Pecten lies on its right valve ; if this statement rests on the evidence afforded by the condition of the surface of the valves the same criterion applied to the oyster leads to the same conclusion, that the right valve is the lower. I have never seen a young oyster in the attached condition: Huxley states that it is the left valve which is fixed ; in papers on the embryology of the oyster I have not yet been able to find any definite information on the point. Whether it is the right or left valve that becomes attached when the larva assumes the sessile condition I cannot therefore say of my own knowledge, but with regard to the adult oyster it seems to me certain that the current belief is caused by the repetition ofan error. My attention was first called to this point by my assistant, Mr. John Walker, who tells me that the opinion of | the fishermen at Newhaven is divided on the point, some saying that the convex valve, others that the flat valve, is the lower. J. T. CUNNINGHAM Scottish Marine Station, Granton, October 14 Two Generalisations Two generalisations seem to have been staring us in the face for some time, and yet I have seen no one give them a look of recognition ; they may be phantasms, but they seem solid enough :— (1) That the number of elements is infinite ; the most readily- formed types of ethereal vortices being the commonest, but our knowledge of them being only limited by the scarceness of the more complex forms, and not by any limit to the infinite varie- ties of complexity that may exist. hei relative commonness being analogous to the relative sizes of the bodies of the solar system ; a few large, and always recognisable, and a greater number of examples as we descend in size to mere meteors. We already see that there are far more rare elements known than common ones. (2) That the reduction of an electric current to heat in an imperfect conductor is solely due to the independent heat- motions of the molecules, which check and divert more and more of the current as their motions are larger ; if there were no pre-existing heat-motions there would be nothing to resist a complete transmission of the current motion, and hence there would be no limit to conduction at the zero of temperature ex- cept the cohesion of the material. Bromley, Kent W. M. FLINDERS PETRIE Meteors ON the morning of October 13, at 2h. 26m., I saw a fine meteor giving a bright flash at the end point and leaving a streak for about 12 seconds. It shot from the Lynx towards the pointers in Ursa Major, and while carefully fixing its direction relatively to the stars near, another conspicuous meteor, about as bright as Jupiter, crossed the lingering streak in a path but slightly inclined to it and of nearly similar length. I have never before observed two large meteors almost simultaneous and with paths so nearly identical. I subjoin the observed paths of these meteors, also of five other bolides recently noted here during the progress of my habitual watches for shooting stars :— Path 1885 G.M.T. Mag. From To Length Radiant h. m. ° ° ° 0 °. o ° Sept.9 15 48 zy 149) 82) 152) 64) (18) 335-70 o> GG a 1 37 + 64 2644+ 7 0k Jot 4 Oct 7 1051 Y 51s+22 71k +24 18 31+18 » 8 15 9 & 155 +53 162k+465 .8 42+55 i) 12) 14, 26 ? 119 +51 151 +604 20 88 +18 oe 22) 1 4).26 4 119s+50 143 +604 164 103+33 3) Os 1 S35 Y% 213 +47$ 226 +41 Ir 143+49 The radiant points are derived in each case by combination with many other meteors registered on about the same nights. I have seen 357 meteors since early in September, and those selected in the above table comprise a!l the brighter specimens estimated to equal Jupiter. W. F. DENNING Bristol, October 17 Statigrams THE increasing use of graphic representations of statistics by means of lines, areas, &c., seems to render it convenient to have some word which would specially designate diagrams exhibiting the progress and tendencies of the numerous tables of figures which do not pretend to strict scientific accuracy. The word azagram is used in most elastic senses and by all sorts and conditions of men. May I suggest the word s/etigraph as a definite and con- venient one for adoption? This might be sometimes shortened to graph ; whereas statigram, if preferred, would not admit of this abbreviation. Most, if not all, graphic results of statists, economists, anthropologists, &c., might thus be termed graphs, whilst mathematicians and the experimental men of science would be left with the use of their own words, such as curves, 2xd2cator diagrams, &c. Each class would possess its own degree and limits of accuracy: mathematical precision and the doctrine of energy would apply to the latter, but gzafhs would be under- stood to involve human elements with intricate factors whose recognition or relationships the statistics are intended to elucidate and compare rather than to define and measure. 12, Merton St., Oxford J. F. HEYES THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF BELGIUM |2 BQeeveit no country of Europe has had its geology more attentively studied and mapped than Belgium. From the early labours of the veteran and pioneer 598 WALTORE [ Oct, 22, 1885 D’Omalius down to those of Dumont and his contempo- raries, the structure of this country has engaged the attention of many able observers, and in its broad features is now well known. The map of Dumont, on the scale of 1-160,000, is one of the most excellent geological repre- sentations of any part of the European continent. But a good many years have passed away since its publication, and though it remains essentially accurate, it is now capable of improvement as regards details. Accordingly, after many discussions of the subject, a Commission was appointed to undertake a more detailed and exhaustive geological investigation of the country. This Commission consists of five members of European reputation, viz., M. Brialmont, Inspector-General of Engineers, one of the most distinguished engineer officers in Europe; M. Maus, Honorary Director-General of Bridges, Roads, and Mines, who made the preliminary plans for the piercing of the Mont Cenis Tunnel; M. Stas, the well-known chemist ; M. Liagre, Perpetual Secretary of the Royal Academy of Belgium, who measured the geodetic base- line of Belgium ; and M. Houzeau, Director of the Royal Observatory, whose writings on geological geography are widely appreciated. These able and thoroughly repre- sentative men of science were constituted as a Board of ‘Control by which the operations of the Survey were to be governed, the practical carrying out of the work being placed in the hands of M. Dupont, Director of the Royal Museum of Brussels—a geologist of established reputation. The work was begun in 1878 with the topographical map of the Engineer Department on the scale of 1-20,o0oth, or, roughly, about 3 inches to the British statute mile. It was estimated that the survey of the whole of Belgium on this scale would be completed in seventeen years from that date. This detailed map is divided into 430, or, ex- cluding the frontier sheets, 369 sheets. Each of these is oblong in form, comprising an area of 10 X 8 kilometres, or 8000 hectares, or nearly 20,000 English acres. To produce upon this larger scale a map which should be only an enlargement and rectification of that of Dumont was very far from the object of the Commission. It was determined to adopt a monographic method of surveying. Each important geological system or group of formations has been entrusted to one or more specialists, who have given particular attention to its investigation, and who have been charged with the duty of tracing the same system or group completely across the country. Each geologist is furnished with two assistants who detach rock-specimens, collect fossils, make borings, and in other ways save the time and labour of the officer under whom they serve. Every actual outcrop of rock is marked on the map, and where the rock is fossiliferous the fossils are noted and the various paleontological subdivisions of the strata are traced, the collector being afterwards sent back where more ample collections are thought necessary. It was from the first determined that the detailed geological map should be not merely a scientific under- taking, but a work of as much practical utility as possible. Special attention was accordingly given to the soils and subsoils, and care was taken to express upon the map the variations in the agricultural character of the ground. For greater exactness in this respect a system of boring was adopted. A stout auger was constructed which could be thrust a yard or so into the ground and bring up samples of the soiland subsoil. This instrument is made use of at intervals of 100 metres along the lines of tra- verse, so that the variations in the superficial layers can be accurately noted. To secure harmony in the work, each officer entrusted with the survey of a particular series of strata from time to time confers with his colleagues who are engaged on contiguous bands, and thus the general geological struc- ture of the country is worked out on a uniform plan. Up to the present time thirteen sheets have been printed off, and many more are in various stages of engraving and preparation. It is believed that one-third of the entire work of the survey has been completed. The ordinary topographical maps of the Etat-major are printed from zinc plates, and with their crowded contour- lines and rather blurred printing are but ill adapted for the insertion of further geological details and the recep- tion of colour. The Commission of the Geological Map accordingly decided to engrave this map on copper, adding new roads and other features, but leaving out all non-essential topographical details. By this means an admirably clear base has been secured for the delineation of the geological structure, while at the same time copper- plate engraving has been introduced as a new industry into Belgium. Comparing the ordinary sheets with their geological equivalents we are struck with the great beauty and clearness of the latter. Even for every day topo- graphical use they are immeasurably superior. One of the great problems of geological cartography is how best to pourtray at once the superficial accumula- tions and the solid rocks that lie underneath these. In this country it has been found practicable on the detailed six-inch maps of the Geological Survey to represent the surface-deposits by various kinds of stippling on the copper plates, the alluvia and the solid rocks being ex- pressed by tints of colour. On the one-inch maps, how- ever, which show the surface features by shading, this method cannot be employed. It has accordingly been necessary to issue two versions of each sheet of the one- inch map—one showing the solid rocks, the other repre- senting the distribution of the various drifts and other detrital accumulations. These maps are coloured by hand, and are often of great beauty, but of course are somewhat expensive, more especially as two editions are needed to complete the representation of each district. M. Dupont deserves the admiration of geologists for having solved this difficult problem in an altogether novel way, and for having produced a series of maps which will probably inaugurate a new departure in geo- logical cartography. His principle is to represent all the geological formations of a district, ancient as well as modern, upon the same sheet. As the superficial accumulations extend across much the largest area of ground, they are shown by various broad washes of colour over the tracts which they respectively cover. These colours, though they necessarily spread over most of each sheet, are kept so subdued in tone that they do not interfere with the easy legibility of the stronger tints employed to denote the underlying solid rocks, Every actual outcrop of these rocks is marked by a patch of the colour chosen for the particular formation. We thus note at a glance the localities where the rocks of that formation can be seen at the surface. At these outcrops, signs are inserted to mark the dip, and any lithological or paleontological subdivisions which have been noticed, and regarding which a detailed legend on the sides and bottom of the map gives ample explanation. So far the map is‘merely a transcript of what is observed in nature. But it is of course necessary to express the limits of the several rock-groups. And it is here that M. Dumont’s ingenuity is most remarkable. He shows these limits by dotted lines, the dots varying in strength according to the importance of the limit which they define, and by strips of colour. Each stage has its margin defined by a shaded strip of its characteristic colour where the actual boundary is concealed, while where the junction of two stages or sub-stages is actually seen on the ground, the colours are not shaded, but of the full strength. The eye can thus easily follow the windings of such sub-division across the map, and can at a glance mark where the actual exposures are to be observed on the ground. As the maps are chromo-lithographed it is quite simple to secure harmony of tone and great clearness and accuracy. We at once perceive what is actual observa- tion and what is inference. One is put in possession of Oct. 22, 1885] the data on which the geological boundaries have been traced, and can thus judge where and how far these are conjectural. Weare not aware of any other published maps where this confession has been so frankly made. The pale yellows and greys adopted for the superficial deposits cover so much of each sheet as to show at once how large a part of the ground is occupied by them. The detrital material is traced up to its source upon the table- lands, and being of poor agricultural value its colour on the map shows where farming operations are least likely to be successful. Where observations by boring or otherwise have been made on the nature of the soil and subsoil these are marked on the spot by the requisite sign, and as the borings are numerous these indications abound all over the map. During the progress of the work improvements have been’ made in the methods of surveying and also in the modes of expressing geological details on the maps. In the Brussels area, for example, besides the ordinary borings into the soil and subsoil, deeper borings have been made to ascertain the nature and succession of the strata underlying the uppermost deposits. Messrs. Rutot and Van den Broeck, two of the staff, have invented an ingenious instrument with which they can ascertain the nature of the formations down to a depth of even Io metres. By its means they have pierced below the sub- soil in all directions, and have accurately traced out the areas of the younger deposits around Brussels. The results obtained by them at each boring are clearly en- graved on the map; so that at numerous points all over the district the farmer, the water-engineer, the railway- contractor, the quarryman, and others can learn precisely through what layers they must pass in any cutting or excavation beneath the surface. By another ingenious device, the section of each artesian well at Brussels is represented on the map beside the position of the well, and so clearly that the succession of rocks bored through may be taken in by the eye at once. Each sheet of this detailed survey is so crowded with information that to those who have been accustomed only to the ordinary style of geological map-making it may at first seem a little confused. But if any one will take the least trouble he will soon find that the confusion is only in appearance. No maps have yet been published in any country giving so large an amount of accurate information with such clearness and precision, and where the actual facts are kept so clearly apart from inference. These sheets are not wall-maps to be looked at from a distance, but detailed maps to be closely studied in the hand. And they will well repay an attentive study. There is probably no national Geological Survey in any part of the world which may not find in them some useful hint or suggestion for its own improvement. On completion of the detailed survey it is part of the original plan to prepare a smaller or wall-map like that of Dumont. But such a map is hardly needed ; at least its preparation can well stand over until the whole country has been surveyed in detail by the methods so well con- ceived by M. Dupont. But besides the maps, the work of the Belgian Survey has included the preparation of ample explanations illustrative of the maps. Each sheet is intended to be accompanied with an “ Explication” giving the detailed structure of the ground, descriptions of the rocks, natural sections, lists of fossils, and all the information required as supplementary to the geological maps. A number of these memoirs have already been printed. Each of them contains fundamentally three sections running N. and S. across the formations, which in Belgium have a general E. and W. strike. These sections are described in detail, and full local references are given. The books are well printed, and the coloured plates of sections are excellent, while a novel attraction is given by the insertion into the text of coloured engraved sections of special localities. NATURE 599 None of the maps or explanations, though they have been ready for some time, have yet been published. They are to be seen, however, in some of the public libraries and museums in Europe. Belgium has every reason to be proud of them, and we trust that the delay in their publication will speedily be followed by the issue of the whole series now ready and by the completion of those in progress. It is impossible to over-estimate the practical utility of such a detailed survey in a country hke Belgium. No time should be lost in pushing on and bringing to a conclusion a work which has been so admirably begun. ARCH, GEIKIE THE THIRD INTERNATIONAL GEOLOGICAL CONGRESS HE third International Congress of Geologists, postponed last year on account of the spread of cholera in southern Europe, has just been held at Berlin. Each successive gathering has far surpassed its predecessors in numbers and in the representative character of its members, the numbers attending the meeting at Berlin being no fewer than 255. Of these of course the large majority were Germans, who mustered in all 163. Italy, however, furnished 18 representatives ; Austria, 16; Great Britain, 11; France, 10; United States, 9; Belgium and Russia, 6 each; Sweden and Switzerland, 3 each; Norway and Holland, 2 each; Spain, 1; Brazil,1; India, 1; Japan, 1; Portugal, 1; Roumania, 1. The meetings were held in the buildings of the Reichsrath, or Parliament, the large room set apart for the deliberations of the Congress being that of the Lower House of Representatives, and no little interest was taken by the foreign geologists in the names of the Members of Parliament inscribed on the backs of the seats. The door also was pointed out from which the great Chancellor emerges to launch his philippics against the contumacious opposition. But the gevzs /oc’ inspired no flights of eloguence nor much disputatiousness among the geologists. The use of French as the language of discussion was no doubt one effective cause of silence on the part of many members who would otherwise only too readily have made themselves heard. Under such circumstances the Latin races have of course a consider- able advantage over the Teutonic. One of the Berlin papers gave articulate expression to the complaint that in an audience nearly two-thirds of which were Germans, French should have been chosen, and great was the delight expressed by the German element in the Congress, when the Minister of Public Instruction, who officially welcomed the assembly, gave his eloquent and appro- priate address in German. But by common consent, and j with much good humour, though often with a disregard for the claims ef grammar, idiom, and pronunciation that must have been infinitely ludicrous to the French-speaking members, the international official language was used throughout the proceedings. The ostensible work of the Congress, which lasted nearly a week, may be divided into five parts. Of these the first in order of treatment and also of importance was the report of the Commission entrusted at the previous (Bologna) meeting with the preparation of a geological map of Europe. During the four years that have elapsed since the Congress determined to undertake this work, satisfactory progress with it has been made, The topo- graphical outlines of the map have been completed and engraved, and the Commission were able to show upon the wall a mounted copy of the outline map. The materials necessary for filling in the geology have already been — supplied for a large part of Europe, and it is expected that in the course of next year the work will be so far advanced that proofs in colour of many of the sheets of the map will be ready. There can be no doubt that the preparation of this great map is the most important and JOO NATURE [ Oct. 22, 1885 useful undertaking of the Congress. It is an eminently practical piece of work, with an attainable aim which unites the geologists of all European States in a common definite labour. The engraving and colouring of the map are carried on in Berlin. Judging from the present state of the engraving and from the scheme of colours adopted, we may confidently anticipate that the com- pleted map will be a singularly clear and beautiful speci- men of cartography, and will form a noble monument of international co-operation. The second subject, to which the Congress devoted most of its time, was the unification of geological nomen- clature. Reports had been received from different countries as to the names and classification of the various subdivisions of the geological record. But the wide differ- ences of opinion expressed in these reports showed how little prospect there was that anything approaching to unanimity on such a subject would be reached by the Congress. It is to be feared, indeed, that the endeavour to unify stratigraphical nomenclature all over the world is more Utopian than practical. Nature is not everywhere uniform, and it seems almost puerile to strive after a uniformity of classification and terminology which has no counterpart among the rocks themselves. itself appeared to realise this, for it wisely postponed the consideration of all questions about which there could be any serious differences of opinion, and adopted only those propositions which nobody would controvert, and which hardly required an international congress to settle. Thus it was agreed that the Archzean rocks should be divided into sections according merely to petrographical cha- racters and without expressing any opinion as to their relative age. The vexed question of the Cambrian and Silurian classification was postponed until the next Con- gress three years hence. A day was spent in discussing the position of the Permian system, with the result of leaving it for the present where it is usually placed. The subdivisions of the Mesozoic and Tertiary rocks were rapidly enumerated, but no discussion of them was pos- sible in the time. In truth, it is difficult to see how any real effective discussion of these subjects can be attempted at the ordinary meetings of the Congress. The assembly is so large that probably only a fraction of the audience is really competent to express an opinion on the particular subject under debate. Some of the members who might contribute most valuable suggestions are deterred from so doing by their timidity in the use of the French language. To count the heads of so miscellaneous an audience and say that such and such are the decisions which it has voted can really carry little weight with the geologists of the world at large. Such at least was the opinion freely expressed among the members at Berlin. There was a very general feeling that the less the Con- gress attempts in the way of authoritative decision or legislation the more likely is it to carry on effectively other functions which are of far more general importance and usefulness. Thirdly, the reading of communications on geological questions of general interest. Several good papers were read, but the thinned audience showed that this part of the programme was not very popular. There seemed to be no careful selection of papers, for some of those that were read hardly deserved a hearing before an inter- national gathering of geologists. If this section of the proceedings is retained, it might be well to invite before- hand a few men of acknowledged reputation to give dis- courses, each on his own subject. There would be a strong desire to hear the masters of the science, and if three or four of them of different nationalities could be induced to accede to this proposal, there would be no need for catering among the rank and file of the assembly for papers to fill up the time. Fourthly, an exhibition of geological maps, sections, specimens, and models. This collection was arranged in The Congress | the room of the Bergakademie, and proved a source of much interest and instruction. The series of national geological surveys represented on the walls embraced a large part of Europe, and included some admirable ex- amples of cartography. Among the specimens special attention was given to those exhibited by Mr. Reusch, show- ing Silurian fossils in the crystalline schists of Norway, those of Dr. Lehmann illustrating his work on meta- morphism, the wonderful group of amphibian remains shown by Prof. Credner, the series of fossils brought by Dr. Torell from the Primordial and Lower Silurian rocks of Sweden, various collections from different localities among the Cretaceous rocks of Germany, and a remark- able assernblage of specimens of northern rocks and fossils from the drift of North Germany, exhibited by Dr. A. Remelé. Fifthly, excursions to places of geological interest. At the close of the Congress a large number of the members proceeded in a special train to Potsdam, and spent a day seeing the sights of that royal demesne. Next morning they started for Thale in the Harz, whence, under the able guidance of Prof. Lossen, they were enabled to see some of the more interesting features connected with the protrusion of the granite and the metamorphism of the surrounding rocks, likewise the succession of stratified rocks up to the Chalk, thrown against the flanks of the Harz. From Thale the party travelled to Stassfurt, and descended into the salt mines, which were illuminated in its honour ; thence to Leipzig, where Prof. Credner acted the part of host and guide, and from which an interesting excursion was made into the Saxon granulite region. But it is not by its formal and ostensible proceedings that the usefulness of the Congress is to be measured. There was a widespread feeling which constantly found audible expression, that the opportunities it afforded for personal intercourse and exchange of views were amply sufficient to justify its existence and to give assurance that it would long continue. The discussions among the animated groups in the corridors and ante-rooms were much more vivacious and probably quite as conclusive as those held in the large room. But most useful and enjoyable of all was the nightly A7ezfe held in some beer- saloon. There in a thick and pungent atmosphere of tobacco-smoke, amid the clattering of beer-jugs and shoutings for the Ae//zev, many of the foremost geologists of the Congress gathered together — stratigraphists, petrographers, paleontologists, mineralogists— full of scientific enthusiasm and good fellowship. Loud and long were the debates in these dim retreats. Tongues that had been shackled by French articulation now shook themselves free in the unrestrained vernacular of the country. There were no reporters of course, and no record remains of the discussions. But the recollection of these evenings will not soon pass away from the memory of those who took part in them. Men from distant parts of the world who had only known each other’s writings, or at most had exchanged letters, were here brought face to face, and the foundations of many a pleasant and profitable friendship were doubtless laid. Great praise is due to the organising Committee at Berlin, and especially to its indefatigable General Secre- tary, Herr Hauchcorne, for the arrangements made for the business of the Congress and the comfort of the visitors. Every detail seemed to have been carefully planned, and the result was evident in the smooth working of the whole machine. It was a great gratification to see the venerable Dr. Von Dechen presiding over such an assembly of geologists, and to hear his reminiscences of the early days of European geology. The éonhommie of the President, Prof. Beyrich, put everybody in good humour, and the active guidance of the former President, Prof. Capellini, contributed largely to the success of the Congress. The next session of the Congress is to meet in London Oct. 22, 1885 | NATURE 601 between August 15 and September 15, 1888, and Messrs. Blanford, Geikie, Hughes, and Topley have been nominated a committee to make the necessary arrange- ments. BOTANICAL EXPLORATION OF THE CHILIAN ANDES E are indebted to the Kew authorities for the accompanying extract from a letter dated August 21, 1885, addressed to Sir Joseph Hooker by Dr. R. A. Philippi, the Professor of Botany at Santiago :— “My son made in the summer during 110 days a voyage from Copiapo to the River Camarones, the actual boundary between Chili and Peru. He went first from Copiapo to Antofagasta de la Sierra (26° 5’ lat., 27° 20° long., 3570 metres above the sea), where about 60 to 100 people are living, and thence (nearly always on the high table-land of the desert at an elevation of 3500 to 4200 metres) to Huasco de Tarapacd, from whence he de- scended to the tamarugal. The voyage extended over 8 degrees of latitude. This high table-land is nearly a single bed of trachytic lava, on which are scattered a number of extinct volcanoes, three of which are higher than Chimborazo—viz. the Llullaillaco, 6500 metres (I was, twenty-one years ago, at its west foot) ; the Tumiza, 6540; and the Pular, 6500 metres. There are many large salt lakes, several entirely dry. The vegetation in this easterly part of the desert is not so scanty as in the westerly, visited formerly by me, perhaps owing to a slight influence of the trade wind; and the water-places are more numerous and nearer one to the other. “ The number of species of plants brought home exceeds 400, of which half are not described. Amongst them is one Polylefis (without flowers), found only in one quebrada, and P2/ostyles Berterit, a parasitic plant be- longing to the same family as Raffesca, found at the height of 3700 m.!—of course on an Adesmia. The three species of ferns are: Pellea ternifolia, Cheilanthes micropterus, and a beautiful Czzczznalis which seems to be new. The most numerous family is, of course, Synantherez, with 94 sp.; Graminee has 42 (among them a new species of JZunroa) ; Leguminose, 28-29; Verbenacee, 15; Solanacez, 28; Chenopodiacez, 15. Amongst these plants nine or ten must form, in my opinion, new genera. Some are very curious, as a Verbenacea, which grows in small hemispherical tufts and has the aspect of a Synantherea, with sessile flowers and pappus. This pappus proved to be a deeply-divided calyx with long cilia. There is another genus which I took at first sight for a 77zéudus. I hope that my age, my health, my eyes, and my time will allow me to draw up the generic diagnosis, at least, of these plants.” KRAKATAO SS publication of the first part of Verbeek’s “ Kraka- tao,” which chiefly contained the /zstory of the great eruption of 1883, had raised many expecta- tions regarding the promised description and discussion of the Ahenomena then observed. In his completed work, which contains 25 coloured drawings and 43 large and small maps, those expectations are fully realised. Im- mediately after the great outburst of August, 1883, the Dutch Indian Government sent him to visit Krakatdo and to investigate the causes and effects of this awful eatastrophe, more sudden and destructive than the famous eruption of Vesuvius. The great facilities they placed at his disposal enabled him to do this in the most satisfac- tory manner, and the really beautiful character of his completed work reflects the greatest credit not only on the learned author, but on the zeal and public spirit of the Dutch-Indian Government, who have aided him in | | | making so valuable a contribution to scientific knowledge. So much interest has been taken by the general public, as well asby men of science, in this remarkable eruption, that we feel certain they also will welcome this volume, since it is lucid in style and profusely illustrated. With an expression of his gratitude to various institutions and individuals who have rendered him valuable assistance, the author gives in the preface a list of the weights and measures, together with a summary of the most recent ideas that geological science has received from the Krakatao eruption. Krakatao itself lies on the point of intersection of three fissures or cracxs in the earth’s crust, and from this posi- tion is naturally exposed to volcanic disturbances. The earthquake of September 1, 1880, which damaged the lighthouse on Java’s First Point, probably affected the Sunda fissure and facilitated the entrance of greater quantities of water into the volcanic furnace underlying the Straits of Sunda. Accepting the theory that volcanic eruptions are caused by steam at high pressure, we have thus the probable explanation of the terrible outburst of 1883. From the observations of earthquakes in the Indian archipelago during the year 1883, it appears that the eruption was neither preceded nor accompanied by heavy shocks. It is even far from certain that any trembling of the surface took place at the time, since the vibration of the air caused by the explosion was sufficient to shake houses and crack walls, and thus might easily have been mistaken for earthquakes. The author further treats of the ejected materials ; their thickness, which, on some parts of Krakatao, amount to 60 metres; their size, varying from bodies of one cubic metre to the finest dust ; the velocity with which they were thrown out, which must have been considerably greater than that of projectiles from the heaviest rifled ordnance; the elevation which they reached has been calculated at 50 kilometres, or nearly six times the height of Mount Everest, the highest mountain of the world, and the ashes have fallen over an immense area. From investi- gations made at fifty different places regarding the thick- ness of the fallen ashes and also the change in the depth of the sea around Krakatao, M. Verbeek has calculated that at least 18 cubic kilometres of matter must have been ejected. To give an illustration: imagine a box of ashes as large as Hyde Park and as high as the dome of St. Paul’s, a hundred such boxes will give an idea of the mass of matter thrown out by Krakatdo in 1883. For three days after the eruption various ships to the westward found ashes falling on their decks; the names of these ships are given, as well as a map showing their exact position at the time. Mr. Verbeek believes that the finest particles, forced by the steam into the upper air, did not descend, but were carried westward by strong east winds, making twice the circuit of the earth and causing the phenomena observed at various places of a blue and green sun and moon. The passage of this cloud has been reported from islands and ships in the Pacific Ocean and its velocity must have been as great as that of a hurricane. After the steam and dust-cloud were dispersed over a wider area the beautiful red sunsets occurred, which were owing to the presence of such a large volume of aqueous vapour, while the blue and green colours of the celestial bodies were caused by the solid particles in the air. The author goes on to elucidate the geology of Krakatdo by two maps and four very instructive sections, showing its development during that number of periods. The first period was marked by the destruction of the great cone, probably 2000 metres high; during the second period the peak Rakata was formed by a lateral eruption, while in the third period two parasitic cones, Danau and Perbvewatan, were added, and these, by their successive eruptions, built up the island of Krakatao. In the fourth 602 NATURE [ Oct. 22, 1885 period two of these cones have been destroyed by the terrible eruption of 1883. As our authentic records of Java only date back 300 years, we have absolutely no data respecting anything that occurred in the first three of these periods. We have accounts of an eruption of the Perbvewatan in the year 1680 from two travellers— Vogel and Hesse—to which I drew attention in the Algemeen Dagblad van Ned. Indie of May 23, 1884; but they say nothing as to whether that crater was formed at that time or had been already active. After a rest of 203 years the Perbvewatan became again active in May, 1883, and the Danau joined it in activity during the following June, forming the principal crater in the centre of the old volcano. In August, at the great eruption of the 27th, this part of the volcano was again destroyed ; the Perbvewatan and the Danau, with the northern half of Rakata Peak, disappeared, and the site of the old crater is now covered by the sea between the islands Lang, Verlaten, and Krakatdo. If the volcano resumes its activity, which is to be expected since the island lies on such a favourable point for eruptions, then small islands will appear between the three already mentioned. Krakatdo has been at rest since 1883, although it has erroneously been reported to be active. The roll of thunder and the flashing of light- ning over the ruins of the crater wall have been mistaken for the action of subterranean forces, while the volcanic dust swept off from the crumbling summit by the wind appears at a distance like smoke. A very curious and interesting feature of the recent eruption of Krakatao was the ejection of fragments of underlying sedimentary rocks. The base of the Krakatao volcano, and in general the entire bottom of the Straits of Sunda, consists of eruptive rocks of the miocene period covered with horizontal layers of diluvial and recent marine deposits, the materials of which have been derived from the various volcanoes in the vicinity. The first volume of Verbeek contained a valuable report from his colleague, Mr. J. A. Schuurman, on the phenomena of the eruption of May, 1883, as observed by himself, and the second volume has a lengthy and minute description by the mining engineer, Mr. J. W. Retgers, of his microscopical examination of the ash which fell at Buitenzorg, and of the various substances thrown out by the eruption of 1883, as well as of the older rocks. A portion of the pumice which covered the sea after the eruption was carried westward by winds and currents and driven on the shores of various islands, even so far as the east coast of Africa. Another portion, which floated in the bays of Semangka and Lampong for several months, being driven in the beginning of 1884 by westerly winds along the coast of Java toward the Moluccas and Australia, is at present encountered in the Pacific Ocean between the Caroline and Marshall Islands. The author has calculated that this pumice will arrive on the west coast of America at Panama early in 1886. With regard to the spherical bodies of a calcareous and clayey nature, called “ Krakatad marbles,” found lying loosely on the surface, Mr. Verbeek at first supposed them to have been formed by the rotary motion of particles ejected from the volcano, but as they were after- wards found imbedded in ejected fragments of claystone and matls, this theory must be given up ; he considers it possible that there may have been concretions in the tufa, although their presence in rock sometimes quite destitute of lime is certainly surprising, and this form of concretions has not been observed hitherto. The chemical analyses of the rocks of Krakatao can be fully relied upon, as they have been made by Dr. Cl. Winkler, Professor of Chemistry in the well-known Mining School of Freiberg, in Saxony. Dr. P. J. van der Stok, Director of the Meteorological Observatory at Batavia, proves that the disturbance in the position of the magnetic needle observed during the falling of volcanic dust was due, not to the eruption, but to the presence of magnetite therein, since the disturbance only lasted during the shower of ashes. The low temperature observed at that time at Batavia, Buitenzorg, Kroé, Moeara-Doea, Bandar, and elsewhere was not due, according to hygrometrical observations, to the evaporation of the humidity of the ash; near the volcano and on ships in the vicinity it was oppressively hot, but the ashes thrown into the icy regions of the upper air and falling at a distance from the volcano had become cooled in their passage. Heavy electrical dis- charges occurred continually in the ash cloud around Krakatao. On Java’s First Point and at Flat Point the lighthouses were struck by lightning. On Sunday, May 20, 1883, all Batavia was in great commotion as to the cause of the mysterious sounds and detonations which apparently came from the west and in fact did come from Krakatao. At Serang and Anjer, which are situated much nearer to the volcano, no sounds had been heard. Again at Batavia on the morning of Monday, August 27, after the tremendous detonation at 8h, 26m., the eruption seemed to have ceased ; they heard nothing at all of another enormous explosion which took place between 11 and 12, as reported from Middle and East Java. The explanation of this curious phenomenon is that earlier in the morning an ash cloud like a gigantic lamp-shade settled over the volcano, extending as far as Bandong, and that the quantity of these ash particles floating in the air prevented the transmission of sounds. Above the ash cloud the detonations were transmitted in all directions, but naturally were most distinctly heard to the windward. ‘The farthest points where the sounds have been heard are Doreh, in New Guinea, some points of Central Australia, among others the telegraph stations of Daly Waters and Alice Springs, the islands of Rodriguez and Ceylon. Accounting for the difference in time and taking the rate of transmission of sounds, the author has calculated for different places which grand detonation in particular has been heard. The detonation of Monday morning, 5h. 30m., has been heard in Australia ; that of 1oh. 2m. a.m. has been heard at Banca, Billiton, the west coast of Borneo, the southern and eastern divisions of Borneo, Bawean and Banda; that of 1oh. 52m. a.m. at Riouw, Middle and East Java, Bali, &c. ; the last two detonations have not been noticed at Batavia and Buiten- rorg. The area within which the explosions have been heard is represented on a map; it amounts to one- fourteenth of the whole surface of the globe—a quite extraordinary transmission of sound over so large a space. From the vibration of the air caused by the heavy de- tonations houses, doors, windows, clocks which hung against the walls, objects which stood on cabinets or were suspended from the ceiling were set trembling; but the swinging movements given to hanging objects by earth- quakes have nowhere been observed. That some walls have been cracked, and houses been damaged so as to be no longer habitable, can be accounted for, according to the author, by the probability that they were already weak, and thus had an opportunity of showing it. The greatest air-disturbance caused by the eruption has transmitted itself as a regularly moving atmospheric wave, with Krakatao as centre, over the whole earth ; and to the discussion of this entirely new phenomenon the author has devoted about seventy pages. With the assistance of very accurate barograms from Sydney, N.S.W., he calculated the heaviest explosion and fixed it at Ioh. 2m. a.m. Krakatad time. The same result has been arrived at by another calculation based on the markings of the indicator of the gasworks at Batavia. That indi- cator marked fifteen oscillations, corresponding with as many explosions, of which the four severest occurred in the forenoon of Monday, August 27, at 5h. 30m., 6h. 44m., toh. 2m., and toh, 52m., Krakatao time. Of these four, that of 10h. 2m. am. was by far the Oct. 22, 1885 | NATOGRE 603 greatest, and it is probable that the air-wave then formed made the tour around the world. Forty places in Europe, America, and Australia are named where the disturbance of the air has been indicated by baro- meters, and with the help of these data the author has been able to calculate the velocity of the air move- ment, which has been found to be considerably less than the velocity of sound at o C.; consequently the movements took place at a great height and in cold-air strata. According to the author’s calculation this air-wave re- quired 354 hours to make the circuit of the earth; it would have been of great interest to know just when the wave returned to Batavia, but, unfortunately, the diagrams of the indicator at the gasworks that might have marked such a return have been lost. Part of Chapter V. treats of changes in the sea-bottom. The sea now covers to a depth of 200 to 300 metres what was formerly the northern part of Krakatao, and the small island called Polish Hat has also disappeared. Between the remaining islands, which are fragments of the old crater ring, an area has subsided of at least 41 square kilometres, or about 10,000 acres. Outside these islands, within a triangular space of 34 square kilometres, the sea is also deeper than formerly, so that altogether a surface of 75 square kilometres has subsided, which is clearly shown on maps 1, 2, and 4. The part of the Peak which has disappeared must have been 1 cubic kilometre in size, and the fall of such a mass into the sea is quite sufficient to cause the great sea-wave which swept away thousands of human beings. Nowhere is there the slightest vestige of any upheaval, from which we may be certain that no seismic movement of the sea- bed has occurred. In Bantam and in the Lampong districts, after the disaster, the remains of the macadam- ised roads along the coast were everywhere as high above the sea as before, and soundings in Sunda Straits showed that no change of sea-bottom has taken place there. The shallower depth in the immediate vicinity of Krakatao, and between Krakatao and Sebesi, has probably been the result of fallen materials, to which also the islands Steers and Calmeyer, which have since disappeared, for the greater part, no doubt owed their existence. As the last of the phenomena which accompanied the eruption of 1883, the movements of the sea are discussed, as shown by the destructive waves which have made this catastrophe so terrible. It is certain that the greatest wave of all started from Krakatado at 10 a.m., and that wave completed the destruction of Telok Betong, Anjer, and Tjiringin. This great wave had been preceded by small waves on Sunday afternoon at 6, and Monday morning at 6h. 30m., by which these places were already partly submerged and destroyed; but the really very remarkable phenomenon was observed that not every wave reached all the places situated along the coasts of the Straits of Sunda. For example: the wave which destroyed on Monday morning, at 6, a part of Anjer, and at 6h. 30m. the lower part of Telok Betong, has not been noticed at Tjiringin. The author explains this by the supposition that the preceding waves were not caused by the falling in of parts of the volcano, but by the enormous quantities of ejected matter that splashed into the sea. Suppose on Sunday evening during the eruption of 5h. 7m. a large quantity was thrown out on the spot where Calmeyer lies, the wave thus formed was noticed everywhere around —at Merak, Anjer, Tjiringin, Beneawang, Telok Betong, and Ketimbang. If, during the eruption on Monday morning (5h. 30m.), the matter was thrown down on the spot where Steers lies, then the wave would be obstructed in a south-easterly direction by Calmeyer, and Tjiringin, lying behind it, be protected, whilst the wave would roll to Anjer, where it must have arrived a little after 6 a.m. In like manner, at the explosion of Monday morning (6h. 44m.), Anjer and Tjiringin were protected by Krakatdo, and Telok Betong by Lagoendie, whilst Beneawang in the Bay of Semangka was nearly destroyed; but the wave of 10 o’clock being of such enormous magnitude, swept over all obstacles. Most careful calculations fix the time of the formation of the great wave at 10 a.m., the same hour at which the heaviest detonation was heard, so that the ejection of a stupendous quantity of ashes, pumice, and mud, the rushing in of the sea upon the mass of glowing lava, and the falling in of half the mountain, must have taken place almost simultaneously. From the height registered by the tide-gauges at Tandjong-Priok on Monday at 7h. 30m. p.m. it is evident that Batavia narrowly escaped a second inundation. The data collected from all parts of the world regarding an extraordinary movement of the sea soon after the eruption, made it possible to compute the velocity of the great wave, and this velocity enabled the author to calculate the average depth of the sea along the path the wave travelled. In this way he has ascer- tained that the depth of the sea between Krakatao and South Africa must amount to 4200 metres; between Krakatado and Rodriguez, 4560; and between Krakatao and South Georgia, 6340 metres ; which shows that west and south-west of Australia there must be a deep-sea basin, the existence of which has not yet been revealed by soundings. Mr. Verbeek considers that, if the irregu- larities of the tide noticed at Aspinwall happened at the hour reported, they were not caused by the Krakatao wave, but by volcanic activity in the Antilles ; that wave, however, was observed on the coast of France, at San Francisco, and even in Alaska. Its velocity was so great that it reached Aden in twelve hours, a distance of 3800 nautical miles, usually traversed by a good steamer in twelve days. It is greatly to be regretted that our knowledge of this phenomenon beyond the Indian Ocean remains incom- plete, on account of the small number of tide-gauges on the Atlantic and Pacific coasts; the author suggests that this want shall be promptly supplied, so that in future no important movement of the sea shall escape notice. Chapter VI. is devoted to a consideration of the vol- canic phenomena which have been observed during the eruption of Krakatad at other (places within or beyond the Indian Archipelago. Simultaneously the volcano Goenong Api, on the island of Great Sangi, the Merapi on Java, the Merapi on Sumatra, and also, it is supposed, a volcano in the Moluccas were in activity. A seismic movement of the sea-bottom occurred in the whole region of the Moluccas, which could not have been due to Krakatao, and this movement has been noted by three tide gauges in the Straits of Madura. Over a large part of Australia, from August 27 to 29, more or less serious earthquakes were felt—a phenomenon the more remark- able because Australia suffers very seldom from any shaking of the earth. It is probable that sudden displace- ments of steam—perhaps of lava—occurred in the sub- terranean cavities, caused by a change of pressure through the great discharge of lava and steam at Krakatao. We must therefore conclude that the under- ground recesses between Krakatao and Australia are in some way connected, so that any change of pressure in one cavity causes a change of pressure in the other. Even at points in the neighbourhood of the antipodes of Krakatad shocks and volcanic effects were noticed, and if, as is probable, some point in the Antilles was in activity, then evidently the whole surface of the earth during the terrible discharge of Krakatao was agitated, and apparently the crust of our earth is not so solid as many of its inhabitants fondly imagine. The author maintains the doctrine that part of our globe remains still in a molten state, and he disputes the theory, which has been advanced, that the heat of the vol- canic furnaces is entirely due to local chemical action. He, however, acknowledges that it is very difficult to explain 604 NATURE [ Oct, 22, 1885 why, during the Krakatao outburst, the antipodes was more favourably situated for an eruption than the other volcanic regions of the earth. A similar tendency during former eruptions has not been recorded, and we must wait until another great outburst enables us to decide whether it is of any importance. The coloured drawings, twenty-five in number, are all by Mr. Schreuders, who accompanied Mr. Verbeek in October 1883, and give a faithful picture of the devastated regions as they appeared two months after the eruption. The most striking picture is that of the stupendous wall, 832 metres high, which was laid bare by the destruction of the northern part of the peak. No one who has gazed upon this grandest of nature’s ruins can forget its solemn desolation. The careful typographical execution of the work reflects great credit on the Director of the Government Printing Office at Batavia. We can heartily congratulate the learned author on the successful completion of his most valuable and exhaustive work, interesting alike to the scientific and general reader. ON THE COLOUR-SENSE HERE is an interesting paper in the A7zmefeenth Century’ for February last in which the colour- nomenclature in the Homeric poems and that of the modern Hindtstani language are compared with modern English usage. The writer traverses to a great extent Mr. Gladstone’s suggestion ° that the ancient Greeks were deficient in colour-sense (ze. compared with modern Englishmen), and propounds the idea that the natives of India have a keen colour-sense. It will be shown below that the use of colour terms in modern English is not only loose, but even incongruous. Illustrations will be taken from both the papers referred to, with additions from the author’s experience in India. Natural Objects— Uniformity might surely be expected in the use of colour terms with bright-coloured natural objects. There is, however, no uniformity in their use, even when intended to be real colour designations ; and opposite and sometimes unnatural colours are—in a figurative sense—ascribed to a single object. Thus the colour of fresh blood and the tint arising therefrom in the healthy cheek and also in the blushing cheek (of a fair person) are probably among the most well-marked, definite, natural colours. Yet the blood it- self is styled blood-red, gory, crimson, red, scarlet, whilst the healthy cheek is described as carnation, vermetl, red, ruddy, rosy, and pink, and the blushing cheek as scar/e/, crimson, red, aflame (perhaps rather a heat than a colour term). These terms, though used as real colour designa- tions, are by no means synonymous, whilst in a figurative sense quite different and even unnatural colours are ascribed. Thus 4/we b/ood is used of aristocratic descent, black blood and white or pale blood of descent from dark or fair races. Again, healthy bile is bright yellow, and a yellowish tinge in the “white” of the eye is often called a dz/ous colour ; yet in the figurative sense black is ascribed to phe condition known as melancholy, atrabiliousness, black zle. The colour of good milk is so characteristic as to give rise to the term #7/k white, whilst skim-milk or poor milk which has merely a blueish tinge is styled sky-d/ue. Again, the parts of the human eye and of a bird’s egg styled from their characteristic tint the wAz/e of the eye and the wfz¢e of an egg, always bear the zame of white, although occasionally of a decidedly blueish tinge, stronger than that of skim-milk. Colour is usually ascribed to the human eye from the 1 “ Light from the East on the Colour Question,” by W. J. Furrell, p. 321 of Nineteenth Century for February, 1885. 2 “The Colour Sense,” by the Right Honourable W. E. Glads‘one, M.P., Pp. 366 of Nineteenth Century for October, 1877. tint of the iris, probably as being the part most subject to — colour-variation—e.g. black, dark, pink, brown, hazel, green, blue, gray, light. Of these, black is loosely applied (e.g. in the phrase 4/ack-eyed) in the case of any dark- coloured iris, whilst g7eex and d/we are used in the case of a mere tinge of green or blue. On the other hand the phrase ved eyes indicates either redness of the eyes (as from weeping) or a bloodshot state of the “whites,” whilst a d/ack eye implies only a dark-coloured bruise of the skin near the eye; green in the eye is a figurative expression implying freshness or ignorance, and gveem-eyed is a condition ascribed to jealousy. The colour of sea-water varies from greenish (aqua- marine) to a deep blue (ultramarine) ; but a wide range of colour-names is applied to various seas—e.g. the Black Sea, Red Sea, Yellow Sea, White Sea, and this in many languages. The colour of river-water varies from turbid yellow to blueish and colourless ; but in this case there is an equally wide range of colour-name—e.g. Blackadder R., Black- water R., Red ®., Orange R., Green R., Blue R., Blue Nile, Grey R., White R., White Nile, Whiteadder R. Human Colouring.—Colour-terms, applied to races of men, or to the complexion or hair, are loosely used to cover a wide range of colour. Thus dlack, dark, dusky, swarthy, and nigger (lt. black), are applied to any merely dark skins; ved and cofpfery to the whole of the North American (so-called) Indians ; w/zte and fale to any fair skin. The terms dar and fair (shade- rather than colour- names) are loosely applied both to the complexion and to personal description. Thus any complexion darker than the average in a fair race, or fairer than the average in a dark race, is called dark or fair respectively; the two terms being merely ve/azive in this usage. Also among a fair race,a person with dark eyes and dark hair is called dark, and one with light eyes and fair hair is called fav, without reference to complexion. Again, the terms ved, carroty, fiery are often applied to hair which has merely a reddish tinge. Among races of different complexion in the same country curious figurative usages of the racial colour- termsarise. Thus zzgger (lt. black), black, dark, redskin are sometimes used by a (ruling) fair race to denote inferiority, and this usage is sometimes adopted even by the (ruled) dark race—e.g. occasionally by both negroes and natives of India. There is a curious restricted use of the phrase gorda Jog (Zt. fair people) in India to denote the British soldiery, but not the higher classes of English. Animal Colours.—Colour terms applied to animals have sometimes a technical meaning quite different to the fundamental colour. Thus éay and stvawberry, as applied to horses, are very different colours from those of the bay-leaf and strawberry ; thus also the Hindtstani term sabz, usually meaning green, denotes gray when applied to animals. Again, ved is applied to animals—e.g. cows, deer, foxes, squirrels, &c., whose coats are any sort of reddish-brown. A similar usage occurs in the Homeric poems—(e.g. gouré and its derivatives), and in the Hindt- stani word /d/ (/77. ruby). Colour-terms are sometimes applied to animals, plants, &e., even when only slightly affected with the named | colour, to indicate a particular variety of the object in question. Thus a é/uve pigeon, fox, or rabbit, is only slaty blue ; a wAzte elephant is only spotted with white pink patches ; a 4/ood orange may be only speckled with blood-markings ; a élack dion and black leopard are only dark with black markings. Colours differing from nature are also ascribed to animals on signboards—e.g. black, red, blue, white lion; blue bear, &c.; thus also green man ; also (in cookery) a gveex goose. Artificial Objects——Among artificial objects, even of strongly-marked hue, colour-terms are often strangely mis- es \ | Oct. 22, 1885] applied (sometimes apparently by contrast with the characteristic colour). Thus all wines which are not of some red tint are loosely styled whzte wines, though their real colours are various shades of yellow, golden, and orange. Again, light-coloured hats, usually light gray, drab, or brown, are often styled w/z¢e hats, probably in contrast with the black chimney-pot hat so common in England. The colour-term gveen with the figurative sense of “fresh,” is applied to unseasoned timber and to freshly-quarried stone. Metals.—Whilst some few metals have a sufficiently striking colour to give rise to a special colour-name—e.g., coppery, bronze, brazen, golden, aureine, steel-blue, leaden, ztvon-grey, argent, silvery, the most of them have a general similarity of tint, and are loosely called whzfe (probably in contrast to the coloured metals), whilst a mere tinge of blue in some of them leads to their being called d/we (e.g., lead, zinc, steel). Curious applications occur in trade names : thus, wife metal is used of any cheap alloy resembling silver in appearance; white brass is a whitish alloy of copper and zinc ; gvay 7rom and white tron are cast iron whose frac- ture is grey or white ; whilst whz/e lead, sinc white, white arsenic are the white oxides of the metals in question ; red lead is the red oxide of lead, and d/ack lead is really plumbago (which resembles lead only in its property of marking paper) ; whzte, yellow, orange, and red, when applied to gold, denote alloys of gold in which the golden colour is modified ségh¢/y in the directions indicated ; red-short is an epithet descriptive of malleable metals which are brittle when hot. Blue and Black.—There is a curious confusion between dark blue and black in both English and Hindtistdni. Thus, in English there are 4/ue-dlack, invisible blue (both used of a very deep blue almost black), dlack and blue (applied toa bruise), 4/ack as ink and inky black (although most inks are nowadays blueish) often applied to rain- clouds (nimbus) and to the deep indigo blue of the deep sea, quite like the Hindtistanf phrase £d/é pani (Ut. black water) used of the sea. Dark blue cloth is by some (even by ladies) habitually called d/ack; the writer has also known d/ackberries miscalled d/aeberries (by a Scotch- woman), although é/ae is literally blue ; this is quite like the Hindtstani word £é/d, which is used for both é/ack and dark blue, especially in cloth. This confusion is curious in English, wherein the terms jet-dlack, jetty, coal-black, exist for a true black. In the melody, “ The Coal-black Rose,” the colour is attributed really to a person of the name of Rose. Physical States.—Colour-terms are applied to physical states, sometimes in an exaggerated sense (the name of a bright colour being ascribed to any faint tint of the same), and sometimes in a special and almost inexplicable sense. Thus we speak of the black death, as black as death, black looks, looking as black as thunder, scarlet fever, yellow fever, jaundice, turning green with sickness, being beaten black and blue, blue with cold, a fit of blue devils, pale or white with iliness or with loss of blood. Mental, &c., States.—The connection of colour terms with mental and moral emotions, conditions, and actions, is curious and often inexplicable. Thus é/ack is associated with the idea of evil—e.g. the blackest of lies, black as sin, blackened with crime, as black as the devil; and also with degradation in both English and Hindtstini—e.g. to blacken one’s face (Hind. munh kdld karnd) implies disgrace in both languages. Again black, purple, crimson, red, scarlet, pink, livid, pallid, and wie are all ascribed to rage; whilst crzmson, red, and scarlet are also ascribed to shame, in both cases doubtless from their effect on the hue of the cheek. Further crimson, red, and scarlet are associated with crime (probably from their connection with blood), and also with sin generally—e.g¢. red-handed, sins as scarlet, the scarlet woman, &c. Next black, yellow, and blue are all NATURE 605 used of depression of spirits—e.g. in the words melancholy, atrabilious, jaundiced, a fit of the blues. Again, green and verdant are used of the freshness of youth and of the state of a novice, and in this use both these colour-terms are oddly attributed to the eye; whilst gveew is also applied to (unusual) freshness in old age. The terms green, blue (e.g. a blue funk), pale, pallid, livid, ashy, gray, and whz¢e are all used as descriptive of fear ; simil- arly the words xA@pos (commonly translated gee) in Homer and sard (commonly translated yed/ow) in Hindistani are used of fear. Again, 4/we is sometimes associated with religious feel- ing, and also with literary or scientific pursuits among women, ¢.¢., blue-stocking. Lastly, whzte is associated with the idea of good (perhaps in contrast to black, which goes with evil), e.g. whzte de (¢.e. a slight or venial lie), to be whztewashed (¢.e. freed from debt), and extreme whiteness is associated with purity (probably from the pure whiteness of snow) eg. sus shall be as white as snow, white-robed angels, &c. Summary.—With such a looseness in the use of colour- terms in modern English and Hindtistanf as exemplified above, it seems (to the writer) that it is hardly possible to draw inferences as to the strength of the colour-sense in either the past or present from the (supposed) correct or incorrect application of colour-terms by other nations. Paucity of colour-terms is probably fair evidence of a poor colour-sense, whilst an abundance of the same is probably good evidence of a fine colour-sense. Viewed by this test, the colour-sense evidenced in the Homeric poems is certainly poor, and that of the natives of India is also poor compared with that of modern western nations ; as to the latter, it may be said that a great deve- lopment of colour-sense is now going on, and much more rapidly than in the past, judging from the frequent addi- tions to the stock of dyes and pigments of late years, especially since the discovery of aniline and its derivatives. Natives of India —The author of “Light from the East on the Colour Question ” considers that there is a “highly-developed colour-sense among the natives of India,” and adduces the Indian coloured textile fabrics and works of art as evidence of this. This does not agree with the present writer’s experience from a resid- ence extending over twenty-three years in North India. The textile fabrics have certainly a good blending of colours ; the cloth dyes and colours laid on pottery and other art-productions are also often beautiful. But the cloth-workers, dyers, potters, and other artisans in colours, and the educated classes, are the few among whom the colour-sense is well developed, and they are few among the 250,000,000 of India. The colour-terminology of Hindustani is poor, especially out of the classes above- named. Moreever, in the writer’s experience the eyesight of the uneducated masses in India is defective in every way. They have great difficulty in threading a needle, in reading small type or small MS., also in reading at all except in a strong light, in discriminating colours, and (strangest of all) in making anything out of a picture, engraving, or photograph. This last defect is at first sight most surprising to an Englishman: it would seem as if a certain “ picture-education” were necessary to develop a “picture-sense.” A villager in India, ora quite uneducated servant, will sometimes examine a picture sideways, or even upside down, and will hazard the most incongruous ideas as to the subject, even when it is that of an object quite familiar to him. ALLAN CUNNINGHAM ENSILAGE V E have observed with satisfaction, if we may be allowed to say so, the increasing attention which is being devoted to the subject of ensilage in this country, not only in view of the importance of this method of 606 NATURE [Oct. 22, 1885 storing fodder as an auxiliary to the farmer, but because it evokes discussions which tend to the diffusion of the teachings of biologic science, and to widen the search after natural knowledge. The harvesting of ripe crops has become stereotyped by custom reaching back into the dim past ; the practice of ensilage, on the other hand, involves a view of plant life which is not only foreign to our agricultural traditions, but is based upon less obvious teachings of nature, and it therefore demands a more intelligent cooperation of human industry. Notwith- standing these features, which make it a serious innova- tion, the unprejudiced acceptance of the system and the impartial spirit in which it is being practically investi- gated, testify to the growth of scientific culture amongst our agriculturists and to the general interest taken by them in the more recondite discussions of natural science which cannot fail to be widened by the study of the pro- found problems presented by the subject of ensilage. In contributing to the study of these we shall do so rather as observer than investigator, and as the text of our dis- cussion we shall take Mr. Fry’s excellent little work on “ Sweet Ensilage.” Whatever the fate of the theory of the silo expounded by the author—and it is certainly a bold excursion into the ¢erra zmcognita—he furnishes us with a good and clearly expressed working hypothesis for the regulation of the system to the production of “sweet ” ensilage, to which his efforts as an agriculturist have converged, he has sought a warrant in the teachings of vegetable physiology, and the theoretical account of the silo which has resulted may be stated in broad out- lines as follows :—The crop to be ensiled is cut in the full vigour of the growth of the plant; the tissues of the plant do not die, but continue to exercise their organic functions for some time after being deposited in the silo. The rise of temperature which ensues in the silo is due to what the author terms “ intercellular oxidation,” or, from what we gather from the context, to the oxygen respiration of the cells. In consequence of this increased temperature and its maintenance for a sufficient time, the cells of the plant are deprived of organic activity. The life of the plant under the restricting conditions of ensilation, induces an “intercellular fermentation,” which manifests itself in one direction by the trans-generation of sugar into alcohol, the sugar being derived from the starch of the plant by hydrolysis. In regard to this function the author goes so far as to say: “ When these transgenerations in the silo have been performed, the functions of the vegetable cells are at an end and they become inert and moribund.” The formation of acztic acid in the silo, as also of lactic and other acids, are referred to ferment actions. The para- sitic organisms present in the original mass are reduced to inertness by exposure to the elevated temperature produced in the silo, provided this is sufficiently high ; nor can they resume their functions when the temperature falls to within the limits favourable to life. The ensiled matter, therefore, having attained and maintained for a sufficient time this suicidal temperature, is thenceforward without the pale of organic change. If, however, from any cause—the author gives prominence to two: viz. insufficient robustness of the cells and too large a propor- tion of water, which conditions, e.g., are correlated in an immature growth—this critical temperature (at or about 50° C.) should not be reached, then the contents of the silo will, on cooling, become the prey of the bacterial life which has survived, and is ready to avail itself of favour- able conditions for active development. The latter con- ditions determine the production of “sour” silage, the former of “sweet.” ‘In the chapter on the chemical com- position of silage, in which analyses of various products are given, special attention is directed to the relatively high proportion of albuminoid to amide nitrogen in those which may be ranged in the latter class, as indicating their superior feeding value. As a necessary preliminary to our discussion of the phenomena of the silo, in which we shall follow the lines thus laid down by Mr. Fry, we will review a few of the more prominent features of the chemistry of plant life, which no writer on this subject can afford to leave out of consideration. That they have been considered, to some extent, in the account of the silo above detailed, is evidently due to Mr. Fry’s position as an agriculturist writing for agriculturists. The practical purpose of his investigation and description of ensilage was only attainable by aiming at @ probable truth to the exclusion of the whole truth. Our attempt will be to do justice to such an aim and its results, at the same time to aid in maintaining the scientific perspective of the question. Many fruitless definitions of the supposed ultimate distinctions between a plant and an animal have from time to time been advanced ; and while the controversies to which they have given rise have but little interest to those who take the broader view of classification, still there are certain very marked distinctions between the vegetable and animal worlds, considered each as a whole, which are independent of all views as to their abstract import and of all attempts to reduce them to a typical expression. First, in regard to synthetical activity and the power of appropriating carbon and _nitrogen—the characteristic elements of living matter—the position of the vegetable world is anterior to that of the animal ; or, to attempt a definition, the synthetical work of plants is ultimate, that of animals proximate. Secondly, nitro- genous or proteid substances are not essential constitu- ents of the more prominent structures, 7.e. the fibrous skeleton of a living plant, whereas the tissues of the animal are largely composed of such compounds. With regard to the functions of the protoplasm of the vegetable as compared with those of the animal organism, we may quote Michael Foster (“ Physiology,” 2nd ed., 343) :— “Tt is not unreasonable to suppose that the animal is as constructive as the vegetable protoplasm, the difference between the two being that the former, unlike the latter, is as destructive as it is constructive.” Thirdly, the synthetic activity of plants does not cease with the cessation of life, but persists in some measure in the substances which it has built up. We use the term “synthetic” here in a wider sense. The vast aggregations of the vegetable life of past ages with which we are so familiar in so many forms sufficiently illustrate our meaning ; and the study of the everyday work of the redistributing agencies of Nature upon moribund veget- able matter, will prove the same refractory relationship— the possession of a power of resisting change under their influence not possessed by animal matter. Resolution takes place to a certain extent, in degree depending upon the circumstances of its deposition, and the surrounding physical conditions, but there is always to be observed the tendency to accumulate the characteristic element carbon, at the expense of the oxygen and hydrogen ; we have every reason to regard the processes by which this result is attained as a self-contained re-arrangement of the matter and energy, localised in and by the plant during its life,and as the result, therefore, of the same activity. The life-history of a perennial plant also points to a high endowment of the molecules which are built up into its permanent parts; for these are not, as in the animal, subject to perpetual removal and renewal, but fixed and permanently localised. At the same time they run a long course of adaptation to the ever-changing condition of the structure which they compose, for which the necessary energy must be either concurrently or aboriginally supplied, or, as is probably true, both conditions of supply obtain. The study of the che- mistry of liquification, and of the fate of moribund vegetable matter, therefore proves the possession of a high degree of intrinsic energy by plant substances, \ Oct. es 1885 | NATURE 607 and the tendency to retain this energy in the form of derived compounds in which the carbon is proportionately accumulated. Let us consider this endowment of energy of plants from a point of view more nearly that of the subject of these remarks—viz. the formation of the seed in an annual. We take it that every cell is impressed with the striving, so to speak, to bring about this result. In regard to the energy necessary, again we may conceive a storing up in the earlier processes of elaboration, together with a con- tinuous supply from the external world. Supposing, now, the organic existence of the plant arrested by cutting during the period of inflorescence ; the one supply is cut off, but what becomes of the other, the intrinsic energy and tendency of the organised matter in this direction ? Analogy leads us to conclude that it flows on, expending itself on an unattainable end, until it fails from failure of the co-operative supply. Now if this account of the relationship of the matter and energy of plants is generally true, we think they demand first consideration at the hands of investigators of ensilage. Mr. Fry attributes the rise of temperature in the silo to ‘intercellular oxidation.” We think the term a good one, as it points to intrinsic oxygen ex- changes. But we gather from the context that the oxyda- tion referred to is at the expense of atmospheric oxygen. We think this qualification weakens the value of the term in diverting attention to a cause inadequate to produce the result. How much oxygen is contained or is supplied to the silo? Supposing it completely burned to carbonic anhydride and all the resulting heat effective in raising 100 times its weight of water 30° C. in temperature, is this sufficient on the most favourable calculation to raise the whole mass to 60°70" C., the temperature which usually obtains? Why does the temperature continue to rise for some weeks after the crop has been ensiled, when from all causes the supply of oxygen must continually di- minish? Apart from these considerations the conditions of the matter in the pit are surely unfavourable to oxida- tion by atmospheric oxygen, chiefly in the impediments to gaseous circulation and the absence of light. As we wish to confine ourselves to suggestions and to avoid statements of opinion, we do not hazard any conclusions on this point, but we ask for a comparison of the con- siderations drawn from the study of the intrinsic energy of plants with those from their relationships to the external world, in regard to this first phenomenon of the silo. In regard to Mr. Fry’s theory of “intercellular fer- mentation,” we again think the term conveys a wider truth than his exposition. As an agriculturist he recog- nises two main kinds of ensilage products—sweet and sour—and we have already alluded to his account of their production. Now, on what does this terminology turn, in as far as it is correlated with the chemical composition of the silage ? Upon quantities of certain constituents which are a small fraction of the whole. It is, on the other hand, an axiom with the chemist, in his study of reactions, not to be led away by issues which are obviously subordinate. From a number of considerations which follow directly from the previous discussion, the cellulose fabric of the plant studied comparatively with the changes which it under- goes in the silo, is best calculated to throw light on the general nature and tendency of these changes. These changes involve a commerce of molecules, if we may use the expression, of which the appearance of small quanti- ties more or less of particular acids or other compounds are minor results. We prefer the term “ intercellular commerce” as less specialised than “ fermentation” ; and and in so far as the problems involved are essentially chemical, we think a study of the matter changes from this point of view in the order pointed out by relative quantity and permanence of relationship to the plant structure, is better calculated to elucidate the nature of these transformations. In regard to sour ensilage, and the view of it as result- ing from bacterial fermentation, we have little to say. The study of the life of such organisms under the very peculiar circumstances of the silo has been thus far very slender. From the later researches of Nageli and others, which have considerably modified the theory of anzerobic fermentation as propounded by Pasteur, we are inclined to attach less weight to this probable factor of the changes in the silo than Mr. Fry. Generally speaking, and as he admits, the whole subject needs a very exhaustive investigation, and as we would point out, on the widest basis, and altogether independently of its special bearings upon agriculture The scientific method must be followed, even though in particular experiments the silage were rendered unfit for food. The factors of the result must be caused to vary artificially that their influence may be severally measured. The silo may be heated in any suitable way, the organic matter may be sterilised as regards parasitic germs, sub- stances may be added to modify the reactions, and many other and similar self-suggestive means employed to test particular issues. In conclusion we revert to our original text, and we congratulate Mr. Fry on having laboured well in a good cause. Asan agriculturist he has exceeded in his investigations what was to be expected ; but in his endeavour to give a scientific account of the silo simul- taneously with the agricultural, we think he has disposed of the complications of the subject by repressing their consideration. It is to the somewhat thankless task of reproducing certain of these that we have addressed our- selves, with the view, as already stated, of aiding to keep the subject in its true perspective. NOTES THoMAs Davipson, LL.D., F.R.S., of Muirhouse, Mid- lothian, died, from an attack of lung disease, at West Brighton, on the 16th inst., in his sixty-ninth year. Dr. Davidson, who was so well known in the scientific world, more especially for his work on the ‘‘ Fossil Brachiopoda,” was a Fellow of the Royal, the Geological, and many other learned Societies, foreign as well as British. In 1851 he began his description of the ‘* British Fossil Brachiopoda,” which has been published from year to year by the Paleontological Society, the concluding sup- plements having appeared in the last volume of that Society in December 1884. Numerous memoirs on similar subjects have been published in the 77azsactéons of several scientific Societies. Recently Dr. Davidson prepared a ‘‘ Report on the Brachiopoda dredged by H.M.S. Challenger during the Years 1873-76.” At the time of his death he was engaged upon a further monograph on recent Brachiopoda, the first part of which is now appearing in the Zyamsactions of the Linnean Society. Dr. Davidson latterly resided at Brighton, and notwithstanding his other scien- tific avocations he devoted a considerable portion of his time to the perfecting of the town museum, PRESIDENT CLEVELAND’s invitation to Prof. Agassiz to assume the direction of the United States Coast Survey has been hailed in America as an assurance that the new adminis™ tration will encourage scientific work, and is not indifferent to survey, but is desirous of placing it under a head whese name and character would be a guarantee of success. The health of the Professor precluded his acceptance of the post ; but beyond this he is of opinion that the guidance of the Coast Survey re- quires an expert. The problems to be decided, the methods to be employed, the men to be engaged, should, he thinks, be determined by one who knows the business. Any other person would be in danger of failure. In concluding an article on the subject Szience says :—‘‘ The correspondence of Secretary Man- 608 NATURE [Oct. 22, 1885 ning and Prof. Agassiz is to us an assurance that science will not be retarded, and that scientific men will not be slighted by any act of President Cleveland.” Science comments in a recent issue on an extraordinary state- ment published in certain New York and Boston journals to the effect that a committee which had been appointed to investigate the geological survey of the United States had found that illegal practices prevailed in the work of that department. It appears that no such committee ever sat ; the whole was pure fiction. There was no report, no illegal proceedings, no exa- mination. The officer to whom it was said the committee made this report has no authority to appoint or superintend such a committee, and the whole story had its origin in the fertile brain of an imaginative newspaper correspondent. It is well that this should be understood in this country, in case the baseless state- ments referred to should have made their way here. THE Annual Meeting of the London Mathematical Society will be held on Thursday evening, November 12, and will be made special for the purpose of considering alterations in the rules, which will be proposed by the Council. At the same meeting it will be proposed to elect Mr. C. Leudesdorf and Capt. P. A. Macmahon, R. A., as new members of the Council in the place of Dr. Hirst, F.R.S., and Mr. R. F. Scott, who retire. THE following are the conclusions of the Scientific Commis- sion appointed by the Spanish Government to examine Dr. Ferran’s method of treating cholera patients. They are abbre- viated by the special correspondent of the Zémes in the cholera districts of Spain, writing from Valencia on October 12: (1) Dr. Ferran’s inoculations cannot be considered inoffensive. (2) The attenuation of the comma bacillus has not been demon- strated. (3) The prophylactic measures conceived by Dr. Ferran are empiric, for they are in no wise governed by scientific rules or laws. (4) By means of the vaccination the epidemic is propagated. (5) It is not demonstrated by the results ascertained that the inoculations secure immunity from cholera. (6) The individual during the first days following his inoculation is rendered more stsceptible to contract any other form of disease. (7) This is due to the fact that the inoculation disturbs more or less profoundly the physiological equilibrium which it is sO necessary to maintain during a period of epidemics. (8) The results as seen by the Commission do not prove immunity from cholera. Neither is it possible to obtain conclusions from statistics relating to inoculations, because general laws cannot be deduced from isolated facts. Dr. QuaIN delivered the Harveian oration on Monday after- noon before the Royal College of Physicians. He set himself to answer two questions: first, why it is that among a vast num ber of persons, alike in ancient and in modern times, medi- cine has not enjoyed that high estimate of its value, as an art and as a science, to which it is justly entitled ; and, secondly, whether we have any grounds for anticipating a more satisfac- tory future for medicine, either in the security of the foundations on which it is laid, or in the consequent appreciation of it by the public. In the course of the oration Dr. Quain spoke of the progress of medical science before the foundation of the College of Physicians ; the advances made in our knowledge of etiology, especially in the practice of arresting the diffusion of disease by limiting the spread of contagion, and of improvements in our knowledge of pathology. Haying pointed out the pro- gress which science and art have made in every direction, Dr. Quain produced statistical evidence that the improvement has been productive of substantial results. In answer to the second question he quoted the words of ‘‘one of the most emi- nent of our statesmen,” to the effect that ina generation or two the medical profession would be far in advance of the other ycamned professions.” WE lately quoted in NaTuRE, with acomment on the exceed- ingly unusual character of such an announcement from America, a statement to the effect that the Astronomical Observatory of Beloit College was being closed on account of want of funds. We are very pleased to learn from Sczence that this statement is quite erroneous. On the contrary, Prof. Bacon, the Director of the Observatory, states that new arrangements have been made for carrying on additional observations in meteorolozy, and that especial attention will be paid to solar and spectroscopic work with greater facilities than before. This, we may observe, is happily by no means a surprising or novel announcement from across the Atlantic. THE new School of Metallurgy which has recently been added to the Birmingham and Midland Institute, was formally opened on September 24, when Prof. Chandler Roberts, F.R.S., de- livered a lecture on the Development of Technical Instruction in Metallurgy. Prof. Roberts pointed out how very recent has been the introduction into this country of systematic instruction in metallurgy. After referring to the important share which Dr, Percy has had in the development of metallurgical work in England, and to the steps taken by the Committee of Council on Education for its practical working, Prof. Roberts insisted on the importance of combining theory and practice, and referred at length to the methods adopted in the School of Mines. A full report of Prof. Roberts’ lecture will be found in the Chemzcal News of October 9. THE increasing efficiency with which electric lighting can be applied has recently been shown by Messrs. Woodhouse and Rawson, who, at a so/7ée at Guy’s Hospital, lit up the building with their incandescent lamps, worked off Faure Sellon accumu- lators, which were only delivered on the morning of the soirée. Equally efficient was the lighting supplied by the same firm at the Leicester Exhibition of the Sanitary Institute of Great Britain. It is certainly a great convenience that such temporary illuminations can be effected under almost any conditions. IN an article on the use of the French Academy, Science says :—‘‘ But, aside from all personal considerations, there re- mains a question whether an organisation like the French Academy may not perform an important service to the country by giving its collective authority to the encouragement of ex- cellence in the use of language. May not its criticism of its own members, its judgment of works presented to it, its be- stowal of academic honours, its election of associates, its public discourses, and its serious scrutiny of the vocabulary and phrase- ology of the language in their combined influence, be a very powerful agency in the promotion of literary excellence? May it not become a sort of schoolmaster to the nation, incapable of making good writers out of bad, but helpful in discipline ? Who can tell what has been the net gain to France from such a society? Is the clearnes:, the precision, the symmetry, the finish of a good French style worth having? What would the German language be to the world if there had been a German academy at work for 250 years smoothing its roughness and insisting upon clear, unencumbered, and pleasing forms of expression ? ” THE Calendar of the University College of North Wales, at Bangor, has just been published. Besides the usual information, . examination papers and lists, it contains a brief sketch of the establishment of this college, which now enters its second year, and which promises to have a success worthy of the effoits by which it was founded. The thirst of the Welsh people for knowledge and for the education of their children is well known, and the introduction to the ‘‘Calendar” states that neve before in so short a period have so many persons, either in England or in Wales, subscribed towards a m»vement for the promotion of higher education. In twelve months the list rose Oct. 22, 1885 | NATURE 609 to upwards of 30,000/., and by the end of 1884 it had exceeded 37,0004. WE have received Prof. Rockwood’s account of the progress in vulcanology and seismology in the years 1883, 1884, from the Smithsonian Report for 1884. Under Vulcanology he treats of the volcanic eruplions during the two years (dealing mainly with the Krakatoa eruption), and of the investigations of former volcanic activity. In seismology he divides his subject into earthquake lists of 1882 and 1883, special earthquakes of 1883 and 1884, lists of former earthquakes, and theories of earth- quakes. In seismometry Prof. Rockwood deals with instruments and their records. The pamphlet, which should be a vade mecum for all engaged in investigating seismic phenomena, con- cludes with a bibliographical list of all the books and papers relating to the subject, which appeared during the two years under review. This list is surprising for its length and variety. VUIBERT’s Fournal de Mathématiques Elémentaires, which has had an existence of nine years in a lithographed form, com- mences its tenth year in print. It may be called the French schoolboys’ mathematical journal, for it is addressed specially to them, and all the solutions are contributed by them. It appears fortnightly from October 1 to July 15, and the terms of sub- scription are very moderate. We have unfortunately in this country nothing to correspond to it, and it may therefore be use- ful to signalise its existence to mathematical masters. AT a meeting of the Council of the National Fish Culture Association held on Friday last under the presidency of the Marquess of Exeter, it was resolved to take immediate steps to conduct a series of investigations and observations on the ocean in regard to its temperature at various depths ; also as to the habits of fish, their spawning grounds, their enemies, and the cause of their erratic migrations. The Duke of Edinburgh, it was stated, had much interested himself in the subject, and had obtained the cooperation of the Admiralty and Trinity Board in aiding the Association to carry out the observations with the view of promoting marine fish culture and undertaking it on a thoroughly scientific basis. THE Severn Fishery Board have made arrangements with the National Fish Culture Association to incubate salmon ova. When hatched out the fry will be placed in the waters under the control of the Board, which is doing its utmost to cultivate all species of Salmonidee. The National Fish Culture Association will, it is understood, render similar service gratuitously to other Boards, in order to assist in developing the inland fisheries of the United Kingdom. THE Institute of Chemistry has obtained a Royal Charter of Incorporation from the Privy Council, and it is intended to celebrate the occasion by a dinner on November 6. THE following Penny Science Lectures will be given at the Royal Victoria Hall and Coffee Tavern, Waterloo Bridge Road, during the ensuing weeks.—On Tuesday, October 27, Mr. W. D. Halliburton will lecture on the ‘‘ Circulation of the Blood” ; on Tuesday, November 3, Sir John Lubbock will lecture on “* Ants” ; on Tuesday, November to, Mr. W. Lant Carpenter will lecture on ‘‘ Electrical Fire Alarms in America.” A sHocK of earthquake was felt at half-past seven o’clock on the morning of the 13th in Granada and the surrounding country. The movement is described as a long trepidation, with a rumbling noise. At Palermo a shock occurred on the morning of the 15th. A house, three storeys high, fell in, and a number of persons were buried in the aééris. Iy connection with the General Italian Exhibition held in Turin last year, the Italian Meteorological Society has just issued an interesting drachwre on the pres2nt state of astronomical, physical, and meteorological studies in the peninsula. In these departments the show was thoroughly national, special promi- nence having been given to those branches which are at present most widely cultivated in Italy. Thus in terrestrial physics full scope was given to seismology, vulcanology, and geodynamics, all which studies, owing to the special local conditions, have here been associated;with some of the most illustrious names in science. Meteorology was well represented by specimens of the best apparatus from the chief meteorological stations in the country, and in astronomy the progress of all the local observa- tories was fully illustrated. Amongst the objects on view were astronomical, physical, and meteorological apparatus ; charts, maps, designs, photographs ; printed and manuscript works on these subjects. Although still far behind some other countries in the production of scientific instruments, the display showed that in recent times Italy has made considerable progress in this branch of mechanics. To illustrate the history of these sciences the exhibition included some curious old instruments associated with the names of illustrious pioneers, who laboriously prepared the way now followed by their more fortunate successors living in better times and enjoying the advantage of more perfect appliances. The pamphlet contains a complete list of the ninety-one meteorological and geodynamic stations already established throughout the peninsula, as well as the names of exhibitors, to whom diplomas, gold and silver medals, and other distinctions were awarded. Mr. MELLARD READE’s presidential address to the Liverpool Geological Society was on ‘‘ The North Atlantic as a Geological Basin.” After discussing the form and nature of the ocean-bed so far as is disclosed by the latest soundings and dredgings, he pointed out that all along the coast of Spain and North Africa the bottom was exceedingly irregular, as proved by the sound- ings for the telegraph cables, consisting apparently of mountains and valleys. On the opposite coast of South America, and especially about the mouths of the Amazons, the soundings were comparatively shallow and of nearly uniform depth. Taken together with the known great depth of alluvial deposits at the mouths of all the great rivers where borings had been made, and the undoubted great age of the Amazons Basin, Mr. Reade arrives at the opinion that this plateau is a submarine extension of the delta proper, consisting of geologically modern sediment probably thousands of feet thick. The same reasoning, he points out, will apply to other great rivers and coasts where similar conditions exist. FRoM aseries of experiments by Herr Graber, relating to the effects of odorous matters on invertebrate animals, it appears probable that in the case of many insects neither the antennz nor the palpi can be absolutely pronounced the most sensitive organ of smell, inasmuch as the one organ is most sensitive for some odorous matters, and the other for others. THE additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens during the past week include a Purple-faced Monkey (Szmnopithecus leuco- prymnus 3) from Ceylon, presented by Major Norris ; a Rhesus Monkey (Aacacus rhesus ) from India, presented by Mr. J. H. Fielding ; a Common Marmoset (Hafale jacchus), a Black-eared Marmoset (apale penicillata) from Brazil, presented by Miss Knowles ; a Common Marmoset (Hapale jacchus) from Brazil, presented by Lady Cowley ; a Common Hare (Lefus europeus), British, presented by Mr. F. J. Allpress ; a Mexican Souslik (Spermophilus mexicanus 6) from Mexico, presented by Dr. Stuart ; a Herring Gull (Larus argentatus), British, presented by Mr. J. G. Taylor; a Macaque Monkey (Macacus cyno- molgus 8) from India, a Green Monkey (Cercopzthecus calli- trichus 2) from West Africa, deposited; an Ariel Toucan (Ramphastos ariel) from Brazil, purchased ; a Hoolock Gibbon (Aylobates hoolock ), received in exchange. 610 OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN THE VARIABLE-STAR V CyGni.—In Dr. Hartwig’s ephemeris of the variable stars for the present year a maximum of V Cygni is doubtfully assigned to November 15. The change in the brightness of this strikingly red star was notified by the late Mr. Birmingham iv May, 1881. The several determinations of the time of maximum in the following year were very discordant ; thus, Dr. Lindemann (who made an interesting communication on this star to the St. Petersburg Academy in January 1884) fixed it on August 31 ‘‘ auf wenige Tage sicher” ; Schmidt gave July 17, while Prof. Safarik considered it was reached on June 17. This divergence induced Dr. Lindemann to commence regular observations of the star in August 1882, details of which will be found in his paper (Bulletin de 1’ Academie Imperial des Sciences de St. FPétersburg, t. xxix.). The variation appeared to be from 6°8 m. to below 10 m., and the period indicated by the observations of 1882 and 1883 was about a year, though a longer one is now assigned. Several of Dr. Lindemann’s notes are worthy of attention. On July 19, 1881, the star had a nebulous cometary aspect, with sensible diameter. On August 13 in the following year it was more stellar, and had no longer the nebulous appearance it presented in 1881, though a month later this was again sus- pected. On May 13, 1883, we read: ‘‘ V funkelt sehr stark, leuchtet momentan auf und verschwindet dazwischen beinahe,” though a comparison star DM + 47°, 3162 showed a steady light. On July 27 it shone as steadily as the neighbouring stars, without any nebulous appearance. On October 8—‘‘sehr yerschwommen”’; a week afterwards, this aspect was not remarked, though the images of surrounding stars were very indifferent. At the end of the same month V was again stellar. Variations in the intensity of the colour were also remarked. The place of this star for 1885'0, according to meridian observation at Pulkowa is in R.A. 20h. 37m. 35°7s. Decl. + 47° 43) 53”. OCCULTATION OF ALDEBARAN ON NOVEMBER 22.—The Greenwich mean times of disappearance and reappearance of this star and the corresponding angles from north point, in the occultation on the evening of November 22, may be pretty closely determined for any place in this country from the follow- ing formula :— Time of disap. = L + [9°3110] M aa reap. L + [9°4779] M Angle at disap. = 1041 + [0-358] L — [9°307] M oa reap. = 281°6 — [0'412] L + [9°246] M In which the latitude of the place is put = 50° + L, and M is the longitude in minutes of time counted positive towards the east. The quantities within brackets are logarithms. The above equations are founded upon the following results of direct calculation :— Angles from Disappearance Reappearance N. Point : hom. s. hu a. . ° ° Greenwich ... 9 48 9 10 57 15 108 278 Edinburgh OnSaen5 10 56 39 120 264 Dublin ... 9 46 Io 10 51 o 117 268 DovuBLe-StTars.— Two important series of measures of double-stars have lately appeared in the Astronomische Nach- richten : the first in Nos. 2677-78, by Dr. R. Engelmann, of Leip- sic, in continuation of a series previously published ; the second by M. Perrotin, made at the Observatory of Nice, in Nos. 2684-85. According to the Leipsic observations of = 2173, for which Prof. Duner found a period of 45 years only, calculation is not yet so much in error, as for a first approximation, and so difficult a star, might well have been anticipated. Dr. Engelmann’s mean result is, for 188388, position, 24°°8 ; distance, 0°23 ; the orbit gives 34° and o”"2, The Leipsic series contains measures of many of Mr. Otto Struve’s and Mr. Burnham’s stars. ASTROPHYSICAL NOTES STARS WITH SPECTRA OF THE THIRD TyPE.—Prof, Dunér has published an important catalogue of stars having banded NATURE [ Oct. 22, 1885 spectra. Following Prof. Vogel’s classification he prefers to regard the spectra with bands fading away towards the violet as a subdivision of the same type as those in which the bands fade away towards the red, rather than, with Secchi, to make them into a separate class. Dunér’s type III. a, therefore, corresponds to Secchi’s third type and his III. 4 to Secchi’s fourth type. Prof. Dunér’s purpose in forming this catalogue is to supply the means for future observers to detect changes in these spectra should any such occur, for, as he points out, these stars are probably in a very advanced state of development, and we may therefore, perhaps, hope to discover some day changes in their spectra which, carefully studied, may lead to important results as to the nature of suns. They are the more interesting, also, because variable stars of long period usually belong to this class. With this view Prof. Dunér has carefully examined all the known objects of this type which are visible in his latitude, and for which the optical means at his command were sufficient, and he has catalogued 297 stars of type III. a, that is, with bands shading off towards the red, and 55 of type III. 4, with bands shading off in the opposite direction. An important section follows giving a list of stars which different astronomers have regarded as belonging to the third class, but which Dunér cannot so classify. Only in a very few instances, however, is there any good reason to suspect a change in the spectrum. In the great majority Secchi, whose observation ssupply most of these cases of discrepancy, had himself at one time or another registered the star as being of the second type, z.e. without bands, or else had especially remarked on the extreme feebleness of the bands which he thoughthe saw. There are, however, three stars observed by D’Arrest for which the evidence of change seems stronger, viz. 24034 LL, D.M. + 60° 1461 and D.M. + 36°2772. Prof. Duner has also failed to find Schjellerap No. 249, which is, perhaps, along peried variable, and he draws special attention to R Andromede, a star the spectrum of which, though of type III. a, presents some very marked peculiarities. Great care has been taken in the determination of the positions of the bands in the different spectra. It is clear, as many spectroscopists have already observed, that the bands of type III. 2, occupy the same positions in all the spectra of the type, and the same is true for the bands of type III. 6. With regard to the former class, the sharp dark edges on the more refrangible sides of the bands gene- rally coincide with strong metallic lines ; thus one of the most prominent bands is terminated by the é-lines of magnesium. The nature of the connection between the bands and these metallic lines is not ut all clear at present, the symmetrical arrangement of the bands seeming to suggest that they are due to some one sub- stance rather than to several. The three principal bands of the spectra of the other type Prof. Duneér considers to be unmistakably those of a carbon compound, and to correspond to the bright bands so familiar in the spectra of comets. The determinations of the wave-lengths of the bands in spectra of this type are necessarily not quite so accurate as those of the bands in spectra of type III. 2, but if Prof. Duneér’s measures are accepted, this most important correspondence may be considered fully esta- blished, But, apart from the value of these measures, Prof. Dunér’s catalogue, with the full and clear descriptions he has appended to every star, will be of the utmost service to future observers of these interesting and beautiful objects. THE COMET OF 1866 AND THE METEORS OF NOVEMBER 14. —Prof. D. Kirkwood has recently pointed out in a paper read before the American Philosophical Society, that there is distinct evidence that there are three meteoric swarms travelling in the orbit of Tempel’s comet. Of these the principal group is the one which produced the great showers of 1833 and 1866, the period of which Prof. Adams showed to be about 33°25 years. In 1875 Prof. Kirkwood identified a second group from the dates of meteoric showers given by Humboldt and Quetelet, the period of which would be about 33°31 years. The next shower from this group will be due about November 13-15, 1887; but the display may perhaps commence in November 1886, or even in the present year. The third cluster has been less observed ; its period is about 33°19 years, and its next return will be from 1912 to 1915. Prof. Kirkwood suggests that the very great diminution in brightness in Tempel’s comet since 1366, the comet of that year being now generally regarded as one of its apparitions, may possibly be due to the separation of the first and largest swarm from the comet having taken place in that year, the meteoric shower of that year being nearly contemporaneous with the apparition of the comet. \ Oct. 22, 1885 | NATURE 611 ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA FOR THE WEEK, 1885, OCTOBER 25-31 (For the reckoning of time the civil day, commencing at Greenwich mean midnight, counting the hours on to 24, is here employed. ) At Greenwich on October 25 Sun rises, 6h. 44m. ; souths, 1th. 44m. 7'5s.; sets, 16h. 45m. ; decl. on meridian, 12° 16’ S.: Sidereal Time at Sunset, Igh. 2m. Moon (two days after Full) rises, r7h. 32m.*; souths, oh. 46m. ; sets, 8h. 11m. ; decl. on meridian, 12° 52’ N. Planet Rises Souths Sets Decl. on meridian h. m. h. m. h. m. Sd WEErCULY.. 07, TO, . 8 ESS eo escort VEST st] SO OU GIIONN He isi 9 is | FOO! CI) St ow Lal _ ao om (e) + + I Laelia i || + + oth ted i Ss 3 a Same ames Bet BS & , Sie Bis) Ss re = ES < Ei kat iat NS “A Da ise ied = © 9 D +3R— YO D OG Minin 9 is] + mot t oMé™ _ fo} ortntm See Ee { i Coe! Re Si Te = : = | 5 Ee a IS epee oi ba es = eS bdo beh med aeeas Er ay : i——~ s cI ovo seretiat 2 tale, : os : ° B a a ah oa p = az Slee ah ies yg £ ag g @ gos er) ee = (3) fon) 4 & e838 Bois) eee 5 $9 2 Rene 2 3) oe eS fo) (ve) ass yer 5 — 5 ae ~— Q ioe) oO O-m rg +e) _— = goo ek 8 oe © Oe & ~ = 2 Eye wg SN Airec < fo} _~ oc 3 Na he! ra uM = Q i) — = ~~ o7 fon 5 om_ eo rs Bu® 20 fey @ (tsi nS px LE 0-54 Me a= ‘9 SON sce §-- oO € 6-30 See eel og | ARO ce a one) 2S & Bann am 8 8 Sen Sis a. = Nn Sl 44 74 Although we cannot ever expect direct observations of tempe- rature at the common surface producing the sunset glows, yet, as Prof. Kiessling shows, if we can prove that the warm under- current always accompanies sunset glows, the proof is practically complete. Such indications may be expected during the colder seasons in the form of abnormal vertical distribution of tempera~ 638 NATURE [Oct. 29, 1885 ture, an zzcrease instead of decrease at higher stations, He brings forward a long array of figures supporting this conclusion, especially for sunrise effects in 1883, as seen from Santis (2467 metres), in North-East Switzerland, in the bend of the Rhine. Stations to the east—Munich (528 metres) and Hohen Peissen- berg (994 metres) are taken for observations on temperature and relative humidity. The last place is about 35 miles south-west of Munich ; both may be considered as beneath the sky region producing glows at Santis. As difference of temperature is the most decisive comparison, his tables are here reduced to a series showing the difference of Hohen Peissenberg returns from Munich, in degrees Centigrade. In some cases one or two other returns are also added, reduced in like manner. Wormad/y, allowing for difference of height, Hohen Peissenberg should register 2°°5 below Munich. The final set of observations refer to some of the earlier after- glows. The greater anomaly with greater elevation (increases of 5°°2, 10°°6, 12°°2, and 17°°1 respectively in the figures given) is very suggestive. The reason of the non-agreement in May has already been stated. Except the last, these observations refer to ordinary sunrise effects, but the only difference between them and the recent glows is considered to be that the latter occur by reflection at a higher level and in a more finely attenuated haze, thus giving the richer effects. The presence of such a haze with the glows was a matter of very common observation. The question, of course, requires further consideration, espe- cially with respect to observations of the recent glows. Besides this connection with a warm stratum of air, Prof. Kiessling finds another, almost as general, with barometric maxima, as was noticed with the similar phenomena in 1881. Referring, in his concluding paragraph, to the connection of the glows with the Krakatoa eruption, Prof. Kiessling writes that the thousand or so records of their geographical distribution, now in his hands, ‘‘ show a perfectly continuous spread of the anomalous glows, and of the diffraction phenomena of Bishop’s Ring dating from August 26, 1883, and spreading from the Straits of Sunda as a centre over the tropical and temperate zones.” J. EDMUND CLARK A CENTURY OF SCIENCE IN BENGAL I? was a happy idea of the Council of the Asiatic Society of Bengal to commemorate the completion of a century of the Society’s existence by publishing a review of the progress made and the services rendered to knowledge by the institution. The idea of a learned society composed of Europeans in India studying the country and communicating to each other at periodical meetings the results of their researches, arose first in the fertile brain of Sir William Jones, who was judge in the Supreme Court at Fort William, and who de- livered, on January 15,1784, to about thirty members of the European community of Calcutta, a ‘‘ Discourse on the Institu- tion of a Society for Inquiring into the History, Civil and Natural, the Antiquities, Arts, Sciences, and Literature of Asia.”’ As a result of this discourse, the ‘* Asiatick Society,” the parent of all such societies, was founded. Its motto, which is taken from Sir William Jones’s discourse here referred to, is this : ‘‘ The bounds of its investigations will be the geographical limits of Asia, and within these limits its inquiries will be extended to whatever is performed by man or produced by nature.” After many vicissitudes it has just completed its hundredth year, and the record of its work forms the large volume just mentioned. This is divided into three parts: first, a history of the Society, by Dr. Mitra; its work in archzology, history, and literature, by Dr. Heernle ; and the work in natural science, by Baboo P. N. Bose. The change which has come over the face of India in the course ofa century could hardly be better marked than by the fact that two out of the three parts into which the velume is divided—one of these being on natural science—are written by native gentlemen. In the history of the Society we notice that in 1808 a resolution was proposed by Dr. Hare and seconded by Dr. Leyden (frequently referred to in Lockhart's ‘‘ Life of Scott”), ‘* that a Committee be appointed for the purpose of physical investigations, the collection of facts, specimens, and correspondence with individuals whose situations in this country may be favourable for such discussions and in- vestigations.” It was then agreed to provide two committees— * “Centenary Review of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1784 to 1883.” ~ Published by the Society, Calcutta. Thacker, Spink, and Co., 1885. one for science, the other for literature ; twenty years later, in 1828, a committee was appointed ‘‘to promote geological re- searches, working under the rules then in force for the Physical Committee,” and at the same time the published 7yansactions of the Society were divided into two parts, one devoted to physical, the other to literary subjects. Nearly twenty years later the whole of the work of the Society was delegated to six com- mittees, one having charge of zoology and natural history, another of geology and mineralogy, and a third of meteorology and physics. The establishment of a museum did not occur to the founder, but curiosities were constantly coming in from members, and in 1796 it was proposed to give these a suitable house. In 1814 Dr. Wallich proposed the formation of a museum, and offered duplicates from his own collections, as well as his services in arranging it, and a museum was accord- ingly started. The story of the growth of the various sections of the Natural History Museum is told by Dr. Mitra. On the whole it is one of great progress, although financial difficulties beset the museum at first. But as soon as the Society became able to pay for scientific curators all went well. In 1865 the Society’s zoological, geological, and archzeo- logical collections were made over to the Government of India for the public museum in Calcutta. A writer in the Calcutta Review, speaking of the Society’s exertions for the establishment of the national museum, said: ‘‘ Had it done nothing else to promote science during the last ten years, it would have entitled itself to the gratitude of posterity for the vigour with which it has prosecuted to success a project fraught with so much public usefulness.” The earlier volumes of the Society’s 7ransactions, published unter the title ‘‘ Asiatick Researches,” created a sen- sation in the literary and scientific world in Europe. A French translation was speedily published, with notes on the scientific portions by no lesser hands than Cuvier, Lamarck, Delambre, and Olivier. Of the work of the Society in p-eserving Sanskrit MSS., in translating and publishing various works from the native languages, and other valuable services to literature, Dr. Mitra speaks at length. Amongst the publications, apart from the papers, we notice many of scientific interest, such as catalogues of various sections of the museum, of the mammals and birds of Burmah, of Indian lepidoptera, besides translations of numerous works of Hindoo science. In summing up at the conclusion of his historical sketch the benefits conferred on India and the world by the Society during its hundred years of exist- ence, Dr. Mitra sums up its scientific work (apart from papers, and published volumes above referred to) thus: ** It got up an archeological and ethnological museum of considerable extent, a geological museum rich in meteorites and Indian fossils, and a zoological museum all but complete as regards the avifauna of India.” The long review of the work of the Society in natural science is, as already mentioned, written by Baboo Bose. His method is to take the various branches of science in succession, such as mathematical and physical science, genlogy, zoology, botany, geo- graphy, ethnology, and chemistry, and to describe under sub-heads the papers on these subjects contributed to the 7yamsactions of the Society, together with a brief biographical sketch of the more celebrated or prolific authors. At the end we get a classified index of all the scientific papers, an alphabetical list according to the author’s names being given at the conclusion of the first part. Amongst the latter we notice many whose names are familiar as contributors to NATURE. In the early years of the Society, and down to 1828, the scientific contributions to the Society’s Proceedings were almost wholly connected with some branch of pure or mixed mathematics, for most of the men who went out to India, especially in the scientific branches of the military service, had been well grounded in this subject. The section on the investigations into the mathematical science of the Hindoos is of great interest. Sir William Jones put before the Society from the outset the object of studying these sciences, and he set the example himself, but the initial difficulty was to find any native capable of assisting him. Baboo Bose records that, although ample stipends were offered by Sir William Jones to any Hindoo astronomer who could name in Sanskrit all the con- stellations which he would point out, and to any Hindoo physician who could bring him all the plants mentioned in Sanskrit books, he was assured by the Brahmans whom he had commissioned to search for such instructors, that no Pundit in Bengal even pre- tended to possess the knowledge he required. Geology and mineralogy flourished in the Society from the commencement, while zoology was at first unduly depressed and discouraged owing Oct. 29, 1885] NATURE 639 to the aversion of Sir William Jones to zoological studies, and it was only about 1828 that the papers of Dr. Falconer, Col. Tickell, and others began to occupy an important position on behalf of zoology in the Society’s transactions. With Indian botany, geography, and ethnology are connected many names of world-wide fame. With regard to chemistry, it may be said practically there is no chemical research in the Society's publica- tions. Chemistry, as Baboo Bose explains, can onty be studied in the laboratory, and until recently India had but few labora- tories, and few competent men with leisure to devote to the subject. A curious statement, by the way, creeps into the ac- count of Mr. Piddington, who studied Indian storms, and gave an account of every cyclone in the East between 1839 and 1851. Baboo Bose says his experience was most varied, and then quotes the following from some unnamed source :—‘‘ He was one of the few who escaped from the massacre of Amboyna.” Now, as the massacre of Englishmen by the Dutch Governor of Amboyna took place in 1622, Mr. Piddington, if he was observing storms in India in 1850, could hardly have been in the Eastern Archi- pelago two centuries and a quarter previously. Many other portions of this volume, such as the chapters on coins, on ancient Indian alphabets, on the study of the languages and literature of India, and on ‘the study of Indian antiquities, are of deep in- terest, but we have confined ourselves to the chapters on natural science. The dominant feeling produced by an examination of this volume is one of satisfaction that so much has been done by this single society towards investigating the past and the present of (or, in the words of Sir William Jones, ‘‘man and nature in”) our great dependency. For the most part this has been done by private individuals, but on more than one critical occasion the directors of the East India Company, in accordance with their generous traditions, came to the aid of the Society with large contributions ; otherwise there appeared no way out of the difficulty except the dissolution of the Society and the abandonment of the works in which they were engaged. If this were the place it would be interesting to compare this method of practically leaving everything to private initiative, with that adopted by the French in Indo-China, of the Government undertaking a series of literary, artistic, and scientific investiga- tions through competent specialists into a new possession. Not- withstanding the great and marked success of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, the French plan has advantages which cannot be overlooked. ONIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE CAMBRIDGE.—Among the more noticeable Natural Science Courses this term are Prof. Dewar’s on Dissociation and Thermal Chemistry ; Prof. Newton’s, on Evolution in the Animal King- dom; Dr. Gadow’s on Human Embryology; Dr. Vines’s, on the Physiology of Plants; and Prof. Macalister’s, on the Peripheral Nervous System. Prof. Hughes is lecturing on Methods of Geological Survey- ing ; Dr. R. D. Roberts, on Principles of Geology ; Mr. Marr, on Elementary Stratigraphy; Mr, T. Roberts, on Palceonto- logy; and Mr. Hawker, on Elementary Petrology; all at the Woodwardian Museum. Prof. Roy is lecturing on General Pathology, and also con- ducting a Practical Course in Morbid Anatomy and Histology. Prof. Stokes is lecturing on Hydrodynamics ; Prof. Cayley, on Higher Algebra; Prof. Darwin, on Orbits and Perturba- tions ; Mr. Glazebrook, on Waves and Sound ; Mr. Hobson, on Planetary Theory; Mr. Macaulay, on Theory of Structures ; and Mr. Forsyth on Abel’s Theorem. Numerous other courses on higher mathematics, open to the University, are being given by college lecturers. We are glad to notice that Mr. A. Sheridan Lea, M.A., Lec- turer on Physiology, and formerly Scholar, of Trinity College, has been elected to a Fellowship at Gonville and Caius College. Mr. Lea’s work in connection with Prof. Michael Foster's *Text-Book of Physiology” is well known. Mr. Lea was placed in the First Class in the Natural Science Tripos in 1875, and has since been continuously engaged in the University teaching of Physiology. Dr. S, Richemann has been appointed assistant to Prof. ~ Dewar, Jacksonian Professor. Messrs. E. W. Hobson and A. R. Forsyth are appointed Moderators, and Mr, C. H. Prior Examiner, for the next Mathematical Tripos. King’s College offers a Vintner Exhibition of 70/. per annum for Natural Science. The examination begins on December Io. St. John’s College offers several scholarships, exhibitions, and sizarships for competition on December to. Candidates may offer any of the subjects of the Natural Sciences Tripos except Mineralogy, and may be elected on the ground of special pro- ficiency in one only. Particulars will be furnished by the tutors. A joint examination for Natural Science Scholarships at Emmanuel, Christ’s, and Sidney Sussex Colleges will be held on January 5, 1886, and following days. ‘The subjects are Chemistry, Physics, Elementary Biology, Geology, and Mine- ralogy. Further particulars will be given by the tutors of either college. Out of the 875 freshmen whose names have appeared in the preliminary lists, about 1o4 have announced their intention of studying medicine in the University. A few more may be added when the results of the October Previous Examination are known. The Anatomy School is attended by over 130 students, for whom an exceptionally abundant supply of dissecting mate- rialis in hand. The Demonstration Lectures have to be re- peated from lack of room ; indeed, the necessity for increased accommodation in this department is becoming extremely urgent. Lonpon.—We have received a circular stating that ‘‘In view of the adjourned extraordinary meeting of Convoca- tion (of London University) to be held on Tuesday, Novem- ber 3, a number of graduates met on Wednesday last to consider the proposed scheme for the establishment of a Teaching University for London. As the result of their de- liberations it was thought desirable that attention should be called to some of the more striking objections to the proposed scheme ; and that, having regard to the grave importance of the questions to be submitted to the members of Convocation affect- ing the very existence of the University as at present constituted, they should be especially requested to attend on Tuesday next, and to give their support to Mr. Bone’s amendment, to receive the report submitted by Lord Justice Fry, without adopting tt ‘ en bloc.’ Should this amendment be carried, the following reso- lutions, expressing what is believed to be the feeling of the majority of the graduates, will be moved :—(1) ‘ That Convo- cation, whilst affirming the general principles of the desirable- ness of bringing the teachers and the examiners of the University into closer relationship with one another and with the Senate, and of modifying the constitution of the Senate in accordance with the previous recommendations of Convocation, and without giving to the teachers an undue share of representation on the governing body of the University, refers back the scheme to the Special Committee for further consideration.’ (2) ‘ That the number of members on the Special Committee be increased by one-half.’ ” SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES SYDNEY Linnean Society of New South Wales, July 29.—The following papers were read:—A monograph of the Australian sponges, part 5, the Aulenine, by R. von Lendenfeld, Ph.D. Several sponges from various localities in the Australian region have been included by the author in this new sub-family, the members of which are characterised by a very peculiar structure not met with in any other sponges. The new sub-family Aulening is placed in the family Spongidz, and consists of the two new genera Aulena and Halme, with three species in all. The anatomy and histology of these is accurately described and illustrated by numerous plates. The Auleninze form honey- combed or complicated reticulate structures ; the cavities form a kind of vestibule and are simple in Halme, where an outer lamella surrounds the whole sponge, or subdivided into numerous small compartments, as in Aulena, where no outer lamella exists. Into the system of Vestibule-Lacunz both the inhalent and the exhalent canals of the sponge open. The skeleton of Halme is composed of thick main fibres rich in sand, thin, simple and clean connecting fibres, and a hard cortex of sand cemented with spongiolin. The skeleton of Aulena is very peculiar. It consists of a regular network of fine horny threads in the joining points of which large sand grains are found. In the membranes of the Vestibule-Lacunz of this genus nervous elements, 640 NAT ORE [ Oct. 29, 1885 sensitive and ganglia cells have been discovered by the author. These and many other histological details are de- scribed in the paper, which dwells also on the morpho- logical significance of these interesting new sponges.—On a sponge destructive to oyster-culture in the Clarence River, by R. von Lendenfeld, Ph.D. In this paper the author describes a new sponge, Chalinula coxit, which appeared some years ago on certain oyster beds in the Clarence River, and destroyed some of them completely. —Note on the Glacial period in Australia, by R. von Lendenfeld, Ph.D. The author draws attention to some further evidence of ice action in the Mount Lofty group near Adelaide, where some glacier-polished Siluro-Devonian rocks, with very well preserved strize, have been discovered and photographed.—Jottings from the biological laboratory of Syd- ney University, by William A. Haswell, M.A., B.Sc., F.L.S., &c., Lecturer on Zoology and Comparative Anatomy. This paper contains (I) some notes on an Australian species of Bonel- lia, which seems scarcely to differ from the European species, Bonellia viridis ; and (2) some observations on aquatic respira- tion in fresh-water turtles.—On the supposed Glacial epoch in Australia, by Capt. F. W. Hutton, F.G.S., &c. The author discusses the phenomena which have been adduced as evidence for the former existence of a Glacial epoch in Australia, and shows that they are susceptible of a different interpretation. He distinguishes between a Glacier epoch, such as has occurred in New Zealand, in which, owing to various local, but only local, causes, ice-fields prevailed over much. larger districts than at present, and a Glacial epoch, such as has been demonstrated in the Northern Hemisphere, which is the result not of variations caused and limited by local circumstances, but of alterations universal or cosmical in character. The Glacier epoch in New Zealand is regarded as anterior to the Glacial epoch of the North. Paris Academy of Sciences, October 19.—M. Bouley, President, in the chair.—Remarks on the 209th volume of the ‘‘ Connais- sance des Temps” for the year 1881, presented to the Academy on behalf of the Bureau des Longitudes, by M. Faye.—Note on the establishment of a laboratory in the Institute for the measure- ment of the photographic plates obtained during the transit of Venus in 1882, by M. Bouquet de la Grye. Arrangements have been made, by means of which it is hoped that the calculations and measurements relating to 700 plates will be completed in fifteen months.—Note on the Dinoceratide discovered by Mr. Marsh in the Eocene formations of Wyoming, United States, by M. Albert Gaudry. These huge pachyderms, which seem most to resemble the European Coryphodon described by M. Hébert, are specially remarkable for the characteristic horny protuber- ances on the frontal region, whence their name (de:vos, terrible, and képas, horn). The skull is also distinguished by its small size, in this respect resembling that of a reptile, as well as of several other mammals of the Lower Tertiary epoch.—On the birational geometrical transformations of the 7 order, by M. de Jonquicres.—Note on the fifth part of the topographical map of Algeria, presented to the Academy on behalf of the Minister of War, by Col. Perrier. This part comprises the six divisions of Jebel-Filfila, Bone, Wed-Guergur with Cape Rosa, Menerville, Medeah and Mostaganem to the scale of 1: 50,000.—Note on the sub-lacustrine ravines of glacial streams, by M. F. A. Forel. During his recent surveys of Lakes Constance and Geneva, M. Hornlimann has discovered that both the Rhine and the Rhone continue their course under the lacustrine waters through deep ravines excavated beneath the respective submerged deltas. That of the Rhine has been traced for a distance of four kilo- metres and to a depth of 125 metres below the lake, while that of the Rhone may be followed for over six kilometres from the mouth of the river with a depth varying from 200 to 230 metres. —On the origin and classification of meteorites, by M. Stanislas Meunier. The author discusses the objections urged against his views on the nature and classification of meteoric bodies, by M. Brezina in the ‘‘Meteoritensammlung des Mineralogischen Hofkabinets in Wien,” Vienna, 1885.—On the latitude of the observatory of Bordeaux, by M. G. Rayet. The mean latitude of this establishment, whose longitude was deter- mined in 1881 at 11m. 26444s. W., is found to be 44° 50° 77"°23.—On the integrals of total differentials of the second species, by M. E. Picard.—Questions relating to a bundle of plane cubic figures, by M. P. H. Schoute.—On the torsion of prisms, by M. Marcel Brillouin.—Description of a new apparatus for measuring electric currents (one illustration), by M. F. de Lalande. This apparatus, for which the name of “electric areometer” is proposed, dispenses with a permanent magnet, the source of so much error in other appliances, is highly sensitive and practically unaffected by changes of tempera- ture, while its readings are unmodified by the neighbourhood of metallic bodies or even of powerful magnets.—On the theory of the transmitting electromagnetic telephone, by M. E. Mercadier. —Note on the electrolysis of the salts, by .M. Ad. Renard.— Combination of the neutral carbonate of magnesia with the bi- carbonate of potassa, by M. R..Engel.—On the adulteration of olive oil intended for consumption by the addition of sesame cotton and other oils extracted from seeds, by M. A. Au- doynaud. The bichromate of potassa and nitro-sulphurie acid are proposed as reagents for determining the presence of these substances. —On certain peculiarities in the development of the teeth of the cachalot (spermaceti whale), by M. G. Pouchet.— On the process of development of Zpzcauta verticalis, by M. H. Beauregard.—On the part supposed to be played by the living tissues of wood in the ascension of the sap in large plants, by M. J. Vesque. The author contests the opinion of those physio- logists who hold that it is impossible to explain by the aid of purely physical forces the ascension of water in plants over 10 metres high.—On a waterspout observed at Shanghai on | August 21, by M. Martial.—Account of the same waterspout, by M. Mare Dechevrens.—Description of M. Buisson’s new rifle, by Gen. Favé. For this weapon it is claimed that it can be fired from five to ten times in a minute by troops charging the enemy without stopping an instant to re-load. As many as a hundred rounds may be fired off in this way. CONTENTS PAGE The Anti-Cholera Inoculations of Dr. Ferran. By Drs kdein has S ae 2 ae OD Life of Sir William Rowan Hamilton . 619 An Agricultural Note-Book is 623 The Prevention of Blindness 623 Our Book Shelf :— Among the Rocks round Glasgow. 624 Three Martyrs of Science of the Nineteenth ‘Century 624 Letters to the Editor :— Upper Wind Currents over the Equator. —Hon. Ralph Abercromby . . 624 The Hellgate Explosion and Rackarock.—Dr. H. Sprengel, F.R.S. 625 An Earthquake Invention. —Prof. C, Piazzi Smyth 625 On the Behaviour of Stretched India-rubber when Heated.—_H. G. Madan... . 625 The Resting Position of Oysters. Col. H. Stuart- Wortley . . 625 The Value of the Testimony to the Aurora-Sound.— Samuel Sexton : 3 OZ The Red Spot on Jupiter. —W. F. Denning 626 A Remarkable Sunset.—Paul A. Cobbold . 626 A Tertiary Rainbow.—T. C. Lewis . ee eOZO) The Sense of Colour.—Margaret Heaton .... 626 Stone Axes, Perak.—A. Hall. . . 626 Photographic Action on Ebonite. Edward i Robinson fas 4 @ & oO) ene - 626 The Slide Rule. By C. V. Boys oo 627 Homing Faculty of ye aa ae Dr. George Romans heh s sion enemas «fe qe aE ORO The Heights of Clouds... .. ee 630 The Recent Total peas ‘of the Sun, (Wlus- trated’) 1a: wae gone too falls. see Bo Heel Notes 5 gece, cece ccs ele age shee; MOSS Our Astronomical Column :— Periodical Comets in 1886. +: [sins te BO A Catalogue of 1000 Southern Stars 36 be ORS Astronomical Phenomena for the Week, 1885, November %=7 0) 050) a) eae ee sn 636 The Scottish Meteorological ‘Society a 636 Prof. Kiessling’s Investigations into the Origin of the Late Sunset Glows. By J. Edmund Clark . 637 A Century of Science in Bengal . . si oh ae meas University and Educational Intelligence Se eee Societies and Academies. ........-++.- 039 A WEEKLY ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL OF SCIENCE ‘* To the solid ground Of Nature trusts the mind which builds for aye.” —WoORDSWORTH No. 810, VOL. 32] THURSDAY, [PRICE SIXPENCE Registered as a Newspaper at the General Post Office] [All Rights are Reserved AMATEUR PHOTOGRAPHY. MARION’S Britannia Dry Plates are the Best and Cheapest. IMARION’S Photographic Outfits. The Largestand Best Selection for the Tourist, Artist, Bicylist, Military Man, and others. Special Outfits for Beginners. Price for Complete Set, from 45s. and upwards. MARION’S Academy Camera. MARION’S Miniature Camera. IWIARION’S Registered Washing Apparatus. MARIONW’S Rectilinear and Portrait Lenses, IMARION’S Ready Sensitised Paper. IWMARION’S Instantaneous Shutters, MARION’S Enlarging Apyaratus and Magic Lantern. IMARION’S Best French Mounts. MARION’S Self-Adjusting Rolling Press and Burnisher. MARION’S Practical Guide to Photography. Second Edi- tion, Revised and Enlarged, giving clear and precise Instructions for Learning and Practising Photography. Price 2s. 6d. post free. Free Lessons in Photography to Purchasers.—_Marionand Co. have erected a Gallery in Soho Square, specially for giving Lessons. Printing from Amateurs’ Negatives, Enlarging. IWARION’S Alpha Paper Prints by Gaslight in One Minute. The printing process of the future. Sample packet 5s. Photographs Mounted, Arranged, & BoundintoVolumes. Chemicals, Mounts, Albums, Scrap Books. PRICED LIST FREE ON APPLICATION. MARION & Co., 22 & 23, Soho Square, London. SHOW ROOM—GROUND FLOOR. MEMORY and SUCCESS.—What contri- butes to success? A good memory.—What causes failure in life? A poor memory.—What can all obtain from Prof. Loisette’s DIS- COVERIES? A good memory—THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ART OF NEVER FORGETTING—using none of the “Links,” ‘‘ Pegs,” Localities,” or ‘‘ Associations” of Mnemonics. Lost memories re- stored—the worst made good, and the best better. Any book learned in one reading. Prospectus POST FREE giving opinions of Mr. RICHARD A. PROCTOR, Dr. ANDREW WILSON, and others who have studied the System. A Day Class in Never Forgetting and for Cure of Mind-Wandering commences every Monday at 3 p.m. An Evening Class every Tuesday at 8 p.m. Lectures in Families of the Nobility; also taught thoroughly by POST. Prof. LOISETTE, 37, New Oxrorp STREET (opposite Mudie’s) W.C. INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. EXAMINATIONS in PRACTICAL CHEMISTRY for the ASSO- CIATESHIP of the Institute will be held at University College, London, on JUNE 2 and following days. Also on JULY 7 and following days. Candi- dates are required to produce evidence of having passed through a course of three years’ training in Chemistry, Physics, and Mathematics at one of the Colleges approved by the Council. According to the regulations every Can- didate must also pass an Examination in Practical Chemistry, conducted by a special Examiner appointed by the Council, before he can be admitted to the Associateship. Full particulars may be obtained on application to the Secretary, Mr. CHARLES E. GROVES, F.R.S., at the Offices of the Institute, 9, Adelphi Terrace, London, W.C, THE BEST BINOCULAR MADE IS BROWNING'S PANERGETIC. The superior performance of this celebrated Binocular. is acknowledged. This year its optical magnifying power has been increased, and the price has been reduced from £4 10s. to £3 10s. An Illustrated Descriptive List of Binoculars sent free. JOHN BROWNING, 63, STRAND, LONDON, W.C. NEGRETTI AND ZAMBRA, SOLE MAKERS OF JORDAN'S (PATENT) SUNSHINE RECORDER. PRICE £3 3s. NE GRE TE al AND ZAMBRA, ScrentTiric INSTRUMENT MAKERS TO THE QUEEN, HOLBORN VIADUCT. Branches :—45, Cornhill ; 122, Regent Street, London. Llinstrated Description Post Free. NEGRETTI & ZAMBRA’S \ Large Illustrated Catalogue \ 600 Pages, 1200 Engravings, Price 5s. 6d. il NATURE RIBBON METHOD OF CUTTING SECTIONS. The Cambridge Scientific Instrument Company have designed a new and simple Microtome for cutting continuous Ribbons of Sections on the plan first adopted by Mr. Caldwell. original pattern of dispensing with the endless band altogether, and con- sequently not cnly avoiding the trouble of lifiing the series of Sections from the razor, butalso of ail wing them to fall on to the glass slide in their proper position furmounting. Although the instrument costs only cne-sixth the price of the original pattern, it will be found to doall that is required, and to possess the additional advantage of dispensing with the more complex and less important adjustments. Price of the Microtome, £5 5s. The Microtome may be seen at the Inventions Exhibition in Stand No. 242, Group 28, in the South Central Gallery, as well as the Company's Cathetometer, Engineer's Level, Sine, and Tangent Galvanometer, Spectro- photometer, and other Instruments, descriptions of all of which will be sent on application. THE CAMBRIDGE SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENT CO., Cambridge. LARGE COLLECTION of EXOTIC and BRITISH WO )DS.—3000 accurately squared, with Localities; Weight, Half a Ton, which obtained W. W. Saunoerrs, Esq., Gold Medal at 1859 Exhibition, price £10. Beautiful Entomological Cabinet, 28 Drawers ; Skull of au Elephant with fine Tusks, £14 ; Specimens of Lodoicea Sechellarum ; Human Skulls, Skeletons, Entomological Appa- ratus, Shells, Insects, &.—W. CUTTER, Naturalists’ Agent, 35, Great Russell Street. VICTORIA UNIVERSITY. The Entrance Examination in Arts (Faculty of Medicine) and the Pre- liminary Examination (Faculties of Arts, Science, and Law) will begin on THURSDAY, June 11, at 2 p.m Candidates for the Entrance Examination in Arts, if not matriculated, must produce a letter of recommendation from their last instructor and pay a fee of £1. Candidates for the Preliminary Examination must matriculate before the Examination. Examination Fee. Faculties of Arts and Science.—The Intermediate and Final Examinations for Degrees will begin on June 11, as above. Faculty of Law.—The Intermediate and Final Examinations for Degrees will begin on Monday, July 20, at 10 a.m. Faculty of Medicine.—The Preliminary Examination in Science and the Intermediate M.B. Examination will begin on Monday, July zo, and the First Part of the Final M.B Examination will begin on Friday, July 17, at 10 a.m. Further information as to these Examinations can be obtained from the Registrar. The Matriculation Fee is £2, and includes the ALFRED TY. BENTLEY, M.A , Registrar. Manchester, May, 1885. MUSEUMS AND COLLECTORS. Mr. DAMON, of WEYMOUTH, will forward an abridged Catalogue of his Collections in Natural History Objects, including RECENT SHELLS (Foreign and British), FOSSIL REMAINS, MINE? ALS, ROCKS, MARINE ZOOLOGY, &c., &c., &c. INTERNATIONAL HEALTH EXHIBITION, DIVISION—EDUCATION. A PRIZE MEDAL AWARDED TO THOMAS D. RUSSELL, 78, NEWGATE STREET, LONDON, E.C., For Geological Collections for Science Teaching. Catalogues Post free. LANTERN READINGS.—DISSOLVING VIEWS. THE NEW QUADRUPLICON. New Season, 1884 and 1885.—Popular Subjects for this Season, The Channel Islands—The War in the Soudan—The River Thames— Devonshire Scenery—Hereford and the River Wye—The English Lakes— London Poor and How They Live—Egypt and the Nile Expedition—Nor- way—The Lifeboat—The Signal Box—The Maids of Lee—Poor Pa’s Trousers—Shadows on the Blinds, &c. The largest and newest Stock of Lanterns and Slides, Scientific and General, on Hire and Sale in this country at the Lowest Prices. E. MARSHALL, 78, Queen Victoria Street, London, B.C. Geological Transparencies for the Lantern, Descriptive Catalogue on Application. WALKER’S SPECIFIC GRAVITY BALANCE FOR ROCKS AND MINERALS. HOW & CO.’S POCKET MICROSCOPE LAMP, 8s. 6d. MICRO-PETROLOGY.—Sections of Pitchstones, Obsidians, Granites, Syenites, Diorites, Gabbros, Dolerites, Basalts, Tachylites, ‘l'rachytes, Andesites, Porphyrites, Rhyolites, Lavas, Ashes, Gneiss, Schists, Lime- stones, &c., price 15. 6¢. each, JAMES HOW & CO., 73, FAkRINGDON Street, LONDON. ‘The new instrument has the advantage over the. [May 7, 1885 LIVING SPECIMENS FOR THE MICROSCOPE. GOLD MEDAL awarded at the FISHERIES EXHIBITION to THOMAS BOLTON, 57, NEWHALL STREET, BIRMINGHAM. who has last week sent to his subscribers Synchata mordax, with drawing and_ description. He has also sent out Limnocodium Sowerbii, Phalan- sterium digitatum, Melicerta ringens, Floscularia, Triarthera longiseta, Rhinops vitrea, Volyox globator, Uroglena volvox, Nitella; also Ameba, Hydra, Vorticella, Crayfish, and other Specimens for(Huxley and Martin’s) Biological Laboratory work. ‘] Weekly Announcements will be made in this place of Organisms T, B. is supplying. Specimen Tube, One Shilling, post free. Twenty-six Tubesin course of Six Months for Subscription of £1 15., or Twelve Tubes for 108. 6d. Portfolio of Drawings, Ten Parts, 1s. each. MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY. Mr. HENSON’S Latest Arrivals are :— Very’ Fine DOUBLY-TERMINATED CRYSTALS of ZIRCON, 34 inches long, 1} square; BERYLS, DIOPTASE, UWAROWITE, WALUEWITE, NATIVE SILVER, HERDERITE, Very Brititiant RUIILES, CHALCOSIDERITE, and NATIVE COPPER, Corn- wall; POLISHED JADE and GREEN AVENTURINE. GROUPS and SINGLE CRYSTALS of STIBNITE, Japan; ‘““SHERRY” COLOURED TOPAZES, Siberia. A Large Series 04 ROCKS, also MICROSCOPIC SECTIONS of the same. Lists on Application ammers, Chisels, and Hammer Straps. PRIVATE LESSONS AND EVENING CLASSES. BLOWPIPE CASES AND APPARATUS. Catalogues’ free. SAMUEL HENSON, 277, STRAND, LONDON, Opposite Norfolk Street. SIX PRIZE MEDALS AWARDED FOR GEOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS. Geological Collections especially adapted for Teaching as supplied to Science and Art Department, and used by all Lecturers and Teachers in Great Britain, &c. F * New and Rare Minerals constantly arriving from all parts for selection of Single Specimens. ROCK SECTIONS AND ROCK SPECIMENS: The Largest Variety in England. New Catalogues and Lists onapplication to— JAMES R. GREGORY, 88, CHARLOTTE STREET, FITZROY SQUARE, LONDON. Established 27 Years in London. PATERSON & COOPER, 76, LITTLE BRITAIN, LONDON, E.C. Electric Light and Power and Telephone Engineers. New Electric Light Catalogue, post free 15. PATERSON & COOPER beg to give notice that they have disposed of the Philosophical, Educational, and Experimental Part of their Business to Messrs. J. and T. MAYFIELD, 41, Queen Victoria Street, E.C. SCIENCE AND ART DEPARTMENT 50 PER CENT. GRANT FOR THE PURCHASE OF STANDARD COLLECTIONS AND APPARATUS FOR TEACHING GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY. NEW LISTS and FORMS on which the Application is to be made supplied by THOMAS J. DOWNING, Geologist, &c., 38, WHISKIN STREET, LONDON, E.C. (over Quarter of a Century) NORTH BRITISH AGRICULTURIST, the only Agricultural Journal in Scotland, circulates extensively among Landowners, Farmers, Resident Agents, and others interested in the management of land throughout the United Kingdom, he... The AGRICULTURIST is published every Wednesday afternoon in time for the Evening Mails, and contains Reports of all the principal British and Irish Markets of the week. ‘ coneagecial attention of Land Agentsis directed to the AGRICULTURIST as one ofthe best existing papers for Advertising Farms to be Let and Estates for Sale. ’ BAnwecives addressing themselves to Farmers will find the AGRICUL- TURIST a first-class medium for reaching that Class. Price 3¢. By post 34d. Annual Subscription, payable in advance, r4s. Offices—377, High Street, Edinburgh; and 145, Queen Victoria Street, London, E.C. Money Orders payable to CHARLES ANDERSON, Jun., Edinburgh. BOOKS (Secondhand), Miscellaneous, Re- mainders, &e.—C. HERBERT, English and Foreign Bookseller, 319, Uoswell Road, London, E.C. Catalogue free on receipt of two stamps. Libraries, Old Books, and Parchment purchased. A WEEKLY ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL OF SCIENCE ‘© To the solid ground Of Nature trusts the mind which builds for aye.’’-—\WORDSWORTH No. 811, VOL. 32] THURSDAY, MAY 14, 1885 [PRICE SIXPENCE™ Registered as a Newspaper at the General Post Office] [All Rights are Reserved AMATEUR PHOTOGRAPHY. MANUFACTURERS OF PHOTOGRAPHIC DRY PLATES, COLLODIONS, VARNISHES, AND CHEMICALS, Have REMOVED their London Store From WATLING STREET, To 31, FARRINGDON STREET, (Adjoining MARCUS WARD, & CO.) HEAD OFFICE :— MOSLEY STREET, NEWCASTLE-ON-TYNE. THE BEST BINOCULAR MADE IS BROWNING’S PANERGETIC. The superior performance of this celebrated Binocular «is acknowledged. This year its optical magnifying power has been increased, and the price has been reduced from £4 Ios. to £3 Ios. An Lilustrated Descriptive List of Binoculars sent free. JOHN BROW NING, 63, STRAND, LONDON, W.C. MEMORY and SUCCESS.—What contri- butes to success? A good memory.—What causes failure in life? A poor memory.—What can all obtain from Prof. Loisette’s DIS- COVERIES? A good memory—THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ART OF NEVER FORGETTING—using none of the ‘‘Links,” ‘‘ Pegs,” “Localities,” or ‘‘ Associations’’ of Mnemonics. Lost memories re- stored—the worst made good, and the best better. Avy book learned in one reading. Prospectus POST FREE giving opinions of Mr. RICHARD A. PRUCTOR, Dr. ANDREW WILSON, and others who have studied the System. A Day Class in Never Forgetting and for Cure of Mind-Wandering commences every Monday at 3 p.m. An Evening Class every Tuesday at 8 p.m. Lectures in Families of the Nobility; also taught thoroughly by POST. Prof. LOISETTE, 37, New OxrorpD STREET (opposite Mudie’s) W.C. VICTORIA INSTITUTE. MONDAY, MAY 33. “ Recent North American Archeological Research””—Dr. Eel’s Account of his Discoveries. N.B.—Canon Isaac Taylor postpones his Hittite paper till June. 7, Adelphi Terrace, Charing Cross. OPEN SCHOLARSHIPS in NATURAL SCIENCE of the value of £100 and £60 are awarded annually in eS at St. Thomas's Hospital Medical School, Albert Embank- ment, 5. EK. For particulars apply to Mr. G, Renpie, Medical Secretary. W. M. ORD, Dean. NEGRETTI AND ZAMBRA, SOLE MAKERS OF JORDAN'S (PATENT) SUNSHINE RECORDER. PRICE £3 3s. NEGRET FI! AND ZAMSBRA, Scientiric INSTRUMENT MAKERS TO THE QUEEN, HOLBORN VIADUCT. Branches :—45, Cornhill ; 122, Regent Street, London. Lllustrated Description Post Free. NEGRETTI & ZAMBRA’S Large Illustrated Catalogue 600 Pages, 1200 Engravings, Price ss. 6d. x ‘NATURE * [May 14, 1885 THE OWENS COLLEGE, MANCHESTER. The PROFESSORSHIP of PURE MATHEMATICS will become vacant, through the resignation of Prof. BARKER, at the end of the current Session. Candidates for the Chair are invited to forward Applications and Testi- monials addressed to the Council of the College, under cover to the REcisTRAR, not later than MONDAY, June 1 next. Information concerning the Terms and Conditions of the Appointment will be forwarded on application to J. G. GREENwoop, LL.D., Principal of the College. HENRY WM. HOLDER, M.A., Re strar: THE OWENS COLLEGE, MANCHESTER. The PROFESSORSHIP of ANATOMY has become Vacant through the death of Prof. Morrison Watson. Candidates for the Chair are invited to forward Applications and Testimonials addressed to the Council of the College, under cover to the ReGIsTRAR, not later than MONDAY, June rz next. The Professor will be expected to enter upon his duties on October 1 next. Information concerning the Terms and Conditions of the Appointment will be forwarded on Application to J. G.GrREENWwoop, LL.D., Principal of the College. HENRY WM. HOLDER, M.A.,, Registrar. THE YORKSHIRE COLLEGE, LEEDS. The Cavendish Professorship of Physics will become Vacant by the resig- nation of Prof. Ricker, M.A., F.R.S., on SEPTEMBER 30 next. Stipend, £300, with two-thirds of the Fees. Candidates are invited to for- ward Applications and Testimonials not later than JUNE 1. Further information will be supplied on application to the SECRETARY. ART SCHOOL FOR LADIES. OPEN DAILY. BEDFORD COLLEGE, LONDON, 8 anD 9, YorK PLace, BAKER STREET W. Art Visiror—EDWIN LONG, R.A. ProFEsSOR—NORMAN TAYLER, A.R.W.S. AssISTANT-TEACHER—Miss M. A. HEATH. A Special Class for painting from the DRAPED LIVING MODEL meets on MONDAYS, WEDNESDAYS, and FRIDAYS. For Particulars, apply to the SECRETARY, B. SHADWELL, Hon. Sec. ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. ALBEMARLE STREET, PICCADILLY, W. SATURDAY next (May 16) at Three o'clock: PROF. WILLIAM ODLING, M.A., F.R.S., First of Two Lectures on ‘‘OrGaNtc SEpPTics AND AnTisEpTics.” Half a Guinea the Course. THURSDAY (May 21), at three o'clock: PROF. C. MEYMOTT TIDY,M.B., F.C.S., First of Three Lectures on ‘‘ Potsons In RELATION TO THEIR CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION AND TO VITAL Functions.” Half a Guinea. : : Subscription to all the Courses in the Season, Two Guineas. ASTRONOMICAL REFLECTING TELE- SCOPE, 6} inches diameter, on Altazimuth Stand, with Solar Eyepiece, a Battery of 6 Huyghenian and Achromatic Eyepieces and Terrestrial Eyepiece, with other accessories. Price £35. Cost upwards of £50.— Apply to Mr. JoHn Brown1nG, 63, Strand, W.C. SCIENTIFIC BOOKS.—Speciality, Micro- scopy and the Allied Sciences, Natural History, &c., &c. Secondhand and New. Catalogue forwarded on receipt of two stamps. Scientific Libraries and small parcels of Books purchased for immediate Cash. W. P. COLLINS, 157, Great Portland Street, London, W. NOTICE OF REMOVAL. Prof. P. MARTIN DUNCAN, F-.R.S., has removed to 6, Grosvenor Road, Gunnersbury, Middlesex. BEST BLACK INK KNOWN. DRAPER’S INK (DICHROIC). DIFFERING FROM AN. THING ELSE EVER PRODUCED. Writing becomes a pleasure when this Ink is used. It has been adopted by the principal Banks, Public + Eccyane Railway Companies throughout reland. It writes almostinstantly Full Black. | Flows easily from the Pen. Does not corrode Steel Pens Blotting-paper may be applied atthe Iscleanly to use, and not liable to Blot. moment of writing. i Can »e btained in London, through Messrs. BAkcLay & Sons, Farring- don Street; W. Epwarps, Id Change; F. Newpery & Sons, Newgate Street ; J. Austin & Co., Duke Street, Liverpool ; and to be had of al Stationers. BEWLEY & RAPER (Limited), Dublin. LIVING SPECIMENS FOR THE MICROSCOPE. GOLD MEDAL awarded at the FISHERIES EXHIBITION to THOMAS BOLTON, 57, NEWHALL STREET, BIRMINGHAM. who has last week sent to his subscribers Phalansterium digitatum (new to Great Britain), with drawing and description. He has also sent out Lophopus crystallinus, Floscularia cornuta, Melicerta ringens, Notommata parasita, Uroglena volvox, Rhinops vitrea, Argulus foliaceus, Peridinium tabulatum, Volvox globator (golden stage), Spirogyra (in conjugation); also Hydra, Ameeba, Crayfish, Edible Frog, Crassicornis, and other Specimens for (Huxley and Martin’s) Biological Laboratory work. Weekly Announcements will be made in this place of Organisms T. B. is supplying. Specimen Tube, One Shilling, post free. Twenty-six Tubesin course of Six Months for Subscription of £1 18.5 or Twelve Tubes for 10s. 6d. Portfolio of Drawings, Ten Parts, 1s. each. EDWARD WARD has pleasure in an- nouncing the issue of a new Micro-Slide of Zoophyte, with tentacles out, in the special manner so well known to his numerous patrons. ay (post-free) 2 8 Plumularia similis... «. Also, quite new :— Gorgonia verrucosa (polype stained) ,, 2a Podalirus typicus (Spectre Shrimp) 5 I 2 EDWARD WARD, 249, OXFORD STREET, MANCHESTER? SIX PRIZE MEDALS AWARDED FOR GEOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS. Geological Collections especially adapted for Teaching as supplied to Science and Art Department, and used by all Lecturers and Teachers in Great Britain, &c. New and Rare Minerals constantly arriving from all parts for selection of Single Specimens. ROCK SECTIONS AND ROCK SPECIMENS: The Largest Variety in England. New Catalogues and Lists on application to— JAMES R. GREGORY, 88, CHARLOTTE STREET, FITZROY SQUARE, LONDON. Established 27 Years in London. PATERSON & COOPER. 76, LITTLE BRITAIN, LONDON, E.C. Electric Light and Power and Telephone Engineers, New Electric Light Catalogue, post free 1s- PATERSON & COOPER beg to give notice that they have disposed of the Philosophical, Educational, and Experimental Part of their Business to Messrs. J. and T. MAYFIELD, 41, Queen Victoria Street, E.C. SCIENCE AND ART DEPARTMENT 50 PER CENT. GRANT FOR THE PURCHASE OF STANDARD COLLECTIONS AND APPARATUS FOR TEACHING GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY. NEW LISTS and FORMS on which the Application is to be made supplied by THOMAS J. DOWNING, Geologist, &c., 38, WHISKIN STREET, LONDON, E.C. (over Quarter of a Century) Cc. D. AHRENS, PRISM WORKER AND PRACTICAL OPTICIAN, 36, GREAT RUSSELL STREET, LONDON, W.C. SPECIAL NOTICE—See the New Polarising Prism. Can be used over any A & B Eyepiece. Strongly recommended for Lantern Work; will take in any Object. Also see the New Erecting Microscope. Any Object-Glass and any Eyepiece can be used withit. Itis the only way of seeing the Objects in their right shape and form. Maker of the Largest Nicol Prisms in existence for the Late W. Spottiswoode, Esq., P.R.S., &c., &c., and for Frank Crisp, Esq., LL.B., B.A., &c., &c TRADE SUPPLIED WITH PRISMS. HOW & CO.’S Geological Transparencies for the Lantern, Descriptive Catalogue on Application. WALKER’S SPECIFIC GRAVITY BALANCE FOR ROCKS AND MINERALS. HOW & CO.’S POCKET MICROSCOPE LAMP. 8s. 6¢. _ MICRO-PETROLOGY.—Sections of Pitchstones, Obsidians, Granites, Syenites, Diorites, Gabbros, Dolerites, Basalts, Tachylites, ‘Trachytes, Andesites, Porphyrites, Rhyolites, Lavas, Ashes, Gneiss, Schists, Lim: - stones, &c., price 1s. 6d. each, JAMES HOw & CO., 73, FARRINGDON STREET, Lonpon. A WEEKLY ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL OF SCIENCE ‘* To the solid ground Of Nature trusts the mind which builds for aye." —\WORDSWORTH No. 812, VOL. 32] DEAURS DAW: WEAN, 21, [PRICE SIXPENCE Registered as a Newspaper at the General Post Office] {All Rights are Reserved PATENT INDESTRUCTIBLE GAS COOKING RANGES. These are the most efficient and economical Gas Cooking Ranges ever made. PERFECTION in COOKING can now be guaranteed. They are to all intents and purposes ABSOLUTELY INDESTRUCT- IBLE, and will at the same time Roast, Bake, Boil, Grill, Toast, and y. doing all perfectly, and at LESS THAN HALF the cost of coals. The Society of Arts’ GOLD MEDAL (The “SIEMENS’PRIZE”) and the GOLD MEDAL of The Health Exhibition were both awarded for DEANE & CO.’S EXHIBIT of FLETCHER’S STOVES as “‘ The Best Application of Gas to Heating and Cooking in Dwellings.” The whole of FLercHer’s Fur- naces, Forges, Blow-pipes, Asbestos = Fires, Ranges, Washers, Bath and Water Heaters, &c., &c., can always be seen in action in DEANE & Co.’s Show Rooms. All Orders Carriage paid to nearest Station. DEANE FLETCHER'S Discount for Cash, COMPLETE ILLUSTRATED LISTS FREE. & CO. (wituS"<.) LONDON BRIDGE. VICTORIA UNIVERSITY. _ The Entrance Examination in Arts (Faculty of Medicine) and the Pre- liminary Examination (Faculties of Arts, Science, and Law) will begin on THURSDAY, June rz, at 2 p.m. = Candidates for thé Entrance Examination in Arts, if not matriculated must produce a letter of recommendation from their last instructor and pay a fee of £r. Candidates for the Preliminary Examination must matriculate before the Examination. The Matriculation Fee is £2, and includes the Examination Fee. Faculties of Arts and Science.—The Intermediate and Final Examinations for Degrees will begin on June 11, as above. Faculty of Law.—The Intermediate and Final Examinations for Degrees will begin on Monday, July 20, at 10 a.m. =a Faculty of Medicine.—The Preliminary Examination in Science and the Intermediate M.B. Examination will begin on Monday, July 20, and the First Part of the Final M.B. Examination will begin on Friday, July 17, at 10 a.m. Further information as to these Examinations can be obtained from the Registrar. ALFRED T. BENTLEY, M.A , Registrar. Manchester, May, 1885. THE YORKSHIRE COLLEGE, LEEDS. The Cavendish Professorship of Physics will become Vacant by the resig- nation of Prof. Riicker, M.A., F.R.S., on SEPTEMBER jo next. Stipend, £300, with two-thirds of the Fees. Candidates are invited to for- ward Applications and Testimonials not later than JUNE x. Further information will be supplied on application to the SEcRETARy. THE BEST BINOCULAR MADE IS BROWNING'S PANERGETIC. The superior performance of this celebrated Binocular is acknowledged. This year its optical magnifying power has been increased, and the price has been reduced from £4 Ios. to £3 Ios. An Illustrated Descriptive List of Binoculars sent free. JOHN BROWNING, 63, STRAND, LONDON, W.C. NEGRETTI AND ZAMBRA, SOLE MAKERS OF JORDAN'S (PATENT? SUNSHINE RECORDER. PRICE £3 3s. NE QR Eten! ZAMBRA, ScrEnTIFIC INSTRUMENT MAKERS TO THE QUEEN, HOLBORN VIADUCT. Branches :—4s5, Cornhill ; 122, Regent Street, London. livustrated Description Post Free NEGRETTI & ZAMBRA’S 600 Pages, 1200 Engravings, Price 5s. 6d. XVill NATURE [May 21, 1885 THE MASON SCIENCE COLLEGE, BIRMINGHAM. APPOINTMENT OF PROFESSOR OF MINING. The Council invite Applications, on or before JUNE 24 next, for the above appointment, which is now vacant. By a Resolution of the Council, Candidates are especially requested to abstain from canvassing. Information as to the Terms and Conditions of the Appointment will be forwarded on application to GEORGE H. MORLEY, Secretary. ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY. The Anniversary Meeting will be held (by permission of the Chancellor and Senate) in the Hall of the University of London, Burlington Gardens, on MONDAY, June 8, at half-past 2 p.m., the Right Hon. Lord ABERDARE, President, in the Chair. The Dinner will take place at Willis’s Rooms, King Street, St. James's, at 7 p.m. on the same day. The Right Hon. Lord ABERDARE, President, in the Chair. Dinner Charge, 21s., payable at the door; or Tickets may be had and Tee taken at 1, Saville Row, Burlington Gardens, up to noonon Saturday, une 6. The Friends of Fellows are admissible to the Dinner. NOTICE OF REMOVAL. Prof. P. MARTIN DUNCAN, F.R.S., has removed to 6, Grosvenor Road, Gunnersbury, Middlesex. MEMORY and SUCCESS.—What contri- butes to success? A good memory.—What causes failure in life? A oor memory.—What can all obtain from Prof. Loisette’s DIS- COVERIES? A good memory—THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ART OF NEVER FORGETTING—using none of the ‘‘Links,” ‘ Pegs,” ‘*Localities,” or ‘‘ Associations” of Mnemonics, Lost memories re- stored—the worst made good, and the best better. Avy book learned in one reading. Prospectus POST FREE giving opinions of Mr. RICHARD A. PROCTOR, Dr. ANDREW WILSON, and others who have studied the System. A Day Class in Never Forgetting and for Cure of Mind-Wandering commences every Monday at 3 p.m. An Evening Class every Tuesday at 8 p.m. Lectures in Families of the Nobility; also taught thoroughly by POST. Prof. LOISETTE, 37, New OxrorpD STREET (opposite Mudie’s) W.C. PATERSON & COOPER. 76, LITTLE BRITAIN, LONDON, E.C. Electric Light and Power and Telephone Engineers, New Electric Light Catalogue, post free 1s- PATERSON & COOPER beg to give notice that they have disposed of the Philosophical, Educational, and Experimental Part of their Business to Messrs. J. and T. MAYFIELD, 41, Queen Victoria Street, E.C. SCIENCE AND ART DEPARTMENT 50 PER CENT. GRANT FOR THE PURCHASE OF STANDARD COLLECTIONS AND APPARATUS FOR TEACHING GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY. NEW LISTS and FORMS on which the Application is to be made supplied by THOMAS J. DOWNING, Geologist, &c., 38, WHISKIN STREET, LONDON, E.C. (over Quarter of a Century). C. D. AHRENS. PRISM WORKER AND PRACTICAL OPTICIAN, 36, GREAT RUSSELL STREET, LONDON, W.C. SPECIAL NOTICE—See the New Polarising Prism. Can be used over any A & B Eyepiece. Strongly recommended for Lantern Work; will take in any Object. Also see the New Erecting Microscope. Any Object-Glass and any Eyepiece can be used withit. Itis the only way of seeing the Objects in their right shape and form. Maker of the Largest Nicol Prisms in existence for the Late W. Spottiswoode, Esq., P.R.S., &c., &c., and for Frank Crisp, Esq., LL.B., B.A., &c., &c. TRADE SUPPLIED WITH PRISMS. HOW & COW’S Geological Transparencies for the Lantern, Descriptive Catalogue on Application. WALKER’S SPECIFIC GRAVITY BALANCE FOR ROCKS AND MINERALS. HOW & CO.’S POCKET MICROSCOPE LAMP, 8s. 6d. MICRO-PETROLOGY.—Sections of Pitchstones, Obsidians, Granites, Syenites, Diorites, Gabbros, Dolerites, Basalts, Tachylites, ‘lrachytes, Andesites, Porphyrites, Rhyolites, Lavas, Ashes, Gneiss, Schists, Lime- stones, &c., price 1s. 6d. each, JAMES HOw & CO., 73, FARRINGDON STREET, LoNnpon. LIVING SPECIMENS FOR THE MICROSCOPE. GOLD MEDALawarded at the FISHERIES EXHIBITION te THOMAS BOLTON, 57, NEWHALL STREET, BIRMINGHAM. who has last week sent to his subscribers Uroglena volvox, with drawing and description. He has also sent out Paludicella Ehrenbergi, Syncoryne frutescens, Melicerta ringens, Rhinops vitrea, Conochilus volvox, Hydro- dictyon utriculatum, Volvox globator with Notommata parasita, Lophopus crystallinus ; also Amceba, Vorticella, Hydra, Crayfish, and other Specimens for (Huxley and Martin’s) Biological Laboratory work. Weekly Announcements will be made in this place of Organisms T. B. is supplying. Specimen Tube, One Shilling, post free. Twenty-six Tubes in course of Six Months for Subscription of £1 15., or Twelve Tubes for 105. 6d. Portfolio of Drawings, Ten Parts, 1s. each. EDWARD WARD has pleasure in an- nouncing the issue of a new Micro-Slide of Zoophyte, with tentacles out, in the special manner so well known to his numerous patrons. s. ad Plumularia similis ws oe (post-free) 2 8 Also, quite new = Gorgonia verrucosa (polype stained) .,, 22 Podalirus typicus (Spectre Shrimp) *A I 2 EDWARD WARD, 249, OXFORD STREET, MANCHESTER. ANTERN READINGS.—DISSOLVING VIEWS. | THE NEW QUADRUPLICON. New Season, 1884 and 1885.—Popular Subjects for this Season. The Channel Islands—The War in the Soudan—The River Thames— Devonshire Scenery—Hereford and the River Wye—The English Lakes— London Poor and How They Live—Egypt and the Nile Expedition—Nor- way—The Lifeboat—The Signal Box—The Maids of Lee—Poor Pa’s Trousers—Shadows on the Blinds, &c. - The largest and newest Stock of Lanterns and Slides, Scientific and General, on Hire and Sale in this country at the Lowest Prices. E. MARSHALL, 78, Queen Victoria Street, London, E,C. INTERNATIONAL HEALTH EXHIBITION. DIVISION—EDUCATION. A PRIZE MEDAL AWARDED TO THOMAS D. RUSSELL, 78, NEWGATE STREET, LONDON, E.C., For Geological Collections for Science Teaching. Catalogues Post free. MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY. Mr. HENSON’S Latest Arrivals are :— Very Fine DOUBLY-TERMINATED CRYSTALS of ZIRCON, 33 inches long, 1} square; BERYLS, DIOPTASE, UWAROWITE, WALUEWITE, NATIVE SILVER, HERDERITE, Very Brittiant RUTILES, CHALCOSIDERITE, and NATIVE COPPER, Corn- wall; POLISHED JADE and GREEN AVENTURINE. GROUPS and SINGLE CRYSTALS of STIBNITE, Japan; ““SHERRY” COLOURED TOPAZES, Siberia. A Large Series of ROCKS, also MICROSCOPIC SECTIONS of the same. Lists on Application Hammers, Chisels, and Hammer Straps. PRIVATE LESSONS AND EVENING CLASSES. BLOWPIPE CASES AND APPARATUS. _ Catalogues free. SAMUEL HENSON, 277, STRAND, LONDON, Opposite Norfolk Street. FOR THE STUDY OF COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.—Marsupial An mals of both Sexes, preserved in Spirits of Wine. For price and particulars apply to the Importer, A. H. JamRacu, 355, East India Road, London, E. SIX PRIZE MEDALS AWARDED FOR GEOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS. Geological Collections especially adapted for Teaching as supplied to Science and Art Department, and used by all Lecturers and Teachers in Great Britain, &c. f E New and Rare Minerals constantly arriving from all parts for selection of Single Specimens. ROCK SECTIONS AND ROCK SPECIMENS: The Largest Variety in England. New Catalogues and Lists onapplication to— JAMES R. GREGORY, 88, CHARLOTTE STREET, F1ITZROY SQUARE, LONDON. Established 27 Years in London. A WEEKLY ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL OF SCIENCE ‘© To the solid ground Of Nature trusts the mind which builds for aye.’-—WORDSWORTH No. 813, VOL. 32] THURSDAY, MAY 28, 1885 [PRICE SIXPENCE Registered as a Newspaper at the General Post Office] {All Rights are Reserved AMATEUR PHOTOGRAPHY. MAWSON S&S SWAN, MANUFACTURERS OF PHOTOGRAPHIC DRY PLATES, COLLODIONS, VARNISHES, AND CHEMICALS, Have REMOVED their London Store From WATLING STREET, To BARREN G DON, STREET, (Adjoining MARCUS WARD, & CO.) HEAD OFFICE :— MOSLEY STREET, NEWCASTLE-ON-TYNE. THE BEST BINOCULAR MADE IS BROWNING’ PANERGETIC. The superior performance of this cclebrated Binocular is acknowledged. This year its optical magnifying power has been increased, and the price has been reduced from £4 Ios. to £3 Ios. An Illustrated Descriptive List of Binoculars sent free. JOHN BRow Nine, 63, STRAND, LONDON, W.C. MEMORY and SUCCESS.—What contri- butes to success? A good memory.—What causes failure in life? A poor memory.—What can all obtain from Prof. Loisette’s DIS- COVERIES? A good memory—THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ART OF NEVER FORGETTING—using none of the “Links,” “Pegs,” ** Localities,” or ‘‘ Associations’? of Mnemonics. Lost memories re- stored—the worst made good, and the best better. Azy 00k learned in one reading. Prospectus POST FREE giving opinions of Mr. RICHARD A. PROCTOR, Dr. ANDREW WILSON, and others who have studied the System. A Day Class in Never Forgetting and for Cure of Mind-Wandering commences every Monday at 3 p.m. An Evening Class every Tuesday at 8 p.m. Lectures in Families of the Nobility; also taught thoroughly by POST. Prof. LOISETTE, 37, New Oxrorp STREET (opposite Mudie’s) W.C. THE MASON SCIENCE COLLEGE, BIRMINGHAM. APPOINTMENT OF PROFESSOR OF MINING. The Council invite Applications, on or before JUNE 24 next, for the above appointment, which is now vacant. By a Resolution of the Council, Candidates are especially requested to abstain from canvassing. Information as to the Terms and Conditions of the Appointment will be forwarded on application to GEORGE H. MORLEY, Secretary. OPEN SCHOLARSHIPS in NATURAL SCIENCE of the value of £100 and 460 are awarded annually in OCTOBER at St. Thomas's Hospital Medical School, Albert Embank- ment, S.E. For particulars apply to Mr. G. RENDLE, Medical Secretary. W. M. ORD, Dean. NEGRETT! AND ZAMBRA, SOLE MAKERS OF JORDAN'S (PATENT) SUNSHINE RECORDER. PRICE £3 3s. NEG RIE AND ZAMSBRA, Screntiric INSTRUMENT MAKERS TO THE QUEEN, HOLBORN VIADUCT. Branches :—45, Cornhill ; 122, Regent Street, London. Liiustrated Description Post Free. | | NEGRETTI & ZAMBRA’S Te ( | > Large Illustrated Catalogue 600 Pages, 1200 Engravings, Price 5s. 6d. XXXVI NATURE [May 28, 1885 ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON. DAVIS LECTURES, 188s. A Series of Lectures upon Zoological Subjects will be given in the Lecture- Room in the Society’s Gardens, in the Regent’s Park, on Tuurspays at Five p.m., commencing June 4. DatTE SuBJECT LECTURER 1. Thursday, June 4 ... Rhinoceroses and nea Prof. Flower, LL.D., Extinct Allies .. -e V.P.R.S. 2. F s 11 .. Apes and Lemurs Dr Sr. Geo Mivarrt, F.R.S. By 1 », 18... The Structure of the Swan Prof. W. K. ParkeEr, F.R.S. as rr 3) 25 + The Domestic Cat J. E. Hartine, Esq., F.L.S. Bs os July 2 ... RecentAdvancesinZoology Prof. F. JEFFREY Bert, M.A, 6. “5 3 9+» The Ancestors of Birds ... F.E. Bepparp, Esq., M.A. 7. nH » 116.. The Animals of Nee bee L. ScLaTEr, Esq., Ginneal er fen ore FIRS: These Lectures will be free to Fellows of the Society and their friends, and to other Visitors to the Gardens. P. L. SCLATER, Secretary. UNIVERSITY COLLEGF, BRISTOL. GILCHRIST SCHOLARSHIP. A SCHOLARSHIP of the value of £50 annually, tenable for THREE YEARS, will be awarded at this College in September 1885, on the results of the JUNE MATRICULATION EXAMINATION of the UNI- VERSITY OF LONDON. Candidates must send in their names for approval to the Principat on or before June ro. For further information apply to ALFRED E. STOCK, Registrar. ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY. The Anniversary Meeting will be held (by permission of the Chancellor and Senate) in the Hall of the University of London, Burlington Gardens, on MONDAY, June 8, at half-past 2 p.m., the Right Hon. Lord ABERDARE, President, in the Chair. The Dinner will take place at Willis’s Rooms, King Street, St. James's, at 7 p.m. on the same day. The Right Hon. Lord Aperpare, President, in the Chair. Dinner Charge, 21s., payable at the door; or Tickets may be had and Ace taken at 1, Saville Row, Burlington Gardens, up to noonon Saturday, une 6, The Friends of Fellows are admissible to the Dinner. TUATERA LIZARDS!!! (Sphenodon punctatum, SCLATER) ; GRAY). (Hatteria punctata, FOR THE STUDY OF COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. This Reptile, which differs in s°me important structural characters from every other known Saurian, and in its osteology is the most Bird-like of extant Lizards, was first described and figured by Dr. Gray under the name of Hatteria punctata, and has been generally designated so till lately, when (as Mr. Sclater informs us) ‘it was most fortunately discovered that the generic term of Sphenodon had been previously applied to a Specimen of its Skull in the Museum of the College of Surgeons.”” This term has accord- ingly been substituted for Hatteria, which Mr. Sclater denounces as ‘‘vile and barbarous.” N.B.—The Luatera Lizards may either be had Alive or Preserved in Spirits of Wine. For Particulars of Price, &c., apply to A. H. JAMRACH, 2 355, East India Road, London, E. SIX PRIZE MEDALS AWARDED FOR GEOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS. Geological Collections especially adapted for Teaching as supplied to Science and Art Department, and used by all Lecturers and Teachers in Great Britain, &c. New and Rare Minerals constantly arriving from all parts for selection of Single Specimens. ROCK SECTIONS AND ROCK SPECIMENS: The Largest Variety in England. New Catalogues and Lists onapplication to— JAMES R. GREGORY, 88, CHARLOTTE STREET, FITZROY SQUARE, LONDON. Established 27 Years in London. BOOKS (Secondhand), Miscellaneous, Re- mainders, &.—C. HERBERT, English and Foreign Bookseller, 319, Goswell Road, London, E.C. Catalogue free on receipt of two stamps. Libraries, Old Books, and Parchment purchased. LIVING SPECIMENS FOR THE MICROSCOPE. GOLD MEDAL awarded at the FISHERIES EXHIBITION to THOMAS BOLTON, 57, NEWHALL STREET, BIRMINGHAM. who has last week sent to his subscribers Paludicella Ehrenbergi, with drawing and description, He has also sent out Syncoryne frutescens, Lophopus crystallinus, Stephanoceros Kichornii, Melicerta ringens, Cono- chilus volvox, Asplanchna priodonta, Hydatina senta, Volvox globator, Spirogyra; also Amoeba, Vorticella, Hydra, Crayfish, and other Specimens for (Huxley and Martin’s) Biological Laboratory work. Weekly Announcements will be made in this place of Organisms T. B. is supplying. Specimen Tube, One Shilling, post free. Twenty-six Tubesin course of Six Months for Subscription of £1 18.5 or Twelve Tubes for ros. 6d, Portfolio of Drawings, Ten Parts, 1s. each. G. CALVER has received HIGHEST AWARD for ‘‘ Excellence and Improvements” in Reflecting Telescopes exhibited at the [nternational Exhibition, London.—Descriptive Cata- logues, twelve stamps. G. CALVER, F.R.A.S., Widford, Chelmsford. EDWARD WARD has pleasure in an- nouncing the issue of a new Micro-Slide of Zoophyte, with tentacles out, in the special manner so well known to his numerous patrons. Seas Plumularia similis ... «+ «. (post-free) 2 8 Also, quite new :— Gorgonia verrucosa (polype stained) ,, 22 Podalirus typicus (Spectre Shrimp) ae I 2 EDWARD WARD, 249, OXFORD STREET, MANCHESTER, LANTERN READINGS.—DISSOLVING VIEWS. THE NEW QUADRUPLICON. New Season, 1884 and 1885.—Popular Subjects for this Season. The Channel Islands—The War in the Soudan—The River Thames— Devonshire Scenery—Hereford and the River Wye—The English Lakes— London Poor and How They Live—Egypt and the Nile Expedition—Nor- way—The Lifeboat—The Signal Box—The Maids of Lee—Poor Pa’s Trousers—Shadows on the Blinds, &c. oe The largest and newest Stock of Lanterns and Slides, Scientific and General, on Hire and Sale in this country at the Lowest Prices. E. MARSHALL, 78, Queen Victoria Street, London, E,C. INTERNATIONAL HEALTH EXHIBITION. DIVISION—EDUCATION. A PRIZE MEDAL AWARDED TO THOMAS D. RUSSELL, 78, NEWGATE STREET, LONDON, E.C., For Geological Collections for Science Teaching. Catalogues Post free. MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY. Mr. HENSON’S Latest Arrivals are :— Very Fine DOUBLY-TERMINATED CRYSTALS of ZIRCON, 34 inches long, 1} square; BERYLS, DIOPTASE, UWAROWITE, WALUEWITE, NATIVE SILVER, HERDERITE, Very Britiianr RUTILES, CHALCOSIDERITE, and NATIVE COPPER, Corn- wall; POLISHED JADE and GREEN AVENTURINE. GROUPS and SINGLE CRYSTALS of STIBNITE, Japan; ‘“‘SHERRY” COLOURED TOPAZES, Siberia. E A Large Series 01 ROCKS, also MICROSCOPIC SECTIONS of the same. Lists on Application Hammers, Chisels, and Hammer Straps. PRIVATE LESSONS AND EVENING CLASSES. BLOWPIPE CASES AND APPARATUS. Catalogues free. SAMUEL HENSON, 277, STRAND, LONDON, Opposite Norfolk Street. SCIENCE AND ART DEPARTMENT o PER CENT. GRANT FOR THE PURCHASE OF STANDARD COLLECTIONS AND APPARATUS FOR TEACHING GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY. NEW LISTS and FORMS on which the Application is to be made supplied by THOMAS J. DOWNING, Geologist, &c., 38, WHISKIN STREET, LONDON, E.C. (over Quarter of a Century). JN WW IEI ENS ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL OF SCIENCE ‘© To the solid Of Nature truss the mind which builds for aye. ground "—WORDSWORTH THURSDAY, JUNE 4, 1885 [PRICE SIXPENCE Registered as a Newspaper at the General Post Office] (All Rights are Reserved NOTICE. NATURE Of JUNE II, containing the PN DyE-X VoLuME XXXL, will form a DouBLE Price One Shilling. OFFICE :—29, BEDFORD STREET, STRAND AMATEUR PHOTOGRAPHY. Ons Britannia Dry Plates are the Best and Cheapest. WIARION’S Photographic Outfits. The Largestand Best Selection for the Tourist, Artist, Bicylist, Military Man, and others. Special Outfits for Beginners. Price for Complete Set, from 45s. and upwards. MARION’S Academy Camera. MARION’S Miniature Camera. MARION’S Registered Washing Apparatus. MARION’S Rectilinear and Portrait Lenses, MARION’S Ready Sensitised Paper. MARION’S Instantaneous Shutters, IMARION’S Enlarging Apparatus and Magic Lantern. MARION’S Best French Mounts. MARION’S Self-Adjusting Rolling Press and Burnisher. MARION’S Practical Guide to Photography. Second Edi- tion, Revised and Enlarged, giving clear and precise Instructions for Learning and Practising Photography. Price 2s. 6d. post free, Free Lessons in Photography to Purchasers.—Marion and Co. have erected a Gallery in Soho Square, specially for giving Lessons. Printing from Amateurs’ Negatives, Enlarging. IMARION’S Alpha Paper Prints by Gaslight in One Minute. The printing process of the future. Sample packet ss. Photographs Mounted, Arranged, & BoundintoVolumes. Chemicals, Mounts, Albums, Scrap Books. PRICED LIST FREE ON APPLICATION. MARION & Co., 22 & 23, Soho Square, London. SHOW ROOM—GROUND FLOOR. MEMORY and SUCCESS.—What contri- butes to success? A good memory.—What causes failure in life? A poor _memory.—What can all obtain from Prof. Loisette’s DIS- COVERIES? A good memory—THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ART OF NEVER FORGETTING—using none of the ‘Links,” ‘‘ Pegs,” **Localities,”” or ‘‘ Associations’? of Mnemonics. Lost memories re- stored—the worst made good, and the best better, Any book learned in one reading. Prospectus POST FREE giving opinions of Mr. RICHARD A. PROCTOR, Dr. ANDREW WILSON, and others who have studied the System. A Day Class in Never Forgetting and for Cure of Mind-Wandering commences every Monday at 3 p.m. An Evening Class every Tuesday at 8 p.m. Lectures in Families of the Nobility; also taught thoroughly by POST. Prof. LOISETTR, 37, New Oxrorp STREET (opposite Mudie’s) W.C. NUMBER, BINOCULARS. FIELD GLASS. “ECONOMICAL” This Binocular has achromatic object-glasses 14 inches in diameter, and sliding shades to shelter the object-glasses from sun or rain, and is fitted ina THE solid Teather sling case, price £1 55., sent free. Tilustrated Catalogue of Binoculars post free. JOHN BROWNING, 63, STRAND, LONDON, W.C. NEGRETTI AND ZAMBRA, SOLE MAKERS OF JORDAN'S (PATENT? SUNSHINE RECORDER. PRICE £3 3s. NEGRETTI ZAMBRA, Scientific INSTRUMENT MAKERS TO THE QUEEN, HOLBORN VIADUCT. Branches :—45, Cornhill ; 122, Regent Street, London. liiustrated Description Post Free. NEGRETTI & ZAMBRA’S Large Illustrated Catalogue, On 600 Pages, 120a Engravings, Price 5s. 6d- XXXIV NATURE [Fune 4, 1885 ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY. The Anniversary Meeting will be held (by permission of the Chancellor and Senate) in the Hall of the University of London, Burlington Gardens, on MONDAY, June 8, at half-past 2 p.m., the Right Hon. Lord ABERDARE, President, in the Chair. The Dinner will take place at Willis’s Rooms, King Street, St. James’s, at 7 p.m. on the same day. The Right Hon. Lord AnERDARE, President, in the Chair. Dinner Charge, 2r1s., payable at the door; or Tickets may be had and eae taken at 1, Saville Row, Burlington Gardens, up to noonon Saturday, une 6. The Friends of Fellows are admissible to the Dinner. SWINEY LECTURES ON GEOLOGY. Dr. R. H. TRAQUAIR, F.R.S., F.G Lectures on ‘BIRDS and MAMMALS their FOSSIL FORMS,” in the British Museum (Natural History), Crom- well Road). Commencing, MONDAY, June 15, at 4 p.m., and to be continued each succeeding MONDAY. WEDNESDAY, and FRIDAY, concluding on FRIDAY, July ro, 1885. Admission to the Course, Free. HUDDERSFIELD TECHNICAL SCHOOL and MECHANICS INSTITUTE. The Governors will shortly appoint a Professor of Physical Science and Mathematics. Salary £250 per year. Intending Candidates should apply to the SECRETARY for a statement of duties and other particulars. Applications must be sent in on or before WEDNESDAY, June 17. AUSTIN KEEN, Secretary -, will deliver a Course of Twelve , especially in RELATION to Dated May 27, 1885 MUSEUMS OF NATURAL HISTORY. Papers by HENRY H. HIGGINS, Liverpool. Sent by Post, free, to the limits of the Penny Post. SYNOPSIS of an ARRANGEMENT of INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS, ts. 6¢. MUSEUMS of NATURAL HISTORY, 1s. 3a. MUSEUM TALK about ANIMALS that have no BONES, 3d. Address T. Moore, Curator, Free Public Museum, Liverpool. MUSEUMS AND COLLECTORS. Mr. DAMON, of WEYMOUTH, will forward an abridged Catalogue of his Collections in Natural History Objects, including RECENT SHELLS (Foreign and British), FOSSIL REMAINS, MINERALS, ROCKS, MARINE ZOOLOGY, &c., &c., &c. HOW & CO’S Geological Transparencies for the Lantern, Descriptive Catalogue on Application. WALKER’S SPECIFIC GRAVITY BALANCE FOR ROCKS AND MINERALS. HOW & CO.’S POCKET MICROSCOPE LAMP, 8s. 6d. MICRO-PETROLOGY.—Sections of Pitchstones, Obsidians, Granites, Syenites, Diorites, Gabbros, Dolerites, Basalts, Tachylites, rachytes, Andesites, Porphyrites, Rhyolites, Lavas, Ashes, Gneiss, Schists, Lime- stones, &c., price 1s. 6d. each, JAMES HOw & CO., 73, Farrincpon Street, Lonpon. PATERSON & COOPER. 76, LITTLE BRITAIN, LONDON, E.C. Electric Light and Power and Telephone Engineers. New Electric Light Catalogue, post free rs. PATERSON & COOPER beg to give notice that they have disposed of the Philosophical, Educational, and Experimental Part of their Business to Messrs. J. and T. MAYFIELD, 41, Queen Victoria Street, E.C. SIX PRIZE MEDALS AWARDED FOR GEOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS. Geological Collections especially adapted for Teaching as supplied to Science and Art Department, and used by all Lecturers and Teachers in Great Britain, &c. New and Rare Minerals constantly arriving from all parts for selection of Single Specimens. ROCK SECTIONS AND ROCK SPECIMENS: The Largest Variety in England. New Catalogues and Lists onapplication to— JAMES R. GREGORY, 88, CHARLOTTE STREET, FITZROY SQUARE, LONDON. Established 27 Years in London. BOOKS (Secondhand), Miscellaneous, Re- mainders, &.—C. HERBERT, English and Foreign Bookseller, 319, Goswell Road, London, E.C. Catalogue free on receipt of two stamps. Libraries, Old Books, and Parchment purchased. LIVING SPECIMENS FOR THE MICROSCOPE. GOLD MEDAL awarded at the FISHERIES EXHIBITION to THOMAS BOLTON, 57, NEWHALL STREET, BIRMINGHAM. who has last week sent to his subscribers Notammata brachionus, with drawing and description. He has also sent out Syncoryne frutescens, ~ Paludicella Ehrenbergi, Lophopus crystallinus, Stephanoceros Eichornii, Melicerta ringens, Asplanchna priodonta, Hydatina senta, Holopedium gibberna, Volvox globator, Spirogyra; also Amoeba, Vorticella, Hydra, Crayfish, and other Specimens tor (Huxley and Martin’s) Biological Labora- torv work. Weekly Announcements will be made in this place of Organisms T. B. is supplying. E Specimen Tube, One Shilling, post free. Twenty-six Tubesin course of Six Months for Subscription of £1 15., or Twelve Tubes for 10s. 6a. Portfolio of Drawings, Ten Parts, 1s. each. G. CALVER has received HIGHEST AWARD for ‘‘ Excellence and Improvements” in Reflecting Telescopes exhibited at the International Exhibition, London.—Descriptive Cata- logues, twelve stamps. G. CALVER, F.R.A.S., Widford, Chelmsford. EDWARD WARD has pleasure in an- nouncing the issue of a new Micro-Slide of Zoophyte, with tentacles out, in the special manner so well known to his numerous patrons. Sate (post-free) 2 8 Plumularia similis. ee Also, quite new :— Gorgonia verrucosa (polype stained) Podalirus typicus (Spectre Shrimp) *3 ro 2 EDWARD WARD, 249, OXFORD STREET, MANCHESTER. LANTERN READINGS.—DISSOLVING VIEWS. THE NEW QUADRUPLICON. New Season, 1884 and 1885.—Popular Subjects for this Season. The Channel Islands—The War in the Soudan—The River Thames— Devonshire Scenery—Hereford and the River Wye—The English Lakes— London Poor and How They Live—Egypt and the Nile Expedition—Nor- way—The Lifeboat—The Signal Box—The Maids of Lee—Poor Pa’s Trousers—Shadows on the Blinds, &c. x ae The largest and newest Stock of Lanterns and Slides, Scientific and General, on Hire and Sale in this country at the Lowest Prices. E. MARSHALL, 78, Queen Victoria Street, London, E.C. ” 2 2 INTERNATIONAL HEALTH EXHIBITION, DIVISION—EDUCATION. A PRIZE MEDAL AWARDED TO THOMAS D. RUSSELL, 78, NEWGATE STREET, LONDON, E.C., For Geological Collections for Science Teaching. Catalogues Post free. MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY. PROFESSORS, COLLECTORS and VISITORS to LONDON are INVITED to INSPECT Mr. HENSON’S STOCK of CHOICE MINE- RALS, &c., &c. At the PRESENT TIME he has a PARTICULARLY FINE CRYSTALLISED NUGGET of NATIVE GOLD, WEIGHT 9 oz.. PINK APOPHYLLITE, CHESSYLITE, EMERALDS on MATRIX, PYROMORPHITE (veRY RARE FORM). CERUSSITE, CRYSTALL- ISED MALACHITE, and BOTRYOIDAL CHALCEDONY, ME- TEORIC 1RONS and STONES. POLISHED AGATES and LABRA- DORITES. A Large Series of ROCKS, also MICROSCOPIC SECTIONS of the same. Lists on Application. PRIVATE LESSONS AND EVENING CLASSES. BLOWPIPE CASES AND APPARATUS. Catalogues free. SAMUEL HENSON, 277, STRAND, LONDON. Opposite Norfolk Street. SCIENCE AND ART DEPARTMENT so PER CENT. GRANT FOR THE PURCHASE OF STANDARI) COLLECTIONS AND APPARATUS FOR TEACHING GEOLOG\ AND MINERALOGY. NEW LISTS and FORMS on which the Application is to be made supplied by THOMAS J. DOWNING, Geologist, &c., 38, WHISKIN STREET, LONDON, E.C. (over Quarter of a Century). Hammers, Chisels, and Hammer Straps. A WEEKLY ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL OF SCIENCE “To the solid ground Of Nature trusts the mind which builds for aye.’—WoRDSWORTH No. 815, VOL. 32] THURSDAY, JUNE 11, 1885 [PRICE ONE SHILLING Registered as a Newspaper at the General Post Office] {All Rights are Reserved MAWSON & SWAN, MANUFACTURERS OF PHOTOGRAPHIC DRY PLATES, COLLODIONS, VARNISHES, AND CHEMICALS, Have REMOVED their London Store From WATLING STREET, To 35; LARRINGDON STREET; (Adjoining MARCUS WARD, & CO.) HEAD OFFICE — MOSLEY STREET, NEWCASTLE-ON-TYNE. [504 MEMORY and SUCCESS.—What contri- butes to success? A good memory.—What causes failure in life?’ A poor _memory.—What can all obtain from Prof. Loisette’s DIS- COVERIES? A good memory—THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ART OF NEVER FORGETTING—using none of the “Links,” “Pegs,” “Localities,” or ‘‘ Associations’? of Mnemonics. Lost memories re- stored—the worst made good, and the best better. Any book learned in one reading. Prospectus POST FREE giving opinions of Mr. RICHARD A. PROCTOR, Dr. ANDREW WILSON, and others who have studied the System. A Day Class in Never Forgetting and for Cure of Mind-Wandering commences every Monday at 3 p.m. An Evening Class every Tuesday at 8 p.m. Lectures in Families of the Nobility; also taught thoroughly by POST. Prof. LOISETTE, 37> New Oxrorp StrEET (opposite Mudie’s) W.C. SWINEY LECTURES ON GEOLOGY. Dr. R. H. TRAQUAIR, F.R.S., F.G.S., will deliver a Course of Twelve Lectures on “‘BIRDS and MAMMALS, especially in RELATION to their FOSSIL FORMS,” in the British Museum (Natural History), Crom- well Road). Commencing MONDAY, June 15, at 4 p-m., and to be continued each succeeding MONDAY. WEDNESDAY, and FRIDAY, concluding on FRIDAY, July ro, 1885. Admission to the Course, Free. OPEN SCHOLARSHIPS in NATURAL SCIENCE of the value of £100 and 460 are awarded annually in OCTOBER at St. Thomas's Hospital Medical School, Albert Embank- ment, S.E. For particulars apply to Mr. G, RENDLE, Medical Secretary. W. M. ORD, Dean. BROWNINGS BINOCULARS. THE ,‘“‘ECONOMICAL” This Binocular has achromatic object-glasses 14 inches in diameter, and sliding shades to shelter the object-glasses from sun or rain, and is fitted ina solid leather sling case, price 41 55., sent free. Illustrated Catalogue of Binoculars post free. JOHN BROWNING, 63, STRAND, LONDON, W.C. NEGRETTI AND ZAMBRA, SOLE MAKERS OF SUNSHINE RECORDER. PRICE £3 3s. NEGREWWT | AND ZAMBRA, Screntiric INSTRUMENT MAKERS TO THE QUEEN, HOLBORN VIADUCT. Branches :—45, Cornhill ; 122, Regent Street, London. Illustrated Description Post Free. NEGRETTI & ZAMBRA’S Large Illustrated Catalogue, 600 Pages, 1200 Engravings, Price 5s. 6a. xii CITY AND GUILDS OF LONDON INSTITUTE. CENTRAL INSTITUTION. Summer Courses of Lectures and Laboratory Instruction for TECHNI- CAL TEACHERS and others to be held in the Institute’s New Buildings in EXHIBITION ROAD. I. On the Teaching of GEOMETRY in its TECHNICAL APPLI- CATIONS— By Prof. O. Henrict, LL.D., F.R.S., commencing on Monday, June 22. II. On the TESTING of MATERIALS of CONSTRUCTION, with some Applications to the DESIGN of MACHINERY— By Prof. W. C. UNWIN, M.1.C.E., commencing on Monday, July 6. III. On the Teaching of ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING— By Prof. W. E. Ayrton, F.R.S., commencing on Monday, July 20. Courses II. and III., consisting of Lectures and Laboratory Instruction, will be illustrated by one or more DEMONSTRATIONS in the Inter- national INVENTIONS Exhibition. Each of the above Courses will extend over two weeks, from ro till 5 daily, Saturdays excepted. IV. CARRIAGE BUILDING— Three Lectures by G. A. THrupp, Esq., on June 29 and 39, and July 2, at 7 pm. V. PLUMBING— Four Lectures, with Demonstrations, by W. R. Macurre, Esq., on July 6, 7, 9, and ro, at 7 p.m. Registered TEACHERS of the Institute may, on application to the Director, be admitted to any of these Courses without payment of fees. _ For further details, and for Syllabuses of the several Courses, apply at Gresham College, E.C., or at Exhibition Road, S.W. PHILIP MAGNUS, Director and Secretary. _ HUDDERSFIELD TECHNICAL SCHOOL and MECHANICS’ INSTITUTE. The Governors will shortly appoint a Professor of Physical Science and Mathematics. Salary £250 per year. Intending Candidates should apply to the SECRETARY for a statement of duties and other particulars. Applications must be sent in on or before WEDNESDAY, June 17. AUSTIN KEEN, Secretary Dated May 27, 1885 SANITARY CONGRESS AND EXHIBITION. The Sanitary Institute of Great Britain will hold its Eighth Congress at Leicester on SEPTEMBER 22 and following days. The Council invite Papers on Subjects connected with Sanitary Science. Full particulars as to the conditions under which Papers are accepted can be obtained on applicaticn to the SECRETARY. The Health Exhibition, including Sanitary Apparatus and Appliances, will be held at the same time, and details are ready for distribution, 74a, Margaret Street, London, W. E. WHITE WALLIS, Secretary. WANTED an ASSISTANT for EXPERI- MENTAL RESEARCH. Must have good knowledge of Chemistry and Physics. Address, stating Qualifications and Salary required, X, Y, Z, care of Publisher of NATURE, 29, Bedford Street, Strand. GEOLOGICAL and other WORKS, Part of the LIBRARY of a deceased Professor, to be disposed of by Private Treaty.—Address GroLocy, care of Willing’s Advertising . Offices, 125, Strand, W.C. ICROSCOPIC OBJECTS FOR HIRE, Histological, Botanical, Geological, by the best Mounters. Let out on most moderate terms. Particulars of B. WELLS, Dalmain Road, Forest Hill. [302 PATERSON & COOPER, 76, LITTLE BRITAIN, LONDON, E.C. Electric Light and Power and Telephone Engineers, New Electric Light Catalogue, post free rs. PATERSON & COOPER beg to give notice that they have disposed of the Philosophical, Educational, and Experimental Part of their Business to Messrs. J. and T. MAYFIELD, 41, Queen Victoria Street, E.C. SIX PRIZE MEDALS AWARDED FOR GEOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS. Geological Collections especially adapted for Teaching as supplied to Science and Art Department, and used by all Lecturers and Teachers in Great Britain, &c. New and Rare Minerals constantly av:iving from all parts for selection of Single Specimens. ROCK SECTIONS AND ROCK SPECIMENS: The Largest Variety in England. New Catalogues and Lists onapplication to— -JAMES R. GREGORY, 88, CHARLOTTE STREET, FITZROY SQUARE, LONDON. Established 27 Years in London. NATURE [ Fune 11, 1885 LIVING SPECIMENS FOR THE MICROSCOPE. GOLD MEDAL awarded at the FISHERIES EXHIBITION to THOMAS BOLTON, 57, NEWHALL STREET, BIRMINGHAM. who has last week sent to his subscribers Chatogaster Limnzi, with drawing and description. He has also sent out Leptodora hyalina, Lo- phopus crystallinus, Paludicella Ehrenbergi, Spongilla fluviatilis, Syncoryne frutescens, Clava squamata, Cordylophora lacustris, Notommata_brachionus, Asplanchna Ebbesbornii, Nais hamata, Hydrodictyon utriculatum ; also Hydra, Vorticella, Amoeba, Crayfish, and other Specimens for (Huxley and Martin’s) Biological Laboratory work. Weekly Announcements will be made in this place of Organisms T. B. is supplying. Specimen Tube, One Shilling, post free. Twenty-six Tubesin course of Six Months for Subscription of £1 iS. or Twelve Tubes for 10s. 6d. Portfolio of Drawings, Ten Parts, 1s. each. NOTICE OF REMOVAL. F. G. CUTTELL, 49, Beprorp STREET, STRAND, Preparer of Rocks, &c, to H.M. Geological Survey, &c., begs to announce that on and after July x next his Address will be 30, BERNARD STREET, W. In consequence of removal, several Rock-Cutting Machines disposal, at reduced prices. HOW & CO.’S ; Geological Transparencies for the Lantern. Descriptive Catalogue on Application. WALKER’S SPECIFIC GRAVITY BALANCE FOR ROCKS AND MINERALS. HOW & CO.’S POCKET MICROSCOPE LAMP. 8s. 6d. _ MICRO-PETROLOGY.—Sections of Pitchstones, Obsidians, Granites, Syenites, Diorites, Gabbros, Dolerites, Basalts, Tachylites, ‘Trachytes, \ndesites, Porphyrites, Rhyolites, Lavas, Ashes, Gneiss, Schists, Lime- stones, &c., price 1s. 6d. each, JAMES HOw & CO., 73, Farrincpon STREET, Lonpon. MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY. PROFESSORS, COLLECTORS and VISITORS to LONDON are INVITED to INSPECT Mr. HENSON’S STOCK of CHOICE MINE- RALS, &c., &c. At the PRESENT TIME he has a PARTICULARLY FINE CRYSTALLISED NUGGET of NATIVE GOLD, WEIGHT 9 oz., PINK AP.)PHYLLITE, CHESSYLITE, EMERALDS on MATRIX, PYROMORPHITE (very RARE FoRM), CERUSSITE, CRYSTALL- ISED MALACHITE, and BOTRYOIDAL CHALCEDONY, ME- TEORIC IRONS and STONES. POLISHED AGATES and LABRA- DORITES. A Large Series of ROCKS, also MICROSCOPIC SECTIONS of the same. Lists on Application. PRIVATE LESSONS AND EVENING CLASSES. BLOWPIPE CASES AND APPARATUS. Catalogues free. SAMUEL HENSON, 277, STRAND, LONDON. Opposite Norfolk Street. SCIENCE AND ART DEPARTMENT 50 PER CENT. GRANT FOR THE PURCHASE OF STANDARD COLLECTIONS AND APPARATUS FOR TEACHING GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY. NEW LISTS and FORMS on which the Application is to be made supplied by THOMAS J. DOWNING, Geologist, &c., 38, WHISKIN STREET, LONDON, E.C. (over Quarter of a Century). CALVER has received HIGHEST AWARD for ‘‘ Excellence and Improvements” in Reflecting Telescopes exhibited at the International Exhibition, London.—Descriptive Cata- logues, twelve stamps. G. CALVER, F.R.A.S., Widford, Chelmsford. are for Hammers, Chisels, and Hammer Straps. G. EDWARD WARD has pleasure in an- nouncing the issue of a new Micro-Slide of Zoophyte, with tentacles out, in the special manner so well known to his numerous patrons. = Plumularia similis... «. (post-free) 2 8 Also, quite new :-— Gorgonia verrucosa (polype stained) ,, 22 Podalirus typicus (Spectre Shrimp) “Fi I 2 EDWARD WARD, 249, OXFORD STREET, MANCHESTER. [503 a DR as x ww ~ / ~~ a = — : A WEEKLY ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL- OF SCIENCE “© To the solid ground Of Nature trusts the mind which builds for aye.” —WORDSWORTH No. 816, VOL. 32] THURSDAY, JUNE 18, 1885 [ PRICE_SIXPENCE Registered as a Newspaper at the General Post Office] [All Rights are Reserved PATENT INDESTRUCTIBLE GAS COOKING RANGES. These are the most efficient and economical Gas Cooking Ranges ever made. PERFECTION in COOKING can now be guaranteed. They are to all intents and purposes ABSOLUTELY INDESTRUCT- IBLE, and will at the same time Roast, Bake, Boil, Grill, Toast, and Fry, doing all perfectly, and at LESS THAN HALF the cost of coals. The Society of Arts’ GOLD MEDAL (The ““SIEMENS'PRIZE") and the GOLD MEDAL of The Health Exhibition were both awarded for DEANE & CO.’S EXHIBIT of FLETCHER’S STOVESas ‘‘ The Best Application of Gas to Heating and Cooking in Dwellings.” The whole of FLETCHER’S Fur- naces, Forges, Blow-pipes, Asbestos Fires, Ranges, Washers, Bath and Water Heaters, &c., &c., can always be seen in action in DEANE & Co.’s Show Rooms, All Orders Carriage paid to nearest Station. Discount for Cash. COMPLETE ILLUSTRATED LISTS FREE. DEANE & CO. (witisS:.) LONDON BRIDGE. ::.: FLETGHER'S | | | } | | | | | | | ‘ | BROWNING’ BINOCULARS. — “ECONOMICAL ” THE FIELD GLASS. This Binocular has achromatic object-glasses 14 inches in diameter, and sliding shades to shelter the object-glasses from sun or rain, and is fitted in a solid leather sling case, price £1 55-., sent free. Tilustrated Catalogue of Binoculars post free. JOHN BROWNING, 63, STRAND, LONDON, W.C. RIBBON SECTION CUTTING. The Cambridge Scientific Instrument Company have designed a new and simple Microtome for cutting continuous Ribbons of Sections of Microscopic Preparations on the plan first adopted by Mr. Caldwell. The new instru- ment has the advantage over the original pattern of dispensing with the endless band altogether, and consequently not only avoiding the trouble of lifting the series of Sections from the razor, but also of ailowing them to fall on to the glass slide in their proper position for mounting. Price of the Microtome, £5 5s- The Company are appointed Agents for the Microscopes of Zeiss, a supply of which is kept in stock. THE CAMBRIDGE SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENT CO., Cambridge. MEMORY and SUCCESS.—What contri- butes to success? A good memory.—What causes failure in life? A poor memory.—What can all obtain from Prof. Loisette’s DIS- COVERIES? A good memory—THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ART OF NEVER FORGETTING—using none of the “‘Links,” ‘‘ Pegs,” ‘‘Localities,” or ‘‘ Associations’? of Mnemonics. Lost memories re- stored—the worst made good, and the best better. Any book learned in one reading. Prospectus POST FREE giving opinions of Mr. RICHARD A. PROCTOR, Dr. ANDREW WILSON, and others who have studied the System. A Day Class in Never Forgetting and for Cure of Mind-Wandering commences every Monday at3 p.m. An Evening Class every Tuesday at 8 p.m. Lectures in Families of the Nobility; also taught thoroughly by POST. Prof. LOISETTE, 37, New OxrorD STREET (opposite Mudie’s) W.C. NEGRETTI AND ZAMBRA, SOLE MAKERS OF JORDAN’S (PATENT) SUNSHINE RECORDER. PRICE £3 3s. NE GoRSESi ir | ZAMBRA-« ScienTIFIC INSTRUMENT TO THE QUEEN “* HOLBORN VIAA≪ condor. Branches :—4° 122, Regent Sion Post Free. Lliustrated P——_ = A WEEKLY ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL OF SCIENCE “© To the solid ground Of Nature trusts the mind which builds for aye.”,—WORDSWORTH No. 817, VOL. 32] THURSDAY, JUNE 26, 1885 [PRICE SIXPENCE Registered as a Newspaper at the General Post Office] MAWSON & SWAN MANUFACTURERS OF PHOTOGRAPHIC DRY PLATES, COLLODIONS, VARNISHES, AND CHEMICALS, Have REMOVED their London Store From WATLING STREET, To Beh Our ON) G DON Si RE Et; (Adjoinng MARCUS WARD, & CO.) HEAD OFFICE — MOSLEY STREET, NEWCASTLE-ON-TYNE. [504 {All Rights are Reserved BROWNING’S AMATEURS SET OF FH OPOGRAEBIC APPARATUS cn For Dry-Plate Photography, comprising every Article shown in the Engraving, Complete in Case, price £2 5s. Fut ILLUSTRATED CATALOGUE OF PHOTOGRAPHIC APPARATUS SENT FREE. JOHN BROWNING, 63, STRAND, LONDON, W.C. MEMORY and SUCCESS.—What contri- butes to success? A good memory.—What causes failure in life? A poor memory.—What can all obtain from Prof. Loisette’s DIS- COVERIES? A good memory—THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ART OF NEVER FORGETTING—using none of the ‘‘Links,” “Pegs,” “Localities,”” or ‘“‘ Associations”” of Mnemonics. Lost memories re- stored—the worst made good, and the best better. Azzy book learned in one reading. Prospectus POST FREE giving opinions of Mr. RICHARD A. PROCTOR, Dr. ANDREW WILSON, and others who have studied the System. A Day Class in Never Forgetting and for Cure of Mind-Wandering commences every Monday at3p.m. An Evening Class every Tuesday at 8 p.m. Lectures in Families of the Nobility; also taught thoroughly by POST. Prof. LOISETTE, 37, New OxrorpD STREET (opposite Mudie’s) W.C. WANTED.—“ NATURE” at Half Price Three Days after Publication—Address ARISTOTLE, care of Lister's Library, 113 and 115, Hammersmith Road. VICTORIA UNIVERSITY. UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LIVERPOOL. PROFESSORSHIP OF ENGINEERING. Applications are invited for a new Chair of Engineering, Salary £375 a Year, together with two-thirds of the Fees derived from Students. The Professor will be required to commence work at the beginning of OCTOBER next. Applications with Copies of Testimonials to be sent not later than JULY 5 to the College Registrar, who will supply full particulars on inquiry. NEGRETTI AND ZAMBRA, SOLE MAKERS OF SUNSHINE RECORDER. PRICE £3 3s. NEGRE DT! AND ZAMBRA, ScIENTIFIC INSTRUMENT MAKERS TO THE QUEEN, HOLBORN VIADUCT. Branches :—45, Cornhill ; 122, Regent Street, London. Lliustrated Description Post Free. NEGRETTI & ZAMBRA’S Large Illustrated Catalogue, 600 Pages, 1200 Engravings, Price 5s. 6. Ivili KING’S COLLEGE, LONDON. CURATORSHIP OF THE ANATOMICAL MUSEUM. This Appointment is now vacant. For information apply to J. W. CUNNINGHAM, Secretary. CITY AND GUILDS OF LONDON INSTITUTE. CENTRAL INSTITUTION. Summer Courses of Lectures and Laboratory Instruction for TECHNI- CAL TEACHERS and others to be held in the Institute’s New Buildings in EXHIBITION ROAD. I. On the Teaching of GEOMETRY in its TECHNICAL APPLI- CATIONS— By Prof. O. Henric1, LL.D., F.R.S., commencing on Monday, June 22. II. On the TESTING of MATERIALS of CONSTRUCTION, with some Applications to the DESIGN of MACHINERY— By Prof. W. C. UNWIN, M.I1.C.E., commencing on Monday, July 6. III. On the Teaching of ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING— By Prof. W. E. Ayrton, F.R.S., commencing on Monday, July 20. Courses II. and III., consisting of Lectures and Laboratory Instruction, will be illustrated by one or more DEMONSTRATIONS in the Inter. national INVENTIONS Exhibition. Each of the above Courses will extend Saturdays excepted. IV. CARRIAGE BUILDING— Three Lectures by G. A. Tururp, Esq., on June 29 and 30, and July 2, at 7 p-m. V. PLUMBING—* Four Lectures, with Demonstrations, by W. R. 6, 7, 9, and 10, at 7 p.m. Registered TEACHERS of the Institute may, on application to the Director, be admitted to any of these Courses without payment of fees. For further details, and for Syllabuses of the several Courses, apply at Gresham College, E.C., or at Exhibition Road, S.W. PHILIP MAGNUS, Director and Secretary. OPEN SCHOLARSHIPS in NATURAL SCIENCE of the value of £100 and £60 are awarded annually in OCU ruE at St. Thomas’s Hospital Medical School, Albert Embank- ment, S.E. For particulars apply to Mr. G. RENDLE, Medical Secretary. W. M. ORD, Dean. EDWARD WARD has pleasure in an- nouncing the issue of a new Micro-Slide of Zoophyte, with tentacles out, in the special manner so well known to his numerous patrons. da. over two weeks, from xo till 5 daily, MacutrE, Esq., on July Plumularia similis ... (post-free) 2 8 Also, quite new :— Gorgonia verrucosa (polype stained) ,, 2 2 Podalirus typicus (Spectre Shrimp) eS I 2 EDWARD WARD, 249, OXFORD STREET, MANCHESTER. PATERSON & COOPER, 76, LITTLE BRITAIN, LONDON, E.C. Electric Light and Power and Telephone Engineers, New Electric Light Catalogue, post free 1s. PATERSON & COOPER beg to give notice that they have disposed of the Philosophical, Educational, and Experimental Part of their Business to Messrs. J. and T. MAYFIELD, 41, Queen Victoria Street, E.C. SCIENCE AND ART DEPARTMENT [503 50 PER CENT. GRANT FOR THE PURCHASE OF STANDARD COLLECTIONS AND APPARATUS FOR TEACHING GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY. NEW LISTS and FORMS on which the Application is to be made supplied by THOMAS J. DOWNING, Geologist, &c., 8, WHISKIN STREET, LONDON, E.C. (over Querter of a Century). INTERNATIONAL HEALTH EXHIBITION. DIVISION—EDUCATION. A PRIZE MEDAL AWARDED TO THOMAS D: RUSSELL, 78, NEWGATE STREET, LONDON, E.C., For Geological Collections for Science Teaching. Catalogues Post free. NATURE [Fune 25, 1885 LIVING SPECIMENS FOR THE MICROSCOPE. GOLD MEDALawarded at the FISHERIES EXHIBITION to THOMAS BOLTON, 57, NEWHALL STREET, BIRMINGHAM. who has last week sent to his subscribers Plumatella repens, with drawing and description. He has also sent out Leptodora hyalina, Argulus foliaceus, _ Argulus coregoni, Macrothrix roseus, Moina rectirostris, Lophopus crystal- linus, Spongilla fluviatilis, Asplanchna Ebbesbornii, Melicerta ringens, Volvox globator, Hydrodictyon utriculatum ; also Hydra, Vorticella, Ameba, Crayfish, and other Specimens for (Huxley and Martin’s) Biological Labora- tory work. Weekly Announcements will be made in this place of Organisms T. B. is supplying. Specimen Tube, One Shilling, post free. Twenty-six Tubesin course of Six Months for Subscription of £1 18., or Twelve Tubes for 10s. 6d. Portfolio of Drawings, Ten Parts, 1s. each. ICROSCOPIC OBJECTS FOR HIRE, Histological, Botanical, Geological, by the best Mounters. Let out on most moderate terms. Particulars of B. WELLS, Dalmain Road, Forest Hill. [302 MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY. PROFESSORS, COLLECTORS and VISITORS to LONDON are INVITED to INSPECT Mr. HENSON’S STOCK of CHOICE MINE- RALS, &c., &c. At the PRESENT TIME he has a PARTICULARLY FINE CRYSTALLISED NUGGET of NATIVE GOLD, WEIGHT 9 oz., PINK APOPHYLLITE, CHESSYLITE, EMERALDS on MATRIX, PYROMORPHITE (very rare FoRM), CERUSSITE, CRYSTALL- ISED MALACHITE, and BOTRYOIDAL CHALCEDONY, ME- TEORIC IRONS and STONES. POLISHED AGATES and LABRA- DORITES. A Large Series of ROCKS, also MICROSCOPIC SECTIONS of the same. Lists on Application. Hammers, Chisels, and Hammer Straps. PRIVATE LESSONS AND EVENING CLASSES. BLOWPIPE CASES AND APPARATUS. SAMUEL HENSON, 277, STRAND, LONDON. Opposite Norfolk Street. SIX PRIZE MEDALS AWARDED FOR GEOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS. Geological Collections especially adapted for Teaching as supplied to Science and Art Department, and used by all Lecturers and Teachers in Great Britain, &c. x New and Rare Minerals constantly arriving from all parts for selection of Single Specimens. ROCK SECTIONS AND ROCK SPECIMENS: The Largest Variety in England. New Catalogues and Lists onapplication to— JAMES R. GREGORY, 88, CHARLOTTE STREET, FITZROY SQUARE, LONDON Established 27 Years in London. HOW & CO.’S Geological Transparencies for the Lantern. Descriptive Catalogue on Application. WALKER’S SPECIFIC GRAVITY BALANCE FOR ROCKS AND MINERALS. HOW & CO.’S POCKET MICROSCOPE LAMP, 8s. 6d. _ MICRO-PETROLOGY.—Sections of Pitchstones, Obsidians, tsrenites, Syenites, Diorites, Gabbros, Dolerites, Basalts, Tachylites, ‘Trachytes, Andesites, Porphyrites, Rhyolites, Lavas, Ashes, Gneiss, Schists, Lime- stones, &c., price 15. 6d. each, JAMES HOw & CO., 73, Farrincpon STREET, Lonpon. Catalogues free. Copy your Circulars, Plans, Sketches, Music in attractive (Lithographic) Style by the AUTOCOPYIST. Black, Red, &c. From 20s. As the handwriting is faithfully reproduced, Circulars are more effective than by any other system: Ordinary pens and fluid ink used ; easily worked by alad. See it. The AUTOCOPYIST CO., 72, London Wall, London. BOOKS (Secondhand), Miscellaneous, Re- mainders, &.—C. HERBERT, English and Foreign Bookseller, 319. Goswell Road, London, E.C. Catalogue free on receipt of two stamps. Libraries, Old Books, and Parchment purchased. WEEKLY ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL OF SCIENCE “To the solid ground Of Nature trusts the mind which builds for aye.’—WoRDSWORTH No. 818, VOL. 32] THURSDAY, Oo t JULY 2, 1885 [PRICE SIXPENCE Registered as a Newspaper at the General Post Office] {All Rights are Reserved AMATEUR PHOTOGRAPHY. MARION’S Britannia Dry Plates are the Best and Cheapest. MARION’S Photographic Outfits. The Largestand Best Selection for the Tourist, Artist, Bicylist, Military Man, and others. Special Outfits for Beginners. Price for Complete Set, from 45s. and upwards. MARION’S Academy Camera. MARION’S Miniature Camera. MARION’S Registered Washing Apparatus. MARION’S Rectilinear and Portrait Lenses, IWARION’S Ready Sensitised Paper. WLARION’S Instantaneous Shutters, MARION’S Enlarging Apparatus and Magic Lantern. MARION’S Best French Mounts. MARION’S Self-Adjusting Rolling Press and Burnisher. MARION’S Practical Guide to Photography. Second Edi- tion, Revised and Enlarged, giving clear and precise Instructions for Learning and Practising Photography. Price 2s. 6d. post free. Free Lessons in Photography to Purchasers.—_Marion and Co. have erected a Gallery in Soho Square, specially for giving Lessons. Printing from Amateurs’ Negatives, Enlarging. MARION’S Alpha Paper Prints by Gaslight in One Minute. The printing process of the future. Sample packet 5s. Photographs Mounted, Arranged, & BoundintoVolumes. Chemicals, Mounts, Albums, Scrap Books. PRICED LIST FREE ON APPLICATION. MARION &Co., 22 & 23, Soho Square, London. SHOW ROOM—GROUND FLOOR. RIBBON SECTION CUTTING. The Cambridge Scientific Instrument Company have designed a new and simple Microtome for cutting continuous Ribbons of Sections of Microscopic Preparations on the plan first adopted by Mr. Caldwell. The new instru- ment has the advantage over the original pattern of dispensing with the endless band altogether, and consequently not only avoiding the trouble of lifting the series of Sections from the razor, but also of allowing them to fall on to the glass slide in their proper position for mounting. Price of the Microtome, 45 5s. The Company are appointed Agents or the Microscopes of Zeiss, a supply of which is kept in stock. THE CAMBRIDGE SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENT CO., Cambridge. VICTORIA UNIVERSITY. UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LIVERPOOL. PROFESSORSHIP OF ENGINEERING. Applications are invited for a new Chair of Engineering, Salary £375 a Year, together with two-thirds of the Fees derived from Students. The Professor will be required tocommence work at the beginning of OCTOBER next, : 2 Applications with Copies of Testimonials to be sent not later than JULY 5 to the College Registrar, who will supply full particulars on inquiry. BOOKS (Secondhand), Miscellaneous, Re- mainders, &e.—C. HERBERT, English and Foreign Bookseller, 319 Goswell Road, London, E.C. Catalogue free on receipt of two stamps Libraries, Old Books, and Parchment purchased. BROWNING’S AMATEUR’S SET OF PHOTOGRAPHIC APPARATUS ry For Dry-Plate Photography, comprising every Article shown in the Engraving, Complete in Case, price £2 5s. Fut ILLUSTRATED CATALOGUE OF PHOTOGRAPHIC APPARATUS SENT FREE® JOHN BROWNING, 63, STRAND, LONDON, W.-C. NEGRETTI AND ZAMBRA, SOLE MAKERS OF JORDAN’S (PATENT) SUNSHINE RECORDER. PRICE £3 3s. N E.G@R.E-F-T-1 ZAMSBRA, ScrentiFic INSTRUMENT MAKERS TO THE QUEEN, HOLBORN VIADUCT. Branches :—45, Cornhill ; 122, Regent Street, London. Lliustrated Description Post Free. NEGRETTI & ZAMBRA’S Large Illustrated Catalogue, 600 Pages, 1200 Engravines. Price 5s. 62. Ixvi NATURE [Fuly 2, 1885 UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF SOUTH WALES AND MONMOUTHSHIRE. An_ ASSISTANT LECTURER in MATHEMATICS will be AP- POINTED in SEPTEMBER (Stipend, £100 per annum). Candidates must send in applications, with testimonials and references, not later than AUGUST 27. For further information apply to Cardiff, June 12, 1885. IVOR JAMES, Registrar. THE YORKSHIRE COLLEGE, LEEDS. APPOINTMENT OF PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY. The Council invite applications for the Chair of Chemistry to be vacated by Dr. Thorpe, F.R.S., on September 30. Applications will be received up to July 14, and should be accompanied by Six Testimonials, and by the names of Three Referees. Further information may be obtained from the SECRETARY. MINERALS AND STONE IMPLEMENTS. MR. BRYCE-WRIGHT begs to call the attention of his Clients and the Public to his large Series of MINERALS AND STONE IMPLEMENTS, from which single specimens can be selected. Elementary Collections of Minerals, Fossils, and Rocks from £1 upwards. N.B.—These Collections obtained the Prize Medal, 1862. GEMS AND PRECIOUS STONES OF EVERY DESCRIPTION. BRYCE-WRIGHT, Mineralogist and Expert in Precious Stones, 204, REGENT STREET, LONDON, W. MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY. PROFESSORS, COLLECTORS and VISITORS to LONDON are INVITED to INSPECT Mr. HENSON’S STOCK of CHOICE MINE- RALS, &c., &c. At the PRESENT TIME he has a PARTICULARLY FINE CRYSTALLISED NUGGET of NATIVE GOLD, WEIGHT 9 oz., PINK APOPHYLLITE, CHESSYLITE, EMERALDS on MATRIX, PYROMORPHITE (very rare Form), CERUSSITE, CRYSTALL- ISED MALACHITE, and BOTRYOIDAL CHALCEDONY, ME- Re SONS and STONES. POLISHED AGATES and LABRA- A Large Series of ROCKS, also MICROSCOPIC SECTIONS of the same. Lists on Application. PRIVATE LESSONS AND EVENING CLASSES. BLOWPIPE CASES AND APPARATUS. SAMUEL HENSON, 277, STRAND, LONDON. Opposite Norfolk Street. SIX PRIZE MEDALS =| AWARDED FOR GEOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS. Geological Collections especially adapted for Teaching as supplied to Science and Art Department, and used by all Lecturers and Teachers in Great Britain, &c. New and Rare Minerals constantly arriving from all parts for selection of Single Specimens. ROCK SECTIONS AND ROCK SPECIMENS: The Largest Variety in England. New Catalogues and Lists onapplication to— JAMES R. GREGORY, 88, CHARLOTTE STREET, FITZROY SQUARE, LONDON. Established 27 Years in London. Hammers, Chisels, and Hammer Straps. Catalogues free. On the rst of every Month, price Sixpence. THE ENTOMOLOGIsT: AN ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL OF BRITISH ENTOMOLOGY. Edited by Joun T. CarrincTon, With the Assistance of FREDERICK Bonp, F.Z.S. Joun A. Power, M.D. Epwarp A. Fircn, F.L.S. J. JENNER WEIR, F.L.S. F. BucHanan Wuite, M.D. Contains Articles by well-known Entomologists on all Branches of the Science; on Insects injurious or beneficial to Farm or Garden; Notes on Habits, Life-Histories; occurrence of Rarities, &c.; there are Monthly Lists of Duplicates and Desiderata. Numerous Woopcut IL.tusTraTIONS, to the printing of which especial attention is given, and occasional LirHoGRAPHED and CHRomo-LiTHo- GRAPHED PLATES. 'SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, & CO., Stationers’ Hall Court. | LIVING SPECIMENS FOR THE MICROSCOPE. GOLD MEDAL awarded at the FISHERIES EXHIBITION to THOMAS BOLTON, s7, NEWHALL STREET, BIRMINGHAM. who has last week sent to his subscribers Hydrobia ulva, with spawn and sketch. _ He has also sent out Leptodora hyalina, Argulus foliaceus, Argulus coregoni, Macrothrix roseus, Moina rectirostris, Lophopus crystallinus, Plumatella repens, Cordylophora lacustris, Spongilla fluviatilis, Asplanchna Ebbesbornii, Melicerta ringens, Volvox globator; also Hydra, Vorticella, Ameeba, Crayfish, and other Specimens for (Huxley and Martin’s) Biological Laboratory work. Weekly Announcements will be made in this place of Organisms T. B_ is supplying. Specimen Tube, One Shilling, post free. Twenty-six Tubesin course of Six Months for Subscription of £1 15., or Twelve Tubes for 10s. 6d. Portfolio of Drawings, Ten Parts, 1s. each. EDWARD WARD has pleasure in an- nouncing the issue of a new Micro-Slide of Zoophyte, with tentacles out, in the special manner so well known to his numerous patrons. eas (post-free) 2 8 Plumularia similis... Also, quite new :— Gorgonia verrucosa (polype stained) ,, 2 2 Podalirus typicus (Spectre Shrimp) mi x 2 EDWARD WARD, 249, OXFORD STREET, MANCHESTER. [503 INTERNATIONAL HEALTH EXHIBITION. — DIVISION—EDUCATION. % A PRIZE MEDAL AWARDED TO THOMAS D. RUSSELL, 78, NEWGATE STREET, LONDON, E.C., For Geological Collections for Science Teaching Catalogues Post free. SCIENCE AND ART DEPARTMENT 50 PER CENT. GRANT FOR THE PURCHASE OF STANDARD COLLECTIONS AND APPARATUS FOR TEACHING GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY. NEW LISTS and FORMS on which the Application is to be made supplied by THOMAS J. DOWNING, Geologist, &c., 8, WHISKIN STREET, LONDON, E.C. (over Quarter of a Century). PATERSON & COOPER, 76, LITTLE BRITAIN, LONDON, E.C. Electric Light and Power and Telephone Engineers. New Electric Light Catalogue, post free 1s. PATERSON & COOPER beg to give notice that they have disposed of the Philosophical, Educational, and Experimental Part of their Business to Messrs. J. and T. MAYFIELD, 41, Queen Victoria Street, E.C. LA SEMAINE FRANGAISE: a Weekly Newspaper and Review in the French Language. Politics, Literatur: , Science, Art, Varieties, Notes. Price 2d., through Booksellers, and at the Railway Bookstalls. Office, 441, Strand, W.C. LA SEMAINE FRANCAISE: Journal Frangais pour l’Angleterre : Politique, Littérature, Sciences, Arts, Variétés, Nouvelles. et Notes. Un exemplaire par la poste, 2}¢., en timbres poste. Abonne- ment franco par la poste—un an, tos. 10d. ; six mois, 5s. 5d. Prix 2a. chez tous les libraires et aux gares des chemins de fer. On s’abonne aux bureaux, 441, Strand, Londres, W.C. LA SEMAINE FRANCAISE.—“‘La Semaine Fran- aise” has been brought out in London for'the. benefit of those Englis) readers who may wish to study contemporary French from all points cf view, instead of confining their reading to one particular Gallic prints. It certainly merits success.”—Graphic.’ TERMS OF SUBSCRIPTION :— s @ Three Months ... ees & nc ave ow +2 @Q Six ” see - ove oa oie, 5S Twelve ,, Soe , nee a on soc XOMELG P.O.0O. payableto A. CrisTin. Publishing Office, 441, Strand. W.C, > TARY, U.S: NaN x a a a S Z ¢ x ZN 4 A WEEKLY ILLUSTRATED) JOURNAL, OF SCIENCE “© To the solid ground Of Nature trusts the mind which builds for aye.’,—WoRDSWORTH No. 819, VOL. 32] RHURS DAY aa IUilEN. ©, 1885 [PRICE SIXPENCE Registered as a Newspaper at the General Post Office] {All Rights are Reserved AMATEUR | PHOTOGRAPHERS SHOULD ALWAYS USE mae MAWSON PLATE. The BEST and CHEAPEST in the Market. Uniform, Reliable, and exceedingly easy to develop. DIAWSON &S& SWAN, MOSLEY STREET, NEWCASTLE-ON-TYNE ; and 31, FARRINGDON STREET, LONDON. R. & J. BECK’S Mpa WW MICROSC OPH, Pree. St AR “504 PRICES. 4 5s. a. Stand, with 1-in. Object- glass ... ion ose oon, 24 0) Stand, with 1-in. and +-in, Object-glasses ... 1 6) (0) Stand, with Rack and Pinion, coarse adjustment, 2 Eye- pieces, and r-in. Object- glass ... SU Bm tere 3-3-0 Stand, with Rack and Pinion, coarse adjustment, 2 Eye- pieces, and I-in. and 1-in, Object-glasses ... 440 full Descriptive Pamphlet sent on Application to R. &J. BECK, 68, Cornhill, London, E.C. BROWNING’S PLATYSCOPIC LENS. Engraved Real Size. A NEW ACHROMATIC COMBINATION, COMBINING THE DEFINITION OF A MICROSCOPE WITH THE PORTABILITY OF A POCKET LENS. “Tf you carry a small Platyscopic Pocket Lens (which every observer of Nature ought to do).”—Grant ALLEN in Knowledge. The Platyscopic Lens is invaluable to botanists, mineralogists, or ento- mologists, as it focuses about three times as far from the object as the Coddington Lenses. This allows opaque objects to be examined easily. The Platyscopic Lens is made of four degrees of power, magnifying respectively, ro, 15, 20, and 30 diams. ; the lowest power, having the largest field, is the best adapted for general use. The Lenses are set in Ebonite Cells, and mounted in Tortoiseshell Frames. Price of the Platyscopic Lens, mounted in Tortoiseshell, magni- fying either 10, 15, 20, or 30 diameters, 18s. 6d, each power. Illustrated description sent free. JOHN BROWNING, 63, STRAND, LONDON, W.C. NEGRETTI AND ZAMBRA, SOLE MAKERS OF JORDAN’S (PATENT) SUNSHINE RECORDER. PRICE £3 3s. NEGRETTI ZAMSBRA, ScrentTiFic INSTRUMENT MAKERS TO THE QUEEN, HOLBORN VIADUCT. Branches :—45, Cornhill; 122, Regent Street, London. Lliustrated Description Post Free. ae i NEGRETTI & ZAMBRA’S Large Illustrated Catalogue 600 Pages, 1200 Engravings. Price 5s. 6:2. Ixxiv NATURE [ Fuly 9, 1885 OWENS COLLEGE, VICTORIA UNIVERSITY, MANCHESTER. The Council invite applications for Five Berkeley Fellowships of the value of £100 each for the year 1885-86, to be awarded in one or more of the follow- ing subjects :—x. Classics. 2, English Languageand Literature. 3. History. 4. Philosophy. 5. Pure Mathematics. 6. Applied Mathematics. 7. En- gineering. 8. Physics. 9. Chemistry. 10. Biology (including Physiology). 11. Geology (including Palzontology). The appointments will be made not on the results of examination, but on evidence of ability to prosecute some special study or research. Applications must be sent to the Registrar on or before September 25. A fuller statement of the conditions of the Fellowships will be forwarded on application, HENRY WM. HOLDER, M.A., Registrar. ST. THOMAS’S HOSPITAL MEDICAL SCHOOL. An Appointment of Demonstrator of Physiology and Practical Physiology will shortly be made. Gentlemen proposing to apply for the post are referred x Mr. GerorcE RENDLE, Medical Secretary, St. Thomas's Hospital, Py OPEN SCHOLARSHIPS in NATURAL SCIENCE of the value of £100 and £60 are awarded annually in OCTOBER at St. Thomas’s Hospital Medical School, Albert Embank- ment, S.E. For particulars apply to Mr, G. RenpLE, Medical Secretary. W. M. ORD, Dean. THE YORKSHIRE COLLEGE, LEEDS. APPOINTMENT OF PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY. The Council invite applications for the Chair of Chemistry to be vacated by Dr. Thorpe, F.R.S., on September 30. Applications will be received up to July 14, and should be accompanied by Six Testimonials, and by the names of Three Referees. Further information may be obtained from the SECRETARY. ASTRONOMICAL REFLECTING TELE- SCOPE, 6} inches diameter, on Altazimuth Stand, with Solar Eyepiece, a Battery of 6 Huyghenian and Achromatic Eyepieces and Terrestrial LIVING SPECIMENS FOR THE MICROSCOPE. GOLD MEDAL awarded at the FISHERIES EXHIBITION to THOMAS BOLTON, 57, NEWHALL STREET, BIRMINGHAM. who has last week sent to his subscribers Hydrobia ulvz, with spawn and sketch. He has also sent out Leptodora hyalina, Argulus foliaceus, Argulus coregoni, Macrothrix roseus, Moina rectirostris, Lophopus crystallinus, Plumatella repens, Cordylophora lacustris, Spongilla fluviatilis, Asplanchna Ebbesbornii, Melicerta ringens, Volvox globator; also Hydra, Vorticella, Amoeba, Crayfish, and other Specimens for (Huxley and Martin’s) Biological Laboratory work. Weekly Announcements wil] be made in this place of Organisms T. Bis supplying. Specimen Tube, One Shilling, post free. Twenty-six Tubesin course of Six Months for Subscription of £1 15 , or Twelve Tubes for ros. 6d. Portfolio of Drawings, Ten Parts, 1s.each. MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY. PROFESSORS, COLLECTORS and VISITORS to LONDON are INVITED to INSPECT Mr. HENSON’S STOCK of CHOICE MINE- RALS, &c., &c. At the PRESENT TIME he has a PARTICULARLY FINE CRYSTALLISED NUGGET of NATIVE GOLD, WEIGHT 9 oz., PINK APOPHYLLITE, CHESSYLITE, EMERALDS on MATRIX, PYROMORPHITE (very rare Form), CERUSSITE, CRYSTALL- ISED MALACHITE, and BOTRYOIDAL CHALCEDONY, ME- TEORIC IRONS and STONES. POLISHED AGATES and LABRA- DORITES. A Large Series of ROCKS, also MICROSCOPIC SECTIONS of the same. Lists on Application. Hammers, Chisels, and Hammer Straps. PRIVATE LESSONS AND EVENING CLASSES. BLOWPIPE CASES AND APPARATUS. SAMUEL HENSON, 277, STRAND, LONDON. Opposite Norfolk Street. Catalogues free. Eyepiece, with other accessories. Price £25. Cost upwards of £50. Apply to Mr. Joun Brownine, 63, Strand, London, W.C. A B.A. of TRIN. COLL., CAMBRIDGE desires employment. Honcurs (2nd Class) in Natural Science, 1 Subjects: Physiology, Comp. Anat., andChemistry. Apply, E. W. W., 13, Gargraye Road, Skipton in Craven. MINERALS AND FOSSILS, SINGLE SPECIMENS OR COLLECTIONS. a. HH. BUTLER, Assoc. R. Sch. Mines Lond., M.A. Oxon, and L.S.A. Lond, Successor to the late R. TALLING. 180, BROMPTON ROAD, LONDON, S.W. Five minutes’ walk from the Natural History Museum, S. Kensington. BEST BLACK INK KNOWN. DRAPER’S INK (DICHROIC). DIFFERING FROM ANYTHING ELSE EVER PRODUCED. Writing becomes a pleasure when this Ink is used. It has been adopted by the principal Banks, Public Offices,and Railway Companies throughout | Treland. It writes almostinstantly Full Black. | Flows easily from the Pen. Does not corrode Steel Pens. Blotting-paper may be applied at the Iscleanly to use, and not liable to Blot. moment of writing. Can be obtained in London, through Messrs. BARCLAY & Sons. Farring - don Street ; W. Epwarps, Uld Change; F. Newsery & Sons, Newgate ; Street ; J. Austin & Co., Duke Street, Liverpool ; and to be had of all ‘Stationers. BEWLEY & DRAPER (Limited), Dublin. THE BREWERS’ GUARDIAN: A Fortnightly Paper devoted tothe Protection of Brewers’ Interests, Licensing, Legal, and Parliamentary Matters. Review or THE Matt AND Hop TRADES; AND WINE AND SPIRIT TRADE RECORD. The Organ of the Country Brewers. “‘The Brewers’ Guardian”’ is published on the evenings of every alternate Tuesday, and is the only journal officially connected with brewing interests. Subscription, 16s. 6d. per annum, post free, dating fromany quarter-day. Single Copies, rs.each. Registered for transmission abroad. Offices—5. Bond Court, Walbrook, London, E.C- | SIX PRIZE MEDALS AWARDED FOR GEOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS. Geological Collections especially adapted for Teaching as supplied to Science and Art Department, and used by all Lecturers and Teachers in Great Britain, &c. 2 New and Rare Minerals constantly arriving from all parts for selection of Single Specimens. ROCK SECTIONS AND ROCK SPECIMENS: The Largest Variety in England. New Catalogues and Lists onapplication to— JAMES R. GREGORY, £8, CHARLOTTE STREET, FITZROY SQUARE, LONDON. Established 27 Years in London. EDWARD WARD has pleasure in an- nouncing the issue of a new Micro-Slide of Zoophyte, with tentacles out, in the special manner so well known to his numerous patrons. s. d. «. (post-free) 2 8 Plumularia similis 4. Also, quite new :— Gorgonia verrucosa (polype stained) ,, 22 Podalirus typicus (Spectre Shrimp) 9 i EDWARD WARD, 249, OXFORD STREET, MANCHESTER. INTERNATIONAL HEALTH EXHIBITION. DIVISION—EDUCATION. A PRIZE MEDAL AWARDED TO THOMAS D. RUSSELL, 78, NEWGATE STREET, LONDON, E.C., For Geological Collections for Science Teaching. Catalogues Post free. TEE HSAs Ar Published since 1864 in Hamburg, is the only independent prefessional paper in Germany dedicated exclusively to Maritime Objects. Essays, Critiques, Reviews, Reports, Advertisements. Strict eye kept upon the development of Maritime Affairs in every respect. Every second Sunday one Number in 4to at least ; frequent supplements and drawings. Subscription at any time ; preceding numbers of the year furnished subsequently. Price 12s. for twelve months. Advertisements 4@. a line widely spread by this paper; considerable abatement for 3, 6, 12 months’ inserticn. Business Office: Aug. Meyer and Dieckmann, Hamburg, Alterwall, 28. Edited by W. von FrEEDEN, M.R.. Hamburg, Alexander Street, 8. [503 sy A WEEKLY ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL OF SCIENCE “* To the solid ground Of Nature trusts the mind which builds for aye.’’—WoRDSWORTH No. 820, VOL. 32] LAURSDAY, UN 16, [PRICE SIXPENCE Registered as a Newspaper at the General Post Office] (All Rights are Reserved BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. 22, ALBEMARLE STREET, LONDON, W. The NEXT ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING will be held at ABERDEEN, commencing on WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 9. PRESIDENT-ELECT, he Ricur Hon. Sir LYON PLAYFAIR, K.C.B., M.P., Ph.D., LL.D., | F.R.S. L. and E., F.C.S. NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS OF MEMOIRS.—Authors are re- minded that, under an arrangement dating from 1871, the acceptance of Memoirs, and the days on which they are to be read, are now, as far as possible, determined by Organising Committees for the several Sections before the beginning of the Meeting. It has therefore become necessary, in order to give an opportunity to the Committees of doing justice to the several Communications, that each Author should prepare an Abstract of his Memoir, of a length suitable for insertion in the published 7vaxsac- tions of the Association, and the Council request that he will send it, together with the original Memoir, by book-post, on or before August 12, addressed thus:—‘‘General Secretaries, British Association, 22, Albemarle Street, London, W. For Section.... sssereeeeseeeees” Authors who comply with this request, and whose Papers are accepted, will be furnished before the Meeting with printed copies of their Reports and Abstracts. If it should be inconvenient to the Author that his Paper should be read on any particular days, he is requested to send information thereof to the SECRETARIES in a separate note. Reports on the Progress of Science, and of Researches intrusted to Indi- viduals or Committees, must be forwarded to the Secretaries, for presentation to the Organising Committees, accompanied by a statement whether the Author will be present at the Annual Meeting. No Report, Paper, or Abstract can be inserted in the Report of the Asso- ciation unless it is in the hands of the Secretary before the conclusion of the Meeting. T. G. BONNEY, Secretary. UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LONDON. PRELIMINARY SCIENTIFIC (M.B.) EXAMINATION OF THE . UNIVERSITY OF LONDON. The following Classes meet the requirements of Candidates :— Chemistry.—Prof. WiLLtamson, Ph.D., F.R.S. Experimental Physics.—Prof. G. C. Foster, F.R.S. Zoology.—Prof. Ray LanxesTer, M.A., F.R.S. Botany and Vegetable Physiology.—Prof. OLiver, F.R.S., F.L.S. The Courses of Chemistry, Practical Chemistry, and Botany enter into the Ordinary Medical Curriculum. Prospectuses, including information as to Classes for Matriculation, may be obtained from the College, Gower Street, W.C. 5S TALFOURD ELY, M.A., Secretary. RIBBON SECTION CUTTING. The Cambridge Scientific Instrument Company have designed a new and simple Microtome for cutting continuous Ribbons of Sections of Microscopic Preparations on the plan first adopted by Mr. Caldwell. The new instru- ‘nent has the advantage over the original pattern of dispensing with the endless band altogether, and consequently not only avoiding the trouble of lifting the series of Sections from the razor, but also of allowing them to fall on to the glass slide in their proper position for mounting. Price of the Microtome, 45 5s. The Company are appointed Agents for the Microscopes of Zeiss, a supply of which is kept in stock. {THE CAMBRIDGE SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENT co Cambridge, Engraved Real Size. A NEW ACHROMATIC COMBINATION, COMBINING THE DEFINITION OF A MICROSCOPE WITH THE PORTABILITY OF A POCKET LENS. “Tf you carry a small Platyscopic Pocket Lens (which every observer of Nature ought to do).””"—GranT ALLEN in Knowledge. ‘ The Platyscopic Lens is invaluable to botanists, mineralogists, or ento- mologists, as it focuses about three times as far from the object as the Coddington Lenses. This allows opaque objects to be examined easily. The Platyscopic Lens is made of four degrees of power, magnifying respectively ro, 15, 20, and 30 diams.; the lowest power, having the largest field, is the best adapted for general use. The Lenses are set in Ebonite Cells, and mounted in Tortoiseshell Frames. Price of the Platyscopic Lens, mounted in Tortoiseshell, magni- fying either 10, 15, 20, or 30 diameters, 18s. 6d. each power. Illustrated description sent free. JOHN BROWNING, 63, STRAND, LONDON, W.C. NEGRETTI AND ZAMBRA, SOLE MAKERS OF JORDAN’S (PATENT) SUNSHINE RECORDER. PRICE £3 3s. NEGRETTI ZAMBRA, Screntiric INSTRUMENT MAKERS TO THE QUEEN, HOLBORN VIADUCT. Branches :—45, Cornhill ; 122, Regent Street, London. Lllustrated Description Post Free. : | | : NEGRETTI & ZAMBRA’S Large Illustrated Catalogue, 600 Pages, 1200 Engravings. Price 5s. 6d. norm » Secretary, lxxxii NATURE [ Fuly 16, 1885 THE MASON SCIENCE COLLEGE, BIRMINGHAM. APPOINTMENT OF DEMONSTRATOR IN PHYSIOLOGICAL DEPARTMENT. The Council invite Applications on or before AUGUST 26, 1885, for the above Appointment, the duties of which will commence on OCTOBER 1. Particulars of the Stipend and Conditions will be sent on application to. the Mr. G. H. Morey, the Mason Science College, Birmingham, to whom all applications for the Appointment should be sent. J. THACKRAY BUNCE, President of the Council. UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF SOUTH WALES AND MONMOUTHSHIRE. ‘An «ASSISTANT LECTURER in MATHEMATICS will be AP- POINTED in SEPTEMBER (Stipend, £100 per annum). Candidates must send in applications, with testimonials and references, not later than AUGUST 27. For further information apply to Cardiff, June r2, 1885 A B.A. of TRIN. COLL., CAMBRIDGE, desires employment. Hcnours (2nd Class) in Natural Science, 1882. Subjects: Physiology, Comp. Anat., and Chemistry. Apply, E. W. W., 13, Gargrave Road, Skipton in Craven. B.A. OF OXFORD (2nd Class Honours in Biology, 1882) desires Work in a Laboratory, Library, or Museum, or will undertake Translations of Scientific Literature from French, Ger- man, Dutch, Danish, and Swedish. Good references.—Address R. R. 4, Northfield Square, Leeds. C. D. AHRENS, PRISM WORKER AND PRACTICAL OPTICIAN, 36, GREAT RUSSELL STREET, LONDON, W.C. IVOR JAMES, Registrar. 2 SPECIAL NOTICE—Sce the New Polarising Prism, Can be used over any A & B Eyepiece. Strongly recommended for Lantern Work; will take in any Object. Also see the New Erecting Microscope. Any Object-Glass and any Eyepiece can be used withit. It is the only way of seeing the Objects in theirright shape and form. Maker of the Largest Nicol Prisms in existence for the Late W. Spottiswoode, Esq., P.R.S., &c., &c., and for Frank Crisp, Esq., LL.B.. B.A., &c., &e. TRADE SUPPLIED WITH PRISMS. SCIENCE AND ART DEPARTMENT so PER CENT. GRANT FOR THE PURCHASE OF STANDARD COLLECTIONS AND APPARATUS FOR TEACHING GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY. NEW LISTS and FORMS on which the Application is to be made supplied by THOMAS J. DOWNING, Geologist, &c., 8, WHISKIN STREET, LONDON, E.C. (over Quarterofa Century). PATERSON & COOPER. 76, LITTLE BRITAIN, LONDON, E.C. Electric Light and Power and Telephone Engineers. New Electric Light Catalogue, post free 1s. PATERSON & COOPER teg to give notice that they have disposed of the Philosophical, Educational, and Experimental Part of their Business to Messrs. J. and T. MAYFIELD, 41, Queen Victoria Street, E.C. SIX PRIZE MEDALS AWARDED FOR GEOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS. Geological Collections especially adapted for Teaching as supplied to Science and Art Department, and used by all Lecturers and Teachers in Great Britain, &e. New and Rare Minerals constantly arriving from all parts for selection of Single Spec ROCK SECTIONS AND ROCK SPECIMENS: The Largest Variety in England. New Catalogues and Lists onapplication to= JAMES R. GREGORY, £8, CHARLOTTE STREET, FITZROY SQUARE, LUNDON. Established 27 Years in London. LIVING SPECIMENS FOR THE MICROSCOPE. GOLD MEDALawarded at the FISHERIES EXHIBITION to THOMAS BOLTON, s7, NEWHALL STREET, BIRMINGHAM, who has last week sent to his subscribers free-swimming Epistylis (with sketch), which is probably a new species. He has also sent out the rare Entomostraca, Moina rectirostris, and Macrothrix roseus, Leptodora hyalina, Hyalo-daphnia Kahlbergensis, Sida crystallina, Cristatella mucedo, Cordylo- phora lacustris, Spongilla fluviatilis, Melicerta ringens, Brachionus urceo, laris, Dero obtusa, Volvox globator; also Hydra, Vorticella, Amoeba Crayfish, and other Specimens for (Huxley and Martin’s) Biological Labora- tory work. Weekly Announcements will be made in this place of Organisms I. B. is supplying. Specimen Tube, One Shilling, post free. Twenty-stx Tubesin course of Six Months for Subscription of £1 15., or Twelve Tubes for 10s. 6d. Portfolio of Drawings, Ten Parts, 1s. each. EDWARD WARD has pleasure in an- nouncing the issue of a new Micro-Slide of Zoophyte, with tentacles out, in the special manner so well known to his numerous patrons. Esoece Plumularia similis ... .. .. (post-free) 2 8 Also, quite new :— - Gorgonia verrucosa (polype stained) ,, 252 Podalirus typicus (Spectre Shrimp) “9 I 2 EDWARD WARD, 249, OXFORD STREET, MANCHESTER. [503 CABINETS FOR MINERALS, FOSSILS, &c. 6 DRAWERS, 20 INCHES HIGH saa) WBS 10 2 39 ” 23 ss 45S. 8 2: 26 » oe 28s. 12 ” 39 ” 29 oo) Seas — NATURALISTS’ GLASS-CAPPED BOXES, ROUND AND RECTANGULAR, FROM+ ONE SHILLING PER DOZEN. THOMAS D. RUSSELL, 78, NEWGATE STREET, E.C. MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY. PROFESSORS, COLLECTORS and VISITORS to LONDON are INVITED to INSPECT Mr. HENSON’S STOCK of CHOICE MINE- RALS, &c., &c. At the PRESENT TIME he has a PARTICULARLY FINE CRYSTALLISED NUGGET of NATIVE GOLD, WEIGHT 9 oz., PINK APOPHYLLITE, CHESSYLITE, EMERALDS on MATRIX, PYROMORPHITE (very RARE FORM), CERUSSITE, CRYSTALL- ISED MALACHITE, and BOTRYOIDAL CHALCEDONY, ME- TEORIC IRONS and STONES. POLISHED AGATES and LABRA- DORITES. A Large Series of ROCKS, also MICROSCOPIC SECTIONS of the same. Lists on Application. Hammers, Chisels, and Hammer Straps. PRIVATE LESSONS AND EVENING CLASSES. BLOWPIPE CASES AND APPARATUS. Catalogues free. SAMUEL HENSON, 277, STRAND, LONDON. Opposite Norfolk Street. MINERALS AND FOSSILS. SINGLE SPECIMENS OR COLLECTIONS. xe. HH. BUTLER, Assoc. R. Sch. Mines Lond., M.A. Oxon. and L.S.A. Lond. Successor to the late R. TALLING. 180, BROMPTON ROAD LONDON, S.W. Five minutes’ walk from the Natural History Museum, S. Kensington. The AUTOCOPYIST (from 2os.) furnishes excellent BLACK COPIES in Lithographic Style, of the ORDINARY WRITING (also Shorthand, Arabic, &c.), Sketches, Music. Easy, Economical.—] he AUTOCOPYIST , London Wall, London. BOOKS (Secondhand), Miscellaneous, Re- mainders, &« —C. HERBERT, English and Foreign Bookseller, 51¢. Goswell Road, London, E.C. Catalogue free on receipt of two stamps. Liktraries, Old Books, and Parchment purchased. A WEEISGEY “Tee USDRATE DE JOURNAL OF SCIENCE ** To the solid grouna Of Nature trusts the mind which builds for aye.”’—WoRDSWORTH No. 821, VOL. 32] THURSDAY, JULY 23, 1885 [PRICE SIXPENCE Registered as a Newspaper at the General Post Office] [All Rights are Reserved AMATEUR PHOTOGRAPHERS SHOULD ALWAYS USE moe MAWSON PLATE. The BEST and CHEAPEST in the Market. Uniform, Reliable, and exceedingly easy to develop. MAWSON & SWAN, MOSLEY STREET, NEWCASTLE-ON-TYNE ; ‘and 31, FARRINGDON STREET, LONDON. R. & J. BECK’S NeW MICROSCOPE, @aeEDE - S/T AR PRICES. Stand, with 1I-in. Glascmersatts. shes [504 Object- Stand, with t-in. and 4-in. Object-glasses ... Stand, with Rack and Pinion, coarse adjustment, 2 Eye- pieces, and I-in. Object- glass ... Scie tere 10-3 Stand, with Rack and Pinion, coarse adjustment, 2 Eye- pieces, and r-in. and 4-in. Object-glasses ... 440 Full Descriptive Pamphlet sent on Application to R.&J. BECK, 68, Cornhill, London, E.C. THE NEW POCKET METALLIC THERMOMETER (PATENT). Is as accurate as a Mercurial Thermometer and far more sensitive, while for portability it is unequalled, and it will be found an invaluable pocket companion. Price in Solid Silver, the size of the engraving, in outer Morocco Case, 2Is., sent post free. JOHN BROW NING, 63, STRAND, LONDON, W.C. NEGRETTI AND ZAMBRA, SOLE MAKERS OF JORDAN’S (PATENT) SUNSHINE RECORDER. PRICE £3 3s. NEGRETT! AND ZAMBRA, Scientiric INSTRUMENT MAKERS TO THE QUEEN, HOLBORN VIADUCT. Branches :—45, Cornhill ; 122, Regent Street, London. Lllustrated Description Post Free. NEGRETTI & ZAMBRA’S Large Illustrated Catalogue, 600 Pages, 1200 Engravings. Price 5s. 6d. xc NATURE [Fuly 23, 1885 UNIVERSITY COLLLEGE. LONDON. The Session of the Faculty of Medicine will commence on OCTOBER t. Introductory Lecture at 4 p.m. by Prof. E. A. Schafer, F.R.S. The Examinations for the Entrance Exhibitions will be held on SEPT- EMBER 28 and 29. Scholarships, Exhibitions, and Prizes of the Value of £800 are awarded Annually, In University College Hospital over 3000 In-patients and 30,000, Out- patients are treated during the year. Thirty-six Appointments, eigkteen being resident, as House-Surgeon, House Physician, and Obstetric Assistant, &c., are filled up by competition during the year, and these, as well as all Clerkships and Dresserships, are open to Students of the Hospital without extra Fee Prospectuses with full information as to Classes, Prizes, obtained from the College, Gower Street, W.C. G. V. POORE, M.D., Dean of the Faculty. TALFOURD ELY, M.A., Secretary. OWENS COLLEGE, VICTORIA UNIVERSITY, MANCHESTER. F The Council invite applications for Five Berkeley Fellowships of the value of £100 each for the year 1885-86, to be awarded in one or more of the follow- ing subjects :—x. Classics. 4. Philosophy.. 5. Pure Mathematics. gineering. 8. Physics. 9. Chemistry. 10. Biology (including Physiology). 1x. Geology (including Palzontology). The appointments will be made not on the results of examination, but on evidence of ability to prosecute some special study or research. Applications must be sent to the Registrar on or before September 25. A fuller statement of the conditions of the Fellowships will be forwarded on application. &c., may be 2. English Language and Literature. 3. History. 6. Applied Mathematics. 7. En- HENRY WM. HOLDER, M.A., Registrar. THE MASON SCIENCE COLLEGE, BIRMINGHAM. APPOINTMENT OF DEMONSTRATOR IN PHYSIOLOGICAL DEPARTMENT. The Council invite Applications on or before AUGUST 26, 1885. for the above Appointment, the duties of which will commence on OCTOBER t. Particulars of the Stipend and Conditions will be sent on application to the Secretary, Mr. G. H. Mortey, the Mason Science College, Birmingham, to whom all applications for the Appointment should be sent. J. THACKRAY BUNCE, President of the Council. OPEN SCHOLARSHIPS in NATURAL SCIENCE of the value of £100 and £60 are awarded annually in OCTOBER at St. Thomas’s Hospital Medical School, Albert Embank- ment, S.E. For particulars apply to Mr. G. RENDLE, Medical Secretary. W. M. ORD, Dean. SHEFFIELD SCHOOL BOARD. CENTRAL HIGHER SCHOOL. A Whitworth Scholar or other competent person is required to teach Machine Drawing and Construction, Practical, Plane, and Solid Geometry, as well as the practical work in the workshop at the Central Higher School. | ‘ Candidates to state Salary required. Forms of Application (which should be returned as early as possible) may be had of JNO. F. MOSS, Clerk School Board Offices, July 16, 1885 Io}-INCH EQUATORIALLY-MOUNTED REFLECTING TELESCOPE for Sale: strong Stand, with Hour and Declination Circles ; Reflector by With ; and Observatory.—Apply, F. Morris, Brentford. ASTRONOMICAL TELESCOPE FOR SALE, by Throughton and Simmo, 48 in. focal length, with Stand, &c., complete. Also Microscope with divided circle, 4 inch Theodolite, and various other apparatus, property of the late W. Ladd, Esq. For cards to view apply to Mr. Newton, Chemist, Kilburn. SIX PRIZE MEDALS AWARDED FOR GEOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS. Geological Collections especially adapted for Teaching as supplied to Science and Art Department, and used by all Lecturers and Teachers in Great Britain, &c. New and Rare Minerals constantly arriving from all parts for selection of Single Specimens. ROCK SECTIONS AND ROCK SPECIMENS: The Largest Variety in England. New Catalogues and Lists onapplication to— JAMES R. GREGORY, 88, CHARLOTTE STREET, FITZROY SQUARE, LONDON. Established 27 Years in London. BOOKS (Secondhand), Miscellaneous, Re- mainders, &.—C. HERBERT, English and Foreign Bookseller, 319. Goswell Road, London, E.C. Catalogue free on receipt of two stamps, Libraries, Old Books, and Parchment purchased. LIVING SPECIMENS FOR THE MICROSCOPE. GOLD MEDAL awarded at the FISHERIES EXHIBITION to THOMAS BOLTON, 57, NEWHALL STREET, BIRMINGHAM, who has last week sent to his subscribers Bugula turbinata, with’ drawing and description. He has also sent out Clava squamata, Cordylophora lacustris, Lophopus_crystallinus, Cristatella mucedo, Lacinularia socialis, Melicerta ringens, Brachionus urceolaris, Asplanchna priodonta, Leptodora hyalina, Hyalodaphnia Kahlbergensis, Volvox globator; also Hydra Vorticella, Amceba, Crayfish, and other Specimens for (Huxley and Martin's) Biological Laboratory work. : Weekly Announcements will be made in this place of Organisms T. B. is supplying. 5 Specimen Tube, One Shilling, post free. Twenty-six Tubesin course of Six Months for Subscription of £1 Sey or Twelve Tubes for ros. 6d. Portfolio of Drawings, Ten Parts, rs. each. EDWARD WARD has pleasure in an- nouncing the issue of a new Micro-Slide of Zoophyte, with tentacles out, in the special manner so well known to his numerous patrons. vacuum. Price, in Solid Silver, the size of the engraving, in outer Morocco Case, 2rs., sent post free. JOHN BROW NING, 68, STRAND, LONDON, W.C. NEGRETTI AND ZAMBRA, SOLE MAKERS OF JORDAN'S (PATENT) SUNSHINE RECORDER. PRICE £3 3s. NE GR Evie ZAMBRA, ScrenTiFIc INSTRUMENT MAKERS TO THE QUEEN, HOLBORN VIADUCT. Branches :—45, Cornhill ; 122, Regent Street, London. Lllustrated Description Post Free. NEGRETTI & ZAMBRA’S Large Illustrated Catalogue, 600 Pages, 1200 Engravings. Price 5s. 6:2. XCVII1 THE MASON SCIENCE COLLEGE, BIRMINGHAM. APPOINTMENT OF DEMONSTRATOR IN PHYSIOLOGICAL DEPARTMENT. The Council invite Applications on or before AUGUST 26, 1885, for the above Appointment, the duties of which will commence on OCTOBER rt. Particulars of the Stipend and Conditions will be sent on application to the Secretary, Mr. G. H. Morey, the Mason Science College, Birmingham, to whom all applications for the Appointment should be sent. J. THACKRAY BUNCE, President of the Council. THE MIDDLESEX HOSPITAL. The WINTER SESSION will open on THURSDAY, October 1, with an Introductory Address by Dr. J. K. FOWLER, M.A. The Medical School, which has lately been considerably enlarged, provides the most complete means for the education of Students preparing for the University:of London, the College of Physicians and Surgeons, and the other Licensing Bodies. Two Entrance Scholarships of the annual value of £25 and £20, tenable for two years, and an Entrance Science Scholarship value 450, will be competed foron SEPTEMBER 29 and following days. Further information may be obtained from the Dean or the Resident Medical (fficer at the Hospital. ANDREW CLARK, Dean. THE LONDON HOSPITAL AND MEDICAL COLLEGE, MILE END, E. The SESSION 1885-6 will COMMENCE on THURSDAY, October 1, 1885. As the College will be in course of enlargement there will be no Public Distribution of Prizes this year. FOUR ENTRANCE SCHOLARSHIPS, value £60, £40, £30, and £20, will be offered for competition at the end of September to new Students. Fees for Lectures and Hospital Practice, 90 Guineas in one payment, or too Guineas in three instalments. All Resident and other Hospital appoint- ments are free, and the holders of all the Resident Appointments are provided with rooms and board entirely free of expense. The Resident Appoint- ments consist of Five House-Physiciancies, Five House-Surgeoncies, and One Accoucheurship ; Two Dressers and Two Maternity Pupils also reside in the Hospital. “ Special entries may be made for Medical and Surgical Practice. The London Hospital is now in direct communication by rail and tram with all parts of the Metropolis, and the Metropolitan, District, East Lon- don, and South-Eastern Railways have Stations within a minute's walk of the Hospital and College. For prospectus and particulars apply personally or by letter to Mile End, E. MUNRO SCOTT, Warden. ST. THOMAS’S HOSPITAL MEDICAL SCHOOL. ALBERT EMBANKMENT, LONDON, S.E. The WINTER SESSION of 1885-86 will commence on OCTOBER os when an Introductory Address will be delivered by A. O. MacKELLAR, Esq., M.Ch., at 3 p.m. TWO ENTRANCE SCIENCE SCHOLARSHIPS of £100 and £60 respectively, open to all first-year Students, will be offered for competition. The Examination will be held on the sth, 6th, and 7th of October, and the subjects will be Chemistry and Physics, with either Botany or Zoology, at the option of Candidates. Special Classes are held throughout the year for the “PRELIMINARY SCIENTIFIC” and “INTERMEDIATE M.B.” Examinations of the UNIVERSITY of LONDON. All Hospital Appointments are open to Students without extra charge. Scholarships and Money Prizes of considerable value are awarded at the Sessional Examination, as also several Medals. The Fees may be paid in one sum or by instalments. Entries may be made to Lectures or to Hospital Practice, and special arrangements are made for Students entering in their second or subsequent years 3 also for Dental Students and for Qualified Practitioners. Several medical practitioners and private families residing in the neigh- bourhood receive Students for residence and supervision, and a register of approved lodgings is kept in the Secretary's office. rospectuses and all particulars may be obtained from the Medical Secre- tary, Mr. GEorGE RENDLE. W. M. ORD, Dean. MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY. PROFESSORS, COLLECTORS and VISITORS to LONDON are INVITED to INSPECT Mr. HENSON’S STOCK of CHOICE MINE- RALS, &c., &c. At the PRESENT TIME he has a PARTICULARLY FINE CRYSTALLISED NUGGET of NATIVE GOLD, WEIGHT 0 oz., PINK APOPHYLLITE, CHESSYLITE, EMERALDS on MATRIX. PYROMORPHITE (very rare Form), CERUSSITE, CRYSTALL- ISED MALACHITE, and BOTRYOIDAL CHALCEDONY, ME- TEORIC IRONS and STONES. POLISHED AGATES and LABRA- DORITES. A Large Series of ROCKS, also MICROSCOPIC SECTIONS of the same. Lists on Application. Hammers, Chisels, and Hammer Straps. PRIVATE LESSONS AND EVENING CLASSES, BLOWPIPE CASES AND APPARATUS. SAMUEL HENSON, 277, STRAND, LONDON. Opposite Norfolk Street. Catalogues free. WA TRE [Fuly 30, 1885 LIVING SPECIMENS FOR THE MICROSCOPE. GOLD MEDAL awarded at the FISHERIES EXHIBITION to THOMAS BOLTON, s7, NEWHALL STREET, BIRMINGHAM, who has last week sent to his subscribers Clava squamata, with drawing and description. He has also sent out Dero obtusa, Plumatella repens, Cristatella mucedo, Lacinularia socialis, Brachionus urceolaris, Asplanchna priodonta, Leptodora hyalina, Hyalodaphnia Kahlbergensis, Volvox glo- bator; also Hydra, Vorticella, Amoeba, Crayfish, and other Specimens for (Huxley and Martin’s) Biological Laboratory work. J uy Weekly Announcements will be made in this place of Organisms. T. B. is supplying. : Specimen Tube, One Shilling, post free. Twenty-six Tubesin course of Six Months for Subscription of £1 roa or Twelve Tubes for ros. 6d. Portfolio of Drawings, Ten Parts, rs. each. EDWARD WARD has pleasure in an- nouncing the issue of a new Micro-Slide of Zoophyte, with tentacles out, in the special manner so well known to his numerous patrons. 29%: isey teas Plumularia similis ... ... .«.. (post-free) 2 8 Also, quite new :— - Gorgonia verrucosa (polype stained) ,, 22 Podalirus typicus (Spectre Shrimp) 7 raed EDWARD WARD, 249, OXFORD STREET, MANCHESTER. Cc. D. AHRENS, PRISM WORKER AND PRACTICAL OPTICIAN, 36, GREAT RUSSELL STREET, LONDON, W.C. [503 SPECIAL NOTICE—See the New Polarising Prism. Can be used over any A & B Eyepiece. Strongly recommended for Lantern Work; will take in any Object. Also see the New Erecting Microscope. Any Object-Glass and any Eyepiece can be used withit. Itis the only way of seeing the Objects in their right shape and form. Maker of the Largest Nicol Prisms in existence for the Late W. Spottiswoode, Esq., P.R.S., &c., &c., and for Frank Crisp, Esq., LL.B.. B.A., &c., &c. TRADE SUPPLIED WITH PRISMS. SIX PRIZE MEDALS AWARDED FOR GEOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS. Geological Collections especially adapted for Teaching as supplied to Science and Art Department, and used by all Lecturers and Teachers in Great Britain, &c. $ New and Rare Minerals constantly arriving from all‘ parts for selection of Single Specimens. ROCK SECTIONS AND ROCK SPECIMENS: The Largest Variety in England. New Catalogues and Lists onapplication to— JAMES R. GREGORY, 88, CHARLOTTE STREET, FITZROY SQUARE, LONDON. Established 27 Years in London. CABINETS FOR MINERALS, FOSSILS, &c. 6 DRAWERS, 20 INCHES HIGH Pec ee 10 a 39 “ ae i>. Ve eeneagee 8 ” 26 ” os ae 28s. 12 ” 39 ” 52s. ” a, Oe oe NATURALISTS’ GLASS-CAPPED BOXES, ROUND AND RECTANGULAR, FROM ONE SHILLING PER DOZEN, THOMAS D. RUSSELL, 78, NEWGATE STREET, E.C: MINERALS AND FOSSILS, SINGLE SPECIMENS OR COLLECTIONS. EF. HH. BUTLER, Assoc. R. Sch. Mines Lond., M.A. Oxon. and L.S.A. Lond., Successor to the late R. TALLING, 180, BROMPTON ROAD, LONDON, S.W. Five minutes’ walk from the Natural History Museum, S. Kensington. A WEEKLY ILLUSTRATED ‘JOURNAL OF SCIENCE “To the solid grouna Of Nature trusts the mind which builds for aye.” —WoRDSWORTH No. 823, VOL. 32] THURSDAY, AUGUST 6, 1885 [PRICE SIXPENCE Registered as a Newspaper at the General Post Office] [All Rights are Reserved AMATEUR. PHOTOGRAPHY. IMARION’S Britannia Dry Plates are the Best and Cheapest. MARION’S Photographic Outfits. Selection for the Tourist, Artist, Bicylist, Military Man, and others. Special Outfits for Beginners. Price for Complete Set, | trom 45s. and upwards. MARION’S Academy Camera. MARTON’S Miniature Camera. MARION’S Registered Washing Apparatus. WLARION’S Rectilinear and Portrait Lenses, IMARION’S Ready Sensitised Paper. WLARION’S Instantaneous Shutters, MARION’S Enlarging Apvaratus and Magic Lantern. MARION’S Best French Mounts. MARION’S Self-Adjusting Rolling Press and Burnisher. MARION’S Practical Guide to Photography. Second Edi- tion, Revised and Enlarged, giving clear and precise Instructions for Learning and Practising Photography. Price 2s. 6d. post free. Free Lessons in Photography to Purchasers.—Marion and Co. have erected a Gallery in Soho Square, specially for giving Lessons. Printing from Amateurs’ Negatives, Enlarging. MARION’S Alpha Paper Prints by Gaslight in Minute. The printing process of the future. Sample packet ss. Photographs Mounted, Arranged, & BoundintoVolumes. Chemicals, Mounts, Albums, Scrap Books. PRICED LIST FREE ON APPLICATION. MARION & Co., 22 « 23, Soho Square, London. SHOW ROOM—GROUND FLOOR. R. & J. BECK’S ‘ MEW MICROSC OPS, SEES PAR! PRICES. Stand, with 1-in. glass ... ; One Object- Stand, with 1-in. and 1-in. Obyectslassestesicets kt SEO Stand, with Rack and Pinion, coarse adjustment, 2 Eye- pieces, and 1I-in. Object- HERS op. aah seis mitdn ee Wi) Stand, with Rack and Pinion, coarse adjustment, 2 Eye- pieces, and I-in. and 4-in. Object-glasses ... 4:4, 0 Full Descriptive Pamphlet sent on Application to R. &J. BECK, 68, Cornhill, London, E.C. The Largest and Best THE NEW POCKET METALLIC THERMOMETER PATENT) Is as accurate as a Mercurial Thermometer and far more sensitive, while for portability it is unequalled, and it will be found an invaluable pocket com- panion. These instruments are not made on the old system of using the dissimilar contraction and expansion of two metals, but the motion is obtained from the expansion and contraction of a liquid hermetically sealed in a metallic vacuum. Price, in Solid Silver, the size of the engraving, in outer Morocco Case, 21s., sent post free. JOHN BROWNING, 63, STRAND, LONDON, W.C. NEGRETTI AND ZAMBRA, SOLE MAKERS OF JORDAN'S (PATENT) SUNSHINE RECORDER. PRICE £3 35> NEGRETTI ZAMBRA, Scientiric INSTRUMENT MaKERS TO THE QUEEN, HOLBORN VIADUCT. Branches :—45, Cornhill ; 122, Regent Street, London. ( Lilustrated Description Post Free. NEGRETTI & ZAMBRA’S Large Illustrated Catalogue, 690 Pages, 1200 Engravings. Price 5s. 6<- cvi BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. 22, ALBEMARLE STREET, LONDON, W. The NEXT ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING will be held at ABERDEEN, commencing on WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 09. PRESIDENT-ELECT, The Ricur Hon. Sir LYON PLAYFAIR, K.C.B., M.P., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S. L. and E., F.C.S. NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS OF MEM )IRS.—Authors are re- minded that, under an arrangement dating from 1871, the acceptance of Memoirs, and the days on which they are to be read, are now, as far as possible, determined by Organising Committees for the several Sections before the beginning of the Meeting. It has therefore become necessary, in order to give an opportunity to the Committees of doing justice to the several Communications, that each Author should prepare an Abstract of his Memoir, of a length suitable for insertion in the published Tvansac- tions of the Association, and the Council request that he will send it, together with the original Memoir, by book-post, on or before August 12, addressed thus:—‘‘General Secretaries, British Association, 22, Albemarle Street, London, W. For Section.....scececceseseeee Authors who comply with this request, and whose Papers are accepted, will be furnished before the Meeting with printed copies of their Reports and Abstracts. If it should be inconvenient to the Author that his Paper should be read on any particular days, he isrequested to send information thereof to the SECRETARIES in a separate note. Reports on the Progress of Science, and of Researches intrusted to Indi- viduals or Committees, must be forwarded to the Secretaries, for presentation to the Organising Committees, accompanied by a statement whether the Author will be present at the Annual Meeting. _No Report, Paper, or Abstract can be inserted in the Report of the Asso- ciation unless it is in the hands of the Secretary before the conclusion of the Meeting. T. G. BONNEY, Secretary. UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LONDON. FACULTY OF SCIENCE, including the Departments of ENGI- NEERING and CHEMICAL and MECHANICAL TECHNOLOGY. The SESSION will open on OCTOBER 5. For detailed Prospectuses of the Courses of Instruction, Exhibitions, Scholarships, &c., apply to the College, Gower Street, W.C. TALFOURD ELY, M.A., Secretary. UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LONDON. PRELIMINARY SCIENTIFIC (M.B.) EXAMINATION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF LONDON. The following Classes meet the requirements of Candidates :— Chemistry.—Prof. WiLL1Amson, Ph.D., F.R.S. Experimental Physics.—Prof. G. C. Foster, F.R.S. Zoology.—Prof. Ray Lanxesrer, M.A., F.R.S. Botany and Vegetable Physiology.—Prof. OLiver, F.R.S., F.L.S. The Courses of Chemistry, Practical Chemistry, and Botany enter into the Ordinary Medical Curriculum. r Prospectuses, including information as to Classes for Matriculation, may be obtained from the College, Gower Street, W.C. TALFOURD ELY, M.A., Secretary. UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW. SESSION 1885-86. The WINTER MEDICAL SESSION will be opened with an Intro- ductory Address by Professor Bower, M.A., on TUESDAY, October 27, 1885. Complete Courses on all the subjects of the Medical Curriculum are de- livered within the University, and fully equipped Laboratories for Practical Instruction are connected with each Department. In the Western Infirmary, which is in the immediate vicinity, ample means of Clinical and Pathological Study are afforded. The Fee for each Class is £3 3s., and the total mini- mum expenses for Classes, Hospital, and Graduation Fees for M.B. and C.M. amount to about £90. Bursaries to the annual amount of £1150 may be held by Students during their Medical Studies. Full particulars connected with the Course of Education and Examination required for the Degrees, and the Preliminary Examination required to be passed by Students before beginning Medical Study, will be found in the University Calendar (by post, 3s.); or a Syllabus of the Regulations, Fees, &c., may be obtained by applying to Mr. MOIR, Assistant Clerk of Senate. SCHOOL BOARD HOR LONDON.— Wanted a Teacher of Science for the Pupil Teachers’ Schools of Barns- bury and Marylebone. He must have had experience of Class Teaching. Salary 4175. Applications, with copies of not more than Three Testi- monials, to be sent to the CLerk of the Boarp, School Board Offices, Victoria Embankment, W.C., marked outside ‘‘ Science ‘leacher.” TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION. The Secretaries or Princiyals of High Class Schools where the Course of Instruction includes Practical Physics or Applied Chemistry, &c., are requested to send Prospectus to ROBERT BARKLIE, 21, Wilmont Terrace, Belfast. NATURE [ dugust 6, 1885 LIVING SPECIMENS FOR THE MICROSCOPE. GOLD MEDAL awarded at the FISHERIES EXHIBITION to THOMAS BOLTON, 57, NEWHALL STREET, BIRMINGHAM, who has last week sent to his subscribers Lemanea fluviatilis, with drawing and description. He has also sent out Cristatella mucedo, Plumatella repens, Brachionus urceolaris, Cordylophora lacustris, Leptodora hyalina, Daphnia reticulata, Volvox globator; also Hydra, Vorticella, Amoeba, Crayfish, and other Specimens for (Huxley and Martin’s) Biological Labora- tory work. Weekly Announcements will be made in this place of Organisms T. B. is supplying. Specimen Tube, One Shilling, post free. Twenty-six Tubesin course of Six Months for Subscription of £1 18., or Twelve Tubes for 10s. 6d. Portfolio of Drawings, Ten Parts, 1s. each. VICTORIA UNIVERSITY. This University confers Degrees in Arts, Science, Law, and Medicine on those who have pursued prescribed Courses of Study in a College of the University, and haye passed the necessary Examinations. A Preliminary Examination (Faculties of Arts, Science, and Law) and an Entrance Examination in Arts (Faculty of Medicine) will take place in October, commencing on Monday, the sth. \y Particulars as to these and other Examinations and as to Courses of Study may be obtained from the Registrar. A. T. BENTLEY, M.A., Registrar. Manchester. OWENS COLLEGE, VICTORIA UNIVERSITY, MANCHESTER. SESSION 1885-86. I, DEPARTMENT OF ARTS AND Law. II. DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING. Candidates for admission in these Departments must not be under 14 Years of Age, and those under 16 will be required to pass an Entrance Examination in English, Arithmetic, and Elementary Latin, to be held on October 2. Il]. DEPARTMENT OF MEDICINE AND SurRGERY (including the Dental and Pharmaceutical Courses). Students are required before entering to have passed either the Entrance Examination in Arts, or the Preliminary Examination in the Victoria Uni- versity, or some other Preliminary Examination prescribed by the General Medical Council. IV. DEPARTMENT FOR WOMEN (223, Brunswick Street). Particulars of Scholarships tenable in this Department are included in the prospectus. The Session in DEparTMENTSs I., II., and IV. will commence on the 6th, and in III. on the 1st October. V. EventnG CLassEs. The Session in DEparTMENTS I., II., and 1V. will commence on the 6th, in III. on the rst, and im V. on the r2th October. Prospectuses of the several Departments, and of Entrance Exhibitions and Scholarships (14 in number, and varying in value from 412 to 4100 per annum) may be obtained at Mr. Cornisu’s, Piccadilly, Manchester; and they will be forwarded from the College on application. HENRY WM. HOLDER, Registrar. THE OWENS COLLEGE, MANCHESTER. Prof. GAMGEE being about to commence Practice as a Physician in the South of England, the Chair of Physiology will shortly be Vacant. A detailed statement of the terms and conditions of the Office will be ready about the end of September, and may then be obtained from Dr. GREEN- woop, the Principal of the College. HENRY WM. HOLDER, Registrar. 10l-INCH EQUATORIALLY-MOUNTED REFLECTING TELESCOPE for SALE. Strong Stand with Hour and Declination Circles ; Reflector by WiTH ; and Observatory.—Apply F. Morris, Brentford. MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY. PROFESSORS, COLLECTORS and VISITORS to LONDON are INVITED to INSPECT Mr. HENSON’S STOCK of CHOICE MINE- RALS, &c., &c. At the PRESENT TIME he has a PARTICULARLY FINE CRYSTALLISED NUGGET of NATIVE GOLD, WEIGHT 9 0z., PINK APOPHYLLITE, CHESSYLITE, EMERALDS on MATRIX, PYROMORPHITE (very RARE Form), CERUSSITE, CRYSTALL- ISED MALACHITE, and BOTRYOIDAL CHALCEDONY, ME- TEORIC IRONS and STONES. POLISHED AGATES and LABRA- DORITES. A Large Series of ROCKS, also MICROSCOPIC SECTIONS of the same. Lists on Application. Hammers, Chisels, and Hammer Straps. PRIVATE LESSONS AND EVENING CLASSES BLOWPIPE CASES AND APPARATUS. Catalogues free. SAMUEL HENSON, 277, STRAND, LONDON. Opposite Norfolk Street, A WEEKLY ILLUSTRATFED JOURNAL OF SCIENCE “© To the solid ground Of Nature trusts the mind which builds for aye.’”—WorDSwoRTH No. 824, VOL. 32] THURSDAY, AUGUST 13, 1885 [PRICE SIXPENCE A All Rights are Reserved Registered as a Newspaper at the General Post Office] s /& | GRACE'S NEW DIRECT VISION CHATWOOD S FR OE SPECTROSCOPE. DUODECUPLE go john =Drouning 4 43 Strand Lonoon= PATENT == as* SAFES bins JOHN BROWNING begs to direct attention to the adyantages of this very powerful, portable, and efficient Instru- ment, which will divide the Sodium lines or the D lines in the Solar Spectrum, and show the Rain-Band as S:parate Lines ; it and LOCKS is provided with a fine motion focusing arrangement, and it is ax applicable to every purpose for which a Direct Vision Spectro- scope can be used. Have received highest Awards at all International Exhibitions, Price in Morocco Leather Case, £3 8s. 6d. including Two Diplomas of Honour and Six Gold Medals. Lilustrated Catalogue of Spectroscopes sent post free, Sixpence. JOHN BROw NING, Eas Wieschousey 76, NEWGATE STREET, E.C. Optical and Physical Instrument Maker to H.M. Government, Lancashire Safe and Lock Works, Bolton. 63, STRAND, LONDON, W.C. | a MBRA RIBBON SECTION CUTTING. | NEGRETTI AND ZAMBRA, 5 Dain A SOLE MAKERS OF The Cambridge Scientific Instrument Company have designed a new and Eeeraions on the plan fist adorted by Me Calsal ee new ie: | JORDAN’S (PATENT) SUNSHINE RECORDER. ment has the advantage over the original pattern of dispensing with the endless band altogether, and consequently not only avoiding the trouble PRICE £3 3S. N E.G REM i'l of lifting the series of Sections from the razor, but also of allowing them to fall on to the glass slide in their proper position for mounting. Price of the AND ZAMBRA, Microtome, £5 5s. The Company are appointed Agents for the Microscopes of Zeiss, a supply Scientiric INSTRUMENT MaKERS TO THE QUEEN, of which is kept in stock. THE CAMBRIDGE SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENT €O:; HOLBORN VIADUCT. Branches :—45, Cornhill ; Cambridge. 122, Regent Street, London. CHRIST CHURCH, OXFORD. Liiustrated Description Post Free. On December 5 there will be an Election to a Scholarship in Natural Science. Papers will be set in Biology, Physics, aud Chemistry; but preference will be given for proficiency in Biology. A second Scholar may be elected, preference in this case being given for proficiency in Physics. Candidates will be required to show that they possess such knowledge of Classics as will enable them to pass Responsions ; they must not have exceeded the age of nineteen on the day of Election. Each Scholarship is of the annual value of £80; it is tenable for two years, and will be renewed for a further period, should the Governing Body be satisfied with the industry and good conduct of the Scholar. Candidates will call on the Dean at 9-30 a.m. on TUESDAY, November 24, with Certificates of the day of their birth and of good conduct, and the | Examination will begin in the Hall at 1oa.m. For any further information apply to Mr. R. E. Baynes. 7 NEGRETTI & ZAMBRA’S Large Illustrated Catalogue, 620 Pages, 1200 Engravings. Price 5s. 62. CXIV CITY AND GUILDS OF LONDON INSTITUTE FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION PrestpENT—H.R.H. the PRINCE of WALES, K.G. Vicke-PRESIDENTS ? The Right Hon. the EARL of SELBORNE, F.R.S., Chairman of the Council. SIR FREDERICK BRAMWELL, F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E., Chairman of the Committee. SIR SYDNEY H. WATERLOW, Bart., M.P., Treasurer. JOHN WATNEY,F.SA., W. P. SAWYER, OWEN ROBERTS, M.A., CITY AND GUILDS OF LONDON INS FITUTE. CENTRAL INSTITUTION, EXHIBITION ROAD, S.W. Course of Technical Instruction under the direction of Prof. Henrici, LL.D., F.R.S., Prof. Unwin, M.Inst.C.E., Prof. Ayrton, F.R.S., and Prof. Armstrong, Ph.D., F.R.S., will be commenced on TUESDAY, October 6. The Clothworkers’ Scholarship of £60 for three years, the Siemens Memorial Scholarship of £50 for three years, anil two Mitchell Scholarships of £30 for two years, one with free education, will be awarded on the results of the Entrance or Matriculation Examination, to be held on TUESDAY, September 29, and on the three following days. P For further particulars, and for the programme of instruction, apply at Exhibition Road, S.W., or at Gresham College, E.C. CITY AND GUILDS OF LONDON INSTITUTE. FINSBURY TECHNICAL COLLEGE. DAY DEPARTMENT for Students not under 14 years of age. The College Courses provide Technical Instruction for Mechanical and Electrical Engineers, Technical Chemists, Builders. and Cabinet-Makers. Fee for the Session, inclusive of Laboratories and Workshops, 49. Four Saddlers’ Company Studentships of £30 for two years, four Mitchell Scholar- ships of 430 for two years, and the Holl Scholarship of 420 for two years (with Free Education) will be awarded on the result of the Entrance Examination, which will take place on THURSDAY, October 1, at to a.m. The SESSION COMMENCES on Monday, October 5. For further particulars apply at the College, Leonard Street, City Road, E.C. ; or at Gresham College, E.C. CITY AND GUILDS OF LONDON INSTITUTE. FINSBURY TECHNICAL COLLEGE. EVENING DEPARTMENT for Apprentices, Journeymen, Foremen, and others. Instruction in Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Technical Chemistry, Applied Art, Cabinet-making, Metal Plate-work, Builders’ and Plumbers’ Work, Carpentry and Joinery, Bricklaying, &c. Fees from 6s. to 30s. for the Session, inclusive of Laboratories and Work- shops. Apprentices are admitted at half the ordinary fees. For further particulars apply at_the College, Leonard Street, City Road, E.C. ; or at Gresham College, E.C CITY AND GUILDS OF LONDON INSTITUTE. SOUTH LONDON SCHOOL OF TECHNICAL ART, 122 and 124, Kennington Park Road, S.E. Classes in Modelling, Design, Drawing and Painting from Life. Engraving, China Painting, and Art Metal Work. TUESDAY, October 6. For further particulars apply at 122, Kennington Park Road, S.E., or at Gresham College, E.C. CITY AND GUILDS OF LONDON INSTITUTE. TECHNOLOGICAL EXAMINATIONS, The NEXT EXAMINATION will be held on May 26, 1886. Te.zhers desiring to form Classes shouid apply at once to the Director at the Offices of the Institute, Gresham College, E.C., or at Exhibition Road, S.W., from whom particulars of all branches of the Institute’s work may be obtained. PHILIP MAGNUS, Director and Secretary. GUY’S HOSPITAL MEDICAL SCHOOL. OPEN SCHOLARSHIPS. A Scholarship of the value of 125 Guineas will be offered for open Com petitionon MONDAY, September Subjects of Examination :—Classics, Mathematics, and Modern Lang . A second Scholarship, also of the value of 125 Guineas, will be offered for ofe1 Competition on the same ; day. Subjects of Examination :—Inorzganic Chemistry, Physies, Botany, and Zoology. For further Particulars, apply to the Dean, Guy’s Hospital, S.E. Honorary Secretaries. Wood Commencing on In Feap. 8vo, Price 3s. 6d. ELEMENTARY LESSONS IN THE SCIENCE OF AGRICULTURAL PRACTICE. By H. TANNER, | F.C.S., M.R.A.C., Examiner in the Principles of Agriculture under the Government Department of Science,sometime Professor of Agri- cultural Science, University College, Aberystwith. MACMILLAN & CO. London, NATURE [ August 13, 1885 LIVING SPECIMENS FOR THE MICROSCOPE. GOLD MEDAL awarded at the FISHERIES EXHIBITION to THOMAS BOLTON, 57, NEWHALL STREET, BIRMINGHAM who has last week sent to his subscribers Cristatella mucedo, with drawing and description. He has also sent out Alcyonella fungosa, Plumatella repens, Fredericella sultana, Lacimularia socialis, Zoothaminum arbuscula, Cordylophora lacustris, Leptodora hyalina, Volvox globator ; also Hydra, Ameeba, Vorticella, Crayfish, and other Specimens for (Huxley and Martin’s) Biological Laboratory work, Weekly Announcements will be made in this place of Organisms T. B. is supplying. Specimen Tube, One Shilling, post free. Twenty-six Tubesin course of Six Months for Subscription of £1 18. or Twelve Tubes for 10s. 6d. Portfolio of Drawings, Ten Parts, 1s. each. UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LONDON. The Session of the Faculty of Medicine commences on October 1. ductory Lecture at 4 p.m. by Prof. Schafer, F.R.S. The Session of the Faculties of Arts and Laws and of Science (including the Indian School and the Departments of Applied Science and Technology, and of the Fine Arts) begins on October 5. Introductory Lecture at 3 p.m. by Prof. T. Roger Smith, F.R.I.B A. Instruction is provided for Women in Arts, Laws, and Science. Prospectuses and Regulations relating to Exhibitions, &c. (value £2000), may be obtained from the College, Gower Street, W.C. The Examinations for Andrews Entrance Prizes (Languages and Science) and for Medical and (Gilchrist) Engineering Entrance Exhibitions begin September 28. The School Reopens September 21. The College is close to the Gower Street Station. TALFOURD ELY, M.A., Secretary. THE LONDON HOSPITAL AND MEDICAL COLLEGE, MILE END, E. ae SESSION 1885-6 will COMMENCE on THURSDAY, October 1, 1885. As the College will be in course of enlargement there will be no Public Distribution of Prizes this year. FOUR ENTRANCE SCHOLARSHIPS, value £60, 440, 430, and £20, will be offered for competition at the end of September to new Students. Fees for Lectures and Hospital Practice, 90 Guineas in one payment, or roo Guineas in three instalments. All Resident and other Hospital appoint- Intro- “ments are free, and the holders of all the Resident Appointments are provided with rooms and board entirely free of expense. The Resident Appoint- ments consist of Five House-Physiciancies, Five House-Surgeoncies, One Accoucheurship, and One Receiving Room Officer. Two Dressers and Two Maternity Pupils also reside in the Hospital. Special Classes for the Pre- liminary Scientific and Intermediate M.B. Examinations of the University of London, and for the Primary and Pass Examinations for the Fellowship of the Reyal College of Surgeons of England are held throughout the year. Special entries may be made for Medical and Surgical Practice. The London Hospital is now in direct communication by rail and tram with all parts of the Metropolis, and the Metropolitan, Metropolitan District, East London, and South-Eastern Railways have Stations within a minute’s walk of the Hospital and College. For prospectus and particulars apply personally or by letter to Mile End, E. MUNRO SCOTT, Warden. KING’S COLLEGE, LONDON. DEPARTMENT OF ENGINEERING AND APPLIED SCIENCES. NEW STUDENTS will be admitted on TUESDAY, September 29. The Course of Study provides practical education for those who intend to engage in Engineering, Surveying, Architecture, Velegraphy, and the higher branches of Chemical and Manufacturing Art. For the Prospectus apply, personally or by post-card, to J). W. Cunninc- HAM, Esq., Secretary. ST. THOMAS’S HOSPITAL MEDICAL SCHOOL. ALBERT EMBANKMENT, LONDON, S.E. The WINTER SESSION of 1885-86 will commence on OCTOBER 1, when an Introductory Address will be delivered by A. O. MacKELLAR, Esq., M.Ch., at 3 p.m. TWO ENTRANCE SCIENCE SCHOLARSHIPS of £100 and £60 respectively, open to all first-year Students, will be offered for competition. The Examination will be held on the 5th, 6th, and 7th of October, and the subjects will be Chemistry and Physics, with either Botany or Zoology, at the option of Candidates, Special Classes are held throughout the year for the ““ PRELIMINARY SCIENTIFIC” and “INTERMEDIATE M.B.” Examinations of the UNIVERSITY of LONDON. All Hospital Appointments are open to Students without extra charge. Scholarships and Money Prizes of considerable value are awarded at the Sessional Examination, as also several Medals. The Fees may be paid in one sum or by instalments. Entries may be made to Lectures or to Hospital Practice, and special arrangements are made for Students entering in their second or subsequent years; also for Dental Students and for Qualified Practitioners. Several medical practi ers and private families residing in the neigh- | bourhood receive Students for residence and supervision, and a register of approved lodgings is kept in the Secretary's office. Prospectuses and all particulars may be obtained from the Medical Secre- tary, Mr. GEorGE RENDLE. W M. ORD, Dean. | 5 A WEBKIEY IkCUSTRATED JOURNAL, OF SCIENCE ** To the solid ground Of Nature trusts the mind which builds for aye.’’-—WoORDSWORTH J Ly No. 825, VOL. 32] THURSDAY, AUGUST 20, 1885 [PRICE SIXPENCE Registered as a Newspaper at the General Post Office] [All Rights are Reserved MICROSCOPISTS, | ASTRONOMERS, SURGEON DENTISTS. Ay Ie To THE SWAN LAMP. AND FITTINGS may be purchased at MAWSON AND SWAN'S STORE, 31, FARRINGDON .STREET, E.C., & MOSLEY STREET, |GRACE'’S NEW DIRECT VISION SPECTROSCOPE. ot <= rand Lonoon—————— Mr. JOHN BROWNING begs to direct attention to the advantages of this very powerful, portable, and efficient Instru- ment, which will divide the Sodium lines or the D lines in the Solar Spectrum, and show the Rain-Band as S:parate Lines ; it | is provided with a fine motion focusing arrangement, and it is applicable to every purpose for which a Direct Vision Spectro- scope can be used. Price in Morocco Leather Case, £3 8s. 6d. Illustrated Catalogue of Spectroscopes sent post free, Sixpence. JOHN BROWNING, | Optical and Physical Instrument Maker to H.M. Government, 63, STRAND, LONDON, W.C. NEWCASTLE-ON-TYNE. R. & J. BECK’S mew MICROSCOP SG, eH Be Sule ldees PRICES. aw se a: Stand, with 1-in. Object- glass .. Be ores eV Pet) Stand, with I-in. and 4-in. Object-glasses ... S370 Stand, with Rack and Pinion, coarse adjustment, 2 Eye- pieces, and 1-in. Object- drs be ne Sy 0) glass ... Full Descriptive Pamphlet sent on Application to R. &J. BECK, 68, Cornhill, London, E.¢. GOLD MEDAL International Inventions Exhibition, 1885. NEGRETTI AND ZAMBRA, SOLE MAKERS OF JORDAN'S (PATENT) SUNSHINE RECORDER. PRICE £3 3s. NEGRET FT 1 AND ZAMSBRA, ScientTIFIC INSTRUMENT MAKERS TO THE QUEEN, HOLBORN VIADUCT. Branches :—45, Cornhill ; 122, Regent Street, London. Illustrated Description Post Free. NEGRETTI & ZAMBRA’S Large Illustrated Catalogue, 600 Pages, \ 1200 Engravings. Price 5s. 64. CXXIL NALORE [dugust 20, 1885 BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. 22, ALBEMARLE STREET, LONDON, W. The NEXT ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING will be held at ABERDEEN, commencing on WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER o. PRESIDENT-ELECT, The Ricut Hon. Sir LYON PLAYFAIR, K.C.B, M.P., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S. L. and E., F.C.S. NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS OF MEMOIRS.-— requested to give early notice of their intention to offer Papers. Information about Lodgings and other Local Arrangements may be obtained from the Local Secretaries, Aberdeen. T. G. BONNEY, Secretary. UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LONDON. The Session of the Faculty of Medicine will commence on OCTOBER 1. Introductory Lecture at 4 p.m. by Prof. E. A. Schafer, F.R.S. The Examinations for the Entrance Exhibitions will te heldon SEPT- EMBER 28 and 20. Scholarships, Exhibitions, and Prizes of the Value of 4800 are awarded Annually. In University College Hospital over 3000 In-patients and 30,000 Out- patients are treated during the year. ‘Thirty-six Appointments, eighteen being resident, as House-Surgeon, House Physician, and Obstetric Assistant, &c., are filled up by competition ‘during the year, and these, as well as all Clerkships and Dresserships, are open to Students of the Hospital without extra Fee Prospectuses with full information as to Classes, obtained from the College, Gower Street, W.C. G. V. POORE, M.D., Dean of the Faculty. TALFOURD ELY, M.A., Secretary. VICTORIA UNIVERSITY. This University confers Degrees in Arts, Science, Law, and Medicine on those who have pursued prescribed Courses of Study in a College of the University, and have passed the necessary Examinations. A Preliminary Examination (Faculties of Arts, Science, and Law) rae. an Entrance Examination in Arts (Faculty of Medicine) will take place in October, commencing on Monday, the sth. Particulars as to these and other Examinations and as to Courses of Study may be obtained from the Registrar. Authors are Prizes, &c., may be A. T. BENTLEY, M.A., Registrar. Manchester. OWEN’S COLLEGE, VICTORIA UNIVERSITY, MANCHESTER. I. Arts, Science, and Law Department. II. Medical Department (including the Dental and Pharmaceutical courses). III. Department for Women. IV. Evening Classes Department. Prospectuses of the above, and of Entrance Scholarships and Exhicitions (14 in number, and varying from £12 to £100 per annum), will be forwarded free on application to the Registrar of the College, or may be obtained from Mr. Cornish, 33, Piccadilly, Manchester. HENRY WM. HOLDER, Registrar THE OWENS COLLEGE, MANCHESTER. Prof. GAMGEE being about to commence Practice as a Physician in the South of England, the Chair of Physiology will shortly be Vacant. A detailed statement of the terms and conditions of the Office will be ready about the end of September, and may then be obtained from Dr. Grren- woop, the Principal of the College. HENRY WM. HOLDER, Registrar. GUY’S HOSPITAL. The MEDICAL SESSION commences on THURSDAY, October r. The Hospital contains, besides the beds for Medical and Surgical Cases, wards for Obstetric, Ophtha!mic, and other special departments. Special Classes are held in the Hospital for Students preparing for the Examinations of the University of London and of other Examining Boards. APPOINTMENTS.—The House Surgeons and House Physicians, the Obste- tric Residents, Clinical Assistants, and Dressers, are selected from the Students according to merit and without payment. ‘There are also a large number of Junicr Appointments, every part of the Hospital Practice being systematically employed for instruction ENTRANCE SCHOLARSHIPS.—Open Scholarship of 125 guineas, in Classics, Mathematics, and Modern Languages. Open Scholarship of 125 guineas, in Chemistry, Vhysics, Botany, and Zoology. Prizes, &c.—Six Scholarships, varying in value from £10 to £50 each, for general proficiency in Medical Study; the Treasurer’s Gold Medal, in Medicine; the Treasurer's Gold Medal, in Surgery ; the Gurney Hoare Prize of £25, for Clinical Study; the Beaney Prize of 30 guineas, for Pathol gy; the Sands Cox Scholarship of £15 per annum for three years, for Physiol: Sy; the Joseph Hoare Prizes of £25 and £103 the Michael Harris Prize of 410, for Anatomy; the Mackenzie Bacon Prize of £10, fur Ophthalmoscopy ; the Mackenzie Bacon Prize, for Nervous Diseases, of £15; the Burdett Prize for Hygiene, value £10. For Prospectus and further informaticn apply to the Dean, Dr. F. Guy's Hospital, I.ondon, S.E., July 1885. TAYLOR. LIVING SPECIMENS FOR THE MICROSCOPE. GOLD MEDAL awarded at the FISHERIES EXHIBITION to THOMAS BOLTON, 57, NEWHALL STREET, BIRMINGHAM, who has last week sent to his subscribers Lacinularia socialis, with drawing and description. He has also sent out Cristatella mucedo, Alcyonella fungosa, Plumatella repens, Fredericella sultana, Zoothamnium arbuscula, Cordylophora lacustris, Leptodora hyalina, Volvox globator; also Hydra, Ameeba, Vorticella, Crayfish, and other Specimens for (Huxley and Martin’s) Biological Laboratory work, Weekly Announcements will be made in this place of Organisms T. B. is supplying. Specimen Tube, One Shilling, post free. Twenty-six Tubes in course of Six Months for Subscription of £1 1s. ar Twelve Tubes for 10s. 6a. Portfolio of Drawings, Ten Parts, 1s. each. NORMAL SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND ROYAL SCHOOL OF MINES, SOUTH KENSINGTON AND JERMYN STREET. Dean.—Proressor T. H. Hux ey, P.R.S. SESSION 1885-86. From the rst October 1885, till about the middle of June 1886, the Labora- tories will be open to Students in the following Sciences :— CHEMISTRY AND AGRICULTURE. Puysics. Bro.ocy. GEOLOGY. Mecuanics AND MecHANnIcAL DRAWING. METALLURGY, MINING, AND ASSAYING. The following Courses of Lectures will be given during the Session :— Physics, Professor Guthrie, F.R.S., rst Oct. 1885; Principles of Agriculture, J. Wrightson, Esq., ust Oct.; Biology, G. B. Howes, Esq., rst Oct.; Metallurgy, Professor Chandler Roberts, F.R.S., 2nd Oct. 3 Elementary Organic and Inorganic Chemistry, Professor T. E. Thorpe, F.R.S., 2nd Oct. ; Mining, Professor Warington Smyth, F.R.S., 9th Nov. ; Astronomi- cal Phy. sics, J. Norman Lockyer, Esq., F.R.S., r5th june, 1886 ; Elementary Geology, Professor Judd, F.R.S., rsth Feb. ; Zoology and Palzontology, G. B. Howes, Esq., 15th Feb.; Botany, D. H. Scott, Esq., 15th Feb. ; Advanced Organic and Inorganic Chemistry, Dr. F. R. Japp, F.R.S., F.C.S., 15th Feb. ; Mineralogy, F. Rutley, Esq., 9th March. A Course of Mine Surveying, conducted by Mr. B. H. Brough, will begin on the 15th Feb., 1886. In addition to the above, Lectures will be given in the Chemical Depart- ment by Drs. Hodgkinson and Percy Frankland. For further particulars apply to the RecisTRAR, Normal School of Science. South Kensington. UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF SOUTH WALES AND MONMOUTHSHIRE. An ASSISTANT LECTURER in MATHEMATICS will be AP POINTED in SEPTEMBER (Stipend, 41co per annum). Candidates must send in applications, with testimonials and references, not later than AUGUST 27. For further information apply to Cardiff, June 12, 1885. ST. THOMAS’S HOSPITAL MEDICAL SCHOOL. ALBERT EMBANKMENT, LONDON, S.E. The WINTER SESSION of 1885-86 will commence on OCTOR™ IVOR JAMES, Registrar. BIR ay when an Introductory Address will be delivered by A. O. MacKELUAR, Esq., M.Ch., at 3 p-m TWO ENTRANCE SCIENCE SCHOLARSHIPS of £100 and £60 respectively, open to all first-year Students, will be offered for competiti n. ‘The Examination will be held on the sth, 6th, and 7th of October, and the subjects will be Chemistry and Physics, with either Botany or Zoology, at the option of Candidates. Special Classes are held throughout the year for the ** PRELIMINARY SCIENTIFIC” and ‘“INTERMEDIATE M.B.” Examinaticns of the UNIVERSITY of LONDON. All Hospital Appointments are open to Students without extra charge. Scholarships and Money Prizes of considerable value are awarded at the Sessional Examination, as also several Medals. The Fees may be paid in one sum or by instalments. Entries may be made to Lectures or to Hospital Practice, and special arrangements are made for Students entering in their second or subsequent years; also for Dental Students and for Qualified Practitioners. Several medical practitioners and private families residing in the neigh- buurhood receive Students for residence and supervision, and a register of approved lodgings is kept in the Secretary's office. Piesnectucee and all particulars may be obtained from the Medical Secre- tary, Mr. GEorGE RENDLE. W M. ORD, Dean. ST. GEORGE'S HOSP MEDICAL SCHOOZT; HYDE PARK CORNER, S.W. The WINTER SESSION will commence on THURSDAY, ee Lp with an Introductory Address by TIMOTHY HOLMES, Esgq., F.R.C. at4p.m. A Prospectus of the School and further information may fe obtained by personal application between 1 and 3 p.m. ; or by letter addressed to the DEAN at the Hospital. A WEEKLY ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL OF SCIENCE “© To the solid ground Of Nature trusts the mind which builds for aye.’ —WorDSWORTH No. 826, VOL. 32] THURSDAY, AUGUST 27, 1885 [PRICE SIXPENCE Registered as a Newspaper at the General Post Office] (All Rights are Reserved CHATWOOD'S DUODECUPLE PATENT “J og and LOCKS Have received highest Awards at all International Exhibitions, including Two Diplomas of Honour and Six Gold Medals. London Warehouse, 76, NEWGATE STREET, E.C. Lancashire Safe and Lock Works, Bolton. RIBBON SECTION CUTTING. The Cambridge Scientific Instrument Company have designed a new and simple Microtome for cutting continuous Ribbons of Sections of Microscopic Preparations on the plan first adopted by Mr. Caldwell. The new instru- ment has the advantage over the original pattern of dispensing with the endless band altogether, and consequently not only avoiding the trouble of lifting the series of Sections from the razor, but also of allowing them to fall on to the glass slide in their proper position for mounting. Price of the Microtome, 45 5s- The Company are appointed Agents for the Microscopes of Zeiss, a supply of which is kept in stock. THE CAMBRIDGE SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENT CO., Cambridge. Prof. Loisette’s DISCOVERIES. THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ART OF NEVER FORGETTING—wholly unlike mnemonics. Lost memories restored—the worst made good, and the best better. Any book learned in one reading. Speaking without the Legal, Medical, Clerical, & all other Professions & Busi- nesses. The Lessons contain SUCCE SS. with opinions of Mr. R. A. PROCTOR, Dr. ANDREW WILSON, &. NEVER FORGETTING and CURE for MIND-WANDER- M E M 0 R Y notes. \ -/§ WEEKLY ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL OF SCIENCE / “To the solid ground MI Wer Of Nature trusts the mind which builds for aye.’ —WORDSWORTH ) yB 2 F 5 ».¢ ‘(Qs No. 834, VOL. 32] THURSDAY, oe 22, 1885 wee SIXPEN ffi ll Right Reserved Registered as a Newspaper at the General Post Office] [A ights are Rese THE NEW CHATWOOD'S DUODECUPLE PATENT Pe SAFES 3 ss and LOCKS Have received highest Awards at all International Exhibitions, including Two Diplomas of Honour and Six Gold Medals. oa ot London Warehouse, 76, NEWGATE STREET, E.C. Lancashire Safe and Lock Works, Bolton. [513 SELF-REGISTERING ANEROID BAROMETER, This instrument has neither a spring nor chain, The motive power of the Barometer is obtained from seven vacuum Bee will societet automatically with ink on a diagram, by means of an eight-day clock motion contained in the drum, the fluctuations ‘of the Barometer for a week, An illustrated description sent post free. PRICE £6 Os. _ 0d. JOHN BROWNING, 63, STRAND, LONDON, w.c. Prof. Loisette’s DISCOVERIES, THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ART OF NEVER FORGETTING—wholly unlike mnemonics. Lost memories restored—the worst made good, and the best better. Any book learned in one (eee Speaking without notes. ‘A self-coaching method ; for all subjects. Invaluable to the Legal, Medical, Clerical, Wall other Professions & Busi- nesses. The Lessons contain One Thousand Applications!!! ——_—— AND SUCCESS, P®osrncrus Post FREE, with Ppa of Mr. R. A, PROCTOR, Dr. ANDREW WILSON, &c. NEVER FORGETTING and CURE for MIND- WANDER- ING taught thoroughly by Post, in Classes, and Privately, PROF. LOISETTE, 37, New Oxford Street, London, W.C. RIBBON SECTION CUTTING. The Cambridge Scientific Instrument Company have designed a new and simple Microtome for cutting continuous Ribbons of Sections of Microscopic Preparations on the plan first adopted by Mr. Caldwell. The new instru- ment has the advantage over the original pattern of dispensing with the endless band altogether, and consequently not only avoiding the trouble of lifting the series of Sections from the razor, but also of allowing them to fall on to the glass slide in their proper position for mounting. Price of the Microtome, £5 ss. The Company are appointed Agents for the Microscopes of Zeiss, a supply of which is kept in stock. THE CAMBRIDGE SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENT CO., Cambridge. OO ee a NEGRETT! & ZAMBRA’S THEODOLITES, @Es, LEVELS, Circumferentors, MINERS’ DIALS, POCKET COMPASSES, Drawing INSTRUMENTS, RULES AND SCALES, /S Ve ane AW I) Aes ANEROIDS, &c. z Tilustrated Price Lists Pan free. NEGRETTI. & ZAMBRA, SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENT MAKERS TO Her Majesty THE QUEEN Holborn Viaduct ; 45, Cornhill; & 122, Regent St., London. PHOTOGRAPHERS—CRYST AL PALACE, SYDENHAM. > & CXCIV NATURE [ Oct. 22, 1885 BEDFORD COLLEGE, LONDON (FOR LADIES), 8 and 9, YORK PLACE, BAKER STREET, W. The SESSION began on THURSDAY, October 15. The Course of Instruction in Science is arranged to prepare Students for the Preliminary Scientific, Intermediate and Full B.Sc. Examinations of the University of London. For further particulars apply to the Hon. Sec. at the College. B. SHADWELL, Hon. Sec. ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND. The Appointment of SENIOR ASSISTANT in the Chemical Laboratory is now vacant, Salary £150 per Annum. A thorough knowledge of Theoretical and Practical Chemistry is requisite. There is also a vacancy fora JUNIOR ASSISTANT, Salary commencing at £70 per Annum. Applications (inclosing Testimonials) for either of the above to be made by letter only to Dr. J. AuGusTus VOELCKER, 12, Hanover Square, W. LIGHTNING CONDUCTORS, ELEC- TRIC BELLS, ELECTRIC LIGHT, &c.—Messrs. HOWARD and HAIG, Electrical Engineers, 97, Leadenhall Street, E.C., are prepared to undertake Contracts for the erection of Lightning Conductors and Electric Bell Installations; also Temporary Installations of Electric Light undertaken, Lightning Conductors Examined, Tested, and Repaired. Electrical Repairs done. Annotations for the supply of material for Electrical Work. Estimates Free. Special Terms to the | rade HERMANN HOFFERT, D.Sc. (Medalist, London), A.R.S.M., prepares Pupils for the Army, Cooper's Hill, Civil Service, B.Sc., &c. Cheerful country residence, good Laboratories. Terms moderate.—Apply, Science Schools, South Kensington. GENTLEMAN (22) DESIRES A POSI- TION as SCIENCE MASTER, and also able to teach Drawing and Music. Modest salary only required. Willingly go abroad.— Address, “‘ PoLariscore,” care of J. Dry and Co., Wood Street, West- minster. MATHEMATICS (London and Suburbs).— Students attended (at their own homes if they so prefer) by a High Wrangler, ‘[rin. Coll., M.A. and F.R.S., on very reasonable terms.— X., 9, Dorville Road, Hammersmith, W. ONSLOW COLLEGE, 183, KING'S ROAD, S.W. NOW COMMENCING.—Day and Evening Classes in Geology, Physics, Chemistry, Physiology, tlectric Engineering, and other subjects, LARGE CHEMICAL and METALLURGICAL LABORATORIES Fees 5s. to 12s. the Session of 7 months for Evening Work. Apply for Prospectus to the PRINCIPAL. TO BE SOLD.—A CLARKE’S WINDOW Ee but little used.—Apply Box 20, Post CABINETS FOR MINERALS, FOSSILS, &c. 6 DRAWERS, 20 INCHES HIGH 21s. Io ' “Whe | Lop * 458. 8 ” 26 ” »” 28s. 12 ey 39 ” or) 52s. NATURALISTS’ GLASS-CAPPED BOXES, ROUND AND RECTANGULAR, FROM ONE SHILLING PER DOZEN. THOMAS D. RUSSELL, 78, NEWGATE STREET, E.C. MINERALS AND FOSSILS SINGLE SPECIMENS OR COLLECTIONS. xe. i. BUTLER, Assoc. R. Sch. Mines Lond., M.A. Oxon, and L.S.A. Lond., Successor to the late R. TALLING, 180, BROMPTON ROAD, LONDON, S.wW. Five minutes’ walk from the Natural History Museum, S. Kensington. LIVING SPECIMENS FOR THE MICROSCOPE GOLD MEDALawarded at the FISHERIES EXHIBITION to THOMAS BOLTON, s7, NEWHALL STREET, BIRMINGHAM, Who has last week sent to his subscribers Melicerta tyro, with drawing and description. He has also sent out Lophopus crystallinus, Plumatella repens, Melicerta ringens, Stephanoceros Eichornii, Anurza stipitata, Volvox globator, Desmids; also Hydra, Ameba, Vorticella, Crayfish, and other Specimens for (Huxley and Martin’s) Biological Laboratory work. Weekly Announcements will be made inthis place of Organisms T. B. is supplying. Specimen Tube, One Shilling, post free. Twenty-six Tubesin course of Six Months for Subscription of £1 15 or Twelve Tubes for 10s. 6d. Portfolio of Drawings, Eleven Parts, 1s. each. EDWARD WARD has pleasure in an- nouncing the issue of a new Micro-Slide of Zoophyée, with tentacle- out, in the special manner so well known to his numerous patrons. isseneze Plumulariasimilis... (post-free) 2 8 Also, quite new :-— Gorgonia verrucosa (polypestained) ,, 22 Podalirustypicus (Spectre Shrimp) _,, me EDWARD WARD, 249, OXFORD STREET, MANCHESTER. CHEMICAL APPARATUS, Wholesale, Retail, for Colleges, Schools, and Chemical Works. New Catalogue of 90 pages and 500 clear Illustrations, post free, 2¢.—WILLIAM HUME, 1, Lothian Street, Edinburgh. BOOKS (Secondhand), Miscellaneous, Re. mainders, &.—C. HERBERT, English and Foreign Bookseller, 319. Goswell Road, London, E.C. Catalogue free onreceipt of two stamps, Libraries, Old Books,and Parchment purchased. MICROSCOPISTS, ASTRONOMERS, SURGEON DENTISTS. [503 To THE SWAN LAMP AND FITTINGS may be purchased at MAWSON AND SWAN'S STORE, 31, °FARRINGDON STREET, E.C., & MOSLEY STREET NEWCAS ULE-ON-TYNE. SIX PRIZE MEDALS AWARDED FOR GEOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS Geological Collections especially adapted for Teaching as supplied to Science and Art Department, and used by all Lecturers and Teachers in Great Britain, &c-. New and Rare Minerals constantly arriving from all parts for selection «f Single Specimens. ROCK SECTIONS AND ROCK SPECIMENS: The Largest Variety in England. New Catalogues and Lists onapplication to— JAMES R. GREGORY, 88, CHARLOTTE STREET, FITZROY SQUARE, LONDON. Established 27 Years in London. With numerous []lustrations. Crown 8vo, 3s. 6d. POLARISATION OF LIGHT.’ By W SPOTTISWQODE, LL.D.,late President of the Royal Society, &c. New Edition [Nature Sertes. MACMILLAN & CO., LONDON. LIBRARY, y. 5. > Voy } 4 WEEKLY ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL OF SCIENCE “* To the solid grouna Of Nature trusts the mind which builds for aye.’”-—WoRDSWORTH No. 835, VOL. 32] THURSDAY, OCTOBER 29, 1885 [PRICE SIXPENCE Registered as a Newspaper at the General Post Office] [All Rights are Reserved AMATEUR PHOTOGRAPHY. Cheapest Selection for the Tourist, Artist, Bicylist, Military Man, and others. Special Outfits for Beginners. Price for Complete Set, trom 45s. and upwards. MARION’S Academy Camera. MARION’S‘ Miniature Camera. IMARION’S Registered Washing Apparatus. MARION’S Rectilinear and Portrait Lenses, IWIARION’S Ready Sensitised Paper. IARION’S Instantaneous Shutters. DWIARION’S Enlarging Apnaratus and Magic Lantern. IMARION’S Best French Mounts. IWARION’S Self-Adjusting Rolling Press and Burnisher. IWLARION’S Practical Guide to Photography. Second Edi- tion, Revised and Enlarged, giving clear and precise Instructions for Learning and Practising Photography. Price 2s. 6d. post free. Free Lessonsin Photography to Purchasers.—Marionand Co. have erected a Gallery in Soho Square, specially for giving Lessons. Printing from Amateurs’ Negatives, Enlarging. MARION’S Alpha Paper Prints by Gaslight in One Minute. The printing process of the future. Sample packet 5s. Photographs Mounted, Arranged, & BoundintoVolumes. Chemicals, Mounts, Albums, Scrap Books. PRICED LIST FREE ON APPLICATION. MARION & Co., 22 & 23,Soho Square, London. SHOW ROOM—GROUND FLOOR. [519 MARION’S Britannia Dry Plates are the Best and | MARION’S Photographic Outfits. The LargestandBest | HE BESTIMAGIC LANTERN MADE. PHAN New Mineral Oil Russian Iron Lantern, 4-inch Compound Con- densers, Brass Stage and Sliding Front, Compound Achromatic Portrait Lens Objective with Rack Adjustment, and Improved Four-Wick Lamp in Japanned Block Tin Case. Price £3 15s. This Lantern can at any time be fitted with Limelight Apparatus without Alteration. NEW ILLUSTRATED CATALOGUE OF LANTERNS POST FREE, 3d, JOHN BROWNING, 63, STRAND, LONDON, W.c. ) R. & J. BECK’S NEW MICROSCOPE, ial BAe 9 WO ves PRICES. 75 eh Stand, with 1-in. Object- PES 555) ced (REE eS 22 0 Stand, with I-in. and 4-in. @byject-glasses7--. 5.5) =. 1G) oc) 0 Stand, with Rack and Pinion, coarse adjustment, 2 Eye- pieces, and t-in. Object- glass ... me sé oS 3 3 0 Full Descriptive Pamphlet sent on Application to R. & J. BECK, 68, Cornhill, London, E.C. GOLD MEDAL i International Inventions Exhibition, 1885. NEGRETTI & ZAMBRA’S THEODOLITES, G? LEVELS, Circumferentors, MINERS’ DIALS, POCKET COMPASSES, Drawing INSTRUMENTS, RULES AND SCALES, ET ir UD re ANEROIDS, &c. Illustrated Price Lists posted Free. NEGRETT!| & ZAMBRA, SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENT MAKERS TO Her Majesty THE QUEEN, FHlolborn Viaduct ; 45, Cornhill; G 122, Regent St., London, PHOTOGRAPHERS—CRYSTAL PALACE SYDENHAM. cecil ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF ENGLAND. _ The Appointment of SENIOR ASSISTANT in the Chemical Laboratory is now vacant, Salary £150 per Annum. A thorough knowledge of Theoretical and Practical Chemistry is requisite. There is also a vacancy fora JUNIOR ASSISTANT, Salary commencing at £70 per Annum. Applications (inclosing Testimonials) for either of the above to be made by letter only to Dr. J. AuGustus VoELCKER, 12, Hanover Square, W. INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION OF INDUSTRY, SCIENCE, AND ART. EDINBURGH—MAY TO OCTOBER 1886. Patron—HER MAJESTY THE QUEEN. President—The Marguis of Lornutan, K.T. The EArt OF ABERDEEN. The Kart or ROSEBERRY. The Lord Provost oF EDINBURGH. The Lorp Provost or GLasGow. Vice-Presidents. | The EXHIBITION will be OPEN to the PRODUCTS, MANUFACTURES, &c., of all COUNTRIES. All APPLICATIONS for SPACE must be lodged with the S ry, James Marcupank, S.S.C., 29, Hanover Street, Edinburgh, BEFORE JANUARY 1,-188€.—Manager, H. A. Heptey. CLASS XI. comprises all kinds of SCIENTIFIC APPLIANCES and INV TIONS for DOMESTIC or other purposes. CLOCKS, WATCHES, &c., in PROGRESS of MANUFACTURE, &c., &c. EVENING LECTURES TO WORKING MEN. NORMAL SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND ROYAL SCHOOL OF MINES. The First Course, consisting of Six Lectures on ‘‘Common Plants, and How They Grow,” by Dr. D. H. SCOTT, M.A,, will be delivered at the Museum of Practical Geology in Jermyn Street, S.W., commencing at 8 o'clock on MONDAY. NOVEMBER og, 1885. Tickets may be obtained by Working Men only, on application at the Museum on Monday Evening, November 2, from 6 to 10 o'clock p.m. Fee for the Course, 6%. Each applicant is requested to bring his name, address, and cccupation written on a piece of paper, for which the ‘Ticket will be exchanged. ONSLOW COLLEGE, 183, KING'S ROAD, S.W. NOW COMMENCING.—Day and Evening Classes in Geology, Physics, Chemistry, Physiology, Electric Engineering, and other subjects, LARGE CHEMICAL and METALLURGICAL LABORATORIES. Fees 5s. to 12s. the Session of 7 months for Evening Work. Apply for Prospectus to the PRINCIPAL. TO BE SOLD.—A CLARKE’S WINDOW TRANSIT INSTRUMENT, but little used.—Apply Box 20, Post Office Halifax. NATURE [ Oct. 29, 1885, LIVING SPECIMENS FOR THE MIGROSCOPE GOLD MEDALawarded at the FISHERIES EXHIBITION to THOMAS BOLTON, 57, NEWHALL STREET, BIRMINGHAM, Who has last week sent to his subscribers Reotlets of Grass coyered with a great variety of Pond Life, including Acineta grandis, Dendrosoma radians, Vorticella campanula, Carchesium folypinum, Carchesium spectabile, Ofercularia natans, Ophrydium sessile, Thuricola valvata, Cothurnia— imberbis, Pyxicola affinis; also Stephanoceros Eichornii,,Limnias cerato- phylli, G2cistes crystallinus, Floscularia cornuta, and Floscularia campanu- Jata. He has also sent cut Hydra, Amaeba, Vorticella, Crayfish, and other Specimens for (Huxley and Martin’s) Biological) Laboratory work. Weekly Announcements wil] be made in this place of Organisms T. B. is supplying. Specimen Tube, One Shilling, post free. Twenty-six Tubesin course of Six Months for Subscription of £1 1s or Twelve Tubes for 10S. 6a. Portfolio of Drawings, Eleven Parts, 1s. each. MICROSCOPIC OBJECTS PREPARED FOR MOUNTING, WITH INSTRUCTIONS, The following Series have recently been prepared and are now on Sale :— M* 12 dissections of the house Cricket ... ie ean N*® r2 ) ty C; ckroach oe Bop 2 O* 32 5 mA Hive Bee a sus) ease 38 other Series have been issued all at 2s. each. List oN APPLICATION. EDWARD WARD, 249, Oxford Street, Manchester. ICROSCOPIC OBJECTS FOR HIRE, Histological, Botanical, Geological, by the best Mounters. Let 4 out on most moderate terms. Particulars of B. WreLts. Dalmain Road, Forest Hill. [302 MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY. PROFESSORS, COLLECTORS and VISITORS to LONDON are INVITED to INSPECT Mr. HENSON’S STOCK of CHOICE MINE- RALS, &c., &c. At the PRESENT TIME he has a PARTICULARLY FINE CRYSTALLISED NUGGET of NATIVE GOLD, WEIGHT 9 oz., PINK APOPHYLLITE, CHESSYLITE, EMERALDS on MATRIX, PYROMORPHITE (very RARE FORM), CERUSSITE, CRYSTALL. ISED MALACHITE, and BOTRYOIDAL CHALCEDONY, ME- TEORIC IRONS and STONES. POLISHED AGATES and LABRA- DORITES. A Large Series of ROCKS, also MICROSCOPIC SECTIONS of the same. Listson Application. Hammers, Chisels, and HammerStraps. PRIVATE LESSONS AND EVENING CLASSES. BLOWPIPE CASES AND APPARATUS. Catalogues free. SAMUEL HENSON, 277, STRAND, LONDON. Opposite Norfolk Street. HERMANN HOFFERT, D.Sc. (Medalist, Londen), A.R.S.M., prepares Pupils for the Army, Cooper's Hill, Civil Service, B.Sc., &c. Cheerful country residence, good Laboratories. Terms moderate.—Apply, Science Schools, South Kensington. CHEMICAL APPARATUS, Wholesale, Retail, for Colleges, Schools, and Chemical Works. New Catalogue of go pages and 500 clear Illustrations, post free, 2@¢.—WILLIAM HUME, 1, Lothian Street, Edinburgh. BOOKS (Secondhand), Miscellaneous, Re- mainders, &c.—C. HERBERT, English and Foreign Bookseller, 319. Goswell Road, London, E.C. Catalogue free onreceipt of two stamps, Libraries, Old Books,and Parchment purchased. MATHEMATICS (London and Suburbs).— | Students attended (at their own homes if they so prefer) by a High Wrangler, ‘frin. Coll., M.A. and F.R.S., on very reasonable terms.— X., 9, Dorville Road, Hammersmith, W. HALF-PRICE will be given for ‘‘ Nature” a week old.—Apply to J. B., Parsonstown, Ireland. FERNERIES fitted up with Preserved Flowers. Foliage Plants, and Floral ecorations suitable for Drawing- and Ball Rooms, Churches, Chapels. Theatres, &c. Sundella, a PATENT Preparation for preserving FERNS (from Maiden-hair to the common Brake), GRASSES, FOLIAGE, &c., sent, securely packed in stout box (with full particulars) on receiyt of P.O.O. for Ss, MADAME SUNDELL, 4, SPUR STREET, LEICESTER SQUARE, LONDON. i) ed SIX PRIZE MEDALS AWARDED FOR GEOLOGICAL COLLECTIONS Geological Collections especially adapted for Teaching as supplied to Science and Art Department, and used by all Lecturers and Teachers in Great Britain, &c. , New and Rare Minerals constantly arriving from all parts for selection of Single Specimens. ROCK SECTIONS AND ROCK SPECIMENS; The Largest Variety in England. New Catalogues and Lists onapplication to— JAMES R. GREGORY, 88, CHARLOTTE STREET, FITZROY SQUARE, LONDON. Established 27 Years in London. CABINETS FOR MINERALS, FOSSILS, &e. 6 DRAWERS, 20 INCHES HIGH Pere re tee 'S. 10 ” 39 ” ” seat pase | ene 45s. 8 ” 26 ” ” Perc res ets) 12 ” 39 ” ” ate 525) NATURALISTS’ GLASS-CAPPED BOXES, ROUND AND RECTANGULAR, FROM ONE SHILLING PER DOZEN. THOMAS D. RUSSELL, 78, NEWGATE STREET, E.C. be dasha 3145 - “+ Tin