rm ¥ ‘ ih é Wes ae wey eA ly we oe LA y ‘ * ‘ BP, hy i fegiery st rh : " Nature A WEEKLY ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL OF SCIENCE VOLUME VEXxX XTX MARCH, 1912, to AUGUST, 1912 “To the solid ground Of Nature trusts the mind which builds for aye.’—WoRDSWORTH L£2AIT9 #ondon ere eC AN AND CO. LimitEeD NEW YORK: THE MACMILLAN COMPANY Vature, LOctober 24, 1912 Nature, October 24, INDEX. AUTHOR Abbe (Prof. C.), Meteorology of the Future, 619 Abbot (C. G.), Report of Smithsonian Astrophysical Ob- servatory, 42 Abbot (C, G.) and Prof. F. P. Brackett, Observations of Solar Radiation at Bassour, 674 Abbott (W. J. L.), Classification of Prehistoric British Stone Industries, 248 Abderhalden (Prof. E.) and others, Fortschritte der natur- wissenschaftlichen Forschung, 373 Abel (O.), A. Brauer, and others, die Abstammungslehre, 4 Abney (Sir W. de W.), Extinction of Light by an Illuminated Retina, 363; Colour-blindness and the Tri- chromatic Theory, 494 Abt (G.), Salt Stains on Skins, 574 Ackermann (A. S. E.), the Shuman Sun-heat Absorber, 122 Ackermann (A. W.), Vortex Rings in Liquids, 15 Adamovié (Prof. L.), die Pflanzenwelt Dalmatiens, 421 Adams (Prof.), Spectrograph for 60-in. Reflector at Mt. Wilson, 589 Adamson (D.), Durability of Wire Ropes for Lifting, 590 Adamson (R. S.), Ecology of Gamlingay, 328 Addenbrooke (G. L.), Surface Leakage Experiments with Alternating Currents, 416 Ainsworth-Davis (J. R.), Agricultural Education in the United States, Prof. B. M. Davis, 489 Aitken (Dr. John), the Sun as a Fog-producer, 131 Albe (E. E. Fournier d’), the Potential Effect in Selenium, 52 Albrecht (Prof.), Variation of Latitude, 512 Alcock (A., C.I.E., F.R.S.), Entomology Officers, 474 Alder (J.) and A. Hancock, British Tunicata, 523 Alexander (W. B.), Experiments on Cross-breeding of two Races of the Moth Acidalia virgularia, 23 Allan (Dr. G. E.) and J. Brown, Transformation of Ferric Oxide into Magnetic Oxide, 547 Allen (A. C. and Miss), Photographs of the Solar Eclipse, for Medical 355 Allen (C. Edgar), the Modern Locomotive, 111 Amaduzzi (Dr. L.), Report on Electrons in Metals, 458 Amagat (E. H.), Variations of the Pressure Coefficient with Temperature, 183 Ami (Dr. H.), Speech at British Science Guild, 296 Amoroso (Dr. L.), Mathematical Theory of Economic Dynamics, 92 Amouroux and Murat (MM.), Some Syntheses starting with Butyrone, 209 Amundsen (Captain Roald), Arrival at the South Pole, 43; awarded Gold Medal by R.S.G.S., 428; Arrival in Christiania, 585 Andersen (Knud), Catalogue of Chiroptera in the British Museum, 449 André (Prof. Charles), Death, 429 a (V.), Calendar Reform in States of Greek Ghurch, 4 Annandale (Dr. N.), Indian Winter : Correction, 353 ; Frogs and Snakes from the Abor Foot-hills, 365; Aged Sea Anemones, 607 INDEX. Antipa (Dr. G.), Biology of the Danube Delta, 40 Appleyard (R.), Solution of Network Problems by Deter- minants, 286 Arber (E. A. Newell), Psygmophyllum majus Sp. nova from Newfoundland, 235 Aristotle, Dr. T. E. Lones, Researches in Natural Science, 653 Armstrong (Prof. H. E.) and J. V. Eyre, Enzyme Action, 312 Armstrong (H. E. and E. F.) and E. Horton, Studies on Enzyme Action, 311 Armstrong (Prof. H. E.) and E. H. Rodd, Morphological Studies of Benzene Derivatives, 493 Arndt (Prof. Kurt), die Bedeutung der Kolloide fiir die Technik, 28 Arnold (Prof. J. O., F.R.S.), Recent Researches on Cast Iron, 169; Constitution of Steel, 278; Practical and Scientific Metallurgy of Steel, F. W. Harbord and J. W. Hall, 315 Asch (Dr. W. and Dr. D.), die Silicate in chemischer und technischer Beziehung, 212 Ashworth (J. R.), Curie’s Constant in the Ferromagnetic State, 503, 555; the Constant P of Froéhlich’s Equation, 616 Aston (F. W.), Anode Dark Space in the Discharge in Oxygen, 218 Auld (Dr. S. J. M.), Introduction to Quantitative Analysis, 552 Austin (Gertrude), Heliotherapy for Tuberculous Children, 538 Avebury (Lord), Development of Pollen and Fertilisation, 466 Backhouse (T. W.), New Naked-eye Star Catalogue, 175 Bacon (Francis), Mr. Balfour on, 454 Bage (Miss Freda), Retina in Lateral Eyes of Sphenodon, 67 Bahr (P. H.), Filariasis and Elephantiasis in Fiji, 487 Baker (W. M.), the Calculus for Beginners, 602 Balfour (Dr. Andrew), Fourth Report of the Wellcome Tropical Research Laboratories : Spirochztes in Fowls, 11 Balfour (Right Hon. A.), on Francis Bacon, 454 Ball (Dr. John), the El Nakhla el Baharia Meteorite, 147 Ball (W. C.), Changes in Absorption Spectra of ““Didymium Salts,’’ 363 Ball (W. W. Rouse), Mersenne’s Numbers, 86 Ballore (F. de M. de), Periods of Briickner and Earth- quakes, 625 Ballou (W. A.), Sir D. Morris, Entomological Problems in the West Indies, 610 Balls (W. Lawrence), the Stomatograph, 24; Fhoto- synthesis and Stomatal Aperture, 555 Baly (Prof. E. C. C., F.R.S.), Chemical Spectroscopy, Prof. G. Urbain, 211 Bancroft (H.), Ore Deposits in Arizona, 617 Banerjee (H. Nath), the Ayurvedic Method of Purifying Mercury by Garlic Juice, 495 iv Index [ Nature, October 24, 1912 Bannister (C, O.), Theory of Blast-roasting of Galena, 5z Banta (A. M.), the Distastefulness of Anosia tlexippus, 243 Barker (IT. V.), Optical Properties of Mercuric Todide, 78 ; Isomorphism of the Acid Tartrates and Tartar-Emetics of Potassium, Rubidium, and Cesium, 443 Barlow (Dr. Guy), the Torque produced by a Beam of Light in Oblique Refraction through a Glass Plate, 233 Barnard (Prof. E. E.), Nova Cygni; Nova Lacertz, 207; the Changeable Red Star WX Cygni, 432; Observations of Jupiter on May 7, 589; Comet 1911¢ (Brooks), 616 Barnard (J. E.), Disintegrating Bacteria and other Organic Cells, 21 Barnard (IX. H.), Are Eyes Autophanous? 138 Barnes (Prof. Howard T., F.R.S.), Icebergs and their Location in Navigation, 411 Barrett-Hamilton (G. E. H.), Mammalia: Clare Island, 521 Barton (Prof. E. H.), Analytical Mechanics, 655 Bartram (Miss H.), Correlation of Geometry Geography, 44 Bartrum (C. O.), Solar Halos on May 17, 348 Bary (Paul), Molecular Weight of India-rubber, 261 Baschin (Otto), Drift Ice of the Great Newfoundland Bank and its Danger to Navigation, 428 Bassot (M.), Compensation of the New Meridian of Quito, 260; Map of W. Morocco, 599 Bate (Miss D. M. A.), Remains of large Mouse in Crete, 14 Bates (Edw. L.) and F. Charlesworth, Practical Mathe- matics and Geometry, 240 Bather (Dr. F. A.), Guide to Fossil Invertebrates in the British Museum (Natural History), 345; Caradocian Cystidea from Girvan, 364; Open-air Folk Museum of Bunge, 457 Bauer (E.), Reduction of the B-Diketones, 235 Bauer (Dr. G.), O. Lasche, and others, Marine Steam Turbines, 159 Baume (G.), Fusibility Curves of Volatile Systems, 652 Baume (G.) and N. Georgitses, Fusibility Curves of Vola- tile Binary Systems at Low Temperatures, 79 Baume (G.) and F. L. Perrot, Atomic Weight of Chlorine, 677 Bausch and Lomb Optical Co., Microscope Models, 69 Baxandall (F. E.), Spectrum of Nova Geminorum, 200 Bealby (J. T.), How to Make an Orchard in British Columbia, 497 Beattie (R.), Pinhole Images, 295 Beccari (Dr. Odoardo), Annals of the Royal Gardens, Calcutta: Asiatic Palms—Lepidocaryez ; Species of Damonorops, 167 Beck (Conrad) and H. Andrews, Photographic Lenses, 5 Beckenhaupt (C.), Witterung, Erdoberflache, und Leben, and Botanic the 405 Becquerel (A. H.), Memorial Lecture on, Chemical Society by Sir O. Lodge, 455 Becquerel (Jean), Inversion of Hall’s Bismuth, 469 Beddard (Dr. F. E.), Species of Tapeworms of the Genus Inermicapsifer from the Hyrax, with Notes on the Genera Zschokkeella and Thysanotenia, 207; New Genus of ‘Cestoidea found on Tapeworms in a Tasmanian Devil, 312; Asexual Tapeworm, 416 Bedell (Prof. F.), Dr. C. A. Pierce, Direct and Alternating- current Manual, 472 Bell (Dr. J. Mackintosh), New Zealand Volcanoes, 38 Bell (Dr. Louis), Effect of Ultra-violet Light from Electric Lamps on the Eye, 511 Belopolsky (Prof.), Nova Geminorum No. 2, 384 to be given at Phenomenon in Beltzer (Prof. F. J. G.) and J. Persoz, les Matiéres Cellulosiques, 84 Bent (A. C.), Birds in the Aleutian Islands, 675 Berger (A.), Hortus Mortolensis, 510 Berget (A.), a Total Immersion Areometer without Capillary Correction, 339 Bergson (Prof.) and the Eye of Pecten, Dr. W. J. Dakin, 86 Berry (E. W.), Early Cretaceous Flora of Maryland, 330 Berthelot (A.) and D. M. Bertrand, Toxic Properties of B-Imidoazoethylamine, 625 Berthelot (D.) and H. Gaudechon, Photolytic Decomposi- tion of Smokeless Powder, &c., by Ultra-violet Rays, 25; Radiations producing the Photosynthesis of Complex Compounds, &c., 573; Photolysis of Sugars Ketonic by Sunlight and by Ultra-violet Light, 625 Bertrand (G.), pangauce in Animal Organs, 365 Bertrand (G.) and H. Agulhon, Boron as a Normal Con- stituent of Animal Tissues, 574. Bertrand (G.) and F. Medigreceanu, the ganese in the Blood, Kingdom, 495 Besant (Dr. W. H., F.R.S.) and A, S. Ramsey, a Treatise on Hydromechanics, 655 Bews (Prof. J. W.), Vegetation of Natal, 405 Bielecki (J.) and V. Henri, Quantitative "Study of Absorp- tion of Ultra-violet Rays, 677 : Bigelow (Prof., M.A., and Anna N.), Applied Biology, 190 Bigourdan (G.), the Reflecting Meridian Circle and Minor Planets, 390 Biles (Prof. J. H.), the Geared Turbine Channel Steamers Normannia and Hautonia, 124 Bingham (Prof. H.), ele Peruvian Expedition, 68 Bingham (Prof. H.), 1. Bowman, and G. F. Eaton, Dis- covery of Human Remains at Cuzco, Peru, 584 Biaise (E. E.), Syntheses by means of Mixed Organo- metallic Derivatives of Zinc, 235) 495 Blakesley (T. H.), Specific Gravity Balls for determining very small Differences of Density, 466 Blane (L.), Effect of Sudden Variations of Temperature on the Respiration of Plants, 495 Bleeker (Pieter), Index to Icthyological Papers by, Dr. Weber and Dr. de Beaufort, 225 Bloch (Dr. L.), G. Roy, Principes de la Technique de VEclairage, 3 Blondel (A.), an Electro-chronograph with Synchronised Sparks, 209 Boas (Franz), the Mind of Primitive Man, 161 Bohlin (Prof. K.), Cometary Phenomena, 17 Bolivar (Dr. 1.), Saltatorial Orthoptera, 467 Boll (M.) and Paul Job, Photochemical Kinetics of the Chloroplatinic Acids in very Dilute Solutions, 157 Bolton (H.), Insect Remains from the Midland and S.E. Coalfields, 286 Borchardt (W. G.) and Rev. A. D. Perrott, Geometry for Schools, 602, 655 Besley (ie) and P. Idrac, the Spectrum of Nova Geminorum, Normal Man- 183; Manganese in the Animal 209 Bosworth (G. F.), East London, 346 Boulenger (G. A.), Fishes collected by Mr. A. B. Percival in British E. Africa, 312; Varieties of the Wall-lizard, 364 Boulger (G. S.), Botany, 654 Bourion (F.), Separation of Iron and Titanium, 313 Bourquelot (Ed.) and M. Bridel, Action of Emulsion upon Salicin in Alcoholic Solution, 183 Bourquelot (Em.) and Mlle. A. Fichtenholz, Identification of Glucoside from the Leaves of Kalmia latifolia, 25 Boutroux (Prof. E.), J. Nield, the Beyond that is Within, and other Addresses, 630 Bouvier (E. L.), Classification of the Genus Caridina and extraordinary Variations of a Species of this Genus, Caridina brevirostris, 183 Bowden (Prof. Joseph), Russian Peasant Method of Multi- plication, 431 Bower (Prof. F. O., F.R.S.), the late Sir Joseph Hooker, 6 Bowe (Prof. C. V., F.R.S.), Vortex Rings in Liquids, 15 ; Rotating Films, "493 Bradley (Dr. O. C.), Guide to the Dissection of the Dog, 630 Brearley (Harry), the Heat Treatment of Tool Steel, 5or Brendler (Dr. W.), Mineralien-Sammlungen: ein Hand- und Hilfsbuch, 446 Briggs (H.), Effects of Errors in Surveying, 605 Brindley (H. H.), Proportions of the Sexes in Forficula auricularia, 467 Brislee (Dr. F. J.), an Introduction to the Study of Fuel, 549 Brittan (Dr. W. E.), the House-fly Pest, 616 Brooks (A. H.) and others, Mineral Resources of Alaska, 617 Brooks (Prof.) and Mr. Turner, Inductance of Compact Coils of Wire without Iron Cores, 120 Brotherus (Dr. V. F.) and Rev. W. W. Watts, Mosses of the Yarrangobilly Caves District, N.S. Wales, 626 Brown (M. W.), Northamptonshire, iii Nature, ] October 24, 1912 Lnidex “Brown (Dr. T. Graham), Alleged Specific Instance of | Case (Prof. E. C.), Permian Vertebrate Fauna of North Transmission of Acquired Characters, 23; Factors in _ Rhythmic Functions of the Nervous System, 312 Browne (Edith A.), Peeps at Industries: Sugar, 5; Rubber, 554 Browning (Dr: Carl H.) and Ivy Mackenzie, Recent Methods in the Diagnosis and Treatment of Syphilis, 575 Brownlee (Dr.), Inheritance of Hair and Eye Colour, 468 Bruce (the late Dr. A.) and Dr. J. W. Lawson, Multiple Neuroma of the Central Nervous System, 547 Bruce (Sir David, C.B., F.R.S.), Promotion of, 301 Bruce (E. S.), Automatic Release of Self-recording Instru- ments from Ballons-sondes, 338 Bruce (Dr. Wm. S.), the Antarctic Campaign, 17; Inverte- brates taken by the Scotia, 521 Bruno (A.), and P. T. d’Auzay, the Estimation of Sulphates in Solution by a Physico-chemical Volumetric Method, 209 Bruschi (Dr. Diana), Toxic Action of Fungi Parasitic on Fruits, 92 Bryant (W. W.), Adoption of a Climatological Day, 466 Bryce (Dr. Alexander), Modern Theories of Diet and their Bearing upon Practical Dietetics, 422 Bryce (James), Address at Sydney University, 651 Buchanan (J. Y., F.R.S.), the Solar Eclipse of April 17, 241 Buckmaster (G. A.) and J. A. Gardner, Composition of Blood Gases during Respiration of Oxygen, 24 Bugge (Dr. G.), Prof. Dr. S. Giinther, Biicher der Natur- wissenschaft, 398 Buisson (H.), and C. Fabry, Temperature of Sources of Light, 339 Bull (C. L.), Under the Roof of the Jungle: Animal Life in the Guiana Wilds, 396 Bullen (G. E.), Alleged Fall of an Aérolite near St. Albans, 34; Feeding Habits of Mackerel, 641 Burch (Dr. G. J., F.R.S.), Confusion Test for Colour Blindness, 130 Burdon-Sanderson (the late Lady), Sir Sanderson: a Memoir, 55 Burland (TY. H.), First Book of Zoology, 264 Burnet (A.), Occultation of a Star by Jupiter, 632 Burrard (Col. S. G.), Indian Survey, 328 Burt (C.), Inheritance of Mental Characters, 614 Burton (W.), Ancient Egyptian Ceramics, 641 Bury (G. Wyman), the Land of Uz, by “Abdullah Mansur,” John Burdon- 35 Busquet (H.) and M. Tiffeneau, Réle of Caffeine, 625 Buss (A. A.), Solar Eclipse of April 17: Prominences, 251 Biiss and Djukow (Herren), Simultaneous Meteor Observa- tions, 459 Butterworth (S.), Method of Measuring small Inductances, 337 Byrne (Dr. J.), Physiology of the Semicircular Canals and their Relation to Sea-Sickness, 575 Callendar (Prof. H. L.), Bakerian Lecture on Variation of Specific Heat of Water Investigated by the Continuous Mixture Method, 24; Expansion of Vitreous Silica, 286 Calman (W. T.), Lobsters in the 4Zgean, 529 Calvet (M.), Alcools: Dénaturants, 84 Campbell (Prof. D. H.), Plant Life and Evolution, 213 Campbell (Dr. Robert), Upper Cambrian Rocks at Stone- haven, &c., 468 Campbell (Prof. W. W.), Radial Velocity of Stars, 335 Camus (M.) and others, Observations of Mercury, 644 Cannizzaro (Prof. S.), Memorial Lecture by Sir W. Tilden, F.R.S., 455 Canziani (Estella), Costumes, Traditions, and Songs of Savoy, 289 Carnegie Institution of Washington: Year Book, 126 Carothers (S. D.), Portland Experiments on Flow of Oil, 415 Carpenter (Prof. G. H.), Injurious Insects in Ireland, 494 Carr (A. S. Comyns), W. H. S. Garnett, and J. H. Taylor, National Insurance, 133 . Carriére (E.), the Acylic Acid Aldehydes, 261 Carslaw (Prof. H. S.), the Teaching of Mathematics, 6 ety (Merritt), Report on a Biological Survey of Colorado, 15 America, 173 Cave (Charles J. P.), Clouds and Shadows, 268; Thunder- storm of March 11, 338 Cavers (Dr. F.), Practical Botany, 5; Botany and Garden- ing, J. E. Peabody and A. E. Hunt, Prof. H. H. Rusby, Prof. M. Mobius, Dr. G. Worgitzky, Dr. G. Tobler- Wolff and Prof. F. Tobler, H. E. Corke, R. T. Giinther Mrs. C. W. Earle and Ethel Case, C. H. Curtis, W. R. Dykes, J. T. Bealby, all 497 Chaillon (A.) and L. MacAuliffe, Morphologie Médicale : —tude des quatre types humains, 237 Chalkley (A. P.), Dr. R. Diesel, Diesel Engines for Land and Marine Work, 549 Chandon (Mlle. E.), appointed to Paris Observatory, 38 Chapman (J. C.), Fluorescent Roéntgen Radiation from Elements of High Atomic Weight, 104; Attempt to Refract Réntgen Radiation, 313 Chappell (C.), Corrodibility of Iron, 278 Charcot (Dr.), awarded Gold Medal of Paris Geographical Society, 65 Charlier (Prof.), Constitution of the Milky Way, 407 Charpy (G.) and S. Bonnerot, Permeability of Iron for Hydrogen, 53 Chatley (Herbert), Centre of Pressure on Triangular Plane Gliders at Small Angles of Incidence, 138 Chauveau (A.), Stereoscopic Inversions due to Association of Two Systems of Retinal Impressions in Opposition and of Unequal Power, 235 Chavanne (G.), Isolation of unknown Chlorine Derivatives, 120 Chilton (Prof. C.), Amphipoda of the Scottish Antarctic Expedition, 468 Chree (Dr. C., F.R.S.), Short Index to Kew Observatory Observations, 24; Phenomena of Sun-spots and Terres- trial Magnetism at Kew, 285; Studies in Terrestrial Magnetism, 445 Ciamician and Silber (Profs.), Photochemical Action, 69 Clark (J. E.) and R. H, Hooker, Report on Phenological Observations for 1911, 208 Clarke (Dr. F. W.), Geochemical Statistics, 334 Clarke (J. Jackson), the Cause of Cancer, 601 Cligny (A.), Migration of the Common Eel, 105 Cockayne (Dr.), Flora of the Higher Southern Alps, New Zealand, 644 Cohen (Prof. J. B.), the Smoke Problem, 217 Cohen (Prof. J. B., F.R.S.) and Arthur G. Ruston, Smoke : a Study of Town Air, 139 Cohendy (M.), Experiments on Life without Micro- organisms, 25; Life with Pure Cultures following on Aseptic Life, 79 Cole (G. A. J.), the Liffey Valley, 521 Coleman (Prof. A. P., F.R.S.), the Canadian Rockies, 35 Colson (A.), the van’t Hoff Theory of Solution: Reply to M. Langevin, 183 Colwell (H. A.) and Dr. S. Russ, Conversion of Starch into Dextrin by X-rays, 337 Combes (R.), Method for the Culture of the Higher Plants in Sterile Media, 157 Conran (J.), the Riemann Integral and Measurable Sets, 260 Conwentz (H.) and others, Beitrage zur Naturdenk- malpflege : das Plagefenn bei Chorin, 665 Cooke (W. E.), the Astrographic Catalogue, 487 Coplans (Dr. Myer), Method for Detection of Proximity of Ice at Sea, 295; (i.) Ohmmeter for Testing Public Water Supplies, (ii.) Purification of Water, 590 Corke (H. Essenhigh), G. Clarke Nuttall, Wild Flowers as they Grow : Photographed in Colours Direct from Nature, 213, 497 Correns (Prof. C.), die neuen Vererbungsgesetze, 327 Coste (J. H.), Calorific Power of Gas, 449 Cotton (A.) and H. Mouton, New Substances Magnetic Double Refraction, 183 Cotton (A. D,), Marine Alge : Clare Island, 521 Coulter, Barnes, and Cowles (Drs.), Text-book of Botany for Colleges and Universities, 654 Coulter (Prof. J. M.), Morphological Nature of the Endo- sperm of Angiospermic Plants, 145; Plant-breeding ; Palzobotany and Botany, 510 Cousin (H.) and H. Hérissey, Oxidation of Parathymol, 574 Coward (T. A.), Smelt in Rostherne Mere, 338 showing vi Craig (E. H. C.), Oil-finding, 580 Crawford (O. G. S.), Distribution of Early Bronze Settle- ments in Britain, 40 Crawford (Dr. W. J.), Elementary Graphic Statics, 655 Crawley (A. E.), Andrew Lang, 532; Inferior Races, Franz Boas, 161; Science and Reservations, H. Conwentz and others, 665 Crispin (E. S.), Prevention and Treatment of Disease in the Tropics, 575 Croft (W. B.), Contrast Colours in the Use of Zone-plates, 600 Crookes (Sir W.), Devitrification of Silica Glass, 51 Crosley (C. G.), the Feeble-minded, 40 Cross (M. I.) and M. J. Cole, Modern Microscopy, 525 Crossland (Cyril), Clouds and Shadows, 322; Red Water, 34 Crowther (Dr.), Scientific Principles of Animal Feeding, 618 Crowther (J. A.), Distribution of the Scattered Réntgen Radiation, 104 Cuffe (Charlotte I. W.), Autophanous Eyes, 87 Cumming (Dr. A. C.), Practical Chemistry for Medical Students, 291 Cuninghame (R. J.), the “Water-elephant” and a New Bear-like Animal, 615 Curie (Madame), International Radium Standard, 115 Currlé (Miss L.), Namaqualand Bushmen, 677 Curtis (C. H.), Annuals, Hardy and Half-hardy, 407 Custance (Admiral Sir R.), Military Principles bearing on Warship Design, 124 Dahl (Knut), Ian Baillie, Age and Growth of Salmon and Trout in Norway, 523 Dakin (Dr. W. J.), Prof. H. Bergson and the Eye of Pecten, 86; Life in the Ocean, Prof. Hensen, H. Lohmann, Prof. Steuer, 94 Dalby (Prof. W. E.), an Optical Load-extension Indicator, 52 Dalton (J. P.), Forced Vibrations, 528 Danes (Dr. J. V.), Physiography Australia, 567 Daniel and Schlesinger (Drs.), Spectrum and Orbit of B Scorpii, 121 Danne (J.), Distance of Laboratory : Correction, 93 Danysz (J.), Deceleration of B-rays when traversing Matter, 390 Darling (Chas. R.), Pyrometry: a Practical Treatise, 29; Movements of Semi-oily Liquids on a Water Surface, 416 Darwin (Sir George H., K.C.B., F.R.S.), Sir William Herschel: Royal Institution Discourse, 620, 645 Darwin (Major Leonard), Presidential Address Eugenics Congress, 558 Darzens (G.), New Compound of Carbon and Nitrogen, 303 Dautzenberg (Ph.) and H. Fischer, Mollusques et Brachio- podes Arctiques, 107 Davenport (C. B.), Transplantation of Hens’ Ovaries, 67; Heredity in Relation to Eugenics, 263 Davies (Dr. A. Morley), Buckinghamshire, iii Davis (Prof. B. M.), Agricultural Education in the U.S. Schools, 489 Davis (W. A.), S. S. Sadtler, and others, Allen’s Com- mercial Organic Analysis, vii Davis (Sir W. G.), Meteorological Service of the Argentine 226 Davison (C.), Omori, 487 Dawkins (Prof. W. Boyd), Further Evidence of Borings as to the Range of the S.E. Coalfield and of the Paleozoic Floor, and gs to the Thickness of the Overlying Strata, of North-eastern at the Eruptions of the Asama-Yama, Prof. F. 442 Dawson (Miss Jean), Ecology of Pond-snails of genus Physa, 14 4 Day (Dr. A. L.), Temperature Constants up to 1750° C., 335 Day and Sosman (Messrs.), Standard Melting and Boiling Points on the Constant Volume Nitrogen Thermometer, 227 De (Ranjanikanta), an Intermediate Course of Practical Physics, 343 Dean (Dr. Bashford), Living Specimens of the Australian Ling-fish (Ceratodus forsteri) in the Society’s Collection, 207 [Index [ Nature, October 24, 1912 Deegener (Prof. P.), Lebensweise und Organisation: eine Einftihrung in die Biologie der wirbellosen Tiere, 393 Deeley (R. M.), Concentric Joints in Ice, 34 Delage (Y.), a Self-recording Bathyrheometer, 209 Delahaye (H.), Huiles Minérales, 84 Delille (P. A.) and others, Culture of the Koch Bacillus in a definite Chemical Medium, 25 Dell (J. A.), the Gateways of Knowledge, 476 Demetresco (G.), a New Variable Star, 364 Demolon (A.), the Fertilising Action of Sulphur, 25 Dendy (Prof. A., F.R.S.), Outlines of Evolutionary Biology, 393 Desch (Dr. C. H.), the Constitution of the Silicates, 212; Crystallisation of Metals, 359 Desgrez and Dorléans (MM.), the Hypotensive Action of Guanine, 235 Deslandres (H.), the Sun, 339 Dewar (J. M.), Evolutions of Wading Birds, 439 Diercks (Dr. H.), Brightness of the Sky, 354 Diesel (Dr. Rudolph), Diesel Engine, 70 Divers (Dr. Edward, F.R.S.), Death, 142; Obituary, 170 Dixon (Prof. Henry H.) and W. R. G. Atkins, (a) Changes in Osmotic Pressure of the Sap of the Developing Leaves of Syringa vulgaris; (b) Variations in the Osmotic Pressures of some Evergreens, 156 Dobell (Clifford), Systematic Position of the Spirochets, 130 Doberck (Dr.), Masses of Double Stars, 511 Doflein (Prof.), Lehrbuch der Protozoenkunde, 372 Domin (Dr. Karel), Additions to Flora of W. and N.W. Australia, 286 Donaldson (Harold), Death, 585 Dorno (Dr. C.), Dr. F. M. Davos, 440 Doumer (E.), Treatment of Tubercular Osteitis by the High-frequency Discharge, 157 Dow (Mr.), Luminous Efficiency of Illuminants, 354 Dowling (J. J.), Steady and Turbulent Motion in Gases, 494 Drake (N. F.), Chinese Earthquakes, 405 Draper (Dr. C. H.), Heat and the Principles of Thermo- dynamics, 603 Dreyer (Dr. “Desertion,” 660 Drugman (Dr. J.), Quartz Twins, 77 Druitt (Col.), Charlestown Curve Derailment, 643 Dubois (R.), Clasmotosis of the Shell and Pearl, 79 Duckworth (Dr.), Ashantee Skull with Defective Dentition, a : Daner (R.), Revision of the Genus Alepidea, 469 Duffour (A.), Isomorphism of Irido-chlorides of Alkali Metals, &c., 574 Duggar (Prof. B. M.), Plant Physiology : reference to Plant Production, 265 Duhem (Prof. Pierre), Thermodynamique et Chimie, 447 Duke (Dr. H. L.), Transmission of Trypanosoma nanum, 51% Relations between Temporary Stars and Exner, Solar Radiation at L. E.), William Herschel and «his with special Duncan (Prof. R. K.), Some Chemical Problems of To-day, iv Dunk (J. L.), Forced Vibrations, 477 Dunn (E. T.) and W. J. Tutcher, Chinese Flora: Kwang- - tung, 275 Dunn (James), Obituary, 532 : Dunn (Stanley C.), Mineral Deposits of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, 323 Dunoyer (L.), Fluorescence of Sodium Vapour, 131; Ap- paratus for Rapid Distillation of Mercury, 339 Dunstan (Dr. A. E.) and F. B. Thole, Text-book of Prac- tical Chemistry for Technical Institutes, 291 Dunstan (Dr. W. R., F.R.S.), Papers and Reports on Cotton Cultivation, 427 Dupont (G.), the Oxyhydrofuranes, 53 Durand (Sir E., Bart.), Sporting Reminiscences, Dykes (W. Rickatson), Irises, 497 Dyson (Dr. F. W., F.R.S.) and E. W. Maunder, Position cof the Sun’s Axis from Photographs, 312; Radium and the Solar Chromosphere, 541 35 Earle (Mrs. C. W.) and Ethel Case, Gardening for the Ignorant, 497 Earle (Prof. S. Writing, x C.), Theory and Practice of Technical Nature, ] October 24, 1912 Lndex Vil Eaton (Dr. G. F.), Flying Reptiles of the Chalk Period, 123 Ebert (Prof. H.), Lehrbuch der Physik, 343 Eccles (Dr. W. H.), Propagation of Long Electric Waves during the Solar Eclipse, 191; Applications of Heavi- side’s Resistance Operators to the Theory of the Air-core Transformer and Coupled Circuits in general, 416; Diurnal Variations of Electric Waves in Nature, and their Propagation round the Earth, 494 Eckles (Prof. C. H.), Dairy Cattle and Milk Production, 163 Eder (Prof. J. M.) and Prof. E. Valenta, Atlas typischer Spectren, 554 Edmunds (E. W.) and J. B. Hoblyn, the Story of the Five Elements, 60 Edridge-Green (Prof. F. W.), Colour-vision and Colour- blindness: Hunterian Lectures, 476 Edser (Edwin), a Peculiarity in the Shadows Observed during a Partial Eclipse of the Sun, 216 Egerton (Alfred C.), the Ammonia Flame, 270 Eggar (W. D.), Teaching of Elementary Mathematics, 44 Eggeling (Prof. H. von), der Aufbau der Skeletteile in den freien Gliedmassen der Wirbeltiere, 59 Eisemann (Dr. K.), Distribution of Potential in Kathode Dark Space of Vacuum Tube, 355 Elliott (Mr.), Soil Experiments at Clifton-on-Bowmont, 67 Elphinstone (G. K. B.), the Gyrostatic Compass and Prac- tical Applications of Gyrostats: Royal Institution Dis- course, 74 Enebo (Herr), Discovery of a New Star in Gemini, 42 Engler (A.), das Pflanzenreich, 31 Eriksson (J.), der Malvenrost (Puccinia malvacearum), 397 Erskine-Murray (Dr. J.), Progress of Radiotelegraphy, Prof. J. Zenneck, 400 Escard (J.), Formation of Lunar Craters, 625 Evans (Ernest), an Intermediate Text-book of Botany, 213 Evans (H. A.), Monmouthshire, 346 Evans (Dr. H. Muir), Poison Organs and Venoms of Poisonous Fishes, 259 Everett (Alice), Clouds and Shadows, 426, 459 Evermann (B. W.) and H. W. Clark, Mammals of: the Lake Maxinkuckee Region, 178 Evershed (J.), Butterfly Migration in Relation to Mimicry, 659 Ewart (Prof. A. J.), Ascent of Water in Trees, 469; Bitter Pit in Apples, 511 Faber (Oscar). and P. G. Bowie, Reinforced Concrete Design, 501 Fabre qt. H.), B. Miall, Social Life in the Insect World, gor Fabre-Domergue (M.), Purification of Oysters in Filtered Water, 314 Fabry (C.) and H. Buisson, Width of the Spectrum Lines and Production of Interference with Large Differences of Path, 313; Mass of Particles emitting the Two Spectra of Hydrogen, 390 Fairgrieve (J.), the Thunderstorms of May 31, 1911, 24 'Fantham (Dr. H. B.) and Miss Annie Porter, Structure and Homology of the Microsporidian Spore as seen in Nosema _ apts, 467 Farran (G. P.), Clare Island Survey: Decapoda, 260 Farrington (O. C.), Analysis of Stone Meteorites, 94 Fassig (Dr. O. L.), Tropical Cyclones, 489 Faucon (A.), Rotatory Power of Dissolved Camphor as a Function of Concentration, 79 Fayet (G.), the Solar Eclipse of April 17, 147 Fedorow (Prof. E. von), Crystallo-chemical Analysis, 503 ; Universal Microscope Stage, 674 Feiss (Dr. H. O.), Fusion of Nerves, 429 Ferguson (Prof O. J.), Elements of Electrical Transmis- sion, 472 Fernbach (A.) and M. Schoen, Biochemical Production of Levulose, 495 Féry (Ch.), New Thermo-electric Combustion Calorimeter, 104 Festing (Major General E. R., C.B., F.R.S.), Obituary, 299 Ficker (Dr. H. von), Heat-waves in Asia, 151 Filon (Dr. L. N. G.), Relations of Mathematics and Physics. 44 Fischer (E.), Chemical Structure of Tannin, 303 Flajolet (M.), Application of Wireless Telegraphy to Predic- tion of Storms, 105; Reception of Wireless Signals during Solar Eclipse, 390 Flammarion (C.), Solar Eclipse of April 17, 304 Flower (Capt. Stanley), Menagerie at Giza and Aquarium at Gezira, 67 , : Fonvielle (W. de), Les Eclipses d’Hiver et les Eclipses d Eté, 269 Forcrand (M. de), Physical Properties of Cyclohexanol, 339; Physical Constants of Cyclohexanol, 469 Forel (Prof. F. A.), Obituary, 638 Forsyth (Dr. A. R., F.R.S.), Lectures on the Differential Geometry of Curves and Surfaces, 579 Fortrat (R.), the Telluric Bands due to Oxygen, 157 Fosse (R.), Direct Production of Urea at expense of Albuminoids, 261 Foster (N. H.), Clare Island Survey: Land and Fresh- water Isopoda, 260 Fotheringham (Dr. J. K.), an Astronomical Poet, H. W. Garrod, 239 Fowle (F. E.), Spectroscopic Determination of Aqueous Vapour in the Atmosphere, 566 Fowler (Prof. A.), Cometary Spectra, 227 Fowler (J. S.) and Wm. Marriott, Our Weather, 267 Fowler (Dr. W. W.), Fauna of British India: Coleoptera, 267 Frankland (Prof.), Frequent Accompaniment of Rupture of a “Double-bond” by “ Trans-Substitution,” 276 Franklin-Adams (John), Death, 639 Franz (Prof.), Orbit of Minor Planet 1911 MT, 384 Fraser (Capt. A. D.) and Dr. H. L. Duke, Relation of Wild Animals to Trypanosomiasis, 51 Fredenhagen (Dr. K.), Currents produced by Electrons emitted by Metals at High Temperatures, 276 Frederici (Dr. Georg), Comparative Studies in Melanesia, 439 Frick (Childs), Natural History Expedition to East Africa, 674 Friedenthal (Dr. Hans), Tierhaaratlas, 419 Friend (Rev. Hilderic), Earthworms and Sheep-rot, 8 Friend (Dr. J. N.), J. Ll. Bentley, and W. West, Mechanism of Corrosion and Corrosion of Nickel and other Steels, 278 Friese (Dr. H.), Prof. J. J. Kieffer, and Dr. J. E. W. Ihle, das Tierreich, 627 Froggatt (W. W.), Study of Insects from an Economic Point of View, 391 Frost (Prof.), Spectrum of P Cygni, 384 Frihling (Prof.), Death, 273 Fry (Right Hon. Sir Ed., Sanctuary, 661 Fiirth (Prof. Dr. Otto von), Probleme der physiologischen und pathologischen Chemie, 422 Furuhjelm (R.), Spectrum of Nova Geminorum No. 2, 589 G.C.B., F.R.S.), a Flower Gadow (Dr. Hans), the One-sided Reduction of Ovaries and Oviducts in the Amniota, 416 Gardner (Prof. W. M.), Artificial Daylight, 631 Garrad (G. H.), Tobacco Growing in England, 568 Garratt (H. A.), Heat Engines, 628 Garrett (A. E.), the Advance of Photography: its History and Modern Applications, 187 Garrod (H. W.), Manili Astronomicon Liber II, 239 Garstang (Prof.), Excavations in N. Syria and in the Sudan, 451 Gaskell (Dr. J. F-.), Gelatin, 467 Gates (R. R.), Parallel Mutations in Oenothera biennis, 659 Gault (M. H.), Perfumes, 146 Gaumont (M.), Speaking Kinematograph Films, 333 Gaupp (Prof. E.), die ausseren Formen des menschlichen Ko6rpers in ihrem allgemeinen Zustandelkommen, 37 Gautier (A.) and P. Clausmann, Detection and Estimation of very small quantities of Fluorine, 390, 443; Control of New Method of Estimating Fluorine, 468 Geikie (Sir Archibald, P.R.S.), Speech at Royal Society Anniversary Celebration, 507 Gemmill (J. F.), Locomotor Function of the Lantern in Echinus, 51; Rearing Asterias rubens, L.—Larve with Double Hydroccele, 425 Method of embedding Tissues in Vill Gerber (C.), Ferment in Latex of Calotropis procera, 626 Gerlache (Capt. A. de), Log of the Duc d’Orléans’ Arctic Cruise, 107 Gerland (G.), der Mythus von der Sintflut, 605 Ghosh (Prof. L. K.), Plane Trigonometry, 655 Gibbons (F. J.), a Daylight Meteor, 147 Gibson (J. Y.), the Story of the Zulus, 35 Giebeler (Dr. H.), Radium, Uranium, and Emanation Radiations in the Spectrum of Nova Geminorum, 432 Gilchrist (Prof. J. D. F.), South African Zoology, New Species of Trygon, 469 Gillman (F.), a Point in Geological Nomenclature, 661 Gilruth (J. A.), Introduction of the Cattle-tick and Tick- fever in Australia, 469 Gilruth (J. A.) and Georgina Sweet, Onchocerca gibsoni the cause of Worm Nodules in Cattle, 469 Girard (P.), Electric Charge of Red Corpuscles in Blood, 166; 599 Gladstone (Hugh S.), Catalogue of the Vertebrate Fauna of Dumfriesshire, 627 Godfrey (C., M.V.O.), Secondary School, 44 Godfrey (C., M.V.QO.) and A. W. Beginners, 602 Godlewski (Prof. Tadeusz), Electrolytic Transportation of the Active Deposit of Actinium through Water, 86 Gold (Dr. E.:), St. Elmo’s Fire, 7; Heat-waves in Asia, Dr. H. von Ficker, 151; Sunshine at Trieste, Dr. E. A. Kielhauser, 151 Goldmann (Prof. E.), Method of Examining Normal and Diseased Tissues by intra-vitam Staining, 76 Goldsbrough (G. R.), we “Girdle Stanes” of Dumfries- shire, 328 Goodrich (Dr. E. S., F. R.S.), Heredity, 6 Goodrich (W. F.), Modern Destructor Practice, 628 Gorce (R. J. de la, and P. de la), Photometry, 261 Gordon (Dr. W. T.), Rhetinangium Arberi, a new Type of Fossil Stem from Pettycur, 131 Gouy (M.), Continuous Spectrum of Metallic Vapours and the Solar Photosphere, 495 Gowland (Prof. W., F.R.S.), Copper and its Alloys in Early Times, 98 Graff (Dr.), the Solar Eclipse of April 17, 670 Graham (A. W.), Siam: a Handbook of Practical, mercial, and Political Information, 138 Gray (Prof. A.), General Dynamics, 78 Gray (John), Death, 223; Obituary, 246 Gray (J. A.), Nature of y Rays excited by B Rays, 104 Gray (Dr. J. G.) and G. Burnside, Motor-spun Gyrostats and Applications, 364 Green (C. E.), Local Incidence of Cancer, 601 Green (E. E.), Strepsiptera in India, 632 Green (J. W.), Remuneration of Public Analysts, 34 Greenwood (Dr.), Plague in India, 177 Gregory (Prof. J. W.), Structural and Petrographic Classifi- cation of Coast-types, 92; Fiords in Relation to Earth Movements, 179 Gregory (Prof. R. A.), Cycles of the Sun and Weather, Greig-Smith (Dr. R.), Soil-fertility, 600 Grieg (J. A.), Echinodermes (Arctiques), 107 Grignard (V.) and E. Bellet, Synthesis of Nitriles in the Cyclanic Series, 495 Grover (F. W.), Effect of Temperature and Frequency on Capacity and Phase Difference of Paper Condensers, 16 Guenther (Dr. K.), Einfiihrung in die Tropenwelt (Ceylon), the Algebra Syllabus in the Siddons, Algebra for Com- 147 421 Ginther (R. T.), Oxford Gardens, 497 Guilbert (G.), Method of Weather Forecasting, Gallé, 383 Guillaume (C. E.), Expansion of Commercial Nickel, ros ; Specific Heat of Water, 390 Guillet (A.), Realisation of Uniform Circular Movement by Periodic Synchronising Action, 625 Gulliver (G. H.), Effect of Vibration upon Structure of Alloys, 364 Guye (P. A.) and others, Geneva, 364, 417 Gwyther (R. F.), Complete Formal Solution of Equations of Stress in Cartesian, and in Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinates, 131 1 Isl. Weight of a Litre of Air at Index Solar Eclipse of April 17 K Nature, Locedta? 24, 1912 Hackspill (Louis), Vapour Pressure ¢ of the Alkaline Meelis between 250° C. and 400° C., 157 Haddon (Dr. A. C., F.R.S.), International Congress of Americanists, 357; Nature and Man in Australia, Prof. B. Spencer, C.M.G., F.R.S., and F. J. Gillen, 608 Hadfield (Sir R., F.R.S.), Sinhalese Iron and Steel of Ancient Origin, 360 Haecker (Prof. V.), Allgemeine Vererbungslehre, 445 Haldane (Dr. J. S., F.R.S.), Burdon Sanderson and Vitalism, 215; Methods of Air Analysis, 552 Haldane (Lord), Address at Opening of new Engineering Laboratories at Liverpool University, 311 Hale (A. J.), Practical Chemistry for Engineering Students, 578 Hall (A. D., F.R.S.), Recent Advances in Agricultural Science—the Fertility of the Soil, 648 Hall (Rev. C. A.), How to Use the Microscope, 525 Hall (H. R.), Prehistoric Thessaly, A. J. B. Wace and M. S. Thompson, 294 Hall (H. S.), a School Algebra, 602 Hall (H. S.) and F. H. Stevens, Examples in Arithmetic, 602 Hall (J. W.), Metallurgy of Steel, 315 Halliburton (Prof. W. D., F.R.S.), Physiology, Hallrer (A.), Methylation of two Ketones, 53 Hamilton (Major J. S.), Local Races of Burchell’s Zebra, 166 394 Hampshire (C. H.), Volumetric Analysis for Students of Pharmaceutical and General Chemistry, 552 Hampson (Sir G. F., Bart.), Catalogue of the Noctuidz in the British Museum, 374 Hamy (M.), Temperature Regulator of the Stellar Spectro- graph of Paris Observatory, 260 Hamy and Millochau (MM.), Nova Geminorum No. 2, 121 Hann (Prof. J.), Diurnal Variations of Wind-force on the Summit of Ben Nevis, 41 Hannyngton (Major-Gen. J. C.), Table of Logarithms and Anti-logarithms to Four Figures, 318 Hansen (Mr.), a Comet-like Object, 277 Harbord (F. W.), the Heat Treatment of Tool Steel, Brearley, 501 \ H. Harbord (F. W.) and J. W. Hall, Metallurgy of Steel, 315 _ Harcourt (A. Vernon), Variation with Temperature of Rate of Chemical Change, 285 Hardaker (W. H.), Discovery of a Fossil-bearing Horizon in Permian Rocks near Birmingham, 573 Harden (Dr. A.) and Dorothy Norris, Bacterial Production of Acetylmethylcarbirol and 2 : 3-Butylene Glycol, 51 Harden (Dr. A.) and W. J. Penfold, Chemical Action on Glucose of a Variety of Bacillus coli communis, 442 Hardy (W. B.), General Theory of Colloidal Solutions, 311 ; Tension of Composite Fluid Surfaces and Mechanical Stability of Films of Fluid 311; Formation of a Heat- reversible Gel, 311 Harger (Dr. J.), Prevention of Explosions in Mines, 406 Harker (Dr. J. A., F.R.S.), Very High Temperatures : Royal Institution Discourse, 514 Harker (Dr. J. A.) and Dr. G. W. C. Kaye, Generation of Electricity by Carbon at High Temperatures, 337 Harper (Mr.), y Geminorum a Spectroscopic Binary of exceptionally Long Period, 670 Harper (Prof. M. W.), Manual of Farm Animals, ix Harrison (Prof. E. P.), Experimental Illustration Reversal of Bright Line Spectra, 631 Hart and McCollum (Messrs.) and others, Nutrition of Farm Animals, 618 Hartley (Sir W. N.) and H. W. Moss, Ultimate Lines, and Quantities of Elements producing these Lines, in Spectra. of the Oxyhydrogen Flame and Spark, 285 Harwood (W. A.)' and Dr. J. E. Petavel, Work on a New Standard of Light, 103 Haskett-Smith (W. P.), Solar Halos on May 17, of Experimental 322 Hatfield (W. H.), Cast Iron in the Light of Recent Research, 169 Hatschek (Dr. E.), Specimens and Slides illustrating Reactions in Gels, 78 Hatschek (Dr. E.) and A. L. Simon, Ore Deposition, 234 Haug (Prof. E.), Traité dé Géologie, 551 Hausrath (Prof. H.), Pflanzengeographische Wandlungen der deutschen Landschaft, 421 | Gels in relation to! ) ’ oll ; Nature, ] | __ October 24, 1912 Lndex ix _Haverfield (Prof. F.), Roman London, 614 Haworth (Dr. H. F.), Maximum Sensibility of a Duddell Vibration Galvanometer, 466 Hay (Dr. O. P.), Peculiar Tooth-like Paleozoic Fossils, 430 Hayata (B.), W. Botting Hemsley, Icones of the Plants of Formosa, and Materials for a Flora, 449 Hedley (C.), Paleographical Relations of Antarctica, 416; Land-shells collected in Queensland by S. W. Jackson, 600 Hedley (C.) and A. F. B. Hull, Polyplacophora of Lord Howe and Norfolk Islands, 600 Hehn (Victor), Kulturpflanzen und Haustiere in ihrem Uebergang aus Asien nach Griechenland und Italien - sowie in das brige Europa, 164 Hele-Shaw (H. S.), Theory of a New Form of the Chamber Crank Chain, 363 Hemsalech (G. A.), Influence of Capacity, &c., on Velocity of Luminous Vapours in the Electric Spark, 105 Henderson (Dr.), Physiography of W. Nelson District of New Zealand, 644 Henri (Madame and Victor), Variation of Abiotic Power of Ultra-violet Rays with Wave-length, 600 Henri (V.) and A. Ranc, Decomposition of Glycerol by Ultra-violet Rays, 314 Henry (J. R.), Meteor-showers, 113, 218, 295, 321, 450, 581, _ 660 ' Hensen (Prof. V.), das Leben in Ozean (Plankton-Expedi- tion der Humboldt Stiftung), 94 Hepburn (Prof. David), Anatomy of the Weddell Seal, 468 Hepworth (Commander Campbell), the Isothermal Layer, 7 Herbertson (F. D.), the Clarendon Geography, iii Herdman (Prof. W. A., F.R.S.), Tunicata of Scottish Antarctic Expedition, 78; Marine Life in Northern Seas (Voyage of the Belgica), 107; (with others), Lancashire Sea Fisheries, 645 Herelle (F. d’), Propagation of Locust Disease, 53 Heron-Allen (Ed.), Selsey Bill: Historic and Prehistoric, 290 Heron-Allen (Ed.) and A. Earland, Recent and Fossil Foraminifera at Selsey Bill, Sussex, 290; New Astro- rhizida, 467 aio eke wre . Herrick (F. H.), Natural History of the American Lobster, 9 Herschel (Sir William), Royal Institution Discourse on, by Sir G. H. Darwin, K.C.B., F.R.S., 620, 645 Herter (C. A.), Biological Aspects of Human Problems, 576 Hérubel (Prof. Marcel A.), B. Miall, Sea Fisheries: their Treasures and Toilers, S. Reynolds, 1 Heycock (C. T.) and F. E. E. Lamplough, Boiling Points of Zinc, Cadmium, &c., 208 P Heywood (Prof. H. B.) and Prof. M. Fréchet, 1’Equation de Fredholm et ses applications a la Physique Mathé- matique, 499 Hickling (Dr. H. G. A.), Variation of Planorbis multt- formis, 131 Hicks (Prof. W. M.), a Critical Study of Spectral Series, 52 Hickson (Prof. S. J., F.R.S.), Coral Endopachys grayt, 131; Zoological Nomenclature, 349; the Hydrocoralline Genus Errina, 416 Hiesemann (M.), How to Attract and Protect Wild Birds, 190 Hilditch (Dr. T. P.), a First Year Physical Chemistry, 57 Hill (L.) and M. Flack, Ozone and Ventilation, 72; Relation between Secretory and Capillary Pressure, 442 Hinks (A. R.), Measurement of Celestial Distances, 329 Hirayama (Prof. Shin), the Photographic Transit, 176 Hirschwald (Prof. J.), Handbuch der bautechnischen Gesteinspriifung, 344 ? Hlava (Prof.), Bodies Found in Blood of Children with Measles, 306 Hobart (H. M.), Design of Static Transformers, 475 Hodgson (A. E.), Death, 39 Hodgson (Dr. Shadworth H.), Death, 403 Hodgson (T. V.), Glacial Problems of S. Victoria Land, 44 Hoff (J. H. van’t), his Amsterdam Period, by Drs. Jorissen and Reicher, 42 Hoffmann (J. I.), Recent Practice in Diamond Drilling and Borehole Surveying, 234 Holland (J. H.), Useful Plants of Nigeria, 68; Sources of Alcohol, 226 Holt (Dr. A.) and others, Sorption of Hydrogen b Pallidium, 79 . hier as Honigschmid (Dr. O.), Atomic Weight of Radium, 68 Hooker (the late Sir Joseph), Appeal by Biographer for Letters of, 380; Life and Work of, by Prof. F: O. Bower, F.R-S., 456 Hooton (W. M.) and A. Mathias, Introductory Course of Mechanics and Physics for Technical Students, 343 Horejsi (J.), Symbiotic Union of an Alga with Roots of Cycas revoluta, 307 Horner (J.), the Flax-spinning Spindle, 590 Hort (E. C.) and W. J. Penfold, Clinical Study of Experi- mental Fever, 76 Hosseus (Dr. C. C.), Protection of Nature in S. Bavaria, 347 Hough (S. S.), Cape Observatory Report, 512; Personal Errors in Transit Observations, 566 Houssay (Prof. F.), Forme, Puissance et Stabilité des Poissons, 319 Houston (Dr.), Report on Organisms in River Water, 225 Howe (Prof. G. W. O.), Calibration of Wave-meters for Radio-telegraphy, 415 Howe (Prof. G. W. O.) and J. D. Peattie, Efficiency of Generation of High-frequency Oscillations by aid of Induction Coil and Spark Gap, 546 Howlett (R.), Effects of Friction in a Vacuum on Thorium Oxide, 606 Hoyle (Dr. W. E.), Cephalopoda of Scottish Antarctic Expedition, 78 Hrdliéka (Dr. Ales), Natives of the Kharga Oasis, Egypt, 326 : Hrdlitka (Dr. Ales) and B. Willis, South American Expedi- tion, 674 Hue (E.) and M. Baudouin, Atavic Characters of Lumbar Vertebrze of Neolithic Men, 209 Hughes (A. LI.), Emission Velocities of Photo-electrons, 415 Hughes (Prof. H. J.) and A. T. Safford, Treatise on Hydraulics, 82 Hughes (Prof. T. McKenny), Man of Neanderthal Type in the Cambridge Fens, 114 Hugon (E. C.), Plant for Enrichment of Pyritic Blende _ Concentrates, 338 : Hume (A. O., C:B.), Obituary, 584 Humphreys (Dr. W. J.), Origin of the “Earth Light,” 355; Types of Atmospheric Disturbance, 588 Hun (J. G.) and C. R. MacInnes, Elements of Plane and Spherical Trigonometry, 655 Huntingdon (E.), Death of Forests in Turkestan, 663 Hurd (W. E.), Wind Charts for N. Indian Ocean, 540 Hussey (R. B.) and others, Artificial Daylight, 612 Huxley (Julian S.), Courtship of the Redshank, 259 Idle (G.) and G. S. Baker, Rolling of Irish Lightships, 124 Iniguez (Father), Spectrum of Nova Geminorum, 200 Irving (Rev. Dr. A.), Remains of Prehistoric Horse in the Stort Basin, 218; Boulder Clay in Essex, 399, 632; a Point in Geological Nomenclature, 608 Jack (R.), Magnetic Resolution of the Spectrum Lines of Niobium, 468 Jackson (W. J.), Brachiopoda: Scottish Antarctic Expedi- tion, 468 Jacob (Miss), Friction of Solids on Each Other. 303 Jacomet (L.), Matiéres Tannantes Cuirs, 84 Jadin (F.) and A. Astrug, the Presence of Arsenic in some Plants used as Food, 157; Presence of Arsenic in some Parasitic Plants, 5909; Manganese in Plants, 625-6 Jaekel (Prof. Otto), die Wirbeltiere: eine Uebersicht tiber die fossilen und lebenden Formen, 134; a Palzontological Society for Germany, 509 Jameson (Dr. H. L.), the Ceylon Pearl Oyster and the Cestode Theory of Pearl Production, 77 Jansen (Dr. M.), Achondroplasia, 275 Jeffree (F. H.), Strength of Reinforced Concrete Piles, 69 Jehu (Dr. T. J.), Discovery of Fossils in the Chert and Black Shale Series at Aberfoyle, 347 Jelinek’s Psychrometer-Tafeln, 5 Jenkins (Dr. J. T.), Fisheries of Bengal, 20 Jochelson (Dr.), Kamchatka and the Aleutian Isles, 3or Johns (the late Rev. C. A.), E. T. Cook, British Trees including the Finer Shrubs, 30 x Index Nature, October 24, 1912 Sn a a ere Johnson (Gilbert E.), Free-living Marine Nematodes, 320 Johnson (Prof. T.), Heterangium hibernicum, Sp. nov., from Co. Cork, 150 Johnston (Sir H. H., G.C.M.G., K.C.B.), Nature and Man in Eastern Africa, Rev. A. L. Kitching, Major J. Stevenson-Hamilton, 297; Views and Reviews, 553 Johnston (Dr. S. J.), Trematodes from Australian Frogs, 626 Johnstone (Mr.), Malignant Growths in Fishes, 645 py (Prof.), Positive Electrical Change in Isolated Nerve, 409 Jones (Dr. D. W. Carmalt), an Introduction to Therapeutic Inoculation, 60 Jones (F.), Volatility of Sulphur and its Action on Water, 33 Jones (F. T.) and Prof. R. R. Tatnall, Laboratory Problems in Physics, 603 ; Jones (Prof. H. C.), the Solvate Theory of Solution, 334 Jones (Dr. Humphrey Owen, F.R.S.) and Mrs. Jones Obituary, 638 Jones (John Viriamu), and other Oxford Memories, Prof. E. B. Poulton, F.R.S., 419 Jones (Prof. O. T.), Geological Structure of Central Wales, 259 Jones (R. H.), Experimental Domestic Science, 604 Jordan (W. H.), Principles of Human Nutrition : in Practical Dietetics, 422 Jouniaux (M.), Cryoscopy in Camphor, 417 Joye (P.) and C. Garnier, Neodymium Compounds, 25 a Study Kant’s gesammelte Schriften, 447 Kapp (Prof. Gisbert), Electrical Engineering, Prof. O. J. Ferguson, Prof. F. Bedell, Prof. H. W. Morse. G. Ww. _ Meyer, 472 , Kauffmann (Oscar), aus Indiens Dschungeln, 627 Kaye (G. R.), Medieval References to “Indian Mathe- matics,” 132 Kaye (W. J.), Butterflies in the Hot Summer of IQII, 510 Kayser (E.), Influence of Uranium Salts on Alcoholic Ferments, 574 Keane (Dr. C. A.), Technical Methods of Chemical Analysis, 341 Keeble (Prof. F.) and Dr. E. F. Armstrong, Distribution of Oxydases in the Plant and their Réle in the Formation _of Pigment, 258; the Oxydases of Cytisus Adami, 442 Keith (Prof. A.), Skull of a Neanderthal Type in the Cambridge Fens, 138; Relationship of Neanderthal Man and Pithecanthropus to Modern Man: Hunterian Lec- _tures, 155; Ancient Types of Man, 375 Kellogg (Prof. V. L.), Distribution of Species of Mallo- phaga, 611 Kelly (W. Redfern), New Belfast Graving Dock, 589 Kelvin (Lord), Proposed Memorial Window to, 508. Kemp (S. W.), Specimens of Peripatus from the Lower Abor Hills, 365 ; Kerr (Dr. A. F. G.), Dischidia vafflesiana and D. nummu- laria, 157 i Ker (Prof, J..G:, FIR-S!), Zoology, 627 Kew (H. W.), Pairing of False Scorpions, 614 Kielhauser (Dr. E. A.), Sunshine at Trieste, 151 King (Dr. F. H.), Farmers of Forty Centuries in China and Japan, 500 x Kirchner (Prof. O. von), Blumen und Insekten, v Kirkpatrick (R.), Remarkable Associated Sponge and Alga ° 353; Merlia normani and Palzeozoic Fossils, 502; Nature of Stromatoporoids, 607 } Kirkpatrick (W.), Primitive Exogamy and the Caste System, 132; Comparative Vocabulary of the Language of European Gypsies and Colloquial Hindustani 365 Kitching (Rev. A. L.), on the Backwaters of the Nile. 297 Kitto (E.), Storm of March 4, 34 ik Kleeman (R. D.), the Different Internal Energies of a Substance, 208 y Klein (Prof. J. F.), Physical Significance of Entropy, or of the Second Law, 447 ; xcs (C. Boden), Mammals of the Trengganu Archipelago, 17 Knibbs (G. H.), Statistical Representation, 92 Knipe (Henry R.), Evolution in the Past, 137 Knox (Alex.), Death, 428 ‘ Knox (Dr. J.), Physico-Chemical Calculations, Kovessi (F.), Electrolytic Effect of Continuous Current on Cells of Plants, 495 Korn (Prof. A.) and Prof. B. Glatzel, Handbuch her Photo- telegraphie und Telautographie, 110 Kostinsky (Herr), Faint Stars with Large Proper Motions, 250 Kranzlin (Fr.), Orchidacez, 31 Kraus (Prof. G.), Boden und Klima auf kleinstem Raum, 186 Kriimmel (Prof. Dr. O.), Handbuch der Ozeanographie, Band ii., 133 Krupp Establishments at Essen, 643 Kuster (Prof. E.), die Gallen der Pflanzen, 185 Kiistner (Dr.), Lines due to Uranium Radium Emanation in the Spectrum of Nova Geminorum No. 2, 329 Kusano (S.), Transformation, due to Fungus, of a Flower into Leaf-like Organs, g2 Lacroix (A.), the Volcanoes of Central Madagascar, 25 ; Granular Rocks intrusive in Basaltic Breccias of Reunion, 79; Corundum Deposits in Madagascar, 131; the Radio-active Uraniferous Niobotantalotitanates of the Madagascar Pegmatites, 235; the Gem-bearing Pegma- tites of Madagascar, 677 Lake (P.) and Prof. S. H. Gader, Dolgelly, 286 , Lalesco (Prof. T.), Introduction 4 la Théorie des Equations Intégrales, 499 Lamb (C. G.), Diptera of the Seychelles, 467 Lamond (H.), the Gentle Art, 523 Lamplough (F. E. E.), the Metastable Condition of Under- cooling in Metals, 208 Landau (M.), Luminous Chemical Analysis, 625 Lanfranchi (Prof.), Attacked by Sleeping Sickness, 351 Lanfry (M.), Action of Hydrogen Peroxide on the Bromo- thiophens, 235 Lang (Andrew), Obituary, A. E. Crawley, 532 Lang (Prof. W. H., F.R.S.), Branching in the Ophio- glossacez, 78; Interpretation of the Vascular Anatomy of the Ophioglossacez, 260 Langevin (P.), Comparison Molecules, 53 Langhans (Dr. V. H.), der Grossteich bei Hirschberg, 488 Langley (Dr. S. P.), Anniversary at Washington of First Flight of, 326 Lankester (Sir E. Ray, K.C.B., Characters and Stimuli, 61, 167 Larken (E. P.), Leisure Hours with Nature, 137 Lattey (R. T.) and H. T. Tizard, Velocities of Ions in Dried Gases, 24 Laveran (A.), Generalised Infection of Mice by Leishmania donovant, 53 Lay (E. J. S.), the Teachers’ Book of Constructive Work for Elementary Schools, 528 Lazarus-Barlow (Dr. W. S.), Presence of Radium in some Carcinomatous Tumours, 76 Leach (J. A.), an Australian Bird Book, 85 Leavitt (Miss), Light Variations of 25 Stars in the Small Magellanic Cloud, 459 Lebedew (Prof. P. N.), Death, 118 Leclainche and Vallée (MM.), Wounds, 79 Reynolds, Geology of Mynydd Energy applied to Study of of Gaseous and Dissolved F.R.S.), Acquired Specific Treatment of Ledoux (R.), Electrical Properties of Copper-tin Alloys, 495 ° Leduc (E.), Sur la Constitution et la Formation du Ciment Portland, 177 Lee (Prof. F. S.), Scientific Features of Modern Medicine, 575 Lees (Prof. C. H., F.R.S.), National Physical Laboratory, Leacine (G.),, Decomposition of Hydrogen Peroxide with Heat, 495 Lemoine (M. P.), Géologie du Bassin de Paris, 55 Lemoult (P.), Diphenylethylene Derivatives, 574 Lempfert (R. G. K.), the Thunderstorm of July 29, 1911, 24 Lempfert (R. G. K.) and H. W. Braby, Method of Sum- marising Anemograms, 208 Lenard (Prof. P.), Jubilee, 381 Leslie (A. S.), A. E. Shipley, F.R.S., the Grouse in Health and Disease, 658 Nature, ] October 24, 1912 Letulle (M.) and L. Nattan-Larrier, Epithelioma of the Embryonic Ectoderm, 209 Lévy (R.), Haemolysis caused by Arachnolysin, 574 Lewellyn (Dr. T. L.), Causes and Prevention of Miners’ Nystagmus, 24 Lewis (A. L.), Megalithic Remains in Gloucestershire, 91 Lewis (L. P.), Railway Signal Engineering (Mechanical), 549 Lewis (T.) and S. Chapman, Effect of Magnetism on the Rate of Chronometers, 312 Leyst (Dr. E.), Diurnal Inequalities of Barometric Pressure in Years of Sun-spot Maximum and Minimum, 564 Lickley (Dr. J. D.), the Nervous System, 575 Lifchitz (S.), Range of the Particles in Brownian Motion, 313 Ligondés (M. du), Condensation of the Solar Nebula in Laplace’s Hypothesis, 25 Lippmann (Gabriel), Biography of, by E. Lebon, 81 Lister (Arthur, F.R.S.), Gulielma Lister, Monograph of the Mycetozoa, 137 Lister (Lord), Appeal by Biographer for Letters, 12; Tribute from Sir H. Morris, 66; Will, 143; Bust for R.C.S., 562; Memorial, 536 Livens (H. M.), Earth and her Children, 32 Livesey (R. M.), Rolling Stock on Irish Railways, 589 Ljungstr6m Steam Turbine, 175 Lloyd (Prof. J. E.), Carnarvonshire, 346 Leckyer (Sir Norman) and Lady Lockyer, Presentations to, by the British Science Guild, 295 Leckyer (Dr. W. J. S.), the Total Eclipse of the Sun, April, 1911, at Vavau, Tonga Islands: Royal Institution Discourse, 151; the Solar Eclipse of April 17 as observed near Chavenay, France, 219; the Royal Academy and Nature Study, 244 Lockyer (Dr. W. J. S.) and F. Maclean, the Solar Eclipse of April 17, 175 Lohmann (H.), das Nannoplankton und die Zentrifugierung kleinster Wasserproben, 94 Lones (Dr. T. E.), Aristotle’s Researches Science, 653 Longstaff (Dr. G. B.), Butterfly-hunting in Many Lands, 291 Longstaff (Jane), New Lower Carboniferous Gasteropoda, 104 Looss (Dr. A.), Agchylostoma duodenale (Hook-worm), 672 Loria (Prof. Gino), Poliedri, Curve e Superficie secondo i metodi della Geometria Descrittiva, 655 Lotsy (J. P.), Vortrage tiber botanische Stammesgeschichte, in Natural 342 Love (Prof. A. E. H., F.R.S.), Some Problems of Geo- dynamics, 471 Lowe (Percy R.), a Naturalist on Desert Islands, 523 Lowell (Prof. P.), Rotation of Uranus, 277, 312 Lucas (A. H. S.), Marine Alge of Australia: mentary List, 391 Lucas (Dr. Keith), the Process of Excitation in Nerve and Muscle: Croonian Lecture, 390 Ludendorff (Dr.), Spectrum of Nova Geminorum No. 2, 589 Luizet (M.), Nova Geminorum No. 2, 364 Lukis (Sir C., C.S.I.), Malaria in India, 505 Lunge (Prof. G.), Technical Methods of Chemical Analysis, Supple- 341 Lydekker (R., F.R.S.), the Ox and its Kindred, 523; the Horse and its Relatives, 627 Lydekker (R.), J. T. Cunningham, G. A. Boulenger, and J. A. Thomson, Reptiles, Amphibia, Fishes, and Lower Chordata, 523 Lyster (Dr. R. A.), Text-book of Hygiene for Teachers, 604 Maas (Prof. O.) and Dr. O. Renner, Einfiihrung in die Biologie, 393 McAldowie (Dr.), Prehistoric Time Measurement, 619 MacBride (Prof. E. W., F.R.S.), Hybrid Sea-urchins, 450; Erratum, 511 ; MacCabe (Surgeon-Captain F. F.), Larvicides in Action, 496 McCallum (Alex.), Midlothian, iii McCay (Major D.), Jail Dietaries of the United Provinces of India, 249 McClelland (Prof. J. A.) and H. Kennedy, Large Ions in the Atmosphere, 521 -Massee Index xl McClelland (Prof. J. A.) and J. J. Nolan, Electric Charge on Rain, 227, 521 Macdermott (F. A.), Luminous Organs of Insects, 331 MacDonald (G. W.), Historical Papers on Modern Explosives, 372 Macdonald (Right Hon. Sir John H. A., K.C.B., F.R.S.), the Road: Past, Present, and Future: Royal Institution Discourse, 127 MacDougall (Dr. R. S.), Bionomics of the large Larch- Sawfly, 52 McDougall (Wm.), Body and Mind: a History and Defence of Animism, 396 McDowall (S. A.), Laboratory Note-book of Physics, 317 Mace (Herbert), Influence of Weather on Bees, 62 Mach (Prof. E.), Popular-wissenschaftliche Vorlesungen, 447 Mach (Prof. E.), Dr. K. Habart, Grundriss der Naturlehre fiir Gymnasien und Realschulen, 343 Mackenzie (G. C.), Magnetic Concentration Experiments with Iron Ores of Canada; a Copper Nickel Ore, 37 Mackenzie (J. E.) and T. M. Finlay, Red Water, 113 M’Lean (J. C.), Bush-birds of New Zealand, 439 McLeish (J.), Mineral Resources of Canada: Report, 378 McLintock (W. F. P.) and T. C. F. Hall, Topaz and Beryl from the Granite of Lundy Island, 443 Macquaire (Paul), Two Combinations formed by Iodine and the Tyrosine obtained by the Trypsic Hydrolysis of Albuminoid Materials, 183 Magie (Prof. W. F.), Thermal Relations of Solutions, 334 Magnan (A.), Yield of Eggs in Ducks submitted to four different Modes of Feeding, 443 Mahler (P.) and E. Goutal, Use of Oxygen under Pressure for Determination of Total Carbon in Ferro-alioys, 443 Mair (D. B.), the Teaching of Mathematics, 44, 305; Junior Mathematics, 655 Mallock (H. R. A., F.R.S.), Aérial Flight : Lecture before the Institute of Civil Engineers, 252 Malosse (H.), Determination of Density of Camphor by Densities of its Solutions, 443 Mangan (J.), Presence of Maxillule in Larve of Dytiscidz, 260 Manili Astronomicon Liber II], H. W. Garrod, 239 Manley (J. J.), Observed Variations in the Temperature Coefficients of a Precision Balance, 233 : Mann (Albert R.), Beginnings in Agriculture, 163 Mann (Prof. C. R.), Teaching of Physics for Purposes of General Education, 630 Marcolongo (Prof. Robert), Prof. H. E. Timerding, Theore- tische Mechanik, 447 Markétos (M.), Anhydrous Nitrates of Uranyl and of Zinc, Mteeres (E.) and C. G, Darwin, Transformations of the Active Deposit of Thorium, 285 Marsh (C. F.), Reinforced Concrete Compression Member Diagram, 549 Marshall (Dr. F. H. A.), Effects of Castration and Ovario- tomy upon Sheep, 24; an American Manual of Farm Livestock, Prof. M. W. Harper, ix Martin (C. H.), Protozoa from Sick Soils and Life-cycle of a Monad Flagellate, 442 Martin (Dr. E. K.), Effects of Ultra-violet Rays on the Eye, 76 (George), Lichens, 30 Massol (G.), Radio-activity of the Mineral Waters of Usson, British Fungi: with a Chapter on 625 Masson (H.), Constituents of Essence of Labdanum, 25 Mather (Sir W.), Speech at British Science Guild, 296 Matignon (C.), Magnesium Nitride, 339; Atmospheric Destruction of Leaden Antiquities, 417 Matthews (Dr. F. E.), Production of Synthetic Rubber, 02 Senet (C.) and A. Toussaint, Study of Surfaces of Aéroplanes with an Electric Carriage, 53 DMs Maw (P. Trentham), Complete Yield Tables for British Woodlands and the Finance of British Forestry, 319 _ Maxim (Sir Hiram S.), New System for Preventing Collisions at Sea, 542 Maxwell (Right Hon. Sir Herbert, Bart., F.R.S.), Insect Parasites on Trees, 191; a Flower Sanctuary, 581, 600 Mayer (A. G.), Ctenophora, or Comb-jellies, 327 Xil Lhdex Nature, October 24, 1912 Meade-Waldo (E. G. B.) and others, Preservation of Native Fauna of Great Britain, 416 Means (J.), Aérial Signalling, 351 Meek (Prof. A.), Development of the Cod, Gadus morrhua, 16 Megs (Dr. K.), Screens for Artificial Daylight, 612 Méker (P.), Soude-Potasse-Sels, 84 Mellor (Dr. E. T.), Geology of a Portion of the Central Witwatersrand, 87 Melville (Dr. J. Cosmo) and R. Standen, Marine Mollusca : Scottish Antarctic Expedition, 468 Mendel and Nageli, H. H. O’Farrell, 477 Merchant (Dr. F. W.) and C. A. Chant, the Ontario High School Physics, 343 ; the Ontario High School Laboratory Manual in Physics, 343 Merlin (M.), Discovery of Greek Bronzes in a Sunken Galley, 119 Mersey (Lord), Report on the Loss of the Titanic, 581 Merton (T. R.), Changes in Absorption Spectra in different Solvents, 363 Mesernitsky (P.), Radium Emanation in Mineral Springs, 93 Meunier (Prof. A.), Microplankton des Mers de Barents et de Kara, 107 Meyer (Gustay W.), Maschinen und Apparate der Stark- stromtechnik, 472 Meyer (Prof.) and V. F. Hess, Heat Effect of Hénig- schmid’s Standard Radium Preparations, 543 Miklxelsen (Capt.) and Mr. Iversen, Arrival, 585 Mill (Dr. H_ R.), Rainfall in British Isles, October, 1911- March, 1912, 198 Millar (A. H.), Handbook and Guide to Dundee and District, 658 Milne (Prof. J., F.R.S.), Catalogue of Destructive Earth- quakes, 197 Milne (Rev. J. J.), an Elementary Treatise on Cross-ratio Geometry, 655 Minchin (Prof.), Simplest Forms of Life and their Origin on Earth, 430 Mines (G. R.), Electrocardiograms of Cold-blooded Animals, 467 Mobius (Prof. M.), Milroskopisches systematische Botanik, 497 Moir (Dr.), Valency and Chemical Affinity, 469 Moir (J. Reid), Mammalian Remains at the Base of the Challky Boulder Clay Formation in Suffolk, 268; Striated Flints from the Chalky Boulder Clay, 607 Moir (J. Reid) and A. Keith, Human Skeleton found under a Stratum of Chalky Boulder Clay near Ipswich, 259 poldenhaver (Dr. W.), Chemisch-technisches Praktikum, 39 Molinari (Prof. E.), Trattato di Chimica Organica Generale e Applicata all’ Industria, 554 Moore (Prof. Benjamin, F.R.S.), Importance of Substances present in Minute Amount in Food, 567 Moore (Prof. Willis L.), Forests and Rainfall, 663 Moreux. (I’Abbé), the Eclipse of April 17, 93 Morgan (Prof. W. C.) and Prof. J. A. Lyman, Chemistry : an Elementary Text-book, 291 Morison (Miss Rosa), Proposed Memorial to, 466 Morley (C.), a Revision of the Ichneumonide, 627 Mornet (Prof. D.), les Sciences de la Nature en France au XVIIIe Siécle, 476 Morris (Sir Henry), on Lord Lister, 66 Morrow (Miss Genevieve V.), the Ultimate Lines of the Vacuum Tube Spectra of Manganese, Lead, Copper, and Lithium, 157; Influence of Self-induction on the Spark Spectra of the Non-metallic Elements, 495 Morrow (Dr. J.), Steam Turbine Design, 159 Morse (Prof. H. W.), Storage Batteries, 472 Moseley (H. G.), Number of §-particles emitted in Traus- formation of Radium, 415 Moss (Dr. C. E.), British Elms, 275 Moureu (C.) and A. Lepape, Some Natural Gases Rich in Helium, 573 Moutier (A.). Measurement of the Arterial Elasticity in Clinical Practice, 25 i Miller (Fritz), Scent-organs of Butterflies, 291 Miiller (P. Th.) and Mlle. V. Guerdjikoff, Refraction and Magnetic Rotation of Mixtures, 25 Miinch (Prof. Wilhelm), University Education in Germany, 518 Praktikum fiir Miintz (A.) and H. Gaudechon, Degradation of Phosphatic Manures in the Soil, 599 Mintz (A.) and E. Lainé, Quantity and Frequence of Watering as depending on Physical Properties of the Soil, 2 Muir ioe T., C.M.G., F.R.S.), Theory of Determinants in the Historical Order of Development, 237; Resultant of a Set of Homogeneous Lineo-linear Equations, 287 Muirhead (Dr. R. F.), Mechanism for Finding Real Roots of Algebraic Polynomial Equations, 431 Munro (Dr. Neil Gordon), Prehistoric Japan, 423 Murray (James), awarded Prize by R.S.E., 428 Myers (Dr. C. S.), Primitive Music, 78; Text-book of Experimental Psychology, 316 Naccari (A.), Magnetic Influence in the Solar Rays (Samuel Hunter Christie), 93 Natanson (Prof.), Energy Content of Material Bodies, 250 Nathansohn (Prof. A.), Allgemeine Botanik, 654 Negretti and Zambra (Messrs.), New Continuous Recorder of Direction of Wind, 120 Némec (Prof. B.), das. Problem der Befruchtungsvorgange und andere zytologische Fragen, viii Newall (H. F.), Photography of the Spectrum of Nova Geminorum, 207 Newlands (A.), Water-power in the Highlands, 328 Nichols (A. R.), Polyzoa and Echinodermata (Clare Island Survey), 313 Nicholson and Morley (Messrs.), an Exhaust-gas Calori- meter for Internal Combustion Engines, 383 Nicoll (Dr. W.), Two New Trematode Parasites from the Indian Cobra, 416 Nicolle (C.) and others,. Susceptibility of the Magot to Trachoma, 574 : Nogier (Ph.), Therapeutic Methods based on Increasing and Decreasing the Activity of the Endocrinal Glands by Physical means, 261 Nogués (P.), New Kinematograph, 599 Norris (F. E.), Earthquake of May 23, 377 Norsa (L.), Electrical Properties of Copper-zinc Alloys, 625 Nussbaum (M.), G. Karsten, and M. Weber, Lehrbuch der Biologie fiir Hochschulen, 264 Nutting (P. G.), Outlines of Applied Optics, 603 Oberthiir (C.), Nomenclature, 610 O’Brien (Major A.), Shrines of Mohammedan Saints in the Valley of the Indus, 225 O’Donoghue (C. H.), Circulatory System of the common Grass-snake, 259 Oersted (H. C.), the Electric Theory of Light, 664 O'Farrell (H. H.), Mendel and Nageli, 477 Ogden (Prof. H. N.), Prof. R. T. Hewlett, Rural Hygiene, 527 Ogle (Dr. William), Obituary, 172 Okada (Prof. T.), Geometrical Constructions for Finding Motion of a Cyclone from Shift of Wind, 68 Omori (Prof. F.), Application of the Seismograph to measure Vibrations of Railway Carriages, 174; Eruptions of the Asama-Yama in 1gog-11, 487 Onnes (Prof. K.), Resistance of Mercury at Low Tempera- tures, 42; Erratum, 147 Onnes (Prof.) and Dr. Perrier, Magnetic Properties of Solid Oxygen, 41 Orléans (Duc d’), Campagne Arctique de 1907, 107 Orr (Capt. C. W. J.), the Making of Northern Nigeria, 35 Orton (J. H.), the Slipper Limpet, 641 Osborn (Prof. H. Fairfield), Scientific Worthies: Dr. Alfred Russel’ Wallace, D-C.L., O.M., F.R.S., 367; Heredity: Harvey Lecture, 382 Osborn (T. G. B.), Moulds attacking Cotton Goods, 78 Osmond (Floris), Death, 454 Ostwald (Prof. Wilhelm), Grundlinien der anorganischen Chimie, 526 Ostwald (Prof. Wilhelm), Dr. W. W. Taylor, Outlines of General Chemistry, 526 Oswald (Dr. F.), Roman Camp of Margidunum, Notts, 538 Owen (E. A.), Passage of Homogeneous Réntgen Rays through Gases, 104 Nature, ] October 24, 1912 Oxley (A. E.), Variation of Magnetic Susceptibility with Temperature, 208; Detection of Small Amounts of Polarisation in Light from a Dull Sky, 313, 669 Oxner (M.), Memory in Marine Fishes, 79; Experiments on Memory in a Fish, Serranus scriba, 131 Pakes (W. C. C.), Dr. A. T. Nankivell, the Science of Hygiene, 604 Palladin (Prof. W.), Pflanzenphysiologie, 371 Palmer (Andrew H.), Glazed Frost, 192 Pariselle (H.), an Unsaturated Alcohol, 104 Parker (G. W.), Elements of Hydrostatics, 603 Parkhurst (J. A.), Spectrum of Nova Geminorum No. 2, 329 Parsons (Sir Charles A., K.C.B.), the Steam Turbine: Rede Lecture, 159 Pascal (P.), Thermal Analysis of Hexachloroethane and its Binary Mixtures, 157 Paton (A. W.), Handbook and Guide District, 658 Patterson (H. S.), R. S. Cripps, and Whytlaw-Gray, Ortho- baric Densities and Critical Constants of Xenon, 103 Patton (Capt. W. S.), Etiology of Kala-Azar, 386 Peabody (J. E.) and A. E. Hunt, Elementary Plant Biology, to Dundee and 497 Peach (Dr. B. N.), Report on Rock Specimens dredged by the Michael Sars, H.M.S. Triton, and H.M.S. Knight Errant, 364 Peake (Harold), Scheme for Anthropological Survey of the British Isles, 173 Peano (Prof. G.), Definition of.Probability, 431 Pearson (Dr. J.), Ceylon Pearl Banks, 91 Pearson (Prof. Karl, F.R.S.), the Grammar of Science, 188; Tuberculosis, Heredity, and Environment, 426; Social Problems: their Treatment, 426; Intensity of Natural Selection in Man, 494 Pearson (R. S.), Commercial Guide to Forest Economic Products of India, 539 Peddie (Prof. W.), Molecular Theory of Magnetism in Solids, 53 Pegg (H. V.), Peat for Power Purposes, 590 Pélabon (H.), Selenide Batteries, 364 Peppert (Prof. R.), World’s Supply of Citric Acid, 226 Pérard (A.), Measurement of small Industrial Standards, 469 Peringuey (L.), Bushman Sticks decorated in Intaglio and Poker-work, 287 Perkin (Prof. W. H., F.R.S.) and Prof. F. S. Kipping, F.R.S., Organic Chemistry, 578 Perkins (J.), das Pflanzenreich : Monimiacez, 31 Perkins (Prof. W. H.), Production of Synthetic Rubber, 402 Perret (L.), Gold and Platinum Alluvial Deposits in Russia, 337 Perry (Prof. John, F.R.S.), Forced Vibrations, 424 Perrycoste (F. H.), Wanted—a Flower Sanctuary, 529, 607 Petrie (Dr. J. M.), Chemistry of the Doryphora sassafras Tree, 391; Hydrocyanic Acid in Plants, 391 Pettersson (Prof. Otto), Connection between graphical and Meteorological Phenomena, 130 Philips’ Comparative Series of Wall Atlases, 267 Phillips (Dr. P.), Viscosity of Carbon Dioxide, 363 Phillips (Rev. T. E. R.), Red Spot on Jupiter, 487 Phisalix (Mme.), Immunity of Hedgehog towards Poison of Lizard, 365 Piaggio (H.), Sign of the Newtonian Potential, 608 Picado (C.), Nutrition of Bromeliacez, 53 Picard (H. K.), Graphic Method of Illustrating Results of Extraction Tests, 52 Pickering (Prof.), Magnitude Observations at Harvard, 486 Pickering (Spencer, F.R.S.), Effect of Grass on Plants, 399 Pickering (Prof. W.), Orbits of Comets, 617 Pidduck (F. B.), Wave-problem of Cauchy and Poisson for Finite Depth and slightly Compressible Fluid, 24 Pinoy (E.), Preservation of Wood, 53 Pionchon (J.), the Solution of Copper in Water, 157 Pixell (Miss Helen L. M.), Polycheta from the Pacific Coast of N. America, 416 Planck (Prof.), Address to German Chemical Society, 406 Platania (Dr. G.), Sea Oscillations on Coast of Sicily, 68; Temperature of Flowing Lava, 457 Plimmer (H. G.), Blood Parasites, 77 Plummer (H. C.), Motions of Stars, 312 Hydro- /ndex Xlll Pluvinel (Comte A. de la B.), Kinematography of the Solar Eclipse of April 17, 260; Observation of Solar Eclipse from a Dirigible, 304 Pluvinel (A. de la B.) and F. 1gt1c (Brooks), 335 Pocock (R. I., F.R.S.), a Rare Stag (Cervus wallichti) from Nepal, 207; the Distastefulness of Anosia plexippus, 243 ; Local Races of Burchell’s Zebra, 399; Antler Growth in the Cervide, 416; Taste or Smell in the Laughing Jackass (Dacelo), 425 Poincaré (Henri), Diffraction of the Hertzian Waves, 131; Note on, 246; Mathematical Lectures at the University of London, 279; Obituary, 535 Poincaré (H.), H. Vergne, Lecons sur les Hypothéses Cosmogoniques Professées a la Sorbonne, vi Pokrowski (Prof.), Observations of Bielid Meteor Shower, Baldet, Spectrum of Comet 42 Pollok (Dr. J. H.), Vacuum Tube Spectra of some Non- metallic Elements and Compounds, 495 Pope (Prof.) and C. S. Gibson, Resolution of Racemic Benzoylalanine, 208 Pope (Prof.) and J. Read, the Opticaliy Active Hydroxy- hydrindamines, 208 Porter (Dr. Annie), Isle of Wight Bee Disease, 410 Porter (Prof. A. W.) and Dr. F. W. Edridge Green, Negative After-images and Successive Contrast with pure Spectral Colours, 494 Porter (Dr. T. C.), Flicker : III, 234; Clouds and Shadows, 244, 348 ) Post (Prof. J.) and Prof. B. Neumann, Traité complet d’analyse chimique appliquée aux essais industriels, 423 Poulton (Prof. E. B., F.R.S.), Distastefulness of Danatda (Anosia) Plexippus, 375; John Viriamu Jones, and other Oxford Memories, 419; Address at Second International Congress of Entomology, 610 Poynting (Prof. J. H.), Changes in Dimensions of a Steel Wire when Twisted, and Pressure of Distortional Waves in Steel, 103 Pratt (H. Keay), Boiler Draught, 215 Prichard (H. Hesketh), “Through Trackless Labrador,” 35 Pring (Dr. J. N.), Laboratory Exercises in Physical Chemistry, 291 : Prior (Dr. G. T.), Minerals of the El Nakhla el Baharia Meteorite, 443 Pritchard (J. E.), Prof. J. C. Ewart, Discovery of Skull of Ancient Type of Horse, 67 Prunet (A.), the Japanese Chestnut at the Experimental Station at Lindois, 25 Przibram (Dr.), Method for Visualising and Projecting on a Screen the Range of a Rays, 543 Puiseux (M.), Spiral Nebulz, 228 Punnett (Prof. R. C.), Mendelism, 215; Coat-colour and Heredity in Rabbits, 467 Purvis (J. E.) and G. Walker, Effect of Sewage on Forma- tion of Nitrates in Sea-water, 590 Quain’s Elements of Anatomy, 447 Quénisset (M.), Observations of Jupiter, 617 Quidor (A.), New Stereoscopic Microscope with a Single Objective, 495 Quine (Rev. J.), the Isle of Man, 346 Rabaud (E.), le Transformisme et |’Expérience, 501 Radais (M.) and A. Sartory, Comparative Toxicity of Various Poisonous Fungi, 547 Radau (H.), Babylonian Expedition of the University of Pennsylvania: Cuneiform Texts: Sumerian Hymns and Prayers, 60 “Rainey (Paul J.), Hunting Trip to British East Africa, 6 Raby (Sir Wm., K.C.B., F.R.S.), Lecture in Honour of H. Moissan at the Chemical Society, 12; Speech at British Science Guild, 296; Experiments with Kathode Rays, 502 Ratner (S.), Mobilities of the Radio-active Atom-ions in Gases, 677 ee Ray (Prof. P. C.), Vapour Density of Ammonium Nitrite, 616 X1V Rayleigh (Lord, O.M., F.R.S.), Self-induction of Electric Currents in a Thin Anchor Ring, 103; the Principle of Reflection in Spectroscopes, 167; Electrical Vibrations on a Thin Anchor Ring, 493 Raymond (G.), les Merveilles du Monde Sidéral, 459 Reboul and de Bollemont (MM.), Disintegration of Metals at High Temperatures, 643 Regan (C. T.), Antarctic Fish Fauna, 521 Reid (Sir George), the World of Matter and the World of Mind, 251 Reid (Dr. G. Archdall), Acquired Characters and Stimuli, xr Reid (Prot H. F.), Choice of a Seismograph, 405 Reid (Prof. L. W.), the Elements of the Theory of Algebraic Numbers, 164 Reignier (C.), the Starting Period in Aéroplane Motors, 105 Rennie (Dr. J.), Cestoda of the Scottish Antarctic Expedi- tion, 468 Renshaw (Graham), More Animal Romances, 264 Revis (C.), Production of Variation in Physiological Activity of Bacillus coli by Use of Malachite Green, 130 Reynolds (J. H.), Observations of Spiral Nebulz in Polarised Light, 312 Reynolds (Prof. M. H.), Veterinary Studies for Agricultural Students, 58 Reynolds (S.), Sea Fisheries: their Treasures and Toilers, Prof. M. A. Hérubel, B. Miall, 1 Rheinberg (J. and E.), Micro-spectra Method of Colour Photography, 117, 307 Rhodes (J. E. W.), Micropetrology for Beginners, 31 Ribaud (G.), Appearance of New Lines in a Geissler Tube containing Bromine in a Magnetic Field, 261 Riccd (Prof. A.), Sun-spots and. Faculz in 1911, 42; the Etnean Eruption of September, 1911, 149; Solar Promin- ences, 250, 304, 511; Earthquakes following Eruption of Etna, 458; Halley’s Comet, 644 Richters (F.), Faune des Mousses Arctiques : 107 Ride way (R.), Birds of North and Middle America, 91 Ridley (H. N., C.M.G., F.R.S.), Spices, 374 Rignano (E.), ‘Upon the Inheritance of Acquired Characters, 576 Rimington (Prof. A. Wallace), Colour-Music, 166 Rind! (M.), a Reversible Photochemical Reaction, 608 Rischbieth (Dr. H.) and Amy Barrington, Dwarfism, 375 Ritchie (T. E.), Artificial Daylight, 611 Roberts (E.), Famous Chemists, 32 Roberts (Dr. J. H. T.), the Disintegration of Metals at High Temperature, 660 Robertson-Scott (J. W.), Sugar Beet, 28 Robinson (John H.), Principles and Practice of Poultry Culture, 240 Rogers (A. G. L.), Interference with Insect Pests, 610 Rolfe (F. Percy), Illogical Precision in Mine Reports, 237 Rolleston (Prof. Se Monograph on, Prof. E. B. Poulton, F.R.S., Rolston (W. E.), Nota Geminorum, 201; 250 Rosenhain (Dr. Walter), Floris Osmond, 454 Ross (E. H.), Development of a Leucocytozoon of Guinea- pigs, 51 Ross (Dr. F. E.), Variation of Latitude, 617 Ross (Dr. H.), die Pflanzengallen (Cecidien) Mittel- und Nordeuropas, ihre Erreger und Biologie und Bestimmungs- tabellen, 185 Ross (H. C.), J. W. Cropper, and E. H. Ross, Further Researches into Induced Cell Reproduction and Cancer, 601 Ross (Sir Ronald, K.C.B., F.R.S.), Malaria in India, 505 Ross (Sir R.) and W. Stott, Tables of Statistical Error, 15 Rotch (Prof. A. Lawrence), Death, 171; Obituary, 195 Rotch (Prof. A. Lawrence) and A. i. "Palmer, Charts of the Atmosphere for Aéronauts and Aviators, 57 Roth (Prof. W. A.) and Dr. F. Eisenlohr, metrisches Hilfsbuch, 111 Rothschild (Hon. N. C.), Nature Reserves, 610 Rousselet (C. F.), New Rotifera, 77; Four Rotifera from Devil’s Lake in N. Dakota, 130 Rowell (Percy E.), Introduction to General Science with Experiments, 165 Rowland (Dr.), Plague-vaccine, Tardigrades, a Brilliant Meteor, Refralxto- 178 Index [ Nature, October 24, 1912 Royal-Dawson (W. G.), a Simple Eclipse Experiment, 347 Royal Observatory Staff, Greenwich, Nova Geminorum) 208 Royds (R.), Testing of Motive- -power Engines, 27 Rudge (W. A. D.), Variation of Atmospheric Electric Potential with Altitude, 287; Action of Sunlight and of Radium Salts on Glass, 312 Rusby (Prof. H. H.), Manual of Structural Botany, 497 Russ (C.), Improved Method for Opsonic-index Estima- tions, 76 Russell (Arthur), Minerals and Mineral-localities of Shrop- shire, 78 Russell (Dr. B. Rk. G.), the Manifestation of Active Resist- ance to the Growth of Implanted Cancer, 258 Russell (E. J.), Soil Structure and Plant Growth, Prof, G. Kraus, 187 Russell (Prof. H. N.), Relations between Characteristics of Stars, 335 Russell (James), Transverse Induction Changes in De- magnetised Iron and the Molecular Theory of Magnetism, 131 Russell (Rollo), Preventable Cancer, 601 Ruston (A. G.), Air Pollution by Coal Smoke, 590 Rutter (W. P.), the Production of Wheat, 135 Ryan (H.) and T. Nolan, Higher Ketones and Secondary Alcohols derived from Amides of Palmitic and Stearic Acids, 313 Ryland (H. S.), Optical Experiments, 554 Ryland (H. S.} and B. Lang, an Instrument for Measuring the Distance between the Centres of Rotation of the Two Eyes, 51 Ryves (Reginald), High Dams of Great Length, 93 Sabatier (P.) and A. Mailhe, Catalytic Preparation of Phenolic and Diphenylenic Oxides, 599 Sabatier (Paul) and M. Murat, Direct Addition of Hydrogen by Catalysis to the Benzoic Esters: Preparation of the Hexahydrobenzoic Esters, 183; Preparation of Phenyl- cyclohexane, &c., 364; Preparation of the four Dicyclo- hexylpropenes, 625 Sadow-Pittard (Prof. H. de), Autophanous Eyes, 87 Salvesen (T. E.), Modern Whaling: Lectures at the R.S.A., 173 Sampson (Prof. R. A.), a New Treatment of Optical Aberration, 363 Sanderson (Burdon) and Vitalism, 215 Satterly (Dr. J.), the Quantities of Radium and Thorium Emanations in the Air of Soils, 208; Junior Heat, 603 Savage (Dr. William G.), Milk and the Public Health, 422 Schafer (Prof. Anatomy, 447 Schar (Dr. R. F.), Reptilia and Amphibia: Clare Island, 521; the Prairie Wolf and Antarctic Dog, 632 Scharff (R. F.), Distribution and Origin of Life in America, 523 Schaumasse (M.), Comet 1911e, 305 Scheel and Heuse (Drs.), Expansion of Mercury (Callendar and Moss), 69; Specific Heat of Air, 511 Scheffer (Prof. W.), Wirkungsweise und Gebrauch des Mikroskops und seiner Hilfsapparate, 525 Sheid (Prof. K.), Vorbereitungsbuch fiir den Experimental- unterricht in Chemie, 398 Schleip (Dr. W.), Anleitung zum praktischen Studium niederer Tiere, 264 Schlich (Sir W., F.R.S.), Forests and Rainfall, 662 Schmidt (Dr. Heinrich), W6rterbuch der Biologie, 189 Schmidt (Dr. Johs.), Reproduction and Spawning Places of the Fresh-water Eel, 633 Schomberg (Major H.), Capture of Pigmy Hippopotamuses, E. A., F.R.S.), Text-book of Microscopic 10 Siton (H. A. E. C. von), Hydro-electric Practice, 214 Schorr (Prof.), the Solar Eclipse of April 17, 670; Hamburg Observatory, 670 Schréder (O.), Remarkable Effort of an Organism to free itself from a Parasite, 91 Schubert (J.), Forests and Rainfall, 663 Schultz (L. G.), the Weather of 1911, 33 Schuster (Prof.), Address on Opening new Laboratory Buildings at Manchester, 46 Schwalbe (Prof. C. G.), die Chemie der Cellulose unter the Nature, | October 24, 1912 besonderer Beriicksichtigung der Textil- und Zellstoff- industrien, 238 Schwers (F.), Refraction and Magnetic Rotation of Mix- tures, 625 Scidmore (Miss E. R.), “Adam’s Second Eden” (Ceylon), 640 Sclater (W. L.), a History of the Birds of Colorado, 523 Scott (Dr. D. H.), Botrychioxylon paradoxum : a Palzxozoic Fern with Secondary Wood, 234 Scott (E. Erskine), Tables of Logarithms logarithms to Five Places, 318 Scott (E. K.), Manufacture of Nitrates from the Atmo- sphere, 463, 490 Scott (Hugh), Coleoptera, Lamellicornia, and Adephaga, 467 Scott (Dr. T.), Entomostraca of Scottish Antarctic Expedi- tion, 78 Scott (Prof. W. D.), Increasing Human Efficiency in Business, 629 Scrivenor (J. B.), Occurrence of Cassiterite and Striiverite in Perak, 443 Searle (Prof. Arthur), Resignation, 207 Searle (Dr. G. F. C.), a Simple Viscometer for very Viscous Liquids, 312 Sedgwick (Rev. S. N.), Moths of the Month and How to Identify Them, 346 Seitz (Dr. A.), Insect Vision, 611 Seligman (Dr. R.), Modern Uses of Aluminium, 383 Senderens (J. B.), Catalytic Dehydration of Fatty Alcohols in the Wet Way, 105; Catalysis of the Cyclanols in the Wet Way by means of Sulphuric Acid, 261; Use of Carbonates in Catalytic Preparation of Ketones, 390 Senderens (J. B.) and J. Aboulenc, Catalytic Production of Esters of Cyclohexanols, 547 Senter (Dr. G.), a Text-book of Inorganic Chemistry, 291 Seton (Ernest T.), the Arctic Prairies: a Canoe Journey to the North of Aylmer Lake, 317 Seward (Prof. A. C., F.R.S.), Links with the Past in the Plant World, 189; an Early Cretaceous Flora, E. W. Berry, 330 Sexton (Mrs. E. W.), Bremerhaven, 259 Shann (E. W.), Alcyonaria from Singapore: Classification of Nephthyidz, 130 Shannon (D. M.), Some Aspects of Diesel Engine Design, and Anti- Brackish-water Amphipoda from 250 Shattock (S. G.) and L. S. Dudgeon, Certain Results of Drying Non-sporing Bacteria in a Charcoal Liquid Air Vacuum, 76 Shaw (E. W.) and M. J. Munn, Coal Oil and Gas of Foxburg Quad., Pennsylvania, 617 Shearer (Dr. Cresswell), Sex Determination in Dtinophilus gyrociliatus, 40 Shearer (Cresswell), W. De Morgan, and H. M. Fuchs, Inheritance of Paternal Characters in Echinoid Hybrids, 425 Sheldon (C.), the Wilderness of the Upper Yukon: a Hunter’s Explorations for Wild Sheep, 83 Shelford (R.), Mimicry amongst the Blattide, 77; Death, 42 Shelly (Dr. C. E.) and E. Stenhouse, Life and Health, 397 Shennan (Dr. T.), Post Mortems and Morbid Anatomy, 477 Sherlock (Dr. R. L.) and A. H. Noble, Glacial Origin of the Clay-with-Flints of Buckinghamshire, and a Former Course of the Thames, 104 Shimek (B.), Physiography of the Prairies, 567 Shipley (A. E.), Fitting Men for Practical Post-academic Life, 233 Shiras (G.), Game of Kenai Peninsula, 539 Shuman Sun-heat Absorber, 122 Siddall (J. D.), Life-history of some Marine Diatoms from Bournemouth, 234 Sidgreaves (Rev. W., S.J.), Stonyhurst Observatory, 147; Earthquake of May 23, 348; the Earthquake in Turkey on August 9, 607 Simpson (Dr. G. C.), Coronze and Iridescent Clouds, 466 Simpson (Prof. S.), Effects of Seasonal Changes on Body Temperature, 78 Sinclair (Upton), Prof. R. T. Hewlett, the Fasting Cure, 527 Sindall and Bacon, the Testing of Wood Pulp: a Practical Handbook for the Pulp and Paper Trades, 658 Index XV Skinner (S.), New Dew-gauge, 406 Slocum (Prof.), Parallax of Nova Lacerte, 176 Smith (Prof. Alex.), awarded Keith Prize by the R.S.E., 428; International Congress of Applied Chemistry, 503 Smith (Anna T.), State Universities of France, 571 Smith (Bernard), Glaciation of the Black Combe District (Cumberland), 156 Smith (C. Tilden), Clouds and Shadows, 168 Smith (Geoffrey), Primitive Animals, 31 Smith (Prof. G. Elliot, F.R.S.), the Human Form, Prof. E. Gaupp, 37; the Nature of Bone, Prof. H. von Eggeling, 59; Left-handedness, Dr. Ewald Stier, 108; Hair of Mammals, Dr. Hans Friedenthal, 419 Smith (Dr. G. F. Herbert), Gem-stones and their Distinc- tive Characters, 294 Smith (Dr. Graham) and others, Isle of Wight Bee Disease, 410 Smith (H. M.), the Pearl Industry, 640 Smith (S. W. J.) and J. Guild, Self-demagnetisation of Steel, 546 Smith (Warren), Philippines Mineral Report, 458 Snow (E. C.), Influence of Selection and Assortative Mating on Ancestral and Fraternal Correlations of a Mendelian Population, 130 Soddy (F., F.R.S.), the Chemistry of the Radio-elements, 291 Solly (Frederick, F.R.S.), the Origin of Radium, 203 Solly (R. H.), the Rathite Group, 443 Sommerville (Dr. D. M. J.), Bibliography of Non-Euclidean Geometry, 266 Sorensen (A. S. M.), Theory of Production of Electrical Oscillations, 276 Sotome, Hoasi, and Toda (MM.), Photographs of Halley’s Comet, 147 Southern (R.), Clare Island Survey : Platyhelmia, 260 Speight (Dey, (1) Glacier Action in the Southern Alps; (2) Artesian Wells of Canterbury, New Zealand, 644 Spemann (Prof. H.), Development of Eye in Frog Embryos, 327 Spencer (Prof. Baldwin, C.M.G., F.R.S.) and F. J. Gillen, Across Australia, 608 Spencer (Dr. J. F.), an Experimental Course of Physical Chemistry, Part i., 291; Part ii., 578 Spengel (Prof. J. W., Geh. Hofrat), Festschrift zum 60-ten Geburtstage, by his Disciples, 580 Spielmann (Dr. Percy E.), Anatomy of the Bee’s Sting, 348 Spisar (Dr. K.), Biology, &c., of a Dodder Parasitic on Willows, 307 Stanton (Dr. T. E.), Law of Comparison for Surface Friction and Eddy-making Resistances in Fluids, 124 Stapf (Dr. O., F.R.S.), a Florula of +ao Paulo, Prof. A. Usteri, 420 Stapley (W.), Cervical Ribs in Man and some Mammals, 469 Stather (J. W.), Bank, 442 Stead (G.), Spectrum of Argon, 467 Stebbing (E. P.), Stalls in the Himalaya, 81 Stebbing (Rev. T. R. R.), Vaunthompsonia, 77 Stebbins (Joel), Variability of Polaris, 669 Steche (Dr. O.), Hydra and the Hydroids, 91 Stefansson (Vilhjalmur), a Lost Tribe among the Eskimo, 644 Stein (Dr. M. Aurel), Ruins of Desert Cathay, 88 Stephens (Miss Irene), Teaching of Mathematics to Young Children, 44 Stephens (Miss J.), (1) Coelenterata, (2) Marine Sponges (Clare Island Survey), 468 Stephens (Dr. J. W. W.) and Dr. H. B. Fantham, Measure- ment of Trypanosoma rhodesiense, 258 Steuer (Prof. A.), Leitfaden der Planktonkunde, 94 Stevenson-Hamilton (Major J.), Animal Life in Africa, 297 Stier (Dr. Ewald), Untersuchungen iiber Linkshandigkeit und die funktionellen Differenzen der Hirnhalften : Linkshandigkeit in der deutschen Armee, 108 Stirling (Prof. Wm.), Gaumont Speaking Kinematograph Films: Royal Institution Discourse, 333 ‘ Stocks (H. B.), Water Analysis for Sanitary and Technical Purposes, 552 s Stonham (C., C.M.G.), Lilian M. Medland, the Birds of the British Islands, 637 Shelly Clay dredged from the Dogger xvi Index Nature, October 24, 1912 Stopes (Dr. Marie C.), Halo during the Solar Eclipse of April 17, 217; Petrifactions of the Earliest European Angiosperms, 258, 641 Story (Louisa), Organisation of Teaching of Mathematics in Secondary Schools for Girls, Strachan (James), Beekite in Fossil Shells, Strasburger (Prof. Eduard), Obituary, 379 Strauchon (J.), Report on New Zealand Survey Operations, 222 Stringer (E. B.), a Modified Form of the Lever Fine- adjustment, and a Simple Turn-out Device for the Sub- stage Condenser, 234. Stromeyer (C. E.), Unity in Nature: Music and Life, 86 Stroude (F.), the Steinmetz Index for Transformer Iron, Stalloy, and Cast-iron, 466 Strutt (Hon. R. J.), After-luminosity of Electric Discharge in Hydrogen observed by Hertz, 103; the Ammonia Flame, 320; Chemically Active Modification of Nitrogen, produced by Electric Discharge, 415; Molecular Statistics of some Chemical Actions, 493 Struve (Dr.), Axis and Compression of Mars, 121 Suess (Prof. Ed.), la Face le da Terre, 3 Sumner (E. J.), Chemistry Note-book, 291 Supan (Prof. A.), Grundziige der physischen Erdkunde, 500 Sutton (Dr. J. R.), Some Meteorological Conditions con- trolling Nocturnal Radiation, 287; Physical Significance of the mean Diurnal Curve of Temper ature, 678; Earth- quakes of the South African Table-land, 678 Suzuki (S.), Age of the Earth, 564 Swanwick (F. ms) Elementary Trigonometry, 655 Swinburne (J., F.R.S.), Actual Chemistry, Prof. Kay Thompson, 136 Swinton (A. A. C.), Electricity Supply: Past, Present, ana Future : Royal Institution Discourse, 281 145 an Analogy between M. de Tansley (A. G.), Types of British Vegetation, 212 Tattersall (W. M.), Clare Island Survey: Schizopoda and Cumacea, 260 Taylor (R. L.), Action of Bleaching Agents on the Colour- ing Matter of Linen, 287 Taylor (R. L.) and C. Bostock, Action of Dilute Acids on Bleaching Powder, 78 Thole (F. B.), Qualitative Organic Analysis, 552 Thomas (H. H.), Stachypteris Hallet, a new Jurassic Fern, 467 Thomas (H. H.) and Prof. O. T. Jones, Pre-Cambrian and Cambrian Rocks of Brawdy, &c., in Pembrokeshire, 259 Thomas (Oldfield), Mammals from Eastern Asia, 17 Thomas (Prof. V.) and D. Gauthier, Notions Fondamentales d’Analyse Qualitative, 578 Thompson (Prof. D’Arcy W., C.B.), Lobsters in the 4Egean, 321; the Dundee Meeting of the British Associa- tion, 349; the North Sea and its Fisheries, 593; an Introduction to Aristotelian Science, Dr. T. E. Lones, 653 Thompson (H. Stuart), Sub-alpine Plants, 654 Thompson (Prof. M. de Kay), Applied Electrochemistry, 136 Thompson (Prof. Silvanus P., F.R.S.), Optical Science : Presidential Address at Optical Convention, 436; Oersted and the Electric Theory of Light, 664 Thomson (Harold), the Brazilian Eclipse on October 10, 433 Thomson (Sir J. J.), Order of Merit, 65 Thornton (Prof. W. M.), Electrical Conductivity of Bacteria and Rate of Inhibition of Bacteria by Electric Currents, 76; Dielectric Hysteresis at Low Frequencies, 546 Thorpe (Sir Edward, C.B., F.R.S.) and others, a Dictionary of Applied Chemistry, 162 Thoulet (Prof. J.), Etude Lithologique de Fonds recueillis dans les Parages de la Nouvelle-Zemble, 107 Thurston (Edgar, C.I.E.), Omens and Superstitions of Southern India, 530 Tian (A.), Variations Mercury Lamp, 547 Tikhoff (Dr. G. A.), Nova Geminorum No. 2, 384 Tilden (Sir W., F.R.S.), Prof. S. Cannizzaro: Lecture, 455 Timiriazeff (Prof. C. A.), Miss Anna Chéréméteff, the Life of the Plant, 393 Timmermans. (Dr. Jean), Density of Liquids below 0° C-, in the Radiations of the Quartz Memorial Experimental Researches on the 157 Tobler-Wolff (Dr. G.) and Prof. F. Tobler, ‘Anleaehen zur pr yicen oprnen Untersuchung von Pflanzenfasern, 497 re Oe ie ew inpate Optical Properties of Muscle, Dr- s Torii (R. ip AE tie of Formosa, 326 Townsend (J. S.), Diffusion and Mobility of Ions in a Magnetic Field, 233 Tremearne (Major A. J. N.), Hammock Dance of Sierra Leone, 510 Trillat (A.) and M. Fouassier, Influence of Gases dissolved in Water on Vitality of Micro-organisms, 105 Trotter (A. P.), Alleged Ultra-violet Rays from Filament Lamps, 377 Trouton (Prof. F. T., F.R.S.), Osmotic and Liquid Mem- branes, 32 Turner (Dr. Dawson), Production of the Thorium Emana- tion and its Use in Therapeutics, 468 Turner (Prof. H. H., F.R.S.), Tentative Explanation of the “Two Star Streams” in terms of Gravitation, 208; the Great Star Map, 398 Turner (R. E.), Fossorial Wasps of the Family Scoliidz, 312 Tutton (Dr. A. E. H., F.R.S.), Crystallo-chemical Analysis, Prof. E. von Fedorow, 503 Tyrrell (J. B.), Law of the Paystreak in Placer Deposits, 337 Unstead (Dr. J. F.), Climatic Limits of Wheat Cultivation in Canada, 457 ‘ Urbain (Prof. G.), Introduction A 1’Etude de la Spectro- chimie, 211 Ussher (R. J.), Birds (Clare Island Survey), 313 Usteri (Prof. A.), Flora der Umgebung der Stadt Sao Paulo in Brasilien, 421 Vaillant (P.), Influence of Temperature and of Light on the Conductivity of a Phosphorescent Body, 157 Vallery (L.), Coagulation of Albumen by Heat, &c., van t’ Hoff, see Hoff Vasey (S. A.), Soot: Correction, 42 Vavon (G.), Catalytic Hydrogenation of Ketones, 599 Vernon (R. D.), Geology and Paleontology of the War- wickshire Coalfield, 573 Verschaffelt (J. E.), Physics and Astrophysics, 176 Viés (Dr. Fred), Propriétés Optiques des Muscles, 462 Volk (Ernest), Archaeology of the Delaware Valley, 307 Volterra (V.), E. Rutherford, R. W. Wood, and C. Barus, Lectures on Physics at the Twentieth Anniversary of Clark University, 528 626 Wace (A. J. B.) and M. S. Thompson, Prehistoric Thessaly, 294 Waddell (Lieut.-Col. L. A., C.B.), Western Culture in Ancient Cathay, Dr. M. Aurel Stein, 88 Wade (Dr. John), Death, 639 Wahl! (A.) and M. Doll, Preparation of a-diketonic Esters, 313 Wahl (Dr. W.), Optical Determinations at High Pressures, 363; Optical: Investigations of Crystallised Nitrogen, Argon, &c., 494 Wailes (G. H.), Fresh-water Rhizopoda from the States of N.Y., N.J., and Georgia, and Species from the Seychelles, 286 Wait (F. G.), Analysis of Canadian Ores, Minerals, &c., 37 Walcott (Dr. C. D.), Fossils from British Columbia, 334 Walker (E. W. A.), Variability of Streptococci in Relation to Fermentation Tests, 442 Walker (Dr. G. T.), Forests and Rainfall in India, 664 Walker (J.), a Leucocytozoon Infection of the Ostrich, 469 Walker (T. L.), Molybdenum Ores of Canada, 378 Wallace (Dr. Alfred Russel, O.M., F.R.S.), Letter to Biology Class of University of Colorado, 12; Biography (“Scientific Worthies”), by Prof. H. F. Osborn, 370 Wallis (B. C.), a Geography of the World, iii Walther (P.), a Mineral from Copper Ore, 322 Wang (Chung Yu), Bibliography of the Mineral Wealth and Geology of China, 615 Ward (Prof. R. De C.), Value of Non-instrumental Weather Observations, 92 Nature, ] October 24, 1912 Lndex XVil — ee SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSsSSSSSSSsSsSsSSSS Warren (Dr. T. H.), Poetry and Science, 73 Warth (H.), Red Water, 138 Wedderburn (E. M.), Temperature Observations in Loch Earn, 131 Wernher (Sir J., Bart.), Obituary, 301 West (W.), Clare Island Survey: Fresh-water Algz, 260; Fresh-water Algz and Marine Diatoms (Clare Island Survey), 641 West (W. and Prof. G. S.), a Monograph of the British Desmidiacee, 523 Western (Col. C. M.), the Practical Science of Billiards and its “ Pointer,” 447 Weston (F. E.), Elementary Experimental Chemistry, 291 Wheeler (Eng.-Lieut. S. G., R.N.), Heat and Steam, 319 Whetham (W. C. D., F.R.S.), the Use of Pedigrees: Royal Institution Discourse, 310 Whetham (W. C. D., F.R.S., and Catherine D.), Heredity and Society, 263; an Introduction to Eugenics, 263 Whiddington (R.), Transmission of Kathode Rays through Matter, 52; Velocity of the Secondary Kathode Particles ejected by Réntgen Rays, 52 Whitehead (Dr. A. N., F.R.S.) and B. Russell, F.R.S., Principia Mathematica, 474 Whiteley’s (Messrs.), New Premises, 432 Whitmell (C. T.), Mars and a Lunar Atmosphere, 6; Inquiry for Tables of Elliptic Functions of the Second Kind, 555 Wicksteed (C.), machines, 590 Wien (Prof. W.), Recent Advances made by the Theory of Radiation : Nobel Lecture, 146 Wilde (Dr. Henry, F.R.S.), Search-lights for the Mercantile Marine, 325, 338 Wilkinson (P.) and F. W. Cook, Macmillan’s Arithmetic, 655 Willcocks (Sir Wm.), the Garden of Eden and its Restora- tion, 381 - Williams (F. N.), Prodromus Flore Britannic, 405 Williamson (R. W.), Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.R.S., the Mafulu Mountain People of British New Guinea, 556 Willis (Bailey), Geological Structure of the Alps, 145 Wilson (C. T. R.), Expansion Apparatus for making Visible Tracks of Ionising Particles in Gases, 415 Wilson (Prof. E.), B. C. Clayton, and A. E. Power, Hysteresis Loss as affected by Magnetic History, 546 Wilson (Dr. E. A.), British Antarctic Expedition, 302 Wilson (F. R. L.) and G. W. Hedley, a School Chemistry, 578 Wilson (L. J.), Brilliant Spots on Mars, 17 Reciprocating Straight-blade Sawing- Reform Wilson (W.), the 6-Particles reflected by Sheets of Matter of different -Thicknesses, 285 Withers (T. H.), Early Fossil Scalpellum, 130 Witting (R.), Tides of the Baltic, 615 Woglom (Dr. Wm. H.), Nature of the Immune Reaction to Transplanted Cancer in the Rat, 258 Wolf (Prof. Max), Nova Geminorum No. 2, 121, 250; the new Star 87 1911 Persei, 459 Wollaston (A. F. R.), Pygmies and Papuans: the Stone Age To-day, 556 Wollaston (H. J. B.), New Method of Working Vertical Tow-nets, 521 Wood (Prof. R. W.), Colour Photography of the Moon, 643 Wood (Prof. T. B.), Food Value of Bread, 568 Woodcock (H. de Carle), the Doctor and the People, 575 Woodcock (H. M.), Birds’ Nests, 321 Woodruff (L. L.), Protozoan Fauna of Hay Infusion, 430 Woodward (Dr. A. S.), Cretaceous Dinosauria in German East Africa, 273 Worcester (Dean), the Taal Volcano, 431 Worgitzky (Dr. G.), Lebensfragen aus. der heimischen Pflanzenwelt, 497 : Worthington (W. B.), Solar Eclipse Photographs, 251 Wourtzel (E.), Synthesis of Nitrosyl Chloride and Atomic We'ght of Chlorine, 625 Wright (Fred E.), Methods of Petrographic-microscopic Research, 673 Wright (Wilbur), Death, 351 Cirripedes of Genus Yates (Lucy H.), the Gardener and the Cook, 111 Young (J. W. A.), Monographs on Topics of Modern Mathematics Relevant to the Elementary Field, 395 Young (Prof. W. H., F.R.S.), Fourier Functions, 415, 417; Fourier Constants, 494 Yule (G. Udny), Methods of Measuring Association between two Attributes, 406 Zeeman (Prof.), Experiments on Liquid Air in an Electric Field, 93 Zenneck (Prof. Dr. J.), Jahrbuch der drahtlosen Telegraphie und Telephonie, 400 Zimmern (Dr. O.), Viscosity of Gases at Low Tempera- tures, 540 Zschokke (Prof. F.), die Tiefseefauna der Seen Mittel- europas, 488 XVill Index [ Nature, October 24, 1912 SUBJECT Abor Hills 365 Acquired Characters and Stimuli, Sir E. Ray Lankester, K.C.B., F.R.S., 61, 167; Dr. G. Archdall Reid, 112 Aérial Derby, 381 Aérial Signalling, J. Means, 351 Aérolite Fall near St. Albans, Supposed, G. E. Bullen, » 62 Agvenaiitieal Society of Great Britain, History, 406; New Secretary, 508 Aéronautics: Accident to Mr. Graham Gilmour, 16; Dirigibles and the Cagnola Prize, 39; Charts of the Atmosphere for Aéronauts and Aviators, A. L. Rotch and A. H. Palmer, 57; Centre of Pressure on Triangular Plane Gliders at Small Angles of Incidence, Prof. Herbert Chatley, 138; Naval and Military Aviation, 171; Aérial Flight : James Forrest Lecture, H. R. A. Mallock, F.R.S., 252; Anniversary of Langley’s First Successful Flight, 326; Apparatus called Tourne-Sol for observing Ground from an Aéroplane, M. Duchéne, 364; Report of the Advisory Committee, 543; “Holes in the Air,” 58S Aéroplanes: Study of the Surfaces of Aéroplanes with an Electric Carriage, C. Maurain and A. Toussaint, 53; the Starting Period in Aéroplane Motors, 105; Aéroplane Stability, 564 Africa: on the Backwaters of the Nile, Rev. A. L. Kitching, Sir H. H. Johnston, G.C.M.G., K.C.B., 297; Animal Life in Africa, Major J. Stevenson-Hamilton, Sir H. H. Johnston, G.C.M.G., K.C.B., 297 Agricultural Department for Ireland: Summer Courses of Instruction, 267 Agricultural Development Fund : Grant of 25001. per annum for three years for Forestry, 171; Grants for Scientific Purposes, 568 Agricultural Science: Recent Advances: Soil Fertility: Royal Institution Discourse, A. D. Hall, F.R.S., 648 Agriculture: Experimental Error in Agricultural Investiga- tions, 97; Effects of Self-fertilisation on Maize, Dr, Shull, 127; Beginnings in Agriculture, Albert R. Mann, 163; Kulturpflanzen und Haustiere in ihrem Uebergang aus Asien nach Griechenland und Italien sowie in das ubrige Europa, Victor Hehn, O. Schrader, and others, 164; Rural Education in Village Schools, R. J. J. Mackenzie, 311; American Bulletins on Agricultural Subjects, 332; | Agriculture in Trinidad and Tobago, Mr. Gough, 484; Agricultural Education in the’ United States Schools, Prof. B. M. Davis, Prof. J. R. Ainsworth-Davis, 4809 ; Farmers of Forty Centuries (China and Japan), Dr. F. H. King, 500; West Indian Reports, 511; Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, 568; Nutrition of Farm Animals, Messrs. Hart, McCollum, Steenbock, and Humphrey, Dr. Crowther, 618 Air, Weight of a Litre of, at Geneva, P. A. Guye and others, 417 Albumen: Precipitation by Potassium Iodomercurate, 626 Alcohol: an Unsaturated Alcohol, H. Pariselle, 104; Sources whence Alcohol is obtained, J. H. Holland, 226 Alcoholism in Adults, D. Heron, 563 Algze, Clare Island, W. West, 641 - Algebra: Elements of the Theory of Algebraic Numbers, Prof. L. W. Reid, 164; Algebra for Beginners, C. Godfrey, M.V.O., and A. W. Siddons, 602; a School Algebra, H. S. Hall, 602 Alloys: Effect of Vibration upon Structure, G. H. Gulliver, 364; Use of Oxygen under Pressure for determining Carbon in Ferro-alloys, P. Mahler and E. Goutal, 443; Alloys of Platinum with Aluminium, M. Chouriguine, 547 Aluminium, Modern Uses and Methods of Fusing, Dr. R. Seligman, 383 America, Distribution and Origin of Life in, R. F. Scharff, 523 American Indians, C. M. Barreau, 483 Americanists, Eighteenth International Congress of, 169; Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.R.S., 357 Ammonia Flame, the, Alfred C. Egerton, 270; Hon. R. J. Strutt, F.R.S., 320 INDEX. eo Nitrite: Vapour Density of, Prof. P. C. Ray, I Analysts, Remuneration of Public, J. W. Green, 34 Anaphylaxy and Immunity, M. Arthus, 339 Anatomy: die ausseren Formen des menschlichen K6rpers in ihrem allgemeinen Zustandekommen, Prof. E. Gaupp, Prof. G. Elliot Smith, F.R.S., 37 Anatomy of Plants: Objects for Naked Eye Study, Dr. V. Arcichovskij, 382 Ancient Monuments, Bill for Protection of, 247 Anemones, Aged Sea, Dr. N. Annandale, 607 Angiosperms, Prof. M. Mobius, Dr. F. Cavers, 497; Petri- factions of the Earliest European, Dr. Marie C. Stopes, 258, 641 Animal Intelligence, M. N. W., 192 Animism: Body and Mind: a History and Defence of Animism, Wm. McDougall, 396 Annuals, Hardy and Half-hardy, C. H. Curtis, Dr. F. Cavers, 497 Antarctic: the Antarctic Campaign, Dr. Wm. S. Bruce, 17; Norwegian Expedition’s Arrival at the South Pole, 43; the Terra Nova, 116; the British Antarctic Expedi- tion, 141, 302, 561; Dr. Mawson’s Australian Expedition, 196; Palwographical Relations, C. Hedley, 416; Fauna collected by the Scotia, 521; Glacial Problems of South Victoria Land, T. V. Hodgson, 644 Anthropology: Skull of a Neanderthal Type in the Cam- bridge Fens, Prof. A. Keith, 138; Argentina, Tterras cocidas of Monte Hermoso, Col. A. A. Romero, 144; Biometrika, 144; Relation between Pigmentation and Disease, C. Saunders, 144; Relationship of Neanderthal Man and Pithecanthropus to Modern Man: Hunterian Lectures at the R.C.S., Prof. Arthur Keith, 155; l'Institut de Paléontologie Humaine, MM. Breuil and Obermaier, 172; Suggested Anthropological Survey of the British Isles, H. Peake, 173; Atavic Characters of Lumbar Vertebre of Neolithic Men from Vendrest, E. Hue and M. Baudouin, 209; Prehistoric Human Remains near Cuzco in Peru, 226; I. Bowman, G. F. Eaton, 584; Morphologie Médicale: Etude des quatre types humains, A. Chaillon and L. MacAuliffe, 237; Human Skeleton found under Chalky Boulder Clay near Ipswich, J. Reid Moir and A. Keith, 259; Natives of the Kharga Oasis in Libyan Desert, Dr. A. Hrdlicka, 326; Aborigines of Formosa, R. Torii, 326; Ashanti Skull with defective Dentition, Dr. Duckworth, 430; Former Allemannian Race in Switzerland, 430; Remark- able Rock Carvings of a Male and Female in Dordogne, Dr. G. Lalanne, 483; Encephalus of the Fossil Man of La Quina, R. Anthony, 495; New American Quarterly “Current Anthropological Literature,” 510; Views and Reviews, Sir H. Johnston, G.C.M.G., K.C.B., 553; a Lost Tribe among the Eskimo, V. Stefansson, 644; Smithsonian Expeditions, 674 Antler Growth in the Cervide, R. I. Pocock, 416 Ants: Invasion of Brisbane by Pheidole megacephala, H. Tryon, 587 Aphasia, K. Heilbronner, 374 Apples: Bitter Pit in Apples, Prof. Ewart, 511 Arabia, see Uz Archeology : America: Archeology of the Delaware Valley, E. Volk, 30 Asa Archeology and the Government in India, 38; Hittite History and Excavation at the Mound of Jerablus, D. G. Hogarth, 91; Prehistoric Fishing in Japan, K. Kishinouye, 144; Babylonian Tablet of Sargon, 538; Babylon, 586; Carchemish Excavations, 563 Britain: Distribution of Early Bronze Settlements in Britain, O. G. S. Crawford, 40; Megalithic Remains in Gloucestershire, A. L. Lewis, 91; Interpretation of the Origin of the Grave-mounds of New Grange and Gavr Inis, J. Dechelette, 172; Pottery Making without Wheel or regular Kiln, Rev. J. W. Hayes, 225; a ie, eee Nature, ] October 24, 1912 Lndex Gp eee Archieology (continued) : Classification of Prehistoric British Stone Industries, W. J. L. Abbott, 248; the Girdle Stanes of Dumfrics- shire and Astronomy, G. R. Goldsbrough, 328; Exhibi- tion of Prehistoric Implements at Halifax, H. P. Kendall and H. Ling Roth, 382; Roman and _ pre- Roman Exhibits at Croydon, E. A. Martin, 510; Roman Camp at Margidunum, Notts, Dr. F. Oswald, 538; Transition between Stone and Metal Implements, O. Bates, 563; Prehistoric Time Measurement in Britain, Dr. McAldowie, 619 ; Egyptian Research Account, Prof. Petrie, 196 France : Rock Carvings in Seine-et-Oise, G. Courty, 586 See also Copper and Greece Arctic : Campagne Arctique de 1907, Duc d’Orléans, Prof. Herdman, F.R.S., 107; State of Ice in Arctic Seas in 1911, 145; German Expedition for the North-east Passage, 428; Return of Capt. Mikkelsen and Mr. Iversen, 561; see also Canada and Crocker Land Aristotle’s Researches in Natural Science, Dr. T. E. Lones, Prof. D’Arcy W. Thompson, C.B., F.R.S., 653 Arithmetic : Examples in Arithmetic, H. S. Hall and F. H. Stevens, 602; Macmillan’s Reform Arithmetic, P. Wilkin- son and F. W. Cook, 655 Arsenic in some Plants used as Food, F. Jadin and A. Astrug, 157; Arsenic in Parasitic Plants and their Hosts, F. Jadin and A. Astruc, 599 Arterial Elasticity, Measurement of, in Clinical Practice, A. Moutier, 25 Aseptic Life, Experiments with Pure Cultures following on, M. Cohendy, 79 Asia, Central: Western Culture in Ancient Cathay, Dr. M. Aurel Stein, Lieut.-Col. L. A. Waddell, 89 Asiatic Society of Bengal, 322 Aster, chinensis, Bacterial Disease of, Dr. G. L. Pavarino, 642 Ugteas rubens, see Embryology Astrology: Manili Astronomicon Liber II, H. W. Garrod, Dr. J. K. Fotheringham, 239 Astronomer of Ireland, Royal, 248 Astronomy (see also Stars and Sun) : Astronomical Societies, 541 Astronomische Nachrichten, New Supplement, 617 Comets: Cometary Phenomena, Prof. K. Bohlin, 17; Cometary Statistics, M. Borrelly, 199; Spectra, Prof. A. Fowler, 227; Orbits, Prof. W. Pickering, 617; a Comet-like Object, Mr. Hansen, 277; Halley’s Comet, Photographs, MM. Sotome, Hoasi, Toda, 147; Prof. Riced, 644; Holmes’s Comet, Dr. Zwiers, 644; Comet 1911¢ (Brooks), Prof. Millosevich, 42, A. de la B. Pluvinel and F. Baldet, 338, Prof. Barnard, 616; Comet 1911e (Borrelly), M. Schaumasse, 305; Comet 1911f (Quénisset), Elements, Dr. Ebell, 42; Comet 1911h (Schaumasse), Dr. Schaumasse, 42 Earth Light, Origin, Dr. W. J. Humphreys, 355 Herschel, Sir W., Sir G. H. Darwin, F.R.S., 620, 645 ; William Herschel and his “Desertion,” Dr. J. L. E. Dreyer, 660 Instruments: Photographic Transit, Prof. S. Hirayama, 176; Temperature Regulator in Use with the Stellar Spectrograph of Paris Observatory, M. Hamy, 260; Reflecting Meridian Circle for Minor Planets, G. Bigourdan, 390 Laplace’s Hypothesis, Condensation of the Solar Nebula in, 2 Latinas Variation, Prof. Albrecht, 512 Measurement of Celestial Distances, A. R. Hinks, 329 Meteors: Meteor-showers, F.R.A.S., 8; J. R. Henry, 8, 218, 321, 581, 660; Bielids, Prof. Pokrowski, 42; Analysis of Stone Meteorites, O. C. Farrington, 94; the El Nakhla el Baharia Meteorite, Dr. John Ball, Sir N. Lockyer, K.C.B., F.R.S., 147; a Daylight Meteor, F. J. Gibbons, 147; W. F. Bushell and others, 175; a Brilliant Meteor, Mr. Rolston, 250; May Aquarids and Halley’s Comet, C. Hoffmeister, 320 Moon: Lunar Craters, J. Escard, 625; Colour Photo- graphy of the Moon, Prof. R. W. Wood, 643 Nebulae: Spiral Nebulz, M. Puiseux, 228; Observations of Spiral Nebulz in Polarised Light, J. H. Reynolds, 312 Observatories : Father Sid- Stonyhurst Observatory, | greaves, 147; United States Naval Observatory, 304; Royal Observatory, Greenwich, 356; Transvaal re- named Union, 380; Cape, S. S. Hough, 512; Oxford, Prof. Turner, 512; 5-ft. Reflector for Argentine, at Cordoba, 482; Lyons: new Director, 666; Hamburg, Prof. Schorr, 670 Personal Errors in Transit Observations, S. S. Hough, 56 Planet Jupiter: Position of Red Spot, Rev. T. E. R. Phillips, 487; Prof. Barnard, Herr Archenhold, 589; M. Quénisset, 617 - Pianet Mars: Mars and a Lunar Atmosphere, C. T. Whitmell, 6, “the Writer of the Note,” 62; Brilliant Spots on Mars, L. J. Wilson, 17; Axis and Compres- sion, Dr. Struve, 121 Planet Saturn: Observations, Dr. H. E. Lau, 199 Planet Uranus: Spectroscopic Discovery of Rotation of, Prof. P. Lowell, 277, 312 Planets, Minor: Planet 1911 M.T., Dr. Palisa, Messrs. Haynes and Pitman, Prof. Franz, 384 Astrophysics : Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, Mr. Abbot’s Report, 42; Physics and Astrophysics, J. E. Verschaffelt, 176 Atmosphere : Weight of a Normal Litre of Air at Geneva, P. A. Guye and others, 364; Highest Strata of Earth’s Atmosphere, Dr. A. Wegener, 485; Large Ions in the Atmosphere, J. A. McClelland and H. Kennedy, 521; Diurnal Inequalities of Barometric Pressure in Years of Sunspot Maximum and Minimum, Dr. E. Leyst, 564; Spectroscopic Determination of Aqueous Vapour in the Atmosphere, F. E. Fowle, 566; Types of Atmospheric Disturbances, Prof. W. J. Humphreys, 588 Atomic Weights: Attempt to Determine some Atomic Weights, H. Pecheux, 364; Calculation by Hinrichs’s Method, H. Le Chatelier, 547; Atomic Weight of Chlorine, E. Wourtzel, 625; G. Baume and F. L. Perrot, 77; of Uranium, P. Lebeau, 547 Australia: Rainfall Map, 92; University of Western Australia, 572; Across Austrailia, Prof. Baldwin Spencer, C.M.G., F.R.S., and F. J. Gillen, Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.R.S., 608; Mining Operations, 642 Australia, N.E., Physiography of, Dr. J. V. Danes, 567 3565 Babylonian Expedition of the University of Pennsylvania : Series A: Cuneiform Texts: Sumerian Hymns and Prayers, H. Radau, 60; Babylonian Section of Museum of University of Pennsylvania, 586 Bacillus coli, Variation in Physiological Activity of, due to Malachite-green, C. Revis, 130; Bacillus coli communis, Chemical Action on Glucose of a Variety of, Dr. A. Harden and W. J. Penfold, 442 Bacteriology : Disintegrating Bacteria and other Organic Cells, J. E. Barnard, 21; Bacterial Production of Acetyl- methylcarbinol and 2: 3-butylene Glycol, Dr. A. Harden and Dorothy Norris, 51; Results of Drying Non-sporing Bacteria in a Charcoal Liquid Air Vacuum, S. G. Shattock and L. S. Dudgeon, 76; Electrical Conductivity of Bacteria and Rate of Inhibition of Bacteria by Electric Currents, Prof. W. M. Thornton, 76; Selective Media, C. Revis, 586; Azotobacter chroococcum, Dr. Prazmow- ski, 587; Bacterial Disease of Aster, Dr. G. L. Pavarino, 642 Bathyrheometer, a Self-recording, Y. Delage, 209 Batteries, Storage, Prof. H. W. Morse, Prof. G. Kapp, 472 Battersea Polytechnic, 233 Bees: Influence of Weather on Bees, Herbert Mace, 62; Anatomy of the Bee’s Sting, Dr. Percy E. Spielmann, 348; Parasitic Hymenoptera from N.S.W., P. Cameron, 391; Isle of Wight Bee Disease, Drs. Graham Smith, Fantham, Annie Porter. and Malden, and G. W. Bulla- more, 410 : Beyond that is Within, the, FE. Boutroux, 630 Biography: Savants du Jour: Gabriel Lippmann, E. Lebon, 81 Biology : General : Wérterbuch der Biologie, Dr. Heinrich Schmidt, 189; Applied Biology: an Elementary Text-book, Prof. M. A. Bigelow and Anna N. Bigelow, 190; Lehrbuch der Biologie fiir Hochschulen, M. Nussbaum, G. Karsten, and M. Weber, 264; Outlines of Evolutionary xXx L N de oa Wee «Nature, tober 24, 1912 Biology (continued) : Biology, Prof. A. Dendy, F.R.S., 393; Lebensweise ! und Organisation : eine Einfiihrung in die Biologie der wirbellosen Tiere, Prof. P. Deegener, 393; Einftthrung in die Biologie, Prof. O. Maas and Dr. ‘O. Renner, 393; the Life of the Plant, Prof. C. A. Timiriazeff, Miss Anna Chéréméteff, 393 . Particular: Biology of the Danube Delta and Inundation Area, .Dr. G. Antipa, 40; Acquired Characters and Stimuli, Sir E. Ray Lankester, K.C.B., F.R.S., 61, 167, Dr, A. G. Reid, 112; Fresh-water Rhizopoda from the States of New York, &c., G. H. Wailes, 286; a Dodder parasitic on Willows, Dr. K. Spisar, 307; Symbiotic Union of an Alga with the Raots of Cycas revoluta, J. Horejsi, 307; Polyzoa and Echinodermata : Clare Island Survey, A. R. Nichols, 313; Caradocian Cystidea from Girvan, Dr. F. A. Bather, 364; Distri- bution and Origin of Life in America, R. F. Scharff, 523; Biological Aspects of Human Problems, C. A. Herter, 576; Biology of Panama Canal Zone: Smith- sonian Expedition, 674 Marine: Scottish Antarctic Expedition: Entomostraca, Dr. Thomas Scott; Cephalopoda, Dr. W. E. Hoyle; Tunicata, Prof. W. A. Herdman, all 78; Campagne Arctique de 1907: Duc d’Orléans, J. A. Grieg, P. Dautzenberg and H. Fischer, F. Richters, Prof. A. Meunier, Prof. Herdman, F.R.S., 107; Alcyonaria from Singapore and Classification of Nephthyide, E. W. Shann, 130; Port Erin Biological Station, 150; Report of St. Diego Station, W. E. Ritter, 173; New Free Crinoids found in the Indo-Malay Archipelago by the Siboga, 197; Life-history of some Marine Diatoms from Bournemouth, 234; Free-living Marine Nema- todes, Gilbert E. Johnson, 320; Marine Alge of Australia, A. H. S. Lucas, 391; the British Tunicata, J. Alder and A. Hancock, J. Hopkinson, 523; see also Tow-nets Biometrika, 144 Bird Notes, 231, 439 ; Birds: Aleutian Islands: Smithsonian Expedition, 675; America, Catalogue of Birds of N. and Middle, R. Ridgway, 91; Australian Bird Book: a Pocket-book for Field Use, J. A. Leach, 85; British: the Birds of the British Islands, C. Stonham, C.M.G., Lilian M. Med- land, 637; Terek Sandpiper in Britain, 641; Bull-finch, Damage to Fruit by, W. E. Collinge, 484; Clare Island Survey, R. J. Ussher, 313; Colorado, a History of the Birds of, W. L. Sclater, 523; the Grouse in Health and Disease, Committee’s Report, 658; Hawaiian Collection for California University, Miss A. M. Alexander, 562; Italy: Appeal for more stringent Legal Protection in, Prof. G. Martorelli, 588; Laughing Jackass, Taste or Smell in the, R. I. Pocock, F.R.S., 425; T. Muffett (d. 1604), Writings of, W. H. Mullens, 67; Owl, Little, and Game-poaching, Mr. Meade-Waldo, 510; Penguin, Adélie, L. Gain, 483; Redshank, Courtship of the, Julian S. Huxley, 259; Titmice Nests in Metropolitan Gas Co.’s Lamp, 616; Wild Birds, How to Attract and Protect, M. Hiesemann, Emma S. Buchheim, 190 Birds’ Egg Diary, 405 Birth Registration Systems, 668 Bleaching Powder, Action of Dilute Acids on, R. L. Taylor and C. Bostock, 7 Blood, Normal Manganese in the, G. Bertrand and F. Medigreceanu, 183; Electric Charge of Red Corpuscles, P. Girard, 599 Boats and Davits Committee: Notice to Inventors, 613; Boats on Ships, 661 Boiler Draught, H. Keay Pratt, 215 Bones: der Aufbau der Skeletteile in den freien Glied- massen der Wirbeltiere: Untersuchungen in urodelen Amphibien, Prof. H. von Eggeling, Prof. G. Elliot Smith, F.R.S., 59; Osteo-arthritis in the Polished Stone Age, M. Baudouin, 339; Books: Forthcoming Books of Science, 46; New Editions, 384; Cheap Books on Science, 407 Boron as a Constituent of Animal Tissues, G. Bertrand and H. Agulhon, 574 Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya, 90; Missouri, 90 Botany : General: Practical Botany, Dr. F. Cavers, 5; das Pflanzenreich: Aracez-Lasioidee, A. Engler: Moni- miaceee, J. Perkins: Orchidacee, Fr. Kranzlin, 31; Links with the Past in the Plant World, Prof. A. C. Seward, F.R.S., 189; Plant Life: a Text-book, Prof. Eug. Warming, Metta M. Rehling and Elizabeth M. Thomas, 213; Wild Flowers as they Grow: Photo- graphed in Colours Direct from Nature, H. Essenhigh Corke, G. C. Nuttall, Dr. F. Cavers, 213, 497; Plant Life and Evolution, Prof. D. H. Campbell, 213; an Intermediate Text-book of Botany, Ernest Evans, 213; Vortrage iiber botanische Stammesgeschichte, J. P. Lotsy, 342; Elementary Plant Biology, J. E. Peabody and A. E. Hunt; Manual of Structural Botany, Prof. H. H. Rusby; Microskopisches Praktikum fir systematische Botanik, Prof. M. Mébius; Lebensfragen aus der heimischen Pflanzenwelt, Dr. G. Worgitzky; Anleitung zur mikroskopischen Untersuchung von Pflanzenfasern, Dr. G. Tobler-Wolff and Prof. F. Tobler, all Dr. F. Cavers, 497; Plant-breeding, Prof. J. M. Coulter, 510; a Text-book of Botany for Colleges and Universities, Drs. J. M. Coulter, C. R. Barnes, and H. C. Cowles, 654; Sub-alpine Plants, H. Stuart Thompson, 654; Botany, G. S. Boulger, 654; Allgemeine Botanik, Prof. A. Nathan- sohn, 654; see also Ecology Special: Angiospermic Plants, Endosperm of, Prof. Coulter, 145; Angiosperms, Prof. M. Mobius, Dr. F. Cavers, 497; Australia, Additions to Flora of W. and N.W., Dr. Karel Domin, 286; Breeding of Plants, Prof. J. M. Coulter, 510; Britain: Prodromus Flore Britannice, F. N. Williams, 405; a Flower Sanctuary, F. H. Perrycoste, 548, 607; Right Hon. Sir H. Maxwell, Bart., F.R.S., 581; Right Hon. Sir Ed. Fry, G.C.B., F.R.S., 661; Brasilien, Flora der Umgebung der Stadt Sao Paulo in, Prof. A. Usteri, Dr. O. Stapf, F.R.S., 420; Calamites, Internodes of, Prof. P. Groom, 77; China: Flora of Kwangtung, E. T. Dunn and W. J. Tutcher, 275; Clare Island Survey: Fresh- water Algew, W. West, 260; Marine Alge, A. D. Cotton, 521; Desmidiaceae, a Monograph of the British, W. West and Prof. G. S. West, 523; Dischidia vafflesiana and D. nummularia and the Ants harboured by them, Dr. A. F. G. Kerr, 157; Koreana, Flora, T. Nakai, 564; La Mortola Garden Plants, A. Berger, 510; Ophioglossaceae, Branching in the, Prof. W. H. Lang, F.R.S., 78; Ophioglossacez, Interpretation of the Vascular Anatomy of, Prof. W. H. Lang, 260; Orchid Gastrodia and Fungus Armillaria, Prof. Kusano, 484; Photosynthesis and Stomatal Aperture, W. L. Balls, 555; Pistia stratiotes, Re-discovery in Nile Delta of, Prof. G. Schweinfurth, 67; Polypodium from Panama, New, R. Mason, 14; Sterile Media, Method for Culture of the Higher Plants in, R. Combes, 157; Transformation of Flower into Leaf-like Organs due to Fungus, 92; Water-lily, N. American, Messrs. Miller and Standley, 587 Boulder Clay in Essex, Rev. Dr. A. Irving, 632 Bread, Prof. T. B. Wood, 568 British Association Dundee Meeting, Prof. D’Arcy W. Thompson, C.B., 349, 480; Erratum, 511; Popular Lec- tures, 508; Geography, Section E, 508; List of Foreign Guests, 612; Handbook and Guide to Dundee and District, 658; Note, 665 British Columbia, How to Make an Orchard in, J. T. Bealby, Dr. F. Cavers, 497 British Medical Association, 567 British Museum Reading-room Handbook, 643 British Science Guild, 295 Brownian Motion, Range of the Particles in the, S. Lifchitz, 313 Building : Messrs. Whiteley’s New Premises, 432; Building Stones: Handbuch der bautechnischen Gesteinspriifung, Prof. J. Hirschwald, 344 Bull-finch, Damage to Fruit, W. E. Collinge, 484 Bushmen, Namaqualand, Miss L. Currlé, 677 Butterflies: the Distastefulness of Anosta plexippus, A. M. Banta, R. I. Pocock, F.R.S., 243, Prof. E. B. Poulton, F.R.S., 375; Butterfly-hunting in Many Lands, Dr. G. B. Longstaff, 291; Scent-organs of Butterflies and _ Moths, F. Miiller, 291; Butterfly Migration in Relation to Mimicry, J. Evershed, 659 Cacti as Stock Food, 332 Nature, ] October 24, 1912. L[ndex XX1 Caffeine, Réle of, in Cardiac Action of Coffee, H. Busquet, 62 Gale for Beginners, W. M. Baker, 602 Calcutta, see India Calendar Reform in States of the Greek Church, V. Anestin, 46 Calorimeter, an Exhaust-gas, for Internal Combustion Engines, Messrs. Nicholson and Morley, 383 Cambridge University, the Reform Movement, 280 Camphor, Density in Solution, H. Malosse, 443 Canada: Canadian Naval Service Report, 14; Canadian Rockies, the, Prof. A. P. Coleman, F.R.S., 35; Maxima and Minima of Temperature, 276; the Arctic Prairies, Ernest T. Seton, 317 Canary Island Gomera, 484 Cancer: Manifestation of Active Resistance to the Growth of Implanted Cancer, Dr. B. R. G. Russell, 258; Nature of the Immune Reaction to Transplanted Cancer in the Rat, Dr. Wm. H. Woglom, 258; Imperial Cancer Research Fund, 531; the Cause of Cancer, J. J. Clarke, 601; Preventable Cancer, Rollo Russell, 601; Further Researches into Induced Cell-reproduction and Cancer, H. C. Ross, J. W. Cropper, and E. H. Ross, 601; Local Incidence of Cancer, C. E. Green, 601 Cape Observatory, S. S. Hough, 512 Carbon and Nitrogen, New Compound of, G. Darzens, 303 Caridina, Classification of the Genus, and the Extra- ordinary Variations of a Species; Caridina brevirostris, E. L. Bouvier, 183 Carnarvonshire, Prof. J. E. Lloyd, 346 Carnegie Foundation Report, 156 Castration and Ovariotomy, Effects upon Sheep, F. H. A. Marshail, 24 Catenary, Measurement by Metal Tapes and Wires in, Prof. O. Henrici, F.R.S., and Capt. E. O. Henrici, R.E., 479 Celluloid Fire at Moor Lane, London, 616 Cellulose, die Chemie der, unter besonderer Beriick- sichtigung der Textil- und Zellstoff-industrien, Prof. C. G. Schwalbe, 238; see also Wood pulp Cement, Portland, E. Leduc, 177 Ceramics, Ancient Egyptian, W. Burton, 641 Cervide, Antler Growth in the, R. I. Pocock, 416 Ceylon Pearl and other Fisheries, Dr. J. Pearson, 91; “Adam’s Second Eden,” Miss E. R. Scidmore, 640 Charts, Ocean and Great Lake, of U.S. Weather Bureau, 354 Chemical Change, Variation of Rate with Temperature, A. Vernon Harcourt, 285 Chemical Engineers, Transactions of the American Institute of, 549 Chemical Law of Mass Action, H. le Chatelier, 417 Chemical Research and National Welfare, S.P.C.K., 406 Chemical Society, 12; Address to German Chemical Society, Prof. Planck, 406 Chemical World, 540 Chemistry : Text-books (see also below): the Story of the Five Elements, E. W. Edmunds and J. B. Hoblyn, 60; Chemistry: an Elementary Text-book, Profs. W. C. Morgan and J. A. Lyman, 291; Outlines of General Chemistry, Prof. W. Ostwald, 526 Special: Isomorphism of the Acid Tartrates and Tartar- emetics of Potassium, Rubidium, and Czsium, T. V. Barker, 443; Action of Emulsion upon Salicin in Alcoholic Solution, Ed. Bourquelot and M. Bridel, 183; Solid Solutions of Iodine in Cyclic Hydrocarbons, G. Bruni and M. Amadori, 486; the Acylic Acid Alde- hydes, E. Carriére, 261; Isolation of two Stereoisomers of Symmetrical Dichloroethylene, G. Chavanne, 120; Oxidation of Parathymol, H. Cousin and H. H¢érissey, 574: Oxyhydrofuranes, G. Dupont, 53; Action of Hydrogen Peroxide upon Lactic Acid and Glucose, J. Effront, 339; Water-cyclohexanol, R. de Forcrand, 547; Direct Production of Urea at expense of Albu- minoids either by Oxidation or Hydrolysis, R. Fosse, 261; Frequent Accompaniment of Rupture of a Double- bond by Trans-substitution, Prof. Frankland, 276; Preparation of 1: 5-diphenyl-2 : 2: 4 : 4-tetra-methyl-3- pentanone, &c., A. Hallrer, 53; Formula of Organo- magnesium Compounds, P. Jolibois, 625; Action of Hydrogen Peroxide on the Bromothiophens, M. Lanfry, 235; Velocity of Decomposition of Hydrogen Peroxide under the Influence of Heat, G. Lemoine, 495; Diphenylethylene Derivatives, P. Lemoult, 574; Nitrates, Anhydrous, of Uranyl and of Zinc, Markétos, 574; Constituents of Essence of Labdanum, H. Masson, 25; Preparation and Heat of Formation of Magnesium Nitride, C. Matignon, 339; Higher Ketones and Secondary Alcohols derived from Amides of Palmitic and Stearic Acids, H. Ryan and T. Nolan, 313; Preparation of Phenylcyclohexane, &c., P. Sabatier and M. Murat, 364; Hydrocarbons: Prepara- tion of the four Dicyclohexylpropanes, P. Sabatier and M. Murat, 625; Molecular Statistics of some Chemical Actions, Hon. R, J. Strutt, 493; Preparation of the aB-diketonic Esters, A. Wahl and M. Doll, 313 Analytical: Huiles Minérales, H. Delahaye; Matiéres Tannantes Cuirs, L. Jacomet; Soude-Potasse-Sels, P. Méker ; Alcools: Alcool, Alcool Dénaturé, Dénaturants, L. Calvet; les Matiéres Cellulosiques, Prof. F. J. G. Beltzer and J. Persoz, all 84; Traité Complet d’Analyse Chimique appliquée aux Essais Industriels, Prof. J. Post and Prof. B. Neumann, 109; Thermal Analysis of Hexachloroethane and its Binary Mixtures, P. Pascal, 157; Traité complet d’analyse chimique appliquée aux essais industriels, Prof. J. Post and Prof. B. Neumann, 423; an Introduction to Quantita- tive Analysis, Dr. S. J. M. Auld, 552; Volumetric Analysis for Students of Pharmaceutical and General Chemistry, C. H. Hampshire, 552; Qualitative Organic Analysis, F. B. Thole, 552; Methods of Air Analysis, Dr. J. S. Haldane, F.R.S., 552; Notions Fonda- mentales d’Analyse Qualitative, Prof. V. Thomas and D. Gauthier, 578; see also Water Applied: a Dictionary of Applied Chemistry, Sir Edward Thorpe, C.B., F.R.S., and others, 162; International Congress, 248, Prof. Alex. Smith, 503 Catalytic : Catalytic Dehydration of Fatty Alcohols in the Wet Way by Sulphuric Acid, J. B. Senderens, 105; Direct Addition of Hydrogen by Catalysis to the Benzoic Esters: Preparation of the Hexahydrobenzoic Esters, Paul Sabatier and M. Murat, 183; Catalysis of the Cyclanols in the Wet Way by means of Sulphuric Acid, J. B. Senderens, 261; Use of Carbonates in Catalytic Preparation of Ketones, J. B. Senderens, 390 ; Catalytic Production of Esters of Cyclohexanols, J. B- Senderens and J. Aboulenc, 547; Catalytic Preparation of Phenolic Oxides, P. Sabatier and A. Mailhe, 599; Catalytic Hydrogenation of Ketones, G. Vavon, 599 Experimental: Elementary Experimental Chemistry, F. E. Weston, 291; Vorbereitungsbuch fiir die Experi- mentalunterricht in Chemie, Prof. K. Scheid, 398 Industrial : Manufacture of Nitrates from the Atmosphere, E. K. Scott, 490; Introduction to the Study of Fuel, Dr. F. J. Brislee, 549 Inorganic: a Text-book of Inorganic Chemistry, Dr. G. Senter, 291; Grundlinien der anorganischen Chemie, W. Ostwald, 526. Magneto-, Prof. E. Wedekind, 528 Note-book, E. J. Sumner, 291 Organic: Identification of Organic Compounds, Dr. G. B. Neave and Dr. I. M. Heilbron, 346; Organic Chemistry, Prof. W. H. Perkin, F.R.S., and Prof. F. S. Kipping, F.R.S., 578; Trattato di Chimica Organica Generale e Applicata all’ Industria, Prof. E. Molinari, 554 Physical, Text-books: an Experimental Course of Physical Chemistry, Dr. J. F. Spencer, 291; Labora- tory Exercises in Physical Chemistry, Dr. J. N. Pring, 291; Monographs, 486; an Experimental Course of Physical Chemistry, Dr. J. F. Spencer, 578; a First Year Physical Chemistry, Dr. T. P. Hilditch, 578; Physico-chemical Calculations, Dr. J. Knox, 578 Physical, Special Papers: Orthobaric Densities and Critical Constants of Xenon, H. S. Patterson and others, 103; Neodymium Compounds, P. Joye and C. Garnier, 25; Optically Active Hydroxyhydrindamines, Prof. Pope and J. Read, 208; Boiling Points of Zinc, Cadmium, &c., C. T. Heycock and F. E. E. Lamp- lough, 208; Standard Melting and Boiling Points on the Constant Volume Nitrogen Thermometer, Messrs. XXil Chemistry (continued) : Day and Sosman, 227; Physical Properties of Cyclo- hexanol, M. de Forcrand, 339; Optical Determinations at High Pressures, Dr. W. Wahl, 363; Density and Compressibility of Nitrosy! Chloride, E. Wourtzel, 547 Physiological: Probleme der physiologischen und patho- logischen Chemie, Prof. Dr. O. von Fiirth, 422 of Plants: Chemistry of Doryphora sassafras, J. M. Petrie, 391; Hydrocyanic Acid in Plants, Dr. J. M. Petrie, 391 Practical: Text-book of Practical Chemistry for Tech- nical Institutes, Dr. A. E. Dunstan and F. B. Thole, 291; Practical Chemistry for Medical Students, Dr. A. C. Cumming, 291; Practical Chemistry for En- gineering Students, A. J. Hale, 578; a School Chemistry, F. R. L. Wilson and G. W. Hedley, 578 Synthetical: Syntheses: Butyrone, MM. Amouroux and Murat, 209; Syntheses by means of mixed Organo- metallic Derivatives of Zinc, E. E. Blaise, 235; Synthesis of Nitriles in the Cyclanic Series, V. Grignard and E. Bellet, 495; Syntheses by means of mixed Organo-metallic Derivatives of Zinc, E. E. Blaise, 495; Synthesis of Nitrosyl Chloride and Atomic Weight of Chlorine, E. Wourtzel, 625 Technical: Approximate Value of the Molecular Weight of India-rubber, P. Bary, 261; Technical Methods of Chemical Analysis, Prof. G. Lunge, Dr. C. A. Keane, 341; Bicher der Naturwissenschaft: Chemie und Tecknik, Dr. G. Bugge, Prof. Dr. S. Giinther, 398; Chemisch-technisches Praktikum, Dr. W. Moldenhauer, 398 Chemists, Famous, E. Roberts, 32 Child, Food and the, 280 China, Mineral Wealth and Geology of, Chung Yu Wang, 615; China, Korea, and Japan, Permanent Agriculture in, Dr. F. H. King, 500 Chlorine, Atomic Weight, G. Baume and F. L. Perrot, 677 Chlorous Acid, M. Laségue, 547 Cholera and its Treatment, Prof. L. Rogers, 136 Chronograph, an Electro-, with Synchronised Sparks, A. Blondel, 209 Citric Acid, World’s Supply, Prof. R. Peppert, 226 Civil Service Appointments : Royal Commission, 76 Clare Island Survey: Algz and Marine Diatoms, W. West, 641 Climatology : Temperature in Spain, Dr. A. B. Rosenstein, 230; Climate of Porto Rico, Dr. O. L. Fassig, 231; Climate of the S.E. part of the North Sea, Dr. J. P. van der Stok, 588 Clouds and Shadows, C. Tilden Smith, 168; Dr. T. C. Porter, 244; C. J. P. Cave, 268; Cyril Crossland, 322; Dr. T. C. Porter, 348; Alice Everett, 426, 459 Coal: Coal Supply, 117; Coal Formation, J. J. Stevenson, 513; Coalfields of West Nelson, N.Z., Dr. Henderson, 644 Coal Mines: Prevention of Explosions in Mines, Dr. J. Harger, 406; Coal Mine Accident at Cadeby Pit, York- shire, 482; Coal-dust Explosions in Mines Committee’s Report, 562 ; Committee to investigate Spontaneous Com- bustion of Coal in Mines, 585 Cod, Development of the, Prof. A. Meek, 416 Colloids: die Bedeutung der Kolloide fiir die Technik, Prof. Kurt Arndt, 28; General Theory of Colloidal Solu- tions, W. B. Hardy, 311 Colorado, Biological Survey of, M. Cary, 615 Colour: Confusion Test for Colour Blindness, Dr. G. J. Burch, 130; Colour-music, Prof. A. W. Rimington, 166; Hunterian Lectures on Colour-vision and Colour-blind- ness, Prof. F. W. Edridge-Green, 476; Experiments with Rotating Films, C. V. Bovs, 493; Negative After-images and Successive Contrast with Pure Spectral Colours, Prof. A. W. Porter and Dr. F. W. Edridge-Green, 494; Colour-blindness and the Trichromatic Theory, Sir W. de W. Abney, 494; Contrast Colours in the Use of Zone- plates, W. B. Croft, 581 Comets: Cometary Phenomena, Prof. K. Bohlin, 17; Statistics, M. Borrelly, 199; Spectra, Prof. A. Fowler, 227; Orbits, Prof. W. Pickering, 617; a Comet-like Object, Mr. Hansen, 277; Halley’s Comet : Photographs, MM. Sotome, Hoasi, and Toda, 147; Prof. Riccd, 644; Holmes’s Comet, Dr. Zwiers, 644; Comet 1911¢ (Brooks), Prof. Millosevich, 42; A. de la B. Pluvinel and F. Baldet, Lndex Nature, October 24, 1912 338; Prof. Barnard, 616; Comet ig11e (Borrelly), M. Schaumasse, 305; Comet 1911f (Quénisset), Elements, Dr. Ebell, 42; Comet 1911h (Schaumasse), Dr. Schau- masse, 42 Concrete: Concrete High Dams of Great Length, R. Ryves, 93; Non-corrosion of Rag Bolt found in a Slab of Concrete, 227; Concrete Mixing, 355 Concrete, Reinforced: Strength of Piles, F. H. Jeffree, 69; Design, O. Faber and P. G. Bowie, 501; Compression Member Diagram, C. F. Marsh, 549 Copper and its Alloys in Early Times, Prof. W. Gowland, F.R.S., 98; Copper Deposits of the Appalachian States, W. H. Weed, 617 Copyright, Photographic, G. E. Brown and A. Mackie, 631 Coral, Endopachys grayi, from Persian Gulf, Prof. S. J. Hickson, 131 Cornwall: Joint Meeting of Societies, 353, 591 Corrosion, C. Chappell, 278; J. N. Friend, J. Ll. Bentley, and W. West, 278 Corundum Deposits in Madagascar, A. Lacroix, 131 Cotton-combing Hand Cards, Ling Roth, 353; Cotton Cultivation: Papers and Reports, Dr. W. R. Dunstan, F.R.S., 427 Crocker Land Expedition, 206, 403 Crocodilian Remains from Upper Tertiaries, C. Rovereto, Learned and Technical 539 Croydon Roman Exhibits, 510 Cryoscopy in Camphor, M. Jouniaux, 417 Crystallo-chemical Analysis, Prof. E. von Fedorow, Dr. A. E. H. Tutton, F.R.S., 503 Crystallography: Quartz Twins, Dr. J. Drugman, 77; Crystallisation of Metals, Dr. Cecil H. Desch, 359; Optical Investigations of Crystallised Nitrogen, Argon, Methane, and some simple Organic Compounds at Low Melting Points, Dr. W. Wahl, 494; Isomorphism of Irido- and Rhodio-chlorides of Alkali Metals, A. Duffour, 74 Curie’s Constant in the Ferromagnetic State, J. R. Ash- worth, 503, 555 3 Curves: the “J.R.B.” Patent Adjustable Curve Ruler, 477; Convex Closed Curves, &c., C. Jordan and R. Fiedler, 669 Cyclones, Geometrical Constructions for finding Motion of, Prof. T. Okada, 68 Dairy Cattle and Milk Production, Prof. Clarence H. Eckles, 163 Daylight : Daylight Saving Bill, 247; Daylight, Prof. E. L. Nichols, 249; Artificial Daylight, T. E. Ritchie, R. B. Hussey, J. E. Ives and Dr. K. Mees, 612; Prof. W. M. Gardner, 631 Deaths: Allen (J. Bernard), 351; André (Prof. Charles), 403, 429; Austin (B. J.), 352; Boisbaudran (F. Lecoq de), 352; Borup (George), 224; Bosanquet (R. H. M., F.R.S.), 613; Brothers (A.), 666; Bullen (Rev. Robert Ashington), 667; Chatin (Prof. Johannis), 538; Craig (Prof. John), 666; Dean (Alexander), 666; Dent (Clinton Thomas), 666; Divers (Prof. Edward, F.R.S.), 142, 170; Donaldson (Harold), 585; Dunn (James), 532; Festing (Major-General E. R., C.B., F.R.S.), 299; Forel (Prof. Francois Alphonse), 613, 638; Fouillée (Alfred), 613; Franklin-Adams (John), 639; Friihling (Prof.), 273; Gillen (Francis James), 666; Gray (John), 223, 246; Hawkins (E. C.), 196; Hobbs (Dr. Perry L.), 196; Hodgson (A. E.), 39; Hodgson (Dr. Shadworth H.), 403; Hume (Allan Octavian, C.B.), 584; Jones (Dr. Humphrey Owen, F.R.S.) and Mrs. Jones, 638; Julian (Henry Forbes), 325; Knox (Alexander), 428; Lang (Andrew), (A. E. Crawley), 532; Lebedew (Prof. P. N.), 118; Leeds (Charles Edward), 118; Lévy (Lucien), 613; McClintic (Dr. T. B.), 667; Montgomery (Dr. T. H.), 118; Miinch (Prof. Wilhelm), 90; Ogle (Dr. William), 172; Pacinotti (Prof. A.), 90; Paine (Prof. John Alsop), 585; Poincaré (Henri), 535: Richards (Prof. Eugene Lamb), 640, 666; Richardson (Dr. M. H.), 666; Rogers (Dr. T. L.), 613; Rotch (Prof. A. Lawrence), 171, 195; Sanger (Dr. Charles Robert), 38; Shelford (R. W. C.), 428; Smith (Dr. John Bernhardt), 90; Stiffe (Captain Arthur William), 667; Strasburger (Prof. Eduard), 379; Nature, 7 October 24, 1912 J Tarr (Prof. Ralph S.), 118; Tépler (Prof. August), 90; Wade (Dr. John), 639; Weber (Prof. H. F.), 403; Wernher (Sir Julius, Bart.), 301; Wilson (Dr. Andrew), 666 ; Woodworth (Dr. W. McM.), 380; Wright (Wilbur), 351 Deluge: der Mythus von der Sintflut, G. Gerland, 605 Dentition of Shrewmice, Dr. Augusta Arnback-Christie- Linde, 539 Desmidiacee, Monograph of the British, W. West and Prof. G. S. West, 523 Destructor Practice, Modern, W. F. Goodrich, 628 Determinants, Theory of, in the Historical Order of De- velopment, Dr. T. Muir, C.M.G., F.R.S., 237 Dew-gauge, New, S. Skinner, 406 Diesel Engines: the Selandia, 42, 124; Dr. R. Diesel, 70; Some Aspects of Diesel Engine Design, D. M. Shannon, 250; Trials of the Jutlandia, 304; Diesel Engines for Land and Marine Work, A. P. Chalkley, Dr. R. Diesel, 549 Dit. Jail Dietaries of the United Provinces in India, Major D. McCay, 249; Modern Theories of Diet and their Bearing upon Practical Dietetics, Dr. Alex. Bryce, 422; Principles of Human Nutrition: a Study in Practical Dietetics, W. H. Jordan, 422 Differential Geometry of Curves and Surfaces, Dr. A. R. Forsyth, F.R.S., 579 Disease Investigations: Grants by Local Government Board, 381; Entomology ror Medical Officers, A. Alcock, C.1.E., F.R.S., 474; Filariasis and Elephantiasis in Fiji, P. H. Bahr, 487 Disease, Cattle : Gall Sickness, Dr. Theiler, 485 Disease, Fish, Mr. Johnstone, Mr. Riddell, Alexander, 645 Disease, Plant: der Malvenrost (Puccinea malvacearum), J. Eriksson, 397 Dock, Leviathan, at Liverpool, 384 Doctor and the People, the, H. de C. Woodcock, 575 Dog, Guide to the Dissection of the, Dr. O. C. Bradley, 630 Domestic Animals, Victor Hehn, Prof. A. Nehrings, 165 Domestic Science, Experimental, R. H. Jones, 604 Dumfriesshire, Catalogue of Vertebrate Fauna of, H. S. Gladstone, 627 Dundee and District, Handbook and Guide to, 658 Dwarfs, Dr. M. Jansen, 275; Dwarfism, Dr. H. Rischbieth and Amy Barrington, 375 Dysentery in Fiji, Dr. P. H. Bahr, 275 and Dr. Earth, the: Formation of the Earth’s Surface, C. Becken- haupt, 405; Age of the Earth, S. Suzuki, 564 Earth Light, Origin, Dr. W. J. Humphreys, 355 Earthquakes: Catalogue of Destructive Earthquakes from A.D. 7 to A.D. 1899, Prof. Milne, 197; Earthquakes in Norway, 275; Earthquake of May 23, Rev. W. Sid- greaves, S.J., 348; Earthquakes in China, N. F. Drake, 405; Swiss Earthquake Commission, Dr. J. Frith, 431; Earthquakes in Isle of Zante, G. Bonavia, 485; Rarity of Earthquakes in Brazil, Prof. J. C. Branner, 588; Earthquake at Constantinople on August 9, Rev. W. Sidgreaves, S.J., 607, 613; South African Earthquakes, Dr. J. R. Sutton, 678; see also Seismology , Eclipses : les Eclipses d’Hiver et les Eclipses d’Eté, W. de Fonvielle, 269; Eclipse Experiment, a Simple, W. W. Royal-Dawson, 347; Eclipse of the Sun, see Sun Ecology : Pond-snails of Genus Physa, Miss Jean Dawson, 14; Types of British Vegetation, Members of the Central Committee for the Survey of British Vegetation, 212; Gamlingay, near Cambridge, R. S. Adamson, 328; das Plagefenn bei Chorin, H. Conwentz and others, A. E. Crawley, 665 Education : School Attendance Bill, 232; University Educa- tion and Practical Life, A. E. Shipley, 233; National Teaching of Science Subjects, 331; Constructive Work for Elementary Schools, E. J. S. Lay, 528; Secondary and Technical Education in England, 675 Eel: Eel Migration, A. Cligny, 105; Eels, Dr. H. W. Fowler, 225; Reproduction and Spawning Places of the Fresh-water Eel, Dr. Johs. Schmidt, 632 Egg Yield of Ducks for different Foods, A. Magnan, 443 Egypt: the Survey of Egypt, 126; Notes to Geological Map Lndex XXI11 of Egypt, Dr. W. F. Hume, 540; Ancient Egyptian Ceramics, W. Burton, 641; Meteorological Report of Survey Department, 668; Magnetic Observations at Helwan, 669 Electrical Engineering: Inductance of Compact Coils of Wire without Iron Cores, Prof. Brooks and Mr. Turner, 120; Elementary Course of Practical Applied Electricity and Magnetism, W. M. Hooton and A. Mathias, 343; Elements of Electrical Transmission, Prof. O. J. Ferguson, Prof. Gisbert Kapp, 472; Direct and Alternat- ing Current Manual, Prof. F. Bedell, Prof. Gisbert Kapp, 472; Storage Batteries, Prof. H. W. Morse, Prof. G. Kapp, 472; Maschinen und Apparate der Starkstrom- technik, G. W. Meyer, Prof. Gisbert Kapp, 472; Design of Static Transformers, H. M. Hobart, 475 Electricity: Batteries, Selenide. H. Pélabon, 364; Con- densers, Effect of Temperature and Frequency on Capacity and Phase Difference of Paper, F. W. Grover, 16; Conductivity of a Phosphorescent Body, Influence of Temperature and of Light on the, P. Vaillant, 157; Currents produced by Electrons emitted by Metals at High Temperatures, Dr. K. Fredenhagen, 276; Dis- charge in Hydrogen, After-luminosity of, observed by Hertz, Hon. R. J. Strutt, 103; Discharge in Oxygen, an Anode Dark Space in the, F. W. Aston, 218; Generation of Electricity by Carbon at High Temperatures, Dr. J. A. Harker and Dr. G. W. C. Kaye, 337; Inductances, Method of Measuring small, S. Butterworth, 337; Kerr Effect in Liquid Air, Prof. Zeeman, 93; Oscillations, Theory of Production of Electric, A. S. M. Sorensen, 276; Potential Effect in Selenium, E. E. Fournier d’Albe, 52; Potential Distribution in Kathode Dark Space of Vacuum Tube, Dr. K. Eisenmann, 355; Properties, Electrical, of Copper-tin Alloys, R. Ledoux, 495; Properties, Electrical, of Copper-zinc Alloys, L. Norsa, 625; Resistance of Mercury at Low Temperatures, Prof. Onnes, 42; Applications of Heaviside’s Resistance Operators, Dr. W. H. Eccles, 416; Spark, Influence of Capacity, &c., on Velocity of Luminous Vapours in the, G. A. Hemsalech, 105; Relative Velocities of Luminous Vapours of Various Elements in the Electric Spark, G. eine Einfithrung in die Biologie der wirbellosen Tiere, 393 Dendy (Prof. Arthur, Biology, 393 Doflein (Prof.), Lehrbuch der Protozoenkunde, 372 Dykes (W. Rickatson), Irises, Dr. F. Cavers, 497 Earle (Mrs. C. W.) and Ethel Case, Gardening for the Ignorant, Dr. F. Cavers, 497 Eaton (Dr. G. F.), Osteology of Pteranodon, 123 Eggeling (Prof. H. von), der Aufbau der Skeletteile in den freien Gliedmassen der Wirbeltiere: Untersuch- ungen in mover Amphibien, Prof. G. Elliot Smith, F.R.S. Engler (ay, J. Perkins, Fr. Kranzlin, das Pflanzen- reich, 31 Eriksson (Jacob), der Malvenrost : Natur, und Entwickelungsgeschichte, 397 Evans (Ernest), an Intermediate Text-book of Botany, 213 Fabre (J. H.), Bernard Miall, Social Life in the Insect World, 4o1 Fowler (Dr. W. W.), the Fauna of British India, edited by Dr. A. E. Shipley, F.R.S., and G. A. K. Marshall : Coleoptera, 267 Friedenthal (Dr. Hans), Tierhaaratlas, Smith, F.R.S., 419 Gilchrist (Prof. J. D. F.). South African Zoology, 166 Gladstone (Hugh S.), Catalogue of the Vertebrate Fauna of Dumfriesshire, 627 Grouse Committee of Inquiry : Popular Edition of Ro the Grouse in Health and in Disease, 658 Prof. G. Elliot Drak. . F.R.S.), Outlines of Evolutionary’ seine Verbreitung, Nature, ] October 24, 1912 Index XXXI11 Reviews and Our Bookshelf (continued) : Guenther (Dr. K.), Einftihrung in die Tropenwelt : Erlebnisse eines Naturforschers auf Ceylon, 421 Giinther (R. T.), Oxford Gardens : based upon Daubeny’s Guide, Dr. F. Cavers, 497 Hampson (Sir George F., Bart.), Catalogue of the Noctuidz in the British Museum, 374 Hausrath (Prof. H.), Pflanzengeographische Wandlungen der deutschen Landschaft, 421 Hensen (Prof. V.), das Leben in Ozean nach Zahlungen seiner Bewohner (Plankton-Expedition der Humboldt Stiftung), Dr. W. J. Dakin, 94 Heron-Allen (E.) and A. Earland, the Recent and Fossil Foraminifera of the Shore-sands at Selsey Bill, Sussex, 290 Herrick (F. H.), Natural History of the American Lobster, 9 Herter (C. A.), Biological Aspects of Human Problems, 576 Hiesemann (M.), Emma S. Buchheim, How to Attract and Protect Wild Birds, 190 Jaekel (Prof. Otto), die Wirbeltiere, 134 Johns (the late Rev. C. A.), E. T. Cook, British Trees, including the Finer Shrubs for Garden and Wood- land, 30 Kerr (Prof. J. Graham, F.R.S.), Zoology, 627 Knipe (Henry R.), Evolution in the Past, 137 Korschelt (E.), G. Linck, and others, Editors, worterbuch der Naturwissenschaften, 502 Kiister (Prof. E.), die Gallen der Pflanzen, 185 Langhans (Dr. V. H.), der Grossteich bei Hirschberg in Nordbéhmen, 488 Larken (E. P.), Leisure Hours with Nature, 137 Leach (J. A.), an Australian Bird Book: a Pocket Book for Field Use, 85 Lister (Arthur, F.R.S.), Monograph of the Mycetozoa: a Descriptive Catalogue of the Species in the Herbarium of the British Museum, 137 Livens (H. M.), Earth and her Children, 32 Lohmann (H.), Ueber das Nannoplankton und die Zentrifugierung kleinster Wasserproben, Dr. W. J. Dakin, 94 Lones (Dr. T. E.), Aristotle’s Researches in Natural Science, 653 Longstaff (Dr. G. B.), F. Miller, Butterfly-hunting in Many Lands, 291 Looss (Dr. A.), the Anatomy and Life-history of Agchylostoma duodenale, Dub., Part ii., 672 Lotsy (J. P.), Vortrage tiber botanische Stammes- geschichte : Lehrbuch der Pflanzensystematik, 342 Lowe (Percy R.), a Naturalist on Desert Islands, 523 Lydekker (R., F.R.S.), the Ox and its Kindred, 523; the Horse and its Relatives, 627 Lydekker (R.), J. T. Cunningham, G. A. Boulenger, F.R.S., and. J. A. Thomson, Reptiles, Amphibia, Fishes, and Lower Chordata, 523 Maas (Prof. Otto) and Dr. O. Renner, Einfithrung in die Biologie, 393 Massee (George), Lichens, 30 Mobius (Prof. systematische Cavers, 497 Morley (Claude), a. Revision of the Ichneumonide, 627 Mornet (Prof. D.), les Sciences de la Nature en France au XVIIIe Siécle, 476 Nathansohn (Prof. A.), Allgemeine Botanik, 654 Nussbaum (M.), G. Karsten, and M. Weber, Lehrbuch der Biologie fiir Hochschulen, 264 Orléans (Duc d’) and others, Campagne Arctique de 1907, Prof. A. Herdman, F.R.S., ro7 Peabody (J. E.) and A. E. Hunt, Elementary Plant Biology, Dr. F. Cavers, 497 Punnett (Prof. R..C.), Mendelism, 215 Rabaud (E.), le Transformisme et |’Expérience, 501 Renshaw (Graham), More Animal Romances, 264 Rignano (Eugenio), Prof. B. C. H. Harvey, Upon the Inheritance of Acquired Characters, 576 Ross (Dr. H.), die Pflanzengallen (Cecidien) Mittel- und Nord-Europas, 185 Hand- British Fungi: with a Chapter on Praktikum _ fiir IBY das M.), Botanik: i., Mikroskopisches Angiosperme, Rusby (Prof. H..H.), a Manual of Structural Botany, Dr. F. Cavers, 497 Scharff (R. F.), Distribution and Origin of Life in America, 523 Schleip (Dr. W.), Anleitung zum praktischen Studium niederer Tiere: Protozoa, Coelenterata, Vermes, Echinodermata, 264 . Schmidt (Dr. Heinrich), W6rterbuch der Biologie, 189 Schulze (F. E.), Dr. H. Friese, Prof. J. J. Kieffer, Dr. J. E. W. Ihle, das Tierreich, 627 Sclater (W. L.), History of the Birds of Colorado, 523 Sedgwick (Rev. S. N.), Moths of the Months and How to Identify Them, 346 Seward (Prof. A. C., F.R.S.), the Plant World, 189 Smith (Geoffrey), Primitive Animals, 31 Spengel (Geheimer Hofrat Prof.), Friends and Disciples of, Festschrift zum sechzigsten Geburtstage, 580, Steuer (Prof. A.), Leitfaden der Planktonkunde, 94 Stevenson-Hamilton (Major J.), Animal Life in Africa, Sir H. H. Johnston, G.C.M.G., K.C.B., 297 Stonham (C., C.M.G.), Lilian M. Medland, the Birds of the British Islands, 637 Thompson (H. Stuart), Sub-alpine Plants : Flowers of the Swiss Woods and Meadows, 654 Timiriazeff (Prof. C. A.), the Life of the Plant, 393 Tobler-Wolff (Dr. G.) and Prof. F. Tobler, Anleitung zur mikroskopischen Untersuchung von Pflanzenfasern, Dr. F. Cavers, 497 Usteri (Prof. A.), Flora der Umgebung der Stadt Sao Paulo in Brasilien, Dr. O. Stapf, F.R.S., 420 Warming (Prof. Eug.), Metta M. Rehling and Elizabeth M. Thomas, Plant Life: a Text-book of Botany for Schools and Colleges, 213 West (W.) and Prof. G. S. West, Monograph of the British Desmidiaceze, 523 Worgitzky (Dr. G.), Lebensfragen aus der heimischen Pflanzenwelt, Dr. F. Cavers, 497 Wyss (C. von), Gardens in their Seasons : a Nature Book for Boys and Girls, 320 Yates (Lucy H.), the Gardener and the Cook, 111 Zschokke (Prof. F.), die Tiefseefauna der Seen Mittel- europas, 488 Links with the Past in Chemistry : Asch (Dr. W.) and Dr. D. Asch, die Silicate in chemischer und technischer Beziehung, Dr. C. H. Desch, 212 Auld (Dr. S. J. M.), Introduction to Quantitative Analysis, 552 Beltzer (Prof. F. J. G.) and J. Persoz, les Matiéres Cellulosiques, 84 Bugge (Dr. G.), Biicher der Naturwissenschaft (edited by Dr. S. Giinther): Chemie und Technik, 398 Calvet (M. L.), Alcools, Alcool Dénaturé, Dénaturants, $4 Cohen (Prof. J. B., F.R.S.) and Arthur G. Ruston, Smoke : a Study of Town Air, 139 Cumming (Dr. A. C.), Practical Chemistry for Medical Students, 291 Delahaye (H.), Huiles Minérales, 84 Dunstan (Dr. A. E.) and F. B. Thole, a Text-book of Practical Chemistry for Technical Institutes, 291 Edmunds (E. W.) and J. B. Hoblyn, the Story of the Five Elements, 60 Haldane (Dr. J. S., F.R.S.), Methods of Air Analysis, 552 Hale (A. J.), Practical Chemistry for Engineering Students, 578 Hampshire (C. H.), Volumetric Analysis for Students of Pharmaceutical and General Chemistry, 552 Hilditch (Dr. T. P.), a First Year Physica] Chemistry, 8 Teccriet (L.), Matiéres Tannantes Colles, Noirs, Cirages, 85 Jones (R. Henry), Experimental Domestic Science, 604 Knox (Dr. J.), Physico-Chemical Calculations, 578 Lunge (Prof. G., Editor), Dr. C. A. Keane, Technical Methods of Chemical Analysis, 341 Méker (P.), Soude-Potasse-Sels : Dénaturation des Sels, 84 Moldenhauer (Dr.. W.), Chemisch-technisches Praktikum, 8 Malinari (Prof. E.), Trattato di Chimica Generale e Applicata all’ Industria, 554 Cuirs: Gélatines, Organica XXXIV Reviews and Our Bookshelf (continued) : Morgan (Prof. W. C.) and J. A. Lyman, Chemistry: an Elementary Text-book, 291 Neave (Dr. G. B.) and Dr. I. M. Heilbron, Identification of Organic Compounds, 346 Ostwald (W.), Grundlinien der anorganischen Chemie, 526 Ostwald (Prof. Wilhelm), Dr. W. W. Taylor, Outlines of General Chemistry, 526 Perkin (Prof. W. H., F.R.S.) and Prof. F. Stanley Kipping, F.R.S., Organic Chemistry, 578 Post (Prof. J.) and Prof. B. Neumann, Traité Complet d’Analyse Chimique appliauée aux Essais Industriels, 109, 423 Pring (Dr. J. N.), Laboratory Exercises in Physical Chemistry, 291 Roberts (E.), Famous Chemists, 32 Scheid (Prof. Karl), Vorbereitungsbuch fiir den Experi- mentalunterricht in Chemie, 398 Schwalbe (Prof. C. G.), die Chemie der Cellulose unter besonderer Beriicksichtigung der Textil- und Zellstoff- industrien, 238 Senter (Dr. G.), a Text-book of Inorganic Chemistry, 291 Soddy (F., F.R.S.), the Chemistry of the Radio-elements, 2g1 Spencer (Dr. J. F.), an Experimental Course of Physical Chemistry, 291, 578 Stocks (H. B.), Water Analysis for Sanitary and Tech- nical Purposes, 552 Sumner (E. J.), Chemistry Note-book, 291 Thole (F. B.), Qualitative Organic Analysis, 552 Thomas (Prof. V.) and D. Gauthier, Notions Fonda- mentales d’Analyse Qualitative, 578 Thorpe (Sir Edward, C.B., F.R.S.), a Dictionary of Applied Chemistry, 162 é Urbain (Pref. G.), Introduction A 1’Etude de la Spectro- chimie, Prof. E. C. C. Baly, F.R.S., 211 Wedekind (Prof. E.), Magnetochemie: Beziehungen zwischen magnetischen Eigenschaften und chemischer Natur, 528 Weston (F. E.), Elementary Experimental Chemistry, 291 Wilson (F. R. L.) and G. W. Hedley, a School Chemistry, 578 Engineering : Advisory Committee for Aéronautics: Report, 543 Advisory Committee for Boats and Life-saving Appli- ances on Ships: Report, 661 Allen (C. Edgar), the Modern Locomotive, 111 American Institute of Chemical Engineers: Transac- tions, 549 Barker (A. H.), Barker on Heating: the Theory and Practice of Heating and Ventilation, 628 Bauer (Dr. G.) and O. Lasche, and others, Marine Steam Turbines, 159 Bedell (Prof. F.) and Dr. C. A. Pierce, Direct and Alternating Current Manual, Prof. Gisbert Kapp, 472 Bloch (Dr. L.), G. Roy, Principes de la Technique de I’ Kclairage, 3 Brislee (Dr. F. J.), an Introduction to the Study of Fuel, 549 Chalkley (A. P.), Dr. R. Diesel, Diesel Engines for Land and Marjne Work, 549 Eichhorn (Dr. G., Editor); Prof. Dr. J. Zenneck, Jahrbuch der drahtlosen Telegraphie und Telephonie, Dr. J. Erskine-Murray, 400 Faber (Oscar) and P. G. Bowie, Reinforced Concrete Design, 501 Ferguson (Prof. O. J.), the Elements of Electrical Trans- mission, Prof. Gisbert Kapp, 472 French Government, Service des Grandes Forces Hydrau- liques, 72 Garratt (H. A.), Heat Engines, 628 Goodrich (W. F.), Modern Destructor Practice, 628 Hobart (H. M.), the Design of Static Transformers, 475 Hughes (Prof. H. J.) and A. T. Safford, a Treatise on Hydraulics, 82 Korn (Prof. Arthur) and Prof. B. Glatzel, Handbuch der Phototelegraphie und Telautographie, 110 Lewis (L. P.), Railway Signal Engineering (Mechanical), 549 Marsh (C. F.), Reinforced Concrete Compression Member Diagram, 549 Index Nature. Octoter 24, 1912 Maxim (Sir Hiram S.), New System for Preventing Collisions at Sea, 542 Meyer (Gustav W.), Maschinen und Apparate der Stark- stromtechnik, Prof. Gisbert Kapp, 472 Morrow (Dr. J.), Steam Turbine Design, 159 Morse (Prof. H. W.), Storage Batteries, Prof. Gisbert Kapp, 472 Parsons (Sir Charles A., K.C.B.), the Steam Turbine: Rede Lecture, 159 Pratt (H. Keay), Boiler Draught, 215 Royds (R.), the Testing of Motive-power Engines, 27 Schon (H. A. E. C. von), Hydro-electric Practice, 214 Wheeler (Engineer-Lieut. S. G., R.N.), Heat and Steam, 319 Geography, Sport and Travel: Black (A. and C., publishers), Miss S. M. Nicholls, Geographical Pictures (from Photographs), 240 Bosworth (G. F.), East London, 346 Bury (G. Wyman, “Abdullah Mansur”), the Land of Uz, 35 Canziani (Estella), Costumes, Traditions, and Songs of Savoy, 289 Coleman (Prof. A. P., F.R.S.), the Canadian Rockies : New and Old Trails, 35 Durand (Sir Edward, Bart.), Sporting Reminiscences, 35 Evans (H. A.), Monmouthshire, 346 Graham (A. W.), Siam, 138 Kauffmann (O.), aus Indiens Dschungeln, 627 Kriimmel (Prof. Dr. O.), Handbuch der Ozeanographie, I peatcad (Henry), the Gentle Art, 523 Lloyd (Prof. J. E.), Carnarvonshire, 346 Orléans (Duc d’), Campagne Arctique de 1907, Prof. Herdman, F.R.S., 107 Orr (Capt. C. W. J.), the Making of Northern Nigeria, 35 Paton (A. W.), Dr. A. H. Millar (Editors), Handbook and Guide to Dundee and District, 658 Philips’ Comparative Series of Wall Atlases, edited by J. F. Unstead and E. G. R. Taylor, 267 Prichard (H. Hesketh), Through Trackless Labrador, 35 Quine (Rev. J.), the Isle of Man, 346 Seton (E. Thompson), the Arctic Prairies: a Canoe Jouraey in search of Caribou to the Region north of Aylmer Lake, 317 Sheldon (Charles), the Wilderness of the Upper Yukon : a Hunter’s Explorations for Wild Sheep in Sub-arctic Mountains, 83 Spencer (Prof. Baldwin, C.M.G., F.R.S.) and F. J. Gillen, Across Australia, Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.R.S., 608 Stebbing (E. P.), Stalks in the Himalaya: Jottings of a Sportsman Naturalist, 81 Supan (Prof. A.), Grundziige der physischen Erdkunde, 500 Geology: Craig (E. H. Cunningham), Oil-finding : an Introduction to the Geological Study of Petroleum, 580 Dunn (Stanley C.), Notes on the Mineral Deposits of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, 323 Haug (Prof. E.), Traité de Géologie, 551 Heron-Allen (Edw.), Selsey Bill: Historic historic, 290 Lemoine (M. Paul), Géologie du Bassin de Paris, 56 Rhodes (J. E. W.), Micropetrology for Beginners, 31 Suess (Prof. Ed.), E. de Margerie, la Face de la Terre, 3 United States Geological Survey: Water Supply Papers, 150; Mineral Resources of the United States, 617 Wright (Fred. Eugene), the Methods of Petrographic- microscopic Research, their Relative Accuracy and Range of Application, 673 Mathematics and Physics: Baker (W. M.), the Calculus for Beginners, 602 Barton (Prof. E. H.), Analytical Mechanics, 655 Bates (E. L.) and F. Charlesworth, Practical Mathe- matics and Geometry, 240 Beck (Conrad) and H. Andrews, Photographic Lenses: a Simple Treatise, 5 Besant (Dr. W. H., F.R.S., and A. S. Ramsey), a Treatise on Hydromechanics, Part i. : Hydrostatics, 655 Board of Education Special Reports: the Teaching of Mathematics, 44 and Pre- ; Nature, ] October 24, 1912 Reviews and Our Bookshelf (continued) : Borchardt (W. G.) and the Rev. A. D. Perrott, Geometry for Schools, 602, 655 Briggs (H.), the Effects of Errors in Surveying, 605 Crawford (Dr. W. J.), Elementary Graphic Statics, 655 Cross (M. I.) and M. J. Cole, Modern Microscopy, 525 De (Rajanikanta), Intermediate Course of Practical Physics, 343 Draper (Dr. C. H.), Heat and the Principles of Thermo- dynamics, 603 Ebert (Prof. H.), Lehrbuch der Physik, 343 Eder (Prof. J. M.) and Prof. E. Valenta, Atlas typischer Spektren, 554 Forsyth (Dr. A. R., F.R.S.), Lectures on the Differential Geometry of Curves and Surfaces, 579 Fowler (J. S.) and Wm. Marriott, Our Weather, 267 Ghosh (Prof. L. K.), Plane Trigonometry (for Indian Universities Syllabus), 655 Godfrey (C., M.V.O.) and A. W. Siddons, Algebra for Beginners, 602 Hall (Rev. C. A.), How to Use the Microscope, 525 Hall (H. S.), a School Algebra, 602 Hall (H. S.) and F. H. Stevens, Examples in Arith- metic, 602 Hannyngton (Major-Gen. J. C.), Tables of Logarithms and Anti-logarithms (Four Figures) 1 to 10,000, 318 Heywood (Prof. H. B.) and Prof. M. Fréchet, 1’Equation de Fredholm et ses Applications, 499 Hooton (W. M.) and A. Mathias, Introductory Course of Mechanics and Physics for Technical Students, 343 Houssay (Prof. Frédéric), Forme, Puissance et Stabilité des Poissons, 319 Hun (J. G.) and C. R. MacInnes, the Elements of Plane and Spherical Trigonometry, 655 Jelinek’s Psychrometer-Tafeln: Anhang: Tafeln von J. M. Pernter, 5 Jones (F. T.) and Prof. R. R. Tatnall, Problems in Physics, 603 “J. R. B.” Patent Adjustable Curve Ruler, 477 ; Lalesco (Prof. T.), Introduction 4 la Théorie des Equa- tions Intégrales, 499 Lebon (Ernest), Savants du Jour: Gabriel Lippmann, 81 Loria (Prof. Gino), Poliedri, Curve e Superficie secondo i metodi della Geometria Descrittiva, 655 Love (Prof. A. E. H., F.R.S.), Some Problems of Geodynamics, 471 McDowall (S. A.), a Laboratory Note-book of Physics, Hygrometer- Laboratory 317 Mach (E.), Dr. K. Habart, Grundriss der Naturlehre fir Gymnasien und Realschulen, 343 Mair (D. B.), Junior Mathematics, 655 Manilius, H. W. Garrod, Editor, Manili Astronomicon Liber II, Dr. J. K. Fotheringham, 239 Mann (Prof. C. Riborg), the Teaching of Physics for Purposes of General Education, 630 Merchant (Dr. F. W.) and Prof. C. A. Chant, Ontario High School Physics, 343; Ontario High School Laboratory Manual in Physics, 343 F Milne (Rev. J. J.), an Elementary Treatise on Cross- ratio Geometry, 655 Muir (Dr. T., C.M.G., F.R.S.), the Theory of Deter- minants in the Historical Order of Development, 237 Nutting (P. G.), Outlines of Applied Optics, 603 Ogley (D. H.), Elementary Course on Practical Applied Electricity and Magnetism, 343 Ordnance Survey, New Series: Measurement of a Geodetic Base Line at Lossiemouth in 1909, and a Discussion of the Theory of Measurement by Metal Tapes and Wires in Catenary, 479 > Parker (G. W.), Elements of Hydrostatics, 603 Pearson (Prof. Karl, F.R.S.), the Grammar of Science: Part i., Physical, 188 Reid (Prof. L. W.), the Elements of the Theory of Algebraic Numbers, 164 Rotch (A. Lawrence) and A. H. Palmer, Charts of the Atmosphere for Aéronauts and Aviators, 57 Roth (Prof. W. A.) and Dr. F. Eisenlohr, Refrakto- metrisches Hilfsbuch, 111 Satterly (Dr. John), Junior Heat, 603 Scheffer (Prof. W.), Wirkungsweise und Gebrauch des Mikroskops und seiner Hilfsapparate, 525 Lndex XXXV Scott (E. Erskine), Tables of Logarithms and Anti- logarithms to Five Places, 318 Sommerville (Dr. D. M. J.), Bibliography of Non- Euclidean Geometry : including the Theory of Parallels, the Foundations of Geometry and Space of N Dimen- sions, 266 Swanwick (F. T.), Elementary Trigonometry, 655 Turner (Prof. H. H., F.R.S.), the Great Star Map, 398 Volterra (Vito), E. Rutherford, R. W. Wood, and C. Barus, Lectures at the Celebration of the Twentieth Anniversary of the Foundation of Clark University, 528 Whitehead (Dr. A. N., F.R.S.) and Bertrand Russell, F.R.S., Principia Mathematica, 474 Wilkinson (P.) and F. W. Cook, Macmillan’s Reform Arithmetic, 655 Young (J. W. A., Editor), Monographs on Topics of Modern Mathematics Relevant to the Elementary Field, J. W. A. Young, 395 Medicine: Bahr (P. H.), Filariasis and Elephantiasis in Fiji, 487 Bennett (Sanford), Exercising in Bed: the Story of an Old Body and Face made Young, Prof. R. T. Hewlett, 527 Bradley (Dr. O. C.), a Guide to the Dissection of the Dog, 630 Browning (Dr. Carl H.) and Ivy Mackenzie, with others, Recent Methods in the Diagnosis and Treatment of Syphilis, 575 Bryce (Dr. Alexander), Modern Theories of Diet and their Bearing upon Practical Dietetics, 422 Burdon-Sanderson (the late Lady), and his Nephew and Niece, Sir John Burdon-Sanderson : a Memoir, 55 Byrne (Dr. Joseph), On the Physiology of the Semi- circular Canals and their Relation to Sea-sickness, 575 Chaillon (A.) and L. MacAuliffe, Morphologie Médicale : Etude des quatre Types Humains, 237 Clarke (J. Jackson), the Cause of Cancer: Part iii. of Protozoa and Disease, 601 Crispin (E. S.), the Prevention and Treatment of Disease in the Tropics, 575 Davenport (C. B.), Heredity in Relation to Eugenics, 263 Dell (J. A.), the Gateways of Knowledge: an Introduc- tion to the Study of the Senses, 476 Duggar (Prof. B. M.), Plant Physiology, with special reference to Plant Production, 265 Edridge-Green (Prof. F. W.), Hunterian Lectures on Colour-vision and Colour-blindness, 476 Fiirth (Prof. Dr. Otto von), Probleme der physiologischen und pathologischen Chemie, 422 Green (Charles E.), the Local Incidence of Cancer, 601 Halliburton (Prof. W. D., F.R.S.), Physiology, 166 Jones (Dr. D. W. Carmalt), an Introduction to Thera- peutic Inoculation, 60 Jordan (W. H.), Principles of Human Nutrition: a Study in Practical Dietetics, 422 Lee (Prof. Fred. S.), Scientific Medicine, 575 Lickley (Dr. J. D.), the Nervous System, 575 Lyster (Dr. R. A.), Text-book of Hygiene for Teachers, 604 Ogden Renee Hewlett, 527 Pakes (W. C. C.), Dr. A. T. Nankivell, the Science of Hygiene, 604 Palladin (Prof. W.), Pflanzenphysiologie, 371 Rischbieth (Dr. H.) and Amy Barrington, Francis Galton Eugenics Laboratory Memoirs: Treasury of Human Inheritance : Dwarfism, 375 Rogers (Prof. L.), Cholera and its Treatment, 136 Ross (H. C.), J. W. Cropper, and E. H. Ross, Further Researches into Induced Cell-reproduction and Cancer, 601 Russell (Rollo), Preventable Cancer, 601 Savage (Dr. William G.), Milk and the Public Health, Features of Modern (Prof. H. N.), Rural Hygiene, Prof. 22 Shelly (Dr. C. E.) and E. Stenhouse, Life and Health: with Chapters on First Aid and Home Nursing, 397 Shennan (Dr. Theodore), “Post Mortems and Morbid Anatomy, 477 Sinclair (Upton), the Fasting Cure, Prof. R. T. Hewlett, 527 XXXVI Lndex Nature, October 24, 1912 Reviews and Our Bookshelf (continued) : Stier (Dr. Ewald), Untersuchungen iiber Linkshandigkeit und die funktionellen Differenzen der Hirnhalften, Prof. G. Elliot Smith, F.R.S., 108 Wellcome Tropical Research Laboratories at Khartoum: Report : A, Medical, 10 Whetham (W. C. D., F-.R.S.) and Catherine D. Whetham, Heredity and Society, 263; an Introduction to Eugenics, 263 Woodcock (H. de C.), the Doctor and the People, 575 Technology : Arndt (Prof. Kurt), die Bedeutung der Kolloide fiir die Technik, 28 Brearley (Harry), the Heat Treatment of Tool Steel, F. W. Harbord, 501 Browne (Edith A.), Peeps at Industries: Sugar, 5; Rubber, 554 Darling (C. R.), Pyrometry: a Practical Treatise on the Measurement of High Temperatures, 29 Garrett (A. E.), the Advance of Photography, 187 Harbord (F. W.) and J. W. Hall, the Metallurgy of Steel, Prof. J. O. Arnold, F.R.S., 315 Hirschwald (Prof. J.), Handbuch der bautechnischen Gesteinspriifung, 344 MacDonald (G. W.), Explosives, 372 Ridley (H. N., C.M.G., F.R.S.), Spices, 374 Sindall and Bacon, the Testing of Wood Pulp: a Prac- tical Handbook for the Pulp and Paper Trades, 658 Smith (Dr. G. F. Herbert), Gem-stones and their Dis- tinctive Characters, 294 Thompson (Prof. M. de Kay), Applied Electrochemistry, J. Swinburne, 136 Miscellaneous : Abderhalden (Prof. E., Editor), Fortschritte der natur- wissenschaftlichen Forschung, 373 Bedrock: a new Quarterly Review of Scientific Thought, Historical Papers on Modern 144 Board of Education, Annual Volume of Statistics of Public Education in England and Wales, 675 Boutroux (Prof. E:.), J. Nield, the Beyond that is Within, and Other Addresses, 630 Brown (G. E.) and A. Mackie, Photographic Copyright, 631 Gerland (Georg), der Mythus von der Sintflut, 605 Keltie (Dr. Scott, Editor), the Statesman’s Year Book, 1912 Lay (Ed. J. S.), the Teachers’ Book of Constructive Work for Elementary Schools, 528 McDougall (Wm.), Body and Mind: a History and a Defence of Animism, 396 Myers (Dr. C. S.), a Text-book of Experimental Psychology, 316 New Zealand Institute: Transactions and Proceedings, 44 . Poulton (Prof. E. B., F.R.S.), John Viriamu Jones, and other Oxford Memories, 419 Rimington (Prof. A. Wallace), Colour-Music, 166 Rowell (Percy E.), Introduction to General Science, with Experiments, 165 Scott (Prof. W. D.), Increasing Human Efficiency in Business, 629 Stromeyer (C. E.), Unity in Nature: an Analogy between Music and Life, 86 Wellcome Tropical Research Laboratories at Khartoum: Fourth Report: B, General Science, 10 Road, the: Past, Present, and Future: Royal Institution Discourse, Right Hon. Sir John H. A. Macdonald, K.C.B., F.R.S., 127 Réntgen Rays: Distribution of the Scattered Roéntgen Radiation, J. A. Crowther, 104; Passage of Homo- geneous Roéntgen Rays through Gases, E. A, Owen, 104; Attempt to Refract Réntgen Radiation, J. C. Chapman, 313 Rotating Films, Experiments, C. V. Boys, 493 Rotatory Power of Camphor dissolved in Carbon Tetra- chloride, and the Concentration, A. Faucon, 79 Rothamsted, 649; Resignation of Director, 142 Rotifera, New, since 1889, C. F. Rousselet, 7 Royal Academy and Nature-study, Dr. W. J. S. Lockyer, 244 “NI Royal Geographical Society: Anniversary Dinner, 300; New Headquarters at Lowther Lodge, 562 Royal Institution Discourses: the Gyrostatic Compass and Practical Applications of Gyrostats, G. K. B. Elphinstone, 74; the Road, Sir J. H. A. Macdonald, K.C.B., F.R.S., 127; Total Eclipse of the Sun, April, 1911, at Tonga Islands, Dr. W. J. S. Lockyer, 151; the Origin of Radium, F. Solly, F.R.S., 203; Electricity Supply, A. A. C. Swinton, 281; Very High Tempera- tures, Dr. J. A. Harker, F.R.S., 514; the North Sea, Prof. D’Arcy W. Thompson, C.B., 593; Sir William Herschel, Sir G. H. Darwin, K.C.B., F.R.S., 620, 645; the Use of Pedigrees, W. C. Dampier Whetham, F.R.S., 310; the Gaumont Speaking Kinematograph Films, Prof. Wm. Stirling, 333 Royal Meteorological Society, Southport Meeting, 302 Royal Sanitary Institute Congress at York, 483 Royal Society: the 250th Anniversary, 195, 505, 5333 Conversazione, 271; Memorial Volume of Celebration, 66 Rinker Rubber and Gutta-percha: Reports of Imperial Institute, 41; Production of Synthetic Rubber, Prof. W. H. Perkin, 402; West Indian Rubber, 484; Peeps at Industries: Rubber, Edith A. Browne, 554 Rubies, Manufactured, Dr. G. F. H. Smith, 247 St. Elmo’s Fire, J. McV. M., E. Gold, 7 Salmon and Trout, Age and Growth of, in Norway, as shown by their Scales, Knut Dahl, Ian Baillie, 523 Sandal Tree, Host-plants of the, Rama Rao, 174 Sanitation: Congress of the Royal Sanitary Institute at York: Instrument for Testing Variation in Condition of Public Water Supplies, Dr. M. Coplans; Purification of Water, Dr. M. Coplans; Air Pollution by Coal Smoke, A. G. Ruston; Effects of Sewage Contamination of Sea- water, J. E. Purvis and G. Walker, 590 Sardines, 194; Sardines in Science and Commerce, 271 Saturn, Observations of, Dr. H, E. Lau, 199 Savoy: Costumes, Traditions, and Songs of, Canziani, 289 Science, General: Fourth Report of the Wellcome Tropical Research Laboratories, 10; Promotion of Research by the Carnegie Institution, 126; Introduction to General Science with Experiments, Percy E. Rowell, 165; the Grammar of Science, Prof. Karl Pearson, F.R.S., 188; Fortschritte der naturwissenschaftlichen Forschung, Prof. E. Abderhalden and others, 373; South, Kensington Science Museum, New Director, 380; les Sciences de la Nature en France au XVIIIe Siécle, Prof. D. Mornet, 476; Handworterbuch der Naturwissenschaften, 502 ; — and Reservations, H. Conwentz and others, A. E Crawley, 665 Scientific Worthies: Dr. Alfred Russel Wallace, D.C.L., O.M., F.R.S., Prof. H. Fairfield Osborn, 367 Sea: Sea Oscillations on Coast of Sicily, Dr. G. Platania, 68; New System for Preventing Collisions at Sea, Sir H. Maxim, 542; Board of Trade Committee to advise respecting Safety of Life at Sea, 584 Sea-sickness, Physiology of the Semicircular Canals and their Relation to, Dr. J. Byrne, 575 Seal, Alaskan Fur-, Dr. F. A. Lucas, 249 Search-lights for the Mercantile Marine, Dr. Henry Wilde, Pak Se sso Seiches : Temperature Observations in Loch Earn, E. M. Wedderburn, 131; Sea-Seiches, Dr. W. B. Dawson, Kétaré Honda, 174 Seismograph applied to Measure Vibrations of Railway Carriages, Prof. Omori, 174; Choice of a Seismograph, Prof. H. F. Reid, 405 Seismology : the Upper Rhine, W. Salomon, 14; Dispersion of Seismic Waves due to Friction of Displaced Material, Prince Galitzin, 119; Earthquakes recorded in Italy in 1908, 120; Earthquake in South Africa on February 20, 174; Earthquake recorded on May 6, 248; Earthquake of May 23, F. E. Norris, 377; Messina Earthquake Notices, 383; Periods of Briickner and Earthquakes, F. D. de Ballore, 625; see also Earthquakes and Volcanoes Selective Media, C. Revis, 586 Selsey Bill: Historic and Prehistoric, Ed. Heron-Allen, Estella Nature, ] Cetoher 24, 1912 290; Foraminifera of the Shore-sands at Selsey Bill, Sussex, E. Heron-Allen and A. Earland, 290 Senses, the Gateways of Knowledge: Introduction to the Study of the, J. A. Dell, 476 Serum for Treatment of Wounds, MM. Leclainche and Vallée, 79 Sewage Contamination of Sea-water, J. E. Purvis and G. Walker, 590 Sex-determination : Dinophilus gyrociliatus, Dr. C. Shearer, 40 Sheep: Earthworms and Sheep-rot, Rev. Hilderic Friend, 8; Effect of Desert Life on Ears of New Bighorn Race, J. Grinnell, 405; see also Yukon Shellfish and Sewage, Prof. Herdman, 645 Shells: Variation of Planorbis multiformis, Dr. H. G. A. Hickling, 131; Land-shells collected in Queensland by S. W. Jackson, C. Hedley, 600 Ships: Watertight Bulkheads and Board of Trade, 301; Ship of New Type for transporting Submersible Boats (the Kanguroo), Messrs. Schneider and Co., 565; Boats | and Life-saving Appliances on Ships, 661; see also Boats Siam : a Handbook of Practical, Commercial, and Political Information, A. W. Graham, 138 Silica, Expansion of Vitreous, Prof. H. L. Callendar, 286 Silicates: die Silicate in chemischer und _ technischer Beziehung, Dr. W. Asch and Dr. D. Asch, Dr. C. H. Desch, 212 Silver, Electrical Collodial, G. Rebiére, 391 Skins, Salt Stains on, G. Abt, 574 Sky, Brightness of the, Dr. H. Diercks, 354 Sleeping Sickness, 11; Sleeping Sickness Bureau and Tropical Diseases Bureau, 274, 508; Prof. Lanfranchi infected, 351; Transmission of Sleeping Sickness, 402 Slipper Limpet, see Oysters Smelt in Rostherne Mere, T. Smithsonian Expeditions, 674 Smoke: Smoke Abolition Measures in Manchester, 39; International Smoke Abatement Exhibition, 125; Smoke : a Study of Town Air, Prof. J. B. Cohen, F.R.S., and A. G. Ruston, 139; Smoke Problem, Prof. J. B. Cohen, the Reviewer, 217; Research at Pittsburgh University, 538; Air Pollution by Coal Smoke, A. G. Ruston, 590 Snake, Circulatory System of the Common Grass-, C. H. O'Donoghue, 259 Snow, White Sheep slaking Thirst with, 539 Societies :' American Philosophical Society, 334 Asiatic Society of Bengal, 132, 322, 365, 495 British Psychological Society, 338 Cambridge Philosophical Society, Challenger Society, 259, 521 Chemical Society, 118; General Meeting, 248 Geological Society, 52, 104, 156, 258, 286, 442, 573 Géttingen Royal Society of Sciences, 235, 261, 522 Institute of Chemistry, 16 Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, 52, 234, 337 Institution of Naval Architects, 124 “Iron and Steel Institute, 278 Linnean Society, 77, 104, 234, 286, 416, 467; Anniversary Meeting, 351 Linnean Socicty of New South Wales, 301, 600, 626 Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, 75, 260, 287, 338 Mathematical Society, 77, 183, 417 Mineralogical Society, 77, 443 Pakeontographical Society, 118 Paris Academy of Sciences, 25, 53, 79, 104, 131, 209, 235, 260, 313, 338, on 547» 573, 599, 625, 632, 677 Physical Society, 286, 337, 415, 466, 546 Ray Society, 90 Royal Anthropological Institute, 78, 259 », Astronomical Society, 207, 312 Dublin Society, 156, 494 precipitated by Electrolytes, A. Coward, 338 52, 208, 312, 467 ERs 157, 183, “390, 417, 443, 468, 495, F. Geographical Society, 38, 40, 381; Medal Awards, 119 », Irish Academy, 260, 313, 468, 521 », Meteorological Society, 24, 130, 208, 338, 466 .» Microscopical Society, 77, 130, 234, 466 L[ndex XXXVI Royal Society, 23, 51, 76, 103, 130, 363, 39, 415, 4425 493 », Society of Arts, Albert Medal, 380 »» society of Edinburgh, 52, 78, 131, 364, 468, 547 »» Society of Medicine, Opening of New Building, 300. 3, Society of South Africa, 287, 469, 626, Society of Victoria, 469 ,, Zoological Society of Ireland, 302 Société helvétique des Sciences naturelles : next Meeting, 493 Verband Deutscher Elektrotechniker, 352 Zoological Society, 77, 130, 144, 207, 259, 312, 364, 416 Soil: Experiments on Dry Stony Soil at Clifton-on- Bowmont, Mr. Elliot, 67; Boden und Klima auf klein- stem Raum, Prof. G. Kraus, Dr. E. J. Russell, 186; . Protozoa from Sick Soils and Life-cycle of a Monad Flagellate, C. H. Martin, 442; Degradation of Phosphatic Manures, A. Miintz and H. Gaudechon, 599 Soil-fertility, Dr. R. Greig-Smith, 600; Soil-fertility : Royal Institution Discourse, A. D. Hall, F.R.S., 648 Solar Halos on May 17, W. P. Haskett-Smith, 322, 348; Solar Halos and Mock Suns, 377 Solution: Solution of Copper in Water, J. Pionchon, 157; van’t Hoff Theory of Solution, A. Colson, 183 ; Estimates of Sulphates in Solution by a Volumetric Method, A. Bruno and P. T. d’Auzay, 209; Solvate Theory of Solution, Prof. H. C. Jones, 334; Thermal Relations of Solutions, Prof. W. F. Magie, 334; Viscosity of Solutions, C. Chéneveau, 547 Sootfall of London, S. A. Vasey, Correction, 42 Sound Phenomena, Anomalous, of Explosions or Volcanic Eruptions, S. Fujiwhara, 146 Spectra: a Critical Study of Spectral Series, Prof. W. M. Hicks, 52; Ultimate Lines of Vacuum Tube Spectra of Manganese, Lead, Copper, and Lithium, Miss Genevieve V. Morrow, 157; ‘Appearance of New Lines in a Geissler Tube containing Bromine in a Magnetic Field, G. Ribaud, 261; Ultimate Lines and Quantities of Elements produc- ing these Lines in Spectra of the Oxyhydrogen Flame and Spark, Sir W. N. Hartley and H. W. Moss, 285; Changes in Absorption Spectra of “Didymium” Salts, W. C. Ball, 363; Changes in certain Absorption Spectra in different Solvents, T. R. Merton, 363; Mass of Particles emitting the two Spectra of Hydrogen, C. Fabry and H. Buisson, 390; Vacuum Tube Spectra of some Non-metallic Elements and Compounds, Dr. J. H. Pollok, 495; Influence of Self-induction on the Spark Spectra of the Non-metallic Elements, Miss Genevieve V. Morrow, 495; Atlas typischer Spektren, Prof. J. M. Eder and Prof. E. Valenta, 554; Experimental Illustration of Reversal of Bright Line Spectra, Prof. E. P. Harrison, 631 Spectroscopes, the Principle of Reflection in, Lord Ray- leigh, O.M., F.R.S., 167; Spectroscopic Determination of Aqueous Vapour in the Atmosphere, F. E. Fowle, 566 Spectroscopy, Chemical: Introduction a VEtude de la Spectrochimie, Prof. G. Urbain, Prof. E. C. C. Baly, BRE Saez rs Spices, H. N. Ridley, C.M.G., F.R.S., 374 Spiders, &c., of Switzerland, Rev. O. Pickard-Cambridge, 77 Spinning of Flax, Regulations, 536 Spirals: “Principles of Growth and Beauty,” Isaac Biker- staffe, 587 Sponge and Alga in Association, R. Kirkpatrick, Sporting Reminiscences, Sir E. Durand, Bart., 35 Staining, Method of Examining Tissues by intra-vitam, Prof. E. Goldmann, 76 Standards of Capacity, Paper Condensers and, 16 Star Catalogues and Charts: New Star Catalogue, T. W. Backhouse, 175; the Great Star Map, Prof. H. H. Turner, F.R.S., 398; Dr. Peters’s and Photographic Charts, 433; Astrographic Catalogue, W. E. Cooke and others, 487 Stars : Tentative Explanation of the “Two Star Streams” in terms of Gravitation, Prof. H. H. Turner, F.R.S., 208; Faint Stars with’ Large Proper Motions, Herr Kostinsky, 250; Motions of Stars in Plane of Milky Way, H. C. Plummer, 312; Radial Velocity, Prof. W. W. Campbell, 335; Relations between Spectra and other Characteristics of Stars, Prof. H. N. Russell, 335; 353 XXXVIil Index Secondary Oscillations in Radial Velocity Curves, Dr. Schlesinger, 385; Constitution of the Milky Way, Prof. Charlier, 407; Magnitude Observations at Harvard, Prof. Pickering, 486; Occultation of a Star by Jupiter, A. Burnet, 632 Stars, Double: Spectrum and Orbit of B Scorpii, Dr. Daniel and Dr. Schlesinger, 121; Masses, Dr. Doberck, 511; y Geminorum a Spectroscopic Binary of Excep- tionally Long Period, Mr. Harper, 670 Stars, Variable: Nova Geminorum No, 2, Various, 42, 94, I2I, 131, 176, 200, 207, 208, 209, 250, 277, 329, 364, 384, 408; Supposed Lines of Radium in Spectrum, Dr. H. Giebeler, 432; R. Furuhjelm, Dr. Ludendorff, 589; Nova or Variable in Perseus, 87, 1911, 175; Parallax of Nova Lacerta, 1910, Prof. Slocum, 176; Nova Cygni, Prof. E. E. Barnard, 207; Nova Lacerte, Prof. E. E. Barnard, 207; Origins of Bright Lines in Novz Spectra, Prof. Fowler, 277; Relation between Temporary Stars and the Sun, H. Deslandres, 339; a New Variable, G. Deme- tresco, 364; Spectrum of P Cygni, Prof. Frost, 384; Permanent Designations of Variable Stars, 408; a Changeable Red Star, WX Cygni, Prof. Barnard, 432 ; Photometric Observations of Mira, Prof. Bemporad, 541 ; Observations of New Stars, Prof. E. E. Barnard, 566; Polaris, J. Stebbins, 669 Statesman’s Year Book, 1912, 398 Statics, Elementary Graphic, Dr. W. J. Crawford, 655 Statistics: Tables of Statistical Error, Sir R. Ross and W. Stott, 15; Application of Fourier’s Series, G, H. Knibbs, 92; Methods of Measuring Association between two Attributes, G. Udny Yule, 406; Measurement of Employment, A. L. Bowley, 667; Systems of Birth Registration, 668 Steel: Constitution of Steel, Prof. Arnold, 278; Metallurgy of Steel, F. W. Harbord and J. W. Hall, Prof. J. O. Arnold, F.R.S., 315; Heat Treatment of Tool Steel, H. Brearley, F. W. Harbord, 501; Self-demagnetisation, S. W. J. Smith and J. Guild, 546 Stimuli: Sensibility of the Human Subject to Differences in Rate of, Dr. Kk. Dunlap, 13 Stomatograph, W. L. Balls, 24 Stone and Metal Implements, Transition, O. Bates, 563 Stones, Precious, see Gem Stream Lines of Fishes, Prof. F. Houssay, 319 Strepsiptera in India, E. E. Green, “the Reviewer,” 632 Streptococci, Observations on Variability of, in relation to Fermentation Tests, E. W. A. Walker, 442 Stresses in Spherical Shells, Dr. H. Reissner, 642 Stromatoporoids, Nature of, R. Kirkpatrick, 607 Submerged Forest laid bare in Pembrokeshire, 89 Sugar: Peeps at Industries: Sugar, Edith A. Browne, 5; Sugar Beet: Some Facts and Some Illusions, by “Home Counties” (J. W. Robertson-Scott), 28; Manufacture of Palm Sugar in Upper Burma, 68 Sulphur, Fertilising Action of, A. Demolon, 25; Volatility of Sulphur and its Action on Water, F. Jones, 338 Sulphuric Acid, Simple Process for Purifying to Detect Arsenic, G. Bressanin, 486 Sun: Cycles of the Sun and Weather, Prof. R. A. Gregory, 147; the Telluric Bands due to Oxygen, Dr. Fortrat, 157; the Radiation Constant, Messrs. Abbott and Fowle,- 199; Position of Sun’s Axis from Photographs, Dr. F. W. Dyson, F.R.S., and E. W. Maunder, 312; Con- tinuous Spectrum of Metallic Vapours and the Solar Photosphere, M. Gouy, 495; Radium and the Solar Chromosphere, Dr. Dyson, F.R.S., 541; Pressure at the Surface, M. Gouy, 547 Eclipse of April 17, Abbé Moreux, 93; Dr. Graff, 93; Sun: M. Fayet, M. Bigourdan, 147; Dr. Lockyer and F. Maclean, 175; 192; Dr. W. J. S. Lockyer and others, 219; J. Y. Buchanan, F.R.S., 241; Various, 250, 260— 261, 277; M. Flammarion, Comte de la Baume Pluvinel, 304; 313; Allen (A. C. and Miss), 355; Various, 541; Prof. Schorr, 670; Halo during the Solar Eclipse of April 17, Dr. Marie C. Stopes, 217; Moon's Diameter, J. J. Landerer, 338, Prof. Hartmann, 408; the Green Coronal Line, A. Perot, 339; Kinematography of the Solar Eclipse, C. Lobo, 364, 541; Effect on Radio- telegraphic Signals, M. Flajolet, 390; Photography, M. Rudaux, 407; Lunar Profile, Dr. Graff, 670; see also Electricity Nature, October 24, 1912 Sun, Eclipses: Total Eclipse of the Sun, April, 1911, as observed at Vavau, Tonga Islands: Royal Institution Discourse, Dr. W. J. S. Lockyer, 151; a Peculiarity in the Shadows Observed during a Partial Eclipse of the Sun, E. Edser, 216; Brazilian Eclipse on October 10, Harold Thomson, 433 Sun-heat Absorber, the Shuman, A. S. E. Ackermann, 522 Sun: Prominences, Prof. Riccd, 250, 304, 511 Sun-spots ; Sun-spots and Faculz in 1911, Prof. Riccd, 42; Diurnal Inequalities of Barometric Pressure in Years of Sun-spot Maximum and Minimum, Dr. E. Leyst, 564 Sunshine at ‘Trieste, Dr. E. A. Kielhauser, Dr. E. Gold, 151; Daily Sunshine in Russia, 226 Surveying, Effects of Errors in, H. Briggs, 605 Surveys: Colonial Surveys, J. Strauchon and others, 222 Syphilis, Recent Methods in the Diagnosis and Treatment : the Wassermann Serum Reaction and Ehrlich’s Sal- varsan, Dr. Carl H. Browning and I. Mackenzie, and others, 575 TYannins: Chemical Structure, E. Fischer, 303 Tapeworm, Asexual, from the Musquash, Beddard, 416 Tasmanian Devil Remains near Victoria, J. Mahony, 668 Teachers’ Book of Constructive Work for Elementary Schools, E. J. S. Lay, 528 Teaching and Method, Prof. Welton, 144 Technical Institutions, Annual Conference of Association of Teachers in, 358 Technical Instruction for Ireland, Department of : Summer Courses, 207 Telegraphy : Handbuch der Phototelegraphie und Telauto- graphie, Profs. A. Korn and B. Glatzel, 110 Telephone Exchange, New Automatic, 299 Temperature : Effects of Seasonal Changes on Body Tem- perature, Prof. S. Simpson, 78; Temperature Oscilla- tions in Loch Earn, E. M. Wedderburn, 131; Very High Temperatures: Royal Institution Discourse, Dr. J. A. Harker, F.R.S., 514; Physical Significance of the Mean Diurnal Curve of Temperature, Dr. J. R. Sutton, 678 Therapeutics : an Introduction to Therapeutic Inoculation, Dr. D. W. Carmalt Jones, 60; Hypotensive Action of Guanine, MM. Desgrez and Dorléans, 235; Therapeutic Methods based on altering the Activity of the Endocrinal Glands by Physical Means, Ph. Nogier, 261 Thorium, Transformations of the Active Deposit of, E. Marsden and C. G. Darwin, 285 Tides of Baltic and Gulf of Finland, R. Witting, 615 Time Measurement, Prehistoric, in Britain, Dr. McAldowie, 619 Titanic, the Loss of the, 170, 201, 324, 542, 661; Finding of Court of Inquiry, 561; Lord Mersey’s Report, 581; Board of Trade Committee to advise on Safety of Life at Sea, &c., 584 Tebacco Growing in England, G. H. Garrad, 568 Topaz and Beryl from the Granite of Lundy W. F. P. McLintock and T. C. F. Hall, 443 Tortoise, Gilbert White’s, “ Timothy,” 587 Toxic, see Poison Tow-nets, New Method of Working Vertical, 521 Trachoma, Susceptibility of the Ape Macacus inuus to, C. Nicolle and others, 574 Trade Resources of the Empire, Royal Commission on, Lewis Harcourt, Colonial Secretary, 172 Transformer Design, H. M. Hobart, 475 Transformisme et l’Expérience, le, E. Rabaud, sor Trees: British Trees, including the Finer Shrubs, the late Rev. C. A. Johns, E. T. Cook, 30; Trees in Illinois and Insect Pests, 430 Trematodes from Australian Frogs, Dr. S. J. Johnston, 626 Triceratops, Skull in British Museum, 509 Trigonometry : Elementary Trigonometry, F. T. Swanwick, 655: the Elements of Plane and Spherical Trigonometry, J. G. Hun and C. R. MaclInnes, 655; Plane Trigo- rometry (for Indian Universities), Prof. L. K. Ghosh, 655 Tropical Diseases: Research Fund: Report, 40; Tropical Diseases, 508; Prevention and Treatment of Disease ‘n the Tropics, E. S. Crispin, 575 Tropical Medicine, London School of, 13; 537; Appeal for Endowment Fund, 509 Dray ieee Island, Sir E. Grey, Nature, ] October 24,1912 ‘ropical Veterinary Bulletin, 508 rypanosomes: Transmission of Trypanosoma nanum (Laveran), Dr. H. L. Duke, 51; Relation of Wild Animals to Trypanosomiasis, Capt. A. D. Fraser and Dr. H. L. Duke, 51; Measurement of Trypanosoma rhodesiense, Dr. J. W. W. Stephens and Dr. H. B. _Fantham, 258; T. grayt, 404 Tuberculosis: Culture of the Koch Bacillus in a definite Chemical Medium, P. Armand-Delille and others, 25; Tuberculosis and Telephones, Dr. Spitta, 38; Tubercular Osteitis, Treatment by High-frequency Discharge, E. Doumer, 157; Delay in Consolidation of a Broken Limb in a Tuberculous Case, A. Robin, 235; Report of the Tuberculosis Committee, 270; Tuberculosis, Heredity, and Environment, Prof. K. Pearson, F.R.S., 427; Helio- therapy applied to Children, Gertrude Austin, 538; Exhibition of Appliances, &c., 613 Tunicata, British, J. Alder and A. Hancock, J. Hopkinson, 5 Turbines: Steam Turbine Design, Dr. J. Morrow, 159; Marine Steam Turbines, Dr. G. Bauer and O. Lasche, and others, 159; the Steam Turbine: the Rede Lecture, Sir Charles A. Parsons, K.C.B., 159; the Ljungstrém Steam Turbine, 175 Typhoid Fever, Inoculation against, E. Metchniloff and A. Besredka, 547 Ultra-violet Rays: Photolytic Decomposition of Smokeless Powder, Picrie Acid, &c., by, D. Berthelot and H. Gaudechon, 25; Effects of, on the Eye, Dr. E. K. Martin, 76, Dr. L. Bell, 511; Decomposition of Glycerol by, 314; Action on Starch, J. Bielecki and R. Wurmser, 365; Alleged Ultra-violet Rays from Filament Lamps, P. Trotter, 377; Variation of Abiotic Power with Wave-length, Mme. and Victor Henri, 600; Application to Chemical Analysis, M. Landau, 625; Quantitative Study of Absorption, J. Bielecki and V. Henri, 677; see also Meteorology United States: National Museum, 405; Mineral Resources and Developments: Bulletins, 617 Unity in Nature: an Analogy between Music and Life, C. E. Stromeyer, 86 Universe, Sub-mechanics of the: Prof. Osborne Reynolds’s Theory, J. Mackenzie, 175 Universities: Universities of the Empire: Congress, 385, 477; University Education in Germany, Prof. W. Miinch, 518; University Budgets, 623 Uranium, Atomic Weight of, P. Lebeau, 547; Influence of Uranium Salts on Alcoholic Ferments, E. Kayser, 574 Uranus, Spectroscopic Discovery of the Rotation of, Prof. P. Lowell, 277, 312 Uz, the Land of, “Abdullah Mansur,” G. Wyman Bury, 35 Vaunthompsonia, Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing, 77 Vegetation, Types of British, Members of the Central Committee for the Survey and Study of British Vegeta- tion, 212 Ventilation : Influence of Ozone, L. Hill and M. Flack, 72 Veterinary Studies for Agricultural Students, Prof. M. H. Reynolds, 58; Guide to the Dissection of the Dog, Dr. O. C. Bradley, 630 Vibrations, Forced, Prof. John Perry, F.R.S., 424; J. L. Dunk, 477; J. P. Dalton, 528; Views and Reviews, Sir Harry Johnston, K.C.B., 553 Viscosity of Carbon Dioxide, Dr. P. Phillips, 363 Vitalism, Burdon Sanderson and, Dr. J. S. F.R.S., 215 Vivisection Report, 65 Volcanoes: of Central Madagascar, A. Lacroix, 25; of New Zealand, Dr. J. M. Bell, 38; the Etna Eruption of September, 1911, Prof. A. Riccd, 149; New Vent in Etna, 303; Destructive Eruption of Chiriqui Peak, near Bocas del Toro, Panama, 171; Warnings of Eruptions in the Philippines, Rev. M. Saderra Masd, 328; Taal Volcano in the Philippines, D. Worcester, 430; Volcanic Eruption in Aleutian Islands, 381; Eruptions of the Asani (Japan), Prof. F. Omori, Dr. C. Davison, 487 G.C.M.G., Haldane, L[ndex XXXIX Vortex Rings in Liquids, A. W. Ackerman, Prof. C. V. Boys, F-R.S., 15 Wales : National Museum, 350 Wapiti in Wyoming, 405 Wasps, Fossorial, of family Scoliida, R. E. Turner, 312 Water : Expansion of Water by Freezing, G. R. M. Temple, 15; U.S. Geological Survey, 150, 486; Hydrogen Peroxide in Rain and Snow, and the Solar Ultra-violet Rays, M. Kernbaum, 175; Report on Research Work: Organisms, Dr. Houston, 225; Water Analysis for Sani- tary and Technical Purposes, H. B. Stocks, 552; Artesian Wells of Canterbury, N.Z., Dr. Speight, 644 Water-lily, North American, Messrs. Miller and Standley, S°7, Water-power: the French “Service des Grandes Forces Hydrauliques,” 72; Water-power in the Highlands, A. Newlands, 328 Wave-problem of Cauchy and Poisson for Finite Depth and slightly Compressible Fluid, F. B. Pidduck, 24 Weather, see Meteorology Weights and Measures Reform Bill for S. Africa, 66 Whales, Fossil, Prof. F. W. True, 225; Casts of Bones and Flipper Structure, 615 Whaling, Modern, T. E. Salvesen, 173 Wheat : Wheat-growing in Canada, the United States, and the Argentine: including Comparisons with other Areas, W. P. Rutter, 135; Rothamsted Uxperiments, 649 Wind: Storm of March 4, E. Kitto, 34; Diurnal Varia- tions of Force on Ben Nevis, Prof. J. Hann, 41; New Type of Instrument for continuously recording Direction, Messrs. Negretti and Zambra, 120; Hurricanes and other Tropical Cyclones, Dr. O. L. Fassig, 489 Wireless Telegraphy: Application to Storm Prediction, M. Flajolet, 105; Loss of the Titanic, 201; Italian Naval and Military Experiments, 274; International Radio- telegraphic Convention, 352; Jahrbuch der drahtlosen Telegraphie und Telephonie, Prof. Dr. J. Zenneck, Dr. G. Eichhorn, Dr. J. Erskine-Murray, 400; Calibration of Wave-meters, Prof. G. W. O. Howe, 415; Inter- national Radio-telegraphic Conference, 483; Efficiency of Generation of High-frequency Oscillations by means of an Induction Coil and Spark Gap, Prof. G. W. O. Howe and J. D. Peattie, 546; Committee to consider Needs cf British Army, 585; Bill for Control of Messages in United States, 613 Wood, Preservation of, E. Pinoy, 53 Wood Pulp, the Testing of : a Practical Handbook for the Pulp and Paper Trades, Sindall and Bacon, 658 Wounds: Specific Treatment, MM. Leclainche and Vallée, 79 X-rays, Conversion of Starch into Dextrin by, H. A. Colwell and Dr. S. Russ, 337 Yeasts, Conjugation of, 483 Yukon, the Wilderness of the Upper: a Hunter’s Explora- tions for Wild Sheep, C. Sheldon, 83 Zebra, Local Races of Burchell’s, Major J. S. Hamilton, 364; R. I. Pocock, F.R.S., 399 Zeolites from Co. Antrim, Dr. F. N. A. Fleischmann, 77 Zinc: Strength of Rolled, H. F. Moore, 146; Tempering and Annealing, G. Timoféef, 652 Zone-plates, Contrast Colours in Use of, W. B. Croft, 581 Zoological Congress, Ninth International, in 1913, 509 Zoological Gardens for Edinburgh, 508 Zoological Nomenclature, Prof. Sydney J. Hickson, F.R.S., 349 Zoology : General : South African Zoology, Prof. J. D. F. Gilchrist, 166; First Book of Zoology, T. H. Burlend, 264; le Transformisme et l’Expérience, E. Rabaud, 501; Clare Island Survey, G. E. H. Barrett-Hamilton, R. F. Scharff, and others, 521; Distribution and Origin of Life in America, R. F. Scharff, 523; Festschrift zum 60-ten Geburtstage des Herrn Geheimen Hofrats, Prof. G. F. H. Smith and xl Index Zoology (continued) : Dr. J. W. Spengel, 580; Nature and Man in Australia, Prof. B. Spencer, C.M.G., F.R.S., and F. J. Gillen, Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.R.S., 608; Zentralblatt fiir Zoologie, 614; Zoology, Prof. J. G. Kerr, F.R.S., 627; Smithsonian Expeditions, 674 Invertebrate: Little Monographs, Profs. Ziegler and Woltereck, 91; Clare Island Survey: Decapoda, G. P. Farran; Schizopoda and Cumacea, W. M. Tattersall ; Land and Fresh-water Isopoda, N. H. Foster; Platy- helmia, R. Southern, all 260; Anleitung zum _prakti- schen Studium niederer Tiere, Dr. W. Schleip, 264; Fresh-water Fauna of Central Europe, Prof. F. Zschokke, Dr. V. H. Langhans, 488 ; Twenty-three New Species taken by the Scotia, Dr. W. S. Bruce, 521; das Tierreich, Dr. H. Friese, Prof. J. J. Kieffer, Dr. J. E. W. Thle, 627. Special: Amphipoda, Brackish-water, from Bremerhaven, Mrs. E. W. Sexton, 259; Anemones, Aged Sea, Dr. N. Annan- dale, 607; Cestoidea found on Tapeworms, New Genus of, Dr. F. E. Beddard, 312; Coleoptera (the Fauna of British India), Dr. W. W. Fowler, 267; Ctenophora or Comb-jellies, A. G. Mayer, 327; Echinus, Locomotor Function of the Lantern of, J. F. Gemmill, 51; Hook-worm (Agchylostoma duodenale), Anatomy and Life-history of the, Dr. A. Looss, 672; Hydrocoralline Genus Errina, 416; Medusa, Fresh- RicHArD CLay anpD Sons, LIMITED, BRUNSWICK STREET, S.E., AND BUNGAY, SUFFOLK. = Zulus, the Story of the, J. Y. Gibson, 35 ‘ertebrate : Nature, Octoher 24, 1912 water, Limnocnida rhodesiae, C. L. Boulenger, 275 Merlia normani and its Relation to certain Palzozoi Fossils, R. Kirkpatrick, 502; Polyplacophora of Lo Howe and Norfolk Islands, C. Hedley and A. F. B Hull, 600; Rotifera from Devil’s Lake in N. Dakota C. F. Rousselet, 130; Spirochaels : Systematic Position Clifford Dobell, 130; TYapeworms of the Genu Inermicapsifer from the Hyrax, &c., F. E. Beddard 207; Worm, Nerilla antennata, E. S. Goodrich, 275 see also Entomology and Insects Die Wirbeltiere: eine Uebersicht iiber di fossilen und lebenden Formen, Prof. Otto Jaekel, 134 Special: Antarctic Fish Fauna: Scotia Collection C. T. Regan, 521; Batrachians, Adipolymphoid Bodie: in the, P. Kennel, 339; Dumfriesshire, Catalogue o the Vertebrate Fauna of, Hugh S. Gladstone, 62: Frogs and Snakes from the Abor Foot-hills, Dr. N Annandale, 365 ; Hippopotamus, Pigmy, 510; Mammals Two interesting New, 144; the Ox and its Kindred R. Lydekker, 523; Reptiles, Amphibia, Fishes, d Lower Chordata, R. Lydekker and others, 523 Salmon and Trout, Age and Growth in Norway, Dahl, I. Baillie, 523; Sheep, White, as Eaters Snow, G. Shiras, 539; Stag, rare, from Nepal, R. I Pocock, 207; Unknown Animai like a Bear seen in Africa, G. Williams, 615; see also Birds and Fish A WEEKLY LEE USTRALE Ds |OURNAE OR SCIENCE: “To the solid ground Of Nature trusts the mind which builds for aye. ”._WORDSWORTH. ~ No. 2210, VOL. 89] THURSDAY, M ARC H 7, ‘1912 [Price Sr SIXPENCE > __Rexistered | asa Newspaper : at the General Post Office. ) WRIGHT & NEWTON’ Ss PROJECTION MICROSCOPE. Improved Pattern with Centering Substage, &c. Maenifications up to 5000 or 6000 diameters easily obtainable. Write for Fully Illustrated Catalogue to NEWTON & CO., Manufacturers of Optical and Scientific Instruments, 3 FLEET STREET, LONDON, E.C. MICROSCOPE. A New Form for Research Work. (THE REGENT MODEL.) Slow motion four times finer than usual. Swing-out centring and focussing substage. lris diaphragm in stage level with surface. Finder divisions to mechanical stage, &c. CANTOR LECTURES By Conrap Beck on the Theory of the Microscope, Price I/- R. & J. BECK, LTD., 68 CORNHILL, E.C. THE “LONDON” | ly All Rights Reserved. TANGENT | GALVANOMETER (9389). On one side of the circle three separate windings of to turns each of No. 24 D.S.C. copper wire, the diameter of each is 4# in., 7? in., and 10} in. respectively ; on the osher side of the circle three wind- ings of the same diameter, but with twice the number of turns of wire, viz., 20 turns each. Each of the winding ends has a pair of terminals fixed on the circle. A small ebonite tablet fixed under each pair of terminals states the particulars of the windings connected to those terminals. Agate centre to magnetic needle in brass case, polished teak base, £4 oo (EXTRACT FROM NEW PHYSICAL LIST.) _ BAIRD & TATLOCK (London), LTD., 14 Cross Street, Hatton Garden, London, E.C. NEGRETTI & fee Standard...) ee Awarded 2 Grands Prix Meteorological Turin INTERNATIONAL. Instruments. EXHIBITION, tgtt, for Scientific Instruments. Full particulars post free on application to 88 HOLBORN VIADUCT, LONDON, E.C. Branches: 45 CORNHILL, E.C.; and 122 REGENT ST., W. ii NATURE [Marcu 7, 1912 EAST LONDON COLLEGE. (UNIVERSITY OF LONDON.) Patron—HIS MAJESTY THE KING. STAFF. Classics ... F. R. Earp, M.A. English H. Bettoc, M.A. French Mina Paguier. German ... J. SterpaT, Ph.D. History ... ro Tuomas SEccomsE, M.A. Mathematics... ‘THE PRINCIPAL. Physics C. H. Less, D.Sc., F.R.S. Chemistry J. T. Hewitt, D.Sc., F.R.S. Botany Re Geology .. a ar +s Civil and Mechanical 5 7 4 Engineering... ne D. A. Low, M.I.M.E. Electrical Engineering J. T. Morris, M.1.E.E. Fees moderate. Valuable Entrance Scholarships awarded by Drapers Company. Special facilities for Post-Graduate and Research Students. Particulars of fees, courses of study, &c., on application to the REGISTRAR, or to J. L. S. HATTON, M.A., Principal, at the College. F. E. Fritscu, D.Sc. W. L. Carter, M.A. BEDFORD COLLEGE FOR WOMEN. (UNIVERSITY OF LONDON.) YORK PLACE, BAKER STREET, LONDON, W. REID TRUSTEES' SCHOLARSHIP. ONE SCHOLARSHIP, value £60 a year for three years, is offered by the Trustees on the result of the College Entrance Scholarship Examination in June next. _The sch lar will be required to come into residence at the College in the October following the award. Further particulars on appli- cation to the Hon. Sec. TO THE REID Trust, Bedford College. COLLEGE ENTRANCE SCHOLARSHIPS THREE ENTRANCE SCHOLARSHIPS (one in Arts and two in Science) will be offered for competition in June next, viz. :— Reid, in Arts, value £30 a year for three years. Pfeiffer, in Science, value £50 a year for three years. Henry Tate, in Science, value £40 a year for two years. Full particulars on application to the PRINCIPAL. ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN, ALBEMARLE STREET, PICCADILLY, W. Tuesday next (March 12), at Three o'clock, THOMAS RICE ‘HOLMES, Esq., Lut.D. First of Three Lectures on ‘ANCIENT Britain.” Half-a-Guinea the Course. Subscription to all the Courses in the Season, Two Guineas. INDIAN PUBLIC WORKS AND STATE RAILWAYS DEPARTMENTS. The Secretary of State for India in Council will, in the Summer of 1912, make about 19 appointments of ASSISTANT ENGINEER to the permanent establishment of the Indian Public Works and State Railways Departments. Candidates must be British subjects and must, wéthout exception on any ground, have attained the age of 21, and not have attained the age of 24 years on July 1, 1912. They must have obtained a University degree, or other approximately equivalent diploma or distinction in Engineering, or have passed the Associate Membership Examination of the Institution of Civil Engineers. A printed Form of Application, together with information regarding the conditions of appointment, may be obtained from the SECRETARY, Judicial and Public Department, India Office, London, S.W., to whom applications must be forwarded so as to reach him not later than May 1, rgr2. R. RITCHIE, Under Secretary of State. India Office, London, January, 1912. CITY OF WORCESTER. The Higher Education Committee require the services of a HEAD MASTER of the SCIENCE AND TECHNICAL SCHOOL, to com- mence his duties on August 1, 1912 Candidates must be graduates of some University of the United Kingdom, or possess equivalent qualifications, and have had experience of work in a Science and Technical School. Salary £250, rising by annual increments of £25, if approved by the Education Committee, to a maximum of £300 per annum. The Head Master will be expected to devote his whole time to the duties of his office Applications, stating age, qualifications, experience, &c., accompanied by three recent testimonials, to be sent in on or before March 20, 1912. THOS. DUCKWORTH, Victoria Institute, Secretary for Higher Education. Worcester. | NOTTS EDUCATION COMMITTEE. APPOINTMENT OF GENERAL ASSISTANT TO THE DIRECTOR, GENERAL ASSISTANT TO THE DIRECTOR. Salary.— £250 per annum, increasing by annual increments of £10 to a maximum of £300 per annum, with the usual allowance for travelling, &c. _ Lxperience.—Preference will be given to applicants who have had teach- ing or administrative experience. Duties.—The successful applicant will be required to assist in visiting Evening Schools and Day Schools, and to take part in the general adminis- tration work of the Higher Education Sub-Committee. Apfplications.—Applications to be addressed, ‘‘ DirEcTOoR oF Epuca- TION, Shire Hall, Nottingham,” and to reach me on or before March 30, 1912, and must be accompanied by Form of Application to be obtained at this Office, and by copies of not more than three testimonials of recent date. Copies of applications must not be sent to members of the Educa- tion Committee, but selected applicants must be prepared on request to supply me with at least twenty-five additional copies for use by the Committee. Canvassing is strictly prohibited, qualification, and will be regarded as a dis- By order of the Committee, B. W. L. BULKELEY, Director of Education. EDINBURGH SCHOOL BOARD. BOROUGHMUIR HIGHER GRADE PUBLIC SCHOOL. The Board invite applications for the position of ASSISTANT See TEACHERK (Man or Woman) in Boroughmuir Higher Grade School. Candidates must satisfy the requirements of Chapter 5 of the Regula- tions of the Scotch Education Department for the Training of Teachers, and special qualifications in Natural Science will be a recommendation. Salary for men, £130, rising by 410 per annum to £200. Salary for women, 4100, rising by £10 per annum to £160. ‘Lhe successful candidate must undertake not to engage in evening school work. Canvassing will be a disqualification. Twenty-two letters of application stating age, experience, present em- ployment, accompanied by twenty-two sets of testimonials (which will not be returned), must be lodged with the undersigned not later than Friday, March 22. J. W. PECK, Clerk to the Board. School Board Offices, Castle Terrace, Edinburgh, March a, tore. TO SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICAL MASTERS. Easter (1912) Vacancies. Graduates in Science and other well-qualified masters seeking posts in Public and other Schools should apply at once, giving full details as to qualifications, &c., and enclosing copies of testimonial~, to :— MESSRS. GRIFFITHS, SMITH, POWELL & SMITH, Tutorial Agents (Estd. 1833), 34 Bedford Street, Strand, London. Immediate notice «f all the best vacancies will be sent. THE UNIVERSITY OF SHEFFIELD. APPOINTMENT OF DEMONSTRATOR IN EXPERIMENTAL PHYSIOLOGY. The Council are about to appointa DEMONSTRATOR in EXPERI- MENTAL PHYSIOLOGY. Salary, £200 per annum. Applications must reach the undersigned, from whom further particulars may be obtained, by March 30, rgr2. W. M. GIBBONS, Registrar APPLICATIONS are invited tor the post of LECTURER in ZOOLOGY AND GEOLOGY at the Grey Col- lege, Bloemfontein, South Africa, at a salary of £400 per annum. Six copies of applications, accompanied by a similar number of copies of testimonials, must be in the hands of the High Commissioner for the Union of South Africa, 32 Victoria Street, S.W., not later than March 9 next McGILL UNIVERSITY, MONTREAL. CHAIR OF BOTANY. The Governors of McGill University are prepared to receive applications for appointment to the MACDONALD CHAIR OF BOTANY. Salary, $3,coo. For all other information apply to S. R. BURRELL, Acting Secretary. Montreal, february 26, 1912. BRITISH BIRDS.—For Sale the valuable Norfolk Collection of the late E. M. Connop, Esq , the majority of the specimens, which are in the finest condition, having been obtained in that county, a large number having formed part of the well-known | Overend, Glasspoole, Rising, Master, Gurney, Stevenson, Micklewait, | Frere, Spelman and other collections. There are about soo cases, | which are contained in a matchboarded, corrugated iron building with | hot water heating apparatus. Further particulars may be had of | Mappison, Mires & Mappison, Auctioneers, Great Yarmouth. The Notts Education Committee invite applications for the office of WEEKLY DLEUSTRATED JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. “To the solid ground Of Nature trusts the mind which builds for aye.’”.—Worpsworti. THURSDAY, MARCH 7, 1912. SEA FISHERIES. their Treasures and Toilers. By Prof. Marcel A. MHérubel. Translated by Bernard Miall. Pp. 366. (London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1912.) Price ros. 6d. net. “THE English have long understood that the men of the seaboard are not foreigners, but of the same naticn as the men of the cities, the mines, and the fields.” So writes Prof. Hérubel in the very complimentary preface to this English edition of his “Péches Maritimes d’aujourd’hui et d’autrefois.” He flatters us somewhat. The heroism, the picturesqueness, and the more striking hardships of fishing, these are pretty well known; but there is little enough knowledge of the working, as opposed to the spectacular, conditions of fishing, and of the fisheries as a trade and an employment. Fishing, to most people, is the special affair of someone Sea Fisheries: else. Nor has the large amount of scientific re- search into fishery problems been adequately popularised. It has presented, as it were, no report to and for the general public. There is no good bridge between the highly technical Journal of the Marine Biological Association and learned monographs and trade periodicals on the one side, and unsystematic picture-books about fish and fishing on the other. Sharp controversies affect- ing the livelihood of more than a hundred thousand sea-going fishermen, who land yearly over ten millions’ worth of fish, rouse next to no wide- spread interest, mainly for the reason that so few people know enough about fishing to hold an opinion. The description given of a companion volume NO. 2210, VOL. 89] in the “Bibliotheque des Amis de la Marine” applies well to Prof. Hérubel’s “Sea Fisheries” : —‘C’est une ceuvre d’intelligente et agréable vulgarisation.” It is a work, too, which was as needed in England as in France, and although the author wrote primarily of the French fisheries for his fellow-countrymen, he has so much to say about the [English industry, and fishing in any case is so international, that he has produced what is certainly the best book up to the present for giving English readers some precise under- standing of their own great fisheries. (But not their small fisheries; his remarks on the French small fishermen, merely transferred to England, are very misleading.) Without undue technicality —and it is so much easier to be technical on technical subjects—he is exceedingly systematic and comprehensive. Starting with the oceano- graphy of the North Atlantic and with a brief survey of fish biology, he works out in some detail the cycle of oceanic life from non-living matter through plankton upwards to food-fishes, and arrives at the conclusion that “fishing-grounds are regions in unstable equilibrium, when [where in the French] there is an encounter of two critical conditions, one biological and the other oceanic ” ; or where, in other words, the oceanic conditions, such as meeting currents, with a consequent abundance of plankton, and contiguous breeding- grounds and nurseries, are favourable to fish-life, and where, in addition, the struggle to live amongst fish has a favourable issue for the edible species. It so happens that these conditions are to be found together only where the sea is not too deep for fishing on the so-called continental plateaux. After considering the effect of fishing on the un- stable equilibrium, Prof. Hérubel proceeds to lay down the law on fishery problems and regulations, and it may be said at once that his views on these B 2 NATURE [MARCH 7, 1912 subjects are far more questionable than the view which he presents of oceanic life and fishery operations. In the second section of the book—and it is this which makes the work so unusually complete he deals with the human side of the industry ; with the fishermen as an integral part of it; with social life on the coast, the chief fishing ports, boats and gear, fishermen, profits, and distribution. Here his recommendations rest on a sounder basis. The scandalous toll taken by the middleman and the imperfections of transport cannot but strike any investigator in England no less than in France; nor can the fishing industry become really prosperous for the fishermen producers as well as for its horde of middlemen until its amazing abuses, its fluctuations and consequent gambling on the markets, are taken firmly in hand. All efforts to improve the fisheries must be more than futile so long as neither the fisherman nor the con- sumer stands to obtain any of the benefit. It is a point insufficiently recognised by Prof. Hérubel. He has apparently been misled by the magnitude and the huge turnover, the confusing noise and hustle, of the English capitalistic steam fisheries; so much so, indeed, that he insists on his countrymen adopting their methods, though later on in the book he seems to admit that the more co-operative German and Danish methods are even better. “For one step taken by the French the English take fifty and the Germans a hundred.” I do not observe (from his biblio- graphy) that he has studied the 1904 report of the evidence given before the House of Lords Com- mittee on the Sea Fisheries Bill. Had he done so, he could hardly have helped moderating his animus against small fishermen and his desire to suppress them altogether; for it was there con- clusively shown that immature flat-fish do at cer- tain ages and seasons congregate on the extra- territorial fishing grounds, and that the destruc- tion of them inshore by all the small fishermen put together is an almost negligible factor com- pared with their wholesale destruction by the great steam fleets. It is impossible to avoid thinking that Prof. Hérubel’s inordinate admiration for the steam fishing companies has led him to take sides with them, and to base his recommenda- tions on the incomplete scientific hypotheses which happen to be favourable to their interests. As soon, in fact, as incomplete scientific in- vestigations are embodied in recommendations and regulations affecting the livelihoods of men, we meet with the question of fictitious accuracy in an acute form. An average, for instance, is not a substantive quantity, and is not used as such in scientific work; it is only valid for purposes of NO. 2210, VOL. 89] comparison with other averages similarly ob- tained. But when it is used in the framing of fishery regulations, its non-substantive character should be plainly realised, the more so since minor legislating bodies are always only too anxious to shelve their responsibilities on their scientific advisers. Prof. Hérubel affirms that the flounder is adult (i.e. can reproduce itself) at 3) in., the sole at 57) in., the turbot at 54 in., &c. The average sole may be adult at 5,4, in.; but the average sole is a fiction; soles themselves are adult at some- where about that size. Or to take a more strik- ing example, Prof. Hérubel states that ‘400 Ice- land herring will fill a barrel, while Soo Channel herring are required”; and that ‘the herring of one region never show themselves in another region—at all events, not in the form of shoals.” Channel herrings do average somewhere between 700 and 800 to a barrel; but as a statement of fact, and not of average, Prof. Hérubel’s figures are simply untrue; last winter I could scarcely pack 6004 of Channel herrings into barrels which, this winter, were not properly filled with goo. (It may be worth while to state that a hundred of herrings in Channel ports is 120 fish, and on the barrels a hundred and a half is written 1003.) Suppose, then, it were a question of forbidding fisher- men to catch Channel herrings on account of their small average size. Obviously a _ regulation founded on the average figures would ke as remote from actual fact as the much-advertised mean temperature of a certain seaside resort, where excessive heat in summer and withering east winds in the winter combine to produce an average tem- perature that would be delightful to live in if it ever existed there. In a like manner, by using averages and by exchanging terms which are not interchangeable, Prof. Hérubel arrives at the astonishing conclusion that the British fisherman “eains more than twice as much as the French fisherman.” He does not, of course. He may catch more than twice the worth of fish, but very little of the excess is actually pocketed by himself. Figures of fictitious accuracy, valid in scientific work, where they are compared one with the other, but not valid in their bearing on human life, are now so much in vogue—not only for framing fishery recommendations—that means should be taken more carefully to define what might be called their human validity. Had Prof. Hérubel done so, his ‘Sea Fisheries’? would have been authoritative throughout instead of authoritative | in its presentation, but extremely debatable in some of its recommendations, more especially as regards the small fisheries. STEPHEN REYNOLDS. — Marcu 7, 1912] NATURE 5 DESIGN IN ILLUMINATION. Principes de la Technique de l’Eclairage. By Dr. L. Bloch. Translated by G. Roy. Pp. 183. (Grenoble: Jules Rey; Paris: Gauthier-Villars, Ig1r.) Price 5 francs. HIS book is a translation of Dr. L. Bloch’s “Grundziige der Beleuchtungstechnik,” and although an interval of four years separates the original from the translation, the work was worth doing, as the admirable treatment accorded the subject by Dr. Bloch will secure a prominent place for his treatise in the literature of the subject for a long time to come. The subject-matter isin strict accordance with the title, a condition not too closely observed in some text-books on illuminating engineering. The author has devoted his attention almost entirely to the development of methods of design of light- ing installations from given data, whereby the results in illumination and costs can be predicted with a reasonable degree of certainty. In the first chapter fundamental quantities and their relations are clearly and accurately dealt with, the idea of luminous flux in particular being elucidated by a material analogy, which will carry conviction to a far larger number of readers than will the hardly worked analogy with magnetic flux. The author uses throughout the photometric notation of the Geneva Congress of 1896. Methods for the determination cf mean spherical intensity from polar curves of intensity are briefly described in the second chapter, including the author’s modification of Rousseau’s construction, which adapts it for rapid calculation, but the equally convenient graphical method due to Ken- nelly is not mentioned. Some general considerations with regard to exterior and interior lighting bring the third chapter to a conclusion, great stress being rightly laid on the importance of mean hérizontal illumina- tion as a factor in design. The real business of the book begins in the fourth chapter. A method is here given by which the integral of the Rousseau curve for a given light source over the lower hemisphere is made to supply material for a table of total luminous flux emitted under any angle from the vertical to the horizontal. A number of such curves are developed, each from the average polar curve of luminous intensity of a specified type of source, and all being reduced to the same value of mean spherical intensity. With the help of these tables, the cosine law, and some experimental data on reflection coefficients obtained by the author, a complete method of design is elaborated, applicable to most conditions in modern lighting. The author’s justification for NO. 2210, VOL. 89] his broad generalisations and approximations appears from the comparatively close agreement existing between his observed and calculated values of illumination in examples taken from his practice in the street lighting of Berlin. Photometry is dismissed at the beginning of the fifth chapter with little more than a description of the Brodhun illumination photometer as used by the author on the Berlin streets. This is followed by a description of a method for reducing to a minimum the number of street observations neces- sary for the determination of the value of the mean horizontal illumination. The sixth and last chapter is devoted to indirect lighting, and, in spite of obvious difficulties, it is shown from actual examples that the formule and methods already devised are still able in certain cases to give fairly accurate results. It is not easy, however, to follow the author in his conten- tion that the difference in cost between direct and indirect lighting for a given effect achieved may be in many cases of very small moment. The book is a successful attempt to place the design of illuminating installations in a position comparable with that held by design in other branches of engineering. THE PACE OF THE HARTEH. La Face de la Terre. By Prof. Ed. Suess. Vol. ili., pt. 2. Pp. xii+531-956, 2 maps, 124 figs. (Translated under the direction cf E. de Mar- gerie.) (Paris: Armand Colin, 191r.) 12 frs. HE present instalment of the French edition of Prof. Suess’s great work includes only the first half of the final volume. It consists of translations of chapters x.—xvi., which deal with the western representatives of the Altaid mountain system of Prof. Suess, and with the Alps, Atlas, and various related mountains, which are all attributed to foldings within areas surrounded by an Altaid framework. The last chapter deals with the North Atlantic area, including Iceland and Greenland. As the original has already been reviewed in NATURE, it unnecessary to reconsider the problems dealt with in the work. The chapters have been translated by MM. H. Baulig. Ch. Jacob, and P. Lemoine; the volume is edited by M. de Margerie, who is to be warmly congratu- lated on the great service he has made to students of Prof. by this accurate and scholarly translation, and by the issue of this well- illustrated edition of the book. The study of the work requires such frequent reference to geological maps, of which the original edition contains so few, that it is difficult to read M. de Margerie’s is work Suess’s except in a geological library. 4 NATURE [Marcu 7, 1912 edition is, however, so richly illustrated by excel- lent maps and sections that the bool is complete within itself. The German edition of the part here translated is illustrated by one plate and twenty-three figures. To these, M. de Margerie has added three plates and ror figures, and, as many of them have been redrawn for this edition, they are often clearer than the originals. More- over, many new additional references have been added and occasional, explanatory notes, which are all enclosed within square brackets. Amongst these additions the bibliography of the Caucasus and the footnotes on Algeria are especially useful. Among the most important of the new illustra- tions is a valuable coloured geological map of the western Atlas. M. de Margerie’s edition forms an atlas of diagrammatic sketch maps of the countries discussed. The maps are artistically excellent, but they sometimes follow the current, but inconvenient, practice of translating place names. It is no doubt difficult to decide when the translated form of a proper noun has become so widely used that it would be pedantic not to accept it. Nevertheless, it would be generally convenient if the number of such place-names were restricted as far as possible. Thus, such cases as the use of Terre de Grant for Grant Land render the index less useful to foreign stu- dents, and the adoption of Francois, instead of Franz, for a locality named after the Austrian Emperor tends to conceal the history of the name. Ilo Wie (Ge DARWINISM IN THE LIGHT OF MODERN RESEARCH. Die Abstammungslehre: Zwolf gemeinverstaind- liche Vortrige tiber die Dessendenstheorie im Licht der neweren Forschung. By O. Abel, A. Brauer, and others. Pp. iv+ 489. (Jena: Gustay Fischer, 1911.) Price 11 marks. HE handsome volume issued by the Society for Natural Science in Munich (Minchener Verein fiir Naturkunde) is a striking proof of the breadth of Darwin’s knowledge and of the many- sided character of his researches. The volume contains twelve papers relating to subjects dealt with by Darwin in establishing his theory of evolu- tion; but while Darwin dealt with all of them single-handed, each of the contributions to this | volume is the work of an expert. The first paper, an introduction to our present knowledge of evolu- tion, is written by Prof. Richard Hertwig, of Munich, who gives a very clear account of the work and beliefs of Darwin’s predecessors, especially of Cuvier’s position as regard evolution. The second and third papers are written by Prof. Richard Goldschmidt, of Munich, and relate to NO. 2210, VOL. 89] | Abstammungsslehre.” the origin of species in the light of our present knowledge of heredity. In the fourth, by Prof. Richard Semon, the inheritance of acquired char- acters is discussed; the author thinks these may be inherited, but he employs the term inheritance in a limited sense. In the fifth, Dr. Paul Kammerer, of Vienna, recapitulates the chief facts in support of Darwin derived from experi- ments in breeding. The position of natural selec- tion as a factor in evolution is the subject of the sixth paper, by Prof. Franz Doflein, of Munich. Prof. August Brauer, in the seventh paper, gives the evidence arising from our modern know- ledge of the geographical, distribution of animals ; while the additional evidence afforded by modern paleontology by Dr. Edgard Dacqué, of Munich, constitutes the eighth paper. Prof. Abel, cf Vienna, writes the ninth paper, and describes the various fossil forms which have been discovered since Darwin’s time, and their bearing on our knowledge of the evolution of the higher verte- brates. The bearing of recent discoveries in com- parative anatomy on the theory of descent is related by Prof. Otto Maas, of Munich (tenth paper); while Prof. Karl Giesenhagen writes the eleventh, on the evolution of plant forms. The last and twelfth paper occupies a third of the volume. It is written by Prof. Hermann Klaatsch, of Breslau, and is entitled by him “The Place of Man in Nature.” Prof. Klaatsch, who deals with the descent of man, unlike the other contributors to this volume, is not content by a mere statement of the progress made since 1871; he brings forward a new genealogical tree for man and the anthropoid apes. Like Darwin, he regards man as derivative of the same stem as the anthro- poid apes, but differs in supposing that man has retained the characters of the common stock to a greater degree than the anthropoids have. Those who wish to examine a full statement of Prof. Klaatsch’s theory of man’s origin will find it here. In Prof. Klaatsch’s opinion, the modern population of Europe is formed by the mixture of at least two stocks; one of these was evolved in common with the orang and entered Europe through Asia, while another human stock was evolved in common with the gorilla and entered Europe from Africa. In this way he accounts for the two prevailing types of nose among modern The prominent or ‘Grecian’ nose he supposes to be derived from the human “eorilloid ” stock, while the australoid nose—of which he cites Darwin’s nose as an example— came into Europe by the Eastern or “orangoid ” stock. It is difficult to believe that Prof. Klaatsch is really quite serious in his contribution to “Die A. K. Europeans. ae ual Marcu 7, 1912] OUR BOOKSHELF. Jelinek’s Psychrometer-Tafeln. Anhang: Hygro- meter-Tafeln von J]. M. Pernter. Herausgegeben von W. Trabert. Sechste Auflage. Pp. xii+ 129. (Leipzig: W. Engelmann, 1911.) Price 7 marks. solid little grain bodies, and in the course of the NATURE 5 story I shall answer many of the questions with which you are now bubbling over; sweep away, I hope, most of the difficulties that are now puzzling | you. JeLinek’s psychrometer tables are among the best — known of the many humidity tables in use on the Continent. Originally prepared by Jelinek from the earlier tables of Regnault and Wild, the work has been successively re-edited by Hann and by Pernter, and now we have a further revision undertaken by Hofrat Trabert, the present director of the Austrian meteorological service. The new edition differs from its predecessor mainly in the method of treatment of the wet-bulb We are not sure that the ordinary reader will quite catch the idea the author wishes to convey, but she becomes much more lucid in writing about the social aspects of the industries as distinguished from the more purely technical side. The descrip- tions of the sugar plantations, of the school for the negroes, and of Georgetown have an air ef reality that cannot fail to appeal to the reader, whilst the accounts of the milling and extraction | processes are equally attractive. Nor are economic readings at temperatures below the freezing- | point. water vapour used hitherto were those for vapour in equilibrium with supercooled water, although in practice the wet bulb is normally coated with ice. The present edition has been amplified by the addition of a table of saturation pressures of water vapour in equilibrium with ice, taken from the results of Scheel and Heuse, and on this table has been based a new set of tables fer finding the vapour pressure and relative humidity from read- ings of dry and wet bulb thermometers at tem- peratures below the freezing-point when the wet bulb is covered with ice. The results for higher temperatures have been entirely recalculated, but their general arrangement remains unchanged. The tables differ from most humidity tables in general use in that allowance is made in them for variations of wind velocity. The figures printed are applicable to the readings of screened thermometers under conditions of light or moderate wind, but by the application of simple corrections to the wet bulb readings they can be rendered applicable on the one hand to readings in still air, and on the other to readings taken during gales or strong winds, or with an aspirated psychrometer such as the Assmann instrument. as Peeps at Industries: Sugar. Pp. vii+88. (London: Price 1s. 6d. net. Tuis little book is the first volume of a series intended to deal with industries in the same way as “Peeps in Many Lands” has dealt with countries. The general get-up is attractive, the illustrations are good, and the reader is never fatigued by having too much serious matter pre- sented to him cn any one page. The whole ground is covered, both beet and cane sugar com- ing within the purview of the author, and the descriptions range from an account of a Demerara estate to a Belgian sugar factory and a London refinery. The style of the book may be judged by the following quotation :—“ Sugar is hatched from germs which inhabit the sap of certain plants. In the birth stage it takes the form of tiny grains. I am going to tell you quite simply By Edith A. Browne. A. and C. Black, 1g1t.) and briefly the way in which the germs become | NO. 2210, VOL. 89| The values of the saturation pressure of | | to describe its scope. questions left untouched, and although no actual tables of statistics are given—they would indeed have been out of place in a volume of this nature-— the author succeeds in conveying the essential facts relating to the economic position. Alto- gether the little book is one that will give the intel- | ligent child the sort of information he wants about the subject. Photographic Lenses: A Simple Treatise by Conrad Beck and Herbert Andrews. Seventh edition, completely revised, with index. Pp. 324. (london: R: and -J. Beck, Ltd; nid) Price rs. net. Many thousands of this volume having been sold in the previous editions, there is but little need It will be sufficient to say that the authors do not intend in it to give a full explanation of the laws that underlie the | construction of photographic lenses, but rather to provide a practical guide for the user of lenses that he may be able to use them to the best advantage. The volume is excellently illustrated with diagrams that make clear the principles of elementary optics, the construction of various objectives, the comparative results of their tests, and also examples of the actual work that they enable the photographer to do. For those. who wish to go a little further into the subject there is an appendix on “Equivalent Planes,” and a ' second appendix in which a lens-testing optical bench is described, with the manner of using it. The lenses illustrated and referred to are all of Messrs. Beck’s manufacture, but that fact does not, in a practical sense, limit the usefulness cf the book. The present edition is brought up to date, especially with regard to recent anastigmats, | and it is provided with a very good index. Practical Botany. By Dr. F. Cavers.. Pp. xvi+ 408. (Cambridge: University Tutorial Press, letds ror), Brice 45.) 6a: TakING a general view, there are four different sections recognisable in this students’ practical botany: histology is placed first, then follow physiology of growth and nutrition, physiology of movement, and finally a sketch of practical work on selected cryptogamic types. There 1s, of course, no reason why teachers should begin with histology; on the contrary, experience points to a 6 NATURE [Marcu 7, 1912 beginning with the seed and germination. Dr. Cavers lays some stress on the second chapter, which is intended to impress a more thorough knowledge of the organic products in plants. Seeing that the real aim of students’ courses is rather to teach general methods and provide train- ing than to implant facts, tests for proteins and other complex substances are much less valuable than the more tangible experiments of a physical nature. : Except in this matter, there is no hesitation in recognising that the author presents a remarkably clear and informative series of experiments. There is always satisfaction in experiments requiring simple and natural material, as in the test of a living turnip with beetroot juice, but Dr. Cavers on the whole favours the view that there is a neces- sity for specially designed apparatus capable of yielding exact measurements, in which connection he directs attention to several instruments de- signed by Prof. Ganong. An appreciable amount of generally unknown detail is supplied in the life- history of Pellia and Funaria, and otherwise this section is no mere repetition of available informa- tion. Teachers will be well advised to consult the book before drafting their physiological courses, | as they are tolerably certain to discover sugges- tions or new experiments. IBJFIEIMDIES INO) IED IBID ONES, [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of Nature. No notice is taken of anonymous communications. ] Heredity. So long as naturalists persist in using ill-defined terms, the meaning of which they have not clearly thought out, the controversy about the inheritance of so-called ‘‘ acquired characters ’’ is bound to be sterile and interminable. If it be once granted that organisms are the product of the interaction of two sets of factors—the factors of the inheritance and the factors of the environment—it becomes obvious that not only every organism, but every ‘“‘ character’ of an organism, must be the result of both sets of factors. And if by ‘‘ character’? we mean any such resulting structure or property as it appears ‘to our senses, as we see it before us, then it becomes mani- fest that no character can be due wholly to inherit- ance or wholly to environment. The very words *“acquired character ’’ involve a fatal fallacy—sug- gesting as they do that one character may be more acquired than another. Since such wholly acquired characters do not exist, it is waste of time to discuss their possible inheritance. Even Dr. Reid, in his letter in last weelx’s NATURE, does not entirely escape from this logical error when he uses the word inheritance for the transmission of acquirements (characters) in unicellular organisms. It is a return to the vague, popular use of the term which would inevitably lead us back into the old tangle of inconsistencies. The biologist may define inheritance as the transmission of hereditary factors —it is not ready-made characters which are inherited, but the factors which help to produce them. The transmission in a protozoon of the characters of its parent is no more inheritance in the strict biological NO. 2210, VOL. 89] sense than is the transmission of the eggshell and albumen from the fowl to the chick, or of money from father to son. Variation may be caused by changes in the environ- ment giving rise to ‘‘ modification,’’ or by changes in | the inheritance (the totality of the hereditary factors). “ giving rise.to ‘‘ mutation.’’ Changes in the inherit- ance are due to the rearrangement of, addition to, or subtraction from the factors of inheritance. Ulti- mately these changes must be referred to the environ- ment, and it is only when something from the environment thus alters or enters into the inheritance that mutation can occur. -It follows that if certain observations seem to show that ‘‘ acquired characters’’ are transmitted by true inheritance, either they must be capable of some other interpretation, or our premise that every organism is the resultant of two sets of factors must be wrong. No escape from this alternative seems possible. ~ The dogmatic tone of this letter will, I hope, be forgiven me, as it has been assumed merely for the sake of brevity. E. S. Goopricnu. Merton College, Oxford, March 1. Mars and a Lunar Atmosphere. In Narure, February 22, p. 565, reference is made to an interesting observation by Prof. Luther, of the Diisseldorf Observatory. The note states that he saw the half of the disc of Mars nearest the moon become green just before occultation on December 4, 1911, and he suggests that this may have been due to a lunar atmosphere. The time was 16h. 4om. (Greenwich mean time), and I notice that the moon was full at 14h. 52m. on December 5, so that, at the time of the observation, the unilluminated crescent of the moon towards the planet must have been ex- tremely narrow, so that the illuminated part of the lunar disc must have been quite close to the planet. Now no refracting telescope is perfectly achromatic, and as one of the residual colours is green, it seems to me possible that this colour may have been due to moonlight imperfectly achromatised. It may also be suggested that the reddish colour of Mars might lead to the focus of the telescope being different for the planet and the moon. Another suggestion is that the colour of the planet might give rise to a complemen- tary tint. Turning to the date of Prof. Luther’s previous ob- servation, October 16, 1902, I find that the moon was full on that very day, and this seemed to link the two observations together, hoth being associated with a nearly full moon. But, to my surprise, I found, on consulting the Nautical Almanac table of occultations, that no occul- tation of Mars, or of any planet, is set down for October 16, 1902, and, on looking up the positions of the moon and of Mars, it is obvious that none could have occurred, as they were distant in R.A. by some nine hours. It is evident then that there is some mistalxe in the earlier date, unless it is meant to apply to some small stars in Pisces. I observed with a refractor the disappearance occultation of Mars at the dark limb of a moon rather more than half-full in the early morning of January 29 this year, but saw no trace of any green colour on the disc of the planet. C. T. WHItMELt. Hyde Park, Leeds, February 26. The Teaching of Mathematics. IN un article entitled ‘‘The Teaching of Mathe- matics’ in Nature of November 30, 1911, considerable space is devoted to a memorandum written by me for ie Marcu 7, 1912] the Department of Public Instruction of New South Wales, to accompany and explain the programmes for the mathematical classes in the high schools recently established in this State. Regret is expressed by the writer of that article that New South Wales **has been frightened by difficulties which were bound to arise in a period of transition, into going back to the old methods instead of boldly remedying the evil by helping all teachers to get the spirit of the new methods.” The point at issue is the treatment of the funda- mental theorems of congruence, parallels, and the angle-sum for a triangle, in the course of deductive geometry given to pupils in these high schools. In the programmes, as issued, the teachers are advised to follow Euclid’s method (or something of the same nature) in these fundamental theorems. The Board of Education circular, from which we have ventured to differ in this particular alone, recommends that these results be obtained by induction and experiment. It seems proper that your readers should be aware of the following facts :— (i.) The course of geometry in question is not meant for children of twelve years of age and under, as the writer of your article seems to assume. Pupils enter these schools after completing a full course of primary education. Their age at entrance varies from thirteen to thirteen and a half. (ii.) Before entering the high schools they have had a full year’s work at geometry. In this preliminary study the newer methods are fully employed; the results are obtained by induction and experiment, and a great part of what the Board of Education circular recommends is adopted. However, the box of mathe- matical instruments does not hold sway to the entire exclusion of theoretical work. (iii.) Although it has been thought advisable to asl for some uniformity of treatment in these early theorems in the deductive course, when this stage is past the fullest amount of freedom is granted. There is no doubt that experience will show that some modifications in the syllabus are necessary. Some of the points mentioned in your article had already been noted as requiring alteration, and the suggestions which it contains will certainly receive the careful attention of the proper authorities. But the decision with regard to the earlier stages of the geometry course was made only after the fullest con- sideration. For this reason it is to be regretted that it has been, to some extent at least, misunderstood by the writer of your article. Sydney, January to. H. S. Carstaw. In spite of Prof. Carslaw’s assurance that pupils on entering secondary schools have reached the age of thirteen or thirteen and a half and have had a full year’s work at geometry, the writer of your article feels most strongly that it is extremely unwise to impose on them in their first year at the secondary school a logical treatment of the fundamental theorems of congruence and parallels. Anyone who has had much experience of teaching pupils of that age knows how difficult it is to teach this work and how little impression it makes except on a very small minority; on the other hand, if these theorems are frankly assumed (after the pupils thoroughly under- stand their meaning) the rest of the geometry usually done in secondary schools can be treated logically, and the vast majority of pupils will get a proper grasp of the ideas of logical geometry. In the latter case the foundations are broad and the structure is firm at every stage; if the fundamental theorems are treated logically, an attempt is made to build on a NO. 2210, VOL. 89] NATURE - narrower base, but in the majority of cases the lower stories of the structure are insecure. The writer of your article must still regret the atti- tude taken up by the New South Wales authorities on this point. Re ence The Isothermal Layer. In reading Dr. Evans’s reply to my letter in NatTurE of January 25 with regard to the isothermal layer, I was specially interested in his reference to radiation of heat from orbital interplanetary matter as a probable climatic factor, because in Symon’s Meteorological Magazine of February, 1911, I sug- gested that the recurrence year after year of warm and cold periods, first directed attention to by the late Dr. Buchan, may be attributable to modifications in a screen of cosmic matter, such, for instance, as that from which the zodiacal light and the Gegenschein are reflected. I mentioned in a later number of that magazine that my own observations of the light in tropical latitudes, extending over several years, conveyed to me the impression of a ring of cosmical bodies encircling the earth about the zodiac. For evidence of the isothermal layer at the equator the report of Prof. Borson on the aérological expedi- tion of the Royal Prussian Aéronautical Observatory to East Africa in 1908* may be quoted. In this report at least two instances are recorded of balloon ascents near the equator in which the isothermal was reached: on August 30, at a height of 173 km., when a temperature of —82'5° C. was registered, and slightly lower temperatures at higher elevations; and on September 5, at 15°4 km., temperature —70°3° C., slight inversions being registered at greater altitudes. The greater height of the isothermal in equatorial regions may be due to strong convection currents, as Mr. W. H. Dines supposes,* even though the origin of the layer be attributable to reflected heat from interplanetary matter. CampBELL HrEpwortH. 2 Amherst Road, Ealing, W., February 18. St. Elmo’s Fire. On Thursday evening, February 22, about 9.20 p-m., whilst traversing a country road which crosses the head of Carr Wood, a well-wooded clough in the neighbourhood of Heywood, near Rochdale, I was fortunate enough to witness a most unique pheno- menon. The road in question skirts a hill on the left- hand side, and the opposite side, at this particular place, overlooks a small plateau which runs along the edge of the clough. During the day we had had much rain. The atmosphere was now very close and heavy, and every- thing was ominously silent, even the usual breeze having disappeared. Suddenly, without the slightest warning, there appeared an area of faint electric-blue light, almost circular in shape and about 70 yards in diameter, which covered the plateau. The edge of this area was not more than 10 yards from where the observations were made. The whole electric field seemed to be three or four feet above the ground- level, and was in a state of intense agitation. Within the general blue ground there appeared flashes of a more decided blue, very similar in character to forked lightning, but not nearly so distinct. 1 “ Results of Investigations of the Royal Prussian Aeronautical Observa- tory at Lindenburg.”’ Edited by the Director, Doctor Richard Assman. 2**The Vertical Temperature Distribution in the Atmosphere over England, and some remarks on the General and Local Circulation.” By W. H. Dines, F.R.S., Phil. Trans. Royal Soc., Series A, 211, page 269. 8 NAL ORE [MARCH 7, 1912 Sounds of two distinct types accompanied the agita- tion. The first consisted of whistling sounds, like that of numerous long-lashed whips swishing rapidly through the air, or perhaps that of the whistle of bullets. These sounds seemed to be associated with the general field of fainter blue. The other sounds consisted of the characteristic crackle of electricity, and these became so numerous as they approached the climax that they resembled a magnified rustle. These cracklings seemed to be associated with forked discharges, and were probably due to the more distinct fiashes coming into contact with the bushes which surround the plateau. The phenomenon lasted about fifteen to twenty seconds, and disappeared as spontaneously as it had arisen. J. McV. M. Tue phenomenon described above appears to have been the luminous discharge known as St. Elmo’s Fire. This talkes place usually from pointed objects, and possibly the tree in your correspondent’s sketch (not reproduced) played a part in the production of the phenomenon. ‘The colour associated with St. Elmo’s Fire depends upon the character of the dis- charge. It is blue when the earth is kathode and red when the earth is anode. The discharge is not infrequent in mountainous countries. E. Goxp. Hampstead Garden Suburb, N.W. Earthworms and Sheep-rot. EVERYONE who is interested in agriculture is aware that liver-fluke or sheep-rot is popularly associated with one or another of our common plants. Halliwell gives ‘“sheep-killing ’? as a name for ‘the herb pennywort.’’ ‘In Britten and Holland (‘‘ English Plant Names’’) we find sheep-rot, sheep-bane, and other similar terms, and we are told that such plants as Pinguicula vulgaris, L., and Hydrocotyle vulgaris, L., are known by these popular names because of a supposition that these plants cause the liver-rot in sheep, which disease is often prevalent on wet land where the plants grow. The authors further inform us that “It is now ascertained that the liver-fluke, which always accompanies rot in sheep, exists.in one of its stages as a parasite in the bodies of small water snails, which, in wet weather, creep upon the leaves of marsh plants, and are eaten by the sheep with the herbage. It is therefore. with some reason that such names as ‘ Flowlkwort,’ ‘ Sheep-Kkilling Penny- grass,’ and ‘ Sheep-rot’ have been given to these marsh plants.” Withering (‘British Plants’’) has a similar note. Speaking of Pinguicula, he says, ‘‘The plant is generally supposed injurious to sheep, occasioning a disease which the farmers call ‘ rot.’ But it may be questionable whether the rot in sheep is so much owing to the vegetables in marshy grounds, as to a flat insect called a fluke (Fasciola hepatica), which is found in these wet situations adhering to the stones and plants, and likewise in the livers and _ biliary ducts of sheep that are affected with the rot. From experiments conducted with accuracy, it appears that neither sheep, cows, horses, goats, nor swine feed upon this plant.” During a recent visit to Cumberland, however, the matter was presented to me in a new light. I was conversing with a farmer on the economy of the earthworm, when my friend protested that they were responsible for rot in sheep. His explanation was as follows. The worms make casts in spring, known in the north as worm-sprouts, just as in the eastern NO. 2210, VOL. 89] counties they are called worm-puts. On these fine young plants grow rapidly, proving very attractive to sheep. When the sheep feed on this tender grass they are liable to suffer from fluke, and it is therefore maintained that the fluke, or rot, is in some way due to the earthworm. It would be interesting to know more about this popular fancy, and to learn whether anything is being done to help farmers to a more correct knowledge of the facts. HiLperic FRIEND. Swadlincote, Burton-on-Trent, February 17. Meteor-showers. I am sure that a great many of your readers who are interested in the subject: of meteors have noticed the letters of Mr. John R.-Henry which have appeared from time to time in your columns, but I do not recollect having seen any letter from an observer stat- ing either that Mr. Henry’s prediction had been ful- filled or that it had failed. If a shower of the thirty- third magnitude is sufficiently marked to enable three secondary maxima to be fixed with accuracy, one of the third magnitude, such as we are promised at the end of this month (February) ought to be very per- ceptible indeed.. But perhaps the word ‘‘ magnitude”’ does not refer to the number of the meteors but ta their average mass. If so, how is this mass to be ascertained? Mr. Henry gives us no information as to the part of the sky in which these meteors should on each occasion be looked for. F.R.A.S. Dublin. “ELR.A.S.”’ is right in surmising that the mag- nitude of a shower does not depend upon the number of meteors that may be actually observed, but rather upon the general mass or quantity of matter imported into the atmosphere at the time. This may appear to be a distinction without a difference, but as the number of shooting stars counted by an observer will be influenced by the altitude of the radiant, the clear- ness of the sky, &c., it is evident that the intensity of the phenomenon cannot be fully measured by such results. It is assumed that the radiant is the same as that usually associated with the time of the year at which the shower occurs. To determine the absolute mass of a meteor-shower is a somewhat intricate problem, but it is possible to obtain an approximate solution of it by assumir™ that the portion of the meteor-swarm which enters the atmosphere is moving nearly parallel to the earth’s surface, and in being brought to rest puts the sur- rounding air in motion. There must thus result an atmospheric depression, and given the mean depth and extent of the latter, the mass of the shower may be calculated from purely dynamical principles. The order of magnitude does not express, as may be supposed, the absolute but rather the relative intensity of a shower, with reference to some other shower which may be regarded as the standard- shower. Thus of the two showers referred to by “TOR.A.S.,”” one of the thirty-third, and the other at the end of February of the third order of mag- nitude, the former is of the weakest and the latter of the highest intensity in the whole month. The greater meteoric event, apart from its high intensity, happens to belong to an interesting type or group of meteor-showers, one of which of the tenth order of magnitude occurred in 1908 on September 28, and another of the eighteenth order in torr, on April 8-9, both occasions being marked by a magnetic and the latter also by a moderate seismic disturbance. Joun R Henry. MARCH 7, I9I2 AMERICAN referred THE LOBSTER.? | er work to below is “in a measure both a revision and an extension” of Prof. Herrick’s well-known memoir on ‘‘ The American Lobster,” published in 1896 in the Bulletin of the United States . Fish from several figures, including three fine coloured plates of larval stages, are reproduced. By far the larger part of the memoir, however, with the new knowledge of the natural history of the that during the fifteen years from the investigations of the author himself and of many other naturalists on both sides of the Atlantic. .As Prof. Herrick remarks, ‘in all probability theretis no marine invertebrate in the world which is now better known,” and he has rendered a great service to zoology by bringing to- gether a vast amount o information on the _ habits and mode of life, the repro- duction, development, and growth of the lobster, anc on the economic and legisla- tive problems relating to its Commission, which is concerned lobster has been gained past + en) s ay 3 preservation and _artificia propagation. Out of the many points of interest dis- cussed only a few can be selected for comment here. [The European and Ameri- ‘can lobsters are commonly regarded as distinct species of the genus Homarus, but they are very closely related, und, as Prof. Herrick re- marks, they “might at first sight be considered as geo- graphical varieties’’ of a single species. The only structural character which is given as distinguishing the the form of the rostrum, which in European Et two is NATURE 9 interest to the systematist, the temptation to hll in gaps in our knowledge of the bionomics of either form by data drawn from the other, it may be of more than merely academic determine but in view of interest t¢ as exactly as possible the degree of affinity between them. Prof. Herri kx lat its range in the Mediterranean is limited on 1e east by the Adriatic Sea, and this agrees with statements in other works of authority. If it be -orrect, however, is curious that the should have well known to Aristotle whose natural history studies were mainly states of the European lobster it is species been sc ) j arried on, as Prof. D’Arcy Thompson has recently told us, on the island of Mitylene. : A detailed account is given of the structure and a. Se a a ee) | C >RAH®A AAR Ce ee ee ee ee ee rtrarrte Li) lobsters is smooth on the underside, while in OM Chi-? Geen eer ne can specimens it usually free fro ult ; x larva; 4, fourth stage. bears a pair of small spines. Ver ording to Prof. Herrick, inconstant that they altogether in “either one, two, or size may be : may occasionally be lobsters. Slight the larve of th forms, although the author scarcely seems t stating that the European lobster is hatched “in a stage nearly comparable to the larva of the American 1OWeVEr, it would be by no means three spines oO present,’ and he implies ibsent \merican differences are said to exist in two be justified in second lobster.” Even if this conclusive as to their specific distinctness, since were SO, other cases are known among Crustacea of species ther -e | nong Crust f sj (e.g. the prawn Palaemonetes varians) which differ in their mode of development in different parts of f their geographical range. As a mere matter « nomenclature the question is, of course, only of Nat History of the American Lobster.” By F. H. Herrick Bullet Bureau of Fisheries, vol. xxix., pp. 149-4 i—xlvii (Wa ngton, 19 ) NO. 2210, VOL. 89] lob: ters : e, euhryo at hatching (July) n nd third f 1 (first line), first larva, not ne rva , third ine»), fir ree larval development of the great claws and of the pro- cess of autotomy and regeneration as affecting them. An interesting little piece of mechanism is described in the interlocking processes which strengthen the articulations between the basal segments of the limb. In the young lobster, in which the articulation between the second and third segments is movable, processes of this kind are developed on the adjacent margins of thes segments. In later stages, however, the s«¢ ond and third segments become soldered together, the junction forming the “breaking plane” at which autotomy takes place, and a new process grows out from the third segment to interlock with one on the first. A full description is given of the torsion of the great claws by which the movable finger comes to lie on the inner side instead of ( n the upper al d outer side as it does in the NATURE [MarcH 7, 1912 two following pairs of legs. The observation of this torsion, however, is not quite novel, for it was briefly but accurately described by Boas in his well-known (but apparently little read) “ Studier over Decapodernes Slegtskabsforhold”’ (Vidensk. Selsk. Skrifter, Kj benhavn, 1880). The periodic arrangement of the teeth on the fingers of the great claws is described, and it is shown to arise in a very simple way by the successive appear- ance of new sets of teeth between those already existing. Reference is made to Stahr’s fantastic opinion “that the esthetic sense of this self- admiring crustacean is aroused as its eye wanders over the dentate margin of its ‘ hand.’ ” The habits and reactions of the larve are dealt with at some length, and many interesting facts are recorded in connection with their swimming movements, food (and occasional cannibalism), colour, and power of colour-change. Even their psychology is not neglected, for it is stated that the “instinct of fear’? becomes apparent only at Fic. 2.—Swimming attituces of young lobsters in the first free stages a, body bent in usual quadrant form ; 4, lobster swimming astride the carcase of another and devouring it; c, thoracic legs directed forward ; d, rising position occasionally assumed; e, ‘ floating’’ position ;_/, too weak to rise. the fourth stage, when the little lobster prepares to give up its free-swimming life and to seek shelter on the bottom. Prof. Herrick’s remarks on the subjects of pro- tective legislation and artificial hatching of lob- sters are worthy of close attention. He strongly advocates the view that a minimum size-limit, such as most lobster-fishing countries have adopted, is ineffective on account of the fact that the smaller lobsters, which alone are protected, are vastly less fertile than the larger individuals. Some striking statistics are given to show the futility of artificial hatching unless the young lobsters are reared through the critical pelagic stages before they are set free. As is usual with publications of the United States Government departments, the style of print- ing and illustration forms a pleasing contrast to that of most official publications in this country. We onG NO. 2210, VOL. 89] SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH IN THE SUDAN.! | reviewing the third report of the Wellcome Research Laboratories (NaturE, June 24, 1909), we suggested that it would be advisable to separate the purely medical subjects from those dealing with agricultural or economic questions and matters of general scientific interest. This has been effected in the fourth report, and we now have two volumes, A, Medical, B, General Science, but the change is accompanied by at least one drawback, viz., that each of the separate volumes is now as large as its parent, and in addition we have a still bulkier review of the literature. If we may unburden ourself at once of initial criticism, it is that these volumes are too bulky. From Fourth Report Wellcome Tropicai Research Laboratones, Khartoum Copynghi, Fic. 1.—Sharpened teeth as practised by the Nyam-nyam. This, we believe, is not entirely due to the number of subjects included, but in part to the diffuse style in which many of the articles are written, and the desire to impart elementary information— a praiseworthy desire, but one we think perhaps out of place in reports dealing with researches. The articles would, in our opinion, be improved by severe pruning. We suspect that there are certain considerations which prevent this, but for 1 Fourth Report of the Wellcome Tropical Research Laboratories at the Gordon Memorial College, Khartoum, Dr. Andrew Balfour, Director. Vol. A, Medical, pp. 404+xxili plates+118 figs. Price 21s. net. Vol. B, General Science. pp. 333. Price 18s. net. Supplement to the Fourth Report, pp 448. Price 15s. net. (London; Published for the Department of Education, Sudan Government, Khartoum, by Dailliére, Tindall and Cox, TOIT.) a? eS ee Marcu 7, 1912| NATURE II the scientific reader, not to mention the reviewer, the gain would be appreciable. The amount of literature put forth is so great that conciseness should be aimed at in the interests of all. Again, although we must express our admiration for the immense amount of labour involved in preparing the reviews of recent advances in tropical medicine, yet we feel certain that this is not the function of the overworked staff of the laboratory, and that they should spare themselves the drudgery and mental effort involved in producing such a work. In Vol. A, Medical, the first article deals with a question of the first importance, viz., the extent to which sleeping-sickness prevails in the southern portions of the Bahr-el-Ghazal, and the measures C. G. Seriomann. _ Gl. morsitans is free from danger to man remains yet to be definitely proved. In this article we do not see it expressly stated that the thick blood film method was employed for diagnosis, but its great utility and convenience can hardly be denied. The second article likewise deals with trypano- somiasis, but in regard to animals. Four species occur in the country, viz. T. brucei, T. evansi, T. nanum, and T. vivax, but a consideration of the question as to whether these names represent the species present or not involves us in the very difficult problem of trypanosome identification. We cannot enter here into this question, but we would add a word of caution as to the measure- ment-curve method introduced by Sir David Pa From Fourth Report Wellcome Tropical Research Laboratories, Khartoum Fic 2,—Dwelling of Shilluk King, Fashoda. taken to prevent its spread. So far cases have not been detected north of Wandi in the Lado, and in the coloured map this is represented as the dis- tribution of Glossina palpalis, but this fly exists also on the bank of the Nile at Kajo-Kaje, south of Rejaf, as was shown later. Inspection posts | Bruce. have been established, clearing operations in- | stituted, and the authorities are keenly on the alert. Whether Gl. morsitans in connection with sleeping-sickness is a negligible factor is open to considerable doubt: that it is not so in Rhodesia and Nyasaland, in parts of which we have cases oi sleeping-sickness in absence of Gl. palpalis, is now established. In these places there appears to be a new species of human trypanosome; whether in the absence of this particular trypanosome, NO. 2210, VOL. 89] The number of trypanosomes counted in one of the curves given is certainly too small, only 150, and as a matter of fact the chart (1910) given of T. brucei, though it resembles the earlier chart, bears not the slightest resemblance to the latest chart of this species published by Sir David Bruce. The director contributes a lengthy paper on spirochetes in fowls, which is exceedingly preva- lent, and marshals his evidence in favour of the | view that the spirochzte breaks up into granules in the internal organs. His paper on fallacies and puzzles in blood examination will perhaps do some | good in preventing the finding of any bits of stained matter in a blood film being recorded as new parasites by those desirous of fame; for in these days the editorial waste-paper basket is not 2 NATURE [Marcu 7, 1912 as large as it used to be, and the publication of rubbishy papers is all too common. Yet, on the other hand, we fear the conscientious tyro will be overwhelmed with all the pitfalls recorded, and perhaps it is not enough emphasised that known parasites when present are easily recognised, and even each new parasite as it is discovered has such definite characters that, as a rule, the question of its parasitic nature is not a very difficult matter. The existence of kala-azar in the eastern Sudan is a serious condition, for the disease may assume epidemic proportions. Unfortunately, at present little can be effectively done, as the mode of transmission is unknown, nor is treatment of much avail. We have noted some of the longer and more important articles, but there is a medley of other matter. Worthy of note is the successful treat- ment by vaccines of two cases of ‘ Veldt Sore.” “Tropical Ulcer” seems to be rare, but the con- dition known as Oriental sore is not uncommon. There are in addition several articles on different aspects of tropical sanitation. The amount of matter reviewed in the supple- ment is amazing, and the labour involved must have been very great. We gather from the intro- duction, however, that this will be its last appear- ance. While we shall regret its disappearance, yet we feel that the authors are quite right and absolutely justified in their decision. Volume B, General Science, like Volume A, deals with a medley of subjects: water and soil analysis, research into gum and its relation to bacteria, entomology—it may be noted that a successful larvicidal fish has not yet been found— economic ornithology, poisonous snakes and scorpions, plant pests, municipal engineering, gold-mining in ancient times, and anthropology. The two papers on this last subject are perhaps of the most interest to the general reader, viz. that on tribal customs of the Nyam Nyam and Gour peoples, and that of the Divine Kings of the Shilluk. They are both extremely interesting, but may occasionally shock the hypersensitive. Our illustrations are taken from these two papers. The volumes are, as usual, profusely illustrated with coloured plates, maps, and text figures, and there are complete indices. We must express our astonishment at the amount of work done. We feel that the authors give too much of themselves, and that they are overtaxed. Undoubtedly the staff should be in- creased, and each member be allowed to devote himself to special subjects. It is quite impossible, if the best results are to be got, for a person to be a “factotum.” NOTES. WE are glad to learn that the preparation of a Life of Lord Lister is contemplated. We are asked to say that any letters of scientific interest forwarded to Mr. R. J. Godlee, 19 Wimpole Street, London, W., will be gratefully received for this purpose. If desired, the letters will be returned, after being copied. NO. 2210, VOL. 89] Ir is announced in The Times that the Amsterdam General Radium Company has purchased the entire present stock of radium of the Austrian Government. Lizut.-CoLtoneL D. Prain, F.R.S., director of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, has been elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, in succession to the late Sir Joseph Hooker. AN interesting collection of photographs by Mr. G. R. Ballance, of St. Moritz, Switzerland, illustra- ting the scenery on the frontier of Switzerland, France, and Italy, is on view at the Royal Photo- graphic Society’s house, 35 Russell Square, W.C. The exhibition is open free e public, on presenta- tion of visiting card, until 20. A sERIES of seven lectures on ‘‘ Modern Aspects of Helminthology ”’ will be given at the Lister Institute by Dr. W. Nicoll on Tuesdays and Fridays, com- mencing March 19, at 5 p.m. These lectures will deal with the general outlines of helminthology and with the chief special problems relating to the parasitic worms of man. The course is open, without fee, to all medical men and to others interested in the subject. On Tuesday next, March 12, Dr. T. Rice Holmes will begin a course of three lectures at the Royal Institution on ‘“ Ancient Britain,’? and on Thursday afternoon, March 21, Dr. F. A. Dixey will deliver the first of two lectures on ‘‘ Dimorphism in Butterflies.” The Friday evening discourse on March 15 will be delivered by Mr. Frederick Soddy, on ‘‘ The Origin of Radium ’’; on March 22 by Prof. d’Arcy W. Thomp- son, on ‘‘ The North Sea and its Fisheries ’’; and on March 29 by Sir J. J. Thomson, on ‘* Results of the Application of Positive Rays to the Study of Chemical Problems.”’ An extra meeting of the Chemical Society was held on Thursday last, February 29, when Sir William Ramsay, K.C.B., F.R.S., delivered a memorial lecture in honour of Henri Moissan, who was born in 1852 and died in February, 1907. In introducing the lecturer, the president, Prof. Perey F. Frankland, F.R.S., stated it was fitting that the lecture held in honour of the discoverer of the most active element should be given by the discoverer of the most inert element. Sir William Ramsav referred to Moissan’s early researches on the products of reduction of the oxides of the iron group and to his work on the oxides of manganese, nickel, and cobalt, and on the chromous salts. Moissan’s numerous experiments on the compounds of fluorine, a series of researches which culminated in the discovery of elementary fluorine and, finally, of its isolation, and the apparatus used in this work, were described, and reference was made to | the researches which led to the discovery of the method of preparing artificial diamonds. Tue biology class of the University of Colorado sent Dr. Alfred Russel Wallace, O.M., F.R.S., greet- ings on his birthday on January 8. The February 2 issue of Silver and Gold, a newspaper published three times a weck by the ‘associated students of the, Uni- A f ; Marcu 7, 1912] NATURE I > Pe) versity, publishes the reply received from Dr. Wallace, in which he says :—** From the day when I first saw a Bee-orchis (Ophrys apifera) in ignorant astonish- ment, to my first view of the great forests of the Amazon; thence to the Malay Archipelago, where every fresh island with its marvellous novelties and beauties was an additional delight, nature has afforded me an ever-increasing rapture, and the attempt to solve some of her myriad problems an ever-growing sense of mystery and awe. And now, in my wild garden and greenhouse, the endless diversities of plant life renew my enjoyments; and the ever-changing pageants of the seasons impress me more than ever in my earlier days. I sincerely wish you all some of the delight in the mere con- templation of nature’s mysteries and beauties which I have enjoyed, and still enjoy.” Tue Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia will celebrate the centenary of its foundation on March 19, 20, and 21. An important feature of the celebration will be the publication of three com- memorative volumes: an index to the scientific con- tents of the entire series of Proceedings and Journal, now amounting to eighty-five volumes; a detailed history of the academy by the recording secretary, Dr. Edward J. Nolan, of which the Short History contributed by him to the ‘“ Philadelphia Founders’ Week Memorial Volume’’ in 1909 may be regarded as a Prodromus; and a quarto volume of liberally illustrated memoirs by members and correspondents. A sufficient number of contributions have been re- ceived to guarantee the success of the latter publica- tion, and the general committee has reason to believe that the entire celebration will be an adequate recog- nition of the honourable record of the society as one of the most efficient agencies in the cultivation of the natural sciences in America during the past hundred years. A MEETING was held at the Mansion House on February 28 in support of the London School of Tropical Medicine. Mr. Harcourt, Secretary of State for the Colonies, was the principal speaker. He said that in the last seven years the School has received from the Tropical Diseases Research Fund 13,000l. for special work in protozoology and entomology, for which separate laboratories in new buildings have recently been provided. The School has managed to save 5000l. as the nucleus of an endowment fund, but at least another 20,0001. is required to put it on a sound financial basis. It is also desired to raise 1o,00ol. for the provision of additional laboratories and residential quarters. Mr. Harcourt said it may, possibly, be asked why the Government does itself find the necessary funds. The keepers of the national purse, he pointed out, have not been niggardly in their practical assistance to the work. The Treasury has contributed, and is contributing, for the last five years 1oool. per annum to the Sleep- not ing Sickness Bureau; for five years, 1oool. per annum to the Entomological Research Fund; for three years, 5oool. per annum to Sir D. Bruce’s ex- | pedition to Nyasaland to inquire into sleeping sick- ness; and from 1904-7, 5ool. per annum; and from NO. 2210, VOL. 89| 1908 onwards, tooo]. per annum to the Tropical Diseases Research Fund; this amounts to Soool. a year, in addition to capital donations. In addition, approximately 50,o00l. has been spent during the last five years in investigation and sup- pression of sleeping sickness in Uganda. Tue Committee on Science and the Arts of the Franklin Institute, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, made the following awards of the Elliott Cresson medal on February 7:—Dr. Alexander Graham Bell, Washing- ton, D.C., in recognition of the value of his solution of the problem of the electrical transmission of articu- late speech; Dr. S. W. Stratton, Washington, D.C., in recognition of his distinguished and directive work in physical science and metrology, and its application in the arts and industries; Dr. A. A. Michelson, Chicago, Ill., in recognition of his original and fruit- ful investigations in the field of physical optics; Dr. A. Noble, New York, in recognition of his dis- tinguished achievements in the field of civil engineer- ing; Dr. Elihu Thomson, Swampscott, Mass., in recognition of his leading and distinguished work in the industrial applications of electricity; Dr. E. W. Morley, West Hartford, Conn., in recognition of his important contributions to chemical science, and par- ticularly of his accurate determinations of fundamental magnitudes; Dr. J. F. A. Von Baeyer, Munich, in recognition of the many important results of his extended research in organic chemistry and of his discovery of synthetic processes of great industrial value; Sir William Crookes, O.M., F.R.S., in recog- nition of his important discoveries in inorganic and analytical chemistry, and of his pioneer work on the discharge of electricity through gases; and Sir Henry E. Roscoe, F.R.S., in recognition of his extended and important researches in the domains of inorganic, physical, and industrial chemistry. Dr. Kwyicur Duntar contributes to the current number of The Psychological Review an account of some interesting experiments upon the sensibility of the human subject to differences in the rate of succession of stimuli in two regular series of stimuli. One of these regular series is constant, the other is varied, and the two series are presented successively, the subject having to judge which has the faster rate. The rate-threshold thus reached is compared by Dr. Dunlap with the time-threshold, i.e. the subject’s sensibility to differences in the length of a single interval of time. As might be expected, he finds that the sensibility for rate differences is considerably more acute than that for time differences, at least under the conditions of his experiments. The writer concludes that the rate judgment is not essentially based upon a judgment of individual time intervals. His paper is especially valuable as a record of experi- mental methods and for careful details of the instru- ments employed. From Mr. W. Junk, of Berlin, we have received a ‘Bibliographica Coleopterologica,’’ containing nearly 4000 entries of works and papers devoted solely or partially to beetles. The actual catalogue is pre- ceded by a useful introduction on the faunistic litera- ture of the subject. 14 NATURE [Marcu 7, 1912 CONSIDERABLE interest attaches to the description by Miss D. M. A. Bate in the January number of The Geological Magazine of the dentition and other remains of a large mouse (rat, we should have pre- ferred to call it) discovered by herself in a cave on the west coast of Crete. The new species (Mus catreus) considerably exceeds the brown rat in size, and may be compared in this respect to the great Gambian rat (Cricetomys gambianus); it consequently forms a second instance of a relatively gigantic rodent in the Pleistocene of the Mediterranean islands. Tue fourth number of ‘‘ Behaviour Monographs,”’ published by Messrs. Holt and Co. at Cambridge, Boston, Mass., is devoted to an account of the ecology of the pond-snails of the genus Physa, by Miss Jean Dawson. From their omnivorous habits, these snails are valuable as purifiers of the ponds in which they dwell. Their own mucus serves to assist in procuring food, since it entraps microscopic organisms of all Ikinds, which are then devoured by the snails, together with the mucus itself. The rudimentary eyes appar- ently afford no assistance in procuring food, but the head and fore part of the foot are sensitive to food- stimulus. A new Polypodium from the Panama regions, de- scribed by Mr. R. Mason in an extract from the Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections (vol. lvi., No. 24), is remarkable, because the pinnz of the sterile fronds are entire, while those of the fertile fronds are toothed or lobed and bear the sori apparently at the tips of the teeth. Another striking feature is the variation in the fronds, due to differences in the pinne, which in some cases are entire or once forked, in others much branched; it is suggested that the branching is correlated with injury to the apex of the fronds, which are normally of indeterminate growth. In connection with afforestation on the Thirlmere estate in the Lake district, Mr. A. B. Edwards con- tributes to the Transactions of the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society (vol. xxvi., part i.) an article containing some useful hints on planting at high altitudes. Three-year-old seedlings were generally selected, and planted in prepared pits. Larch formed the main bulk of the plants, but where shelter was required a belt or intermixture of Scots, Austrian, and Corsican pines has been adopted. For higher elevations fir or spruce is recommended, notably the Menzies spruce. In support of a favour- able anticipation of the financial success of operations, the author quotes figures from a plantation in the same district. Tue Upper Rhine, from Basle to Mainz, is one of the chief seismic districts of Central Europe, about 400 earthquakes being recorded there between 1800 and 1895. Of the latest earthquake, that of November 16, 1911, a popular account by W. Salo- mon is given in Naturwissenschaftliche Wochen- schrift for February 11. Judging from the area of greatest intensity, there would appear to be two | epicentres, one near Lake Constance, the other, from forty to fifty miles farther north, in the neighbour- hood of Balingen, Ebingen, and Hechingen. From NO. 2210, VOL. 89] the frequency of after-shocks in the latter district, and from their absence from the former, however, there appears to be some doubt whether the shocls belongs to the class of twin-earthquakes. In Heft 5 of the Mitteilungen aus den Deutschen Schutzgebieten, the region of the upper basin of the Mungo River, in the Cameroon protectorate, is fully described from the geographical viewpoint by Dr. F. Thorbecke. He deals specially with the higher country round the voleano of Manenguba, which rises to an altitude of more than 2000 metres, and considers it to consist essentially of a crystalline block overlaid by basaltic or trachytic sheets of lava. This seems to have been slowly raised, subsequent faulting and volcanic action having also played an important part in producing the present surface forms. Meteor- ological observations for 1g10 from stations in the Cameroons, Togo, and New Guinea are also con- tained in this volume. Tue Canadian Naval Service Act having been passed in May, 1910, the Department of Naval Service was forthwith organised with branches dealing with naval matters, fishery protection, tidal and current surveys, hydrographic survey, and wireless tele- graphy. Reports on all these for the fiscal year end- ing March 31, 1911, have been published, and contain many points of interest. The tidal work has been previously mentioned in noticing the tidal tables which have recently been published. Hydrographic surveys were carried out on the Great Lakes, on the Atlantic and Pacific coasts, and in Hudson Bay and elsewhere. Not many details are given of methods and results, but it is stated that the local attraction of compasses reputed to exist in Hudson Bay was not substantiated. Thirty-two radio-telegraphic stations exist, and a scheme has been prepared for the estab- lishment of a system of such stations on the Great Lakes. In the November (1911) number of the Geo- graphische Zeitschrift Prof. Penck gives a most instructive critical comparison of the three principal German atlases—these three, the hand-atlases of Stieler, Debes, and Andree, are generally considered to stand in the foremost rank of modern topography— and the discussion of the differences between them. He notes the increasing use of the most suitable pro- jections in place of the very limited selection formerly employed, the careful choice of scale, and greatly improved character of the representation of relief. Contour lines or layers of colour might in some cases be utilised, and the great scarcity of physical maps in most atlases, which devote their pages primarily to the distribution of man and his works on the earth’s surface, is a matter which calls for considera- tion. In spite of much recent progress, there is | always room for improvement, and there is ample scope for the scientific study of cartography; the same may be said of cartography in this country, where, however, there is much more to be done before an ideal standard is reached. A nHeavy gale was experienced in all parts of England on March 4 and the following night, when at | : : @ a — mil Marcu 7, 1912] NARGRE on Dover the wind attained the velocity of 71 miles an hour. For a long time past cyclonic disturbances have arrived in proximity to our coasts from the Atlantic with considerable frequency, but, due to the persistent high barometer over western Europe, the incoming storm systems have followed a track to the north- ward, skirting our western and northern coasts. The storm area which arrived on March 4 completely traversed the British Isles, and probably subsequent disturbances arriving will for a time now follow a similar path. In connection with the disturbance, a severe squall, accompanied by thunder and lightning, passed over Kew at 4.30 p.m. on March 4, when the wind attained the velocity of 60 miles an hour, and a similar squall passed over South Kensington at 4.40 p.m., the wind velocity recording 42 miles an hour. At Dover a squall, with the wind blowing 68 miles an hour, was experienced at 4 p.m., and a corresponding disturbance passed over Valencia, in Ireland, at 7.40 a.m., which gives a rate of travel of rather less than 50 miles an hour. THE past winter, comprised in the three months December, January, and February, proves to be one of the warmest experienced of recent years, notwith- standing the severe frost which occurred at the close of January and at the beginning of February. A summary of the weather for the thirteen weeks ended that the mean temperature for the winter was in excess of the average over the entire kingdom; the greatest excess occurred in the east and south-east of England and in the Midland counties. The aggre- gate rainfall for the winter was largely in excess of the average over the whole of the British Isles, except in the north of Scotland, where the deficiency amounted to 2°95 in. The greatest excess was 5°3 in., in the south-east and south-west of England. In the Mid- land counties the excess was 4°3 in., and in the south of Ireland 4°5 in. The rainy days were also in excess of the average everywhere, except in the north of Ireland. The duration of bright sunshine was de- ficient, except in the north of Scotland, but the differ- ence from the normal was nowhere very large. Greenwich the mean temperature was above the average in each of the three winter months, the excess being respectively 5°, 2°, and 4°; the mean for the whole period was 42'5°, which is 3° above the normal. There has only been one winter as warm in the last thirty-five years, the mean for the three months being 435° in the winter of 1898-9. rainfall was also in excess of the average in each of the three months, the aggregate excess being 3°3 in. The duration of bright sunshine was in good agree- ment with the normal. In the December (1911) number of the Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, issued by the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, some novel “Tables of Statistical Error” are given by Sir Ronald Ross and Mr. Walter Stott. The tables show, for a given true percentage, how many observations must be made in order that the odds may be m: 1 that the observed percentage lies within given limits. The limits taken are +1, +2, +3, £4, “£5, or +6 per NO. 2210, VOL. 89] At | The | | to be projecting from March 2, issued by the Meteorological Office, shows | cent., the odds 99999: 1, 9999: 1, 999: 1, 99:1, 9: 1, and 1:1, and the percentages are tabulated by steps of a unit. As the calculation appears to have been made, however, on the usual basis of a normal dis- tribution, it is not clear what meaning’ can be attri- buted to the figures given for very low percentages, where the number of observations is not nearly sufficient to justify such an assumption. The tables, which are obtainable as a separate publication, should do much to lessen the publication of results based on quite inadequate statistical data, and thus serve a very’ useful purpose, but the point to which we have directed attention should have received more attention in the explanatory introduction. Mr. G. R. M. Tempie sends us from York a copy of a photograph, here re- produced, which illustrates very clearly the result of the expansion of water by freez- ing during the recent severe frost. The bottle was filled with clean water and tightly corked; when the water had frozen a stem of ice about 44 in. in length was found the neck of the bottle, as shown in the illustration. This stem represented, of course, the increase of volume undergone by the water in passing from the liquid to the solid state. The bottle must have been cracked while — solidification was going on, otherwise the water would have escaped. Protrnding stem of ice formed by the freezing of water in a bo.tle. Tue illustrated article by Prof. E. F. Northrup on a photographic study of vortex rings in liquids, pub- lished in our issue of February 1 last (vol. Ixxxviii., p. 463), has prompted Mr. A. W. Ackermann to send a description of some experiments performed by him twenty years ago in the production of vortex rings in liquids. He took a cubical vaseline tin of 85 cm. edge, cut a hole in the lid 1 cm. in diameter, filled the tin with a solution of permanganate of potash, and placed the tin in a bath 6 ft. long. By means of a long stick impulses were given to the top or end of the tin, and the vortex rings were ejected at pleasure and studied. At Mr. Ackermann’s sugges- tion, Prof. C. V. Boys, F.R.S., was asked if he had investigated the matter. He reminds us that the late _ Prof. Guthrie had a large glass trough made in the early eighties of the last century for experiments on liquid vortex rings. In the centre of one end there was a ‘‘ gun” with a thick sheet india-rubber back. The gun was filled with a solution of rosaniline. Dr. Guthrie’s trough was used later by Sir Arthur Rticker, F.R.S., while professor of physics at the Royal College of Science, London. Prof. Boys goes on to inform us that he would have expected that a trough wider than 12 cm., as described in Prof. Northrup’s article, certainly not less than 30 cm. or a 16 NAL OTR Marcu 7, 1912 7 foot, would be greatly preferable, and equally that a gun with a larger muzzle than that employed would have been better. Tue annual general meeting of the Institute of Chemistry was held on March 1, Dr. George Beilby, F.R.S., the president, occupying the chair. During the course of his address the president said the fund for new buildings for the institute has reached S5ool., but 15,0001. is considered necessary for erecting a building suitable for the worl of the institute. Touching on the difficulties which confront public analysts and private practitioners, he referred to the attempts made on the part of certain local authorities to lower the status of the professional chemist by offering appointments at ridiculous remuneration. Enlightened municipal bodies realise that the proper administration of statutes, such as the Sale of Food and Drugs Act, cannot be expected unless they attract to their appointments men of competence and integrity, who can hold their own as responsible re- presentative officers of their authorities. The Act is as much a statute against fraud as in the interests of public health, and it must be understood that the public analyst is in no way subject to the control of the medical officer of health. Prof. R. Meldola, F.R.S., was elected as president for the ensuing year, and the following as vice-presidents:—Dr. G. T. Beilby, F.R.S., Dr. F. Clowes, Dr. G. McGowan, Sir Alexander Pedler, F.R.S., Dr.’ J. M. Thomson, F.R.S., and Sir William Tilden, F.R.S. Tue Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards for December 15, 1911, contains an account of an investi- gation carried out by Mr. F. W. Grover on the effect of temperature and frequency on the capacity and phase difference of a number of commercial paraffined paper condensers. The alternating currents used were supplied by special generators designed for the Bureau. Bridge methods were used, balance being indicated by a vibration galvanometer. The phase differences found range from 6’ to 22° of are. The change of capacity with frequency is large for low frequencies, and decreases as the frequency increases. The temperature coefficient of capacity is generally positive and of the order 1 per cent., but in some cases may be negative. The absorption appears to be represented with a fair degree of accuracy by Von Schweidler’s extension of Pellat’s theory that the dielectric displacement on the appli- cation of an electric field attains instantly a certain fraction of its final value, and then increases ex- ponentially to its final value. Three exponential terms appear to be necessary to represent the observa- tions. It follows from these results that paper con- densers cannot serve as standards of capacity, and should not be used in any work in which a constant capacity is required. COMMENTING on the fatal accident to Mr. Graham Gilmour, Engineering for March 1 considers that if the trussing of his machine was after the usual pattern in this type of machine, the provision for horizontal strength would not be very great, and NO. 2210, VOL. 89| failure would most likely be in this direction. The essential lesson in this and previous accidents appears to be that it is high time that the question of the strength of monoplane wings was gone into in a public manner, and that it is due to the public that the makers should demonstrate that they have a reasonable factor of safety, both vertically and hori- zontally, otherwise the monoplane in its present state will be put down as a machine in which safety has been so far sacrificed to the craze for ‘‘ records ”’ that it is not fit for practical flight. Turre have been several proposals within the past few years to construct internal-combustion air-com- pressors on the free-piston system, and one which has been made and tested by Signor Giuseppe Matricardi, of Pallanza, Lago Maggiore, Italy, is described in Engineering for March 1. A heavy piston is propelled from one end of a cylinder to the other end by the explosion of a gaseous mixture behind it. During its motion it expels air in front of it through a port, and thence through a non-return valve into a reservoir. Near the end of its travel the piston over- runs the port, and compresses into the end of the cylinder a fresh charge, which is exploded in its turn, shooting back the piston to the other end. In its passage the piston compresses and discharges into a reservoir the air in front of it, as before. It is said that a good efficiency and large output have been secured in the small machine already tested, but actual figures are reserved until a larger compressor, now under construction, is ready and tested by in- dependent engineers. We are indebted to Messrs. Cassell for a copy of the first part of a new issue of Kearton’s ‘ British Birds’ Nests.’’ The fact that bitterns nested last year in Norfolk is recorded. Tue first part of ‘‘ The Nature Book,’’ which is described in a subtitle as a popular description by pen and camera of the delights and beauties of the open air, has been published by Messrs. Cassell and Co., Ltd. The work is to be completed in thirty-six fortnightly parts, at 7d. net each. It is profusely illustrated from photographs and a series of coloured plates. THE report of the ninth meeting of the Inter- national Meteorological Committee, held at Berlin in September, 1910, and of the sixth meeting of the Commission for Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmo- spheric Electricity, which preceded it, has just been published as a lue-book (Meteorological Office, No. 208, price 3s.). Tue “ Classified List of Smithsonian Publications available for Distribution, January, 1912,’’ has been received from Washington. Applicants for these publications are requested to state the grounds of their requests, as the Smithsonian Institution is able to supply papers only as an aid to the researches in which applicants are especially interested. The papers included in the list are distributed gratis, except in some eases, where a small charge is made. eet ee ' Marcu 7, 1912] NATURE 17 OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. Brituianr Wuire Spors on Mars.—In No. 10, vol. xix., of Popular Astronomy Mr. L. J. Wilson, who observes Mars with an 11-inch reflector, cites several occasions during October and November, 1911, when his observations at Nashville, Tenn., revealed the presence of very conspicuous and brilliant white spots on the planet’s disc; such spots were seen, on October 14, in the region following Hesperia. Com- paring his recent observations with those made during 1909, Mr. Wilson concludes that the frequent forma- tion of such spots is an unusual feature of the present apparition. Cometary PHENOMENA.—A discussion of cometary phenomena is published by Prof. Karl Bohlin in an abstract from the Naturwissenschaftlichen Rund- schau. Prof. Bohlin deals with such matters as the orbits, the brightness and structure of the different parts of comets, the facts revealed by spectroscopic analysis, and the peculiar fluctuations of the form and brightness of the tails of various comets. Of general interest will be found the tables he gives showing the variation of all these features in a large number of well-known comets which have appeared since the seventeenth century. THE ANTARCTIC CAMPAIGN. AT the present time it is not unlikely that the south 4 pole has been reached by both Captain Scott and Captain Amundsen, who are leading respectively British and Norwegian Antarctic expeditions. The accomplishment of this athletic feat is one that the public take an intense interest in, and not least of all at the present time because there are two com- petitors in the polar race, which adds zest from the sportsman’s point of view. Any journey in Antarctic regions must also add something to our knowledge of the Antarctic regions, and any additional know- ledge is of scientific value. But the two expeditions are of much greater interest to the scientific com- munity from the point of view of the work they will do outside this journey to the pole, for, so far as the polar journey is concerned, Captain Scott intends to follow over his own track and Sir Ernest Shackle- ton’s, except for the last hundred miles, and Captain Amundsen may, after tracking in a south-westerly direction across the surface of the Ross Barrier, also follow Sir Ernest Shackleton’s track up the Beardmore Glacier, and thence to the pole, practically in the same line as Captain Scott. The only additional topographical information therefore gained by these journeys is in the possible track of Amundsen from the vicinity of Edward Land to the Beardmore Glacier, and the same track that both Scott and Amundsen are likely to take over the last hundred miles to the pole, which, we fairly well know from Shackleton’s observations, must be situated at an altitude of some- thing like 1o,ooo ft. on the inland ice of Antarctica. We hope that Scott and Amundsen will meet each other, and, mutually helping one another, reach the pole with honours divided. Mr. Mossman reports that great reticence was shown by the members of the Norwegian expedition while in Buenos Aires with regard to Amundsen’s southern journey, but that he was to leave for the south not later than September, and that he hoped to reach the plateau by another way than the Beard- more Glacier. and emerge somewhere in the neigh- bourhood of Alexander Land, a region already visited by Amundsen on board the Belgica. The accomplish- ment of a journey along this route would be not only a triumph of physical endurance, and good organisa- NO. 2210. VOL. 8901 | tion of food supply and equipment, but would also add immensely to our knowledge of Antarctica. If the pole is attained by either or both of these explorers, the thanks of the scientific world are due to them for having once and for all settled the matter, and thus helping the public to understand that serious south polar exploration is not to reach a certain mathematical point before somebody else, but rather to carry on systematic investigations within the greatest unknown area on the surface of our globe, an area that occupies about five and a half million square miles—i.e. almost as great as the area of Europe and Australia combined. It was Scott’s intention to land a party not only at McMurdo Sound, but also on Edward Land. After Scott and his party were landed at McMurdo Sound, Lieutenant Pennell received command of the ship, and took Lieutenant Campbell’s party with him, con- sisting of six, all told. The party was, however, unable to land at Edward Land, ‘‘owing to the per- pendicular ice cliffs... This being so, an attempt was made to land them ‘‘as far west of Robertson Bay as possible,” and make discoveries in that direc- tion, but ‘‘from Smith Inlet to Robertson Bay there was not a single spot where a party could land—all sheer ice cliffs... Campbell and his party therefore landed at Cape Adare. After landing the party Pennell cruised to the west of Cape North, and dis- covered new land westward in two places. In the meantime, Scott and his party had finished setting up their camp, and Scott had begun a journey to the south that was probably preliminary to his great effort to reach the pole. Beyond this we have very little information, but since the return of the Terra Nova to New Zealand we understand that the ship was chartered by the New Zealand Government in order to carry out some hydrographic operations in the vicinity of New Zealand during the winter months. These hydrographic observations, made under the auspices of the New Zealand Government, are sure to be of the greatest possible scientific value; and now the Terra Nova has sailed once more for the south, and no word will be heard of her for another month or so. It is understood, however, that Lieutenant Pennell takes news to Captain Scott that sufficient funds have been acquired to enable him to stay out for another season, so that if reaching the pole is disposed of, the expedition should have a most excel- lent opportunity of carrying out explorations and various observations which will be of the highest possible scientific value. Amundsen’s party has, according to information received, succeeded in landing on the Ross Barrier in longitude 162° W., about fifty miles west of Edward Land, at a place he has named Bay of Whales. The news of the discovery of the Norwegian expedi- tion at this point by Lieutenant Pennell came as a great surprise to all in Britain, but from the scientific point of view it cannot but add to the value of Scott’s observations as well as Amundsen’s, and, as I have said, from the sportive point of view it adds zest. Moreover, every mile Amundsen and his party travel over to the east of Beardmore Glacier will be new, and any observations taken at the Norwegian base station will be entirely new and of great value. The Fram, which has carried two successful expedi- tions to the Arctic regions, made a long voyage out to the Ross Barrier from Madeira without calling at any intermediate port, and again from the Ross Barrier she made a second extensive voyage without calling at any port until she reached Buenos Aires. During the past southern winter she has crossed the Atlantic twice from Buenos Aires to Africa, and has taken observations at sixty stations. In order to ie) NATURE [Marcu 7, 1912 get a clear idea of the past work and future pro- gramme, I quote from information that Mr. Roald Amundsen has been good enough to send me which has been furnished to him by Captain Nilsen, the commander of the Fram :— ““We left Buenos Aires,’’ says Captain Nilsen, ‘‘ on June 8, 1911, exactly one year after our departure from Horten (Norway), on our first oceanographic voyage to the northern part of the South Atlantic. The pilot accompanied us to Montevideo, where we stopped until Sunday morning, June 11, on account of a ‘ pamperos’ (south-westerly wind very violent), when we continued our way in the Atlantic Ocean in good order. The weather hindered us from beginning the sounding before June 17, but from that day everything went on all right. We commenced first with sounding, taking also water samples and temperatures down to 2000 metres; but this took us eight hours, and as during this time we had to stop with fixed sails, one- third of the twenty-four hours passed. Time being short, as we would have to leave Buenos Aires about October 1, we could only get on a short distance in the Atlantic if we had to continue this work, and it was necessary, there- fore, to abandon sounding altogether, and we took observations down to 1000 metres only. We sailed from the La Plata River in a line approximately straight towards 9° E. longitude and about 21° S. latitude; we arrived here on July 22, and sailed towards St. Helena, which we passed on the evening of July 29. We con- tinued to South Trinidad, which we passed very close to on August 12. On August 25 we finished the oceano- graphic observations in about 25° S. latitude and 40° W. longitude. All in all, we have had sixty stations, and have collected 891 water samples, which will probably be sent home by the Kronpringzessin Viktoria. We have also about 200 bottles of plankton. ““We returned to Buenos Aires at midnight on September 1. During the whole time the weather has been fair, and our course was fixed according to the winds; we sailed eastward to Africa by almost steady northerly and north-westerly winds that lasted exactly four weeks, and during this time the motor was at a complete stand- still. In order to cover as even distances as possible, we sailed at a rate of 4 to 5 knots. As we had to take in the sails at each station, they got so worn that they scarcely kept together at last; and I had no mind to use our second set of sails, that ought to be in tip-top order when we got into the ‘ roaring forties.’ ““The voyage has in every respect been a good one for the Fram; her motor has been thoroughly examined and cleaned during the long rest, the rigging looked after, all iron has been cleaned for rust, and the vessel has been painted all over; the Fram looks finer now than she did when she was new. The stores have been arranged, registered, and cleaned, and the sailmaker, Rénne, has been sewing sails, &c., from 6 a.m. to 6 p.m., and several alterations and modifications have been made by the chief engineer, Lundbeck, who is a man and an engineer of the first order.” This is the chief information received from Captain Amundsen. It seems almost a pity that a vessel so well fitted for oceanographical research as the Fram is, in higher latitudes, worked north instead of south of 40° S., for with the exception of the Scotia’s hydrographical observations south of 40° S., little has been done in oceanographical research in high southern Jatitudes in the Atlantic Ocean, whereas north of that latitude the Challenger and subsequent expeditions have done much to add to our knowledge of those seas. Some important observations have, however, been made south of 40° S. by the Deutschland. The Fram is not expected to carry out any oceano- graphical research in her circumpolar voyage—she will only just have enough time to fetch the landing party, and again regret must be expressed that time has not been allowed to carry out such researches in those high southern latitudes by an ice-protected ship. Nothing is yet decided as to 1912, but Mr. Roald NO. 2210, VOL. 89| Amundsen does not think it likely that the Fram will proceed across the North Polar Basin before 1913, as that depends on the funds available. Four other expeditions are also carrying on re- searches in the south polar regions, namely, an Aus- tralian one under Dr. Douglas Mawson, a German one under Lieutenant Dr. Filchner, a Japanese one under Lieutenant Shirasé, and last, but not least, the Argentine expedition, which sailed for the South Orkneys to continue the meteorological and magnet- ical work initiated by the Scottish expedition at Scotia Bay in 1903, and continued by the Oficina Meteoro- logica Argentina since 1904 at an annual cost of about 6000l. With regard to the Japanese expedition, prac- tically no news has reached Europe, and, indeed, notice that the expedition left Sydney on November 19, 1911, came as rather a surprise, as it was thought that after being so hopelessly late in the previous season they would not for the present attempt further work. Whatever are the aims of the present Japanese expedi- tion, the writer has reason to believe that we may expect Japan to take a very prominent part in Antarctic exploration of a purely scientific kind before many years are past. The work of the German expedi- tion lies in the Weddell Sea in longitudes west of Coat’s Land, Dr. Filchner having generally agreed with the writer that the region to the east of this should be left for the proposed Scottish expedition. If, how- ever, the Germans fail on account of conditions of ice or other difficulties to carry on their work to the west of this longitude, it is quite understood that they are to be free to work to the eastward. So far as the writer is concerned, he is of opinion that it is not in the interests of science that an expedition actually in the field should be hampered in any way by reserving an area for another expedition which has not so far succeeded in raising all the necessary funds. The area of the unknown Antarctic regions is so vast that there is plenty of room for all-comers, and more especially so if there is a division of labour in the work. There are two prominent theories of the structure of Antarctic lands. Filchner bases the plan of his expedition upon the theory held by himself, Dr. Penck, Dr. Otto Nordenskjéld, Sir George Darwin, and others, that there are two Antarctic land masses which are divided from each other by a channel pos- sibly covered by a continuation of the Ross Barrier running across from the Ross Sea to the Weddell Sea, thus dividing Graham Land from the rest of the land. The other prominent theory, which has for long been held by Sir John Murray, and is sup- ported by Sir Ernest Shackleton, Dr. Mawson, and myself, is that there is one great Antarctic continental land mass with no such division across it. A third theory, held by Dr. Nansen, is that the Antarctic land is composed of an archipelago of islands. Ina paper * delivered to Der Schweizerischen Naturforschenden Gesellschaft at Basel in 1910, I summarised my reasons for holding the view that there was one great Antarctic continent. Having a definite theory of the structure of the Antarctic continent, Filchner sets out to test the accuracy of it. His confidence augurs well for the success of the German expedition. ‘‘ Morgen friih 10 Uhr (also am 10 December) gehen wir,”’ says he, ‘in See nach dem Eis mit rein stidlichem Kurs bis zum Auftreffen auf die Eisbarre und folgen ihrem nérd- lichen Rande, dann so lange Gstlich, bis wir sie durchqueren kénnen.”” This confident assurance reaches us from South Georgia, from which place 1 “Uber die Fortsetzung des antarctischen Festlands zwischen Fnderby- land, Coatsland und Grahamland, sowie das Vorhandensein im Morrells- land.” Von Herrn Dr. William S. Bruce, Direktor der Scottish Oceano- graphical Laboratory. Marcu 7, 1912] NATURE 19 I have had word from Lieutenant Dr. Filchner and Dr. Heim, geologist to the expedition. They inform me that they have so far had a successful voyage, having landed at St. Paul’s Rocks, and having already taken as many as eighty soundings. Several of them appear to have been taken in the neighbour- hood of South Geor;ia and the South Sandwich Group, and these will form a most important contribution to the study of former Antarctic continental connections with South America. ‘‘Storm and stress of weather hindered every attempt at landing on the South Sand- wich Group,” and in this connection it is interesting to note that this heavy weather was previously pre- dicted by Mr. R. C. Mossman at Buenos Aires. Prof. Penck, who has been good enough to furnish me with much useful information, says :—‘‘* Reaching the pole does not form a special feature of the pro- gramme.’ He also writes saying that Filchner will establish a station to the west of Coat’s Land, and will not leave the the slate of Possessions Bay. Bad weather prevented pendulum observations, but earth magnetic elements were determined. : It took from November 1 to 14 to go from South Georgia to the South Sandwich Group. A course was. first steered to Lieskow Island; the Deutschland then passed Candlemas Island, and left the group at Zavadowskij Island. Some of these islands are ex- tinct, and others active, volcanoes. The rocks appeared to be basaltic. Volcanic sand containing basaltic fragments was secured by sounding. Meteorological and other observations were made, and it is especially interesting to note that for the first time in Antarctic regions ballons-sondes, as used by the Prince of Monaco in Spitsbergen, were employed, since in South Georgia sixty-five of these balloons were released. These were traced to a height of 9 kilometres, or 29,528 ft., and should give Antarctic regions until the summer of 1913-14. A most important line of sixteen soundings* has been taken from Monte Video to South Georgia and the South Sandwich Group which confirms the existence of deep water of 2500 fathoms which the writer supposed existed there* between g5°'S., 520sSeeand 21° and 55° ‘W: Filchner extends this 3000-fathoms vater to a point west of South Georgia, where he obtained a sound- ing of 3064 fathoms. This sound- ing, along with one of 2358 fathoms and a second of 2413 fathoms Filchner considers to the west of South Georgia, precludes the possi- bility of a ‘“‘rise’’ (unterseeische Verbindung) between South Georgia and the South Sandwich Group, but another sounding of 1787 fathoms between Lieskow Island and South Georgia seems to confirm, to my mind, the existence of such a rise. Close to Candlemas Island 478 fathoms was obtained, and y depths of 1144 and 1757 fathoms 7 were obtained close to the group, just as the Scotia sounded in 1745 fathoms 15 miles off the South Orkneys. Although the deeper water from Scott Mawson ps Amundsen Filchner " Argentina Stations X WA A APPROXIMATE ROUTES. the north dips rather further south than it was previously supposed to do, the suggestion that there is no “rise’’ is worth consideration as leading to the possibility of the Sandwich Group being cut off from the South American-Graham Land connection, and indicates the great importance of more soundings to the south of South Georgia. Quite extensive and interesting geological excursions were made in South Georgia, which were facilitated by Captain Larsen lending the German expedition his 500-ton yacht Undine. The Germans have found that South Georgia is a folded mountain range, probably part of the Faltengebirge of the South American Andes and Graham Land. The tuffs found by Gunnar Ander- sen in 1902 are found to be old Mesozoic and young Paleozoic tuffs. Dr. Kénig found an ammonite in % Zeitschrift der Gesell. f. Evdkunde su Berlin, 1912, No. 2. 4“ Bathymetrical Survey of South Atlantic Ocean and Weddell Sea.” By Wm. S. Bruce. With Map and Illustrations. Scot. Geog. Mag., August, 1905. NO. 2210, VOL. 89] Stanfords Geog! Estab’ London. valuable information regarding atmo- sphere in the south polar regions. Whether Filchner succeeds in pushing far to the south to the west of Coat’s Land, where he believes he will be able to land on a barrier similar to and continuous with the Ross Barrier, depends on the state of the ice in the Weddell Sea, and Mossman unfortunately predicts a series of bad ice years. If Filchner meets the pack as Ross met it in 1842-43, and as the Scottish expeditions met it in 1892-93 and in 1902-03, in which latter season also Nordenskjéld’s ship, the Antarctic, was crushed and lost, he will not attain a high latitude to the west of Coat’s Land, but if he has an open summer, as Morrell and Weddell had in 1822-23, he will get far south, and will fall in with land somewhere about 75° S., if the supposed rift 75 : : valley from the Ross Sea does not exist. Filchner the higher | will also in all probability then be able to prove the 20 NATURE [Marcu 7, 1912 existence or non-existence of New South Greenland, discovered by Captain Johnson in 1821-22, and re- visited and described by Morrell in 1822-23—the summer Weddell attained the high latitude of 74° 15/ S. in those longitudes. If Filchner falls in with New South Greenland it will almost preclude the pos- sibility of the existence of the suggested ice-covered strait cutting across Antarctica from the Ross to the Weddell Sea. Altogether, the German expedition has most in- teresting and fascinating problems to solve, and with such a good ship—the Deutschland—with such excel- lent equipment and staff, and so competent a leader, should not fail to bring us back much valuable in- formation. The Australian expedition, under the able leader- ship of Dr. Douglas Mawson, is on quite a different plan from any of the others in the field, and in that it will do not only a considerable amount of hydro- graphical work, but will also make deep-sea biological research a special feature, it resembles more the general plan of the late Scottish expedition. In fact, the Aurora’s trawling gear is much the same as that used by the Scotia, and she carries with her the Scotia’s quick-working winch, which was used for hauling up the sounding apparatus, the deep-sea water-bottles and thermometers, and vertical plankton net. Mawson also emphasises meteorology, especially in relationship to Australia. The Aurora, which was refitted in London under the guidance of Captain Davis—who is her master, and was previously master of the Nimrod—left Hobart on December 2, and pushed south-eastward, calling at the Macquarie Islands on December 21, after which Mawson intended to land a party west of Cape North, directly north of the magnetic pole. This party will hope to complete the magnetic data yet wanting in the vicinity of the south magnetic pole. Proceeding eastward, a second party will be landed at Clarie Land, and a third at Knox Land. These parties, by man, dog, and motor sledges, will seel< to map out the coastline to the east and west of their respective stations. The voyage is then to be pro- longed westward about the latitude of the Antarctic circle as far as Enderby Land, whence the Aurora will return to Fremantle. é The programme is a verv ambitious one, and Maw- son may rest well satisfied if he lands but one party and carries out a general investigation of this little known and much disputed coast, including oceano- eraphical and meteorological survey. In TO cue viz., the longitude of Kerguelen Island, an attempt will be made to penetrate southward as well as in the longitude of the magnetic pole. Mawson regards this part of the Antarctic continent to which his efforts are to be directed as by far the most important por- tion of Antarctica vet to be explored. He points out that ‘along the whole 2000 miles of coast between Cape Adare and Gaussberg a landing has been made once only, and then but for a few hours, by d’Urville’s expedition in 1840. Only a few vessels have ever come within sight of this coast, and practically none since the days of d’Urville and Wilkes.” ; Mr. Alfred Reid tells me that lack of coal may render it necessary for the Aurora to put into Kerguelen for ballast on her return to Fremantle under canvas. In April the Aurora will again go south with a number of Australian men of science in order to carry out dredging and sounding in seas between Australia and Antarctica, and in December the Aurora will proceed south once more to pick up Dr. Mawson and his colleagues at the three stations. Mawson carries with him an aéroplane and certifi- cated air pilot, and has, like Filchner, an installation NO. 2210, VOL. 89] of wireless telegraphy. The expedition, which carries a crew and staff of fifty persons, is well supported — by the Australian and British Governments and by private enterprise. Mawson is a geologist of the first order and a trained magnetic observer, and with Shackleton’s ex- pedition gained an intimate insight into the geology of Antarctica and its relationship to Australasian geology. He is an enthusiast, and his plans are original and well thought out. Mawson is well sup- ported by Captain Davis and an excellent scientific staff, and thus the Australian expedition is sure of a scientific success, and more especially so since the expedition is not hampered by taking part in the race to the pole. As I have already stated, little is known of the plans and prospects of the Japanese expedition, but it is to be hoped that they will be rewarded with a rich harvest of scientific results that will encourage future efforts on the part of Japan. Finally, success is assured for the enterprising Republic of Argentina, with meteorological and mag- netical work at the first-class station at Scotia Bay, which now commences work for the tenth consecutive year—a triumph without equal in the annals of polar exploration. Every year the Argentines send out a party of trained meteorologists and magneticians, who winter at Scotia Bay, frozen in and cut off completely from the rest of the world for twelve months, and it is interesting to note that the leaders of this worl, under the able directorship of Mr. Walter J. Davis, of the Oficina Meteorologica Argentina, have been trained at Ben Nevis Observatory, which the British Government persistently refuses to support for no other reason apparently than that it happens to lie north of the Tweed. Wirtiam S. Bruce. FISHERIES OF BENGAL. pets Journal of the Royal Society of Arts of December 22, Itgtr, contains a full report of a paper on the fisheries of Bengal, by Dr. J. T. Jenkins, read before the society on November 14. In response to an invitation from the Indian Govern- ment, the author proceeded to India in October, 1908, for the purpose of undertaking, during a period of eishteen months, a practical investigation into the | pessibilities of the fisheries of the Bay of Bengal and the Sandarbans. He was provided with a trawling steamer, the Golden Crown, which was unfortunately not so efficient as she might have been; and with —— this vessel trawling was carried on for a considerable | ' period in various parts of the bay, work being carried on night and day. As a rule, four hauls were made per diem, and it was found, despite the monsoon, that trawling can be carried on at all seasons of the vear. The results fullv confirmed the anticipations which had previously been made by- Lieut.-Col. Alcock and others as to the richness of the fishery, large supplies of the food-fishes most esteemed in the Calcutta market, as well as others, being obtained. Even the coarser kinds would find a ready sale | among the poorer classes of Bengalis, while in the case of uneatable species like sharks and swordfishes the liver and fins could be utilised. As to the practicability of bringing the catches in good condition to market, it was found that, if stored in ice, the fish would keep perfectly well for a certain time. In the event of the fishery being worked com- mercially, it is recommended that Diamond Harbour, which is much lower down the Hughli than Calcutta, with which it is connected by railway, should be selected as a base for trawling. | Marcu 7, 1912] NATURE zl The collections included a large series of fishes and invertebrates, which have been handed over to the Indian Museum to be worked out. Only a short time could be devoted to the fisheries of the Sandarbans, that vast area in the Ganges delta which includes large rivers and pestiferous creeks where fish-life is impossible, but such observations as could be made indicate that here too profitable fisheries could be established, for it is to the Sandar- vans that the hilsa (Indian shad), one of the most esteemed of Calcutta food-fishes, resorts for the pur- pose of spawning . As a preliminary to the development of the rich fisheries of Bengal, it is recommended that a Fisheries Department should be established by the Indian Government without delay. Reale: DISINTEGRATING BACTERIA AND OTHER ORGANIC CELLS. BACTERIAL toxins may be broadly divided into | two varieties. In one of these the toxin is ex- creted into the medium on which the organisms are cultivated, and in the other type the toxin is retained within and forms an integral part of the living bac- terial cell. It is now generally recognised that the diseasc- producing effects of pathogenic micro-organisms are almost entirely due to the toxins, whether intracellular or extracellular, which they secrete. For immunising purposes or for the preparation of anti-sera, the toxin which is excreted may be obtained from the culture medium by filtration through a porous porcelain filter, such as the Pasteur-Chamberland, the organisms being retained by the filter and the toxin passing through. The diphtheria and tetanus bacillus are examples of this type. The majority of micro-organisms, however, do not excrete their toxin, at least to any extent, and among those that retain it within the cell are typhoid, cholera, plague, glanders, B. coli, B. streptococci, B. staphylo- cocci, &c. In these cases some method of rupturing the cell-wall, so that the contents may escape, has | been found to be desirable. This allows of not only the use of the toxin as such, but also renders it pos- | sible to investigate the chemical composition and pro- | perties of the bacterial proteins and other cell con- stituents. The apparatus to be described fulfils the required | conditions, and causes the cell-wall to be ruptured so that the contents are obtained unaltered. It is neces- sary that there should be no appreciable rise of tem- perature during the operation, apart even from any extraneous cooling arrangement, or else chemical change would occur; the apparatus therefore must be so far as possible frictionless. Every organism must come under the grinding action, so that either no whole cells remain or their number is reduced to a minimum. The containing vessel in which the grinding action takes place must be so effectually sealed that, during the process of disintegration, no cells have any opportunity of escaping. This applies particularly when pathogenic organisms are being dealt with. The apparatus as designed is made in two forms; in one (Fig. 1) it is mounted between horizontal centres, and in the other (Fig. 2) between vertical centres. In the former the grinding action is controlled by gravity, and in the latter by electro- magnetic means. : The appliance consists essentially of a phosphor bronze or steel pot or vessel, A, in which a number of steel balls, B, are allowed to revolve. The steel balls accurately fit the inside of the containing vessel, so that as the machine rotates they are in contact NO. 2210, VOL. 89] over nearly one-half of their circumference with the inside of the vessel. A metal cage, C, is made of such a shape that its prongs lie between the balls, so that the latter cannot collide one with another when the machine is rotating. Mounted at the centre of the metal vessel is a steel cone, D, which is of such a size that it keeps the balls in their proper position in close contact with the periphery of the containing vessel. This cone is an important part of the apparatus as upon it depends the pressure that may be exerted on the balls; and, further, as the result of its use the balls themselves have freedom to slip Fic 1. i if any additional strain is thrown on them, or if any undue amount of material comes under their action. The containing vessel is closed by a metal cap, E, which screws down, hermetically sealing the vessel. A groove is made in the top of the containing vessel into which a lip on this screw cap loosely fits. Sufficient space remains between the two, as shown in the figure, to allow of some bacterial agent being placed therein, thus effectually preventing the escape of whole bacteria or ground material from the contain- ing vessel. Over the whole of this a cylindrical cap, F, is placed, and in the top of this cap a metal cone, G, is fitted, which presses by means of a spring on to the top of the steel cone, D. The steel cone is itself hollow, and is closed by a small metal cap, L. A lead or steel weight, K, is fitted on to the steel spindle, D, and is clamped on any desired position along it. The apparatus is mounted on a cone, H, and runs between this cone and the centre, I. It may be con- veniently connected directly up to a motor, as shown in the illustration, or may be driven by a belt from any suitable source of power by putting a grooved pulley on to the left-hand end of the spindle. The grinding action takes place between the steel to to NATURE [Marcu 7, 1912 balls contained in the metal vessel and the interior surface of the same. It is evident that if the weight, Kk, were not on the central cone, as shown, or unless some similar method were adopted to control the cone to prevent it from rotating, no grinding action would result; the central cone, in fact, must either remain still or be allowed to rotate at a slower speed than the containing vessel. The metal weight, K, is of such size that on the whole machine being driven at a suitable speed the action of gravity results in the steel cone remaining still, and so a grinding action takes place between the steel balls and the inside surface of the containing vessel. To bring the bacterial or other cells under the grinding action of the balls, the speed of rotation should be from 1000 to 1500 revolutions per minute; centrifugal action is then sufficient to ensure that the whole of the material does actually come between the balls and the metal vessel. ; The method of using the machine is briefly as fol- lows :—The bacteria, after being removed from the ‘culture tubes or plates on which they are grown, are ccentrifugalised; the semi-fluid mass is then emulsified with saline solution, so that it is of a creamy con- sistence. This material is then introduced into the container by means of a pipette through the hollow centre of the steel cone. This ensures that no parts q 8&7 @». 82 57S /we08 a e 3s, oe , 4 40-8 Ges Fic of the machine are disturbec more than is absoluely necessary either before or after grinding. The machine is then run for a longer or shorter period, depending on the amount of material to be dealt with, and the ground material is then pipetted off through the central steel cone. As the balls are themselves free to rotate, the amount of friction is negligible, but any rise of temperature may be prevented by allowing a small stream of carbonic acid gas from a cylinder of liquid carbonic acid to impinge on to the side of the vessel; alternatively an ether spray, such as is used for section-cutting purposes, may be used, and will be found quite efficient. The vertical type of machine (Fig. 2) is exactly similar in all essential details, except that the central steel cone is controlled by means of electromagnets. Oi the top of the cone a mass of soft iron is fixed, and this is kept from rotating by means of the elect-5- | magnets, J. The only constructional difference is that the containing cylinder, F, is made of vulcanite, so that it is perfectly diamagnetic. The chief advantage of this design over the one previously described is that it can be completely covered by a glass bell-jar while in action. A bactericidal agent may be placed in the groove O, and the bottom edge of a_bell-jar allowed to dip into it. NO. 2210, VOL. 89] The etfect of disintegrating yeast cells for ten and fifteen minutes is seen in Figs. 4 and 5 respectively, Fig. 3 showing the cells before the commencement of the process. It is interesting to note that in Fig. 5 the cell contents have taken up the stain which was used in making the microscopical preparation, whereas the cell envelopes remain unstained and show as clear areas, thus demonstrating that the cell contents have been completely expressed. J. E. Barnarp. UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE. CampripGE.—Mr. E. A. Newell Arber, of Trinity College, has been approved by the general board of studies for the degree of doctor of science. The general board of studies has issued an important report on advanced students, of which there are at present two classes: (1) those who qualify for a degree by submitting a dissertation approved by a degree committee of a special board, and (2) those who qualify for a degree by reaching a certain speci- fied standard in a tripos examination. The board points out that there is considerable variation in the standard required of advanced students in the various tripos examinations. The number of advanced students of the latter class admitted to courses of study in the fourteen years from 1896 to 1909 inclusive was 1o1. In the same period eight applications were refused. Of the ror admitted, 35 reached the standard required in their respective tripos examinations; 18 were rejected; 48 did not present themselves for examination. These statistics point to the conclusion that a good many students are admitted to the status of advanced students who have no real claim to the distinction which such admission may be held to confer. After full consideration of the working of the pre- sent regulations, the general board has come to the conclusion that it is desirable that advanced students should no longer be admitted to courses of advanced study, but that they should be admitted to courses of research only. With this end in view, the board proposes that the class of affiliated students should be enlarged, and that affiliated students should not only be permitted to proceed to a degree after residing in the University for six terms, but in the case of certain tripos ex- aminations should be also admitted to the second part without necessarily having fulfilled the ordinary con- dition of having previously passed in the first part of the tripos or in some other tripos. Marcu 7, 1912] NATURE 23 Oxrorp.—On Wednesday, February 28, Mr. W. | nical subject is associated with the underlying Bateson, F.R.S., honorary fellow of St. John’s | sciences. Laboratory work, wherever possible, sup- College, Cambridge, and director of the John Innes Horticultural Institution, - delivered the annual Herbert Spencer lecture at Oxford, the subject being ** Biological Fact and the Structure of Society.” Man, he said, is an animal guided by natural laws. It is only lately that accurate inquiry has been started into the actual meaning of heredity, but it is now becoming recognised that parents cannot pass on factors that they do not themselves possess, and that the conditions of life are less important than genetic qualities. Still, even now our knowledge is not sufficient to warrant public interference with the ordinary practices of society. ‘‘ We should probably be no better off if marriages were made at West- minster instead of in heaven.’’ In one respect, how- ever, the course is clear—segregation of the feeble- minded and hopelessly unfit is absolutely necessary. On the other hand, the existence of a physical defect such as cataract is not incompatible with a useful life and profitable work. There are many k'-ds of men, but the conditions are so complex that complete classi- fication is impracticable. Two classes, however, may be distinguished—those who can take an interest in science and those who cannot; public men belong, as a rule, to the latter class. In law all men are equal, but science is juster than the law. A high birth-rate is not an unmixed blessing; it produced, for example, the misery of the “ forties.”’? It is incumbent on the State to see that no one goes without food, but a motive must be kept for individual effort. Classes are essential, and a necessary condition of progress is that every individual should be got into his right class. Present social conditions are too unstable to last, and Mr. Bateson doubts whether many wish that they should. It is to be hoped that the new order, what- ever shape it may take, will grow up not in sub- servience to nostrums, but under the guidance of scientific fact. : We learn from Science that the plans of Mr. George M. Pullman for the establishment of a manual training school at Pullman, Ill., are assuming definite form. Prof. L. G. Weld, formerly professor of mathematics and Dean of the University of Iowa, has been despatched on a tour of America and Europe to collect data to guide the board of trustees in the construction of the buildings and the arrangement of the curriculum. Building operations, it is expected, will be commenced next year. A site of forty acres has been purchased at a cost of 20,0001. A fund of 200,000l. was bequeathed by Mr. Pullman at his death in 1897 for founding the institution. This fund Was invested in securities, which have increased in value until now there is about 500,000l. at the dis- _ posal of the governors for the school. Tue general and departmental reports for the Session 1910-11 of the Bradford Technical College show a steady increase in the number of students in attendance. In view of the advanced nature of much of the work in the day courses, the committee has decided to follow the practice usual in connection with university colleges, and appoint external examiners, “who will be associated with the college staff in the final diploma examination and the examinations for the technological scholarships. An extensive research has been carried out in the chemistry department, with the help of students, on the production of some new sulphur bases and their utilisation as sources of colouring matters. The work in the evening classes, it is satisfactory to note, is organised mainly in ystematic courses of instruction, in which the tech- NO. 2210, VOL. 89] plements class work. The courses occupy three even- ings per week, and extend over three, four, or five years. The various laboratories of the engineering department continue to carry out tests and investiga- tions for local firms and for trade purposes. The value of the experience gained in this way and the opportunity afforded of bringing the department into constant touch with the trade are greatly appreciated. THE first issue of the Johns Hopkins University Circular for the present year is devoted to the report of the president of the University for the year 1910-11. President Ira Remsen says that the principal event of the year was the work that culminated in the raising of the sum required to secure the contribution of 50,0001. by the General Education Board towards the endowment of the University. In the offer of the General Education Board it was stipulated that ‘‘a supplementary sum of not less than 150,000l. shall be contributed to the University on or before December 31, 1g10.’’ The work of collecting this money was actively undertaken in October, 1910, and was so successful that on December 31 the desired amount had been contributed in cash or promised. Indeed, the amount contributed was greater than that stipulated by the General Education Board. Up to the present, including the amount contributed by the General Education Board, the University has avail- able, in consequence of this effort, about 240,o00l. Of this sum, I00,o0o0l., according to the conditions of the gift, must be reserved as endowment. It is hoped that additional contributions will be made so that the sum of 400,000]. may be available for several pressing needs. The greater part of the volume, which runs to 10g pages, is made up of reports on the instruction in the chief branches of study and reports by various administrative officers of the University. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. LonDoN. Royal Society, February 15.—Sir Archibald Geikie, K.C.B., president, in the chair—Dr. T. Graham Brown: An _ alleged specific instance of the transmission of acquired characters—investiga- tion and criticism. An examination of the “Brown-Séquard phenomenon” in guinea-pigs— usually considered to be a classical instance of the alleged transmission of an acquired character— throws much doubt upon its value in this controversy. The phenomenon is not an acquired peculiarity pro- duced de novo on division of a great sciatic nerve. It is due to the raised excitability of a mechanism— that of the scratch-reflex—already present; and this raised excitability is probably due to the removal of an inhibiting influence by section of the nerve. The phenomenon, therefore, cannot be considered as trans- missible as an acquirement per se. If anything is transmitted as an acquired character, it must be the state of raised excitability of the scratch-reflex. The presence of the phenomenon in the offspring observed by Brown-Séquard may be admitted, but this may be explained otherwise than by assuming a transmission of acquired characteristics. That the alternative ex- planation—the presence in the offspring is due to a production of the state by injury to the toes and feet inflicted by the parent—is true is rendered pos- sible, and indeed highly probable, by certain parallel evidence submitted in this paper.—W. B. Alexander : Further experiments on the cross-breeding of two races of the moth, Acidalia virgularia. This paper 24 NATURE [MarcH 7, 1912 deals with the descendants of some of the moths of this species reared by Messrs. Prout and Bacot, who read a paper on their results to the Royal Society on February 25, 1909. They did not arrive at any definite conclusions in regard to the process of heredity fol- lowed. The author agrees with them in finding that Acidalia virgularia and its variety canteneraria are not two Mendelian forms of the species, though he finds that one of the differences between the two forms, namely, the presence of black speckling on the wings of A. virgularia, is inherited according to Mendel’s law.—F. H. A. Marshall: The effects of castration and ovariotomy upon sheep. (1) The de- velopment of horns in the males of a breed of sheep in which well-marked secondary sexual differentiation occurs (as manifested especially by presence or absence of horns) depends upon a stimulus arising in the testes, and this stimulus is essential not merely for the initiation of the horn-growth, but for its continu- ance, the horns ceasing to grow whenever the testes are removed. (2) The removal of the ovaries from young ewes belonging to such a breed does not lead to the development of horns or definitely male char- acters, except possibly in a very minor degree.—Dr. T. L. Lewellyn: The causes and prevention of miners’ nystagmus. Miners’ nystagmus is an occupational neurosis confined to coal miners. It is characterised by a rotatory oscillation of the eyes, and produces a disability which is marked and prolonged in severe cases. One thousand six hundred and eighteen cases received compensation in the United Kingdom in rgrr. Pathologically the complaint appears to be a condi- tion of imperfect centripetal impulses (imperfect fixa- tion, disturbance of equilibrium, &c.), the intimate connection between the centres governing the asso- ciated movements of the eyes being lost, and inco- ordinate movements ensuing. The principal preven- tive measures indicated are improvement of illumina- tion, elimination of unfit workers by medical examination, and employment of coal-cutters in thin seams.—W. Lawrence Balls: The stomatograph. The stomatograph is a self-recording instrument adapted from Mr. Francis Darwin’s porometer (see NaTuRE, August 10, 1911). A five days’ record of the opening and closing of the stomata of the cotton plant in Egypt is given, showing the stomata wide open during bright sunshine. The author has elsewhere shown that during this part of the day no growth occurs, and there is evidence that the apparent waste of water then occurring is of importance as keeping the leaves cool, since when transpiration is artificially checked the leaves are rapidly injured or even killed by the high temperature.—G. A, Buckmaster and J. A. Gardner: The composition of the blood gases during the respiration of oxygen. A number of analyses were made of the blood of cats respiring (1) air, (2) oxygen for periods of one to two hours. The average composition in c.c. per 100 c.c. of arterial blood for cats breathing air was as follows (mean of thirteen experiments) :—Total gas, 53776; CO,, 3843; O., 1422; N, r12. The percentage saturation of hamo- globin with oxygen was 83. For cats breathing oxygen the mean values by thirteen experiments were as follows :—Total gas, 53°79; CO,, 38°65; O.. 14°93; N, o 16. The average percentage saturation of hemoglobin with oxygen was 896. From their experiments the authors conclude that the inhalation of oxygen does not materially augment cither the quantity of this gas or the quantity of carbon-dioxide in the blood. February 22.—Sir Archibald Geilie, K.C.B., president, in the chair.—Prof. H. L. Callendar : Pakerian lecture on the variation of the specific heat of water, investigated by the continuous NO. 2210, VOL. 89] } mixture method. A single formula has been found to represent the variation of the specific heat s accord- ing to the continuous electric and mixture methods over the range o° to 100° C. The formula is as follows :— $=0'98536+ 0°504/(t + 20) + 0'0084(1/ 100) + 0’0090(t/ 100)", in terms of the specific heat at 20° C. taken as unity, and in terms of the scale of the temperature 1 deduced from the platinum scale pt by means of the standard difference-formula, t—pt= 1 5ot(t— 100) x 10-*. The same formula for the specific heat also repre- sents the most probable reduction of Regnault’s ex- periments over the range 110° to 190° C.—Dr. C. Chree : Short index to reports of physical observations —electric, magnetic, meteorological, seismological— made at Kew Observatory.—R. T. Lattey and H. T. Tizard: The velocities of ions in dried gases. The authors have determined the velocities of positive and pegeive ions in dried hydrogen and carbon dioxide. —Prof. T. H. Laby and P. W. Burbidge : The obs--va- tion by means of a string electrometer of fluctuations in the ionisation produced by y-rays.—F. B. Pidduck : The wave-prcblem of Cauchy and Poisson for finite depth and slightly compressible fluid. The paper is in some respects a completion of a former one on the propagation of a disturbance in a fluid under gravity. The solution of the two-dimensional Cauchy-Poisson problem for finite depth is worked out numerically, the effect of limiting the depth being very considerable. Royal Meteorological Society, February 21.—Dr. H. N. Dickson, president, in the chair.—J. Fairgrieve: The thunderstorms of May 31, 1911. The author dealt with the thunderstorm which visited the London district on Derby Day, and especially with the movement of the rain which accompanied the storm. Having obtained information from nearly 700 observers as to the time of rainfall or absence of rain, he has been able to prepare an interesting series of maps for each quarter of an hour from 12.30 to 8.45 p.m., showing the areas over which rain was actually falling.--R. G. K. Lempfert: The thunderstorm of July 29, 1911. This storm was of the line-squall type. The author has been able to trace the spread of the phenomenon across the British Isles, and he showed by a map of isochronous lines that it first struck the extreme end of Cornwall about 2 p.m. on July 29, and passed across Shetland at 3 p.m. next day. He pointed out that the disturbance may be regarded as the displacement of an easterly by a southerly current, but the process of displacement was an unusually complicated one. The general sequence of events seems to have been somewhat as follows : a moderate east wind is interrupted suddenly by a squall from the south. After the squall has passed the wind returns temporarily to an easterly direction, to be again interrupted by another squall from the south. This process may repeat itself several times. A period of several hours of light and variable wind, during which easterly directions predominate, super- venes, and finally the wind settles down to a steady southerly or south-westerly wind of moderate force. In many cases the squalls were not accompanied by rainfall. What appears to have struck observers most forcibly was the way in which huge quantities of dust were whirled up by the wind. Accounts from Cardiff state that dust was brought from the south side of the Bristol Channel by the squall winds, which did much structural damage.—S. Skinner: The “Drosometer,” an instrument for measuring the {| amount of dew. Marcu 7, 1912] Paris. Academy of Sciences, February 19.—M. Lippmann in the chair.—L. Guignard ; Notice on the life and work of Edouard Bornet.—A. Lacroix: The volcanoes of Central Madagascar. The Ankaratra massif. The products of the Ankaratra volcanoes cover an area of not less than 4000 square kilometres. The petro- graphical constitution has been investigated, and is found to be much more complex than that sketched by Baron.—A. Miintz and E. Lainé: The quantity of water and frequence of watering as depending on the physical properties of soils. It is very essential that any irrigation scheme should be preceded by a careful study of the soils on which the water is to be placed. Cases are cited in which, owing to the lack of per- meability of the soil, irrigation has been actually harmful to the land.—M. du Ligondés : The condensa- tion of the solar nebula in the Laplace hypothesis. The enormous condensation necessary, according to the Laplace hypothesis, to the formation of Neptune has been pointed out by Fouché; the author shows that there is also a discontinuity in the condensation between Jupiter and Mars.—Billon-Daguerre: The fusion of pure quartz. A description of the electric furnace used for fusing quartz, and obtaining a clear, transparent product.—P. Th. Muller and Mlle. V. Guerdjikoff ; Refraction and magnetic rotation of mix- tures. H. Becquerel has shown that for pure sub- stances there is a connection between the refractive index and the magnetic rotation; for solutions, how- ever, there would appear to be no general relation between these two magnitudes.—Paul Joye and Charles Garnier: Contribution to the study of neo- dymium compounds. The different spectra given by neodymium hydroxide heated to temperatures between 300° and 7oo° C. are shown to correspond to the formation of definite hydrates.—A. Portevin and G. Armou: The effects of reheating aluminium bronzes. Measurements are given of the alteration of hardness produced, and photographs reproduced showing the change in the structure of the alloys.—Daniel Berthelot and Henry Gaudechon: The photolytic decomposition of smokeless powder, of picric acid, and of ammonium picrate by the ultra-violet rays. The gas in which the smokeless powder is exposed to the rays is shown to have an influence on the nature and amount of the gaseous decomposition products.—H. Masson : The principal constituents of essence of labdanum. Two ketones were isolated from this oil, 1: 5 : 5-trimethyl- 6-hexanone and acetophenone; the latter substance has not been previously noticed as a constituent of an essential oil—A. Prunet: The Japanese chestnut at the experimental station at Lindois (Clarente). Ex- periments have -been carried out on the disease- resisting properties of various chestnuts, and the Japanese chestnut (Castinea japonica) has been found to be the most suitable tree to replace the chestnuts destroyed by the maladie de l’encre.—A. Demolon: The fertilising action of sulphur. Sulphur has been shown by direct experiment to be beneficial to plant growth, especially Crucifere. It appears to exert a favourable action upon the development of chloro- phyll, since during drought the plants on the plots treated with sulphur did not turn as yellow as the untreated control plots.—Em. Bourquelot and Mlle. A. Fichtenholz: The identification of the glucoside from the leaves of Kalmia latifolia with asebotine. Eykman in 1883 gave the name asebotine to a_ glucoside extracted from the leaves of Andromeda japonica; the glucoside extracted from the leaves of Kalmia latifolia | is shown to be identical with asebotine.—Michel- Cohendy : Experiments on life without micro- organisms. Although normally provided with a rich microbial flora, the chicken can live absolutely with- NO. 2210, VOL. 89] NATURE | Vol. i. 25 out micro-organisms, and this aseptic life does not prejudice growth or development in any way. Accord- ing to these experiments, the theory of the necessary connection between the animal and its bacteria, a principle which has been given as a well-established biological law, is not in accord with facts.—P. Armand- Delille, A. Mayer, G. Schaefier, and E. Terroine ;: The culture of the Koch bacillus in a definite chemical medium. A formula is given for a culture medium containing definite chemical compounds only. On such a medium it is found that the tubercle bacillus develops perfectly, rapidly, and abundantly, retaining all its morphological and biological characters.—A. Moutier ; The measurement of the arterial elasticity in clinical practice. The measurement of arterial elas- ticity cannot be carried out with an apparatus using circular compression, only those using localised com- pression giving correct results. Bloch’s sphygmo- meter is the best instrument at present available. BOOKS RECEIVED. Expédition Antarctique Frangaise (1903-1905), Commandée par le Dr. Jean Charcot. Hydrographie Physique du Globe. By Lieuts. A. Matha and J. J. Rey. Pp. vi+619. (Paris: Gauthier-Villars.) Botany, or the Modern Study of Plants. By Dr. M. Stopes. Pp. 94. Heredity. By J. A. S. Watson. Pp. 94. The Science of the Stars. By E. W. Maunder. Pp. 95. The Principles of Electricity. By N. R. Campbell. Pp. 91. Organic Chemistry. By Prof. J. B. Cohen, F-R.S: -Pp./ 96. - Each in “The People’s Books.’’ (London and Edinburgh : T. C. and E. C. Jack.) 6d. net each. Colour-music : the Art of Mobile Colour. By Prof. A. W. Rimington. Pp. xx+185. (London: Hut- chinson and Co.) 6s. Butterfly-hunting in Many Lands: Notes of a Field Naturalist. By Dr. G. B. Longstaff. Pp. xviii+ 728. (London: Longmans and Co.) 21s. net. Types of Ore Deposits. Edited by H. F. Bain. Pp. 378. (San Francisco: Mining and Scientific Press; London: The Mining Magazine.) 8s. 6d. net. Graphical Solution of Fault Problems. By C. F. Tolman, jun. Pp. 43. (San Francisco: Mining and Scientific Press; London: The Mining Magazine.) 4s. 6d. net. The Seven Follies of Science. By J. Phin. Third edition. Pp. ix+231. (London: Constable and Co., Ltd.) 5s. net. Direct and Alternating Current Manual. F. Bedell and C. A. Pierce. Second edition. xiii+360. (London: Constable and Co., Ltd.) net. Railway Signal Engineering L. P. Lewis. Pp. xviii+358-. and Co., Ltd.) 8s. net. An Introduction to the Study of Fuel. F. J. Brislee. Pp. xxii+269. (London: and Co., Ltd.) 8s. 6d. net. A Treatise on the Analytic Geometry of Three Dimensions. By Dr. G. Salmon, F.R.S. Revised by R. A. P. Rogers. Fifth edition, in two volumes. Pp. xxii+470. (London: Longmans and Co.; Dublin: Hodges, Figgis and Co., Ltd.) 9s. Common Land and Inclosure. By Prof. E. C. K. Gonner. Pp. xxx+461. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd.) 12s. net. Principles of Human Nutrition. By Drs. Pp. 8s. (Mechanical). By (London: Constable By Dr. Constable By W. H. Jordan. Pp. xxi+450. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd.) 7s. 6d. net. Laboratory Problems in Physics. By F. T. Jones and R. R. Tatnall. Pp. ix+81. (London: Mac- millan and Co., Ltd.) 2s. 6d. 26 NATURE } [Marcu 7, 1912 Monographien einheimischer Tiere. Band _ iii. Hydra’ und die Hydroiden, zugleich eine Einfuthr- ung in die experimentelle Behandlung biologischer Probleme an niederen Tieren. By Dr. O. Steche. Pp. vit162. Band iv. Die Weinbergschnecke. Helix pomatia, L. By Prof. J. Meisenheimer. Pp. iv+igo. (Leipzig: Dr. W. Klinkhardt.) Each, 4 marks. A History of British Mammals. By G. E. H. Barrett-Hamilton. Part x. Pp. 169-216. (London: Gurney and Jackson.) 2s. 6d. net. By R. Sewell. Pp. xii+ 187. (London: G, Allen and Co., Ltd.) 31s. 6d. net. A History of the Birds of Colorado. By: W.. L: Sclater. Pp.: xxiv+57 (London: Witherby and Co.) 21s. net. Are there Equinoctial Storms ? Marine Barometer in American Waters. Morrison. Pp. 21+30. (New York: W. and Co.) Synthese der Zellbausteine in Pflanze und Tier. By Prof. E. Abderhalden. Pp. xi+128. (Berlin: J. Springer.) 3.60 marks. Filariasis and Elephantiasis in Fiji: being a Re- port to the London School of Tropical Medicine. By P. H. Bahr. Pp. viii+192. (London: Witherby and Co.) 6s. net. Fergusson’s Percentage Unit of Angular Measure- Indian Chronography. Development of the By J. H. F. Sametz ment, with Logarithms; also a Description of his Percentage Theodolite and Percentage Compass. By J. C. Fergusson. Pp. Ixvii+467. (London: Long- mans and Co.) 3I. 3s. net. Milk and fe Public Health. By Dr. W. €. Savage. Pp. xviiit+459. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd.) tos. net. Leisure Hours with Nature. By E. P. Larken. Pp. xv+263. (London: T. Fisher Unwin.) 2s. Pflanzengeographische Monographie des Bernina- gebietes. By Dr. E. Rtibel. Pp. x+615+ plates. (Leipzig: W. Engelmann.) 36 marks. DIARY OF SOCIETIES. THURSDAY, Marcu 7. Rovat Society, at 4.30.—(1) On the Devitrification of Silica Glass ; (2) The Volatility of Metals of the Platinum Group: Sir William Crookes, O.M., For. Sec. R.S.—A Critical Study of Spectral Series. II,—The Prin- cipal and Sharp Sequences and the Atomic Volume Term: Prof. W. M. Hicks, F.R.S.—An Optical Load-extension Indicator, together with some Diagrams obtained therewith: Prof. W. E. Dalby.—(1) The Transmission of Cathode Raysrthrough Matter; (2) The Velocity of the Secondary Cathode Particles ejected by the Characteristic Réntgen Rays : i Whiddington.—On the Voltage Effect in Selenium : E. E. Fournier d’Albe, Linnean Society, at §.—Internodes of Calamites: Prof. Percy Groom. —Coloured Drawings of Barbados Plants: Miss Ethel M. Phillips. —On Psyguiophyllum majyus, sp. n., from the Lower Carboniferous Rocks of Newfoundland, together with a Revision of the Genus and Remarks on its Affinities: E. A. Newell Arber.—Historic Doubts about Vaunthompsonia: Rey. T. R. R. Stebbing.— Living Specimens of Cactoid Euphorbias from South Africa: Dr. Otto Stapf. INSTITUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Tariffs for Electrical Energy, with Particular Reference to Domestic Tariffs: W. W. Lackie. FRIDAY, Marcu 8. Rovat Astrronomicat Society, at 5.—The Long-period Variable RT Cygni: A. N. Brown —The Constitution of the Solar Corona. NG Coronium: 1. W. Nicholson.—On a Device for Facilitating Harmonic Analysis and Synthesis: E. W. Brown.—The Nebula HI 159 ‘Cassiopeize : Dorothea Roberts.—The Real Paths of 420 Fireballs and Shooting Stars Observed in the British Isles 1897-1911: W. F., Denning. — Erreurs systématiques et probables dans Hes mesures d’Etoiles Doubles : R. Jonckheere.—Occultation of B.4 1189 and of Mars: Cambridge Observatory.—Position of Comet oBoiaate (a911g) : Cambridge Obser- vatory.—On Librations in Planetary and Satellite Systems: E. W. Brown. — The Effect of Atmospheric Dispersion on the Greenwich Photographs of Eros: Royal Observatory, Greenwich.—Presable Papers: A Determina- tion of the Frequency Law of Stellar Motions: A. S. Eddington.—A Tentative Explanation of the ‘‘ Two Star Streams” in Terms of Gravita- tion: H. H. Turner. MALACcOLoGIcAL Society, at 8.—The Distribution and Habits of Alopia, a Subgenus of Clausilia: Rev. A. H. Cooke.—A Synopsis of the Recent and Tertiary Freshwater Mollusca of the lifornian- Province. Part I., Pelecypoda and Pulmonata: H. Hannibal.—Note on the Existence of Two Editions of Férussa:’s Tableaux Systématiques Major M. Conolly. Note on Pleurotoma bipartita, Smith: E. A. Smith. Puysicar Sociery, at 8.—Exhibition of a ‘‘ Method of Making Capillary Filaments” : H. S. Souttar.—The Intensity at Points near the Principal NO. 2210, VOL. 89] Focus of an Object Glass with Symmetrical Aberration: J. Walker.— The Equipment of the Spectroscopic Laboratory of the Imperial College of Science; .Prof. A. Fowler, F.R.S. SATURDAY, Marcu 9. ir Roya InstiruTion, at 3.—Molecular Physics : Sir J. J. Thomson, F.R. . MONDAY, Marcu 11. Royat Society oF Arts, at 8. —The Loom and Spindle : and Future: Luther Hooper. Royat GEOGRAPHICAL SociETY, at 8.30.—Some New Zealand Volcanoes : Dr. J. Mackintosh Bell. TUESDAY, Marcu 12. Roya InsTITUTION, at 3.—Ancient Britain: Dr. T. R. Holmes. MINERALOGICAL SOCIETY, at 5.30.—On the Zeolites from Killyflugh and White Head, County Antrim: Dr. G. F. Herbert Smith and F. N, A. Pleischmann.—On Quartz-twins: J. Drugman.—Note on the Optical Properties of Mercuric Iodide: T. V. Barker.—Notes on the Minerals and Mineral Localities of Shropshire: Arthur Russell. Soctety oF DyERS anp Cotourists, at 8.—A Note on the Analysis of Weighted Silk: F. J. Farrell and Dr. J. N. Goldsmith.—Paper Yarn ; Its Production and Uses : W. P. Dreaper. INsTITUTION OF CivIL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Further Discussion : (z) Roller and Ball Bearings ; (2) The Testing of Anti-friction Bearing Metals: Prof. J. Goodman.—Probable Papers : The Main Drainage of Glasgow: A. B. McDonald and G, M. Taylor.—The Construction of the Glasgow Main Drainage Works :, W. C. Easton.—Glasgow Main Drainage : The Mech- anical Equipment of the Western Works and of the Kinning Park Pump- ing Station: D. H. Morton. ‘WEDNESDAY, Marcu 13. GEOLOGICAL SociETy, at 8.—On the Glacial Origin of the Clay with Flints. of Buckinghamshire and on a Former Course of the hames; Dr, R. I Sherlock and A H. Noble.-—Some New Lower Carboniferous Gasteropoda *: Mrs. Jane Longstaff. Roya Society oF Arts, at 8.—Greek Sculpture: Prof. E. A. Gardner. THURSDAY, Makcu 14. Royat Socigty, at 4.30.—Probable Papers: The Effects of Ultra-Violet Rays upon the Eye: Dr. E. K. Martin.—On the Presence of Radium im some Carcinomatous Tumoors: Dr. W. S. Lazarus-Barlow.— An Improved Method ior Opsonic Index Estimations involving the Separation of Red and White Human Blood Corpuscles: C, Russ.—The Electrical Con- ductivity of Bacteria, and the Rate of Inhibition of Bacteria by Electric Currents: Prof. W. M. Thornton.—A Critical Study of Experimental Fever: E. C. Hortand W. J. Penfold.—Certain Results of Drying Non- Sporing Bacteria in a Charcoal Liquid Air Vacuum: S_ G. Shattock andi L. S. Dudgeon. Roya Society oF ARTs, at 4.30.—The Indian Census for r911: E. A, Gait. MATHEMATICAL SOciETY, at 5.30.—The Cubic Surface as a Degenerate Quartic: G. T. Bennett. INSTITUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS, at 8. FRIDAY, Makcu 1s. Roya InsTITUTION, at 9.—The Origin of Radium: IF’ Soddy, F.R.S. INSTITUTION OF MecHANICAL ENGINEERS, at 8.—The Diesel Oil Engine, and its Industrial Importance particularly for Great Britain: Dr. Rudolf Diesel. INSTITUTION OF CivIL ENGINEERS, at 8.—The Heat Value of Fuels: A. E. Gladwyn. Past, Present SATURDAY, Marcu 16. Royat InsTITUTION, at 3.—Molecular Physics : Sir J. J. Thomson, F.R.S- CONTENTS. PAGE Sea Fisheries. By Stephen ee ee Se I Design in Illumination. . Re Benin) 3 The Face of the Earth. By ale WVIGES g Darwinism in the Light of Modern Research, By Ay K:.-.. Ei WAI i, 3. = iay SS 4 Our Book Shelf a 5 Letters to the Editor :— Heredity.—Dr. E. S. Goodrich, F.R.S. . . ee: Mars and a Lunar Atmosphere. mil T. Whitmell . 6 The Teaching of Mathematics.—Prof. H. S. Carslaw; IN SC RN 6 The Isothermal ‘Layer. — Commander Campbell Hepworth : 7 St. Elmo’s Fire. ay) McV. M.; E. Gold. i 7 Earthworms and Sheep-rot. —Rev. Hilderic Friend § Meteor-showers.—F.R.A.S.; John R. Henry . $ The American Lobster. (Jdlustrated.) By W. 7 Cc 9 Scientific Research in the Sudan. ree 10 Notes. (/élustrated.) : 12 Our Astronomical Column ;— Brilliant White SpotsoniMiarse yaa) e - ..ea Cometary, Phenomena a scene weiner RE ck The Antarctic Campaign. Ue Map.) By Dr. William S. Bruce _ . oo rps Rae . oe eee Fisheries of Bengal By RABY 20. Disintegrating Bacteria and Other Organic Cells. (Zllustrated.) By J. E. Barnard .. . Perma 4 04 University and Educational Intelligence ...... 22 Societies: andj;Academies”. (c+) 2). = 3. Sf eee 23 Books Received i aici iemvcmre orto cei stiea ei) re, <1 0) Doe Diary OfSOCICtieSN | 1 aieh Sirs a asiaal cals) o1 Lae EZO) A WEEKLY ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. Vationai Musevs ““ To the solid ground Oh Nature trusts the mind which builds for aye. SORE OEE No. 2211, VoL. 89] THURSDAY, M ARC H 14. 1912 Eee SIXPENCE ___ Registered asa “Newspaper at the G eneral_ Pos st t Office. i (all Ene Reserved. CHANGE OF ADDRESS. REYNOLDS & BRANSON, Ltd. . Set “cc Be? NWEW TON « Go. ||?" 2" Pious Of 3 FLEET STREET, E.C Consterdine and 25/- zs ae Andrews’ Set “B,” beg to announce that they have “Practical ra ces removed their entire business Arithmetic.” (excepting Lantern Slides) to larger premises at 72 WIGMORE ST., W. (Telephone 2339 Mayfair; two minutes’ walk from Bond Street Station, C.L.R.), and have great pleasure in in- viting their many friends and customers to inspect their new showrooms at the above address dom J. GRIFFIN 0 KEMBLE STREET, KINGSWAY, LONDON, wW.C. DESCRIPTIVE LIST POST FREE. 14 Commercial Street, Leeds. |NEGRETTI & ZAMBRA’S | RAIN GAUGES. Es eat: Daily ; Continuous Physical Apparatus || Observation fsa: aay » Record on ag nD eee Unnecessary. ‘A va WeeklygChart. GRAND PRIX DIPLOMA OF HONOUR AND 3 GOLD MEDALS TURIN INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1911 Illustrated Price List of all kinds of Rain Gauges Post Free. 38 HOLBORN VIADUCT, LONDON, E.C. 45 CORNHILL, F.C., & 122 REGENT ST., W. xii NATURE [Marcu 14, 1912 IMPERIAL COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, SOUTH KENSINGTON. INCLUDING THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF SCIENCE, the ROYAL SCHOOL OF MINES, and the CITY AND GUILDS (ENGINEERING) COLLEGE. A Special Course of Advanced Lectures will be given on RADIO-ACTIVITY by Professor the Hon. R. J. STRUTT, April 24 next. Opportunities will be given for research work. For further particulars and for admission tothe Course application should be mede to the SECRETARY. ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. ALBEMARLE STREET, PICCADILLY, W. Thursday next (March 21), at Three o'clock, F. A. DIXEY, Erq., M.D , F.R.S. First of two Jectures on ‘‘ DIMORPHISM IN BUTTERFLIES.” Half-a-Guinea the Course. Subscription to all the Courses in the Season, Two Guineas EAST LONDON COLLEGE. (UNIVERSITY OF LONDON.) Patron—HIS MAJESTY THE KING. STAFF. Classics ... F. R. Earp, M.A. English H. Betroc, M.A. French Mina Pagulkr. German ... J. Srerpat, Ph.D. History ... ou fHomas Seccomeeg, M.A. Mathematics... THe PRINCIPAL. Physics C. H. Lers, D.Sc., F.R.S. Chemistry Ja die inwinn., :Sc.) (hIReS: Botany... a F. E. Fritscu, D.Sc. Geology .. ang Re W. L. Carigr, M.A. Civii and Mechanical Engineering rx .. D. A. Low, M.I.M.E. Electrical Engineering «. J. ‘I. Morris, M.I.E.E. Fees moderate. Valuable Entrance Scholarships awarded by Drapers Company. Special facilities for Post-Graduate and Research Students. Particulars of fees, courses of study, &c., on application to the REGISTRAR, or to J. L. S. HATTON, M.A., Principal, at the College. THE SIR JOHN CASS TECHNICAL INSTITUTE, JEWRY STREET, ALDGATE, E.C. Principal - - CuHartes A. Keane, D.Sc., Ph.D., F1.C. The following Special Courses of Instruction will be given during the Summer Term rgr2 :— BIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. By ARTHUR R. SMILH, M.sc., F.I.C. A Course of Practical Instruction suited to the requirements of Can- didates for the Final Examination of the Institute of Chemistry in Bio- logical Chemistry (Branch F), and of those engaged in work connected with the manufacture and control of foodstuffs. The class will meet on Mondays from 7 to 10 p.m., and also on Tuesdays and Wednesdays from 7 to 10 p:m., so as to allow a choice of evening for the second attendance, commencing on Monday, April 15, 1912. GENERAL PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY. By G. SENTLER, D.Sc, Ph.D. A Course of Lectures followed by practical work arranged to meet the requirements of those engaged in Chemical and Electrical Industries who desire to obtain a knowledge of the methods of modern Physical Chemis- try and its applications. Wednesday evenings, 7 to 10 p.m., commencing Wednesday, April 17,1912. Detailed Syllabus of the Courses may be had upon application at the office of the Institute, or by letter to the Prin ipal. IMPERIAL COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, SOUTH KENSINGTON. The Governors are prepared to consider applications for the Sir John Wolfe-Barry SUUDENTSHIP IN ENTOMOLOGY. ‘Lhe Studentship is of the value of £100 for one year, and is for the purpose of research in Applied Entomology under the cirection of the Professor of Zoology. Prefercnce will be given to a candidate producing evidence of special knowledge in Entomology. For detailed conditions apply —SECRETARY. ST. THOMAS’S HOSPITAL MEDICAL SCHOOL. VACANCY. A DEMONSTRATOR OF PHYSIOLOGY is required at th’s School. Ap) lications and testimonials should he sent in on or before Friday, ‘March 22, addressed to the SECRETARY. M.A, F.R.S., beginning on BIRKBECK COLLEGE, BREAMS BUILDINGS, CHANCERY LANE, E.C. COURSES OF STUDY (Day and Evening) for the Degrees of the UNIVERSITY OF LONDON in the FACULTIES OF ARTS & SCIENCE (PASS AND HONOURS) under RECOGNISED TEACHERS of the University. SCIENCE.—Chemistry, Physics, Mathematics (Pure and Applied), Botany, Zovlogy, Geology. ARTS.—Latin, Greek, English, French, German, Italian, History, Geography, Logie, Economies, Mathematies (Pure and Applied). Evening Courses for the Degrees in Law and Economics. SESSIONAL FEES { poser oerie atk Be Fe alee ra 5s. POST-GRADUATE AND RESEARCH WORK. For particulars apply to the SECRETARY. G. ARMITAGE-SMITH, M.A., D.Lit., Principal. SOUTH-WESTERN POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE, MANRESA ROAD, CHELSEA, S.W. Day Courses in preparation for London University degrees in Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, in Chemistry, Physics and Natural Science. Session Fee, £15. Similar Evening Courses, Session Fee, £3 ros. Technical Day Courses arranged to extend over 3 years and prepare for Engineering, Electrical, Chemical and Metallurgical professions. Mathematics *W. H. Eccrss, D.Sc. ; *J. Lister, A.R.C.S. Physi fe Skinner, M.A. ; *L. Lownps, B.Sc., Ph.D., VERS: *F. W. Jorpan, B.Sc., and C. F. Hociey, B.Sc. e *J. B. Coceman, A.R.C.S. ; *J. C. Crocker, M.A. Chemistry ... { D.Sc., and *F. H. Lows, M.Sc. : *H. B. Lacey; S. E. CHannver, D.Sc., and Botany) { *H. J. Jerrery. A.R.C.S. ; Geology *A. J. Masten, F.G.S., F.L.S. Human a Shucinlogy Mo Pesce; MG AnaMeB: Zoology pee *J. T. Cunnincuam, M.A. 7 *W. CampsBe.t Houston, B.Sc., A.M.I.C.E. ; Engineering { *V. C. Daviess, B.Sc., and H. "AUGHTIE. Electrical (en J. Makower, M.A.; *B. H. Morpuy and Engineering U. A. OscHwa cp, B.A. * Recognised Teacher of the University of London, Prospectus from the SECRETARY, post free, 4a¢.; at the Office, 1d. Telephone : 899 Western. SIDNEY SKINNER, M.A., Principal. NOTTS EDUCATION COMMITTEE. APPOINTMENT OF GENERAL ASSISTANT TO THE DIRECTOR. The Notts Education Committee invite applications for the office of GENERAL ASSISTANT TO THE DIRECTOR. Salary.— £250 per annum, increasing by annual increments of £10 toa maximum of 4300 per annum, with the usual allowance for travelling, &c. Experience.—Preference will be given to applicants who have had teach- ing or administrative experience. Duties.—The successful applicant will be required to assist in visiting Evening Schools and Day Schools, and to take part in the general adminis- tration work of the Higher Education Sub-Committee. Applications.—Applications to be addressed, ‘‘ DirEcTOR OF Epuca- TION, Shire Hall, Nottingham,’ and to reach me on or before March 30, 1g12, and must be accompanied by Form of Application to be obtained at this Office, and by copies of not more than three testimonials of recent date. Copies of applications must not be sent to members of the Educa- tion Committee, buc selected-applicants must be prepared on request to supply me with at least twenty-five additional copies for use by the Committee. Canvassing is strictly prohibited, qualification. and will be regarded as a dis- By order of the Committee, B. W. L. BULKELEY, Director of Education. CITY OF WORCESTER. The Higher Education Committee require the services of a HEAD MASTER of the SCIENCE AND TECHNICAL SCHOOL, to com- mence his duties on August 1, 1912. Candidates:must be graduates of some University of the United Kingdom, or possess equivalent qualifications, and have had experience of work in a Science and Technical School. Salary £250, rising by annual increments of £25, if approved by the Education Committee, to a maximum of £300 per annum. The Head Master will be expected to devote his whole ume to the duties of his office. Applications, stating age, qualifications, experience, &c., accompanied by three recent testimonials, to be sent in on or before March 20, 1912. THOS. DUCKWORTH, Victoria Institute, Secretary for Higher Education. Worcester. NATURE 27. DHURSDAY , MARCHE 145 ‘1912. HEAT ENGINE LABORATORY PRACTICE. The Testing of Motive-Power Engines, including Steam Engines and Turbines, Locomotives, Boilers, Condensers, Internal Combustion Engines, Gas Producers, Refrigerators, Air Compressors, Fans, Pumps, =c. By R. Royds. Pp. xii+396. (London: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1911.) Price gs. net. URING the last decade the engineering students has undergone a great change. engineering laboratory is not only a place where the student may see various principles previously expounded in the lecture-room put into practice and experimentally proved, but that it is a place where tests and trials are carried out upon a commercial basis and in an up-to-date manner by the student himself. If the student be put in direct charge of such tests, he will most assuredly develop that faculty of self-reliance which is one of the charac- teristics of a successful engineer. Side by side with this internal development there has been a vast change in the design and nature of motive- power engines, so that the modern laboratory has developed into an assembly of many varied types of prime movers. In acquiring information which will enable him successfully to cope with the dif- ferent practical difficulties met with amongst so many types, the student had to refer to many sources, the chief being the recent publications of the technical societies and Press. This book does that for them, and does it very thoroughly. It meets a distinct want, and at such a reasonable price it should be recommended to all college students. After giving it a welcome, we hope the author will not take it amiss if we indulge in complaint. Chapter i. treats of general principles of thermo- dynamics, units, and cycles of operation. On p. 6 the author states that the centigrade scale of tem- perature measurement is used by some engineers, but more often by physicists and chemists. We believe we should be correct in saying all men of science save some, mostly engineers, use the centi- grade scale. Why do not engineers come into line? If the author would have braveiy adopted Cent. instead of Fahrenheit, he would have aided in bringing about a change which is slowly coming to pass. This leads us to suggest he might have included the pound-calorie in his enumeration of units of heat, a unit recognised by the University of London in their engineering examinations. Surely also it is more reasonable to expect the conversion of Fah. to Cent. readings to be made NO. 2211, VOL. 89] training of Our collegds"have recognised that the | by subtracting 32, then multiply by 5, than to | remember the suggestion on p. 6, for which no | reason is given. At the end of the book there is a series of tables, including conversion constants, properties of various vapours, and steam tables. We note that the latter are from “Marks and Davis.” We were hoping that when the last edition of Prof. Ewing’s book, “The Steam Engine,” was produced, the researches of Prof. Callendar were going to be recognised by English engineers. In an appendix to his book Prof. Ewing gives some properties of steam, and tables, which are certainly more rational in form than any others compiled from data outside Prof. | Callendar’s papers. We hope that in his next edition the author will introduce the pound-calorie unit and a short explanation of Callendar’s work in his chapter i., together with steam tables com- piled therefrom, and thus associate himself with Prof. Ewing and Dr. Mollier in bringing about a desirable change. The explanations of the various cycles of operations of the working fluid are well given, and in conjunction with lectures will make an excellent combination for the earnest student. The testing for accuracy of instruments such as gauges, indicators, &c., makes a long chapter for No. ii. This is good, as many are unduly pre- disposed to accept such as correct instead of always regarding them with suspicion. We should like to see a device for testing indicator springs hot, the methods shown being all under conditions dissimilar to their actual working state. Does the author use an indicator cock and connect an in- dicator to a dead-weight gauge tester, as shown in Fig 34? The fluid pressure will more nearly reproduce actual working conditions. Carefully and well written as chapter il. is, the author is best in chapter iii., on measurement of brake horse- | power. We are glad to see a description of a band brake which will give torque without causing a bending action due to large brake loads on one | side. | Chapter iv. is outside the scope of English laboratory work. The testing of locomotives is in the hands of a few, and those highly skilled, and | therefore needs not a general treatment as is here given, but a special treatise. Is it too much to hope that soon we may have in such a city as London an experimental plant for locomotive test- ing? It would surely prove of great use even if only for training up stokers at short notice. Chapters v., vi., and vii. are concerned with the testing of steam engines, turbines, and boilers. We are glad to see so much of the report of the Institution of Civil Engineers, vol. cl., embodied in these chapters. The author deals carefully with the “missing quantity” of steam as passed by the Cc 28 NATURE [MarcH 14, 1912 engine, and the pages dealing with leakage to exhaust are very good. The testing of internal combustion engines is an up-to-date review of work which is being done by the British Association Committee, and also includes gas producers, the Diesel type, &c. The chapter on refrigeration tests is helpful, but, as the author would probably admit, it is very difficult to get all the conditions steady enough to make the tests as satisfactory as could be wished. The testing of water-turbines and pumps complete the book, which is the more valuable for a carefully compiled index at the end. As we stated above, it is a book which is needed, and we can heartily recommend every student to place it on his work- desk. It is comprehensive, but it deals very thoroughly with the most general types of engines and boilers. The illustrations are good and plenti- ful, and we conclude by congratulating the author on producing such a practical treatise. A. J. M. GROWING OUR OWN SUGAR. Sugar Beet: Some Facts and Some Illusions. A Study in Rural Therapeutics. By ‘“‘ Home Coun- ties” (J. W. Robertson-Scott). Pp. xx. +424. (London: Horace Cox, “Field” Office, 1911.) 6s. net. HIS work is based largely upon articles pub- lished in The Field and The Times during the years rgro-1r, and is essentially an examina- tion of the arguments for and against the pro- posals to establish a beet sugar industry in this country. “There are those,” the author remarks, “who hail sugar beet as the saviour of the country- side; and there are those who are sure that the notion of growing our own sugar at a profit is preposterous.” For each of these classes he has collected a large number of “facts,” and to some of the former he indicates what in his judgment are “illusions.” That sugar beets can be grown here, and of as good quality as on the Continent, hardly needed demonstration. What did require investigation was whether, in all the circumstances, it was worth our while to do it. The author examines this question step by step. He describes the chief experiments that have been made in this country, from the Lavenham venture some forty years ago to the East Anglian trials made under Dutch auspices in 1910. In these trials, it may be mentioned, more than three hundred acres were planted with beet intended for exportation to Holland, and the quantity registered as actually exported was 3909 tons. This weight, however, is untrustworthy, as it includes a large proportion of adherent soil. The factory pur- NO. 2271) VOL. 89] chasing the roots pays upon the weight of the cleaned beets only; and heavy deductions had to be made from what the farmers supposed to be the weight of their crops. Probably one of the “illusions ” indicated in the title arose from cal- culations based upon a crop yield which, for the reason mentioned, might be over-estimated as much as 10 to 50 per cent. Whilst average crops of more than 20 tons per acre have been talked about in this country, the cold fact remains that on the Continent in 1910 the average yield ranged from 9:3 tons in France to 13-3 tons in Germany. For various reasons the East Anglian experi- ments were only moderately successful. The causes of this are indicated; and the author com- pares the results of these and other English efforts with the teachings of practical experience abroad. He quotes numerous reports, and generally gives chapter and verse for his carefully guarded con- clusions. These are, briefly, that a cooperative factory, growing its own beets, or a large pro- portion of them, would have the best chance of success; but that an ordinary factory, established after careful investigation, under good manage- ment, and with proper support from farmers in the vicinity, would have fair prospects; also that the introduction of the beet sugar industry would help in bringing about in rural England changes of some value agriculturally and sociologically, and is deserving therefore of sympathetic study. Owing, however, to the developed condition cf our agriculture, and also to the increasing competition of cane sugar, the benefit in England would not be likely to equal that obtained on the Continent. Of purely scientific interest there is very little in this “study in rural therapeutics”; but from the agricultural point of view it ought to do a good deal towards clearing away misconceptions. CaaS: COLLOIDS IN INDUSTRY. Die Bedeutung der Kolloide fiir die Technik. Allgemein verstandlich dargestellt von Prof. Kurt Arndt. Zweite Auflage. Pp. 46. (Dres- den: Theodor Steinkopff, 1911.) Price mk.1.50. LTHOUGH it is fifty years since the dis- A tinction between colloids and crystalloids was first drawn by Thomas Graham, it is only quite recently that the conception of colloid sub- stances has been extended beyond the ranks of a few specialists to possess some meaning for the public at large. Almost as recent and remarkable in its suddenness has been the feverish eagerness with which the properties and behaviour of colloids have been investigated. In Germany, there are several journals devoted entirely to colloid chemistry, as well as text-books of every variety. Marcu 14, 1912] NATURE 29 nfortunately, there is a tendency to adopt an exaggerated terminology, and to obscure the roblems by complicated methods of treatment instead of striving after the simplest possible language. In consequence, the subject is invested ith a mysticism which is quite unnecessary. For this reason a book of the type written by Dr. Arndt is to be welcomed, and the fact that an edition has been exhausted already shows that the work has met a demand. Following a brief introduction, which, although necessarily condensed, is written in relatively simple style, attention is directed in turn to a number of industries in which the materials handled are colloids. It is the aim of these sec- tions to emphasise the fact that the substances oncerned are colloids rather than to explain their ehaviour in practice. The list is a very exten- ‘sive one, ranging from such inorganic materials as glass, tungsten lamp filaments, pottery, and cements to organic industries, including dyeing, tanning, soap-boiling, brewing. Finally, refer- ence is made to the part played by colloids in sewage disposal and in agriculture. The exam- ples are very comprehensive, and serve to show how generally colloids enter into industrial operations. The discovery by Siedentopf and Zsigmondy of the ultra-microscope, an instrument whereby the single particles in colloid solutions are made visible, has facilitated greatly the investigation of colloidal solutions of metals. In the manufacture of ruby glass, for example, gold chloride is added to the molten glass; when quickly cooled this is colourless, but on subsequent heating up to the point of softening, it suddenly becomes ruby red. The ultramicroscope shows the presence in the coloured glass of colloidal gold particles; in the colourless glass none are to be seen. The explanation is that at first the gold particles are too small to colour the glass; on heating, they increase in size and give rise to the colour. Baye. A. PRACTICAL PYROMETRY. Pyrometry: a Practical Treatise on the Measure- ment of High Temperatures. By Chas. R. Darling. Pp. xii+200. (London: E. and F. N. Spon, Ltd.; New York: Spon and Chaim- berlain, rgr1.) Price 5s. net. ITHIN recent years pyrometry has become an essential factor in a large number of industrial operations where high temperatures are involved; particularly is this the case in the metallurgy of steel, where success or failure often NO. 2211, VOL. 89] entirely depends on correct adjustment of the tem- perature within narrow limits. Mr. Darling’s excellent series of Cantor lectures were therefore very welcome, and no less welcome and of wider service will this small volume, the outcome of these lectures, prove. The “practical man” has a love for the “practical” test in the furnace or kiln, and for many operations, such as those in pottery and china production, an actual firing test is to be commended, but generally manufacturers are devoting more attention to actual temperature measurements. Great advances have been made in recent years in perfecting forms of pyrometers suitable for works practice, amongst which men- tion may be made of temperature recorders con- tinuous in action, and pyrometers of the radiation type, first introduced by Féry in 1902. The later form of these instruments, with fixed focus, enables excellent measurements of furnace, molten metal, and other high temperatures to be taken by the simple process of directing the pyrometer at the object and reading the deflection on a suit- able portable galvanometer. The author deals in a comprehensive manner with the various types of instruments, and gives valuable advice as to the suitability of those of different classes for special purposes, and em- phasises the fact that choice of an unsuitable | pattern has often led to considerable menetary loss and the condemnation of an instrument which, in its proper sphere, would have proved satis- factory. After mentioning that for practical purposes the gas scale is in agreement with the thermo- dynamical scale of temperature, and serves as a standard of comparison for other instruments cf practical form, the author points out that com- parison is only possible to the present limit of the gas scale (1550° C.), and that beyond this the results can only be arrived at by extrapolation, which in some cases has led to grave errors. With instruments of the radiation type, however, assumption that the laws applicable for the lower ranges will hold for the higher ones appears to be justified. Mr. Darling is a clear and concise writer on a scientific subject which has wide commercial application, and his treatment of the subject of practical high temperature measurement in this volume will commend itself to the practical man, who, whilst requiring sufficient of the scientific side to understand the principles involved, does not require abstruse science in his handbooks. This volume, like the author’s well known “Heat for Engineers,” admirably fulfils these requirements. j. Ss) Soe NATURE [MarcH 14, 1912 POPULAR BOTANY. British Trees, including the Finer Shrubs for Garden and Woodland. By the late Rey. C. A. Johns. Edited by E. T. Cook. Pp. xvit+285+ 56 plate (24 coloured). British Fungi: with a Chapter on Lichens. George Massee. Pp. x+551+40 (coloured). (London: G. Routledge and Sons, Ltd. ; York: EP: Dutton and- Co, nid.) 7s. Od. net each. By plates New Price NE of these two books, which are uniform in external appearance only, represents, we presume, the demand which has affected pub- lications of all kinds for books with coloured illus- trations. The result has been an output of a large number of bad books, and to this class we unhesitatingly relegate the new edition of Johns’s Trees and Shrubs. The coloured plates of the trees and shrubs are so poor—they appear to be photo- graphs daubed with colour—that in most cases it is only from the label at the foot that one can dis- cover what the picture is meant to represent. The value of coloured plates is, on the other hand, well shown by Mr. Massee’s book on fungi, since in the bold and well-executed plates by Miss Ivy Massee the distinguishing characters of many of the species described can be seen at a glance and in a manner which would be otherwise impossible. Mr. Massee’s book is mainly intended to enable the naturalist to determine the names of our British fungi; but it should do more than this, and should help to create a real and intelligent interest in the subject. The somewhat unorthodox statements met with here and there are decidedly refreshing, and should act as a stimulus to those who might otherwise be mere collectors of fungi. The first part of the book, consisting of 63 pages, serves as a general introduction to the systematic section of the book. In this earlier portion an adequate account of the structure and of the relationships of the various groups of fungi is given, which will enable the user fungal morphology. The chapters on methods of collection and modes of preservation are equally valuable. On the recognition of edible and poison- ous species the coloured plates play a most im- portant part, and the dictum of Dr. M. C. Cooke, “Eat them; if you live they are edible; if you die they are poisonous,” reminds us of the similar advice given by Mr. Belloc about the viper :— “Yet another great truth I record in my verse, That some vipers are venomous, some the reverse; A fact you may prove if you try NO, 22111) VOL. 89)| | praise. By procuring two vipers and letting them bite; With the first you are only the worse for the fight, But after the second you die.” A few words of criticism must be added, since | owing to some carelessness the enumeration of the figures on Plate ii. is incorrect, and the uninitiated person may not be able to recognise which is the poisonous fly agaric. It is also somewhat un- reasonable suddenly to come across the explana- | tion of Plate i. facing p. 83. In the second part it is difficult to find one’s way about, as no reference to pages is | given from the generic keys, and this entails a | good deal of tiresome hunting which might easily have been avoided. Apart from these slight blemishes, however, the book is deserving of all The short concluding chapter on lichens is quite useful, but we hope, with the author, that before long we may have a good book on these plants, and that it will be written and illustrated in as able a manner as the volume under review. To turn to the work on trees and shrubs is not a pleasant task. Had the truth of the saying about new wine and old bottles been appreciated, this new edition might not have been produced; and when the new wine proves to be bad, the disaster is all the more conspicuous. It is a book without order or definite plan of arrangement. Much use- ful and interesting information is given under the | different trees and shrubs described, but turning over the pages is somewhat like fishing in a bran pie, as one never knows what the next article will be. The plates also afford no clue, as for the most part they are distributed haphazard through the text without any reference to their proper posi- tions. There are a large number of reproductions from photographs, and these are in striking con- trast to those in colour. Most of them and several of the coloured illustrations also have obviously been taken in the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, and there seems to be no reason why this fact should not be stated. The plate of Salix fragilis | in colour is identical with a photograph published _in the Kew Bulletin in 1907. of the book to understand the essential details of | | | the tree. A curious case is afforded under Robinia, where ; without any word of explanation an illustration of the curious and uncommon fastigiate variety at Kew is given, which would lead the ordinary reader to believe that this is the normal appearance of Then, again, the statement at the foot of a plate of a remarkably fine and healthy speci- men of the monkey puzzle (Araucaria imbricata) that it ‘is not suitable for Britain, as it soon dies off,” The book is unworthy of the text is, of course, a glaring error. further notice, for even figures are of no value. SE A SS ge ee. Hae. ets VOTED © ES aa Le a ee tole. - MaRcH 14, 1912] NATURE 31 OUR BOOKSHELF. Das Pflanzenreich. Herausgegeben von A. Engler. Heft 48 (iv., 23C), Aracezw-Lasioidee. By A. Engler. Pp. 130. Price 6.60 marks. Heft 49 (iv., 101, Nachtrage), Monimiaceze (Nach- trage). By J. Perkins. Pp. 67. Price 3.60 marks. Heft 50 (iv., 50, ii. B. 21), Orchidacee- Monandre-Dendrobiine. Pars ii. Genera n. 278-279, and (iv., 50, ii. B. 23) Orchidacez- Monandree—Thelasine. Genera 280 and 28o0a. By Fr. Kranzlin. Pp. 182+46. Price 11.60 marks. (Leipzig: W. Engelmann, 1911.) Tne subfamily Lasioidee includes Amorpho- phallus, Rhektophyllum, a West African climber, Montrichardia, an arborescent form, and many tuberous-stemmed platits such as Thomsonia nepalensis ; vegetative shoots or bulbils are nor- mally developed from such tubers, being produced in great profusion by Dracontium asperum. Entire sagittate leaves are not uncommon, but a much divided leaf with sagittate outline is more typical. The spadix is exceedingly variable in form; in the case of Amorphophallus rex it bears a peculiar appendage and a_ singular spathe. The various phylogenetic relationships of the various genera are discussed at length. Cyto- spermum is regarded as the most primitive on account of its perigoniate hermaphrodite flower, the presence of endosperm in the seed and its pan- tropic distribution; the genera Nephthylis and Montrichardia are placed at the other end of the scale by reason of their naked unisexual flowers and poral dehiscence of the anthers. The supplement to the early volume on the | Monimiacez contains the additions that have accumulated in ten years. A compliment is paid to a well-known benefactor by the establishment of a new genus Carnegiea, although the associa- tion with a type specimen from New Caledonia is not immediately obvious. Two new myrme- cophilous plants are noted in Steganthera insignis and S. torricelliensis. The fiftieth part is principally a monograph of the genus Eria, in which the author follows Lindley except in the separation of the subgenus Trichotosia; with these two, Porpax is closely associated, but Phreatia is removed from the Dendrobiine to a new combination with Thelasis. Primitive Animals. By Geoffrey Smith. 156. (Cambridge: University Press, Price Is. net. In this book the author gives a concise account of the principal characters of a number of primitive animals, and of the arguments based upon their study. He first shows the great antiquity of the Pp. x+ IQII.) ‘chief phyla by instancing the fact that in the oldest fossil-bearing rocks (Cambrian) there are representatives of certain families of Crustacea (Nebaliidee, Cypride) which exist at the present day. In considering the lowest forms of life, the author points out that animals depend ulti- mately for their food upon plants, and suggests that “the presence of chlorophyll was the neces- sary precursor of life,’ but concludes that the NO. 2211, VOL. 89] problem of the origin of life is not within range of solution. Special attention is devoted to the , Appendiculata, and particularly to Peripatus as | a connecting link between Annelids and Arthro- pods. The structure of Nebalia and Anaspides is discussed in reference to the light it throws on the course of crustacean evolution. The chief characters of several invertebrate larval forms are considered in regard to their bearing on the relationships of certain phyla to one another; in this connection Mr. Smith maintains that, although certain larval forms, e.g. the trochosphere and the nauplius, may be ancient, they are not to be regarded as representing the ancestral form of the phyla to which they belong. The annelid theory of vertebrate descent is dis- | cussed, and the difficulty of reconciling this view with the conditions present in Balanoglossus is pointed out, the origin of vertebrates being rele- gated by the author to the category of unsolved problems. Among other subjects treated in an interesting manner are the derivation of lungs from the air-bladder of Dipnoi, the rise of the mammals, and the degeneracy of marsupials. The volume brings into prominence the special features which have been found to throw light on phylogenetic problems, and is a good intro- duction to the mode of application of the com- parative method in morphology, and to some of the principal results obtained. | Micropetrology for Beginners. An Introduction | to the Use of the Microscope in the Examina- tion of Thin Sections of Igneous Rocks. By J. E. Wynfield Rhodes. With a preface by C. H. Sidebotham. Pp. xv+126. (London: Longmans, Green and Co., 1912.) Price 2s. 6d. | net. Tue object of this work, as stated by its author, is to supply teachers in evening technical schools, and others, with practical information on the use of the petrological microscope—so far at least as is necessary in the instruction of students in geology for the Intermediate B.Sc. of the London University. It is disappointing to find that a work of this kind is considered to be necessary, for it might fairly be hoped that teachers, under- taking the preparation of candidates for university degrees, would themselves have the necessary practical knowledge for the guidance of their students in manipulation—seeing that an ounce of showing is worth a pound of telling. So far as is possible in work of this kind, the practical directions given in the book are clear, and anticipate many of the difficulties that may arise. The weakest portion of the book is the second chapter, in which an attempt is made, in a few pages, to deal with the question of the optical properties of minerals. In the aim at condensation many unexplained terms are em- ployed, and not a few statements are made which are open to serious criticism. Much more suc- cessful is the latter portion of the book, in which a number of rock-sections are described and illus- trated; but as the selection of rocks is confined to 22 32 NATURE [Marcu 14, 1912 those of igneous origin, many important rock- forming minerals, like the garnets, are not among those figured. that it is not intended to take the place of an ordinary text-book, but to supply the information which is not given in such works, being left for the laboratory-demonstrator to supply—and this | would seem to be the limit of the book’s useful- ness. Famous Chenusts. By E. Roberts. Pp. 247. (London: G. Allen and Co., Ltd., 1911.) Price 2s. 6d. It seems a little difficult to understand the object of writing a series of disconnected short bio- graphies of distinguished chemists now that we have several readable histories of chemistry of moderate compass in which biography is woven into connected narrative. At the same time it must be stated, after conscientiously reading the book from cover to cover, that these biographical epitomes are well done. The chief contributions of each master are clearly indicated, and the human touches on the whole artistically added. Boyle hardly has his due proportion, and Berthelot and van’t Hoff are not included at all. Perhaps the chief thing to be said for this com- pact gallery of chemists is that it may help to stimulate an interest in history, and lead the reader to a more thorough study of the life-work of the great men who have made chemistry what it is. This is an educational and liberalising side of chemical study which in the past has been much neglected. It is a pure convention, and a mis- chievous one, that isolates the study of natural philosophy itself from the study of its history. AS: Earth and her Children. By Herbert M. Livens. Pp. 248. (London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1912.) Pricesss.emet: Mr. Livens practises the art of teaching nature study by means of pleasant little stories in which plants and animals speak autobiographically. The nature knowledge imparted in the twenty-four chapters into which the book is divided is much diluted by the conversational matter introduced, but the stories will please many children, and may lead a ow to observe nature > for themselve es. LETTERS RO” THE EDITOR: [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of Nature. No notice is taken of anonymous communications. ] Osmotic and Liquid Membranes. In an interesting letter in Nature of February 22 Lord Berkeley has considered the question. of a possible osmotic cyc® in which a liquid such as ether is placed at the same time in connection through membranes with an aqucous solution of sugar and with water, while the latter is also in similar connec- tion with the solution. The water is kept at zero pressure, while the ether and the solution are at the osmotic pressure of the latter. NO. 2211, VOL. 89] The preface of the book suggests | As a consequence of a view of osmotic membranes which I have lately ventured to put forward in a paper in the Proc. Roy. Soc., he quite correctly deduces that equilibrium should exist for different strengths of the sugar solution provided the pressure is its osmotic pressure, and in addition that the ether should hold the same amount of water in solution at the different pressures. Or, to quote his words, ‘‘ the same solution of water in ether has two different osmotic pressures.” This he regards as impossible. Perhaps the best way to consider this question is to examine first the simple case of water placed on either side of a membrane permeable to water, but not to ether, and to suppose ether gradually added to one side. The osmotic pressure will rise, as shown by AB, to a maximum value at about 6 per cent. of ether. No solution of greater strength than this is possible until we reach 98'95 per cent. The osmotic pressure is now again zero, but rapidly rises, as shown PRESSURE. to) 6% 100 % ETHER IN WATER along DE, approaching the pressure axis P asym- ptotically; so that practically without any concentra- tion change we can have any osmotic pressure we please. The dotted curve has been added to show the normal character of the curve for substances which dissolve in all proportions, and probably if the pressure on both sides of our membrane were raised to a suffici- ently high value the two portions of the ether curve would unite somewhat after the fashion of the Van der Waals’s isothermals, and ultimately form the normal case, because experiments (not yet published): show that the portion DE moves to the left under pressure. If the above experiment be supposed repeated, but with sugar in solution on the other side of the mem- brane to that to which the ether is added, the first possible strong solution of ether is greater than 98°95 per cent., or DE is moved to the right. As in the case of water, so in the case of sugar solution, DE can be moved to the left by raising the pressure on both sides of the membrane. For a 60 per cent. solution of sugar the pressure to bring it back to its old position is 80 atmospheres. Returning now to Lord Berkeley’s cycle, we are in a position to see how equilibrium can exist without an appreciable change in strength of the ether solu- tion when different strengths of the sugar solution are used. Referring to his figure, equilibrium exists across membrane bd at the osmotic pressure of the solution when the concentration of the ether is 98°95 per cent., and practically the same concentration is required for equilibrium at the membrane bc, no matter what the pressure may be. Perhaps I may add that the view of osmotic mem- branes which I wished in my paper to emphasise is that a substance which acts as ether does in the con- dition at DE can, so long as the mechanical strength Marcu 14, 1912] NAT ORE. 272 rere) is somehow supplied, cause water to pass into a solution; for on the side of the solution it holds less water than on the side of the water unless the solu- tion is raised in pressure so as to bring the concentra- tion of water in the ether to be the same throughout. Frep. T. TRouton. University College, London. The Weather of 1911. Ir is probably no exaggeration to say that all students of meteorology who have been fortunate enough to read Sir Edward Fry’s letter in Nature of November 16 have been greatly impressed by it, and have awaited with eagerness the discussion to which it must inevitably lead. Already, at this early stage, they must feel a sense of gratitude to the writer of the letter for having enriched the science by calling forth the excellent reply from Dr. Shaw in the number of November 30. Now, as was to be expected, that ultra-violet solar radiation has come up for consideration, and Dr. Carl Ramsauer, in the issue of December 14, has entered a strong plea for recognition of the part it did not play in producing rain, in Europe, during the summer and fall of 1911, the time seems ripe for “the other side of the world” to enter the discussion, so that European men of science may take a glance “out and beyond their latticed home,” and realise that sunshine and meteorological changes are phenomena quite commonly witnessed in other regions of the earth. It is to be understood that nothing in this letter is to be considered as the result of a careful study of observational data, and, furthermore, that the ideas here expressed have been inspired solely by articles in Nature, by my personal experience, and by a cursory knowledge of meteorological changes gained from the weather chart of the Argentine Meteoro- logical Office, which shows the daily changes over the southern half of South America, a region quite as extensive as, if not much greater than, all Europe. In his interesting article, Dr. Ramsauer says, amongst other things, that he and Prof. Lenard have distinguished three actions of ultra-violet light on dust-free gases, and that one of these actions is the ‘‘formation of condensation nuclei.”’ This, he Says, gives us the chief source of nuclei in the earth’s atmosphere, which are meteorologically so important ; and his final conclusion is:—‘‘Thus the lack of nuclei, and the consequent fine weather of the year, can be attributed to a much diminished ultra-violet radiation of the sun.’ (The italics are mine.) He makes no mention as to variable efficiency in different parts of a bundle of solar rays, and so his conclusion must be taken as uniformly applicable to the entire bundle of rays impinging upon the earth. As the difference’ of longitude between the two continents is only a few hours, it may be assumed that the solar rays falling upon Europe and South America con- stitute separate parts of a single uniform bundle of rays; also, as ultra-violet rays are to be considered as the controlling agency in the production of con- densation nuclei, they must be assumed to be most active, and rainfall therefore most copious, over the continent with the midsummer sun. Let us see how far his conclusions are justified by facts. During the mid-year and later months of torr Europe experienced an unprecedented season of heat and drought, beneath the unobstructed rays of a high sun; Dr. Shaw states that apparently all requisites for dense clouds and heavy rains were frequently satisfied, and Dr. Ramsauer suggests that the poverty NO. 2211, VOL. 89] Wee mor of the intense solar rays in ultra-violet waves was responsible for the fact that no precipitation occurred. During the same period, July to November, a portion of South America equal in extent to Europe, under the relatively feeble radiation of a low sun, was treated to a superabundance of condensation nuclei, and probably to the most excessive drenching ever noted in this part of the world. The current conditions, with reversed seasons, are really just as interesting. | The rains continued here during the summer solstice and ended suddenly on January 1; so that, on passing through perihelion, although the sun was not far from the zenith, and was about five million miles nearer than when Europe experienced its extra- ordinary weather, sending out proportionately more intense ultra-violet and all other kinds of solar rays, the sky was clear, and has remained practically so during the past two weeks of our midsummer, notwith- standing that this is normally the rainy season of the year, and conditions are favourable for the develop- ment of showers and even general rains; meanwhile in Europe, mirabile dictu, the advent of the new year has been marked by disastrous floods in many parts. Do not these facts constitute another exemplification of the saying that ‘‘one-half of the world does not know (usually realise) how the other half lives,’ and of the further thought that it is extremely difficult completely to interpret cosmical processes by means of laboratory experiments? In the present state of the sciences of meteorology and solar physics it is impossible to look upon these perfect and abnormal contrasts of the past year in the conditions in Europe and South America as merely fortuitous occurrences. In seeking for their explanation we must inevitably follow Dr. Shaw in ascribing the important terrestrial activities to the dynamics of the upper air, and amplify his proposition slightly by naming the sun as the prime source of all the trouble. Is it not possible that with the already long period—nearly two years—of almost complete quiet on the solar disc, the conditions on the earth are approximating to what they would be if the sun were not a variable star? With a constant output of solar energy would not the atmospheric layer con- tained between the isothermal region and the earth’s surface act more uniformly, like an engine—the part over the summer hemisphere, being heated by the most intense radiation during long days, acting as steam chest; the part over the winter hemisphere, cooling through long nights and feeble solar radiation, acting as condenser, while the convective processes of the equatorial region serve as the safety-valve through which would be brought about an orderly alternation of hot and relatively dry summers, and wet but not extremely cold winters in both hemispheres? It is probable that a complete answer to Sir Edward Frv’s question will have to come from some such world-wide conception as this rather than from a study of meteorological conditions on a particular con- tinent. Possibly the pronounced conditions during the past year may point out a way for alleviating to some extent the disappointment of those investigators who seek to establish a well-defined periodicity in tem- perature and rainfall variations based upon the vari- ability of the sun, as they apparently emphasise the necessity of determining exactly the epochs of maxima and minima in the sun’s own period, and taking account of his position in the ecliptic at such times. If a minimum, for instance, coincide with a solstice, then an abnormally hot and dry summer in one hemisphere, with an abnormally wet and probably warm winter in the opposite one, should be con- sidered as confirming the sun-spot theory, and not as contradicting it, and so the effect may be graduated a4 NATURE [Marcu 14, 1912 around the ecliptic, being least pronounced probably when a minimum falls in an equinoctial month. A hasty comparison of Dr. Wolfer’s relative sun-spot numbers with the rainfall data of a few widely separated stations appears to hold out some encourage- ment for treating the data in this way. L8G. Scaurrz: Oficina Meteorolégica Argentina, Observatorio Magnético, Pilar, Cérdoba, January 16. Concentric Joints in Ice. In Nature for January 25 a correspondent directed attention to concentric joints and bulbs which he noticed in the thin ice-sheets which covered several small partially dried-up pools, and stated that he would like to have an explanation of their cause. I have seen circular ribs on the underside of ice- sheets on small pools which would appear to have been formed as shown by the accompanying diagram. When the pool was full of water, a thin sheet of ice formed between A and B. As the water sank into the ground an air space aa formed near the margins, the ice at the same time sagging. During the frost the further inward spread of the air space was arrested for a time by the freezing of the ring bb. Soon, however, in spite of the growth of the ring, the fall of the water-level allowed the air space aa suddenly to increase in size, and another ring was then formed inside the first, the process being re- peated several. times, until the water-level fell to E clear of the ice. From the water surface evaporation took place, and the vapour condensed on the underside of the ice-sheet, thickened it and made the ridges more pronounced and bulb-like. The number of rings and the thickness of the ice depend upon the keenness of the frost and the rate at which the water-level falls. A similar structure can be produced by perforations in thin ice-sheets partially supported by vegetation. ‘The innermost ring is then the one first formed. The fact that lines of weakness are produced above each rib is interesting, but has escaped my notice. R. M. DEeELey. Inglewood, Longeroft Avenue, Harpenden. Remuneration of Public Analysts. On behalf of the Association of Chemical Techno- logists, I beg to enter a strong protest against the course of action that is being followed by the Lambeth and Wandsworth Borough Councils in regard to the filling of the appointments of public analyst for those boroughs which have become vacant by the death of Dr. John Muter. The terms of remuneration offered by both these borough councils are far below the lowest of the very inadequate rates of payment made to public analysts in London and throughout the country, and the acceptance of such appointments by a qualified scien- tific chemist on such terms would be degrading to the chemical profession and detrimental in the highest degree to the interests of the public. On the terms offered, it is absolutely impossible that the NO. 2211, VOL. 89] responsible duties attaching to such appointments can be efficiently performed. A public analyst has great personal responsibility, his position is one of consider- able anxiety, the value of his work is not generally understood, and the office he holds is widely disliked, for he is appointed under the provisions of Acts of Parliament which are extremely unpopular among certain sections of the community. It is therefore essential that he should be in a position of such in- dependence that he may not be liable to influence- or pressure from any persons whose interest it may be to prevent, so far as possible, the effective adminis- tration of the Acts. It must be remembered, too, that with the enormous increase in scientific adultera- tion, the work of a public analyst is to-day very different from the work required even ten vears ago, and it is therefore all the, more necessary that the general public for whose protection the Acts were passed should appreciate the advisability of prevent- ing the ever-increasing attempts of local authorities of a certain type to reduce the remuneration of the scientific officers concerned to a level rendering the satisfactory discharge of their duties impossible. J. WILBERFORCE GREEN (Secretary). 30 Victoria Street, Westminster, London, S.W., March 6. The Storm of March 4. In Nature of March 7 reference is made to the storm of March 4, and figures are quoted giving the velocity of the wind recorded at several stations. It would appear that the storm attained a greater velocity here than at either of the stations named, and a few particulars of the record made by the Dines pressure-tube anemometer erected at Pendennis Castle, Falmouth, by the Meteorological Office, may be of interest. On the morning of March 4 a progressive mean velocity of from 20 to 50 miles an hour was recorded; at 6 p.m. it had increased to 65 miles per hour, and this velocity was maintained to midnight. The squalls were very violent; between 2 p.m. and mid- night a maximum velocity of 80 miles or more was registered more than twenty times, whilst the greatest squall attained a velocity of 98 miles at 6 p.m. This has been but once exceeded (or reached) since the anemometer was erected in 1902, viz. 103 miles at 11.30 p.m. of March 14, 1905. Epwarp Kirro (Superintendent). The Observatory, Falmouth, March 11. Chserved Fall of an Aérolite near St. Albans. DurinGc a heavy thunderstorm which ensued on Monday, March 4, between 2.30 p.m. and 4.15 p.m., an aérolite was observed to fall at Colney Heath, near St. Albans. The observer, who has placed the speci- men in my hands for examination, stated that the stone fell within a few feet from where he was stand- ing, and that it entered the ground for a distance of about 3 ft. Its fall was accompanied by an unusually heavy clap of thunder. The example weighs 5 Ib. 143 oz., and measures 6% in. x52 in. at its greatest length and breadth respectively. The mass is irregu- larly ovate on the one side, and broken in outline on the other. The actual surface throughout is fairly deeply pitted, and under magnification exhibits the usual chondritic structure of the crystalline matter, with interspersed particles of what appears to be nickeliferous iron. G. E. BULLEN. Hertfordshire Museum, St. Albans. MarcuH.14, 1912] TRAVEL, SPORT, AND ADMINISTRATION.’ ioe a handsome volume Mr. Hesketh Prichard tells the story of a short journey made by Mr. G. M. Gathorne-Hardy and himself in Labra- dor in 1910. The coast settlement of Nairn, from which the journey started up the Fraser River, lies somewhat north of the centre of the Labrador coast. In this latitude there is little enough to tempt men up to the interior plateau, and the explorers broke new ground in striking out of the Fraser Valley, climbing a tributary valley on its south flank, and striking southward and westward to the George River. They returned on their tracks, so were able to travel light when on the plateau by leaving caches of food at different points against their return. They depended largely on game and fish, and were fortunate in obtaining a sufficiency of both, though more than once they went hungry. The writer points out, and it is easy to realise, how near NALS 35 for the most part to the interests of the moun- taineer and the simple love of the mountains which is shared by all who visit them. Some- times, however, occasion is found for an easy lesson on mountain-building and like topics; on page 357 and following pages there is an admir- able explanation of the raising and shaping of Mount Robson, the summit of which the author was not destined to reach, in spite of more than one attempt. The accounts of the author’s journeys range back over a number of years. His first visit to the Rockies was made in 1884. In 1885 he was in the Selkirks, and in 1888 he made a venturesome journey by canoe on the Columbia River. The latest journey described in the book is that above referred to, when Mount Robson was visited in 1908. It is not always easy to say exactly where a traveller has broken new ground in these mountains; hunters, prospectors, and railway reconnaissance surveyors have covered to the margin of safety an expedition § travels thus lightly equipped and in so desolate a country. Adverse circumstances carried Leonidas Hub- bard across that margin and drove him to starva- tion; Mr. Prichard pays a moving tribute to his efforts. It does not ap- pear that the present expedition attempted more than to see “what the country looks like ” ; scientific observation was not systematically at- tempted in any direction. But valuable details as to the physical geo- graphy of the country fraversed are to be gathered from the narra- tive, and among several photographs of interest in this connection, that of a raised beach in the George Valley may be selected for mention. And the travellers can speak with authority on sub- Arctic insect pests. The Rocky Mountains and Selkirks in Canada have been visited by more than one scientific mountaineer, and Prof. Coleman’s name stands very high among the number. In the present volume the scientific side of his work gives place By H. Hesketh Prichard. With a 1 * Through Trackless Labrador.” Pp. xv+254. (London: Chapter on Fishing, by G. M Gathorne-Hardy. Wm. Heinemann, torr.) Price 155. net. “The Canadian Rockies. New and Old Trails.” man, F.R.S. Pp. 383+3 maps. (London: T. Fisher Unwin, rgrr.) 12s. 6d. net. “The Land of Uz.” XXvili+354-+plates+ map. Price 8s. 6d. net. * Sporting Reminiscences.” (London: John Murray, 1gtt.) Price 8s. net. “The Making of Northern Nigeria.” By Capt C. W.J. Orr. Pp. x+ 306+4 maps. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., rgtx.)_ Price 8s. 6d. net. “The Story of the Zulus.” By J. Y. Gibson. New edition, revised and extended. Pp. viit+338. (London: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1911.) Price 7s. 6d. NO. 2211, VOL. 89] By Prof. A. P. Cole- Price By Abdullah Manstir (G. Wyman Bury). Pp. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., rorr.) By Sir Edward Darand, Bart. Pp. xi+200 Fic. 1.—A>“ raised beach” in the George Valley, From “ Through Trackless Labrador,” much of the ground. Moreover, instances have often been mentioned (and Prof. Coleman men- tions some) of existing maps being found so un- trustworthy as to be unrecognisable on the spot. In localities where he was not actually treading a new trail Prof. Coleman was sometimes the first scientific traveller to tread an old one, and moun- taineers and tourists who may in the future follow him in increasing numbers as the country is opened up will find many occasions to thank him for what is obviously to him a labour of love. The area dealt with in “Abdullah Manstr’s” book is, broadly speaking, south-western Arabia, and more particularly the Aden protectorate and its hinterland. The writer brings to his task the experience of ten years’ service in the protectorate and a keen sense of humour, which together make his book no less entertaining than instructive. He points out, on the opening page of a very able introduction, how on leaving the sphere of imme- oy 30 NATLOGIRIE [Marcu 14, 1912 diate British influence the traveller feels the im- pression of “having stepped back in the pages of history to medieval times. This illusion is further enhanced by ancestral castles’ and a working feudal system.” This being so, the author might perhaps be criticised on the score of anachronism when he tells his story in good colloquial language of the most modern kind, and even makes the native characters on his stage con- -—The Selkirks from Asulkan Pass. Fic. 2 verse in it—were it not that the change from the conventional biblical style in rendering native. speech is frankly refreshing. The Aden _hinter- land merges into a region which is one of the least known in the world—the seat of an early civilisation which must either have existed under more favourable climatic conditions than now obtain there, or must have learned means of con- tending against conditions now forbidding settle- ment, if not mere passage. Mr. Bury clearly feels NO. 2211,) VOL.! 89] From ‘‘ The Canadian Rockies.” | the | for regret at having stood on the threshold of the unknown without entering it. | Nevertheless, he adds much to the knowledge of the parts which he visited—their geography, their inhabitants, and their fauna. History is dealt with in an appendix, as well as ina preface by Major-General Maitland, an ex-political resident at Aden. A compliment is due to the few lines which close the book, entitled “A Desert Vesper.” Sir Edward Durand’s book is the record of a mighty hunter, though it makes ‘‘no pretence of posing as a sporting classic.” In its pages will be found stories of practically every form of sport in India. from tiger-shooting to mahseer-fishing. The writer had exceptional opportunities of en- joying the best sport that the country could furnish. His ex- periences, therefore, should serve as a guide. to others, and his stories are often made to point a moral. He writes, perhaps, on no subject with more authority than on horses in his third chap- ter, at the opening of which he says, “I have had a large num- ber pass through my hands, from racers and hunters to _ polo ponies.” He greatly favours the Arab, with its ‘‘cannon-bone of the consistence of ivory ”’—in re- spect of this particular feature there is an interesting compari- son between various _ breeds. This chapter is full of sound ad- vice. There are very effective illustrations in half-tone from drawings portraying the chase of the tiger, wild pig, and other animals. It is difficult to realise that the bulk of the matter which makes up Capt. Orr’s history of North- ern Nigeria deals with events confined within the last decade. It was in 1900 that the British Government assumed direct con- trol in this territory. This form of administration had been pre- ceded by chartered company ad- ministration, but Sir George Goldie had shown that “the absorption of the company in Imperial Government” was a_ process contemplated when the company first applied its charter. The company had deserved well of the Empire as an administrative organisation; it had to contend not only with internal native opposition, but with external complications, until the Anglo-French Convention of 1808 settled the frontier question. Having had assistance from Sir George Goldie himself and the Earl of Scarborough, Capt. Orr is able to tell Marcu 14, 1912] NATURE 37 the story of the company with no less authority than that of the ten years of Imperial government, in which he himself took part, being attached to the political department of the colony. He treats in full detail of the events of the early years of the century, the occupations of Bauchi, Bornu, Kano, and Sokoto, which were carried out in 1902-1903, followed by the organisation of pro- vinces. The difficulties of establishing a general and equitable system of taxation in place of a local and inequitable native system are fully brought out, and the genius of Sir F. Lugard in attacking this and other problems is clearly seen and acknowledged. Each other important department of administration has its chapter. Introductory to the whole is the survey of the history, such as it is, of the country from the earliest known times, and a chapter descriptive of the country and its people enables the reader to appreciate the problems faced by the administration, especially in respect of dealings with the native peoples. The Hausas and the Fulanis or Fulahs, and par- ticularly the latter, are of especial interest. From this descriptive chapter it appears, as is probably not generally realised, that the Northern Nigerian Government has had to deal, not with uncivilised natives alone, but with peoples who possess or at least claim a certain degree of civilisation and systems of government which already, in some cases, recognise the principles of vassalage and slavery, and are not easily tolerant of a suzerain power. Capt. Orr’s volume is illustrated by simple but sufficient maps, save that no attempt is made towards the portrayal of relief or other physical characteristics. There is ground for regret here, especially when it is remembered what admirable geographical work so many Nigerian Government officials have found time to accom- plish amid all their strenuous duties. “The Story of the Zulus” is a rather sombre story, though even by strict historical methods it is not shorn of all the romance attached to it through the medium of fiction. Mr. Gibson has been a magistrate in Zululand, and was brought up in Natal at a time when Zulu opposition to white settlement was active. In this new edition he has been able to make use of new material discovered since the first issue, and the matter of the book has in consequence been not only revised but extended. Its claim to recognition as an authoritative work is thus strengthened. ONyOR: H: THE HUMAN FORM.’ ANKIND in general is imbued with a deep-rooted instinct of interest in the human form, the reality of which is substantiated by the contrast between the uncouthness of the ape and the gracefulness of man, which this in- terest, working through sexual selection, has brought about. 1 “Die ausseren Formen des menschlichen Kérpers in ihrem allgemeinen Zustandekommen. By Prof. E. Gaupp. Pp. 57. Thirteenth part of the “*Sammlung anatomischer und physiologischer Vortrige und Aufsitze.” (Jena: Gustav Fischer, rorr.) Price 1°50 marks. NO. 2211, VOL. 89] But while it is thus ingrained in the nature of all human beings, not excepting even Schopen- hauer, to find some fascination in the contempla- tion of the forms of the rest of our species, there are two classes of students whose business it is, during the course of the technical training for their professional work, to familiarise themselves with the exact topography of the surface of the human body and to inquire into the nature of the factors which determine its form. ‘The artist, be he sculptor or painter, studies the body for the purpose of reproducing its features in the creation of statues or pictures; the medical man because the visible parts of the body afford the land- marks to guide him in the perilous undertakings incidental to his professional labours in the hidden depths of the body. Although these two classes of students work in the same field of investigation they are seeking different kinds of knowledge, for much of the information that is of vital importance to the surgeon is of no interest to the sculptor. Teachers of anatomy have recently begun to realise that the usefulness of teaching in surface anatomy can be enhanced by taking a wider view of the subject in imparting knowledge to either class of students by borrowing judiciously, both in methods and knowledge, from the other class. It is now widely acknowledged among teachers of anatomy in medical schools that the use of living models, after the manner of the art-teacher, is essential as a corrective to the mistaken ideas of the surface form of the body acquired from the cadaver in the dissecting-room; and the pro- fessional teacher of art-anatomy, if he is in the habit of dissecting, is able to impart to the medical student a great deal of useful information which he acquires when looking at the body from his own viewpoint. The time has come when the real teacher of anatomy for artists has begun to realise that it is not enough to show his students the human skeleton and demonstrate its muscles. He must give him facilities for ex- amining and handling the muscles, and for investigating the nature and arrangement of tendons, aponeuroses, and intermuscular. septa, and for studying the varieties of fatty tissues, and the factors (sex, age, and the individual and racial characters) that modify these packing tissues. : But, most important of all, he must be taught the difference between a dead and a live muscle, and between a living muscle that is in active con- traction and one that, though “resting,” is in a state of tonicity, which is a condition vastly different from the flaccidity of a dead or paralysed muscle. Such studies are essential if the artist is to por- tray living men in action, and not merely models in the attitude of performing the civen act. By this it is not meant that the student of art should attempt to fathom the mysteries of the “ Integra- tive Action of the Central Nervous System,” but he should learn the general principles of reciprocal action of muscles and the meaning of tonus. Ww “ o) NATURE [Marcu 14, 1912 As a concise and well-balanced introduction to these wider aspects of surface anatomy, Prof. Gaupp’s most admirable little brochure deserves to be read by every student of art and medicine; and it is to be hoped that the kind of teaching his book supplies will soon become available in all schools of true art. In Manchester during the last four years we have had an excellent demonstration of the strikingly beneficial results that can accrue to the student of art when anatomy is taught by an adequately trained teacher with the facilities which a dissecting-room affords. At a moment when the constitution of the pro- vineial schools of art in this country is in the melting-pot, and new alliances are being discussed with local universities, it is important to em- phasise the benefits of such a working association between a school of art and a school of medicine, which will be useful to both. G. Eviior Sir. NOTES. Dr. H. BreRETON Baker, F.R.S., has been appointed to succeed Sir Edward Thorpe, F.R.S., as professor of chemistry in the Imperial College of Science and Technology, South Kensington, at the end of the present session. Mire. E. Cuanpon has been appointed assistant astronomer at Paris Observatory. Tue widow of the late Prof. Hitzig has given 84,000 marks to the Prussian Academy of Sciences for the encouragement of researches on the brain. In reply to a question relating to the protection of ancient buildings and other historic monuments, asked in the House of Commons on March 6, the Prime Minister announced that the First Com- missioner of his Majesty’s Office of Works proposes to introduce at an early date a Bill dealing with the question of the preservation of ancient monuments and buildings. Tue death is reported, in his fifty-second year, of Dr. Charles Robert Sanger, assistant professor of chemistry at Harvard University from 1899 to 1903, and full professor since the latter date. Before his call to Harvard he occupied the chair of chemistry at the United States Naval Academy and at Wash- ington University, St. Louis, successively. He was a member of the American Chemical Society and of the Deutsche Chemische Gesellschaft. Pror. Henry Wittiamson Haynes, says Science, has bequeathed to the Peabody Museum of Harvard University 2ool. for the library and all his prehistoric and archzological objects, and his books and pamph- lets relating to such subjects. To the Boston Society of Natural History is given his fossils, minerals, and other objects of natural history. To Harvard College is given Mr. Haynes’s Etruscan, Greek, and Roman vases, and his ancient coins and medals. The Boston Museum of Fine Arts is Egyptian antiquities. NO. 2211, VOL. 89] to receive his | | Ar the meeting of the Royal Geographical Society on Monday last, Dr. J. Mackintosh Bell described some New Zealand volcanoes, and treated of recent volcanic activity in the central and northern parts of the North Island, and among the islands in the Bay of Plenty. The great eruption of Mount Tarawera in 1886 was treated exhaustively, and the present topography of the mountain as the result of twenty-five years’ erosion on the material piled up in the course of the eruption was shown. The other volcanic regions were similarly dealt with. Tue Biological Survey of the U.S. Agricultural Department has secured the cooperation of the National Zoological Park in experiments in breeding mink for the purpose of ascertaining the possibilities of rearing them in captivity for commercial purposes. This has never been attempted by the Government heretofore, but it is hoped that by the combined efforts of the two organisations something of practical importance can be accomplished. The main object in view is to secure data relative to the best methods of rearing mink for their fur, especially as to details of housing, feeding, mating, and caring for them. A ReEuTEeR message from Calcutta reports that in the Legislative Council on March 8 Sir S. Harcourt Butler opposed a motion (which was afterwards with- drawn) to abolish the office of Director-General of Archeology, and said that the Government is deter- mined to carry forward Lord Curzon’s archzological work. The Government of India, he stated, con- templates increased expenditure, an increased estab- lishment, an improvement in the production and circulation of publications, and especially the training of Indians for research and other work. Part of the scheme is the absorption of the Director-General in the Research Institute. As statements have been published from time to time relating to the transmission of tuberculosis through the use of telephones, and especially of those in public call offices, the Postmaster-General has had the matter thoroughly investigated by Dr. Spitta, of St. George’s Hospital. He has just issued a state- ment, in the course of which it is remarked that the final report which has now been received from Dr. Spitta shows that the results have been entirely negative. Dr. Spitta is of opinion, in view of the whole course of the experimental work, ‘that the transmission of tuberculosis through the medium of the telephone mouthpiece is practically impossible.’’ These results are supported by an independent inquiry initiated some time ago by the American Government as to the condition of public telephones in the United States. They fully confirm the results of work carried out by Dr. Klein, of St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, in 1905, at the instance of Dr. Colling- ridge, the City Medical Officer of Health, who caused a number of telephones in use at call offices of the National Telephone Company to be removed for bacteriological examination. A PROVISIONAL programme of the first International Eugenics Congress, to be held at the University of London on July 24-30, has been issued. The general heads under which the subjects to be discussed at the Marcu 14, 1912] NATURE x6 Congress will be grouped are:—the bearing upon eugenics of (a) biological research, (b) sociological and historical research, (c) legislation and social customs; and the consideration of the practical applications of eugenic principles. An exhibition is being arranged which will include charts, pedigrees, photographs, and specimens illustrative of heredity, especially’in man; relics of Charles Darwin, Francis Galton, and Gregor Mendel; and portraits of notable workers. Major Leonard Darwin is to be the president of the Con- gress. Particulars may be obtained from _ the honorary secretary, Mrs. Gotto, 6 York Buildings, Adelphi, W.C. A SMALL committee has recently been formed in Manchester, with Mr. R. H. Clayton as chairman and Mr. W. F. A. Ermen as secretary, the object of which is to further the movement for the purification of the atmosphere from coal smoke. The committee has sent circulars to scientific and other societies in Man- chester asking them to appoint delegates to a meet- ing, at which arrangements are to be made for a deputation to go before the City Council. This deputation will urge the council to inaugurate a separate and independent department with a com- mittee formed from the various existing departments of the Corporation which are affected directly or in- directly by smoke, with co-opted representatives of various societies. The duty of this department would be to study the various sources of pollution, and to investigate the possible applications of existing or new methods which might be adopted for the preven- tion of the present pollution. From the Rendiconti del R. Istituto Lombardo we learn that a prize offered by the late Dr. Cagnola for ‘‘4 well-proved discovery on the directing of flying balloons’ has been unawarded. A reference to the issues of previous years shows that the same result has occurred practically without exception during the whole period in which aérial navigation has made the greatest progress. There have been recently numer- ous discoveries on the directing of flying balloons, which have been weli proved by the performance of | long-distance flights, and this prize has played no part in their successful development. In view of the fact that it was founded long before the days when aérial navigation became an accomplished fact, it should be evident that the title of the prize is suffici- ently elastic to cover such developments as improve- ments in motors and propellers, even when tested by such methods as are employed successfully in our own National Physical Laboratory. Ir is with sincere regret that we learn of the death of Mr. A. E. Hodgson, senior assistant at the Natal Observatory, which took place at Durban on February 11. Born at Leeds in 1880, Mr. Hodgson was trained at the Royal College of Science, London, where he afterwards became a demonstrator in astro- physics, and later joined the staff of the Solar Physics Observatory under Sir Norman Lockyer. In 1903 he accepted a post as assistant under Mr. Nevill at the Natal Observatory, subsequently becoming assistant. Here he performed the routine duties of the time service, &c., and also made observations of NO. 2211, VOL. 89| senior | | tific aspects of these excavations in a systematic comets, putting into all his work a whole-hearted enthusiasm which was ever characteristic of him. According to an appreciation appearing in The Natay Mercury, Mr. Hodgson, had he lived, would probably have been placed in sole charge of the observatory on the retirement of Mr. Nevill. He was a fellow of the Royal Astronomical and Physical Societies, and his early death will be a great loss to those who enjoyed his friendship, both in Natal and in this country. The funeral took place at Durban on February 12. THE arrangements in connection with the Optical Convention which is to be held during six days in the last fortnight of June this year are making satis- factory progress. The Board of Education has con- sented to provide space for the exhibition forming part of the Convention in the Science Museum at South Kensington. The guarantee fund has reached 1055/., and active steps are being taken to ensure the success of the Convention. An exhibition and cata- logue committee has been constituted, and is sub- divided into twenty-four sections. A committee upon papers has been appointed, and it is expected that the result of their labours will be the publication after the meetings of a valuable volume of Proceedings. Prof. S. P. Thompson, F.R.S., is the president of the Con- vention, and the list of vice-presidents includes the names of many distinguished physicists and astro- nomers. Dr. R. Mullineux Walmsley, principal of the Northampton Polytechnic Institute, Clerkenwell, is the chairman of the executive committee, and Mr. J. W. Gordon, 113 Broadhurst Gardens, Hampstead, N.W., is honorary secretary. On Thursday last, March 7, The Times recorded the discovery of an oak-tree trunk during the excava- tions for the extension of the Hampstead and High- gate Railway at the shaft near the Charing Cross District Railway Station. The tree was found at a depth of 40 ft. beneath the present surface in a bed of sand forming part of the younger gravels of the Thames. It was quite black, but perfectly sound. The roots and a portion of the trunk some 2 ft. in diameter were exposed in a prone position, as if the tree had been transported during flood time and then stranded. A stag’s horn has been found in the same formation. No special importance attaches to these particular finds; the really significant circumstance is that their existence does not appear to have been made known to interested parties until a paragraph was written for the daily papers by a passing observer. The tree had been found long before, and lay in the wooden enclosure which surrounds the shaft, and it was not until it was turned out to be carted away that attention was directed to it. The geology of the shallow deposits underlying London is full of interest to all and is of considerable import- ance, and it can only be elucidated, now that so large | an area is completely built over, by careful observa- tion and correlation of the numerous deep foundation excavations and tunnels that are constantly being made and rapidly obscured. It is much to be re- gretted that no official exists to attend to the scien- manner, 40 NATURE [Marcu 14, 1912 Tue September (1911) number of The Museum Journal, issued by the University of Pennsylvania, is largely devoted to a description of the Polynesian department of the splendid collection made by Mr. E. W. Clark. This includes remarkable exhibits of finely carved ceremonial axes from Mangaia, clubs from Marquesas and Samoa, paddles from the Austral Islands, and a magnificent series of state clubs from Tonga, which exhibit in the most perfect way the artistic capacity of the Polynesian races. In a paper entitled ‘‘ The Distribution of Early Bronze Settlements in Britain,’’? read by Mr. O. G. S. Crawford before the Royal Geographical Society on February 14, an attempt is made to determine the geographical and racial elements in the type of culture represented by the class of pottery designated “beakers ’’ by Mr. Abercromby, and one of the earliest forms of metal implements known, the flat celts or axes of copper or bronze. The British areas in which these articles are found together fall into several groups :—first, the east coast of North Britain extending from Cromarty Firth to the River Tees; second, the Yorkshire Wolds south of the Vale of Pickering and east of the Vale of York; third, the Peak District of Derbyshire; fourth, the Fen coun- try between Stoke Ferry and Newmarket; fifth, between the Thames at Oxford and the challx hills of South Dorset. It is pointed out that the incidence of the discoveries of these articles in juxtaposition is connected with the movement of the short-headed groups of peoples from various parts of Europe and the northern Mediterranean areas. Tue March issue of Pearson’s Magazine contains an article by Mr. C. G. Crosley on the problem of the feeble-minded. More than 150,000 feeble-minded persons form part of the present population of this country. The majority of them, says Mr. Crosley, drift continually in and out of our workhouses and prisons, unable to support themselves or to lead a decent life; worst of all, they are free, by marrying and having children, to pass on the taint of de- generacy to the next generation. Of the 150,000 feeble-minded, nearly 70,000 are urgently in need at the moment of special provision for their care and control. Feeble-minded people are wonderfully prolific. The average birth-rate per marriage among the feeble-minded is seven, as against the four of normal persons. It is urged by Mr. Crosley that an essential preliminary to reform is that we should realise that feeble-mindedness is incurable. The State, he says, must have powers to care for and control, for so long a time as is thought expedient, all feeble-minded persons not properly provided for who are a danger to themselves or to society. Accommodation must be provided, in the shape of colonies, which could be cheaply built and would be practically self-supporting, where the inmates could be happily and usefully employed in agricultural or industrial work. Dr. CRESSWELL SHEARER contributes a remarkable memoir to The Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science (February) on the problem of sex determina- tion in Dinophilus gyrociliatus. This minute annelid NO. 2211, VOL. 89] worm lays its eggs in capsules, several together. Some of the eggs in each capsule develop into males and others into females, and the young females are actually fertilised by the males before they leave the egg-capsule, and while they are still in the larval con- dition. Their ova are, however, not yet formed, and the spermatozoa actually conjugate with the so-called oogonia. Henceforth the oogonium has a double nucleus, half derived from the male and half from the female parent. During subsequent divisions of the oogonium each half of the nucleus divides in- dependently. Dr. Shearer calls the two halves ‘‘ male and female pronuclei,’’? but they are clearly not male and female pronuclei in the ordinary sense. The greater part of the process of oogenesis, then, appears to take place after the nucleus of the spermatozoon has entered the oogonium and the sperm nucleus con- tinues dividing with the nucleus of the oogonium. Towards the close of oogenesis the final products of the division of the so-called pronuclei appear to con- jugate. In some cases, however, division takes place in such a way that one of the daughter cells contains no representative of the male ‘‘ pronucleus,’’ and thus two kinds of mature eggs arise, those which contain chromatin substance derived from both male and female parents, and those which contain chromatin substance from the female parent only. The former are believed to give rise to female and the latter to male individuals. Tue recently published report of the advisory com- mittee for the Tropical Diseases Research Fund for 1g11t (Cd. 6024) testifies by its bulk to the numerous investigations on tropical sanitation and the etiology of disease that are being carried on throughout the Empire, since it is nearly double the size of the re- port for the previous year. The actual report of the committee occupies three pages; against an income of 33451., the committee has incurred an expenditure of 37951. 6s. 8d., and attention is directed to the urgent need of further sums being placed at its dis- posal. The remainder of the volume consists of appendices containing reports on anti-malarial measures in the colonies and protectorates, and on the work done in the laboratories or schools of tropical medicine in this country and in the colonies. Many of these reports contain detailed accounts of researches as yet unpublished; for example, the account given on pp. 71-76 of the investigations of Prof. Minchin and Dr. J. D. Thomson on the trans- mission of the rat-trypanosome by the rat-flea and the development of the parasite in the insect host. Many interesting and novel observations are con- tained also in the reports of Dr. Castellani for Ceylon, of the bacteriologist for British East Africa, and especially in the three reports of Dr. L. Nicholls for St. Lucia, which are very full and are accom- panied by numerous illustrations. It is to be hoped that these investigations are not destined to remain buried in a Blue-book. Tue biology of the delta and the inundation-area of the Danube, with a short notice of the fisheries, formed the subject of an address by Dr. G. Antipa, director of the Bucharest Museum, delivered at the Marcu 14, 1912] eighth International Congress held at Gratz in August, 1910. The paper has lately been published ‘at Jena in pamphlet form by Mr. Gustav Fischer. The subject is divided into two sections, one dealing with the physical conditions of the inundation-area and its relations to the periodical oscillations in the water-level of the Danube generally, and the other with the life of different portions of this area and its variation according to the different water-levels of the river. Of particular interest is the author’s description of the various means by which the fauna and flora accommodate themselves to the varying levels of the water, but, for reasons of space, these cannot receive detailed notice. A high water-level in the inundation- area is the delight of the fishermen, as will be evident from the statement that whereas in 1904, when the water-level only reached the 3°50 m. mark, and there was no overflowing of the banks, the catch of fish was 920,000 kg., in 1907, when the water rose to 5°40 m., and the banks were overflowed for 128 days, the product was no less than 6,447,000 kg. This abund- ance of fish during big inundations is, however, only a part of a general phenomenon, the water-organisms at such seasons attaining a preponderating develop- ment at the expense of the land fauna and flora. Part tv. of the ‘Selected Reports from the Scien- tific and Technical Department of the Imperial Insti- tute ’’ (Cd. 6022, 1912) is devoted to rubber and gutta- percha. It relates chiefly to the composition and quality of rubbers prepared in different ways, and obtained from trees and plants grown under various climatic conditions in a number of British colonies. The trees and plants in question include not only well-known kinds such as Hevea, Funtumia, and Castilloa, but others less well known which may prove to be of value where the cultivation of the more important rubber-producers is not possible. The reports show the chemical composition of the samples submitted, and in many cases indicate the technical valuation also. In several instances the differences produced in the quality of the rubber by different methods of coagulating the latex are pointed out. Much work has been done by the department in studying the problems of coagulation, “curing,” and “‘tackiness’’ in rubber, but the conclusions are withheld for the present, pending confirmation by further experiments now in progress. A few speci- mens of gutta-percha from the Straits Settlements and other districts, and of balata from British Guiana and Venezuela, are described. Attention is directed to the question of utilising Para rubber seed, enormous quantities of which are now becoming available through the maturing of large plantations. The seed yields about 20 per cent. of oil, which is of commercial value as a substitute for linseed oil, and the residual cake may be of use for feeding cattle; some preliminary trials of it have given promising results, but require to be supplemented by experi- ments on a larger scale. Ar the meeting of the Mathematical Section of the Vienna Academy on February 8, Prof. J. Hann sub- mitted an important work entitled ‘‘The Diurnal NATURE 41 Nevis.” The wind-force observations had not been discussed before; to a great extent only estimates of the hourly values could be given in the valuable pub- lished tables, as rime and snow-drift frequently inter- rupted the record of the anemometer. Dr. Hann care- fully investigated the relations between the estimated and registered values during fifteen summer months, and found corrections applicable to the values at different parts of the day; afterwards he subjected the estimated monthly means to harmonic analysis. The maximum wind-force at Ben Nevis occurs with extraordinary regularity between rh. and 2h. a.m. in all months. The minimum occurs at 4h. p.m. from November to March; at 5h. p.m. from April to June; at 3h. p.m. from July to October. The diurnal variation, even in winter, is well marked, with a large amplitude; at this season the difference of the daily extremes amounts to 105 m.p.s., and in summer to 155. The smaliest values occur in spring and autumn. Storm frequency shows a regular daily variation in both half-years, with two maxima and two minima; in winter the maxima occur at 2h. and gh. a.m., and the minima at 6h. a.m. and 3h. p.m. In summer the daily period agrees completely with that of air-pressure : maxima, gh. a.m. and oh. p.m.; minima, 4h. a.m. and 3h. p.m. In the yearly mean this agreement still holds, with the trifling exception that the second maximum occurs at midnight. This double daily period of storm frequency is a very singular phenomenon; it is also shown at Vienna and other places. Tue photometric equipment of the laboratory of the Holophane Company of Newark, Ohio, is de- scribed and illustrated in the February number of The Illuminating Engineer of New York. The photo- meter is of the Dibdin radial type, the standard lamp moving on horizontal rails, while the lamp to be tested moves up and down a vertical shaft extending through three stories of the building. The photo- meter screen is maintained by two rods at a fixed distance from the lamp under test, and bisects the angle between the rays coming from the two sources. Arrangements are provided which allow the lamp under test and its reflector to be rotated either together or independently of each other. The Lummer-Brodhun contrast photometer screen is used, and in addition rotating sectors are provided which cut down the light on either side to a known fraction of its original amount. For direct-current tests the current is supplied by storage cells, and for alter- nating currents a small motor generator is run from the cells. Communication No. 124 from the Physical Labora- tory of the University of Leyden contains a short paper on the magnetic properties of solid oxygen, glass, and anhydrous ferrous sulphate at low tem- peratures down to 14° on the absolute scale, by Prof. Onnes and Dr. Perrier. In each case the suscepti- bility increases rapidly as the temperature falls, but appears in the case of oxygen and ferrous sulphate to reach a maximum at about 20° absolute. In the case of oxygen, the susceptibility increases fourfold on liquefaction. The deviations from Curie’s law are Variations of Wind-force on the Summit of Ben ! considerable throughout. A second paper in the same NO. 2211, VOL. 89] 42 NATURE [MarcH 14, 1912 communication is by Prof. Onnes, and deals with the electrical resistance of mercury at these low tempera- tures. The resistivity of mercury in the solid state at the melting point is about 50 ohms per centimetre cube. As the temperature decreases it falls regu- larly to 0°12 ohm at 43° absolute. In the interval between 423° and 418° absolute it falls to a value of the order 10o-° ohms per centimetre cube, that is, it practically disappears. Two of the late Prof. Van’t Hoff’s former students, Dr. W. P. Jorissen, of Levden, and Dr. L. Th. Reicher, of Amsterdam, have recently published a very interesting volume entitled ‘“‘ J. H. Van’t Hoff’s Amsterdamer Periode, 1877-1895’ (Helder: C. de Boer, jun., 1912, pp. 106). Dealing principally with Van’t Hoff’s work as a university professor in Amsterdam, the book contains also an account of the teaching of chemistry in Amsterdam before Van’t Hoff’s arrival, a short account of his life, and a detailed bibliography of his published books and papers, and of the biographical and other notices which have been written concerning the great Dutch chemist. The illustrations form a very interesting feature of the volume, consisting of portraits of Van’t Hoff at different periods of his life, portraits of his predecessors at Amsterdam, and pictures of the Amsterdam Chemical Laboratory in the various stages of its history. The book forms an important contribution to the history of Van’t Hoff’s life and work, and the authors are to be warmly congratu- lated, not only on the affectionate piety which has inspired their work, but also on the care and labour that they have bestowed upon it. Engineering for March 8 gives some additional particulars of the oil-engined ship Selandia, the first passenger sea-going vessel fitted with Diesel engines. There are two main engines, driving twin screws, each engine consisting of a set of eight single-acting cylinders 202 in. in diameter by 28°75 in. stroke, work- ing on the four-stroke cycle. It is evident from the successful running that no pains and no expense have been spared in rendering the auxiliary machinery as immune from breakdown as is possible. During the voyage from London to Antwerp, the indicated-horse- power developed in eight cylinders was 1190, or 1000 brake-horse-power, assuming 84 per cent. efficiency as obtained on the test bed at the maker’s works. The fuel-oil consumption is about 0°45 Ib. per brake- horse-power hour. The indicator diagram shows a mean pressure of about 91 lb. per square inch at 129 revolutions per minute. It is claimed that this type of engine has increased the cargo-carrying capacity by 1000 tons. In the article upon ‘Soot’? which appeared in NaturE of February 29, reference was made to an article upon ‘‘The Sootfall of London” which appeared in The Lancet of January 6. Mr. S. Archi- bald Vasey writes to point out that the experimental portion of the inquiry was done entirely in The Lancet laboratory under his personal supervision. Messrs. des Vceux and Owens took no part in the laboratory work, which included some 400 analyses, though their names were associated with it in our article. NO. 2211, VOL. 89] OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. Discovery or a Nova.—A telegram received from Kiel yesterday states that a new star, of the fourth magnitude, has been discovered in the neighbourhood of » Geminorum by Herr Enebo, of Domaas, Norway. 7» Geminorum transits about 6.30 p.m., and sets near the north-west at about 2 a.m. EPHEMERIDES OF ComeEts.—A continuation of the ephemeris of Brooks’s comet (1911c) is published by Prof. Millosevich in No. 4558 of the Astronomische Nachrichten, and shows that the comet is in the southern extremity of Circinus, and is very faint. Schaumasse’s comet (i1911h), according to the ephemeris published by the discoverer in the same journal, is almost stationary about half-way between B and ¢ Ophiuchi, and is about eight times less bright than when discovered. An observation on February 16 showed the comet to be excessively feeble. In No. 4559 of the journal Dr. Ebell publishes new elements for Quénisset’s comet (1g911f), and gives an ephemeris covering the period April 5 to May 15. The comet is now in Carina, and is of about the tenth magnitude. OBSERVATIONS OF BIELIDS IN NOVEMBER, IQII.— Assisted by four students, Prof. Pokrowski kept watch for the Bielid shower of meteors on November 17 and the succeeding nights. On the first night twenty-six meteors were seen between 8h. and 12h. (Dorpat M.T.), and of twelve seen between 8h. and toh. nine appeared to come from a radiant at 24°, +42°. Four meteors from 25°, +42° were seen on November 24, and on several nights other radiants given in Denning’s catalogue were seen to be active. THE SMITHSONIAN ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY.— Mr. Abbot’s report for the year ended June 30, I1o1T, contains some most interesting results, chiefly con- cerning the sun’s radiation. He emphasises the fact that simultaneous observa- tions have now been made at Washington (sea-level), Mount Wilson (altitude, more than a mile), and Mount Whitney (altitude, nearly three miles), and that the close agreement of the results indicates that the effects of the earth’s atmospheric absorption are practically eliminated. From the observations made during 1902-10, the general mean for the solar con- stant is found to be 1922 calories (15° C.) per sq. cm. per minute. The solar radiation appears relatively greater in the infra-red than in the ultra-violet, possibly because the shorter radiation from the deeper layers of the solar atmosphere are selectively absorbed during their passage through the upper layers; but, taking all things into consideration, it is probable that we receive solar radiations from sources having temperatures between 5000° and 7o00° abs. C., and mostly between 6000° and 7oo0°. The observations tend to confirm the existence of an irregular varia- tion in the solar radiation from day to day; its ampli- tude is from 3 per cent. to 10 per cent., and its period ranges between five and ten days. Observations from the summit of Mount Whitney show that one square degree of polar sky, at night, gives 0'0746 the light given by a first-magnitude star, and that the observed increased brightness of the night sky near the horizon must be ascribed to some terrestrial agent, such as a continuous faint aurora. OBSERVATIONS OF SUN-SPOTS AND FACUL2 IN IQII. —Prof. Ricco’s annual summary of the solar observa- tions made at Catania during 1911 appears in No. 1, vol. i. (second series), of the Memorie della Societa MarcH 14, 1912] NATURE 43 degli Spettroscopisti Italiani, and indicates a general decrease of the solar activity, not only as compared with the preceding year, but also during 1911. The daily frequency of spots was 0'5, and of facule o'S, while on 196, or 64 per cent., of the days of observa- tion no spots were recorded. THE NORWEGIAN SOUTH POLAR EXPEDITION. AST Thursday we published an article by Dr. William S. Bruce on the Antarctic campaign, in which the plans of the several expeditions were described. The same day Captain Amundsen arrived at Hobart, Tasmania, and it became known in London late in the evening that he had reached the South Pole, and was returning. The news was made public by The Daily Chronicle, which also published the full narrative of Captain Amundsen’s journey. We congratulate our contem- porary upon its enterprise in this respect, and upon the excellent accounts it has given of polar explora- tion. The following facts are taken from the narra- tive published in The Daily Chronicle. The Attainment of the South Pole. Amundsen began his journey south on February ro, Ig11, and from this date to April 11 he established three depé6ts. The winter was spent in changing the entire outfit. The lowest temperature recorded during the expedition was —59° C. The mean temperature for the year 1911 was —26° C., Amundsen set out on the second journey on September 8, but had to return to await the arrival of spring. It was in the middle of October that the spring came in earnest. On October 31 the depét in lat. 81° S. was reached, that in 82° on November 5. On November g, 83° was attained, and depét number four established. On November 13 and 14, 84° S. and 85° S. were reached, and other depéts: established. On November 17 the barrier was reached, and climbing began, and many distressing experiences, of which Amundsen’s narra- tive tells. The concluding steps of the arduous enter- prise may thus be summarised. On December 6, 1911, Amundsen attained his greatest height, 10,750 ft., as measured by the hypso- meter and aneroid. This was at latitude 87° 14’ south. On December 9, 88° 39/ was reached, and on some following days the latitudes attained were as follows :—December 10, 88° 56’; December 11, 89° 15’; December 12, 89° 30’; and December 13, 80° 45/. On December 14 the Pole itself was reached, and the temperature recorded was —23° C. The plateau on which the Pole was located is a vast plain, alile in all directions, mile after mile. The following day, December 15, in fine weather, a series of observations, which lasted from 6 a.m. to 7 p.m., were taken, the result giving 89° 55’. In order to observe the position of the Pole as closely as possible, Amundsen and his men travelled as near true south as they could for the remaining 9 kilo- metres. On December 16 four members of the expedition tool observations every hour of the day’s twenty- four. The exact result will be a matter for expert examination. Amundsen states he observed the position of the Pole as closely as it is in human power to do with the | instruments he had—sextant and artificial horizon. | The distance from the winter quarters to the Pole | was about 1400 kilometres, so that on an average | Amundsen’s party marched 25 kilometres a day. No news has yet been received from Captain Scott, NO. 2211, VOL. 89| | | whose base was 400 miles from Captain Amundsen’s, but it is possible that he has also reached the South Pole by another route. CONSIDERATION OF RESULTS. Captain Amundsen’s brilliant expedition has not only reached the South Pole, but appears to have settled the question of the possible connection between Ross Sea and Weddell Sea by a sea-filled rift valley passing to the east of the Pole. This hypothesis was maintained by Lieut. Filchner, and his plans for the present German Antarctic Expedition are based upon it. The general evidence seemed to be opposed to this theory, as was remarked in Nature (vol. Ixxxiii., p- 318). Subsequently Sir George Darwin announced that the tidal evidence appeared to indicate a direct sea way from the Ross Sea to the South Atlantic, and the great weight of this evidence in favour of Lieut. Filchner’s view was referred to in Nature of December 29, 1910. Captain Amundsen has now discovered that the barrier ice ends to the south in a “bight” in lat. 86° and long. 163° W.; there may perhaps be some cable error in the latitude, as the discovery was made on November 11, when the explorers were at about 833° S., and statements elsewhere in the report sug- sa the end of the barrier may be at about Be Sb The bight which forms the southern shore of the barrier appears to be formed by the union of the mountains that continue southward from South Victoria Land with a chain which trends southwest- ward, and which Captain Amundsen describes as probably the continuation of King Edward VII. Land. He does not, however, mention having seen any mountains on the eastern side of the barrier during the first part of the journey southward. Captain Amundsen climbed to the South Polar plateau further south than the Beardmore Glacier, by which Sir Ernest Shackleton reached it. The new route seems to have given an easier ascent; but after reaching the plateau its level was more undulating, as he crossed a series of glaciers which apparently flow eastward, and therefore may indicate that the Ross Sea is continued southward by a depression. Hence the hypothetical Transantarctic rift valley may possibly exist, but with its floor above sea-level. The strongest argument for it has, however, been dis- proved. Speculation on this question may, however, await the publication of the more detailed evidence as to the nature and trend of the new mountains discovered to the east and north-east of the Pole. The meteorological results also promise to be of special interest, for Captain Amundsen experienced fine weather and light breezes when on the South Polar. plateau. The fierce southern gales that hindered Sir Ernest Shackleton were perhaps excep- tional, for Captain Amundsen describes the ice on the plateau as level, and ‘‘only here and there marked with a tinv sastrugi.’”’ Captain Amundsen’s general results fully confirm the descriptions of Sir Ernest Shackleton. The outward journey, including the ascent to the | height of 10,500 ft., was made at the rate of 25 kilo- | metres a day, and the return at 36 kilometres. This high speed was probably due to the use of dogs, which have again shown their value in polar work. A party under Lieut. Prestud reached King Edward VII. Land, to the east of the Great Ice Barrier, and the geological collections made there may throw much light on the relations of that land to South Victoria Land. 44 NATURE [Marcu 14, 1912 Reaching the South Pole, discovering the end of Ross’s Great Ice Barrier, and making the first land- ing on King Edward VII. Land is a remarkable triple achievement, and the Norwegian expedition has certainly gained results of first-rate geographical value. Dr. Nansen is to be congratulated on the latest success of his school of polar heroes. THE TEACHING OF MATHEMATICS. Pee papers before us on ‘‘ The Teaching of Mathe- matics in the United Kingdom” are published by the Board of Education as special reports on educa- tional subjects. Each paper of the series (eleven papers are now before us) is written by an expert on the particular subject he treats, and their substantial . agreement on educational principles shows the revo- lution which has taken place in the last decade, and is still taking place in mathematical education. Last century the subject was taught on the most - conventional lines. Few thought of comparing the values, for either mental discipline or knowledge, of different portions of the subject or of different methods of teaching. Such books as the “Inventional Geo- metry’ of Herbert Spencer’s father proves the exist- ence of occasional thoughtful men; but in the deadness of the time such books were lost sight of until re- discovered to-day. The reformers of the later nineteenth century dealt with rigour of proof and completeness of logical development. They aimed at doing for other branches of mathematics what Euclid had done for geometry. A system of mathematics in which the whole subject develops by irrefragable reasoning from a_ small number of assumptions is a lofty ideal and is an entrancing occupation for certain mature minds; but the school is no place for it. The examination in recent years of attempts at such a system, Euclid’s included, leads to the view that no system can do more than approximate roughly to the ideal; the statement of the preliminary assumptions cannot be made complete or the logical development rigorous. This conclusion has added strength to the arm of the band of reformers who hold that this ideal, even if attainable, is out of place in the school. These reformers recognise that the boy’s mind is not the adult mind writ small, that reasoning power develops from an approximate zero in the infant to something far short of perfection in the adult; per- fection of reasoning not being attained even in the greatest mathematicians. Consequently they replace this ideal of logical perfection by the ideal of a course suited at every age to the mental development of that age, both in matter and in method of presentation. 1 Board of Education. Special Reports on Educational Subjects. ‘‘The Teaching of Mathematics in the United Kingdom,” being a Series of Papers prepared for the International Commission on the Teaching of Mathematics. (x) “‘ Higher Mathematics for the Classical Sixth Form.” By W. Newbold. Pp. 14. Price 1a. (2) ‘The Relations of Mathematics and Physics.” By Dr. L. N. G. Filon. Pp. ii+g. Price rd. (3) ‘The Teaching of Mathematics in London Public Elementary Schools.” By P. B. Ballard. Pp. ii+28. Price 2d. (4) ‘The Teaching of Elementary Mathematics in English Public Elementary Schools.” By H. J. Spencer. Pp. 32. Price 24d. (5) ** The Algebra Syllabus in the Secondary School.” By C. Godfrey. Pp. 34. Price 24. (6) ‘* The Correlation of Elementary Practical Geometry and Geography.” By Miss H. Bartram. Pp. ii+8. Price 1a. (7) “The Teaching of Elementary Mechanics.” By W. D. Eggar. Pp. ii+13. Price rd. (8) ‘* Geometry for Engineers.” By D. A. Low. Pp. iit+-15. Price 14d. (9) ‘“‘ The Organisation of the Teaching of Mathematics in Public Second- ary Schools for Girls.” By Miss Louisa Story. Pp. ii+-15. | Price 12d. (ro) ‘Examinations from the School Point of View.” By Mr. C. Hawkins. Pp. iit+104. Price 9d. (x1) ‘* The Teaching of Mathematics to Young Children.” Stephens. Pp. iit+1o9. Price 14d. NO. 2211, VOL. 89| By Miss Irene The matter must in the earliest years be entirely con- crete, and must gradually become more abstract with the increasing age and power of the pupil. It should never become entirely abstract, to the exclusion of the concrete, for even in its highest developments mathe- matics is merely a tool for ultimate application to concrete problems. It is true that it is an economy of labour to have a few mathematicians who work chiefly in the abstract and improve the tool for others to use; but even for these few some knowledge of concrete problems has value for the proper direction of their efforts. The method of presentation must likewise have regard to the age of the learner. At first there is little reasoning, the teacher’s object being to provide in connection with concrete material the abstract ideas for later reasoning, as well as to give precision to such abstract ideas as the pupil already possesses. In the earlier stages evidence is chiefly experimental and intuitional. By appropriate training and increase of years the mind develops and demands more logical evidence. The evidence, suited always to the needs of the pupil, and restricted to the kind which he asks and can grasp, gradually approaches that Euclidean form at which the nineteenth century aimed. The choice of material out of the various branches of mathematics is important in two ways. The first and obvious criterion is that, other things being equal, the branch which has a direct use in after life, a “‘bread-and-butter” value, is to be preferred to the branch which has not. The other is that the branch which is the better mental gymnastic is to be chosen. Fortunately these two criteria generally indicate the same branches, the bread-and-butter subject by its relation to life exciting an interest which. goes far to give it the preference as mental gymnastic. The above views run through most of the eleven papers now under review. The battle was first fought in the secondary school, and has been won there as far as the principles are concerned, the questions now at issue being the working out of courses founded on them. The principles are being brought to bear even on the classical boy, naturally enough the last to be affected by a reform in mathematics. In the first paper of the series, ‘‘Higher Mathematics for the Classical Sixth Form,’’ Mr. Newbold shows how, in place of the dull committing to memory of Euclid’s propositions, such a Form has, by a discussion of problems of everyday life, been given a real and use- ful grasp of the ideas of the infinitesimal calculus. In the universities the battle for the new principles is beginning, and Dr. Filon, in his paper on ‘‘The Relations of Mathematics and Physics.’’ does yeoman service. As evils requiring regulation he names “(7) mutual misunderstanding due to _ over- specialisation; (2) the accumulation of uninterpreted material in physics and of abstract concepts in mathe- matics; (3) the neglect of applied mathematics.” It is unfortunate for the mathematical students at Cambridge that in the rearrangement which admitted physics to a position of consequence, that subject was placed in a tripos distinct from mathematics. Since this estrangement between the two subjects, Cam- bridge has produced no mathematicians to compare with giants like Kelvin, Stokes, Clerk Maxwell, and Sir J. J. Thomson. Recently a move in the right direction has been made in the attempt to combine the early training of mathematicians, physicists, and engineers; but the success of such a scheme requires more than the revision of regulations. The third and fourth papers are on “The Teaching of Mathematics in Public Elementary Schools.” In these schools the position is somewhat disappointing. The teachers are slow to avail themselves of the free- Marcu ‘14, 1912] dom now allowed to them, partly no doubt because of their long discipline under fixed syllabuses, probably partly also because in their work (chiefly arithmetic) there exists mo association like the public-spirited Mathematical Association, which has contributed so greatly to the solution of the problem of courses of mathematics in secondary schools. However, there is progress. Ten years ago, in answer to the simplest question not introduced by one of the mystic words, ‘‘multiply,’’ “‘add,’’ &c., pupils would reply, ‘‘I don’t know what rule it belongs to.” Or they would determine how long Mr. Gladstone lived by multiplying together the years of his birth and death. The two papers now under review show a great advance on that time. And if stocks and shares are still too much in evidence, and the por- tions of geometry and algebra selected for addition to the curriculum leave something to be desired, there is yet evidence of a great ferment, from which sooner or later good must come. In particular the new Central Schools are full of promise. The fifth pamphlet of the series, ‘‘The Algebra Syllabus in the Secondary School,” is a statesmanlike discussion by Mr. Godfrey of the reforms which are at present most urgent in school mathematics. The present ferment in education is acting not only on mathematical masters, but on all other masters, head- masters included. The number of subjects claiming recognition in the school is so great that all cannot be successful in their claims. The inquiry is made with regard to every subject, whether, by reason of its value for knowledge, training, or discipline, it deserves a place in the curriculum or no. Difficult as it is for the mathematician to believe, it is the fact that, so far as concerns non-mathematical boys, the verdict is in danger of going against algebra as at present taught. Many public schools would like to curtail seriously the time given to mathematics. Something is wrong when headmasters of position and judgment look back on their mathematical train- ing as the “transient but blighting shadow of x+ y. And those who believe in the value of a mathe- matical training for all boys must give earnest con- sideration to the remedy advocated by Mr. Godfrey, a remedy which is already applied in some schools. Algebra as at present taught is so abstract as to be incomprehensible to the majority of boys. It in- cludes also many portions which lead nowhere in par- ticular, and have no exceptional value as mental discipline. Mr. Godfrey reviews the customary algebra course, and shows severe pruning to be pos- sible and desirable. The time saved by this pruning it is proposed to utilise in giving a useful and educa- tional acquaintance with numerical trigonometry, mechanics on an experimental basis, and the ideas of the infinitesimal calculus. On the calculus Mr. God- frey’s proposals may be usefully studied along with the first pamphlet of this series. A paper on “The Correlation of Elementary Prac- tical Geometry and Geography”’ (6) is appropriately included in the series. Geography supplies many illustrations and problems for the use of the mathe- matical master. In return, when the geography master discusses maps and plans and their making, he finds as a result of the work of his mathematical cae a readier comprehension on the part of his pupils. Mr. Eggar’s views on “The Teaching of Elemen- tary Mechanics” (7) are shared by the _ best masters. That they are not more generally put into practice is mainly due to the backwardness of most examining bodies to recognise their merit. It is also partly due to the want of faith of the teacher, for a preliminary or concurrent practical course undoubtedly gives a better grasp, and fits a boy better than the NO. 2211, VOL. 89] NATURE 45 old plan, even for the oldest-fashioned theoretical examination in mechanics. The value of a practical course is placed beyond doubt when the two asso- ciations, which represent science and mathematical masters respectively, unite in so strong a recom- mendation as is contained in the report quoted by Mr. Eggar. Many words of wisdom are scattered through the paper. One valuable aspiration is that in the future mathematics and physics will be in the hands of one master. For the teaching of mechanics this has the merit of more complete correlation between the prac- tical and theoretical courses. For the mathematical master a knowledge of physics will give a breadth of understanding which is not always found at the present day. For details of the course Mr. Eggar’s paper must be consulted. We will only say here that he wisely follows the historical order in beginning with statics. (8) ‘Geometry for Engineers” is less pleasing than the preceding ones. The elaboration of the proposed treatment of conic sections, and (to a less extent) the time it is proposed to devote to synthetic geometry, would appear to necessitate the postponement to a very late stage of subjects so essential to an engineer as mechanics and the infinitesimal calculus. On the other hand, one sympathises with the author’s view of the importance of descriptive geometry, both on account of its direct usefulness and on account of the mental training involved in thinking in three dimensions. * (9) ‘‘ Mathematics in Secondary Schools for Girls.”’ Miss Story’s pupils are fortunate in having a mistress so well able to distinguish the gold from the dross. While selection of material is very desirable for boys, it is all-essential for girls. After half a century of attempts to fashion girls’ education on the lines fixed by tradition for boys, the country is now realising that it wants to have its girls made into good women and not into inferior men. : (10) ‘‘ Examinations from the School Point of View ” opens with the sound doctrine that qualifying and competitive examinations should be kept distinct, the former being intended to determine which pupils have attained a certain standard, the latter to pick out a certain number of the best. The union of the two tests in a single examination makes the questions too difficult to be a fair test of a moderate general educa- tion. On a given range of work fairly complete answers to easy questions are better evidence of ability and knowledge than fragmentary answers to difficult questions. : The author’s next proposition is more difficult of acceptance: that in a matriculation examination 70 or 80 per cent. of the candidates should be passed. The object of such an examination being to test fit- ness to study at a university, the examiners are surely already generous in deciding that 50 per cent. possess that fitness. Objection to the technical bent of the Army Entrance Examination is possible only in a country which plays at keeping an army. In France and Germany the army is a highly technical profession, and the school education carefully arranged on that understanding. With the author’s statement that better ability cannot be secured by stiffening the examination we entirely agree; the remedy lies elsewhere. : In (11) Miss Stephens describes an interesting ex- periment on the ‘‘ Teaching of Mathematics to Young Children.” The excellent method of the ten-bundle and the hundred-bundle will no doubt lead up to the roo-times table, the 1000-times table, &c., which are more valuable than the 11- and 12-times tables. Davin BeveripcE Mair. 49 NATURE [Marcu 14, 1912 THE EXTENSION OF THE PHYSICAL AND ELECTROTECHNICAL LABORATORIES OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER. ‘]> HE new extension of the physical and _ electro- technical laboratories of the University of Man- chester was formally opened on Friday evening, March 1, by Prof. Schuster, F.R.S. A well-attended reception and conversazione was held on Friday even- ing in the old and new laboratories. Many interest- ing experiments and exhibits of apparatus were on view during the conversazione and on Saturday morning. In the course of the evening a meeting was held in the large lecture theatre. The Vice- Chancellor, Sir Alfred Hopkinson, referred to the growth of the work in the physical laboratory and the necessity of providing more space for research. Mr. S. Z. de Ferranti, president of the Institution of Electrical Engineers, was awarded the honorary degree of doctor of science. Prof. Lamb, in present- ing Mr. Ferranti to the Vice-Chancellor, said that more than a quarter of a century ago he attacked the problem of the transmission of electrical energy in its most concentrated form, and, undaunted by dis- couragements and prophecies of disaster, he solved it in practice on a commercial scale with complete success. It was largely to his initiative and his labours that we owed the plentiful use of the light which supplemented and often, alas! superseded and surpassed the sunshine of Manchester. Prof. Schuster, before declaring the new buildings opened, addressed the meeting, and described the development of the physical department of the Uni- versity. In a subsequent portion of his address he spoke of the great field for the student of physics in India and the colonies. When the main physical laboratories were built in 1900, a large part of one floor was set aside for the department of electrical engineering, while a special laboratory, known as the John Hopkinson Dynamo Laboratory, was built. The steady growth of the department and the increase of the number of those engaged in original investigation have, in recent years, placed great pressure on the space of the laboratory. This was emphasised by the nature of many of the researches in radio-activity, in which large quantities of radium are employed. The effect of the y rays, which are able to traverse the walls and floors of the laboratory, disturbed the measurements of the workers not only in the immediate vicinity, but also in the neighbouring rooms. In order to provide addi- tional space, the Council of the University decided to remove the department of electrical engineering from the physical laboratory proper and to locate it in a new building. In these new engineering labora- tories, part of the first floor, containing six research rooms, has-been set aside for physics, while a small electrochemical laboratory has been erected outside for work on radio-active substances. The physics depart- ment has thus the use of the space formerly occupied by electrical engineering. The addition of a number of new research rooms for physics, removed some distance from the main physical laboratory, will prove of great advantage for the purpose of original investigation, especially for radio-activitvy and allied subjects. It is intended to keep the new laboratories uncontaminated by radio-active matter, and they will be employed mainly for the more delicate measure- ments. The new buildings were designed by Mr. J. W. Beaumont, the architect of the main physical labora- tories. They form a simple but substantial structure faced externally in red Ruabon brick with stone dress- ings so as to harmonise with the main physics build- ings. NO. 2211, VOL. 89] | present time. A noteworthy feature of the new buildings is the system of bare wires run on insulators, which has been adopted throughout for the experimental circuits. This system has proved so satisfactory in the main laboratory that it has been employed wherever possible in the present extension. From the battery, which is of 600 ampere-hour capacity, with a maximum discharge rate of 300 amperes, heavy bare copper conductors run along a subway beneath the main corridor to the switchboard room in the north wing. From this, by means of plug boards, current can be distributed over the whole building. CALENDAR REFORM. JN article by Mr. Victor Anestin, of Bukarest, on calendar reform in the States of the Greek Church, extracted from A. Richter’s ‘‘ Kalender” (Riga, 1912), has been received. The author gives an interesting account of the efforts which have been made in the Balkan States and in Greece towards the adoption of the Gregorian calendar, and describes the state of public opinion on the question at the It is a pathetic story of ecclesiastical prejudice and jealousy on one side and political irreso- lution and instability on the other. The chief obstacle to following the practice of western Europe lies in the fear entertained by each national church of being denounced as schismatic by the other adherents of the Greek faith, and this prevents any one of the churches, though nominally independent, from taking the lead and sanctioning the reform. Hence the out- look at present is not promising. Mr. Anestin ex- presses the opinion that the fate of the reform in these States depends on the action of Russia, since | the other Greek churches would not be likely to | does not impugn the Russian church, but would probably follow its initiative. In the meantime, the matter advance. Roumania seems to have gone further than the other States, and though a Bill enacting the change which was presented to the Chamber came to nothing owing to the political cir- cumstances of the time, the postal and telegraph services and the railways use the Western calendar, and all the almanacs show both styles side by side. A certain value in the existence of two calendars | is suggested by the following quite charming story which happens to appear in close juxtaposition to Mr. Anestin’s article, and, if not bearing seriously on _ the question, may be reproduced as an interesting piece of folklore. It appears that the gipsies of Servia and Montenegro go in fear of the evil spirits which are abroad at Christmas. Therefore an old gipsy living on the Hungarian-Servian border has devised this subtle means of protecting himself. On Christmas Day (N.S.) he hangs up in his hut a Servian (O.S.) calendar; thus any prowling demons will see at once that he is a Serb, and as such observes the Julian Christmas. Thirteen days later he hangs up a Hungarian (Western) calendar; and then, of course, the evil spirits will recognise their powerless- ness over him since, so far as he is concerned, Christ- mas is alreadv a thing of the past. Hi (Ga FORTHCOMING BOOKS OF SCIENCE. AGRICULTURE. Bailliére, Tindall and Cox.—Fungoid Diseases of Agricultural Plants, Prof. Eriksson (translated from the Swedish). Cambridge University Press.—Soil Fertility, Dr. E. J. Russell; a series of Monographs on Agricultural Science, under the editorship of Prof. T. B. Wood and Dr. E. J. Russell; a series (also edited by Prof. T. B. Wood and Dr. E. J. Russell) Marcu 14, 1912] NATURE 47 entitled ‘‘ The Farm Institute Series.’? Cassell and Co., Ltd.—Dairying, Prof. J. P. Sheldon, illustrated. 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Willmott, in parts, illustrated ; Problems of Life and Reproduction, Prof. M. Hartog, illustrated (Progressive Science Series). Quelle and Meyer (Leipzig).—Allgemeine Botanil, Prof. A. Nathansohn, _ illustrated ; Siisswasserfische Mittel- europas, Dr. E. Walther; Unsere Wasserinsekten, G. Ulmer, illustrated; Vorgeschichte der Pflanzen- welt, Dr. W. Gothan, illustrated. Alston Rivers, Lid.—British Plants: their Biology and Ecology, |. F. Bevis and H. J. Jeffery, illustrated. G. Rout- ledge and Sons, Ltd.— A Popular Dictionary of Botanical Names and Terms, with their English Equivalents, G. F. Zimmer, in two parts: i., Specific Names, ii., Family Names; The Gardener’s Diction- ary, edited by A. Hemsley and J. Fraser, illustrated ; Sub-Alpine Plants: Flowers of the Swiss Meadows, | Woods, and Plains, H. Stuart Thompson, illustrated. and | Smith, Elder and Co.—The Grouse in Health and in Disease, new and cheaper abridged edition, illustrated. The University Tutorial Press, Ltd.—School Lessons in Plant and Animal Life: a Guide to Teachers, with Suggestions for Eightv Lessons, arranged according to Seasons, Dr. J. Rennie. T. Fisher Unwin.— Butterflies and Moths at Home and Abroad, H. R. Brown, illustrated. J. Wiley and Sons (New Vork).—Practical Forestry for New England, 48 | NATURE [Marcu 14, 1912 Profs. R. ©. Hawley and A. F. Hawes: Witherby and Co.—The Game-birds and Waterfowl of South Africa, Major B. Horsbrugh, in four parts, illustrated; A Hand-list of British Birds, E. Hartert, the Rev. F. C. R. Jourdain, N. F. Ticehurst, and H. F. Witherby; The Birds of Australia, G. M. Mathews, vol. ii., Part i., illustrated; Flight of Birds, F. W. Headley. CHEMISTRY. Edward Arnold.—The Chemistry of Bread-making, J. Grant; Smoke: a Study of Town Air, Prof. J. B. Cohen, F.R.S., and A. G. Ruston, illustrated. Cambridge University Press.—Brewing, A. C. Chap- man; The Story of a Loaf of Bread, Prof. T. B. Wood. Constable and Co., Ltd.—An Introduction to the Study of Fuel, Dr. F. J. Brislee; The Chemistry of the Rubber Industry, H. E. Potts; The Chemistry of Dyeing and Bleaching of Vegetable Fibrous Materials, J. Hubner, each illustrated. Gurney and Jackson.—The Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid and Alkali, Prof. G. Lunge, vol. i., Sulphuric Acid, new edition, vol. iv., Preparation of Alkali, &c., by Electrolysis ; Technical Methods of Chemical Analysis, Prof. G. Lunge and Dr. C. A. Keane, vol. iii. W. Heinemann.—Experimental Domestic Science, R. H. Jones. T. C. and E. C. Jack.—Chemistry of Non-living Things, Prof. E. C. C. Baly, F.R.S. Longmans and Co.—A Dictionary of Applied Chem- istry, Prof. Sir Edward Thorpe, C.B., F.R.S., assisted by eminent contributors, revised and enlarged edition, vol. ii., illustrated. Methuen and Co., Ltd.—Modern Research in Organic Chemistry, F. G. Pope, illus- trated; Qualitative Organic Analysis, F. B. 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Longmans and Co.—Elementary Internal Combus- tion Engines, J. W. Kershaw, illustrated; The Mechanics of the Aéroplane: a Text-book, Capt. Duchene, translated from the French by J. H. Ledeboer and T. O’B. Hubbard, illustrated. G. Routledge and Sons, Ltd.—The Control of Water for Power, Irrigation, and Town Water-supply Pur- poses, P. a4 M. Parker, illustrated. J. Wiley and Sons (New York).—Subways and Tunnels of New York: Methods and Cost, with an Appendix on Tunnelling Machinery and Methods and Tables of Engineering, G. H. Gilbert, L. I. Wightman, and W. L. Saunders, illustrated; Practical Methods of Sewage Disposal for Residences, Hotels, and Insti- tutions, Prof. H. N. Ogden and H. B. Cleveland; Design of Electrical Machinery, Prof. W. T. Ryan, in three volumes, illustrated; The Design and Con- struction of Roofs, Prof. N. C. Ricker; Cost of Con- crete, Dr. F. W. Taylor and S. E. 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Legg and A. Edmunds, new edition, in five volumes, vol. ii. Macmillan and Co., Ltd.—Anzsthetics and_ their | Administration: a Text-book for Medical and Dental Practitioners and Students, Sir F. W. Hewitt, M.V.O., new edition, illustrated. Methuen and Co., Ltd.—The Science of Hygiene: a Text-book of Laboratory Practice, Dr. W. C. C. Pales, edited and revised by Dr. A. T. Nankivell, illustrated. G. Rout- ledge and Sons, Ltd.—Return to Nature, authorised Translation of ‘‘Kehrt zur Natur Zuriick,’’ A. Just, by . A. Nesbitt, illustrated. The University Tutorial Press, Ltd.—Text-book of Hygiene for Teachers: an Account of School Hygiene based on Elementary Physiology, Dr. R. A. Lyster. TECHNOLOGY. A. and C. Black.—Tea, E. A. Browne (Peeps at | Great Industries), illustrated. Gebriider Borntraeger | ing and Combing, | Gem-stones, logy of some Modes of Dying, Prof. Y. Henderson; | NO. 2211, VOL. 89] (Berlin).—Metallographie, Dr. W. Guertler, Erster Band, Heft ro. Cassell and Co., Ltd.—Wool Card- Prof. A. F. Barker and E. Priestley, illustrated; The Steel Square Simply Ex- plained, illustrated; Bevels and Cuts: Easy Methods of Marking Them, E. Hardy; Incubators and Chicken-rearers. Constable and Co., Ltd.—Com- mercial Paints and Painting, A. S. Jennings; Brew- ing and Distilling, J. Grant. John. Lane.—Bricks and Mortar, F. I. Thomas. Crosby Lockwood and Son.—Crushing and Grinding Machinery Practice: | a Handbook on the Machinery used in Crushing and Grinding Operations on all Classes of Materials, T. G. Marlow, illustrated. Methuen and Co., Ltd.— and their Distinctive Characters, Dr. G. F. H. Smith, illustrated. John Murray.—Cocoa : its Cultivation and Preparation, W. H. Johnson, illus- trated. Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons, Ltd.—Tobacco: from Grower to Consumer, A. E. Tanner; Wool: from the Raw Material to the Finished Product, J. A. 50 NATURE [Marcu 14, 1912 Hunter; Coal: its Origin, Method of Working, and Preparation for the Market, F. H. Wilson. T. Fisher Unwin.—Unwin’s Technological Dictionary, three parts, in French, German, and English, edited by Dr. A. Tolhausen, revised by L. Tolhausen, with a sup- plement, including all modern terms and expressions in electricity, telegraphy, and telephony. Whittaker and Co.—Manufacture of Nitro-lignin and Sporting Powder, E. H. Durnford, illustrated; The Radio- telegraphists’ Guide and Log-book: a Manual of Wireless Telegraphy for the Use of Operators, W. H. Marchant, illustrated. J. Wiley and Sons (New York).—Handbook of Sugar Analysis, C. A. Browne, jun.; German and American Varnish-making, Prof. Max Bottler, translated, with notes on American varnish and paint manufacture, by A. H. Sabin, illustrated; Analysis of Paint and Varnish Products, Dr. C. D. Holley. MISCELLANEOUS. Bailliére, Tindall and Cox.—The Economics of Feeding Horses, Prof. H. A. Woodruff. Cambridge University Press.—The Psychology of Insanity, Dr. B. Hart; Metals, F. E. C. Lamplough; Prehistoric Britain, L. McL. Mann. Chatto and Windus.—A History of Babylonia and Assyria from Prehistoric Times to the Persian Conquest, L. W. King, vol. ii., illustrated. _W. Heinemann.—Introductory Science, W. Tunna Walker. .T. C. and E. C. Jack.—Intro- duction to Science, W. C. D. Whetham, F.R.S.; The Meaning of Philosophy, Prof. A. E. Taylor; Psychology, Dr. H. J. Watt. Macmillan and Co., Ltd.—Manual of Statistics, the late Sir R. Giffen, F.R.S. Milner and Co.—Dactylography: or Finger Prints in Relation to Evidence of Man’s Genetic Descent, &c., H. Faulds, illustrated. John Murray. —Science of the Sea: an Elementary Handbook of Practical Oceanography for Travellers, Sailors, and Yachtsmen, prepared by the Challenger Society for the Promotion of the Study of Oceanography, and edited by Dr. G. Herbert Fowler, illustrated. G. P. Putnam’s Sons.—Nature’s Harmonic Unity: a Treatise on its Relation to Proportional Form, S. Colman. J. Wiley and Sons (New York).—Fire Prevention and Fire Protection, J. K. Freitag; Applied Methods of Scientific Management, F. A. Parkhurst, illustrated. UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE. CampripGE.—In a letter to the Vice-Chancellor, dated March 7, Viscount Esher states that a generous benefactor, who stipulates that his name shall not be mentioned, has placed in his hands a sum of 20,000. for the purpose of endowing a professorship at Cam- bridge in connection with the experimental study of heredity and of development by descent. It is stipu- lated also that the new chair shall be called the Balfour Professorship of Genetics. The same bene- factor ‘‘is willing to furnish such funds as may be necessary to provide and equip a small station at Cambridge for the use of the professor should such a course be considered desirable after careful ex- amination of the methods likely to be most satis- factory for the purposes of research in the domain of genetics.” Lord Rayleigh, Chancellor of the University, has been nominated to represent the University on the occasion of the celebration in July next of the two hundred and fiftieth anniversary of the foundation of the Royal Society; Sir T. Clifford Allbutt, K.C.B., and Dr. Macalister, professor of anatomy, to repre- sent the University at the bicentenary festival of the NO. 2211, VOL. 89] Medical School of Trinity College, Dublin, in July next; and Dr. E. W. Brown to represent the Uni- versity at the centenary anniversary of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia in the present month. Syndicates have been appointed to obtain plans for the extension of the School of Agriculture on the Downing site, and for the erection of the building for the Forestry Department at the south-east corner of the same area, and the Vice-Chancellor has been authorised to obtain tenders for the extension of the engineering laboratory. The next combined examination for fifty-seven entrance scholarships and a large number of exhibi- tions, at Pembroke, Gonville and Caius, Jesus, Christ’s, St. John’s, and Emmanuel Colleges, will be held on Tuesday, December 3, and following days. Mathematics, classics, natural sciences, and _ history will be the subjects of examination at all the above- mentioned colleges. THE new hygiene and physiology laboratories of the Battersea Polytechnic will be opened on Monday, April 22, by the Master of the Worshipful Company of Drapers, his honour Judge Benson, who will deliver an address and distribute prizes and certifi- cates. Pror. A. WILLEy, F.R.S., and Dr. W. F. N. Wood- land have been elected fellows of University College, London. Dr. Woodland, who is assistant professor of zoology at the college, has been appointed to the chair of zoology at the Muir Central College, Allaha- bad, India. Tur London County Council has arranged for maintenance grants of 5500l., 11,46ol., and r11,6rol., respectively, to be paid to the University of London for the years Ig1I-12, 1912-13, and 1913-14. In each year toool. is intended for home science at King’s College for Women, r500l. for libraries, 5001. for the physiological laboratory, and s5oo0l. for advanced lectures; 20001. each year is intended for general university purposes. In each of the years 1912-13 and 1913-14 540o0l. is intended for the university pro- fessoriate and for the encouragement of French and other Romance languages. In the Popular Science Monthly for February, Prof. A. F. Chamberlain directs attention to some interesting characteristics of the modern English language, which he considers may conduce towards English becoming the universal language of the future. These characteristics include the power of importing and assimilating foreign words when re- quired for the exigencies of intercommunication without subordination to grammatical categories and merely formal canons; the formation of hybrid words, the use of prefixes and suffixes, and the reduction of long words by abbreviated forms. The author quotes the word ‘‘ remacadamising ’’ as an instance built up from five different languages—Latin, Gaelic, Hebrew, Greek, and English. He considers that no other language in the world possesses the same qualities, which, by the way, somewhat reflect England’s qualities as a free-trade colonising nation, and may be intimately connected with our national character- istics. ; In the House of Commons on March 6 Sir Philip Magnus asked the Prime Minister whether the Government has made itself responsible for the housing of the University of London throughout its history; whether he was aware that in the Treasury minute of February 16, 1899, the liability to provide a suitable home for the University is acknowledged; Marcu 14, 1912| and what steps the Government proposes to take in the matter, in view of the unsatisfactory accommoda- tion for the University disclosed in the report of the Royal Commission on University Education in London? In reply, Mr. Asquith said the Government has provided accommodation for the London Uni- versity throughout its history. The minute cited was written before the removal of the old University to South Kensington, and refers to the possibility of an arrangement between the authorities of the Imperial Institute and the Treasury. It must not be construed as admitting liability on the part of the Government to provide for all possible requirements of the Uni- versity in the future. The report of the Royal Com- mission points out that the University must depend to a large extent upon private endowments for its full development. The Government does not think that it would be opportune to take any steps in connection with the matter before the final report of the Com- mission is published. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. LonpDon. Royal Society, February 29.—Sir Archibald Geikie, K.C.B., president, in the chair.—Dr. A. Harden and Dorothy Norris. The bacterial production of acetyl- methylcarbinol and 2: 3-butylene glycol.—II. Péré considered that glyceraldehyde was produced during the bacterial fermentation of sugars, and advanced the hypothesis that all sugars undergoing such decom- position were primarily broken down to glycerose. The authors have repeated his experiments, and find that the volatile, reducing, and levorotatory substance which he considered to be glyceraldehyde is in reality | acetylmethylearbinol. Hence the above hypothesis cannot be considered as proved. A quantitative ex- amination has been made of the products formed by the action of B. lactis. aérogenes (Escherich) on glycerol under anaérobic conditions. These consist of ethyl alcohol and formic acid, comprising 60 per cent. of the whole, together with smaller quantities of acetic, lactic and succinic acids and 2: \ glycol, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen.—H. S. Ryland NATURE 51 is given of the lines or curves of progression in rela- tion to rotation. Other points to which attention is directed are :—muscles involved; strength of effort; change of direction; inversion; equatorial section; recording surfaces of plasticene and other substances; the inertia and momentum of the rhythmic action. (2) Locomotion under water.—Here the lantern is not needed for ordinary locomotion, particularly over more or less horizontal surfaces. ‘There are, however, various circumstances, normal and experimental, in which it is employed with effect—for example, when the urchins are loaded or travelling up a slope on certain surfaces, or only partially immersed, or mount- ing rapidly up a vertical surface. (3) The locomotor | action of the lantern is a particular manifestation of 3-butylene | and B. T. Lang: An instrument for measuring the | distance between the centres of rotation of the two eyes. The apparent position of a pin fixed at a known distance in front of a scale is taken with each eye singly. The operation is repeated with the pin at a different distance, the other conditions remaining un- altered. From the data thus obtained the distance between the centres of rotation of the two eyes can be calculated. The result is independent of variations in the distance between the pupils, and the process can be applied in cases of squint. In an alternative method three pins in a row parallel to the scale are used.—J. F. Gemmill: The locomotor function of the lantern in Echinus, with remarks on other allied lantern activities. (1) Locomotion out of water (refer- ence is made to previous accounts by Romanes and | Ewart).—The urchin raises itself from time to time on the tips of its teeth in preparation for a forward “step ’’ or lurch. The ‘‘ step ’’ is then brought about (a) by strong pushing or poling on the part of the lantern, (b) by similar but weaker action on the part of the spines, (c) by the influence of gravity acting | at a certain stage. Active progression by lantern alone is possible in small and medium-sized urchins. Progression by spines alone is very limited indeed. An urchin can travel with the help of its lantern even when loaded to the extent of half a pound or more. There is usually some rotation as well as progression, but the two are not associated as cause and effect. The causes of rotation are discussed, and an analysis NO. 2211, VOL. 89] a rhythmic functional activity which can also sub- serve feeding (no doubt the most important function), boring, and ‘‘ forced respiration.”’—Captain A. D. Fraser and Dr. H. L. Duke: The relation of wild animals to. trypanosomiasis. (1) Trypanosoma uni- forme was the only species of trypanosome obtained as the result of examination of wild animals, in- cluding thirty-two Lake-shore antelopes. (2) The available evidence points to bush-pig, crocodile, monitor, frog, and fowls being refractory to T. gambiense. (3) The edible rat, which is susceptible to T. gambiense, can, by virtue of its habits, be of little importance in considering the question of a reservoir. —Dr. H. L. Duke: The transmission of Trypanosoma nanum (Laveran). This trypanosome can be trans- mitted by Glossina palpalis, the proportion of positive flies obtained being relatively large, and indicating that this fly may play an important part in the spread of the disease in Uganda.—E. H. Ross: The develop- ment of a leucocytozoon of guinea-pigs. The paper describes an investigation of some remarkable struc- tures found in the mononuclear leucocytes (lympho- cytes) of the blood of guinea-pigs; they are known as ‘‘ Kurloff’s bodies.’”’ There has been considerable controversy regarding the nature of these bodies, some authorities describing them as vacuoles contain- ing secretion products, some as symbiotic structures, as chlamydozoa, as cytoryctes, as parasites, and as spurious parasites. By a new technique for in vitro staining, known as the jelly method, the minute structure of these bodies can be seen, while the lymphocytes which contain them are stained alive. The method shows conclusively that Kurloff’s bodies are living parasites. The method also shows how the bodies develop within the lymphocyte host, for the chromatin within them stains in the various phases, and the whole development can be followed from the earliest Leishmania-like inclusion in the leucocytes until ultimately the leucocytozoon is seen to contain a mass of spirochete-like bodies which have been likened to gametes. The blood of such guinea-pigs shows, when examined with the dark-ground illumination, free-swimming spirochaetes, and these have been fixed and stained. The details of the jelly method are described. March 7.—Sir Archibald Geikie, K.C.B., president, in the chair.—Sir William Crookes: The devitrifica- tion of silica glass. A clear and transparent tube of silica glass with a bulb blown at one end was ex- hausted to a high vacuum. It was heated in an electric resistance furnace in such a manner that the bulb was exposed to the greatest heat while the lower part of the tube was comparatively cool. After being kept at a temperature of 1300° C. for twenty hours the bulb and upper part of the tube had devitrified, becoming white and translucent like frosted glass. The tube was resealed, exhausted, and exposed to 1300° for eleven hours. On cooling, the point of the tube was broken under mercury, and from the 52 NATURE [Marcu 14, 1912 amount that entered it was ascertained that 7°79 per cent. of the tube’s capacity had leaked through the devitrified silica.—Sir William Crookes: The volatility of metals of the platinum group.—Prof. W. M. Hicks: A critical study of spectral series. Part ii.— The principal and sharp sequences and the atomic volume term. This is a sequel to a paper on the same subject published in the Philosophical Trans- actions, vol. ccx. (1910). The sequences which give the principal and the sharp series are discussed as they occur in the second and third groups of the periodic table of the elements, and it is found that, in opposition to the rule in the alkalies, the P-series is based on the s-sequence and the S-series on the p-sequence. Additional evidence is afforded to show that these sequences depend on atomic volumes of elements in quite definite way.—Prof. W. E. Dalby: An optical load-extension indicator, together with some diagrams obtained therewith. The paper describes a new instrument by means of which auto- matic records of load-extension diagrams can be obtained with precision, the records being free from errors due to inertia, pencil-friction, and to any strains caused by the yielding of the testing machine in which the specimen is being tested.—R. Whiddington : The transmission of kathode rays through matter. It has been found experimentally that a kathode ray moving with velocity v, can possess, after traversing a thickness x of material, a velocity v, given by the relation v,*—v,*=ax, where a is a constant depend- ing on the nature of the material—R. Whiddington : The velocity of the secondary kathode particles ejected by the characteristic Réntgen rays. Application of the results of the preceding paper to the experimental investigations of Beatty into the absorption of kathode particles in air leads to the conclusion that the fastest of the secondary kathode particles ejected from a plate by Réntgen rays characteristic of the element of atomic weight w possess a speed equal to k'w, where k’ is a constant nearly equal to 10o8.—E. E. Fournier d’Albe : The potential effect in selenium. A new type of selenium bridge (or “selenium cell”) was con- structed by coating a plate of unglazed porcelain of high insulating power with graphite and dividing the surface into two conducting portions by cutting, with a diamond, a to-and-fro line through the graphite. The plate was then coated with selenium and sensi- tised. The bridges so constructed showed no polarisation, and were well adapted to the study of the “potential effect,’ or the change of resistance with the voltage applied. Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, February 15.— Mr. H. Livingstone Sulman, president, in the chair.— C. O. Bannister: On the theory of blast-roasting of galena. This is an exhaustive record of researches made by the author, with the view of determining the nature of the reactions that take place during the blast-roasting of galena when present alone and when in admixture with lime, limestone, gypsum, etc. The introduction of the paper deals with the previous re- searches of Huntington and Heberlein, Carmichael and Bradford, Savelsburg, Austin, Dwight and Lloyd, and others, and the theories to which the published results of those authorities gave rise, and the author then goes on to describe his own recent series of experiments, with diagrams and tables showing the observed conditions in temperature at different periods of time during the course of roasting galena mixed with lime, silica, litharge and lime, limestone, cal- cium sulphate, magnesium oxide, ferric oxide, slaked lime, ete. As a result of his carefully conducted ex- periments the author has arrived at the conclusion that the older theories as to the formation and subse- quent reaction of peroxides, plumbites, and plumbates NO. 2211, VOL. 89| are wrong, as also those depending on definite re- actions between calcium sulphate and lead sulphide; that later theories depending on the diluent effect of various agents are only partially true; that the oxida- tion of lead sulphide tales place in three stages; that in the presence of lime, limestone, and magnesia, the sulphates of calcium or magnesium are formed in preference to sulphate of lead; that silica and calcium act merely as diluents, without chemical action until a temperature of over 1000° is reached; that ferric oxide in certain physical states acts as a catalysing agent; and that silica acts at high temperature in decomposing lead sulphate and calcium sulphate.— H. K. Picard: A graphic method of illustrating the results of extraction tests. The author has devised for his own use.a system of placing in graphic form the results of extraction or concentration. tests on ore samples, which is illustrated and described. It con- sists in the employment of ‘‘ squared” paper, on which areas are marked out for the various weight units of the tests carried out, and the percentages of ore content are indicated by covering so many squares of these areas with a wash of solid colour. The re- sult, as shown in an example submitted by the author, is at once apparent, and from the graphic in- dications it can be ascertained whether certain pro- ducts should be rejected, re-treated, or mixed with other products.—A. T, French: Quick combination methods in smelter assays. This paper, which is practically a collection of laboratory notes presenting together a scheme for the combination of various approved methods of smelter analysis, was not dis- cussed at the meeting owing to the lateness of the hour. Geological Society, February 28.—Dr. Aubrey Strahan, F.R.S., president, in the chair.—L. J. Wills: Late Glacial and post-Glacial changes in the Lower Dee Valley.—E. B. Bailey and M. Macgregor : The Glen Orchy anticline (Argyllshire). The district described stretches from the head of Loch Awe to Beinn Achallader, and is the south-eastern continua- tion of the Fort William, Ballachulish, and Appin country dealt with by one of the authors two years ago. The subject is the tectonics of the schists. CAMBRIDGE. Philosophical Society, February 26.—Dr. A. E&. Shipley, F.R.S., in the chair.—L. Doncaster: The chromosomes in oogenesis and spermatogenesis of Pieris brassicae.—R. P. Gregory: The chromosomes of a giant form of Prumula sinensis.—Dr. Cobbett ; Preliminary note on the occurrence of living bacteria in the organs and blood of normal animals.—S. R. Price : Some observations with dark-ground illumina- tion on plant cells —R. C. McLean: Rhizopods from the Carboniferous period. EDINBURGH. Royal Society, February 5.—Sir T. R. Fraser, F.R.S., vice-president, in the chair.—Dr. R. Stewart MacDougall: The bionomics of Nematus ericksoni (Hartig), the large larch-sawfly. The larve of this sawfly, which was first noticed in numbers some years ago in the Lake district, have also been found at work in Wales, and more recently in Perthshire and Forfarshire. In breeding out adults from cocoons collected in spring, Dr. MacDougall obtained 165 females to one male. Hewitt had previously recorded two males to 298 females. To test this suggested parthenogenesis, seven newly issued virgin females were placed on May 26, 1910, on a young larch, which was potted and so confined that no other insect had access to it. By June 12 three were dead, and in a few. days the remaining four had died. Although : there was no reasonable doubt as to the sex, the dead MarcH 14, 1912] NATURE 53 insects were dissected, and proved all to be females. Eggs had been freely laid, and through June the caterpillars which hatched from them fed greedily. Examination on July 3 showed two caterpillars on the soil of the pot, and these had spun their cocoons by July 7. On July 17, the soil was sifted from the pot, and aitogether 47 cocoons and five dead caterpillars were found. The cocoons were kept over the winter in suitable conditions indoors. On April 21 three females issued, and by May 8 fourteen other adults— all female. In five other similar experiments with virgin females, eggs were freely laid and caterpillars hatched. One experiment gave no result. Dissection of the female adults showed ovaries with eighteen tubes to each, and at the moment of dissection 180 eggs. From cocoons collected in the open many para- sites were also bred, Mesoleius aulicus being abundant. Dissection of M. aulicus females showed twenty tubes to each ovary, and at the moment of dissection 160 eggs. Out of 249 cocoons 171 of Nematus ericksoni issued, 62 Ichneumonid parasites, and 16 Tachinids of the species Exorista.—Prof. W. Peddie: The molecular theory of magnetism in solids. The theory was developed so as to apply to a single | homogeneous arrangement of molecular magnets in any crystalline grouping. The results in the special cases of cubic and hexagonal arrangements were applied to the magnetic crystals magnetite and pyrrhotine. A possible application to the case of the earth’s magnetism was also discussed.—G. P. Seamon: Note on torsional oscillations of magnesium wire. These experiments were a continuation of Peddie’s own experiments on torsional oscillations, and gave similar results to those obtained with other kinds of metals. Paris. Academy of Sciences, February 26.—M. Lippmann in the chair.—Maurice Hamy: The determination of the astronomical flexion of meridian circles.—A. Hallrer: The preparation of 1: 5-diphenyl-2: 2:4: 4- tetramethyl-3-pentanone and 1-phenyl-2 : 2: 4: 4- tetramethyl-3-pentanone. The method of alkylating with sodium amide and methyl iodide has been applied to symmetrical dibenzylacetone and 1-phenyl-3-penta- none. The successive methylation of these two ketones has given the desired tetramethyl derivatives as the final products.—A. Laveran: Generalised infec- tion of mice by Leishmania donovani. It has been shown experimentally that generalised infections can be caused in mice by L. donovani, and it is probably the same for the rat. It still remains to be proved if the small rodents can contribute to the propagation of the disease—Paul Sabatier and A. Mailhe: A new method of catalytic preparation of the aldehydes, start- ing from the acids.—Pierre Puiseux was elected a member of the section of astronomy in the place of the late M. Radau.—Milan Stefanik: Observation of the total eclipse of the sun (April 28, 1911) at the island of Vavau.—Ch. Maurain and A. Toussaint : Study of the surfaces of aéroplanes with an electric carriage. The only accurate measurements made up to the present on the action of air on aéroplane surfaces have been carried out on small-scale models exposed to currents of air. The present experiments were carried out on full-sized planes, carried on an electrically driven carriage with a range of velocities up to 23 metres per second. A set of experimental results for two surfaces of different shapes is given. —M. Guéritot: An attempt at a method permitting the deduction of the ratio of the two specific heats of gases from a volume measurement.—G. Charpy and S. Bonnerot: The permeability of iron for hydrogen. That iron is permeable to hydrogen has been known since the researches of Saint Claire Deville and NO. 2211, VOL. 89] Troost, but no quantitative measurements have been made. The authors have measured the rate of passage of hydrogen through iron at temperatures ranging between 350° C. and 850° C.—P. Langevin : The comparison of gaseous and dissolved molecules. A reply to the criticism of M. Colson on the laws of dissociation of nitrogen peroxide in the gaseous state and in chloroform solution. It is shown that in con- centrations sufficiently dilute, that is, in concentra- tions directly comparable with those in the gaseous conditions, the dissociation constant of nitrogen peroxide in chloroform solution is in good agreement with the law of mass action, allowance being made for the known difficulty in the colorimetric measure- ments.—Georges Dupont: The oxyhydrofuranes. The ketohydrofuranes give the oxyhydrofuranes by reduc- tion with sodium and alcohol, although the reaction fails in some cases. The reduction could not be effected with zinc and potash or ammonia, with sodium amalgam or with hydrogen and platinum black.—C. Picado: The nutrition of the epiphytic Bromeliaceze. These plants absorb not only mineral salts, but also proteid substances arising from the digestion of the vegetable and animal detritus retained in their leaves. They are the only plants which feed regularly on such detritus.—E. Pinoy: The preserva- tion of wood. The wood is covered with a solution containing 5 per cent. of gelatin, 2 per cent. of potassium bichromate, and o'5 per cent. of sodium fluoride, and exposed to light. Wood treated in this fashion is rendered completely indestructible by moulds.—Gabriel Bertrand: The extraordinary sensi- bility of Aspergillus niger towards manganese. —F. d’Herelle: The propagation in the Argentine Republic of the Mexican locust disease. Cultures of Cocobacillus acridiorum were used with great success to destroy the plague of locusts in the province of Santa-Fé, and the Argentine Government has decided’ to make use of this in all places attacked by these insects. BOOKS RECEIVED. Bad Reichenhall als klimatischer Drs. B. Alexander and E. Alt. (Miinchen : Otto Gmelin.) Grundlinien der Pflanzen-morphologie im Lichte der Palaeontologie. By Prof. H. Potonié. Zweite Kurort. By Pp. 64+iv tables. Auflage. Pp. viit+259. (Jena: G. Fischer.) 7 marks. Markose. By Prof. Max Verworn. Pp. iii+37. (Jena: G. Fischer.) 1 mark. Observations on the West of England Mining Region. _By J. H. Collins. Pp. xxiv+683+4+ xviii plates. (Plymouth: Printed by W. Brendon and Son, Ltd. A Manual of Veterinary Physiology. By Major- General F. Smith, C.B., C.M.G. Pp. xii+8o8. (London: Bailliére, Tindall and Cox.) 18s. net. Theoretische Astronomie. By Prof. W. Klin- kerfues. Neubearbeitung by Prof. H. Buchholz. Pp. xxxviiit+31070. (Braunschweig: F. Vieweg & Sohn.) 50 marks. Byways in British Archeology. By W. Johnson. Pp. xii+529. (Cambridge: University Press.) Ios. 6d. net. Thoughts on Ultimate Problems. By F. W. Frankland. Fifth and revised edition. Pp. xv+133. (London: D. Nutt.) 1s. 6d. net. Annals of the Royal Botanic Garden, Calcutta. Vol. xii., part i.: Asiatic Palms—Lepidocaryeae. Part ii.: The Species of Daemonorops. By Dr. O. Beccari. 2 vols. Vol. i., Letterpress. Pp. vii+237. Vol. ii., Plates. Pp. vii+1og plates. (Calcutta: on TS NATURE [MarcH 14, 1912 Printed at the Bengal Secretariat Press.) 2l. 18s. Storage Batteries. The Chemistry and Physics of the Lead Accumulator. By Dr. H. W. Morse. Pp. 266. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd.) 6s. 6d. net. The Composition of Matter and the Evolution of Mind. By D. Taylor. Pp. 176. (London: Walter Scott Publishing Company, Ltd.) 3s. 6d. Probleme der Physiologischen und Pathologischen 39 rupees= Chemie. By Prof. O. von Fiirth. i. Band—Gewebs- chemie. (Leipzig: F. C. W. Vogel.) 16 marks. The Mineral Kingdom. By Dr. R. Brauns. Translated, with additions, by L. J. Spencer. Parts 17, 18, 19, 20. (Esslingen: J. F. Schreiber; London : Williams and Norgate.) 2s. net each. Laubfall und Lauberneuerung in den Tropen. By G. Vollkens. Pp. 142. (Berlin: Gebriider Born- traeger.) 2.So marks. Notions Fondamentales d’Analyse Qualitative. By Prof. V. Thomas and D. Gauthier. Pp. viii+331. (Paris: Gauthier-Villars.) 10 francs. Zoologische Jahrbiicher. _ Supplement 15—Fest- schrift zum Sechzigsten Geburtstage des Herrn Geheimen Hofrats Prof. Dr. Johann Wilhelm Spengel in Giessen. Edited by A. Brauer and others. 3 vols. Pp. viii+ 609+ plates, 863+ plates, 572+plates. (Jena: G. Fischer.) 75 marks, 100 marks, and 50 marks. Gardens in their Seasons. By C. Von Wyss. Pp. 64. (London: A. and C. Black.) 1s. 6d. Biological Fact and the Structure of Society (the Herbert Spencer Lecture). By W. Bateson, F.R.S. Pp. 34. (Oxford: Clarendon Press.) 1s. net. Scientific Memoirs by Officers of the Medical and Sanitary Departments of the Government of India :— Investigations into the Jail Dietaries of the United Provinces. By Prof. D. McCay. Pp. 200. (Cal- cutta: Superintendent Government Printing.) 1.12.0 rupees, or 35. The Rational Arithmetic for Rural Schools. By G. Ricks. Scholar’s Books. First and Second Years’ Courses. Each pp. 48. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd.) Each 3d. DIARY OF SOCIETIES. THURSDAY, Marcu 14. Rovat Society, at 4.30.—On a New Method of Examining Normal and Diseased Tissues by means of zx¢va vitam Staining : Prof. E. Goldmann. —The Effects of Ultra-Violet Rays upon the Eye: Dr. E. K. Martin.— On the Presence of Radium in some Carcinomatous Tumours: Dr. W. S. Lazarus-Barlow.—An Improved Method ‘or Opsonic Index Estimations involving the Separation of Red and White Human Blood Corpuscles : C. Russ.—The Electrical Conductivity of Bacteria, and the Rate of Inhibition of Bacteria by Electric Currents: Prof. W..M. Thornton,—A Critical Study of Experimental Fever: E. C. Hort and W. J. Penfold.— Certain Results of Drying Non-Sporing Bacteria in a Charcoal Liquid Air Vacuum: S G. Shattock and L. S. Dudgeon. Rovat Society oF ARTS, at 4.30.—The Indian Census for torr: E. A. Gait. MATHEMATICAL Society, at 5.30.—The Cubic Surface as a Degenerate Quartic: G. T. Bennett. INSTITUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEFRS, at 8. ConcrETE INs‘rITUTE, at 8.—The Design of High Dams: R. Ryves. FRIDAY, Marcu 15, Roya InstTiTuTION, at 9.—The Origin of Radium: F. Soddy, F.R.S. InsTITUTION OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS, at 8.—The Diesel Oil Engine, and its Industrial Importance particularly for Great Britain: Dr. Rudolf Diesel. InsTiTuTION oF CiviL ENGINEERS, at 8.—The Heat Value of Fuels: A. E. Gladwyn. SATURDAY, Marcu 16 Roya. InstiTuTION, at 3.—Molecular Physics : Sir J. J. Thomson, F.R.S. MONDAY, Maxcu 18. Roya. Society oF Arts, at 8—Materials and Methods of Decorative Painting: Noel Heaton. TUESDAY, March 1a. Roya InsTITUTION, at 3.—Ancient Britain: Dr. T. Rice Holmes. Roya ANTHROPOLOGICAL INSTITUTE, at 8.15.—The Study of Primitive Music: Dr. C. S. Myers. Rovat STATISTICAL SOCIETY, at 5.—The Financial Systems of Germany: Percy Ashley. InsTITUTION OF CiviIL ENGINEERS, at 8.—The Main Drainage of Glasgow: A.B. McDonald and G. M. Taylor.—The Construction of the Glasgow NO. 2211, VOL. 89| Main Drainage Works: W. C, Easton.—Glasgow Main Drainage: The Mechanical Equipment of the Westera Works and of the Kinning Park Pumping Station: D. H. Morton. ZooLocicaL Sociery, at 8.30.—Lantern Exhibition of Studies of Wild Animals in Africa and North America: I. A. Radclyffe Dugmore.— Observations on some Alcyonaria from Singapore, with a brief Discussion on the Classification of the Family Nephthyide E. W. Shann.—A List of Moths of the Family Pyralide collected by Felix B. Pratt and Charles B. Pratt in Dutch New Guinea in rg0g-10, with Descriptions of New Species : G. H. Kenrick.—Some Early Fossil Cirripedes of the Genus Scalpellum: T. H. Withers. ILLUMINATING ENGINEERING Sociery, at 8.—Lighting of Printing Works and Offices: F. W. Goodenough and J. Eck. WEDNESDAY, Marcu 20. Royat Society or Arts, at 8.—The Work of the Marine Biological Asso- ciation: F. Martin Duncan. Roya. MereoroLocicat Society, at 7.30.—The Connection between Hydrographical and Meteorological Phenomena: Prof. Otto Pettersson. ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY. at 8. Royat MicroseoricaL SOCIETY, Fredk. Knock. at 8.—Fairy flies and their Hosts: THURSDAY, MAkcu 21. Roya Society, at 4.30.—Prolable Papers : On the Self-induction of Elec- tric Currents in a thin Anchor-ring: Lord Rayleigh, O.M., F.R.S.— The After-luminosity of Electric Discharges in Hydrogen Observed by Hertz. Hon. R. J. Strutt, F.R.S.—On the Changes in the Dimensions of a Steel Wire when Twisted, and on the Pressure of Distortional Waves in Steel: Prof. J. H. Poynting, F.R.S.—The Critical Constants and Ortho- baric Densities of Xenon: H. S. Patterson, R. S. Cripps, and R. Whytlaw-Gray.—Experimental Work on a New Standard of Light: W. A. Harwood and J. E. Petavel, F.R.S.—On the Distribution of the Scattered kéntgen Radiation: J. A. Crowther.—The Passage of Homo- geneous Réntgen Rays through Gases: E. A. Owen. — Fluorescent Réntgen Radiation from Elements of High Atomic Weight: J. C. Chapinan.—The Nature of the y Rays excited by 8B Rays: J. A. Gray. Royvac InstiTuTION, at 3.—Seasonal Dimorphism in Butterflies : Dr. F. A. Dixey, F.R.S. A INSTITUTION OF MINING AND METALLURGY, at 8.—Annual Meeting. INSTITUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS. at 8.—Diéscussion : The Causes Preventing the More General Use of Electricity for Domestic Purposes : Opener, S. Z. de Ferranti, President. FRIDAY, Marcu 22. Roya INSTITUTION, at g.—The North Sea and Its Fisheries: Prof. D'Arcy W. Thompson, C.B. PuysIcaAL SOCIETY, at 5. SATURDAY, Marcu 23. Royat InsTITUTION, at 3.—Molecular Physics: Sir J. J. Thomson, F.R.S. CONTENTS. PAGE Heat Engine Laboratory Practice. By A.J.M.. . 27 Growing Our Own Sugar. ByC. S. ae 28 Colloidsiin Industry) SBy2zee Alo)... ees PracticalyPyrometry, Byles. . 4. eemeeO Popular Botany, 2 eee Ms cr 3K) OuriBookshelf’.) //aemeencie o- -) eee Letters to the Editor :— Osmotic and Liquid Membranes. (/V/2th Diagram. )— Profhredk il) sirouton bok S..00- le The Weather of 1911.—L. G. Schultz : ees Concentric Joints in Ice. (With Diagram.)—R. M. Deeley 2 Ce a ut ae ae BA see). 3h! Remuneration of Public Analysts. —J. Wil jerforce Green). 2...) Paes Gels, «oe eT The Storm of March 4.—Edward Kitto . .... . 34 Observed Fall of an Aérolite near St. Albans.—G. E. Bullen \:.\. (london Methuen and Co., Ltd.) 6s. net. Reptiles, Amphibia, Fishes, and Lower Chordata. By R. Lydekker and others. Pp. xvi + 510. (London: Methuen and Co., Ltd.) tos. 6d. net. Principia Mathematica. By Dr. A. N. Whitehead and B. Russell. Vol. ii. Pp. xxxiv+772. (Cam- bridge: University Press.) 3os. net. Reinforced Concrete Design. By O. Faber and P. G. Bowie. Pp. xix+332. (London: E. Arnold.) 12s. 6d. net. Elementary Plant Biology. A. E. Hunt. Pp. xiii+207. and Co., Ltd.) 4s. Outlines of Evolutionary Biology. Dendy. Pp. xiv+454. Ltd.) 12s. 6d. net. By J. E. Peabody and (London: Macmillan By Prof. A. (London : Constable and Co., Farapay Society, at 8.—Dry Batteries: the Relation between the Inci- dence of the Discharge and the Relative Capacity of Cells of Different Manufacture: S. W. Melsom.—-Coniributions to the Knowledge of Liquid Mixtures. I. and II.: Dr. R. B. Denison. —Electrolysis in Liquefied Sulphur Dioxide: L. S. Bagster and-Dr. B. PD. Steele-—The Elimination of Potential due to Liquid Contact. II-: Dr. A. C. Cum- ming.—Vapour-pressure of Concentrated Aqueous Solutions Dr. E. P- Perman and T. W. Price. Ne WEDNESDAY, Marcu 27- Roya Society oF Arts, at 8.—The Whaling Industry of To-day: Theodore E. Salvesen. GeEovocicat Society, at 8.—The Glaciation of the Black Combe District (Cumberland) : Bernard Smith. —The Older Palzozoic Succession of the Duddon Estuary: J. F. N. Green. BritisH ASTRONOMICAL ASSOCIATION, at 5. THURSDAY, Marcu 28. Roya Society, at 4.30.—Probable Papers: A Confusion Test for Colour Blindness: Dr. G. J. Burch, F.R.S.—On the Systematic Position of the Spirochaetes: C. Dobell.—The Influence of Selection and Assortative Mating on the Ancestral and Fraternal Correlations of a Mendelian Popu- ; lation: E. C, Snow.—The Human Electrocardiogram; a Preliminary Investigation of Young Male Adults, to form a Basis for Pathological Study; T. Lewis and M. D. 1D. Gilder. ~The Production of Variation in the Physiological Activity of B. coli by the Use of Malachite-Green = C. Revis —(1) Notes on some Flagellate Infections found in certain Hemiptera in Uganda; (2) Netes on certain Aspects of the Development of 7. gambiensi in Glossina palpalis : Muriel Robertson.—Antelope and _ their Relation to Trypanosomiasis : Dr. H. L. Duke. RovaL INsTITUTION, at 3.—Sexual Dimorphism in Butterflies: F. A. Dixey, F.R S. CHEMICAL SOCIETY, at 4.30.—Presidential Address: Some Stereochemicall Problems: Prof. Percy F. Frankland, F.R.S. J INSTITUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS, at 8.—The Power Factor and Conductivity of Di-electrics when tested with Alternating Electric Currents of Telephonic Frequency at Various Temperatures: Dr. J. A. Fleming. F.R.S., and G. B. Dyke. FRIDAY, Marcu 29. iv Royat InsTITUTION, at 9.—Results of the Application of Positive Rays to the Study of Chemical Problems: Sir J. J. Thomson, O.M., F.R.S. SATURDAY, Marcu 30. Royat INSTITUTION, at 3.—Molecular Physics: Sir J. J. Thomson, O.M., - F.R.S. DIARY OF SOCIETIES. THURSDAY, Marcu 21. Roya Society, at 4.30.—On the Self-induction of Electric Current in a thin Anchor-ring: Lord Rayleigh, ©.M., F.R.S.— The After luminosity of Electric Discharge in Hydrogen Observed by Hertz: Hon. R. J. Strurt, F.R.S.—On the Changes in the Dimensions of a Steel Wire when Twisted. and on the Pressure of Distortional Waves in Steel: Prof. J. H. Poynting, F.R.S.—The Critical Constants and Ortho- baric Densities of Xenon: H_S. Patterson, R. S. Cripps, and R. Whytlaw-Gray.—Experimental Work en a New Standard of Light: W. A. Harwood and J. E. Petavel, F.R.S.—On the Distribution of the Scattered “6ntgen Radiation J. A. Crowther.—The Passage of Homo- geneous Réntgen Rays through Gases: E. A. Owen. — Fluorescent Réntgen Radiation from Elements of High Atomic Weight: J. C. Chapman.—The Nature of the y Rays excited by B Rays: J. A. Gray. Roya InstiTuTION, at 3 —Seasonal Dimorphism in Butterflies : Dr. F. A. Dixey, F.R.S. INSTITUTION OF MINING AND METALtuRGY, at 8.—Annual Meeting. INSTITUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS. at 8.—Dzscussion : The Causes Preventing the More General Us= of Electricity for Domestic Purposes : Opener, S. Z. de Ferranti, President. LinnEAN Society, at 8.—The Orthoptera-Phasmide of the Seychelles : Dr. Ignacio Rolivar and Charles Ferritre. — Living Specimens of Phasmide : Prof. A. Dendy, F.R.S.—Phyllody of carpels in Trifolium repens: Miss May Rathhone.—Nitocrameiva bdellure, a New Genus ot Parasitic Canthocamptide: J. A. Liddell. — Periodicity of the Phytoplankton of some British Lakes: W. West and Prof. G. S. West,— Plants from South Portugal: H. N Dixon. FRIDAY, Marcu 22. Roya InsTITUTION, at 9.—The North Sea and Its Fisheries: D'Arcy W. Thompson, C.B. PuysicaL Society, at 5. SATURDAY, Marcu 23. BoraG INSTITUTION, at 3.—Molecular Physics: Sir J. J. Thomson, O.M., ass Prof. MONDAY, Marcu 25. Rovat GE GRAPHICAL SOCIETY, at 8.530.—Exploration in N.W. Mongolia and Dzungaria: Douglas Carruthers. as Roya Society or Arts, at 8.—Materials and Methods of Decorative Painting: Noel Heaton. INSTITUTE OF ACTUARIES, at 5.—Notes on the Construction of Mortality Tables: W. Palin Elderton and R. C. Fippard. ‘ TUESDAY, Marcu 26. Royat Society or Arts, at North Borneo: Lovegrove. Roya INsTITUTION, at 3.—Ancient Britain : Dr. T. Rice Holmes. INSTITUTION OF Civit. ENGINEERS, at 8.—Further Discussion : The Main Drainage of Glasgow: A. B. McDonald and G. M. Taylor.—The Con- struction of the Glasgow Main Drainage Works: W. C. Easton.— Glasgow Main Drainage: The Mechanical Equipment of the Westera Works and of the Kinning Park Pumping Station: D. H. Morton.— Probable Paper: The Works for the Supply of Water to the City of Birmingham from Mid-Wales: E. L. Mansergh and W. L. Mansergh. NO. 2212, VOL. 89] 4-30.—British Leonard CONTENTS. PAGE An English Physiologist . thes 5 Rn Rhy ug : Geology of the Paris Basin. ByR. B.N. ....: . 56 Wind Charts of the Atmosphere. By R.C. . .. . 57. Birst/Aid' on:the;/Harm/seemerrene mt co <)) | cena The Nature of Bone, By Prof. G. Elliot Smith, PYRYS Sf a ee 2, Se eS, Qur Bookshelf. .. | < Soe anos). open Letters to the Editor :-— Acquired Characters and Stimuli.— Sir E. Ray Lankester;:K.C.B), .F Ress.) 05. ae Coordinated Purchase of Periodicals in two Newcastle Libraries.— Basil Andertoni =) = |.) 1 =e Mars and a Lunar Atmosphere. —The Writer of the Note Scael Mena a cy’. > (Os Observed Fall of an Aérolite near St. Albans.—G. E. Bullen éUEN ol «RRR etn Eee The Influence of Weather on Bees. By Herbert © Mace? ).- 5 Yon i A EEE cy 62 PUTER AVISECtLON NED OL tr ii wlemte memento cea 65, Natesian a Je ee sho 3 ES Our Astronomical Column ;— . Nova Geminorum No. 2. (With Diagram.) . .. . 79. Observations of Mars . és eR Be 6 The Constitution of the Ring Nebulain Lyra .°. . . 70 The National Physical Laboratory during r91r. . . 71° OzonerandsVentilation’ ame eeey eyes 3) een La Houille Blanche ... . oct SEM oo). Oe Poetry and Science. By Dr. T. Herbert Warren. . 73 Civil Service Estimates for Science and Education. 74 The Gyrostatic Compass and Practical Applications of Gyrostats. By G. K. B. Elphinstoie ..... 74 University and Educational Intelligence . Seen woes Societies'and Aicademies) .”)) see e ie sys) see Booksiireceiveds..:.5)s 2° <.cP Soe A |. ee DianyosSocieties: . | 4 ¢ ovulate a =) MoeOS | Say (sv A WEEKLY ILLUSTRATED “JOURN Ae OL SCIBING “To the solid ground Of Nature trusts the mind which builds for aye.’’—WorDswortil. _No. 221 . Vor. 89] _ THURSDAY, MARCH 28, 1012 ise See Registered as asa eae aaper at t the General Post Office.) 7 = =e ak a al Rights Reserved. REYNOLDS & BRANSON, Ltd. Grand Prix, Turin. “RYSTOS” REFLEX CAMERA. 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Post Card Elbow Polariscope, for illustrating the various phe- nomena of polarized light, with polarizing glass plates, prism and lenses, mounted in brass, with rack adjustment lperceticomnletetwitaithresidonbleipiateiholders }-plate. and 5X4 in. to focus tube, in case, complete, &7 7s. with aluminium shutters, without lens... £13 0 0 £18 10 O Ditto with Ross Homacentric Lens, | Scriesill Misch =, Asolo 24 “5.0 NEW TO Ri Sz co. Ditto with Goerz Dagor Lens, He eae Pe ae = Series III., F/6'8 ... . 18 12 WIGMORE ST. LONDON ? WY). New Catalogue of Photographic requisites, 104 pages, post free. (44 COMMERCIAL STREET, LEEDS. > Ta TS} EE $ ST ¢ > ES Observe the New Star, Solar Eclipse, and the Wonders of the Heavens at a moderate outlay. A 3-inch Astro Tele- scope, on table tripod, ¢ Pe packed in 2 ¢ doun J. GRIFFIN & SONS KEMBLE STREET, KINGSWAY, LONDON, W.C. | ODN > Rees : MAKERS OF tse eee Physical_Appar alus Pee IMMEDIATE DELIVERY. GRAND PRIX DIPLOMA OF HONOUR & Zambra, AN? Holborn Circus, 3 GOLD MEDALS London, E.C. Negretti 45 Cornhill, E.C., & 122 Regent St., me ¢ oe TURIN INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 19144 XXXIV NATURE [Marcu 28, 1912 ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. ALBEMARLE STREET, PICCADILLY, W. LECTURES ARRANGEMENTS AFTER EASTER, 1912. Tuesdays. Epmunp Goss, Esq., LL.D.—Two Lectures on ‘‘ Algernon Charles Swinburne: His Early Life and Work.” On Tuesdays, April 16, 23, at Three o'clock. Frank Batrour Browne, Esq., M.A.—Two Lectures on “Insect Distribution, with Special Reference to the British Islands.’ On Tuesdays, April 30, May 7, at Three o'clock. Professor Witt1am Bateson, M.A., F.R.S., Fullerian Professor of Physiology, ./.—Two Lectures on ‘‘The Study of Genetics.” On Tuesdays, May 14, 21, at Three o'clock. Professor W. M. Fuinpers Petriz, D.C.L., F.R.S.—Two Lectures on ‘‘ The Formation of the Alphabet.” On Tuesdays, May 28, June 4, at Three o'clock. Thursdays. Professor ARTHUR W. 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Duppe tt, Professor Howarp T. Barnes, Sir Witt1am MacEwen, and other gentlemen. To these Meetings Members and their Friends only are admitted. Members are entitled to attend all Lectures delivered in the Institution, the Libraries, and the Friday Evening Meetings, and their Families are admitted to the Lectures at a reduced charge. Payment: First Year, Ten Guineas; afterwards, Five Guineas a Year; or a composition of Sixty Guineas. Persons desirous of becoming Members are requested to apply to the Secretary. EAST LONDON COLLEGE. (UNIVERSITY OF LONDON.) Patron—HIS MAJESTY THE KING. STAFF. Classics ... F. R. Earp, M.A. English H. Bettoc, M.A. French : Mina Pagulkr. German ... J. SreEppat, Ph.D. History a THomMas SECCOMBE, M.A. Mathematics... THE PRINCIPAL. Physics ae es Bee so) (GC. SHO UEERS) (DESc. el Reos Chemistry a3 is acy ee Je he wien DScihekes, Botany Re . an ay) Wt. UM) INRITSCH, eDsoc: Geology .. = On cn W. L. Carver, M.A. Civil and Mechanical Engineering... a .. D. A. 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For particulars apply to the SECRETARY. G. ARMITAGE-SMITH, M.A., D.Lit., Principal. THE SIR JOHN CASS TECHNICAL INSTITUTE, JEWRY STREET, ALDGATE, E.C. Principal - - CHarLEs A. Keane, D.Sc., Ph.D., F.I.C. The following Special Courses of Instruction will be given during the Summer Term 1912 :— BIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. By ARTHUR R. SMITH, M.Sc., F.I.C. A Course of Practical Instruction suited to the requirements of Can- didates for the Final Examination of the Institute of Chemistry in Bio- logical Chemistry (Branch F), and of those engaged in work connected with the manufacture and control of foodstuffs. The class will meet on Mondays from 7 to 10 p.m., and also on Tuesdays and Wednesdays from 7 to 10 p.m., so as to allow a choice of evening for the second attendance, commencing on Monday, April 15, 1912. GENERAL PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY. By G. 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JorDAN, B.Sc., and C. F. HoGey, B.Sc. *J. B. Coceman, A.R.C.S. ; *J. C. Crocker, M.A. Chemistry ... { D.Sc., and *F. H. Lowe, M.Sc. *H. B. Lacey; S. E. CHannver, D.Sc., an Borany { “isle, Vs JEFFERY. A.R.C.S. ; ; Geology *A. J. Masten, F.G.S., F.L.S. Human a Prgsiblogy } M. Frack, MA. M.B. Zoology a "J. T. CunnincHam, M.A. = = *W. CamppeLL Houston, B.Sc., A.M.I.C.E. Engineering { *V. C. Davigs, B.Sc., and H. AUGHTIE, Electrical ee J. Makower, M.A.; *B. H. Morpuy an Engineering U. A. Oscuwa cp, B.A. * Recognised Teacher of the University of London. Prospectus from the SECRETARY, post free, 4d.; at the Office, 1 Telephone : 899 Western. SIDNEY SKINNER, M.A., Principal. UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER. FACULTY OF MEDICINE. (INCLUDING THE DENTAL, PHARMACEUTICAL AND Pusiic HEALTH DEPARTMENTS.) The SUMMER SESSION will commence on TUESDAY, APRIL 23 when the Registration of Students will begin at 9.30 a.m. Lectures and Practical work will begin on Wednesday the 24th. The Courses of Instruction, which are open to Men and Women Students also meet the requirements of other Universities and Examining Bodies. Cuinicat InstTrRucTION.—In association with the University there are Hospitals containing over tooo beds. The New Royal Infirmary, which stands in close vicinity to the University, and which contains 492 beds, offers unrivalled opportunities for Clinical Study. The New Dental Hospital, which is also adjacent to the University, provides every modern requirement for the teaching of Dentistry. There are Halls of Residence both for Men and Women Students. Prospectuses as to Courses of Study and Examinations will be forwarded on application to the REGISTRAR. MA PO fae SI THURSDAY, MARCH 28, 10912. GABRIEL LIPPMANN. Savants du Jour: Gabriel Lippmann. Bibliographie Analytique des Ecrits. Lebon. Pp. viii+70. (Paris: Igi1.) Price 7 francs. NDER the able editorship of M. Lebon, who enjoys a considerable reputation in his own country as a mathematician and mathematical astronomer, the enterprising firm of Gauthier- Villars is engaged in bringing out a series of mono- graphs on the lives and achievements of the con- temporary men of science of France. Up to the present the numbers published deal with the scientific careers of MM. Poincaré, Darboux, Picard, and Appell. Each memoir occupies from 79 to 80 large 8vo pages, printed on thick hand-made paper with ample margins, and containing a photogravure portrait of its subject, the whole constituting a remarkably handsome work well worthy of the reputation of the eminent publishing house concerned in its production. The number before us treats of the life-work of Prof. Lippmann, the distinguished professor of physics of the faculty of science in Paris, member and vice-president of the Academy of Sciences, commander of the Légion d’Honneur, Nobel Laureate, and a foreign member of the Royal Society. M. Lippmann is known to all physicists more especially by his work on electro-capiliarity, by his enunciation of the law of the conservation of electricity, and his notable contributions to the science and practice of colour photography. He is, however, the author of numerous memoirs in all branches of physics pure and applied. He has occupied himself in turn with the study of the phenomena of capillarity, Carnot’s functions, the application of Coulomb’s law to electrolytes, elec- trical measurements, the determination of the ohm, and the theory and mode of use of seismographic apparatus—a range of subjects which well serves to illustrate the many-sidedness of the man and the catholicity of his studies. M. Lippmann, although born of French parents —his father was of Lorraine and his mother from Alsace—owes much of his inspiration to German influence. On the conclusion of the war of 1870 M. Lippmann had the courage to repair to Heidel- berg, where he was welcomed by Kiihne, Kirch- hoff, Koenigsberger, and Lossen. In the first instance he was attracted by the problems of physiological chemistry, and worked with Kiihne on the albuminous phosphates. But he soon aban- doned chemistry for physics, and, entering Kirch- hoff’s laboratory, took up the study of electro- NO. 2213; VOL. 89] Biographie, By Ernest Gauthier-Villars, capillarity, which eventually culminated in his well- known memoir of 1875. He graduated at Heidel- berg, and after a year at Berlin, under Helmholtz, he returned to Paris and became attached to the physical laboratory at the Sorbonne, then under the direction of Jamin, whom he eventually succeeded. The physical laboratory of the Sorbonne in those days was a wretched affair, consisting of some sheds and two or three rooms on the ground floor of a house in the Rue Saint-Jacques. M. Lipp- mann is far better housed to-day, but he has still a tender regard for the old shed in which he had worked with such signal success for upwards of twenty years. M. Lebon’s biographical notice is executed with taste and discrimination. Much of M. Lippmann’s | work has dealt with problems of the hour, and it has occasionally happened that he has been as- sailed by questions of priority, especially by certain English authorities. But M. Lebon deals with these matters impartially, and with an obvious desire to mete out strict justice to all concerned. The analytical bibliography which necessarily constitutes a large part of M. Lebon’s memoir has been carefully edited, and will be of great use to those to whom M. Lippmann’s many publications are not readily accessible. M. Lebon’s work is in every way a worthy contribution to contemporary scientific biography and a record of brilliant achievement, and as such we heartily congratulate both him and its subject on its appearance. JOTTINGS OF A SPORTSMAN- NATURALIST. Stalks in the Himalaya. Jottings of a Sportsman- Naturalist. By E. P. Stebbing. Pp. xxvin+ 321. (London: John Lane; New York: John Lane Company, 1912.) Price 12s. 6d. net. N a book with a title and sub-title of such | import, there are certain things that one expects to find. The naturalist—or even the plain unlabelled son of Adam—who has lifted up his eyes to the hills, and has considered the manifold works of the Lord therein revealed, looks for some brief account of their physical features, and of the ways in which | these are being changed or confirmed by sun and frost and rain; for some brief account of their fauna, if not also of their flora, and of any adaptations or variations, or seasonal changes that can be discerned or suspected ; for some occasional observations and well-founded reflections upon the general facies of the fauna of a tract where two great zoogeographical regions meet and overlap. If he be a naturalist of the old-fashioned kind, he E 82 NATURE [Marcu 28, 1912 will hope, when he eagerly opens a book dealing with the Himalayas, to catch some echo of the music of their melting snows and of their * notes wild’’—the scream of the marmot, or the his shikari, and being followed by grumbling _orderlies, and congratulating himself that the rifle “wood- | joyful noise of the Dipper (Cinclus) heard above | the turmoil of its native waters. He will hope for a few glimpses of their forest-clad buttresses, here aflame with rhododendron or with wild-rose, there dripping with orchid and lichen and moss; now standing out sharp as a two-edged sword, now engulfed in rolling billows of mist. He will hope to catch some reflection of the magic light of their blue and purple valleys. The sportsman, on the other hand, will expect a good contour map of the country, some remarks on ways and means, on times and seasons, on weapons and kit, on shikaris and guides, and on a multitude of little things, like the effects of a rarefied atmosphere upon wind, eye, and judg- ment. But in these Jottings of a Sportsman-Naturalist what the naturalist will find are some very ordinary descriptions of some of the larger mam- mals that live on the Himalayan slopes, served up along with accounts of certain open-air manceuvres by the author. Each animal is brought upon the stage, usually with some stereotyped introduction, such as ‘““Have you ever had a chance of critically examining a large male serow chase are duly emphasised. The author describes well-known animals, such as the goral, the serow, the tahr, the markhor, the bharal, the urial, and the black bear, which he (like scores and scores of other men) has seen | and followed and shot; the Kashmir stag and the | brown bear, which he saw at a distance; and the snow-leopard, the ibex, and the so-called Sikkim stag, which he did not see. All these animals (except the Sikkim stag unseen of the author) have been fully described, again and again, though the authcr does not mention the fact, by Hodgson, and Blyth, and Jerdon, and Blanford—to name only a few of his many illustrious predecessors. Beyond mammals, he makes some remarks on the jungle-crow, and describes the colouring of three species of pheasants. He also gives several pages to “the lizard of the Himalaya,” which he charac- terises and corpulent little beggar,” and caricatures as a ‘“paterfamilias ” living with a “spouse,” and chastising ‘a young hopeful.” Nor will the sportsman find much to please him. British officers, of course, have sometimes to be angry and sin, but one does not like to read of a sportsman constantly “turning angrily ” upon NO. 2213, VOL. 89| as “an impudent | specific order for that meal has been given. (luckily loaded) is in his own hands instead of in those of the enraged guide, and complaining be- cause a rest-house is pre-occupied by people who appear to be extremely civil and considerate. And to all who know Indian servants, how staunchly they stand by their master in times of discomfort, | it is positively painful to read of a sportsman whose servant reports unpleasant news “with a note of evil joy in his voice,” and tells his weary and hungry master that there is no dinner because no This is not the native servant that we all know. Most old Indians can tell of servants who would give and lose all rather than be untrue to their salt. There are also little things in which the author is perfunctory. That famous old Himalayan shikari General A. A. Kinloch is always referred to as ‘““Kinlock’’; that Nestor of Indian natural- | ists the late W. T. Blanford is referred to once | by his proper name, once as “ Blandford”; and Dr. Syntax is several times outraged—as in the sentence, ‘‘ Two essentials are absolutely necessary for he who,” etc. A book professing to deal, however informally, with natural history and wild sport must, quite apart from any literary standard, be also measured | by other standards—educational, sciezitific, philo- upon the mountain side? ”’ or “What a fine beast | is a noble old ram”; and all the labours of the | sophical, or technical. By any ef these standards this book cannot be classed. About the best thing | in it is a plate of a range of snows, facing p. 30, and this is spoilt by a fancy label that leaves the locality unmentioned. HYDRAULICS. By Prof. H. J. Hughes (New York : and A Treatise on Hydraulics. and A. T. Safford. Pp. xiv+505. The Macmillan Co. London: Macmillan Con lutds 1ont.) senicesnosmmner. N a country so favourably situated for the utilisation of hydraulic power as is the United States, the growing interest in the study of the science of hydraulics, as marked by the rapidly increasing number of text-books on the subject, is not to be wondered at. The book under review is the joint production of the assistant professor of civil engineering and of the lecturer in hydraulic engineering at Harvard University, and is written as a text-book for university students. An introductory chapter, dealing with the various units involved, is followed by three chap- ters devoted to hydrostatical problems. In this section, which occupies a somewhat large propor- tion—some seventy pages—of the book, the Marcu 28, a 2 | NATURE 83 questions of the pressures on plane and curved surfaces, sluice gates and masonry dams, the thickness cf pipe walls, and the equilibrium of floating bodies are adequately discussed, while a brief mention is made of piezometers and dif- ferential gauges. Chapter v., which introduces the subject “fluids in Bian short and rather dis- appointing, Bernoulli’s theorem, on which prac- tically the whole science cf hydraulics is founded, ‘being introduced without any attempt at even an elementary and approximate proof of its truth. Chapter vi. discusses briefly the flow of water, ‘touching on the questibns of hydraulic gradient, ‘critical velocity, methcds cf measurement, and resistance to flow. In this connection the bald statement that in channels the resistance decreases with a rise in temperature certainly requires modi- fication. In chapters vii. and viii. the Pitot tube and the Venturi meter are very adequately treated. In chapter ix., dealing with orifices, the theoretical treatment is anything but scientific. ‘The method adopted, common in the older text- _beoks, consists in assuming that at-all points at “the same depth in the plane of an orifice, the velocity of efflux is the same, being that corre- sponding to the head of water above the point, and that the direction of flow at each point is perpendicular to the plane cf the orifice. The dis- charge so obtained is then multiplied by an em- pirical constant to give the true discharge. Both assumpiions are fundamentally unscund, and although the method leads to the usually adopted formule, its limitations should certainly be pointed out in any book intended for students. The chapter concludes with a good collection of experimental data, and is followed by a chapter on mouthpieces, including converging and diverg- ing tubes, the experimental data in which are not quite so up to date. Chapter xi. is devoted to a discussion, extending over twenty pages, of Freeman’s experiments on fire nozzles. In chapter xii. the theoretical treatment of weir flow follows on similar lines to that of flow from orifices, but this is followed by a well-written dis- cussion of the experiments and empirical formule of Francis, Bazin, Fteley and Stearns, and Smith, and of the United States Deep Waterways experi- ments on rectangular weirs. Triangular weirs “and the trapezoidal weir are then considered, but broad-crested weirs are very briefly dismissed to a is able in the appendix. Chapters xiii. and xiv., dealing with float and current-meter work, are good. In chapter xv., the resistances to pipe flow and the losses at bends and valves are considered. NO. 2213, VOL. 89] of is very crude hunter | The various exponential formule for pipe flow are practically ignored, the Chezy formula’ being the ‘only ene to receive detailed attention. A good list of experimental data concludes a somewhat disappointing chapter. The flow in open channels is treated in the next chapter, the formule of Chezy, Kutter, and Bazin being well discussed. The forms of channel giving best results are given, without, however, any proof that these really are the best forms. Chapter xvii. is devoted to the impact of water on fixed and moving vanes, and to water hammer. In the latter connection, no attempt is made to develop the simple formula for the rise of pressure following sudden stoppage cf motion in a rigid pipe line, while the statement that the intensity of hammer pressures depends primarily on the volume of water in the pipe certainly needs amplification. The final chapter deals with turbines and centri- fugal pumps. The main cutlines of the theories of the impulse wheel and of the reaction turbine are stated lucidly, and are illustrated with refer- ence to actual examples. It was surely, however, a mistake to chose the 1895 Fourneyron turbines at Niagara for special mention as modern machines. The chapter is concluded by a very brief discussion, extending over three pages, of the centrifugal pump. The impression left on the reviewer’s ene of unevenness. The treatment cf the funda- mental theorems, on which, as a foundation, the science is built up, leaves a great deal to be desired, and as the book is intended primarily for students this is a matter of great importance. Those parts of the book which deal with experi- mental data are in general good, and in the hands of an instructor who would elaborate the founda- tion work it should give good results. The book is clearly printed and well illustrated. Ne els (Ce mind is A HUNTER IN THE UPPER YUKON ~~ RANGES. The Wilderness of the Upper Yukon: a Hunter’s Explorations for Wild Sheep in Sub-Arctic Mountains. By Charles Sheldon. Pp. xxi+ 354. (London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1911.) Price 125. 6d. net. HE volume before us is essentially a hunter’s book, and will be most appreciated by those to whom all incidents of the chase are gratifying. Nevertheless, in Mr. Sheldon the is blended field-naturalist, so that h.s often goes beyond the requirements of sport. Also, as a hunter, on this occasion he took up the réle of specialist, and set out to kill selectively and tempered with the range of observation =a) o4 NATURE and not indiscriminately. His quarry was the mountain sheep of the Upper Yukon basin; for it was incidentally his object to clear up the relation- ship of the local varieties or subspecies of this animal. In the event he is able to show that the three forms Ovis dalli, O. fannini, and O. stonei merge imperceptibly into each other. The main hunting-grounds described in the book lie in three separate parts of the little known mountainous country forming the eastern side of the Upper Yukon basin, and in each case the author believes that he broke new ground. His descriptions of the wild life of the region are touched in graphically, yet with due restraint; while the physical features of the land are readily deducible from the narrative and from the accom- panying illustrations. It is inevitable in a book of this type that there will be passages likely to give pain to a reader to whom the slaughter of wild animals is repellent. For instance, anyone but a toughened hunter may wince, after reading of the killing of a she-bear, to find mention of “the wailing of the cub pealing wildly through the mists above” among the author’s night-impressions that brought to him “the wild enchantment of the wilderness” (p. 30). In recording another and still more painful inci- dent of the chase, the author himself is moved to consider the singular psychology of the hunter- sportsman in whom “an intense fondness for the wild animals” is combined with “his paradoxical love of hunting and killing them” (p. 46). Is it not, indeed, just one among the many of men’s doings in which there is a present-day clash between old-rooted instincts and new-born sym- pathy, with instinct proving in most of us, as yet, the stronger ? One of the author’s journeys was made in com- panionship with another mighty hunter, Mr. F. C. Selous, who has already published an account of the trip. Thus, in a few instances, the sportsman- reader can refer to two separate and independent narratives of the same chase. The author’s sincere eulogium on the ably- recorded exploratory work of the late Dr. G. M. Dawson, of the Geological Survey of Canada, on the head-waters of the Yukon (pp. 185-7), will be read with pleasure by all who cherish the 1nemory of that most capable and indomitable man. Besides its numerous photographic illustrations of the usual type, the book is embellished with some spirited coloured pictures of animal life, by C. Rungius. The appendices include a_ short bibliography; a list of animals; a reprint of the original descriptions of northern sheep; and a table of horn-measurements. (Ge WWE I. NO. 2213, VOL. 89] ; [Marci 28, 1912 HANDBOOKS ON ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY. (1) Huiles Minérales: Pétroles, Benzgols, Brais, Paraffines, Vaselines, Ozokérite. By Henri Delahaye. Pp. 215. (Paris and Liége: Ch. Béranger, 1911.) Price 4 francs. (2) Matieres Tannantes Cuirs: Gélatines, Colles, Noirs, Cirages. By L. Jacomet. Pp. 249. (Paris and Liege: Ch. Béranger, rg11.) Price 5 francs. (3) Soude-Potasse-Sels: Dénaturation des Sels-. By P. Méker. Pp. ii+245. Paris and Liége: Ch. Béranger, 1911.) Price 5 francs. (4) Alcools: Alcool, Alcool Dénaturé, Dénatur- ants. By M.. Louis™'Calvet. Pp. viii+ 376. (Paris and Liége: Ch. Béranger, 1911.) Price 6 francs. (5) Les Matiéres Cellulosiques: Textiles Naturels et Artificiels Pates a Papier et Papiers. By Prof. I. J.-G. Beltzer and J. Persoz. Pp. xv+ 454. (Paris and Liége: Ch. Béranger, 1911.} Price 7.50 francs. (Manuels Pratiques d’Analyses Chimiques. Publiés sous la direction de M. F. Bordas et M. E. Roux.) HESE five volumes belong to a collection of ‘ practical manuals of analytical chemistry produced under the direction of MM. Bordas and Roux; they are intended for the use of French official laboratories, and of technical chemists generally. They give an outline of the chemistry of the products in question, with concise direc- tions for the analytical examinations required. In the case of the first four volumes, the purely chemical matter is supplemented by copies of the official stipulations or fiscal regulations bearing on the use of the various commodities in France, and, in the case of alcohol, in other countries also. (rt) In this work the opening chapter deals with the definition and classification of petroleum pro- ducts, leading up to the detailed instructions for their analysis and discrimination. The usual phy- sical and chemical operations required in the technical examination of these products are described, including the determination of the den- sity, viscosity, flashing-point, behaviour on burn- ing, and examination by fractional distillation. Following this comes a section upon the interpre- tation of the results obtained; this includes a number of examples in extenso, illustrating the methods of distinguishing between Russian, American, and Roumanian types of petroleum pro- ducts. Shale oils, paraffins, mineral waxes, bitu- mens, and benzols are each accorded a short sec- tion; whilst an appendix includes descriptions of certain special methods devised to discriminate Russian from American petroleum, and also to solve the problem—not always a simple one—of pe =~ Marcu 28, 1912] NATURE 8 on analysing mixtures containing members of both the paraffin and the benzene series of hydro- earbons. Within its somewhat limited scope, the volume is a useful laboratory handbook. (2) The last remark applies also to M. Jacomet’s little work on the chemistry of tanning materials and leather. The recognised methods of examin- ing these products are given, including Proctor’s well-known tables for the identification of natural tannins, and those of Andreasch for the recogni- tion of the particular tannin which has been em- ployed in producing a given specimen of leather. In addition, sections are devoted to other sub- stances connected withthe leather industry, such _as glue, gelatine, gum, and other adhesives, var- nish, and polish; these sections are by no means the least valuable. The work is packed with the kind of information which the leather chemist “wants in his everyday tasks, and it deserves a cordial word of praise. (3) More than a third of this volume is taken up by copies of the French fiscal regulations rela- tive to soda and salt. Of the remainder, a sub- stantial proportion has reference to the analytical examination of denatured salt—that is, salt which, to exempt it from taxation, has been rendered unfit for table use by an admixture of various substances, ranging from wallflower essence to sulphate of mercury. For a free trade country this has only a remote interest. The rest of the book contains concise directions for the analysis of sodium and potassium hydroxides, and of such of the salts of these elements as have pharmaceu- tical or industrial importance. (4) The “alcohols ” which form the subject of this volume are the various ferms of ethyl alcohol used in manufactures. Spirituous liquors em- ployed as beverages are excluded. In addition to details of the methods for estimating secondary products (fusel cil, aldehydes, esters, acids) re- quired in the ordinary analysis of commercial alcohol, the chemical matter comprises descrip- tions of the official methods used in France and other countries for the detection and determination of various denaturing substances. These include methyl alcohol, acetone, ‘‘benzine,” ether, tur- pentine, mercuric chloride, pyridine, and so forth. A few unofficial processes are also given, but the author disclaims any attempt at bringing together all the known analytical methods which have been devised for examining alcohol. A chapter which will occasionally be useful to the specialist gives a résumé of the legislative enactments concerning industrial alcohol in European countries and in _ the United States. It has not been brought up to date, however, so far as the United Kingdom is concerned; the “ordinary”’ methylated NO. 2213, VOL. 89] SS 2 — a ; alcohol A /less kept in view, and copious references described on p. 63 was abolished more than five years ago, and its place taken by “industrial” alcohol, denatured with five (not ten) per cent. of wood naphtha. The work includes a number of tables for use in aleoholometry. It is a serviceable volume, but is written, of course, especially from the French {| point of view. (5) Considering the small size of this volume, and its other contents, the authors have managed to give in it a very full account of the chemistry of cellulose, so far as we at present know it. The constitution of the cellulose molecule is still a matter of debate, though something substantial has been done towards the elucidation of the problem. In the celluloses and their compounds it has been shown that alcoholic, aldehydic, and ketonic properties exist, and theories of constitu- tion based on these and other facts have been proposed. Useful in a provisional and suggestive sense these theories certainly are, but none are | regarded as definitely established, and until the question is settled the chemistry of cellulose must remain a more empirical matter than that of benzene and its derivatives, for example. The present position can be gathered from the volume under notice, and the authors express the hope that their work will facilitate research by guiding the reader through the maze of published investigations. This it is well calculated to do. It does not, however, deal only, or mainly, with the pure chemistry of the subject. It is essentially a practical treatise, and gives working details of the examinations required in the various branches of the industry. The theoretical side is neverthe- are supplied. In the sections devoted to lignocellu- loses and paper there are numerous illustrations | of fibres and apparatus. | illustrations are given, or of very | and trustworthy one. Judging by the five examples now published, this series of handbooks promises to be a useful Case OUR BOOKSHELF. An Australian Bird Book: a Pocket-book for Field Use. By J. A. Leach. With introduction by Frank Tate. Pp. 200. (Melbourne: Whit- combe and Tombs, Ltd., 1911.) Price 3s. 6d. Tuis useful book is intended as a pecket-book for field use to enable teachers and observers gener- ally to name the birds they meet with. It deals with 395 species—a considerable proportion of the Australian avifauna, the balance being made up mainly of birds closely related to those of w hich rare birds re- stricted to a small area. The plan of the book is to indicate by numbers the strength and distribu- tion of the various families of birds over the world in general, and especially in Australia, and to give 56 NAT ERE [Maxcn 28, 1912 a concise description of each species. This in- cludes the local name or names (if any); its distri- bution in Australia; its status—whether stationary or migratory, comparative abundance, &c.; the kind of country it frequents; a short description of its size and plumage, and a few words as to its song or other notes, and its food. All the species are illustrated, and in the majority of cases are figured in colours as well as in black and white. The illustrations are, with few exceptions, from specimens in the National Museum. In addition to this useful and necessary, but somewhat dry, portion of the handbook, about a third of the little volume is occupied by a most interesting lecture on the Australian avifauna. Thus the book appeals to a much wider class of naturalists than that for which it has been mainly written. For the ornithologists of other countries will find in it an excellent introduction to, and a valuable account of, the birds of a very interest- ing part of the world. Mr. Tate in his introduc- tion alludes to the growth of a generation trained to look upon the characteristic beauties of Aus- tralia with an appreciation almost unknown to their pioneering fathers and mothers, and he combats the popular belief that their birds are songless. An index to the coloured plates and a general index make reference to any particular bird easy. Unity in Nature: an Analogy between Music and linfe) By. \C. 1B. Stromeyer 9 Pp) 3-580; (London and Manchester: Sherratt and Hughes, 1911.) Price 12s. 6d. net. Tuis is a readable discourse on things in general, from physics and astronomy to ethics and politics. As the title indicates, the author expounds cer- tain musical analogies, such as the relation be- tween intervals in the octave and distances in the solar system; but, after the first few sections, the matter of the book becomes more general. There is a good deal of amusingly-put speculation about the kind of world that a “flatland”’ of two dimen- sions would be (as sketched by Mr. Hinton), and this, of course, leads to fourth-dimensional space and what might happen there. Then, after a chapter on sexual ethics in which a more or less Schopenhauerian doctrine is taught—with much apt illustration, historical and geographical—we come to the female suffrage question, on which the author has vigorous opinions. If women get the vote, “there is every probability that female Members of Parliament would scon be elected; these would decide to elect female Prime Minis- ters, and as Parliament claims to be omnipotent, there is the prospect of having autocratic female rulers” (p. 507). Also on the disproportionate number of lawyers in Parliament Mr. Stromeyer has some cutting and probably justified remarks; and on education he enters a wise protest against too much classicism. The punctuation of the book leaves something to be desired, and on p. 104 “bromide” appears several times when “bromine” is meant; but these are small details. The author shows wide culture and has a pleasant style. NO. 22135) VOr. (S9)| LEEDS TORE ED lMORs [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can. he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of Nature. No notice is taken of anonymous communications.] Prof. Bergson and the Eye of Pecten. I rrinp that Prof. Bergson in his Philosophies has been making use of a comparison between the eye of Pecten, the scallop, and the vertebrate eye. This comparison is used as the basis of some far-reaching conclusions, and therefore it becomes important to. direct the attention of readers of Nature to the fact that the example taken is an extremely bad one. ~ Prof. Bergson states that the eye of Pecten agrees in the most minute details with the vertebrate eye. Now there is no resemblance whatever either in structure or development between the two. The only feature possessed in common by both eyes is an inverted — retina, and this is by no means unique in the animal kingdom. W. J. Dakin. University of Liverpool, March 19. Mersenne’s Numbers. Ar various times Nature has inserted notices of the successive discoveries in relation to Mersenne’s Numbers. In the issue of August 12, 1909, Colonel Cunningham’s discovery that 228479 was a factor of 2P—r1 when p=71 was announced: the other factor Was 10334355036337793, but whether this was a prime or not was left undetermined. The same result was discovered last January by Mr. Ramesam, of Myla- pore, Madras, and he subsequently resolved the larger factor into the product of 48544121 and 212885833. I think these results may be of interest to some of your readers. 3 W. W. Rouse Bai. Trinity College, Cambridge, March 23. The Electrolytic Transportation of the Active Deposit of Actinium through Pure Water. In the course of some detailed investigations on the conditions of the electrolysis of some radio-active pro- ducts, I have encountered in the case of actinium the following phenomenon. The products of the active deposit of actinium, though apparently not soluble in water under ordinary conditions, under the action of electric force could be driven from the anode in the state of ions into the water, and eventually trans- ported to the kathode. The experiments were as follows. The active deposit of actinium was collected on the surface of a platinum plate exposed during some hours as a negative electrode in the emanation of actinium. Immediately after the removal of the plate from the emanation, its activity was measured by means of an electrometer, and the beginning of the curve of its decay was determined. The plate was then immersed in pure, several times distilled water, and formed the anode during the electrolysis of the water. The kathode was also a platinum plate. The activity of the anode was again measured after the electrolysis. It could be seen that the plate was in certain conditions deprived by the electrolysis of a great part of its activity, especially in the case when a very great electromotive force (220 or 440 volts) was applied. If the current passed through the water during a longer time (2 or 3 min.), and the distance between the electrodes was not too great (1 or 2 cm.), a great part and often the total activity lost on the anode could be detected on the kathode. The activity of the kathode proceeded not only from actinium C and probably actinium D, but also the product Makcu 28, 1912] ctinium B was undoubtedly present. (New nomen- lature after Rutherford and Geiger, Phil. Mag., 22, p. 621, is used throughout this communication.) Closer investigations of the conditions of this pheno- enon established the fact that this removal of the ctive products from the anode took place only in the ase when the activated plate serving as anode was sed during a preceding electrolysis of water as cathode, or, in other words, was previously electro- lytically saturated with hydrogen. This saturation of the plate with hydrogen was found as the necessary ondition for making possible the removal of the Tadio-active products from the anode. The atoms of he active deposit were driven under the action of the | mt erect applied electromotive force as ions into the pure water. If the plate had been previously sufficiently saturated with hydrogen, and used then as anode, it was possible by applying a great P.D. to drive from it into the water in a few seconds a great part, viz. ‘up to two-thirds, of the active products deposited on it. On the other hand, it was not possible to deprive the plate of its total activity even by applying a P.D. _ of 840 volts, nor by electrolysis during half an hour. ‘The more detailed results of these investigations will ‘be given elsewhere. Tapeusz GODLEWSKI. Lemberg, Physical Laboratory of the Technical High School, March 18. } 1 Autophanous Eyes. i I HAvE been greatly interested by the correspondence ately appearing in Nature on the subject of eyes gleaming in the dark, and there are one or two oints about which I should much like to hear a little ore. | With regard to human eyes never glowing, I knew one case some years ago of a young Scotch girl whose eyes glowed with a distinct deep-red light. She was a fair-complexioned girl with auburn hair and the peculiar red-brown eyes which go with that colouring. _ On the subject of cats’ eyes, can anyone tell me “why the glow is invariably red in blue-eyed cats and 'green with yellow or green eyes, as the glow is not | from the iris, but from the tapetum? I had a half- ersian cat for years with one blue and one yellow eye, and in the dark they were perfect little ‘‘ port” ‘and “starboard” lights. The red glow of the blue- eyed cat, whether Persian or Siamese, is a deep ruby ‘(not spinel like a mouse’s eyes), and is noticeable 'even with tiny kittens before the colour of the iris is develoned at all. _ With Persian kittens it is possible to tell as soon as their eyes are open whether they will have blue or yellow eyes by placing them so that the glow can be seen, i.e. with a light in line with the observer’s own eyes, those which will later develop a blue iris showing like rubies, and the future yellow or green iris like emeralds. Having at present six Siamese Cats (fawn-coloured, with deep-blue eyes) and a Persian (black, with yellow eves), I have considerable | opportunities of observing them. CuartotTe I. WHEELER CUFFE. Brachead, Kokine, Rangoon, March 1. ” Tue phenomenon of *‘ glowing ’’ eyes (autophanous r not) is certainly observed in man. Without taking uch interest in the matter, I have noticed three ases, one abroad and years ago, and the other two uite recently in London. In Room to of the L.C.C. echnical Institute, Dalston Lane, N.E., with all lights switched on, I observed the phenomenon over ‘and over again by standing between the lecturer’s table and the front bench and looking down at the Student sitting in the middle (who should be looking up at you). I should add that I assumed the matter NO. 2213, VOL. 89] NATURE | arity of the one student. 87 to be a function of the position after I had seen it in two students; before then I thought it was a peculi- H. ve S.-P. Sibpur College, Calcutta, March 7. RAND GEOLOGY.! | Fs no other part of the world is the work cf the geologist linked up with such varied in- terests as in the little strip—some fifty miles long — of high tableland in the Transvaal known as the Witwatersrand, on which are situated some sixty producing gold-mines with an annual output of 350 tons of fine gold, worth 35,000,000l.; and, indeed, in no other district has the geologist such Opportunities for prosecuting his researches as are afforded by the innumerable prospecting trenches, shafts, and deep borings that have been put down on the Rand in the search of extensions, along the strike and on the dip, of the auriferous conglomerates. Hundreds of thousands of pounds have been spent on prospecting work of this nature. In one area alone near the Springs, in | the East Rand, the writer of this review had the | technical supervision of a series of deep borings, costing above 30,o001., and successfully located the eastern end of the Witwatersrand syncline, with its valuable gold-bearing seam there con- cealed beneath a thousand-foot cover of the later unconformable Dolomite formation. The Transvaal Geological Survey, which, since its reconstruction after the war, has been working mainly in the northern part of the Transvaal, has at last broken ground on the Witwatersrand, and the report for r9ro0 contains an important instal- ment of this work, in which Dr. Mellor? sum- marises the results of his mapping of the lower Witwatersrand beds between Maraisburg and Rietfontein, an area including the municipality of Johannesburg and the Bezuidenhout valley, the geological structure of which presents so many points of interest. The main features of this area have long been known : they were sketched broadly by Walcot Gibson in a paper read before the Geological Society in 1892; and the boundary lines of the various subdivisions of the Witwatersrand beds were mapped by Messrs. Hatch and Cor- storphine, and published in the Transactions of the Geological Society for South Africa for 1g04. Dr. Mellor’s mapping of these subdivisions agrees in the main with that of his predecessors ; but he explains the duplication of the lower Wit- watersrand beds by a new reading of the faulting, which on his view took place subsequently to the extrusion of the Klipriversburg amygdaloid. His map also records a hitherto unnoticed strip of sheared granite on the farm Rietfontein No. 145, that throws fresh light on the age of the move- ments responsible for the dislocations. The pub- lication of the further work of the Survey on the Rand, especially at its extreme eastern and western ends, will be awaited with interest. 1gto, Union of South Africa 1 Report of the Geological Survey for i 113, with g plates and 5 maps Mines Department, Pretoria, rg1t. Pp. Price 7s. 6d. : ¥. 2 “The Geology of a Portion of the Central Witwatersrand.” By E. T. Mellor. Pp. 22-38 of the Report. 88 WESTERN CULTURE IN ANCIENT CATHAY.1 N the two magnificent volumes before us, Dr. | Stein, the pioneer explorer of the now famous antiquities of the Central Asian deserts, gives us the personal narrative and general results of his last great expedition of 1906-08 to the more eastern deserts of Turkestan and north-western China. The results achieved far surpass in importance and interest even those of his own former expedi- tion in Western Turkestan, as well as those sent out in the interval by more than one European Government, attracted to that important historical field by Dr. Stein’s great discoveries. For again Dr. Stein has been the first to explore systemati- caliy the ruins of the ancient settlements along a fresh section of the old-world highway between NATURE | by [Marcu 28, 1912 Buddhism from the Greco- Bactrian provinces of Gandhara (Peshawar), Afghanistan, Swat, &c., to the north of India, in which Buddhism had become established as the State religion by the successors of Alexander’s satraps. This school of Greco-Buddhist art, saturated with Western ideals, and known as ee Gandhara,”’ after one of its chief centres above- named, is represented in many of our museums its fine friezes and statues obtained from the northern frontier of India. It is now found by Dr. Stein to have extended in the early centuries A.D. nearly two thousand miles further eastwards to the very threshold of China. At Niya, in Turke- stan, the Caves of the Thousand Buddhas at Tun- huang in Western Kansu, and elsewhere, on the border of the Gobi Desert, Dr. Stein found a rich statuary had grown up and flourished, which faith- fully reproduced the style of our era with Fic. 1,—Ruin of ancient dwelling at southern end of Niya site, in course of excavation. From ‘* Cathay.” China and the Ancient West. His unequalled knowledge and equipment for this research, com- bined with his previous practical experience gained in those deserts, have enabled him to nneatn from the protecting sand an astonishing amount of material for reconstructing several lost chapters in the history of the world’s early culture. The sites excavated and otherwise explored proved to be connecting links between ancient Chinese civilisation and the classic West, and have revealed a remarkable intrusion of Western elements into the art and mythology of Ancient China. Amongst these Western elements the Grecian influences are conspicuously prominent. They were obviously introduced about the first century 1 “Ruins of Desert Cathay.'’’ Personal narrative of Explorations in Central Asia and Westernmost China. By Dr. M. Aurel Stein. Vol. i., Ppp. Xxxvili+546+plates+map. Vol. ii., pp. xxi+517-+plates+maps. (London : Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1912.) Two vols., 42s. net. NO. VOL. 89| ADI. | actual frescoes and mural paintings, | now safely deposited in admirable preservation in and motive of the Gand- hara, and was even more purely classical Hellenist- Transitional stages in the process of naturalisation on Chinese soil of those exotic influences are also represented, and connect the ancient types with pic- torial and decorative art in medieval and modern China, and through the latter with Japan. Indi- genous Indian Buddhist art is also present. One of the most drama- tic and fruitful incidents in the history of archeologi- cal discovery occurred at the temples of the ‘ Thous- and Buddhas,” where the piety of early times had honeycombed the rocks with hundreds of cave- temples, richly decorated with frescoes and stucco sculptures. Here our author had the good fortune to gain access to a great deposit of ancient MSS. and art relics which had lain hidden and perfectly protected in a walled-up rock chapel for about nine hundred Ruins of Desert years. Most of these treasures are now deposited | by Dr. Stein in the British Museum and India Office, and the remainder was subsequently gleaned thoroughly by M. Pelliot. The treasures of ancient art and industry re- covered during the expedition include some of the which are the British Museum. The infinite pains necessary for the successful transpert of these fragile objects may be imagined when it is remembered that the author’s caravan had to traverse the most difficult country in the world, and covered an actual dis- tance by land of close on ten thousand miles. Of the several thousands of ancient MSS. and Marcu 28, 1912] NATURE 89 other documents on wood, leather, and clay, as well as on paper, thus recovered, some are official secular documents throwing light upon the every- day life and history of that early period. The : majority are religious, mostly Buddhist, but also - Taoist, Manichzean, and Nestorian Christian; and the writing is in the ancient Indian Brahmi and Kharoshthi characters, in a Sanskritic language, also in Chinese, Tibetan, Sogdian, archaic Turk- ish, and several are in ‘‘ unknown”’ script. The detailed reports on this vast mass of material are under preparation, with the collaboration of experts, and will take several years to complete. Of the geographical results, which gained for Dr. Stein the Founders’ gold medal of the Royal Geo- graphical Society, we haye an instalment in several excellent maps in the volumes. Scientific observa- tions were alsc made upon the general desiccation of the area, and the ad- vance of the desert, with the resultant changes in the sites of the settlements under the altered economic environments. A large series of anthropometric measurements Was se- cured, and is to be eventu- ally published. The personal narrative now chronicled is of fas- cinating interest. It is told with vivid clearness and in charming style, and through it all we feel the haunting presence of the great deserts. The splen- did photographs, taken by Dr. Stein himself, which _adorn the book are superb, and many of them repro- duce the paintings and frescoes in colours’ by _photomechanical processes suecess of his plans. With inexhaustible energy and devotion in the pursuit of science he bravely and cheerfully faced and endured great privations and actual frostbite. The magnificent results he has achieved are | worthy of such great self-sacrifice. But what is the reward desired by this intrepid scholar, with such unique qualifications for archeological Oriental research? In his concluding sentence he says: “‘ When may I hope that the gate will open for work in those fields to which cherished plans have been calling me ever since my youth, and which still remain unexplored? ’’ It is to be hoped that this appeal in the interests of science may soon be realised. May the Government of India at no distant date enable our author to proceed to Badakhshan and the Upper Oxus region (to the north-west of India) to recover the Western con- with great technical accu- racy and beauty. Fic. 2.—Ruins of small Buddhist stupa and shrine at Kichik-Hassar, Turfan. From ‘‘ Ruins of Desert Cathay.” The methods of research revealed by these pages are most instruc- tive. The author combines in his personality all those qualities that are essential for the highest achievement in archeological research. A scholar and archeologist of repute with the practical experience, resourcefulness, and physi- eal vigour of the trained explorer, he is able to penetrate to the most remote regions, and, _ though isolated, yet instinctively to miss no clue _or opportunity that may present itself. His sym- _ pathetic insight and attitude towards the shy and usually suspicious nomads amongst whom he moved, and on whose assistance he largely de- _ pended in his research, won him at every turn the _ entire confidence of these people, who even became inspired with some of his own abounding enthusi- asm. His unfailing tact smoothed over many difh- culties ; his foresight and business talent in leaving _ nothing to chance contributed much to the ultimate NO. 2213, VOL. 89] necting links between the ancient culture of the Orient and the Near East and West, which still await the masterly discovery by such a peerless explorer as Dr. Stein has proved himself to be. L. A. WADDELL. NOTES. A CONSIDERABLE area of ‘‘submerged forest’? has recently been laid bare at Freshwater West, Pem- brokeshire, owing to extensive shifting of sand and shingle by a gale in conjunction with an unusually high spring tide, and has been examined by Lieut.- Colonel F. Lambton. Stumps of trees rooted in place are frequent, embedded in a foot or so of peat cover- ing an old land-surface. No implements appear to have been found, but there is little doubt that the deposit is of the same age, viz. Neolithic, as the similar formation found elsewhere along our coasts. 90 NAT ORE [Marcu 28, 1912 The vegetable matter has darkened, but shows no other resemblance to coal, the statements in the daily Press on this, as on other points, being erroneous. Much is soft and pulpy, but some is still hard and flexible. In some overlying beach-sand of the same general age, part of the skull of a whale, probably the common rorqual, has been found, together with a great quantity of drift-wood in the same condition as the wood in situ. This beach-sand is now partly cemented with pyrites. Tue council of the Iron and Steel Institute has decided to award the Andrew Carnegie gold medal of the institute to Dr. Paul Goerens, of Aachen. Dr. Goerens has made many contributions to scientific metallurgy, and in r910 he was awarded one of the Carnegie scholarships of the Iron and Steel Institute, to enable him to pursue his investigations on the influence of cold-working on the properties of iron and steel. The gold medal is now awarded to him in recognition of the highly meritorious character of his research work on this subject. We regret to see the announcement of the death of Prof. A. Pacinotti, professor of technical physics at the University of Pisa, at seventy-one years of age. Dr. J. C. Wrus has retired from the post of director of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya, Ceylon, and has accepted the appointment of director of the Botanic Gardens (Jardim Botanico) at Rio de Janeiro. He will sail by the Orcoma from Liver- pool on April 4. Tur death is announced, at the age of seventy-six years, of Prof. Auguste Tépler, who from 1876 to 1900 was head of the physics department of the Technical High School of Dresden, and was the in- ventor of the well-known mercury pump bearing his name. We also notice the announcement of the death, at sixty-nine years of age, of Prof. Wilhelm Miinch, professor of pedagogics at the University of Berlin. Tue death is reported, in his fifty-fifth year, of Dr. John Bernhardt Smith, a well-known American writer on entomology. He was educated for the Bar, and practised as a lawyer for several years. His first scientific appointment was as assistant curator of insects in the United States National Museum in 1886. In 1889 he became professor of entomology at Rutgers College, and in 1894 State entomologist of New Jersey. In the latter capacity he did much to get rid of the mosquito pest in that State. Dr. Wititam TRELEASE has resigned his post as the director of the Missouri Botanical Garden, familiarly known in the United States as Shaw’s Garden. Dr. Trelease was appointed director of the garden by the late Mr. Henry Shaw, its founder, on the recommendation of Prof. Asa Gray, and has held the position since 1889. The garden is exceeded in size only by Kew Gardens. The director’s report for 1909 shows that at the end of that year the garden contained 11,764 species, representing 1777 genera | NO, 2213, VOL. 169)| ‘belonging to 197 families. The number of visitors — during the same year was 120,748, a number exceeded only in 1907, when the total reached 135,497. Tue tenth annual session of the South African Association for the Advancement of Science will be held in Port Elizabeth from Monday, July 1, to Saturday, July 6, inclusive, under the presidency of Dr. A. Theiler, C.M.G. The sections and their presi- dents are as follows:—A, astronomy, mathematics, physics, meteorology, geodesy, surveying, engineer- ing, architecture, and irrigation, Mr. H. J. Holder; B, chemistry, geology, metallurgy, mineralogy, and geography, Prof. B. de St. J. bacteriology, botany, zoology, agriculture, forestry, physiology, hygiene, and sanitary science, Mr. F. W. FitzSimons; D, anthropology, ethnology, education, history, mental science, philology, political economy, sociology, and statistics, Mr. W. A. Way. Tue annual general meeting of the Ray Society was held on March 14; Dr. B. Daydon Jackson, vice- president, occupied the chair. The report of the council announced a small increase in the member- ship of the society; the issue of two volumes for the year tro11, ‘British Desmidiacez,” vol. iv., and ‘British Tunicata,’” vol. iii., completing that worl; and that the volumes for 1912 would be a “Bibliography of the Tunicata,” by the secretary, and the first volume of ‘British Parasitic Copepoda,” by Dr. Thomas Scott and Mr. Andrew Scott, treating of the copepoda parasitic on fishes, which division of the subject would be completed by the issue for 1913 of an atlas of seventy plates, mostly coloured. The ~ balance-sheet showed the finances of the society to be in a satisfactory condition. The Right Hon. Lord Avebury was re-elected president, Dr. F. DuCane Godman treasurer, and Mr. John Hopkinson secre- tary. Tue report of the Departmental Committee on Forestry in Scotland has been issued as a Blue-book (Cd. 6085). reference to the committee were, among other matters, to report as to the selection of a suitable location for a demonstration forest area in Scotland, the uses to which such an area could be put, and the probable cost. The committee thinks the area should contain at least 4000 acres, including, if possible, 2000 acres already under wood. The plantable land might with advantage amount to 10,000 acres, but, says the report, such an extent, combined with the necessary growing woods, may be difficult to secure. Recommendations are made as to the staff required and to equipment, and so on. No estimate is given of the probable capital expenditure, though the esti- mate of capital outlay for establishment is placed at 15,5001., and the estimate of initial annual expendi- ture at 2400l. Three steps are recommended follow- ing on the establishment of a demonstration area for the promotion of sylviculture in Scotland: a flying survey to ascertain the best forest and their approximate extent; the appointment of an advising forest officer, with at least one assistant; and the establishment of a limited number of State trial- forests. sites van der Riet; C) It will be remembered that the terms of i Marcu 28, 1912] NATURE QI Ix a paper recently contributed to the Proceedings of the British Academy, Mr. D. G. Hogarth discusses certain problems of Hittite history in relation to the excavations now in progress under the control of the | British Museum at the mound of Jerablus, the Car- chemish of the Old Testament. These excavations are still only in a preliminary stage, but sufficient evidence has already been collected to prove that there were Hittites, or at least Hittite influences, in Syria before its conquest by the king of the Hatti of Boghaz Keui; that the Cappadocian occupation established by the latter did not eliminate the earlier stock at Carchemish, and was not very long-last- ing; and that it was succeeded by a period of in- dependence of Cappadocia and dependence upon Assyria, prior to complete conquest by the latter power. The exact relation of this Syrian culture to that of Mesopotamia, Assyria, and the A®gean is a problem on which these important excavations may be expected, at an early date, to throw welcome light. In an article on megalithic remains in Gloucester- | shire, contributed to the March issue of Man by Mr. A. L. Lewis, the question is raised whether the chambered barrow at Uley was used for the cult of the dead so late as Roman times. This theory was advocated by Mr. W. C. Borlase (“‘The Dolmens of Ireland,” p. 974), who laid stress on the discovery of a Roman lachrymatory in one of the side chambers. Mr. Lewis sees no reason to object to this view, but he points out that Thurnam (‘Archzologia,” vol. xlii.) speaks only of ‘‘a small vessel described as re- sembling a Roman lachrymatory.’’ It is possible that this may have dropped into the chamber of the | barrow from a secondary interment on the summit, the date of which is established by the discovery with the corpse of brass coins of the three sons of Con- stantine the Great. Mr. R. Ripeway is to be congratulated on the issue of the fifth volume of his valuable descriptive cata- logue of the birds of North and Middle America (published as Bulletin No. 50 of the U.S. National Museum). This volume brings the subject down to the end of the trogons. The number of species and subspecies (apart from certain extra-limital forms) re- corded in the five volumes already published is 2038, leaving from about 1150 to 1200 to come. Butietin No. to1 of the Entomological Section of the U.S. Department of Agriculture is devoted to an account, by Mr. A. F. Burgess, of the elaborate measures taken to introduce and acclimatise in New England the European’ ground-beetle, Calosoma sycophanta, for the purpose of keeping in check the destructive gipsy and brown-tail moths (introduced in- advertently from Europe), on the caterpillars of which these beetles prey. tisation has been successfully accomplished. In the section on marine biology in the Ceylon Administration Reports for 1910-11 and in the January number of Spolia Zeylanica, Dr. J. Pearson records the work that has been recently accomplished in connection with the pearl-banks, the windowpane- oyster (Placuna) fishery, and the fresh-water fisheries NO. 2213, VOL. 89] of the island. For some years past the Placuna beds in Lake Tamblegam have been commercially unprofit- able, and a survey of the lake has been accordingly undertaken. This shows that in some parts there are beds of living oysters, while in others only dead shells are to be found, and it is considered that much may be done by transplantation. To make this effective, annual surveys are deemed necessary. Steps are also to be taken for introducing a fresh supply of that valuable food-fish the gurami, as only three survivors of those introduced by Dr. Willey were discovered. SruDENTs of zoology should welcome the appear- ance of the third and fourth volumes of the delightful little monographs of indigenous animals prepared by Profs. Ziegler and Woltereck (Leipzig: Verlag von Dr. Werner Klinkhardt). The third volume, by Dr. Otto Steche, deals with Hydra and the Hydroids, and is an altogether admirable account of the fresh- water polypes and their marine relatives, including a most useful introduction to experimental biology. The fourth volume is devoted to the edible snail (Helix pomatia), which is treated in a very compre- hensive and thorough manner. The beautiful coloured frontispieces form one of the most attractive features of these volumes, which are published at four marks each. AssumING the observations to be .trustworthy, a most remarkable case of the efforts of an organism to free itself from a parasite has been recently recorded. In 1910 Mr. O. Schroder (Zeits. wiss. Zool., vol. xlvi., p. 525) described and figured, under the name of Buddenbrockia plumatellae, a parasite infesting the body-cavity of polyzoans of the genus Plumatella. At the time the parasite was provisionally regarded as a mesozoan. This determination was, however, on the face of it improbable, seeing that the Mesozoa | are a marine group, and the author (Verk. nat.-med. Heidelberg, N.F., vol. xi., p. 230, 1912) has recently come to the conclusion that the parasite is in all probability a very degenerate nematode. Be this as it may, the interesting point is that after the parasite has become established in the body-cavity of its host some of the spermatozoa of the latter penetrate the eggs of the former, which thereupon swell up and undergo a kind of degenerate development, until they ultimately perish, the polyzoan thus making use of its male generative products as torpedoes to destroy an enemy. Such a mode of repelling a hostile attack appears quite unknown in any other group of organisms. Tue Agricultural Statistics of India for the years 1905-6 to 1909-10 have recently been published at | Calcutta by the Department of Revenue and Agri- After much trouble, the acclima- | culture of the Government of India. The first volume, a large Blue-book of more than 400 pages, deals with British India; the second, a much smaller one, with the native States. The first section deals with the classification of areas in each district into forest, land not available for cultivation, land cultur- able but at present waste, and areas cropped; irriga- tion statistics are also given. In a later section the areas under the various crops are set out. Other 92 NATURE [Marcu 28, 1912 sections deal with live stock and implements, in- cidence of revenue assessment, and transfers of land. A REMARKABLE instance, caused by a_ parasitic fungus, of the transformation of the flower into a number of leaf-like organs is described by Mr. S. Kusano in the Journal of the Tokyo Agricultural College (vol. ii, No. 6). The fungus, Caeoma Makinoi, infects the young buds of Prunus Mume, and causes great malformation of the organs of the flower. In some cases only part of the flower is affected, in others all organs are subjected to more or less complete phyllody. Occasionally flowers of enormous size are produced, which possess not only green leaves brilliantly spotted with the yellow pus- tules of the fungus, but also leafy shoots. The author describes the phyllody of the different floral organs with great care, and discusses the relation between the development of the fungus and the mal- formation of the flower. His paper, which concludes with some interesting etiological considerations, forms a valuable contribution to the literature on chloranthy. In the Atti dei Lincei, xxi., 4, Dr. Diana Bruschi contributes some interesting studies on three fungi parasitic on fruits, namely, Fusarium lycopeisici on the tomato, Movilia cinerea on the plum, and Fusarium niveum on the pumpkin. It is found that the toxic action of the fungi is not proportional to the acidity of the extract produced by them, and dis- appears to a large extent with cooking. The enzymes secreted do not attack the cellulose, but rather the proteins, of the fruits. Tue list of geological literature added to the library of the Geological Society of London in 1910 was issued at the close of 1911, price 2s. As we have previously pointed out, this annual work is practically an index to the geological publications of the world. Tue study of eoliths has assumed such importance that it may, not be too late to direct attention to a discussion of the alleged examples of Oligocene age found by A. Rutot on the plateau of Hautes-Fagnes, in Belgium. R. Bonnet and G. Steinmann conclude that they were formed by wave-action in a rapidly advancing sea (Sitzungsber. vom naturhistor. Verein der preuss. Rheinlande u. Westfalens, December 6, 1909, pub. 1910). A useful bibliography of some sixty works in French and German on _ eoliths is appended. In Scientia, vol. xi. (1912), p. 36, Prof. J. W. Gregory discusses “The Structural and Petrographic Classification of Coast-types”’ in a manner that will appeal both to geographers and to geologists. He succeeds in showing how difficult it is to maintain Suess’s original definitions of the Atlantic and Pacific types of coast in the broad regions from which their names were derived, and he criticises the attempt to connect types of igneous rock with types of tectonic structure. Tue Weather Bureau of the ‘Commonwealth of Australia has issued in the form of a picture postcard an average rainfall map of the Commonwealth, together with a table showing the comparison NO. 2213, VOL. 89] ProinGn Vie between the total area of the United Kingdom and the different rainfall areas shown by grades on the rainfall map of Australia. The map was prepared under the direction of Mr. H. A. Hunt, Common- wealth meteorologist. “THe Value of Non-instrumental Weather Observa- tions" is the title of an interesting article by Prof. R. DeC. Ward in The Popular Science Monthly of February. Like some meteorologists in this coun- try, he considers that such observations add greatly to the interest of everyday life, and develop in a surprising way powers of observation which one is unconscious of possessing. In relating his own ex- periences during a recent period of convalescence, he suggests the study of weather prognostics (com- paratively few of which are found to be really good). In emphasising the value of non-instrumental observations, he refers at considerable length to the Journals of the Lewis and Clark expedition to the sources of the Missouri and across the Rocky Moun- tains in 1804-6, the leader of which was instructed by President Jefferson to report upon the climate according to a scheme drawn up by himself. No more striking illustration of the analogy between the winds of the ocean and those of the plains has been given than Captain Lewis’s description of the ' occasion when one of his boats, which was being transferred on wheels, was blown along, the boat’s sails being set. ‘Both [winds] sweep over a surface of little friction. Both attain high velocities in con- sequence.” Aw illustration of the growing importance of mathematics in the study of social and economic problems is afforded by Dr. L. Amoroso’s note in the Atti dei Lincei, xxi., 4, entitled ‘“‘ Contributions to the Mathematical Theory of Economic Dynamics.” In this system an individual is represented by a point capable of moving in a variety of n dimensions, which may represent different forms of wealth, and these are subject to certain equations of condition. From the fundamental premises the author deduces ‘‘ equa- tions of motion’ corresponding to those of analytical dynamics. The first investigations on this branch of study are attributed to Cournot, Jevons, Malras, Edgeworth, Fisher, and, latterly, Pareto. Ix a pamphlet called ‘‘Studies in Statistical Re- presentation,” reprinted from the Journal of the Royal Societv of New South Wales, Mr. G. H. Knibbs discusses the application of Fourier’s series to the study of fluctuating statistics. The paper deals mainly with the methods of obtaining the coefficients in such expansions, and of correcting for such irregu- larities as inequality in the lengths of months or years, variations in the time of Easter, and so forth. | The author, as illustrating the method, claims to de- duce a relation between the temperature and the number of suicides in Australia, but remarks: ‘‘ The discussion as to whether this relation can be rational- ised is really an extra-mathematical one, and is out- side the scope of the present paper.’ A contribution to the higher mathematics of statistics is contained in L. Charlier’s recent article in the Arkiv Marcu 28, 1912| for Matematik on Lexis. the theorems of Poisson and AccorpING to an article reprinted from the Pro- ceedings of the Academy of Science of Amsterdam, Prof. Zeeman, in the course of some experiments on the double refraction produced in liquid air by an electric field, has found that liquid air will stand an electric field of 90,000 volts per centimetre. In his double refraction measurements a difference of poten- tial of 17,000 volts was maintained between the plates of a condenser 4:5 centimetres long, 1-0 centimetre wide, and 03 centimetre apart immersed in liquid air, and a beam of plane polarised homogeneous light traversed the liquid air between the plates. The phase difference introduced by the double refraction due to the electric field was estimated at 1/300 wave- length, so that the Kerr constant for liquid air is about 1/20 of that of carbon bisulphide. Tue therapeutic action of certain mineral springs has been recently attributed, at least in part, to the presence of the radium emanation in the water. Ex- perimental evidence in support of this view is given by P. Mesernitsky in the current number of the Comptes rendus of the Paris Academy of Sciences. It was found that the radium emanation decomposes sodium urate, some ammonium salts being formed. The exact nature of the decomposition (which was shown to be due to the action of the « rays, the penetrating rays being without effect) has not been completely made out, but there is a marked increase of solubility of the urate. It is suggested by the author that this action of the @ rays upon sodium monourate may furnish an explanation of the thera- peutic effects of the emanation in gouty cases. A paper by Mr. Andrea Naccari in vol. xlvii. of the Atti of the Academy of Sciences of Turin (December, 1911) takes as its starting point an old memoir by Samuel Hunter Christie in the Phil. Trans. for 1826, entitled “‘On Magnetic Influence in the Solar Rays.” oscillation of a magnet to decrease more rapidly than usual when sunlight fell on the magnet. The pheno- menon had since been studied by Baumgartner, who found that it was not confined to magnets, and con- cluded that the real cause was air currents set up by the heating. Naccari confirms the view that magnetism has nothing to do with the phenomenon, but he differs from Baumgartner as to the cause. He ascribes it to the effect of radiation on the air which is carried by the oscillating body and that immediately surrounding it. Under certain condi- tions, the effect of thermal radiation on the damp- ing seems very large, and further study of the phenomenon from the point of view of the kinetic theory of gases might not unlikely prove profitable. IN a paper read at the Concrete Institute on March 14, Mr. Reginald Ryves treated the question of high dams of great length, and proposed a form of thrust buttress dam of arches, in which the whole of the water load is taken by masonry in direct com- pression, and neither the weight of the buttress nor the weight of the arch is taken into account as NO. 2213, VOL. 89] re- Christie found the amplitude of | NATURE 93 | gards stability, except for resistance to sliding bodily when the ground is comparatively soft. Under | normal conditions, the best slope for the water face cone, but even then the maximum is 45°. The dam consists of inclined arches of in- _ creasing thickness as the depth increases, and sloping \wate ase The abutments rest against the up-stream faces of the buttresses, which are built of layers all inclined at 45°. Every part of such a dam is sub- ject to the same stress, except that the top layer of the buttress and the upper part of the arch ring may have the minimum in each case for the materials used. The author claims that this type is suitable for heights up to 200 ft. with a stress of 10 tons per square foot, and up to 300 ft. for 16 tons per square foot. Mr. Epwarp STanrorp has published an excellent, well-coloured geological map of central Europe which will prove of great service to students of geology, and less directly to teachers of geography. The map is 162 in. by 103 in., and costs 5s. M. J. Danne asks us to say that his laboratory at Gif for experiments on radio-active substances is about 26 kilometres from Paris, and not 206 kilometres, as stated in last week’s NaTuRE (p. 69). OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. ASTRONOMICAL OCCURRENCES FOR APRIL: Aprilt. oh.om. Neptune stationary. 1. th.om. Jupiter stationary. 1. toh. 14m. Moon eclipsed. Visible at Green- wich. 6. 8h. 32m. Jupiter in conjunction with the Moon. (Jupiter 5° 8’ N.). to. 4h. 54m. Uranus in conjunction with the Moon. (Uranus 4° 46’ N.). 10. 19h. om. 15. oh. om. Neptune at quadrature to the Sun. Mercury in inferior conjunction with the Sun. 15. 5h. 17m. Venus in conjunction with the Moon. (Venus o 5’ N.). 16, 22h. 51m. Sun eclipsed, partially visible at Greenwich, ends at 1.31 p.m. on April 17. 18. 18h. 31m. Saturn in conjunction with the Moon. (Saturn 4° 47’ S.). 20-22. Lyrid meteors at maximum. 22. 3h.22m. Mars in conjunction with the Moon. (Mars 3° 25’ S:). 22. 21h. 53m. Neptune in conjunction with the Moon. (Neptune 5° 53’ S.). 23. rtoh.om. Uranus at quadrature to the Sun. 27. Ith. 53m. Mercury in conjunction with Venus. (Mercury 0° 10’ N.). Tue Ecuipse oF Aprit 17.—In the Revue générale des Sciences, the Abbé Moreux publishes an interest- ing summary concerning the chances of a total eclipse of the sun being observed on April 17 next. He points out that M. Landerer’s very slight modifica- tions of the data produced considerable changes in the figures showing the size and path of the shadow breadth of the latter was only 200 metres (about one-eighth mile). Adopting the new figures given by Dr. Crommelin, | the Abbé Moreux finds that totality will last 1-6s. just | before reaching the Portuguese coast, 1-5s. between Penafiel, about twenty miles east from Oporto, and Cavez, and about as the shadow leaves the northern shore of the Peninsula. He calculates that at St. Germain and Namur the height of the apex of Is. 94 NATURE {MarcH 28, 1912 the shadow cone above sea-level will be go kim. (19 miles) and 52 km. (324 miles) respectively. Further, he makes the suggestion that although totality may not yet occur, the corona may be seen, for at previous eclipses it has been seen well before and after totality, and in 1900 was photographed by Mr. Willis eight minutes after. Finally, he presents the peculiar possibility of there being neither an annular nor a total eclipse; this would occur if the mean apparent diameter of the moon were just insufficient to produce totality, because of the depressions at the limb, yet was so great that the mountains at the moon’s limb projected far enough to break up the continuity of the solar limb. In No. 4562 of the Astronomische Nachrichten Dr. Graff also discusses the position of the lunar moun- tains, and also the possible observations of the lowest levels of the chromosphere. He suggests, finally, that suitably arranged astrophysical observations may not prove so unprofitable as it has been generally supposed they must be in the circumstances of the coming eclipse. Nova GeminoruM No. 2.—A number of messages concerning observations of Herr Enebo’s new star have been received by the Kiel Centralstelle, and are published in No. 4562 of the Astronomische Nach- richten. At Christiania, early on March 13, Prof. Schroeter estimated the magnitude as 4-0, while Dr. Hartwig at Bamberg on March 13, at 10h. 23-9m. (Bamberg M.T.), found it to be 4-3; he gives the colour as reddish, and the position, for 1912-0, as 6h. 49m. 11-878. +32° 15’ 6". On March 14 Prof. Pickering reported that the spectrum of the nova was of the F, type, but on March 15 he reported a change to a bright-line spec- trum. In the Harvard classification the type F.G represents spectra similar to that of Procyon, the Procyonian type in the South Kensington classifica- tion, which is the next earlier type to the solar stars. According to Dr. Hartwig, the nova corresponds very closely with a thirteenth-magnitude star on the Palisa-Wolf charts. An observation made at 11.45 p-m. on March 20 showed the magnitude of the nova to be about 5-4. ANALYSES OF STONE MeErroritEs.—A valuable con- tribution to the study of meteorites appears in Publi- cation 151 of the Field Museum of Natural History, where Mr. O. C. Farrington publishes a list of analyses of 125 stone meteorites, and a scheme of classification. An ‘“‘ average’’ composition, derived from the whole, gives the following substances, and their percentages, as the principal constituents :— SiO, (3912), Al,O, (2°62), FeO (16°13), MgO (22'42), CaO (2°31), Na,O (0'81), Fe (11°46), Ni (1°15), S (1'98); there are thirteen other constituents. It is worth noting that this list does not truly re- present the relative spectroscopic importance of the various substances in meteorites. In the ‘ Spectro- scopic Comparison of Metals present in Certain Terrestrial and Celestial Light Sources,” published from the Solar Physics Observatory in 1907, the chief metals were arranged in order of the promin- ence of their strongest lines in the spectra of the eight or nine stony meteorites examined. The order was as follows:—Cr, Na, Al, Mg, Mn, Si, Ca, Fe, Ti, V, K, Sr, Ni, and Ba. In the spectra of all the certain meteorites, chromium is very well marked, vet in the chemical analysis given by Mr. Farrington it is only repre- sented by o'41 per cent. of Cr,O,. OpsERVATIONS OF Novza.—Observations of the magnitude of Nova Lacertz are published by Prof. NO. 2213, VOL. 89] Nijland in No. 4562 of the Astronomische Nach- richten. Between January 1 and December 15, 1911, the magnitude sank from 7:50 to 11-40, and the plotted values show practically no oscillations of the bright- ness. Observations of the suspected Nova 87-1911 Persei, discovered by Mr. D’Esterre, are reported by that observer in the same journal. The later photographs, showing fourteenth-magnitude stars, show, in the position of the nova, a nebulous patch in which appear to be involved three condensations or very faint nebulous stars. ELEN iN EMO! GEA ee ORE than twenty years have passed away since the veteran physiologist of Kiel—Victor Hen- sen—initiated a new era in plankton research char- acterised by the application of biometrical methods. His inventions and investigations culminated in the equipment of an oceanic expedition which was to be an experiment on a large scale. It was one of the first German scientific expeditions, and certainly the first oceanic expedition to be devoted entirely to the study of the floating organisms. Hensen’s pioneer work, with its enormous labour and brilliant negotiation of abstruse problems, was carried out in the face of much unfair criticism—the famous polemic of Haeckel, ‘‘ Plankton Studien,” will long be remembered by the Kiel school. During the years that have elapsed since, the same kind of destructive criticism has been at times pro- claimed, and almost always by those who seem to have taken no trouble to study the work they would demolish. The material collected by this ‘plankton’ expedi- tion has been examined by specialists, and now, after twenty-two years, Hensen has taken up the pen and written what should be the final volume (1), the last word, were it not that two or three reports still remain unfinished. The greater part of the volume deals with the quantitative geographical distribution of pelagic organisms in the North Atlantic. Numerous tables are appended, and these, with the reports, complete what must be considered the first scientific attempt to determine the distribution of the plankton of the high seas. The work as a record is of great value. It must be remembered, however, that the studies of recent years have emphasised the rema~kable seasonal variations occurring in the plankton of both lakes and seas; hence, the observations of the Hlumboldt-Stift- ung expedition, which lasted but three and a half months. must be regarded as only presenting a phase in the distribution of life in the ocean. Perhaps ‘the most interesting part of the volume is Hensen’s résumé, which deals with contem- poraneous plankton work and other problems which have been much discussed during the past few years, such as Putter’s theory and the theories of de Vries. The great aim of the plankton expedition was the determination of the actual number of the different organisms in the waters of the high seas. Within certain limits this has been carried out, but on the whole the figures looked at in this light are of little importance. It is the methodical manner in which quantitative nets are used, and the elimination of 1 (x) Das Leben in Ozeannach Zahlungen seiner Bewohner : Uebersicht und Resultate der quantitativen Untersuchungen.’ By Prot. V. Hensen. (Ergebnisse der Plankton-Expedition der Humboldt-Stiftung. Bd.v. 0.) Pp. v+406+Tabellen (pp. 8+xxvili tables+map.) (Kiel and Leipzig: Lipsius and Fischer, torr.) (2) ‘Ueber das Nannoplankton und die Zentrifugierung kleinster Wasserproben zur Gewinnung desselben in lebenden Zustande.” By H. Lohmann, Pn. 38+5 plates. (Leipzig: Dr. Werner Klinkhardt, rorr.) (3) “ Leitfaden der Planktonkunde.” By Prof. A. Steuer. Pp. iv+382. ‘ (Leipzig and Berlin: B. G. Teubner, 1911.) Price 7 marks. ie ie ee Marcu 28, 1912] NAT OFUE 93 the personal equation by the enumeration of the organisms, that makes biological work of this kind so valuable. Whatever errors creep into quantitative plankton studies—and no one knows better than the planktologist the inaccuracy of the methods—they occur in a similar way throughout, and affect all calculations to the same extent. The final result is a series of comparable observations, and the possibility of comparison is the keynote of quantitative plankton work. Hensen’s treatment of two of his critics does not seem quite fair. Kofoid’s objection that the original net lost many of the smallest organisms has been upheld by the work of Lohmann. As for Herdman’s work in the Irish Sea, the absence (which he has insisted on) of the uniform distribution of plankton necessary if observations made at stations far apart are to be of any value cannot be denied. Further- more, it is just in waters like the North Sea and Irish Sea that most naturalists find it possible to work. Whatever may be the cause of the com- plexities in the Irish Sea, the variations which have been followed by the Port Erin workers have been of such magnitude that no small errors could in- validate the deductions drawn. The influence of Hensen and his quantitative methods has been greater than at first sight would be imagined. There is no doubt that, as in many other cases, work along quite different lines has been stimulated or even created. Take, for example, the careful analyses of sea water, the study of the dis- tribution of nitrogen, of silica, and hydrographic work in general. There was a continuous demand for very accurate knowledge from those who would explain distribution by the altered environment. It was the plankton expedition itself that startled biologists with the statement that life was more abundant in the Arctic and temperate waters than in the tropics, and out of this has arisen the in- genious attempts to explain the anomaly. Bound up with this is the search for the factors which govern the seasonal changes in the plankton and the detailed researches which have been made on the latter in seas and lakes throughout the world. The question of the food supply of aquatic organisms, now no longer a simple subject, but one bristling with unsolved problems, requires further research along many different lines, particularly chemical and physiological. Finally, the systematist who follows the indi- vidual organisms, counting as they pass across the field of view, recognises the variations in shape and size, and hesitates before coining new _ species (especially if working through a year’s catches). In fact, for the study of evolution we need to go to the simplest organisms existing under the most simple conditions of environment. For this purpose there is a wide field open for research in the plankton of warm waters. Hensen shows that the seasonal variations, which complicate so much plankton studies in our waters, are to a great extent absent in the tropics. . It is probably the seasonal variations which are at the bottom of many strange features of dis- tribution round our islands. It would be quite impos- sible to touch on the numerous points of interest (many of which should create discussion) in a short article. Victor Hensen must be congratulated upon the conclusion of a work to which he has given so much of an active life. (2) Two other works which have recently been pub- lished may very conveniently be discussed here. The first deals entirely with those small organisms which pass through the finest tissue of which plankton nets are made. Lohmann has proved himself to be one of the fore- NO. 2213, VOL. 89] most plankton workers in the world, and it is to this man of science that we owe our knowledge of the limitations of Hensen’s methods. Thus the methods of the Kiel school have received their critical tests at the hands of the Kiel school. Lohmann proposes to use the term “nannoplankton”’ for the very small organisms, both animal and vegetable, of the pelagic world. At the present time Schiitt’s terms, macro-, meso-, and mikro-plankton, are usually employed. No exact definitions of these groups were ever given, but the macroplankton was understood to include such organ- isms as medusz, whilst the rest of the plankton in a net catch belonged to the groups, meso- and mikro- plankton. The former of these two divisions included the copepoda, worms, &c., and the protozoa and protophyta made up the second. To these three terms Lohmann adds two others: the ‘‘megaloplankton,” for all large organisms visible from a ship’s deck and varying in size from centimetres to metres, and the nannoplankton for the most minute forms. Naturally, different apparatus is required for the collection of the nannoplankton, and the net has been supplanted by the centrifuge. Water can be bottled at any depth, and it has been found that quite small quantities suffice. It must be remembered that though the actual volume of the nannoplankton is small, the degree of importance depends on the rapidity of multiplication and the duration of life of the organisms of this group, and in this respect their absence from the net catches of the plankton expedition is much to be deplored. (3) The other work to be mentioned differs entirely from the above in being a text-book, and there can be no doubt whatever that such a book is necessary to-day in consequence of the great extension of plank- ton work during the last few years. This volume gives a detailed and fair description of all the methods employed, with the results of recent researches in seas, lakes, and rivers. Its greatest value will be perhaps to those biologists and general scientific workers who wish to obtain information about this branch of biological science without wading through the vast number of small papers which have been already published. Prof. Steuer is to be congratulated on the very able way he has brought so many different lines of work together, and the volume ought to find a place waiting for it in most university libraries. W. J. Dain. UNIVERSITY REFORM IN NEW ZEALAND. T may be taken for granted that all universities are not built on the same pattern; that local conditions and the requirements of the population have to be taken into consideration. The American and German universities, with their plans of govern- ment and conditions of study, meet the requirements of the respective peoples; Oxford and Cambridge, with features in common with one another, differ widely from the rest of the British universities in many respects. The type of the Scotch universities is un- like that of the modern English institutions, such as Liverpool and Manchester, while that of London is organised in a fashion peculiar to itself. It is not to be wondered at, therefore, that the University of New Zealand should present anomalies ih its constitution; the peculiarly isolated position of the country, the great difficulties of communication between its chief towns, especially in early days; the paucity of university men both on the staffs of the colleges and outside their walls at the period of its foundation; the local prejudices, amounting almost to 96 NATURE [Marcu 28, 1912 jealousies, which existed between the provinces into which the colony was once divided—these and other local conditions have led to a unique relation between the four university colleges and the University itself. The latter is governed by a Senate largely consisting of laymen without any connection with teaching, though a proportion of its members are professors at the colleges. Each of the colleges is governed by a council, on which, in three of the colleges, professors have no seat; while the professorial board in each deals with the real academic work of its college. The constitution of the Senate and college councils is open to criticism, and it is felt in some quarters that the professors have not sufficient representation on these bodies. But perhaps the most curious feature of the Univer- sity is to be found in the method of granting degrees in arts, science, and laws. The University is purely an examining body; by it the examiners are appointed, and these examiners, eminent men in their subjects, are resident in Britain. They set the papers, to them the candidates’ answers are transmitted, and their reports are sent out to New Zealand. Everyone agrees that this method is cumbrous, entailing much delay and inconvenience to candidates; while the pro- fessors at the colleges have no direct share in examin- ing for the degrees. In early days, no doubt, various causes led to some such arrangement; but it is felt by some of the younger members of the professorial staff, fresh from English universities, with totally different traditions and local conditions, that the time is ripe for some change. Hence has arisen a Reform Association, the execu- tive of which has issued a booklet of some 200 pages,’ dealing fully, and on the whole impartially, with the various grievances complained of, viz.: the organisa- tion of the University; appointments to chairs in the colleges; finance; examinations; libraries; research; with suggestions for reorganisation; followed by an appendix containing the opinions of a large number of professors, British and American, on the questions of external examinations and the constitution of the governing bodies. Many of the grievances are domestic in character, such as libraries, laboratories, appointment of pro- fessors, and can only be dealt with by the individual colleges; anditis alla matter of money; but there are one or two points of wider importance which may be discussed here. It is within our knowledge that the originators of this reform movement are members of Victoria College, Wellington, and that the entire staff even of that college is not wholly in sympathy; nor can it be said that the staffs of the other three colleges are in complete accord with the views of the reformers. This is partly due to the failure of the originators to consult the professorial boards officially or to dis- cuss with the older members of these boards the plans for reform advocated: so that the pamphlet must not be taken as expressing the views of the whole body of university teachers in New Zealand. There is no doubt room for reforms, though it appears to us that some of the grievances about the constitution of the Senate, for instance, are exaggerated. We may re- mind the reformers that even in the ancient universi- ties of Oxford and Cambridge the final body court of appeal, Convocation, consists “of a fortuitous con- course of members who happen to be able and willing both to pay for keeping their names on the books and to be present in Oxford on a particular day *“— 1 “University Reform in New Zealand.’ Published bv the General Editors (Profs Hunter, Laby, and von Zedlitz) under the direction of the University Reform Association. Pp. 196. (Wellington, N.Z., and London: Whitcombe and Tombs, Ltd., 1911.) NO. 2213, VOL. 89] to vote for or against reform. The majority of these men are “‘laymen”’ so far as university teaching is concerned; and it is interesting to note that the teachers and active members of the University of Oxford are hampered as much as—nay, more than— the teachers in New Zealand, in their efforts for reform. As a matter of fact, in New Zealand, if the four teachers of a given subject are unanimous in desiring any alteration in the syllabus of their subject, the Senate invariably adopts their proposals. Even the appointment of the examiners is virtually in the hands of the teachers, for if the four professors of a given subject send up a recommendation to the Senate, it is acted on; but, of course, if no suggestion is made, the Senate has to make the appointment. Again, the professorial boards of the four colleges are consulted on nearly every point of importance before the matter is dealt with in Senate. It is true that more frequent conferences between these boards are desirable, and if annual conferences were arranged, many reforms would probably be introduced. But the chief need seems to be an alteration in the present system of examination for degrees. We need not here discuss the advantages that have been claimed for this procedure—the uniformity and im- partiality of the examinations; the maintenance of a standard and stimulation of the teachers; and the enhancement of the value of the degree—these are dealt with fully in the report, and it is claimed that the disadvantages outweigh these supposed advan- tages. The system is unanimously condemned by the British professors who have replied to the ques- tions submitted to them.? The majority of the gentle- men whose replies are recorded have no acquaintance with the geographical conditions of the Dominion, nor is it clear whether the examinations for honours and scholarships were in their minds; we think that, in the case of these competitive examinations between men from different colleges, an external examiner is necessary, if only in justice to teacher and student. The discussion refers to pass examinations only. But while it is easy enough to see the faults of the system, it is not quite so easy to substitute a new plan, as may be seen in the varied proposals sub- mitted. Three alternatives have been suggested :-— (1) That each of the four colleges should be an independent university. In theory, no doubt, this seems plausible; but when we remember that the highest number of students at any college is about 4oo0 (and in others much less) and the total population of the Dominion only about one million, it does not seem desirable at present to have four different standards for the degrees in arts and science. For it must be borne in mind that while most of the pro- fessors have had a training in a British university, there are some who do excellent work indeed, but who have no experience of any higher standard of work than that at their own small college in New Zealand; and, especially in the case of science, this is detri- mental. It is agreed that the present standard for the degree is a low one, at any rate in several subjects, and one understands that this must be the case when matriculation can be passed by children of fourteen years of age, and the entrance scholarship, for which the schools prepare, is almost of the same standarc as the B.A. 2 Though the opinions of acting professors in New Zealand are not included, those of six past professors or graduates of New Zealand are recorded ; it is noteworthy, however, that Prof. Rutherford. whose views would be valuable, offers no comments on the system. Each of these six men gives an opinion more or less different from the other five, and amongst them may be found all the various possible plans for degree examinations and for reorganisation. Marcu 28, 1912] NATURE 97 (2) A second proposal is that the teachers of a subject at the four colleges should form a board of examiners—either four (or only two) to constitute the board. Presumably each member would set a portion of the papers; in this case, if the four men act, the | students at each college would recognise the “pet"’ questions of their teacher, which, although forming only a portion of the paper, would receive answers than the rest of the paper, and this would mean, practically, that each college would be holding its own examination. Consequently the result would be essentially the same as in the first case. Moreover, the suggestion that all four teachers should cooperate is not quite so feasible as would appear; they would, of course, have to meet on several occasions, and fuller | though it is easy enough for a man in Edinburgh | or Glasgow to run up to London in a few hours to confer with his co-examiner, yet the geography of New Zealand renders travelling less easy. Auckland and Dunedin are separated by nearly 900 miles, and this journey occupies at least sixty hours. It would be very inconvenient, to say the least, for these two men to spare time to meet, even at a midway point, while the cost to the University of such a scheme would be very heavy. Moreover, details of procedure would be far from easy to arrange. (3) The purely external system of examination is condemned by most authorities. The real feature of the grievance lies not so much in having the examina- tion for degrees conducted by external examiners in Britain or elsewhere, as in the total exclusion of the teachers from this examination; and it seems to us that the best suggestion is one made by two or three of those consulted, viz. that the teacher of a subject should make a report on each student, which would be forwarded to the examiner, who would take it into consideration in his award. For it is manifestly un- just to a candidate who has worked well throughout the year to be judged only by his answers to a paper, written on a day on which he may be unwell or other- wise unfit. Every student, before presenting himself for the degree examination, has at present to pass an exam- ination held by his teacher, and in the case of science a practical examination in addition must be done to his satisfaction. The marks awarded in these, if sent to the external examiner, would influence him in his award. Indeed, it happened on one occasion that the degree had to be awarded entirely on these college examina- tions, for the ship conveying to England the candi- dates’ answers was wrecked, and all the papers lost. The reformers cavil at the small encouragement the university colleges give to research, while, as the pamphlet points out, there is opportunity but for a limited amount of original investigation. They rightly complain of the bugbear of examination if it be regarded as the “be-all ‘and end-all” of university training; but, since the examination is part of the British system precedent to obtaining a degree, it is hopeless for a small colony like New Zealand to attempt to eradicate this evil so long as the Mother Country adheres to it. In New Zealand there is no leisured class who can afford to spend time in pursuing knowledge for its own sake, and the degree is chiefly required by those entering the teaching profession, who must have a fairly all-round training in subjects useful for their purpose. To such men and women specialisation at an early stage in the university career would be fatal to their prospects; there is no demand for specialists in chemistry or physics or biology, and it would be a cruel thing to encourage a man to spend two or three NO. 2213. VOL. 89] years in research, with no available opening at the end. Moreover, the libraries and staffing of the colleges are insufficient, as the reformers emphasise, for extensive research, which is best left to the later stages of a man’s career, viz. for honours. What | sort of research can a student in New Zealand pursue in languages? It seems clear, however, that certain reforms are needed, but we fear that the reformers must not expect that all their grievances will he rectified immediately. EXPERIMENTAL ERROR IN AGRICUL- TURAL INVESTIGATIONS. | view of the large number of agricultural experi- ments carried out in the country it is very desir- able that some attempt should be made to put them on a sound basis, so that the results shall have some permanent value and admit of definite interpretation. The experiments cost a good deal of money, practically all of which is found by public bodies, and the work is frequently carried out without any particular regard to scientific method. Perhaps the most serious defect hitherto has been the ignoring of experimental errors, so that only in very few cases could the experimenter say what degree of accuracy he had obtained or what was the me nificance of the differences he observed. In order provide a remedy a day was devoted to the sabieet at the agricultural subsection to the British Associa- tion in 1910, and some of the papers then read have been amplified, and are now issued as a supplement to The Journal of the Board of Agriculture. They are all couched in simple language, and bring home the fact that the value of an experiment depends on the degree of confidence that can be attached to the result. The opening paper, by Messrs. Hall and Russell, deals with field trials, and the general con- clusion is reached that the probable error attaching to a single experiment is at least +10 per cent. It is possible to reduce the error to about +2 per cent. by repeating the experiment simultaneously on a number of plots, which need not be more than 1/5o0th acre in extent. The second paper, by Prof. Wood, discusses analytical results, the sampling of crops, field trials, and feeding experiments, and contains frequency curves and tables of odds, setting out the least sig- nificant differences in these usual conditions of the various classes of determinations. The agricultural experimentalist will do well to submit his figures to the simple tests suggested here. Mr. Pickering deals with experimental errors in horticultural work, which are fairly considerable, and commonly ignored. The experiments and their inter- pretation are more difficult than in purely agricul- tural work, and according to the quantity estimated may vary from +16 to +20 per cent. for a single tree, or from +6 to +8 per cent. for a set of six trees. Milk investigations are discussed by Mr. Collins. An ordinary fat analysis is shown to be liable to an error of +0°03 per cent., while the error in the solids-not-fat determination can be reduced to o'05 per cent., but may be higher. The Board of Agriculture has undoubtedly rendered very useful service by issuing these papers in so cheap a form, and it is to be hoped that they will be used as extensively as the importance of the subject war- rants. 1 Surplement No. 7 to the Journal of the Board of Agriculture, zorr. COPPER AND ITS ALEOYS IN EARLY TIMES.* ITH the discovery of metals, and notably the application of copper and its alloys in Neo- lithic times, we have one of the great turning points, if not the greatest, in the history of human “develop- ment, the first-birth of the germs of that civilisation and culture to which we have attained at the present dav. The discoveries of the properties of steam and electricity and their applications to our industries and other practical purposes of life we are apt to regard as wonderful and epoch-making, yet when we compare them with the results which have followed the dis- covery of metals, they are but trifling and insig- nificant. The order in which the metals were discovered was not the same for every region, as their ores are very capriciously distributed in the world, and it is ex- tremely probable, if not absolutely certain, that the metals which occur native, i.e. those which occur as metals in nature, must have been first known to the men inhabiting the localities in which they occurred. The metals so occurring most frequently are gold and copper. The former is much more widely distributed than the latter, and must have been the first metal to be known in many regions. It is, however, one of the most worthless metals for practical purposes, so that until the rise of Greek and Roman civilisation but little use was made of it. Copper, too, we only find in use to a very limited extent, as it was not well suited for the construction of weapons or useful implements. On the other hand, its alloy with tin afforded a metal which in many physical properties could only be surpassed by iron or steel. According to the views of several ancient writers, Lucretius and Poseidonius, so momen- tous a discovery as that of metals contained in ores must needs have been brought about by no uncommon cause. According to them a conflagration consumed forests which covered the outcrop of metalliferous veins, reducing the metals and bringing them to the notice of man, but there are no grounds for such inference. The discovery of metals other than “‘native’’ had no such poetic origin, but was brought about in a more commonplace and more humble way. It had its origia in the domestic fires of the Neolithic age. The extraction of the common metals from their ores does not require the elaborate furnaces and com- plicated processes of our own days, as pieces of ore, e‘ther copper carbonate or oxide, cassiterite, cerusite, or mixtures of these, and even iron oxides which by chance formed part of the ring of stones enclosing the domestic fire, and became accidentally embedded in its embers, would become reduced to metal. The camp fire- was, in fact, the first metallurgical NATURE aft [Marcu 28, 1912 The alloys of copper and tin during the early Metal age, and even somewhat later, were obtained not by melting together copper and metallic tin, but by the reduction of oxidised copper ores containing tin-stone, or of copper ores to which tin-stone was ‘added. As. it has been stated by several Continental archzeologists that when a copper ore containing tin ore is smelted the tin does not enter into combination with the copper, but passes into the slag, I have made several experiments under the conditions which were available to prehistoric man, which completely disprove their statements. A furnace of the simplest form, merely a hole in the ground, was constructed in my laboratory at the Royal School of Mines. The fuel used was charcoal. A mixture of copper ore (green carbonate) and tin- stone was smelted in it, and a copper-tin alloy, a bronze containing 22'0 per cent. of tin, was obtained. The experiment was repeated several times, and in every case copper-tin alloys were obtained. This experiment proves indisputably- that when a copper ore containing tin ore was smelted by primitive man, a bronze consisting of copper and tin was the result. The shape and structure of the lumps of copper which have been found in the founders’ hoards? of the Bronze age afford valuable evidence as to the size of the rude smelting furnaces, the method of smelt- ing, and the manner in which the metal was removed from the hearth. These lumps are always fragments of rudely disc-shaped cakes of about 8 in. to Io in. in diameter, and 1} in. in thickness, having the largely columnar fracture of copper when broken near its solidifving point. They show that the furnace was simply a small shallow hole or hearth scooped in the ground, about to or 12 in. in diameter, and that the operation of smelting must have been conducted as follows :—A small charcoal fire was first made in the hearth, and when this was burning freely a layer of ore was spread over it, and upon this a layer of charcoal, then alternate layers of ore and charcoal ' were added in sufficient quantity to yield a cake of furnace, and from it, by successive modifications, the | huge furnaces of the present day have been gradually evolved. First, a shallow cavity would be formed in the hearth of the fire for the reception of the molten metal, and this would be made larger as time went on and larger quantities of metal were required bv deepening it or by surrounding it with a higher wall of stones. Furnaces of precisely this primitive form survived in Derbyshire up to the seventeenth century. In Japan the furnace for smelting copper, tin, and lead ores, a mere hole in the ground, which was in universal use there up to 1858, and is still extensively | employed, is as simple and rude as that of the men of the Bronze age. 1 Abridged from the See Address to the Institute of Metals by Prof. William Gowland, F.R NO. 2213, VOL. 89] copper. The fire was doubtless urged by the wind alone in the earliest times, but later by some kind of bellows. When all the charge had melted, the unburnt char- coal and the slag were raked off. The metal was not laded out, but was allowed to solidify first, and at the moment of solidification was rapidly pulled out and the cake broken up at once on a large stone. In Korea, at the copper mine of Kapsan, this primitive method of removing the copper from the furnace still survived when I travelled through the country in 1884. The method of smelting copper ores in the primi- tive furnace which has survived in Japan from pre- historic times closely resembles that of the Bronze age. The copper of the Bronze age resembles modern blister copper in composition, but, unlike it, it often contains only traces of sulphur. When sulphur is present in the crude metal only in traces it un- doubtedlv indicates that the metal had been obtained by smelting oxidised ores. The percentage of copper in several characteristic specimens ranges from about 970 to gg°o. I will now ask for your attention to the earliest alloys of copper and tin, those of the Bronze age. In the production of these alloys in the earliest part of the age, copper ores containing cassiterite can alone have been used; it is obvious, therefore, that 2 Founders’ hoards, many of which have been unearthed in this country and in Europe, contain generally worn out or broken implements, waste castings, and rough lumps of copper apparently hrought together for recasting. In some the objects are new and ready for, use or are in an unfinished state. They appear to have been the steck-in-trade of itinerant fonnders. A flat axe made of the alloy is in the British Museum. Marcu 28, 1912] NATURE 99 the percentage of tin they contain must have varied with the percentage of cassiterite in the ore and the regularity with which the smelting operations were performed. Even in the later period of the Bronze age, when the alloys were made by smelting the copper ore with cassiterite, alloys of definite composi- tion can only have been accidentally obtained. Further, it is very questionable whether the metal tin was ever employed in making the alloys until the Iron age was well advanced, as this metal has never been found in the founders’ hoards. Consequently the imple- ments and weapons are of very varied com- position, at first generally containing but little tin, less than 3 per cent., but later having that metal frequently in satisfactory proportions for the uses they were intended for. A curious feature of the alloys of which the early weapons were made in Hungary is the presence of antimony as an important constituent instead of tin. This doubtless arose from the alioys having been prepared by smelting the antimonial copper ores which occur in that country. Axes made of these allovs would be fairly serviceable on account of the hardness produced by antimony in copper. We hence find them in use, with antimony largely replacing tin, until late in the Bronze age. The difficulties the earliest men had to con- tend with were extremely great, for it is self- evident that alloys of definite composition could not be ensured by the early practice of smelting mixtures of ores. It would seem, therefore, that when we find weapons or implements of suitable composition for their intended use, some physical tests must have been applied to the furnace product before it had been used for their manufac- ture. We will now pass to a brief consideration of the methods followed by prehistoric man for the manufacture of his weapons and implements. Practically all copper celts were cast in open moulds, as if cast in closed moulds they would be more or less vesicular and worthless, except when the copper con- tained arsenic, tin, antimony, zinc, or niclxel in not less proportions than 1 per cent., or an excess of cuprous oxide. The remains of his appliances which have been found show clearly that the metal from the smelting operation was remelted.in crucibles and poured from them into moulds of clay or stone, perhaps of sand, but of this there is no definite evidence. The metal was not laded from the smelting furnace, as the small crucibles with rude handles which have occasionally been found, and have been erroneously supposed to be ladles, show no signs of having been exposed to a high temperature both on the inside and outside, as would have been the case had they been so used; the interior and upper edges alone bear marks of such exposure. The reason for this will be seen later. 3 Implements and weapons of bronze, unlike those of copper, were always cast in closed moulds. The method of melting the metal in each case was as follows :—The furnace or hearth was merely a shallow depression in the ground. The crucibles were made of clay, which was sometimes mixed with finely cut straw or grass. They were embedded in the ashes at NO. 2213, VOL. 89] | the bottom of the hearth in such a manner that their | bases and sides were thoroughly protected from the intense heat of the fire, their upper edges and interior only being exposed. This method had been adopted owing to the fusible character of the clay of which they were made. The fuel used was wood and the charcoal which was produced during the process. Fic. r.—Prehistoric crucibles.—1. Clay vessel found among the débris of pile dwellings in Carniola. widely distributed in the remains representing the early Bronze age in the pile dwellings of Switzerland, the J)anubian basin, and Ireland. socket for the insertion of a stick, by which it was removed from the fire and its contents poured into a mould. found in the Mond See. 4 Ireland. spear-heads and other iron objects. bronze implements and stone moulds in Mercia and Almeria, in the south-eas of Spain. It is open to doubt whether this is a crucible or nor. 2. A common form It is furnished with a 3- Ashallow oval dish of somewhat rare occurrence, Found in the remains of a crannog in Lough Mourne, 5, 6, 7; 8, a. Crucibles found at Dunadd, Argyll, together with iron ro and 11 were found together with copper i After a crucible had been thus placed and charged with copper, copper and tin-stone, or copper and tin, the fire was made up over it. A sufficiently high temperature for melting the metal could be obtained by the wind alone. When the contents of the crucible had melted, the crucible was removed from the furnace and the metal poured into a mould. 100 NATURE [Marcu 28, 1912 In consequence of this mode of heating, the lower parts of the crucible will, it is evident, bear but little traces of the action of a high temperature, whilst the upper edges and interior will exhibit a fused or semi-fused structure, and this is precisely what we find in all early crucibles. Some of the most important types of crucibles are illustrated in Fig. 1. The small capacity of by far the greater number of these crucibles which have been found is worthy of note. Few can have held more metal than would suffice for the casting of a single axe. This is, how- ever, not surprising if we remember that they are the appliances of that remote time when metallic Weapons were only beginning to replace those of stone. : The moulds used by primitive man are also of con- siderable interest. The earliest are of the class known as open moulds, and consist merely of cavities of the necessary form and size hollowed in the surface of a stone. In casting swords and daggers of bronze the moulds must have been of clay and been heated to dull red- ness at the time when the metal was poured in—a method of casting which is still practised in Japan— as by no other means could such perfect castings of their thin blades have been obtained. The castings generally were hammered at the cutting edges, and it is to this hammering, and to it only, that the hard- ness of the cutting edges of both copper and bronze Weapons is due, and not to any method of tempering. Much has been written about the so-called art of tempering bronze supposed to have been practised by the men of the Bronze age in the manufacture of their weapons; the hardness is also said to be greater than can be given to bronze at the present day. I should like to correct this error, as it can only have arisen owing to its authors never having made any comparative practical tests of the hardness of bronze. Had they done so, they would have found that the ordinary bronze of to-day can be made as hard as any, in fact, harder than most, of prehistoric times, by simple hammering alone. We will now pass to the consideration of the copper alloys of Mycenzean, Babylonian, Greek, and Roman times. Until the introduction of iron, copper and bronze played an important part in the lives and struggles of the early races occupying the Greek peninsula and its islands, whilst in later times the alloy bronze afforded an imperishable material to the great sculptors of the golden age of Greece, by which many of their incomparable works have been pre- served to us. In Greek literature we have no records of metal- lurgical processes relating to copper or its alloys, such as are to be found in the writings of Roman authors, notably Pliny. Strabo, the only Greek author who condescends to take any notice of metallurgy or metal worling, confines his statements to gold, silver, and lead. But at Laurion the remains of ancient furnaces for smelt- ing lead ores, which have been unearthed from time to time, indicate that low hearths resembling those of the Bronze age were extensively emploved; and if we may reason from Japanese metallurgical procedure, similar furnaces would be used for copper. The island of Cyprus, once rich in copper ores, was doubt- less the source whence the inhabitants of the Greelx peninsula in early times obtained their copper. Among the earliest specimens of the metal which have been found in Greece are some copper nails which were obtained by Dr. Schliemann at Orcho- menos, a city in Beeotia, which was in a state of decay in the time of Homer. Thev belong to that remote NO. 2213, VOL. 89] period in Mediterranean civilisation to which the name Mycenzean has been applied. They are interesting as showing that the men of that remote period were able to produce copper of tolerable purity, but this would not be difficult, as the ores which they worked would be oxidised ores, oxides, and carbonates from the outcrops of veins, viz. the parts which were exposed at the surface of the ground. Bronze was also then in use for nails and cramps in building construction, but especially for weapons, and was of good quality. There is abundant evidence to show that Egypt was the first in the field in artistic bronze casting. When it first began it is difficult to say, but objects of at least as early as 3000 B.C. are in existence. Even in the early examples great technical skill is displayed. The most ancient Greek bronzes are solid castings, whereas in Egypt they are light and hollow, having been cast with a core of argillaceous sand, which still remains in many specimens. The statuary bronze frequently contains consider- able amounts of lead, sometimes with but little tin, and the question naturally suggests itself, whether this arose from scarcity of the latter metal. Only a few analyses have been made, and unfortunately few of the objects can have even approximate dates assigned to them. Bronze was in extensive use in Nineveh about 1000 B.c. for vessels and utensils of many kinds, and curiously was sometimes employed for those which we should now make of more precious metals. The Greek copper alloys of a later period, many examples of which are found in the coins of about the fourth century B.c., are true bronzes consisting of copper and tin, with lead or zinc only as impurities and not intentionally added. A curious feature in them is the presence of nickel varying from traces up to 05 per cent. The per- centage of tin is somewhat irregular, but in most examples ranges from about 8 to 11 per cent. The same is true of the Macedonian coinage alloys from the third to the second century B.c., but the per- centage of tin in them is somewhat greater, generally being from about 10 to 12 per cent. These alloys were undoubtedly made by melting together the metals copper and tin, and not, as in the Bronze age, by smelting stanniferous copper ores, or by melt- ing copper with tin ore. The Macedonian alloys more particularly are the best of the ancient bronzes. A little later in Greek coins we find lead as an intentional constituent in various proportions, ranging generally from about 6 to to per cent., or even more, with a proportionate reduction in the percentage of tin. The Macedonian coins, however, with few ex- ceptions, preserve their character as true bronzes. The alloys used for statues are frequently true bronze with 9 to 11 per cent. of tin, but in other examples about 5 per cent. of lead has been added, probably with the intention of increasing the fusibility of the alloy and its fluidity when molten. The statements of Pliny as to the composition and mode of manufacture of the bronzes as imitated in Rome throw but little or no light on the sub- ject; in fact, they are for the most part useless and misleading. As regards the Corinthian bronze, the beauty of which is so extolled by classical writers, he states that the alloy was discovered by the Romans at the sack of Corinth, when vessels of gold, silver, and bronze had been accidentally melted together during the burning of the city and produced a golden bronze. ci The siege of Corinth, however, occurred in 146 B.c., 4 | q Marcu 28, 1912] NATURE IOl but the excellence of Corinthian bronze recognised long before. Whatever may have been the exact composition of this bronze, of which several statues are said to have been cast, | may say that no addition of gold or silver to any copper-tin alloy will cause it to resemble gold closely. Imagination must, I think, be respon- sible for the accounts given of this bronze by ancient authors, especially when we read also that its beauty was derived from being cooled in the water of the fountain of Peirene. With the fall of Greece and the rise of the supre- macy of Rome we enter an important period in the history of copper and its alloys. In Spain and in Britain we find copper-smelting being vigorously carried on by the Romans, and in Rome and the chief seats of the empire a further extension of the use of bronze, not only for statues and other objects of art, but for vessels of all kinds, furniture, and other articles of domestic life. Of special importance is the invention of a new alloy, brass, which comes into use for the first time in Europe. Among the varied remains which are representative of the Roman occupation of Britain, few are of greater interest to the metallurgist than the cakes of copper found in North Wales and Anglesea. These cakes afford us, in their form and character, un- mistakable evidence of their history. They had been obtained by smelting sulphide ores, or ores containing sulphides, in low hearths, in which they had almost certainly been allowed to solidify before removal. According to Pliny, who seems in this matter to have had access to fairly trustworthy sources of in- formation, the copper obtained by smelting was brittle and useless, and in order to obtain malleable metal from it, it was mixed with lead and melted several times, and the oftener the operation was repeated the better was the quality of the copper. This brief account of copper-refining by a non-technical writer gives us an excellent résumé of the process as prac- tised in Roman times. The operation was evidently conducted with free access of air, and the lead used would, by its oxidation, aid greatly in the removal of impurities from the copper. The earliest Roman alloys which have come down to us are copper, lead, tin, alloys of the fifth century B.c. Their chief peculiarity is their very large content of lead, namely, from about 19 to 25 per cent., the tin being about 7 per cent. They were worthless for practical purposes, but formed the alloy of which the large coin of the republic—which weighed from 8 to 11 ozs.—the ‘‘As,’’ was cast. These copper-lead-tin alloys continued in use as coinage alloys until 20 B.c., but from that date until two centuries later lead is seldom found in coins except as an_ accidental impurity. The large percentages of lead were undoubtedly added in these cases on account of the cheapness of the metal as compared with copper and tin. The copper-tin-lead bronzes appear also to have been used by the Romans for engineering and indus- trial purposes. An interesting example of this use is afforded by the broken shaft of a water-wheel which was found in the lower Roman workings of the north lode of the Rio Tinto mine. The water- wheel was probably built in the first century of our era, as coins of the time of Vespasian (7o to 81 A.D.) were found near it. The bronze used for statues by the Romans also always contains lead in considerable proportions, as much as 6 to 12 per cent. being often present. In this they were doubtless influenced by Greek practice, the lead being added to the bronze to increase its fusibility and more especially its fluidity when molten, NO. 2213, VOL. 89] had been so that it might receive the sharpest possible impres- sions of the mould. I may point out here that the addition of lead to bronze was and is largely practised by the Japanese, not only for the reasons stated above, but also to ' enable the objects cast of the alloy to receive a rich brown patina when suitably treated; and in this con- nection it is worthy of note that Pliny states that by the addition of lead to Cyprian copper, the purple tint is produced that we see in the drapery of statues. The alloy used by the Romans for mirrors does | not differ greatly from that in use in Europe for | metallic mirrors in comparatively recent times, the percentage of tin ranging from 23) to) 28 per cent but lead is present in all from about 5 to 7 per cent. CopPER-zINC ALLOYS—THE BRASSES. Zinc as a distinct metal was unknown in early | times; in fact, as late as the sixteenth century it was not known in Europe; but there are strong reasons for the belief that the Chinese were acquainted with it as metal at least several centuries eariier. It is occasionally but rarely present in the implements and weapons of the Bronze age, and then only in small quantities as an accidental impurity, which has been derived from smelting copper ores containing it. In somewhat later times it occurs in rings, armlets, and other personal ornaments found in the ancient burial mounds of Germany and Denmark, but these mounds are of post-Roman date, and the objects men- tioned have really been made from Roman coins. In Greek alloys zinc is never found .s an inten- tional addition, but only as an impurity, about 1 to 2 | per cent. or less; in fact, according to Gobel, all antique objects which contain zinc are not Greek; but this, in my opinion, is only true for those con- taining considerable proportions of the metal, and not for those with the small amounts just mentioned. In Roman times it first appears in the coins of the republic as an impurity; as an intentional addi- tion, however, it only begins in the time of Augustus (20 B.c. to 14 A.D.), when brass was made for the first | time in the world’s history. One of the earliest examples is a coin of 20 B.c., which contains 17°31 per cent. of zinc. The Romans were the first makers of brass. Although they were unacquainted with the essential constituent zinc, yet they had discovered that by melt- ing copper together with a certain ore (calamine), a yellow alloy of a more golden colour than bronze could be obtained. It was first employed for coins which appear to have had a higher value than those of bronze, even up to the time of Diocletian (286 to 305 a.D.), when six parts of brass are said to have been worth eight parts of copper. There is, too, a curious statement by Procopius in his De Gédificiis relating to its value in the fifth century a.D., in which he says that brass was then not very greatly inferior to silver. The method employed by the Romans in making this alloy from copper and calamine was a very simple one. It was conducted as follows :—The calamine was ground and mixed in suitable proportions with char- coal and copper in granules or small fragments. This mixture was placed in a crucible, and was very care- fully heated for some time to a temperature sufficient to reduce the zinc in the ore to the metallic state, but not to melt the copper. The zinc being volatile, its vapour permeated the fragments of copper, con- verting them into brass. The temperature was then raised, when the brass melted, and was poured out of the crucible into moulds. 102 NATURE [Maxncu 28, 1912 This process was so effective that, until a compara- — tively recent period, all brass was made in Europe by the ancient process, and even until a few years before 1861 it was thus made at Pemberton’s Works in Birmingham. It was called ‘‘calamine brass,” and was generally believed to be superior in mechanical properties to brass made by using metallic zinc. The survival of this ancient process affords a striking example of the conservatism characteristic of British metallurgy, as brass had been made in Eng- land by Emerson, using metallic zinc, in 1781. This, so far as I have been able to ascertain, was the first to be made in Europe by melting copper and zinc together. In Roman alloys the percentage of zinc was very variable, ranging from about 11 to 28 per cent. For ornamental purposes and scale armour they had an excellent alloy, of which the following are examples. Several rosettes and studs which had formed the mounts of a casket were unearthed in the excavations at the Roman city of Silchester in 1goo. Both the rosette and stud are of practically the same alloy. Now, of all the copper-zinc alloys, those which contain from 15 to 20 per cent. of zine possess the greatest ductility. This Roman brass is therefore one of the most ductile of the whole series of brasses. It is, besides, identical in composition with Tournay’s alloy (copper, 82°5 per cent.; zinc, 17°5 per cent.), which, on account of this property and its rich colour, is used for the manufacture of all French jewellery made from thin sheets in imitation of gold. Hence the brass of which the rosettes are made is notably of the composition which is best fitted for making such ornaments, and is that which would be employed at the present day. I have also examined the scales forming part of a suit of Roman scale armour dug up in the excavations of a Roman camp near Melrose, and found them to be of practically the same composition as the above. The chief use of brass by the Romans, apart from the various coinages, appears to have been for fibulz and other personal ornaments and for decorative metal-work, and for these, as we have already seen, they had invented a metal perfectly suitable, both as to its workable qualities and its beauty. That they were the first inventors of brass is, I think, without doubt, as the alloy is not found in Greece or the Greek colonies or elsewhere until the time of the Roman Empire. In the eleventh century great care was bestowed on the purification of the copper intended to be used in the manufacture of calamine brass for objects of art, more especially for the removal of lead, as it had been found that brass contaminated with that metal could not be satisfactorily gilt. As regards the brass which was made in this country by the ancient method, i.e. ‘‘calamine brass,” and that made with spelter, the former, according to Dr. Percy, was preferred for the manufacture of buttons and articles to be gilt, as it was said to take the gold better in “‘ water-gilding.’’ It was also pre- ferred for other purposes. It is difficult to see why there should be any difference between the two brasses unless the spelter of those days was more impure than at present, possibly containing more lead and iron. Prejudice against the metal made by a new process may, however, have been one of the causes of the opposition which was raised to its use. With the disappearance of the calamine brass, one of the last links in the chain connecting the modern metallurgy of copper and its alloys with antiquity is broken. An important link, however, still remains in the cire perdu process of casting bronze, a process in which it can scarcely be said that we are any NO. 2213. VOL. 89] further adwanced than the Greek founders of some ' centuries before our era. Further, it must not be overlooked that the prin- ciples on which copper-refining is based were carried out in practice in the time of Pliny. The influence of copper, and particularly of bronze, from the age of Bronze to that of Imperial Rome, is an element which has played a greater part in the civilisation of Europe than that of any other metal. This is often lost sight of in this age of iron and steel. It hence seemed to me that it might be of interest and possibly of profit to present to the members of our Institute an account of the achievements which our fellow-workers in bygone ages were able to accom- plish without the elaborate appliances and scientific knowledge of our own times. UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE. Lonpon.—Further gifts to the University are announced in connection with the scheme for re- moving the headquarters to a site behind the British Museum, to which we referred last week. The Duke of Bedford has offered 25,0001 and a Yeduction off the price of the site of 50,o00l., and an anonymous friend of the University has offered 70,o00l., making a total amount, with the gifts announced last week, of 305,000l. Although Lord Rosebery’s name has been published as representing the University on the board of trustees which has been formed in connection with the scheme, the approval of the Senate has not been given to the proposals. Strong exception was taken to the Chancellor’s action at the meeting of the Senate of March 20, when the Vice-Chancellor (Sir William Collins) tendered his resignation in view of what had taken place. At the unanimous wish of the Senate, he afterwards consented to remain in office. Lord Rosebery’s explanatory letter was subsequently published, in which he states that by consenting to ect as trustee he was committing no one, not even himself, to anything except to his being trustee for certain sums collected for the benefit of the Uni- versity. From official correspondence which has been communicated to the Press, it appears that both the Prime Minister and the Chancellor of the Exchequer approved the proposed site. Prof. F. G. Donnan, F.R.S., was appointed by the Senate to the University chair of general chemistry at University College, in succession to Sir William Ramsay, the appointment to take effect from the opening of next session, in October. The Senate elected Dr. L. N. G. Filon, F.R.S., to the Goldsmid chair of applied mathematics and mechanics, tenable at University College, such appointment to take effect from the beginning of next session, in October. Dr. Filon succeeds Prof. Karl Pearson, who resigned the chair in question on his appointment to the Galton chair of eugenics. At the same meeting of the Senate, E. C. Snow, an internal student of University College, was granted the D.Sc. degree for a thesis entitled ‘‘ The Intensity of Natural Selection in Man,’ and other papers. Additional grants from the London County Council, amounting to 28,oool. during the sessions 1911-12 to 1913-14, were formally announced to the Senate. Ir is announced in Science that Prof. R. Ramsay Wright, vice-president of the University of Toronto and dean of the faculty of arts, will retire from active service on September 30. He has filled the chair of biology for the last thirty-eight years. ¥ a « | Marcu 28, 1932| Tue Board of Agriculture has again made an in- creased grant of 13001. to Wye College, and has promised a grant of 2621. (for six months) for the cost of investigations on hops, on the life-history of the parasitic stomach worms (Strongyli) of sheep, and on the disease of ‘‘struck”’ of sheep, whilst the institu- tion of a fresh grant of t1oool. towards the expense of an advisory staff in entomology and mycology— more particularly for fruit-growers—has also been officially intimated to the college authorities. Tue treasurer of Columbia University has reported to the trustees, says Science, that he has received about 310,000l. from the executors of the estate of the late Mr. George Crocker. Accordingly, the work of cancer research, for which Mr. Crocker gave this sum as an endowment, will begin at once. The re- search fund will be entrusted for administration to a board of managers, to consist of representatives of the trustees and of the medical faculty, together with a director of cancer research to be appointed. Tue Cambridge University Press has published a report by Mr. E. R. Burdon on a visit, undertalxen in accordarce with a resolution of the Forestry Com- mittee of the University of Cambridge, for the pur- pose of studying the research work and educational methods of the forestry departments and forestry schools in those countries in connection with the study of timber and other forest products. An excel- lent description is provided of the departments of the Products Branch of the United States Forest Service, including particularly the Forest Products Laboratory at Madison, Wis., and the Office of Wood Utilisation, Chicago. The forestry schools of Yale, Harvard, Michigan, and Toronto Universities were visited by Mr. Burdon, and the particulars here brought together should prove of great service in this country. In an article in the Bulletin of the Society for the Promotion of Engineering Education for the present month, Profs. W. S. Franklin and Barry MacNutt deal with the teaching of elementary physics. They confine their attention in this case wholly to lectures and text-book work, though they recognise fully the paramount yalue of laboratory practice. Comment- ing upon the answers of 164 freshman engineering students—who had taken elementary mechanics for half a year—to a series of simple questions, the writers come to the conclusion that the great majority of young men cannot realise the meaning of simple English when it is impersonal and non-anthropo- morphic, and a large proportion of the failures to answer the questions were due to the inability of the men to read the questions intelligibly. The object of elementary physics, the authors urge, should be to develop ‘‘rational insights.” It is not the duty to a teacher of elementary physics to give his students a survey of the science. Tue report of the Board of Education for the year Igio-It is now available (Cd. 6116). From it we find that though there were 768,358 students in attendance at evening and similar schools in tg09—10, as com- pared with 752,356 in 1908-9, nearly 18 per cent. of the students enrolled failed to complete the small minimum of attendances required in order to enable grants to be paid towards their instruction. In the administrative counties (excluding London) each student received, on an average, 45 hours of instruc- tion. There was reason to expect the average would be lower in rural than in urban areas; only in eight cases, however, was the average below 30 hours, and in three cases it was 60 or more. The total amount of advanced instruction of the kind provided in tech- nical institutions is still disappointingly small. There were 49 technical institutions at which courses were NO. 2213. VOL. 89] NATURE 103 | recently found by Onnes. recognised as eligible for grant in 1909-10. In the case of 37 institutions for which alone the statistics are complete, there were 3032 students enrolled, of | whom 2664 qualified for grant, and 1806 of these took full courses of instruction. There is still a tendency, the report states, to admit students to technical institu- tions before they have had an adequate course of general education. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. Lonpbon. Royal Society, March 21.—Sir Archibald Geikie, K.C.B., president, in the chair.—Lord Rayleigh: The self-induction of electric currents in a thin anchor- ring.—Hon. R. J. Strutt: The after-luminosity of electric discharge in hydrogen observed by Hertz. Hertz observed that if Leyden-jar discharges were passed through hydrogen at a pressure of, say, Ioo mm., the gas remains luminous for a small frac- tion of a second afterwards. It is concluded that Hertz’s effect is due to the presence of sulphuretted hydrogen in the hydrogen employed. It is con- jectured that sulphuretted hydrogen is decomposed by the discharge, that sulphur vapour emerges in a specially active state, and that it then unites with hydrogen, the blue glow accompanying this process. Prof. J. H. Poynting : The changes in the dimensions of a steel wire when twisted, and on the pressure of distortional waves in steel. In a former paper (Proc. Roy. Soc., A, vol. Ixxxii., 1909) the author described experiments showing that when a loaded wire is twisted it lengthens by an amount proportional to the square of the angle of twist. In this paper it is | shown that if the wire is previously straightened by | heating it under tension, the lengthening is, within errors of measurement, the same for all loads which could be applied, so that, as was supposed, the only function of the load in the earlier experiments is to straighten the wire. In all wires examined so far, the lowering is symmetrical about a point a fraction of a turn always in the counter-clockwise direction from the condition of no twist.—H. S. Patterson, R. S. Cripps, and R. Whytlaw-Gray: The orthobaric densities and critical constants of xenon. Using a carefully purified sample of xenon prepared from 1530 c.c. of the gas lent by Sir William Ramsay, measurements were made of the orthobaric densities between the temperature limits of 16 and —66-8° C. The variation of the mean density of liquid and satu- rated vapour with temperature was found to follow closely Cailletet and Mathias’s law, and the results are expressed by the equation D,=1-205—0-003055f, where D,=mean density at #2 C. The slope of the diameter is abnormally large, and is practically identical with the value for the argon diameter The constants T .=16-6° C. and P,=58-2 atms. were found, and the following were calculated from the results :—critical density, I-15 grms. per c.c.; density of liquid close to boiling point, 3-063 grms. per c.c.; atomic volume close to boiling point, 42-7 grms. per c.c.—W. A. Harwood and Dr. J..E. Petavel: Experimental work on a new standard of light. The source of light consists of a strip of platinum heated by an electric current. The thermopiles measure the radiation passing through (a) a plate of black fluorspar, (b) a water-trough. The thermopiles are connected in opposition. As the current through the strip is increased, the intensity of the luminous radiation increases more rapidly than the intensity of the radiation of longer wave-length. Therefore, for a given thickness of the absorbing media and distance of the thermopiles, there will be one definite temperature at which the reading of a 104 NATURE [Marcu 28, 1912 galvanometer in the thermopile circuit will be zero. A long series of experiments showed that the light could be kept constant within +0-5 per cent. when a constant temperature was maintained by the above criterion.—J. A. Crowther: The distribution of the scattered Rontgen radiation. Experiments have been made to determine accurately the distribution of the scattered R6ntgen radiation round a radiator. It has been found that the radiation can be divided into two parts : a true scattered radiation, distributed in accord- ance with the usually accepted theory of the scatter- ing, and an additional or excess radiation. The curves representing the distribution of the latter have been found to resemble those previously obtained for a parallel pencil of 8 rays after passing through thin sheets of matter.—E. A. Owen: The passage of homo- geneous Rontgen rays through gases. (1) The absorption coefficient of the different homogeneous radiation in a light gas such as CO, or SO, is pro- portional to the absorption of radiations in air. (2) The absorption of homogeneous radiation in a gas is proportional to the pressure of that gas. (3) For the homogeneous rays emitted by metals of atomic weight ranging from that of iron to that of molyb- denum, the coefficient of absorption in the gases in- vestigated is approximately inversely proportional to the fifth power of the atomic weight of the radiator which emits that characteristic radiation, i.e. Aew-5, (4) The amount of ionisation produced in a thin layer of a gas is directly proportional to the pressure of the gas. (5) The ionisation relative to air is approxi- mately constant in the same gas for the different homogeneous rays. (6) The total number of ions produced by homogeneous beams of equal intensity is approximately the same in each gas for any particular type of rays.—J. C. Chapman: Fluorescent Réntgen radiation from elements of high atomic weight.—J. A. Gray: The nature of y+ rays excited by B rays. A determination has been made of the relative amount of emergent and incident y radiation excited in “radiators” of different thicknesses and different materials. Results of the experiments are :—(1) The emergent y radiation is generally greater in amount than the incident radiation, and is more penetrating. (2) The ratio of emergent to incident y radiation is greater, for radiators of the same material, the thinner the radiator; for radiators of different materials thick enough to stop the 6 rays, the lower the atomic weight of the radiator. (3) The results obtained point to the conclusion that the excited y ray is an entity, the direction of which is nearly that of the 6 ray exciting it. (4) The chance of a B ray making a y ray is roughly proportional to the atomic weight of the radiator, provided the 8 ray spends its range in the radiator. Geological Society, \Warch 13.—Dr. Aubrey Strahan, F.R.S., president, in the chair.—Dr. R. L. Sherlock and A. H. Noble: The glacial origin of the Clay- with-Flints of Buckinghamshire, and on a former course of the Thames. The superficial deposits are divided into Clay-with-Flints with the associated Gravelly Drift, and the Fluvioglacial Gravels. Certain high-level gravels, older than any of these, and also the river-gravels and alluvium of the present streams, are not dealt with in the paper. The evidence shows that the Clay-with-Flints and Gravelly Drift were formed by an ice-sheet which came from the north or north-west over the Chiltern Hills. Only the clean upper layers of ice surmounted the escarp- ment, and this produced the Clay-with-Flints and Gravelly Drift. At that time the Thames flowed from Bourne End through Beaconsfield and Rick- mansworth to Watford. The ice-sheet blocked the river-channel between Bourne End and_ Riclkmans- NO. 2213, VOL. 89] worth, and diverted the Thames southwards at Bourne End. The river beyond Watford was further blocked by the Eastern Drift. On the melting of the ice, Fluvioglacial Gravels were left over a great area. These gravels are composed chiefly of Eocene and Cretaceous materials derived from the Gravelly Drift. The floods from the melting ice, added to the waters of the Thames and Colne, produced the great flat through which the Thames now flows. After the re- treat of the ice, the Wye and Misbourne extended their channels over the Fluvioglacial Gravel flat, and some other small streams were formed.—Jane Longstaii: Some new Lower Carboniferous gastero- poda. Eight species of gasteropoda are described, six being regarded as belonging to five new genera or subgenera, the others representing Pithodea, De Koninck, which has not previously been recorded from the British or Irish Carboniferous Limestone. Linnean Society, March 21.—Dr. D. H. Scott, F.R.S., president, in the chair.—Dr. I. Bolivar and C, Ferriére: Orthoptera-Phasmidze of the Seychelles. —J. A. Liddell: Nitocrameira bdellurae, a new genus of parasitic Canthocamptidae.—W. West and Prof. G. S$. West: The periodicity of the phytoplankton of some British lakes. Paris. Academy of Sciences, March 11.—M. Lippmann in the chair.—C, Guichard: Osculating circles and oscu- lating spheres to the lines of curvature of a surface. —M. Lucas-Championniére was elected a member of the section of medicine and surgery in the place of the late O. M. Lannelongue-—MM. Fayet and Schaumasse: The elliptical character of the Schau- masse comet (1911h).—E. Vessiot: Permutable func- tions and continuous groups of linear functional transformations.—V. Jamet: Certain complexes of lines.—Rodolphe Soreau: Generalisation of Massau’s construction and abacus for solving equations of the form 27+ + 72°89 + #28 + ¢ =o—MM. Papin and Rouilly: The gyropter. Two diagrams completing the note published on March 4.—Samuel Lifchitz : The displacement of the particles in the Brownian movement. The explosive shock of the spark as the cause of the phenomenon.—Ch. Féry: A new thermo- electric combustion calorimeter. A calorimetric bomb is fixed by two dises of constantan in an external metallic envelope, the latter and the constantan discs forming a thermocouple.. The rise of temperature observed, which is high owing to the absence of water, is read directly on a _ millivoltmeter.—Jean Escard: Some practical arrangements for the deter- mination of the densities of solid bodies of small volume. es 6 EE $e N. & Z.’s latest instrument is a Wind Direction Recorder that accurately registers with a single pen ona rectilinear chart every change in the direction of the wind. Complete with vane, 20 feet of spindle, 400 charts, &c., Bie. £17): /10) = 0 1S Descriptive Pamphlet, and List Meteorological Instruments, post free. Negretti & Jame Holborn Circus, London, 45 Cornhill, E.C.; 122 ame or W. tS 6 eS ¢ FS ee of | e e | ¢ ¢ | | e ¢ e 4 | S ¢ xliv NATURE ae 4, IQI2 EAST LON DON COLLEGE. (UNIVERSITY OF LONDON.) Patron—HIS MAJESTY THE KING. Classics ... . F. R. Earp, M.A. English H. BE ttoc, M.A. French Mina Paguler. German ... J. Steppat, Ph.D. History ... THomas SECCOMBE, M.A. Mathematics. THE PRINCIPAL. Physics C. H. Less, D.Sc., F.R.S. Chemistry Ps Bot ee ds Hlewirn, DESc.kakwos Botany... 5 “2 ay .. F. E. Fritscu, D.Sc. Geclony. e .. W. L. Carter, M.A. ivil and Mechanical ~~ z Engineering ‘2 .. D. A. Low, M.I.M.E. Electrical Engineering | .. J. T. Morris, M.I.E E, Fees moderate. Valuable Entrance Scholarships awarded by Drapers Company. Special facilities for Post-Graduate and Research Students. Particulars of fees, courses of study, &c., on application to the REGISTRAR, or to J. L. S. HATTON, M.A., Principal, at the College. UNIVERSITY OF LONDON. KING’S COLLEGE. FACULTY OF SCIENCE. Courses of Study are arranged for Degrees in the University of London. ‘Students may also join for any of the subjects without taking the complete course. Several valuable Scholarships and Prizes are offered. The Laboratories of the College are open to post-Graduate and Research students. : Heads of Departnients. Mathematics Prof. S. A. F. Wuite, M.A. Physics Prof. C. G. Barkia, D.Sc. Chemist f Prof. Joun M. THOMSON, a D., F.R.S. Sma) \ Prof. H. Jackson, F.I.C, Gs Botany Prof. W. B. BorTToMLey, Ph iD), F.L.S. Zoology ... .. Prof. ARTHUR DeENpy, D.Sc., F.R.S. Geology and Mineralogy T. FranKwin Srsry, D.Sc. Physiol ( Prof. W. D. Haciisurton, M.D., B.Sc., ysiology a0 “1 ERS. Psychology eo .. W. Brown, M.A., D.Sc. ‘The TERM commences WEDNESDAY, MAY 1, 1912. For information and prospectus apply to the SECRETARY, King’s College, ‘Strand, London, W.C IMPERIAL COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, SOUTH KENSINGTON. INCLUDING ROYAL COLLEGE OF SCIENCE, ROYAL SCHOOL OF MINES, and CITY AND GUILDS (ENGINEERING) COLLEGE. A Special Course of April 23 next, on the PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS, by Professor V. H. BLACKMAN, M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S. For further particulars and for admission to the Course, application should be made to the SECRETARY. Advanced Lectures will be given, commencing IMPERIAL COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, SOUTH KENSINGTON. ~ INCLUDING THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF SCIENCE, the ROYAL SCHOOL OF MINES, and the CITY AND GUILDS (ENGINEERING) COLLEGE. A Special Course of Advanced Lectures will be given on RADIO-ACTIVITY by Professor the Hon. R. J. STRUTT, M.A, F-.R.S., beginning on April 24 next. Opportunities will be given for research work. For further particulars and for admission to the Course application should be made to the SECRETARY. THE UNIVERSITY OF LIVERPOOL. CHAIR OF PATHOLOGY. The Council of the University invite applications for this Chair. The duties of the Professor will commence, and the appointment date, from October 1, 1912. The stipend of the Chair is fixed at £500 per annum, together with one-third share of lecture and laboratory fees for subjects in charge of the Profess>r. Further particulars regarding the conditions and duties of the Chair may be obtained on application. P. HEBBLETHWAITE, Registrar. UNIVERSITY OF BIRMINGHAM. FACULTY OF MEDICINE WITH FOR ASSOCIATED THE GENER AE GEINTCAT AND QUEENS HOSPIi Ars EN CELING SCHOOL OF IN “—-1I I : : - > was afterwards put forward simul- 7-2 taneously from theoretical considerations by | two men of nearly the same name, Lorenz in | Copenhagen and Lorentz in Leyden. The little book which Prof. Roth and Dr. Eisen- lohr have prepared will prove invaluable to investigators in the subject, and, in fact, to all who have need to measure the refractive indices of liquids with the highest possible degree of accuracy. They fully describe the various forms of refractometer in use for the purpose and the methods of using them, and state the corrections | necessary when the temperature of the observa- tions differs appreciably from the standard, and give in tables the indices corresponding to the divisions in instruments with arbitrary scales. The old method of determining the deviation of a beam of light passing through the liquid contained in a hollow glass prism has entirely given way to the more convenient and more accurate method based upon the principle of total-reflexion. They describe further with equal fulness the method of | finding the density by means of a pyrometer, | point out the corrections required by the expan- sion of the glass, and give tables to facilitate their | application. Towards the end of the book the authors show by a few examples how closely the observed value of the molecular refractive index agrees with that deduced from the constitution, and discuss the meaning of the sensible differences that occur in certain groups of substances. The book closes with some useful tables, and a small book of five-figure logarithms is enclosed in a pocket within the cover. NO. 2214. VOL- 8q} | motive, the author deals with it in chapter i. OUR BOOKSHELF. The Modern Locomotive. By C. Edgar Allen. Pp. ix+175. (Cambridge: The University Press, 1912.) Price 1s. net. Tuis volume belongs to the series of Cambridge Manuals of Science and Literature, and taken as a whole the information given in it is up to date and described in terms clearly evident to the lay reader. As the boiler is “the heart and soul” of a loco- He claims that the multitubular boiler as fitted to the “Rocket ” originated with Mr. Booth, the secre- tary of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway— an unwarrantable claim, and one made for the first time, so far as the present reviewer’s know- ledge of locomotive history goes. The “Rocket's” multitubular boiler was to the designs of William Henry James, son of William James—the father of railways. In an agreement dated September 1, 1821, W. H. James’s patent was assigned to Messrs. G. Stephenson and Wm. Lush on certain terms, and it was with this boiler the prize of sool. was won at Liverpool in 1827 by the “Rocket.” The chapter is interesting ; it illustrates how old ideas are resuscitated even in locomotive engineer- ing; for instance, the spark arrestor, so called, illustrated in Fig. 9, and the variable blast pipe in Fig. 10, were both in use on the Manchester, Sheffield, and Lincolnshire Railway, now the Great Central Railway, in the year 1878. The question of a satisfactory spark arrestor is a prominent one at the present time, and many ex- periments are in progress: a combination of Louvre plates on the smoke box and an ash-eject- ing arrangement on the blast pipe is now giving satisfactory results. Chapter iii. is devoted to modifications and improvements in the standard boiler. The volume will be found to contain much in- teresting and useful information. It should be of much use to those of the general public who take an intelligent and intense interest in the locomotive. To the apprentice in the works the information should be of particular value. ING Me Ue: The Gardener and the Cook. By Lucy H. Yates. Pp. x+260. (London: Constable & Co., Ltd., 1912.) Price 3s. 6d. Tus little book is attractive in more ways than one. It stimulates the imagination as to | what can be done both in garden and kitchen, { more especially in the kitchen. It leaves, however, a little sediment of despair in the mind, after all, for where out of France are “Charlottes” to be found? So much depends upon “Charlotte,” the cook. What use is a kitchen-garden, however success- ful, if you have a stupid, obdurate “Charlotte,” who will not see that to be a real cook is to have a talent for taking pains, and that to be careful and wise is not to be mean? Who can persuade our. English cooks that cooking is an art, and II2 NATURE [ApRIL 4, 1912 requires interest, care, and work, and some imagination, and not a thing to be undertaken only to be done with as soon as possible? Would these women who are clamouring for the “right ” to do work for which they are obviously unfitted turn their superfluous energies to training themselves and then training our “‘ Charlottes” in the knowledge of the delights of the combination of thrift and dainty dishes, of which this book gives so fascinating and practical an account, then indeed would their now wasted energies have some real and useful result. There is no more needed reformation than that of work in our kitchens. To anyone with a conscience and some little know- ledge, the wastes and missed opportunities, even in the simplest kitchen, are appalling. This book should be a help to many a young housekeeper towards bettering things in her own home and perhaps inspiring a young “Charlotte ” to realise the beauty and importance of her work, and to lead her on also to realise the importance of small things in the kitchen. LELTERS LOY THE EDITOR: [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of Nature. taken of anonymous communications.] Acquired Characters and Stimuli. I tHank Sir Ray Lankester for the complimentary expression with which he begins his letter (NATURE, March 21) and for the friendly feeling which prevents him saying I am quibbling. However, he gives his reason for thinking I am quibbling. I will admit my offence if he will indicate precisely how an inborn trait is more inborn and less acquired than an acquirement. In my letter I implied that by “acquired character” biologists mean a_ trait developed under the influence of use or injury. Sir Ray Lankester insists that I am wrong. He says that Lamarck, the original user, employed the term to indicate a trait which is ‘‘abnormal,” because the individual who developed it was exposed to an “abnormal environment.” To quote his own words, “The new character or characters developed in re- sponse to the abnormal environment (which we assume to be allowed to act on the growing individual only, and not on its parents) are called by Lamarck —and those who wish to discuss Lamarck’s theory— “acquired characters’ (changements acquis). The word ‘ acquire’ is used to mean something ‘ added to’ or ‘ changed in’ the normal form of the species.” He adds ‘That, I take it, is Lamarck’s meaning, and it is what I, and others, have for more than twenty-five years accepted.” I cannot, of course, be sure of the identity of the “others? to whom Sir Ray alludes as having taken part in ‘‘a historical discussion,” but the following passages are taken at random from men who were not unknown about that time. ‘Lamarck .. . attri- buted the changes of species chiefly to the effects of changes in the conditions of life—such as climate, food, &c.—and especially to the desires and efforts of the animals themselves to improve their condition, leading to a modification of form or size in certain parts, owing to the well-known physiological law that all organs are strengthened by constant use, while NO. 2214, VOL. 89] No notice is | they are weakened or even completely lost by dis- use.” * ‘‘It seems difficult and well-nigh impossible to deny the transmission of acquired characters when we remember the influence which use and disuse have exercised upon certain special organs. It is well known that Lamarck attempted to explain the structure of the organism as almost entirely due to this principle alone.”’* ‘And so in the case of other animals, Lamarck believed that the adaptation of their forms to their habits could be explained by this ‘simple hypothesis that the habits created the forms, through the effects of use and disuse, coupled with heredity. Such is what is ordinarily known as Lamarck’s theory of evolution. We may as well re- member, however, that it really constitutes only one part of his theory; for besides the hypothesis of the cumulative inheritance of functionally-produced modi- fications—to which we may add the inherited effects of any direct action exercised by surrounding condi- tions of life—Lamarck believed in some transcendental principle tending to produce gradual improvement in predetermined lines of advance. Therefore it would be more correct to designate the former hypothesis by the name either of Erasmus Darwin, or, still better, of Herbert Spencer. Nevertheless, in order to avoid confusion, I will follow established custom, and sub- sequently speak of this hypothesis as the Lamarckian hypothesis-—understanding, however, that in employ- ing this designation I am not referring to any part or factor of Lamarck’s general theory of evolution other than the one which has just been described—namely, the hypothesis of the cumulative transmission of functionally-produced or otherwise ‘ acquired modifica- tions.’ ’’* It will be seen that I have sinned, if I have sinned, in good company. The men from whom I quote evi- dently regarded an acquired character as, in essence, a “functional modification,’”” an effect of ‘‘use or dis- use,’’ ‘‘to which may be added the inherited effects of any direct action exercised by surrounding conditions of life’ (e.g. injury). I suppose I could cite scores or hundreds of similar passages. The fundamental errors expressed or implied in them all are (1) that there is a general law that all organs are strengthened by constant use and weakened by disuse, and (2) that use and disuse produce only ‘‘abnormal”’ traits. There is no such law; some structures (e.g. external ears, hair, teeth) in the higher animals ce man) are not in the least affected by use; there is no clear evidence that animals low in the scale of life develop at all under this influence; and very clear evidence that the power, the potentiality, of so developing has undergone such increase in the higher animals that it constitutes the main feature of their evolution. To it they owe all their physical and mental adaptability— their intelligence, for instance. The child grows into the adult just as much under its influence as the adult grows into the exceptional adult (e.g. the trained athlete). We have every reason, therefore, to believe that the potentiality to develop under the influence of use, at any rate to any considerable extent, is a late and a high product of evolution. The point raised by Sir Ray Lankester is, however, as far as JI am concerned, immaterial—a distinction without a difference. If he prefers, let us, by all means, consider abnormality resulting from abnormal use as the distinguishing characteristic of an acquirement. To take an illustration, the muscu- lar development, both of the ordinary individual and of the blacksmith, is due to use. Sir Ray Lankester regards the former as normai, and therefore inborn 1 Wallace, ‘‘ Darwinism,” p. 3. 2 “ Weismann on Heredity,” English translation, 2nd edition, vol. i., BPS Saas = Pech f * Romanes, ‘‘ Darwin and After Darwin,” vol. i., p. 255. ‘again, however, the point is immaterial. APRIL 4, 1912] NATURE . and inheritable, and the latter as abnormal, and therefore acquired and non-inheritable. If almost all men laboured as blacksmiths the positions would be reversed; that which to-day is normal and inborn would become abnormal and acquired. I regret, how- ever, I am still unable to follow the line of thought which connects normality with innateness and inherit- ability, and abnormality with acquiredness and non- inheritability. In what respects is the normal char- acter more innate and inheritable than the abnormal trait? If Lamarck’s words, or the words of those who controverted him, had any meaning, what was that meaning? Sir Ray Lankester objects also to my use of the word ‘stimulus.’ It seems, for example, that I express myself wrongly when I say that a muscle grows under the stimulus of use. I fear, if he is right, I do not know the meaning of the word. Here His own word ‘influence’ will serve. The substitution does not affect the argument. Darwin’s theory of evolution through the natural selection of favourable variations—or at any rate what is known as the neo-Darwinian theory—is intelligible. It separates likenesses and differences between indi- duals (e.g. parent and offspring) into those which are inborn and inheritable and those which are acquired and non-inheritable. An inborn likeness or difference is one which depends on a likeness or ‘difference in germinal potentiality; an acquired like- ness or difference is one which depends on a likeness or difference in the action of the environment. On the other hand, the Lamarckian hypothesis, founded as it is on the notion that some characters (e.g. heads) are inborn, and others (e.g. scars) acquired, is not intelli- gible. The terms used are meaningless in the con- nection in which they are employed. Obviously, all characters depend equally on an interaction between germinal potentiality and external stimulus. They are all, therefore, as inborn and acquired, as blasto- genic and somatogenic as they can possibly be. No such things are conceivable as purely blastogenic and somatogenic characters, or characters which are more blastogenic or somatogenic than others. The whole “‘historical discussion,”’ therefore, is of the same order as would be one in which physicists discussed whether gravitation was blue or yellow. The Lamarckian controversy is, in effect, ended. ‘The great majority of biologists reject the hypothesis that acquirements are transmissible. The next step, I think, will be a rejection of the very notion that some characters are inborn and others acquired, and an acceptance of the reality that the different classes of characters are distinguishable from one another because they are responses to different kinds of stimuli—nutriment, use, injury, and the like. Doubt- less we shall then have a discussion as to what char- acters, in the different species, develop under this stimulus, and what under that, and ultimately a general recognition of the immensely important truth that the peculiar characteristic of the higher animals is that the individual develops after birth more under the influence of use than under any other stimulus— hence the fact that man, the highest animal of all, is, as Sir Ray lLankester has often insisted, pre- eminently the educable animal both in mind and in body. G. ArcupaLtt REID. Southsea, March 20. Red Water. A saMPLE of red water from a.crater lake in Uganda, which ‘looks like blood at times,” sent by Dr. R. van Someren presents some features of interest. NO. 2214, VOL. 89] The colour was separated by filtration through a Berkefeld filter, but not through filter paper. It dis- appeared on the addition of a mineral acid or caustic alkali, and was not extracted by ether. The red deposit on the Berkefeld filter consisted of dis- integrated organic remains. From the water itself mixed with nutrient agar a bacterial culture was obtained, which did not develop either in an artificial brine or in ordinary culture media. A litre of the red water contained 247 g. sodium chloride, 96°8 g. sodium carbonate, 538 g. sodium sulphate, 10°5 g. potassium chloride, 51 g. sodium bicarbonate, and 2°4 g. sodium phosphate. As the chemical composition of the water gives no clue to the colouring matter, it is probably due to an organism capable of growing in a practically saturated alkaline brine. We should be glad to know of the occurrence of similar red brines and the causes of coloration. Joun E. Mackenzie. T. M. Fintay. Chemistry Department, University of Edinburgh, March 28. April Meteor-showers. Tue following are the most important meteor- showers that become due between April 5 and the end of the month :— Epoch April 6, 2oh. (G.M.T.), 1st order of magni- tude. Principal maximum, April 7, 12h. 45m.; secondary maximum, April 8, 5h. 30m. Epoch April 9, 3h., 11th order of magnitude. Prin- cipal maximum, April 7, 16h. 15m.; secondary maxi- mum, April 8, 14h. Epoch April 7, 14h. 30m., roth order of magnitude. Principal maximum, April 8, 5h.; secondary maxi- mum, April 10, toh. 4om. Epoch April 14, 12h. 30m., approximately 16th order of magnitude. Principal maximum, April 14, 4h. tom.; secondary maxima, April 13, 6h. 30m. and toh. 30m. Epoch April 13, 22h., 3rd order of magnitude. Principal maximum, April 15, 13h. 3om.; secondary maximum, April 15, 16h. 30m. Epoch April 16, 17h., approximately roth order of magnitude. Principal maximum, April 17, 4h.; secondary maximum, April 19, oh. 45m. Epoch April 21, 4h., 1st order of magnitude. Prin- cipal maximum, April 20, 21h. 30m.; secondary maxima, April 20, toh. 20m., and April 21, 11h. 30m. Epoch April 23, 6h., approximately roth order of magnitude. Principal maximum, April 24, 1oh. 55m. ; secondary maxima, April 23, 11h. 50m., and April 25, toh. Epoch April 26, 6h., approximately 4th order of magnitude. Principal maximum, April 26, 11h. 50m. ; secondary maxima, April 26, 7h. 4om., April 27, toh. 50m., and April 28, oh. 55m. Epoch April 29, 14h., 7th order of magnitude. Principal maximum, April 28, 2h. 15m.; secondary maximum, April 28, 8h. 35m. The maxima about April 20-21, though belonging to an epoch of the first order of magnitude, are not so strong as they might be, the night maxima especially being rather weak. The maxima have been so com- puted that when observations are possible shooting stars should be seen within a few minutes from the predicted times. The heaviest maxima of the month are the principal maxima that occur on April 17 and April 24 respectively. Joun R. Henry. Dublin. 114 NATURE [Aprit 4, 1912 MAN OF NEANDERTHAL ING AD) JON IEUE, CAMBRIDGE FENS. TT°HE bones of primeval nian are so rare, and there is so much uncertainty as to the mode of occurrence and association of the earlier speci- mens, that it is important to place on record any new case which may be brought under our notice. I have had the good fortune lately to assist in digging out the skeleton of a man whose skull was distinctly of Neanderthal type. In this case I think I am justified in using that name, because as much as was preserved of the Neanderthal man is represented in the skull now described, and is similar to it. We cannot compare the Neanderthal man, whose lower jaw was lost, with the man of Mauer, near Heidelberg, of whom only the lower jaw has been preserved. But we have the lower jaw of the man found near Shippea Hill in the Cambridge Fens, and it differs in essential characters from that of Mauer. The skull of the Shippea man differs also in form from those of Sainte Chapelle, described by M. Marcellin Boule. The general section across the ground is as shown in Fig. 1. An island of Kimeridge Clay, known as Shippea Hill, rises out of the fen about 3 miles E.S.E. of Littleport, and on it a farm represents the site, and preserves some of the ancient masonry, of a monastic retreat connected with Ely. Fic. 1.—Shippea Hill. a, Kimeridge clay; 4, marl; ¢, Buttery clay ; +, position of skeleton. gravel; c, peat; @, white On the Littleport side the peat, with beds of white marl in it, rests at a depth of from 4 to 6 feet on a blue-grey fine unctuous clay, which we refer to as the Buttery Clay. This contains large shells of the common cockle with valves adherent, Tellina (Tacoma) balthica, Scrobicularia piperata, and other estuarine shells, and, in the peat above it, bones of the Urus, wild boar, and beaver have been found. On the south side of Shippea Hill the section is much the same, but here we have not, so far, found the estuarine shells in the Buttery Clay. Freshwater shells occur commonly in the white marl and less commonly in the peat. The skeleton was found in digging trenches through the peat in order to obtain the under- lying clay to lay on the land, so that a clean cut was made down to the Buttery Clay in each trench. Mr. Luddington, to whom the property belongs, and Mrs. Luddington, who has a collection of objects from the fens, informed us of the dis- covery, and gaye us every facility for investigating the circumstances on the spot at once. We were thus able to examine the section and collect a large number of the fragments of the skull and other bones of the skeleton which had been over- looked at first. The skeleton was found between Shippea Hill NO. 2214, VOL. 89| Farm and the railway, about 4 feet down in the peat, and a few inches above the Buttery Clay. It was bunched up so that all the bones were packed into a space not more than two feet square. It looked as if the man had been mired and sunk straight down exhausted, and not as if a dead body had been carried down by water. The character of the peat also precludes this sup- position, for it is peat grown on the spot, and not travelled peat, though in that often-flooded area it readily becomes sludge, and penetrates into any cavity. I lay stress upon this point because I know from my own experience in excavations that there are sources of error in speculations as to the original form of fossil skulls. If a sepulchral urn has not been tightly filled before interment, and the interior is capable of compression, it 1s commonly crushed, or, if not well fired, squeezed out of shape, without much fracture, and on drying retains its flattened form. Skulls also, if buried under conditions which do not allow of their being filled pari passw with the disappearance of the organic matter inside, are sometimes, of course, crushed flat, but sometimes only deformed by the pressure, and, when dried, appear to be of abnormal shape. In _ the example now described, however, the peat filled the skull and preserved its form against the small pressure of the overlying spongy material. Un- fortunately it got broken in the first excavation, but the fragments were not deformed, and readily fell into their place in the rotundity of the cranium. It has now been skilfully restored by Mr. C. E. Gray, and I hope on a future occasion to be able to offer a full description of it by an expert. I will only point out now that it is a good round skull, somewhat largely developed posteriorly, but not elongated into a conical projection in the occipital region. . It agrees very well in its norma verticalis with the Neanderthal skull. (See Fig. 2.) The most conspicuous feature is the prominent brow, its strong supraciliary ridges and flattened forehead bringing it again into comparison with the Neanderthal skull. (See Fig. 3, side view, and Fig. 4, front view.) There is very little of the face or upper jaw preserved. The lower jaw of the Neanderthal man is missing; so here our comparison with that example ends. In the Shippea Hill man the lower jaw (see Fig. 5)* is well preserved. It does not show the flat or receding chin of the Mauer jaw or of some of those recently described by M. Marcellin Boule. The teeth are large, strong, and sound, but curiously worn down obliquely on the outer margin, as if the upper jaw had been somewhat broader than the lower. Here, therefore, is a man whose skull shows all the characteristics of that of Neanderthal, in- cluding the prominent supraciliary ridges, but having in addition a powerful lower jaw, and large terminations to his limb bones, and found undoubtedly im the peat of the fens. 1 The drawings Figs. 1 to 5 are by the skilful and experienced pencil of Mr. Edwin Wilson. f APRIL 4, 1912] NATURE I reserve discussion of the possibility of this part of the peat being of more ancient date than that to which it has generally been referred—an opinion which might be suggested by the occurrence of Rhinoceros tichorhinus under the peat at Little Downham, or of the still older Elephas antiquus under the margin of the fen deposits near Whittlesea, and will content myself now with stating my own conviction that the peat in which the Shippea man was found cannot be older than Neolithic times, and may be much newer. Notwithstanding his Neanderthal character | should not be surprised to find that he was a man of much later date, even a monk from Ely, per- Vi eee Xe, -T> >) APR 22 19) A WEEKLY ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL OF SCIENCK. “To the solid ground Ne ‘anal Muses ASS Of Nature trusts the mind which builds for aye.’-—WorDSWoRTH. a In DEX NUM™MBER. ~ No , VOL. 89] THURSDAY, AP RIL 11; I9i2 _[Price ONE SHILLING ia “Registered s asa s a Newspaper a at the General Post “Office. aan" ; (All Rights Recenved: ‘REYNOLDS & BRANSON, ‘Ltd. Awards gained in 1911 for Scientific i enarit GOLD MEDAL, ALLAHABAD. GRAND PRIX, TURIN. “ RYSTOS ” OPTICAL BENCH For use with the Stroud & Rendell Science Lantern. ROTATING ELECTRIC LANTERN. The best and most convenient instrument for science teaching. Write for fully illus- I) trated Catalogue to NEWTON & CoO., Manufacturers of Optical and Scientific Instruments, ee WIGMORE ST., LONDON, W. Descriplive fear of Accessory Apparatus for the Telegrams: ** Newtobar, London” Es:ablishd over 200 years, | . & R.” lantern, post free. 14 éominiiceny. STREET, LEEDS. Optical Bench for lantern, one metre long, without fittings, £1 10 O | Sliding tables, 4/6 each. Lens holders, 5/6. Adjustable slit, 4/9. Screen holder, 4/- Standard candle holder, 1/- Circular table, 1/6. Screen with gauze, 3/6, Half-metre extension with foot, 12/6. The above can also be used without the lantern as an ordinary optical bench, and any part can be supplied separately. > Ce > as ¢ EEO Ea (eC | N. & Z.’s latest instrument is a Jonn J. GRIF F IN « SONS) Wind Direction Recorder KINGSWAY, LONDON, W.C. MAKERS OF Physical Apparatus | | GRAND PRIX | DIPLOMA OF HONOUR AND 3 GOLD MEDALS TURIN INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 19144 that accurately registers with a single pen on a rectilinear chart every change in the direction of the wind. Complete with vane, 20 feet of spindle, 400 charts, &c., eee 21702 10. = 0 Descriptive Pamphlet, and List of Meteorological Instruments, post free. Negretti & Zamb Holborn Circus, London, E.C 45 Cornhill, E.C.; 122 Regent St ES © SE $C oc Rs ) SE} ae ¢ Ce liv NALORE [APRIL I1, 1912 ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. ALBEMARLE STREET, PICCADILLY, W. Tuesday next (April 16), at Three o'clock, EDMUND GOSSE, Esq.. LL.D. First of two lectures on “‘ ALGERNON CHARLES SWINBURNE: His Farry Lire anp Work.” Half-a-Guinea the Course. Thursday (April 18), at Three o'clock, Professor ARTHUR W. CROSSLEY, D.Sc., F.R.S. First of two lectures on ‘SYNTHETIC Ammonia AND Nitric Acip FROM THE ATMOSPHERE.” Half-a-Guinea. Saturday (April 20), at Three o'clock, REGINALD BLOMFIELD, Esq., A-R.A, M.A. First of three lectures on ‘‘ THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE RENAISSANCE IN FRANCE, 1494-1661.” Half-a-Guinea. Subscription to all the Courses in the Season, Two Guineas. The Friday Evening Meetings will be resumed on April 19, at Nine o'clock, when ALAN A. CAMPBELL SWINTON, Esq., M.Inst.C.E., M.I.E.E., will give a discourse on ‘‘ELEcTRicITy Suppty: Past, PRESENT, AND Furure.” To these Meetings Members and their friends only are admitted. EAST LONDON COLLEGE. (UNIVERSITY OF LONDON.) Patron—HIS MAJESTY THE KING. Classics ... F. R. Earp, M.A. English H. Bettoc, M.A. French Mina Pagulkr. German ... J. Sterpat, Ph.D History ne THomas SEccOMBE, M.A. Mathematics... THER PRINCIPAL. Physics a £85 ont 2) Cs iE wes, DiSc:; EReS Chemistry at 8 ae eee iekbe wins. D.Sc.) be Ress Botany = A F. E. Frirscu, D.Sc. Geology .. A W. L. Carver, M.A. Civil and Mechanical Engineering Os ono Electrical Engineering D. A. Low, M.I.M.E. J. T. Morris, M.I.E E. Fees moderate. Valuable Entrance Scholarships awarded by Drapers ‘Company. Special facilities for Post-Graduate and Research Students. Particulars of fees, courses of study, &c., on application to the REGISTRAR, or to J. L. S. HATTON, M.A., Principal, at the College. SOUTH-WESTERN POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE, MANRESA ROAD, CHELSEA. Telephone: 899 Western. An Introductory Course of Lectures with Practical Work on the BIOLOGY OF THE SEA WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO FISHERIES, BY J..T. CUNNINGHAM, M.A., F.Z.S., Tuesdays, 7 p.m., commencing May 7, 1912. Fee for the Course, 35. THE SIR JOHN CASS TECHNICAL INSTITUTE, JEWRY STREET, ALDGATE, E.C. DSc, PhD, E-1:C; The tollowing Special Courses of Instruction, suited to the requirements of those engaged in Chemical and Metallurgical Industries, will be given during the Summer Term, 1912 _ The scope of the instruction will, as far as possible, be adapted to the individual requirements of the students. TECHNICAL GAS ANALYSIS. By CuHarves A. Keane, D.Sc., Ph.D., F.I.C. A Course of Practical Work. Wednesday evenings, 7 to 10 p.m., com- mencing Wednesday, April 17, t9r2. FUEL ANALYSIS. By J. S. S. Brame. A Course of Laboratory Work in the methods employed for the Analysis and Examination of Fuels. Monday evenings, 7 to 10 p.m., commencing Monday, April 1s, 1g12 Detailed Syllabus of the Courses may be had upon application at the Office of the Institute or by letter to the Principat. Principal Cuarves A. KEANE, | BIRKBECK COLLEGE, BREAMS BUILDINGS, CHANCERY LANE, E.C. COURSES OF STUDY (Day and Evening) for the Degrees of the UNIVERSITY OF LONDON in the FACULTIES OF ARTS & SCIENCE (PASS AND HONOURS) under RECOGNISED TEACHERS of the University. SCIENCE.—Chemistry, Physies, Mathematies (Pure and Applied), Botany, Zoology, Geology. ARTS.—Latin, Greek, English, French, German, History, Geography, Logie, Economies, and Applied). Evening Courses for the Degrees in Law and Economics. = ac { Day: Science, £17 10s.; Arts, £10 10s. SESSIONAL FEES \ Evening: Science, Arts, or Economics, £5 5s. POST-GRADUATE AND RESEARCH WORK. For particulars apply to the SECRETARY. G. ARMITAGE-SMITH, M.A., D.Lit., Principal. IMPERIAL COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, SOUTH KENSINGTON. INCLUDING THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF SCIENCE, the ROYAL SCHOOL OF MINES, and the CITY AND GUILDS (ENGINEERING) COLLEGE. A Special Course of Advanced Lectures with practical work will be given on PROTISTOLOGY by Mr. C. CLIFFORD DOBELL, M.A., beginning on April 24 next. For further particulars and for admission to the Course application should be made to the SECRETARY. BEDFORD COLLEGE FOR WOMEN (UNIVERSITY OF LONDON), YORK PLACE, BAKER STREET, LONDON, W. Principal—Miss M. J. Tuke, M.A. The EASTER TERM begins on THURSDAY, APRIL 25, 1912. Lectures are given in preparation for all Examinations of the University of London in Arts, Science and Preliminary Medicine; for the Teacher's Diploma, London; the Teacher's Certificate, Cambridge; and for the Cambridge Higher Local Examination. Six Laboratories are open to Students for practical work. There is a Special Course of Scientific Instruction in Hygiene designed to furnish training for Women Factory and Sanitary Inspectors and ‘Teachers of Hygiene. The Art School (which is conducted at South Villa, Regent’s Park) may be attended by students who are not taking other subjects at the College. A single Course in any subject may be attended. Regular Physical Instruction is given free of cost to students who desire it by a fully qualified woman teacher. REID TRUSTEES' SCHOLARSHIP. ONE SCHOLARSHIP, value £60 a year for three years, is offered by the Trustees on the result of the College Entrance Scholarship Examin- ation. The scholar will be required to come into residence at the College in the October following the award Further particulars on application to the Hon. Sec. to the Reid Trust, Bedford College. COLLEGE ENTRANCE SCHOLARSHIPS. THREE ENTRANCE SCHOLARSHIPS (one in Arts and two in Science) will be offered for competition In June next, viz. :— Reid, in Arts, value £30 a year for three years. Pfeiffer, in Science, value £50 a year for three years. Henry Tate, in Science, value £40 a year for two years. Full particulars on application to the PRINCIPAL. RESIDENCE. Accommodation for 67 Resident Students is previded, partly in the College and partly in an additional residence at South Villa, Regent's Park. Full particulars on application to the Principat at the College. SECONDARY TRAINING DEPARTMENT. Head of the Departrment—Miss S. MEtuuisu, M.A. The Course includes full preparation for the Examinations for the Teaching Diplomas granted by the Universities of London and Cambridge. Students are admitt:d to the Course in October and in January. One Free Place (value £26 5s ), one Scholarship of the value of £20, and a limited number of grants of £10 are offered for the Course beginning in October, 1912. They will be awarded to the best candidates holding a degree or its equivalent in Arts or Science. Applications should be sent to the HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT. THE UNIVERSITY OF LEEDS. DEPARTMENT OF: AGRICULTURE. Applications are invited for the appointment of ASSISTANT LEC- TURER in AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. Particulars may be obtained from the CLERK TO THE SENATE. Italian, Mathematies (Pure THURSDAY, APRIL 11, 1912. KRUMMEL’S HANDBOOK OF OCEANOGRAPHY. Handbuch der Ozeanographie. By Prof. Dr. O. Kriimmel. Band ii., Die Bewegungsformen des Meeres (Wellen, Gezeiten, Str6mungen). Zweite Auflage. Pp. xvi+766. (Stuttgart: J. Engel- horns Nachf., 1911.) Price 32 marks. ETEOROLOGISTS and_ oceanographers are blessed beyond most scientific stu- dents in having at their disposal standard works which not only give an exhaustive list of important books and papers relating to their subjects, and a trustworthy statement of their contents, but an ordered survey of the present state of those sciences and a just, critical estimate of current progress. What Hann is to meteorology, Kriim- mel is to oceanography. The “Handbuch der Meteorologie ” of the former, and the “ Handbuch der Ozeanographie ” of the latter, with their hun- dreds of pages of expensive printing—formule and footnotes—would surely be the despair of most British publishers, and yet they are some- how kept fairly up to date by new editions. We are concerned here with the second volume of the new issue of Kriimmel’s great book, which follows the first after the interval of four years. It deals with dynamical oceanography, and {falls into three major divisions—waves, tides, and cur- rents; the first two occupying about half the book, with two hundred pages each, and the last the other half with some four hundred pages. In the first division we find accounts of the theory of surface waves in deep and shallow water, and of observations of the size of waves. The relation of surface waves to the winds is next considered, and then comes an extremely interest- ing chapter on modifications of waves in shallow water and along coasts. A chapter on waves produced by earthquakes and similar disturbances is followed by one on stationary waves and seiches, with a summary of the late Prof. Chrystal’s re- searches. The final chapter of this section dis- cusses the phenomena of internal waves and “dead water.” In all there is so much that is recent that this division of the work may not unfairly be said to constitute the first general treatise on a new subject. Prof. Kriimmel treats the tides in a novel and extremely suggestive manner. After general lescriptions of the phenomena of the tides and of rethods of observation, the equilibrium, dynami- , “canal,” and stationary-wave theories are stated and discussed. Harmonic analyses of tidal observations, tidal currents, bores, and_ allied phenomena are each given a chapter, and the NO. 2215, VOL. 89| NATURE 133 section concludes with a full and masterly descrip- tion of the tidal characteristics of the great divi- sions of the ocean. The last division, on oceanic currents, has prac- tically only two chapters; after a short introduc- tion on methods of observation, a chapter of 100 pages deals with the surviving theories of the causes producing and modifying translational movements, and the work concludes with a monu- mental chapter of 180 pages on the currents of each of the great oceans and the enclosed and fringing seas. Here the great feature is the treat- ment of horizontal and vertical movements to- gether, giving a complete view of the circulation in each case and not merely of one of its com- ponents at a time. It is, of course, impossible to “review ” a work of this kind in detail. The features which are most impressive in this case are three, and they concern only the broader aspects. First, we note the immense value of the geographical point of view which is adopted and persisted in through- out. The results of recondite research in many branches of pure and applied science are laid under contribution almost all through the book, but there is never any doubt left that the essential problems are those of distribution—the work be- longs in more than name to a series of “ geographi- cal handbooks.’”’ Secondly, we appreciate the cc2- spicuous fairness of the author in reviewing the work of different observers. No one disputes the importance of the improved methods of observa- tion which have come into use in recent years in, for example, the measurement of temperature in the depths; but Prof. Kriimmel fully admits the value of the earlier work, and of work done by sailors and other observers to whom the new methods were, or are, not accessible; and he makes profitable use of the old data as well as of the new. Lastly, we are profoundly impressed by the extraordinary completeness of the work. There are few fields in which the recent output has been greater and more widely scattered in all sorts of unlikely places than in oceanography, but we have failed to discover the omission of any im- portant contribution. THE INSURANCE ACT, 1011. National Insurance. By A. S. Comyns Carr, W. H. Stuart Garnett, and J. H. Taylor. With a preface by the Right Hon. D. Lloyd George, M.P. Pp. xxxi+504. (London: Maemillan and Co., Ltd., 1912.) Price 6s. net. N the brief preface with which the Chancellor of the Exchequer introduces this book to the public, he repeats the statement that “we have swept into the National Insurance scheme some G 134 NATURE [APRIL 11, 1912 10,000,000 workers hitherto unprovided for,” in other words, that one-fourth of the population of the United Kingdom are workers (not of the lowest class) who have not hitherto “ provided for”’ themselves in sickness. He ignores the multitude of members of unregistered friendly societies, and of other persons who have hitherto provided for themselves in sickness to their own satisfaction. The authors of the book have fallen into the same error (see p. 98). The Bill, which is now an Act, was introduced without that patient and systematic inquiry into facts which ought to have preceded a measure so comprehensive; its defects were hastily patched up from day to day as they were brought to light, vital alterations were made in its very last stages, and it is being over-hastily brought into operation. As an almost necessary consequence of this haste, the Act is probably one of the most complicated and perplexing statutes ever passed. Mr. Lloyd George is therefore right in com- mending this book to all who wish to bear their share in working out the scheme of the Act, and it will also be useful to those who are compelled to work out that scheme, whether they wish to do so or not. He says truly that the authors have collected a mass of information, which cannot fail to be of value. When it is remembered that the Act only became law on December 16, 1911, immense credit is due to them for their industry and insight. They have cited nearly three hun- dred law cases, and have shrewdly and acutely commented upon each section of the Act. The preliminary chapters are clearly written and full of interest. In one of them the financial side of the Act is discussed and vindicated. A scientific journal cannot but take note of the manner in which science has been misused in support of the Act. Eminent actuaries have made calculations based upon the unverified hypothesis that the probable experience under compulsory insurance may be deduced from that under voluntary insur- ance; and have held that by the manipulation of ‘eserves you can remedy the inherent error of sharging a uniform contribution for a varying risk. Unforeseen and dangerous consequences may ‘ollow if certain sections of the Act become opera- ‘ive. For example, Section 63 (4) directs that the “average expectation of sickness” is to be “cal- culated in accordance with the tables prepared by the Insurance Commissioners for the purpose of valuations,” and that if in any place the actual amount of sickness is 10 per cent. more than that assumed average, the local authorities, the water companies, and the owners of land are to be mulcted in that excess. If the tables to be pre- pared by the commissioners should be based upon NO» 2215, «VO. 69)| the same unverified hypothesis as those upon which the Act has been framed, this section may result in great mischief and wrong. The disregard shown in the Act to the just claims of the medical profession is another grave defect in it from the scientific point of view. Some slight errors in the book are to be noted. At p. 163 “periods” should be “persons.” At page 186, “ Registrar-General” should be “chief registrar.” The index is not sufficiently copious. JAEKEL’S CLASSIFICATION OF VERTEBRATES. Die Wirbeltiere. Eine Uebersicht iiber die fossilen und lebenden Formen. By Prof. Otto Jaekel. Pp. vili+252. (Berlin: Gebriider Borntraeger, torr.) Price 10 mk. 60 pfg. N this volume, which is apparently intended to be a text-book for students, the author further exemplifies his distinctly original views—some of — which have been previously mentioned in NaTuRE —with regard to the taxonomy and phylogeny of vertebrates. In the preface he tells us that par- ticular attention has been directed to the illustra- tions, as a good figure, in his opinion, is worth half-a-score pages of descriptive text. On the selection and execution of these text-figures, Dr. Jaekel may be cordially congratulated, as they are a long way above the average of those to be found in the great majority of text-books, and — thus serve in great degree to justify the aforesaid assertion, and likewise render his work highly useful to students and teachers, whether his views — on classification be accepted in their entirety or no. The first sixteen pages of the volume are devoted to a general discussion of the classifica- tion of vertebrates—a term which Dr. Jaekel uses in the same sense as the chordates of other writers—with special reference to the taxonomic position of the tunicates; this introductory section concluding with a- table of geological horizons. The rest of the book is devoted to a systematic survey of the various groups. Dr. Jaekel divides the Vetebrata into three ‘‘ Unterstamme,” or sub- kingdoms; namely, Protetrapoda, Eotetrapoda, and Tetrapoda. The first includes tunicates alone; the second comprises fishes, in the widest sense of that term; while in the third are grouped the whole of the remaining vertebrates. As regards the Eotetrapoda, it must suffice to men- tion that this is divided into three classes: (1) Malacostomata, which includes as sub-classes the extinct pterichthyds and cephalaspids, and the existing lampreys and lancelets; (2) Hypostomata, embracing the Paleozoic placoderms, and _ the living sturgeons, chimeeroids, and selachians; and (3) Teleostomata, with all the more typical fishes. APRIL II, 1912] NATURE 135 As regards the Tetrapoda, the most striking innovation is the interpolation of the class ‘‘ Para- theria” between Aves and Mammalia, as origin- ally proposed by the author in the Zoologischer Anzeiger for 1910 (vol. xxxvi., pp. 113-124). At the risk of repeating what has been already men- tioned in this journal, it is advisable to remind our readers that this group is taken to include therapsidans (as represented by the African Tri- assic Lycosaurus and its relatives), chelonians, typical anomodonts (Dicynodon, etc.), therio- donts, and monotremes. Such, it should be men- tioned, is the classification given in the table of contents, although in the text we find some departure from this, the Therapsidi there forming a “Hauptordnung,” with the Testudinata and Anomodontii as ‘‘Nebenordnungen,” while the Theriodonti constitute a second Hauptordnung, with the Monotremati as a Nebenordnung. To recapitulate the characters on which the author relies as a reason for including suck diverse types as chelonians and monotremes in a single class would occupy too much space; but it may be questioned whether any of these are really sufficiently important to justify such a sweeping change. Clearly neither the production of young by means of eggs nor the formation of secondary noses by means of an under-roofing of the palate comes under this category; while such features as a depressed and small-brained skull, large and lateral eyes, certain points connected with the dentition, and the structure of the occi- pital condyle or condyles are of little or no im- portance. Similarly, the constancy of the phalangeal formula (except when it has been specially modified, as in turtles) throughout the group can scarcely be regarded as more than an inheritance of a common archaic feature. On the other hand, the author allows no value to the possession by monotremes of hair and certain other mammalian features (exclusive of warm blood, which may be regarded as a secondary character). Accordingly, while giving full credit to Dr. Jaekel for his careful and painstaking investigations, we are not yet prepared to accept his views of the classification of the higher verte- brates in their entirety. Rea: THE PRODUCTION OF WHEAT. Wheat-growing in Canada, the United States, and | the Argentine: including comparisons with other areas. By W. P. Rutter. Pp. x+315. (Lon- don: A. and C. Black, 1911.) Price 3s. 6d. net. HIS book represents an inaugural disserta- tion submitted by the degree of Master of Commerce of the University of Manchester, and constitutes a general examination of the condi- NO. 2215, VOL. 89] tions under which our present wheat supply is grown and marketed. It opens with a discussion of the nutrition of the wheat plant, the effect of climate, and the limits within which wheat can be commercially grown, the varieties and their appropriate regions and soils. While it is easy to perceive certain relationships between environment (including therein latitude, soil, and such meteorological factors as temperature and rainfall), it proves as yet impossible to give these factors any quantita- tive expression; we can only say generally that wheat is most suited by what climatologists call “steppe” conditions, and that the hard, strong wheats are generally spring sown and grown in areas with a dry, cold winter and a summer of progressive heat and desiccation. Some discus- sion then follows of the character of western farm- ing, the systems of land tenure, and the labour conditions that prevail, following which come tables setting out the yield per acre and the total production in the countries under consideration. An account of the methods of transporting wheat in America will be of particular interest to the English reader; here are described the great railroad systems, the ports, and waterways, the freights, both local and overseas, so that one can get an idea of the charges which the foreign grain has to bear before it is marketed in competition with our home-grown produce. Later chapters explain the system of elevators, the storage charges, the inspection and grading which enable dealings to be made without the purchaser seeing samples or even knowing where may be the parcel of wheat that he is buying. The great grain markets are described, and the dealing in futures and the effect of such specula- tions on the consuming farmer and the public are discussed. Finally, Mr. Rutter examines the prospects of the future, and considers to what extent the ex- port is likely to be maintained at its present mag- nitude. To do this it is necessary to consider how far the conditions of farming in America are changing, to what degree the soil is becoming exhausted and what new land is available, also what increase is probable in the consumption in America. Upon these questions to a large extent depends the future profitableness of British farm- ing ; the rise of prices that has been slowly gather- ing headway during the last dozen years repre- sents to some extent the depreciation of gold, but also the manner in which the consuming popula- tion has been increasing faster than the wheat areas available. Englishmen are perhaps not much in the habit of paying attention to these general surveys, and certainly Mr. Rutter’s dis- 136 NATURE [APRIL II, 1912 sertation is the first of its kind in this country, but no serious student of agriculture, and parti- cularly of its relation to the trend of commer- cial and social development, will fail to derive profit from Mr. Rutter’s book. It represents an immense amount of painstaking work, such as can only be appreciated by one who has himself tried to reduce to some common denom- inator the scattered statistics and information about various countries, and it should find an in- terested public now that agriculture is being systematically studied and taught in the United Kingdom. Je 1D); 1ST. ACTUAL ELECTROCHEMISTRY. Applied Electrochemistry. By Prof. M. de Kay Thompson. Pp. xii+329. (New York: The Macmillan Co.; London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., r9rr.) Price gs. net. HERE have been many books written on this subject, and they are apt to come under two heads, the purely scientific, in which the principles of modern clectrolytic theory Are discussed very fully, without much information as to their practical application; and the purely com- mercial, in which the various industries are de- scribed, with views of the various kinds of plants. A third variety might be included which discusses all sorts of processes, most of them never having had any real existence, the information and illus- trations being taken entirely from the rather imaginative patent literature of the subject. Dr. Thompson does not begin with an elaborate treatise on what is known as “theory ”—he as- sumes that the reader is well acquainted with the first principles; he merely refers to them, and utilises them and their formula as he needs them. He discusses first such subjects as electrochemical analysis. This chapter is a mere sketch, but a good sketch of the subject, which is now far too large to be treated so shortly. A reader would get a good idea of this sort of analysis from the book, but in order to utilise it he would have to study a special treatise. Electro-plating is treated very shortly, but in a refreshingly common-sense way. This common sense runs through the whole book. It is not necessary to give a list of the contents; it may be taken that the book gives a concise account in clear and scientifically accurate language of all the important electrolytic and allied processes in commercial use, and that it does not discuss all sorts of inventions that have been failures in practice. It is a great pity that such failures are not discussed as failures, the reasons of their non-success being given. These would be very valuable, but difficult to In science, both applied and unapplied, NO. 2215, VOL. &g| most give. people are far too reticent about failures, yet there is much to be learned from them. Dr. Thompson deals very fully with the electrolysis of salt in the wet way, and one of the most interest- ing chapters is that on ozone. Though there are books on ozone there is not much trustworthy information, and this chapter is very welcome. The book is American, with heavy American: paper but no aggressive American spelling. It has involved a great deal of literary work, and. references are always given. There can be little doubt that the amount of matter read and rejected. was greater than that utilised. The work is, in short, an admirable, intelligent account of the: electrochemical industry as it exists. J. SwiInBurNe. A TREATISE ON CHOLERA. Cholera and its Treatment. By Prof. L. Rogers. pp. xiv+236. (London: Henry Frowde and Hodder and Stoughton, 1911.) Price ros. 6d. net. HIS book is a complete treatise on cholera, containing all the essentials of the subject without being over-burdened with details which are of little practical importance. The first and second chapters deal with the history of cholera epidemics and their lessons, and the epidemiology of the disease. In chapter iii. the etiology and pro- phylaxis of the disease are discussed, and it com- mences with a description of the specific organism. of the disease, the comma bacillus of Koch, which the author fully accepts as the cause of cholera. In this section we should have been glad to see a somewhat fuller discussion of the significance of the various cholera-like comma bacilli which have been isolated during the last few years. The hypothesis of Emmerich that cholera is a condi- tion of nitrite poisoning is not accepted by the author. Prophylactic vaccination by means cf cholera vaccine is regarded as being of consider- able value, and the measures to be taken for the disinfection of infected wells are described. Chapter iv. deals with the clinical aspects of cholera and its diagnosis, chapter v. with the morbid anatomy and pathology. In the final chapter the treatment is discussed at some length, and to many this will be considered the most im— portant part of the book, for the author himself has contributed in no small measure to the rational treatment of this terrible malady. Dr. Rogers is entirely opposed to the purgation method except at the very early stage and before the onset of the typical watery evacuations, the ‘‘rice-water stools.”” Opium also has to be used with extreme caution. Injections of saline fluid, either per rectum, subcutaneously, intraperitoneally, or ArRin Li, £912’ NATURE 137 intravenously, according to circumstances, are regarded as potent remedial measures, but still better is the similar use of a hypertonic salt solu- tion, introduced by Dr. Rogers, and minute details care given for its proper administration. Dr. Rogers also advocates the administration of permanganates, either in solution or in pill form, their action being to oxidise and destroy the toxin. By the adoption of the hypertonic salt injections plus permanganates the mortality in the Calcutta Hospital was about 23 per cent. in 1909-1910, a ‘reduction of more than half the rate obtaining | among cases treated with physiological saline solution given intravenously (mortality 51°9 per cent. in 1907). This is a splendid record, and we can only hope that Dr. Rogers’s interesting book will be widely read and his methods adopted by all those who have to deal with cholera. IRs Ws Jel OUR BOOKSHELF. A Monograph of the Mycetozoa: a Descriptive Catalogue of the Species in the Herbarium of the British Museum. By Arthur Lister, F.R.S. Second edition, revised by Gulielma Lister. Pp. v+ 302+201 plates (120 coloured). (Lon- don: printed by order of the Trustees of the British Museum, and sold by Longmans and Co., B. Quaritch, and Dulau and Co., Ltd., and at the British Museum (Natural History), 1911.) Price 30s. ‘Tue Mycetozoa are miscroscopical organisms possessing some of the attributes of both animal and vegetable life, as commonly understood, but | they are now generally referred to the vegetable kingdom. They differ from the lower fungi inas- much as the spores give birth to swarm-cells or moving cells, instead of a mycelium. The swarm- cells coalesce to form a wandering plasmodium, which ultimately develops sporangia, bearing spores inside, or sporophores, bearing spores on the outside. Further, the Mycetozoa feed on bacteria. The first edition of the late A. Lister’s monograph was published in 1894, and the second edition, now before us, is a revision and aug mentation by his daughter, Gulielma Lister. This work is an official publication of the Botanical Department of the British Museum, and Dr. A. B. Rendle, the keeper, says, in his pre- face: “A special feature of this edition is the ‘replacement of the collotype plates by a new and more complete series. A large proportion has been reproduced by the three-colour process, and greater justice has thus been done to the original drawings by Mr. and Miss Lister. . . . That so large a proportion are reproduced in colour is due to Miss Lister’s generosity. A bibliography has been added, and also a short glossary.” The most important alteration is in the nomenclature : the earliest specific name, under whatever genus it may have been published, has now been NO. 2215, VOL. 89] adopted, and the starting-point for those names, as well as those for the genera, is the “Species Plantarum ” of Linneeus, published in 1753. This has necessitated very numerous changes. Miss Lister deserves the congratulations and thanks of students for the admirable and authori- tative work she has completed. Letterpress and illustrations alike are good, and it should give an impulse to the study of some of the most elegant organisms in nature, open to everyone who can afford a microscope—organisms that abound wherever there is other vegetation, and a collec- tion of which might be contained in a match-box. Wi. B. Hi: Evolution in the Past. By Henry R. Knipe. Pp. xv+242. (London: Herbert and Daniel, 1912.) Price 12s. 6d. net. Just as the researches of Arthur Evans in Greece, and Flinders Petrie in Egypt, have added whole chapters to the history of those countries, so the labours of Cope, Marsh, Osborn, and others in America, Dollo in Belgium, Andrews in the Faytm, and elsewhere, have contributed so largely to the past records of our earth that we are now almost as well acquainted with its ancient denizens as if they formed a part of its living fauna. In this happy condition of time and circum- stance Mr. H. R. Knipe has brought out his new book, “Evoluticn in the Past,” and having gathered together, from every available source, the latest information on the life history of our planet—from the earliest traces of living things up to the coming of man—and being furthermore | aided by the spirited restorations of animals by Alice B. Woodward, and of plant life by E. Bucknall, he has produced one of the most fascinating and readable books of the year. As a guarantee for the accuracy of the restora- tions made, the author and the artist have both received valuable help from Dr. Arthur Smith Woodward, Dr. Andrews, Drs. Calman and Bather, and other eminent authorities in the Natural History Museum, who have given them the benefit of their up-to-date knowledge, and carefully criticised the work throughout. Fifty full-sized plates of animals and six of land- scapes in the past render the book attractive to the veriest tyro, whilst the avoidance of technical terms makes the text more agreeable to the general reader, and an excellent holiday com- panion. By E. P. Larken. Fisher Unwin, Leisure Hours with Nature. Pp. xv+263. (London: T. ned.) Price 2s: Mr. Larken here provides interesting reading- matter and a profusion of well-reproduced photo- graphs relating to various objects and scenes in nature. The rapid increase in the number of books dealing with nature-study indicates, it may be hoped, not only a growing interest in animate nature, but the development of keener observation of plants and animals among young people. NATURE ArRIL 11, ou LET BRS DOMME DITOR: [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of Nature. No notice is taken of anonymous communications.] Skull of a Neanderthal Type in the Cambridge Fens. THE manner in which Prof. McKenny Hughes applies the term ‘Neanderthal’? to a human skull recently discovered in the peat of the Cambridge fens (Nature, April 4, p. 114) will certainly mislead anthro- pologists abroad and also at home as regards the true nature of his discovery. From the excellent figures which he appends to his article there cannot be the slightest doubt that the skull he describes is a fairly typical specimen of the round-headed race which came into England during the Bronze period. Far from being of the Neanderthal type, the specimen he describes is as opposite to that type as has ever been produced in the evolution of the human race. It is apparently a short skull, 180 mm. long; the length of the typical Neanderthal skulls is 200 mm. or more. While the proportion of the width to the length is 84: 100, in the Neanderthal crania the pro- portion is about 75: 100 or less. The mastoid pro- cesses, the inion, the lambda, the joint for the lower jaw, and the lower jaw itself are all of the form we are familiar with in people of the Bronze age, and are totally unlike these parts in Neanderthal man. Even the pronounced supraorbital ridges are of the form and size we frequently see in skulls of the Bronze period, and not at all of the Neanderthal form. The correct designation in my opinion is the discovery of a brachycephalic skull with pronounced supraorbital ridges. There is one point in which Prof. McKenny Hughes could greatly assist those who are at present studying the remains of ancient man in England. I believe he has in his keeping a human molar tooth which Prof. Boyd Dawkins discovered with remains of the hippo- potamus and other extinct animals representative of the early Pleistocene fauna while carrying out excava- tions in a cave at Pont Newydd, near St. Asaph. That molar is probably the most ancient part of man yet discovered in England, and it would be of the greatest interest to know something of its characters —whether or not it showed those features which we know to occur in the teeth of Neanderthal man. I presume that these characters are absent, otherwise they would certainly have attracted the sharp eye of Prof. Boyd Dawkins. A. Keritu. Royal College of Surgeons, April 4. Are Eyes Autophanous? SEEING the interest which Colonel Herschel’s letter (Nature, January 18) has attracted, and the various animals he has himself observed, it may be useful to record as many animals as possible which exhibit the phenomenon. Going into the aquarium one evening with a reading lamp, I found the eyes of the crayfish (Jasus lalandii, M. Edw.) shining like rubies out of the darkness. I soon discovered the correct position in which the source of light should be. Even more brilliant and beautiful are the eyes of the prawn (Leander squilla, Linn.), but the colour is more an orange tint. Amongst fishes the eyes of the barbel (Galeichthys feliceps, C. and V.) appear salmon, while those of the two dogfish (Scyllium africanum, Gm., and Mustelus laevis, Risso) shine silvery. So far these NO. 2215, VOL. 89] five animals are the only ones in which I have noticed the phenomenon, though doubtless it has been observed in other marine animals, if only the records were forthcoming. A very simple arrangement would enable the sight to be seen by visitors to public aquaria, and would well repay for the extra trouble of opening for an hour or so on some nights. K. H. Barnarp. South African Museum, Cape Town, Cape of Good Hope, March 20. Centre of Pressure on Triangular Plane Gliders at Small Angles of Incidence. May I direct the attention of those interested in aérodynamics to the fact that the centre of pressure on a triangular plane glider (apex forward) at a small angle of incidence (angle of attack), say 5° to 10°, lies almost exactly at the centre of the length? The good gliding qualities of the ordinary paper arrow (folded from a square or rectangular piece of paper with its c.g. necessarily central) point to this conclusion, which may be further tested by the following form of glider. Cut out two equal isosceles triangles in thin card or thick paper. Cut one of these into four equal triangles similar to the whole. Paste these four successively on the apex of the other large piece (see figure). When the paste has dried so as not to affect the weight, it will be found that the glider runs quite well with the usual gliding angle for planes of about 1 in 5 A knowledge of this fact will probably be useful in estimating the righting torques of triangular tails, &e. HERBERT CHATLEY. The College, T’ang Shan, N. China. March 17. 5 THICKNESSES. Red Water. As regards the ‘‘red water”’ from a crater lake in Uganda, referred to in Nature of April 4, p. 113, I would direct attention to a similar phenomenon which occurs at the great salt lake of Sambhar, in Raj- putana. The lake brine contains sodium chloride, sulphate, and carbonate, and when it is quite saturated during the very hottest dry weather a red coloration appears of organic origin. It varies from a delicate roseate hue to a deep claret red, and there is a demand for salt which contains it, because the consumers are accustomed to the colour. H. Wartu. SIAM. IAM has a double interest, for not only is it a rich and fertile country, inhabited by a pleasant people who have an undoubted part to - play in the world, but it lies between two great Powers, and owes its safety to that fact. Con- sule Planco it nearly caused a war. Now it is a “buffer”? State, and it is to the interest of both England and France that it should be strong and progress. It is the only country inhabited by an Indo-Chinese people which is under indepen- dent government, and it will be an interesting 1 ‘‘Siam: a Handbook of Practical, Commercial, and Political Informa- tion.” By A. W. Graham. Pp. xvi+637+plates+map. (London Alexander Moring, Ltd., 1912.) Price ros. 6¢. net. APRIL If, 1912| NATURE 139 study for the future to compare its progress in various ways with that of the kindred races on each side, one under French and one under English rule. Mr. Graham’s book is not one to read through. It is a handbook to consult when any particular subject connected with Siam arises, because it gives a summary of essential facts on almost all points connected with that country. Its geo- graphy, science, races, history, local organisation, education, government, industries, commerce, communications art, archeology, architecture, re- ligion, language, and literature are all touched on. There are five appendices, a bibliography, and an index. The whole 637 pages are crammed with facts, and the author has spared no pains to be they suffer from the defect of many such illus- trations, that they are not always directly con- nected with the text. Finally, we take exception to the Gaudama on the binding. This is a sacred emblem to many millions of people, and is out of place on a handbook. THE SMOKE PROBLEM. HE first twelve years of the twentieth cen- tury will be memorable for many advances, but few-will bear more important fruit in the future both as regards our health and welfare than the strenuous attempts that have been made continuously during that period to arouse the public to a sense of the criminality of wasting the Typical scene in Central Siam. full and accurate. A great deal of hard and honest work must have gone to the making of this book. What it lacks are ideas. The facts are lifeless, and have no general coherence; per- haps this cannot be helped in a book of this nature. If Mr. Graham wants really to interest us, he should select one of these many subjects which he has touched and tell us all about it—the art, for instance. Could he not tell us the ideas that underlie the carving and silver work, their rela- tion to other national ideas, their comparison with those of kindred art, their limitation by material and method? That would make a fascinating book. The illustrations (one of which is here repro- duced by the courtesy of the publishers) are from photographs; they are excellent in their way, but NO. 2215, VOL. 89] From ‘* Siam : a Handbook of Practical, Commercial, and Political Information.” fuel supplies of the country by the methods em- ployed in the generation of heat and power from bituminous fuel, which have resulted in a pollution of the atmosphere that towards the end of the last century had become a national scandal. In view of the widespread interest which is being taken at the present time in smoke abate- ment, Prof. Julius B. Cohen and Mr. Arthur G. Ruston, of the University of Leeds, have collected the records of experiments and observations made by them during the past twenty years, and have embodied with them the results of other observers, thus making a most welcome addition to the literature of the subject. 1 ““Smoke : a Study of Town Air.” Arthur G. Ruston. Pp. vi+88. (London: 5s. net. By Prof. J. B. Cohen, F.R.S., and Edward Arnold, 1912.) Price 140 NATURE [APRIL TI, 1912 y The portions of the book devoted to the effects of soot on vegetation and the influence of deposits from smoke on the assimilation of carbon dioxide by the growing plant are specially well done, as is also the influence of smoke on the intensity of light, and the effects of sulphuric acid cn vegeta- tion. In these portions of the book the effect of smoke deposits in dwarfing and finally killing Clarendon Road 15°2 Weetwood Lane | Headine'ey | 100 52°8 Fic. town vegetation is shown clearly to be due to at least three well-defined actions—(r) the blocking up of the stomata by soot; (2) the reduction of the intensity of sunlight by the coating formed on the leaf, which reduces the assimilation of carbon dioxide; and (3) by the action of sulphuric acid partly condensed in the soot and partly in the rain water. The photograph (Fig. 1) repro- duced here from the book shows in a striking way the effect of locality on the development and power of assimilation possessed by the leaf. The laurel leaf grown at Weet- wood Lane on the outskirts of Leeds shows in marked contrast to the one from the City Square, which may be taken as the centre of the town, the assimilative power of the latter being only 11°6 per cent. of the former. The disappointing part of the book is that which deals with the nature of smoke and the soot which it con- tains, and from the commencement of the first division on page 4 it is marked by loose expressions. For instance, we read that “soot is a pro- duct of incomplete combustion, and is formed partly by the mechanical removal of dust by the chimney draught, and partly by the decomposition of the fuel, such as occurs in the process of destructive distillation.” Dust is not, a rule, a product of incomplete combustion, nor is the tar and free carbon formed in the destructive distillation of coal. Again, on page 5, analyses of soot from various sources are given, and also analyses of the coal NO. 2215, VOL. 89] as that gave rise to them, from which the reader learns that these “original ” coals contained o'88, o'92, and 1°64 per cent. of tar respectively. Surely the authors do not believe that a ton of these coals contains about a couple of gallons of ready-made tar. y.—Laurel leaves and their respective assimilations. Fic. In describing the experiments by which they sought to ascertain the amount of soot carried’ up the chimney, they say, “The chimney gases were drawn off at the rate of about a litre a minute, which would approach the speed of the gases passing up the flue,” and they add that a good fire was maintained all the time. They probably mean that the rate of flow through the asnine tube was about that of the rate of flow in the flue, but they do not say so, and if ine flue draught was a litre a minute, it is no wonder their figures are abnormal. The method of taking the | Seppe dun carbon in the carbon dioxide of the flue gas as representing the amount of carbon burnt on the fire cannot give anything but in- correct results: if soot is formed, there is. incomplete combustion, and carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon gases are also produced, and the percentage of soot found will be far too high. In any case, the percentage of soot to carbon Black fringe of soot on Coniston Lake, Lake District. burnt is of no practical importance. It is the percentage of loss on fuel used that is the im- portant factor, and the soot is only a small pro- portion of this, unburnt hydrogen and hydro- carbon vapours and gases being by far the most important items. The authors generalisations, in broad discussing evidently believe and on page 61, in Apri 11, 1912] WAL CIES, 141 ‘ town fog, they state that ‘‘ without dust there is no mist, rain, or dew.’’ No one will deny the important part played by dust, but few will accept the statement that without it there would be no vain or dew. Most of us have probably seen such soot de- posits as is illustrated by the photograph (Fig. 2) of a soot fringe on Coniston Water, but only ‘when a rain cloud formed over one of the large manufacturing towns has drifted and burst, de- positing its sooty cargo directly on the surface of the lake. The condition of the water in a rain gauge in the north of Scotland would soon convince the authors that it is not every drop that has a dust ‘core, whilst as dew is formed by the deposition of condensing moisture on the rapidly cooling smaller forms of vegetation, which are playing the same part in condensation as the dust par- ticles, it seems unjust to put all the onus on the latter. It is an ungrateful task to have to point out these weaknesses in what is otherwise excellent a work. THE BRITISH ANTARCTIC EXPEDITION. HE arrival of the Terra Nova at Akaroa in | New Zealand with the reports from Captain Scott’s south polar expedition brings the last Antarctic news that can be expected this season. The despatches published by the Central News and referred to last week summarise the progress -of the south polar party until January 3, the work of the two expeditions in South Victoria Land of the geological party under Mr. Griffith Taylor, and of Lieut. Campbell’s party at Cape Adare. Captain Scott’s two despatches describe ‘the ‘work of the expedition during the first winter in the establishment of depdts for the main journey to the south pole, and his advance to a point only 150 miles from the pole. The preliminary work on the Great Ice Barrier was greatly ham- pered by unfavourable weather. For two months ‘there was a succession of heavy storms, and the wind is described as having been more than a gale during nineteen per cent. of that time. Three of the ponies were lost by the breaking. away of ° an ice floe, and the main start for the south pole was begun somewhat later than was intended in order to avoid exposing the others to the severe cold. Captain Scott with his party left the winter quarters on November 2. the motor sledges, which broke down, owing, in- appropriately, to the overheating of the engines, after a journey of sixty miles, and were aban- doned. Captain Scott appears confident that with the experience gained from this experiment, motor transport can be successfully adopted in the Ant- arctic. The weather during the march appears to have been very unfavourable; there were “pro- ‘digious ” snow-falls and fierce gales of wind. The ponies were killed at successive stages and used to feed the dogs. No longitudes are given, so that the southward route cannot be followed in ‘detail, but from the localities mentioned it was ap- parently in the main the same as that used by NO. 2215, VOL. 89| so |} Sir Ernest Shackleton. On January 3 the party was 150 miles from the pole, and as it had at- tained the plateau at the height of 9,800 feet, and had a month’s provisions, there can be little doubt that it soon attained its goal. The cables announce but little new geographical information, for Captain Scott at the time of the despatches had not reached “Shackleton’s Farthest,” the geological party had been work- ing mainly in an area already explored, Lieut. Campbell’s journey from Cape Adare was limited by unfavourable ice conditions to the known coast, and there is no news of his results from Terra Nova Bay. The last-mentioned expedition may secure results of great interest, for Lieut. Campbell started near the point whence David, Mawson, and Mackay reached the south mag- netic pole, but he was to use a more northerly route, between Mount Melbourne and Mount Nansen, and would thus explore new country which may yield especially instructive geological results. The western party under Mr. Griffith Taylor made two expeditions on the mainland to the west of McMurdo Sound. The first expedition, from January 27 to March 14, 1911, landed at Butter Point, ascended the Ferrar Glacier, and returned across the Barrier to the south of McMurdo Sound. The second expedition continued the exploration of this district to the north. The sledge party crossed to Granite Harbour, ascended the Mackay Glacier, and continued northward the survey of the district geologically mapped by Ferrar. Some coal was discovered which is believed to be inter- bedded in the Beacon Sandstone, a conclusion consistent with Shackleton’s discovery of coal and a fossil plant in the same formation on the Beard- more Glacier. Still more important was the dis- covery of ‘‘numerous well-preserved fossils,”’ apparently in the Beacon Sandstone. The de- termination of the age of that formation would be a most important contribution to the geology of South Victoria Land; but as so competent a geologist as Mr. Griffith Taylor describes the fossils as ‘* probably crustacea,’’ they are perhaps not sufficiently well preserved to give conclusive evidence as to their age. The fossils had to be left at Granite Harbour, and it is to be hoped | that they will be recovered by the Terra Nova | next season. They were preceded by | Mr. Griffith Taylor’s report upon the glacial features of this area will no doubt prove very instructive. Lieut. Campbell’s party from its station at Cape Adare sledged westward in order to explore part of the eastern coast of Wilkes Land; but owing to the breaking away of the ice from Robertson Bay the survey was not carried further west than Cape Barrow. Its field was limited in | the main to the area explored by the members of the Southern Cross Expedition. Lieut. | Campbell’s- party maintained continuous observa- tions at their station from February, 1911, till January, 1912. These records will doubtless add | greatly to the value of the simultaneous observa- 142 NATURE ([ApRic 11, 1992 tions which were being made, apparently by Dr. Simpson, at McMurdo Sound. It is, indeed, probable that the systematic meteorological, mag- netic, and physical work may yield the most im- portant results of the expedition; for records were made at two stations, and the weather con- ditions appear to have been very different from those of the previous seasons during which ex- peditions have wintered beside the Ross Sea. The biological collections should also prove very valuable. The material obtained by the seven hauls of the deep-sea trawl will probably contain many new species and interesting additions to the Antarctic fauna. The line of soundings made by the Terra Nova to the south of New Zealand is also an important contribution to the ocean contours of that area. Apart from the oceanographic work, perhaps the most interesting geographicai information in the despatches is that dealing with the meteorology. Unlike the calms and fine weather experienced by Amundsen in his more easterly route, Captain Scott was harassed by a succession of southern gales similar to those met by Shackle- ton, although the weather on the plateau appears to have been milder. It has been suggested that the low temperature of these southern winds indi- cated their anticyclonic origin, but as Captain Scott reports for one of them a temperature of only 35°, they do not support the existence of the hypothetical south polar anticyclone. The Discovery expedition reported a very slight snow- fall in the area around the Ross Sea, and the recent diminution of the glaciers was thus ex- plained. The evidence collected by that expedi- tion was recognised at the time as inconsistent with that conclusion, and the heavy snowfalls now reported show that there is no difficulty in ex- plaining the formation of the barrier ice by the accumulation of snow. The reports show that the expedition has made most important contributions to Antarctic know- ledge. Subjoined is a summary of the scientific results published by the Central News (Ltd.) Agency. Summary of Scientific Results. The general plan arranged for the scientific worl of the expedition has been carried out so far almost in its entirety. The self-registering meteorological instruments have given a continuous record of pres- sure and temperature and of wind velocity and direc- tion. These have been checked by the eye every four hours. The upper atmosphere has been investigated by means of small balloons, which have shown the direction of the upper currents of the air to a height of six miles and have recorded temperatures to a height of five miles. Absolute magnetic observations have been made every week. Self-registering mag- netic instruments were installed in a room excavated in the side of a small glacier, this eliminating the changes of temperature which are a serious cause of error in this class of work. All through the winter the aurora was observed every hour, but very few brilliant displays occurred. Atmospheric electricity has also been studied, and ice work and physiography have afforded much fieldwork. NO. 2215, VOL. 89] Vexed problems regarding the origin of Alpine topography when Europe and other temperate regions. were undergoing an ice age are being studied in the examples offered by the retreating glaciers of Victoria Land, where the ice age still obtains. The mainland offers a rich field*for petrology, with an abundance of mineral-bearing quartz veins, but none of any economic value. ' Specimens of coal of economic value and well-pre- served fossils have been found near Granite Harbour. An excellent field exists at winter quarters for ice work in miles of glacier, while in front of the hut stands a cape formed largely of massive moraine with lava flows from Erebus. Pendulum observations for the value of gravity have been carried out; a tide gauge has given a continuous record, and marine biological work has been done throughout the winter at a hole kept open in the sea ice for nets, water samples, and sea temperatures. ( The quantitative and qualitative observations of minute organisms at various seasons are giving in- teresting results. The parisitology of all seals, pen- guins, and others birds and fish available has already given good results. Some new protozoa have been found. The above has fully occupied the time of the scien- tific staff and indicates that there is an ample field for further research in every direction. Successful biological work has been carried out on board the ship. With seven trawls a large collection of the deep-sea fauna of the Antarctic has been obtained. A number of catches with the tow net have been secured which show a vertical distribution in the transparent floating organisms of the sea. Con- tinuous meteorological observations have been taken in the ship, linking up Australasia with Antarctica. Natural history research has been greatly assisted by the use of the kinematograph. Many thousands of feet of film have been used in securing permanent animated records of the interesting bird and animal life of these regions, and every phase of seal, penguin, and skua-gull life has been thus illustrated. Some remarkable kinematograph films have been secured showing for the first time the ‘‘ Killer’? whale, the wolf of the seas, in its native element. NOTES. WE notice with regret the announcement of the death on March 8, in his seventy-fifth year, of Dr. Edward Divers, F.R.S., the distinguished chemist, and Emeritus professor of chemistry in the Imperial University, Japan. At a meeting of the committee of the Lawes Agri- cultural Trust held on March 30, Mr. A. D. Hall, F.R.S., director of the Rothamsted Experimental Station, tendered his resignation. Mr. Hall’s resigna- tion takes effect in September, after which he will give his whole time to the work of the Development Commission. The committee of the Lawes Agricul- tural Trust will proceed to the election of a new director in June. Tue Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, New Zealand, which came into existence on August 30, 1862, will celebrate its jubilee this year. It is pro- posed to mark the occasion by holding a gathering in Christchurch. Tue council of the New Zealand Institute, at its annual meeting, held in Christchurch at the end of APRIL II, 1912] NATURE 143 January this year, decided to award the Sir James Hector memorial medal and prize to Dr. L. Cock- ayne as the investigator, working in New Zealand, who has done most to advance botanical science. A sEISMOLoGIcAL Observatory has been added to the Geological Department of the Georgetown University, Washington, D.C., U.S.A. The equipment consists of two Bosch-Omori tromometers of 25 kilos. mass, a Wiechert horizontal pendulum of 200 kilos. mass, two Mainka conical pendulums of 130 kilos. mass each, and a vertical pendulum of 80 kilos. mass, after Wiechert. A separate cave, fitted with a Bosch photo- graphic recording horizontal pendulum, is under con- struction. Tue sixty-fourth annual meeting of the Cotteswold Naturalists’ Field Club was held at Gloucester on April 2. Dr. C. Callaway and the Rev. Canon Raze- ley were elected honorary members. president, Mr. William Crooke, after reviewing the work of the club during the past year, dealt with the evidence for the antiquity of man that had been obtained of recent years. The Rev. Walter Butt, J.P., was elected president for the coming year, and Mr. L. Richardson hon. secretary. On Thursday next, April 18, Prof. A. W. Crossley will deliver the first of two lectures at the Royal Institution on ‘‘Synthetic Ammonia and Nitric Acid from the Atmosphere.” The Friday evening discourse on April 19 will be delivered by Mr. Alan A. Campbell - Swinton on “Electricity Supply: Past, Present, and Future,’ and on April 26 by Sir George H. Darwin on “Sir William Herschel.’’ In addition to the Friday evening arrangements already announced, the dis- course on May 24 will be delivered by Mr. A. D. Hall on ‘‘Recent Advances in Scientific Agriculture: the Fertility of the Soil,’ and on June 14 by Mr. A. H. Savage Landor on his recent journey through un- known parts of South America. By the will of Lord Lister, the sum of 20,000]. is bequeathed to the Lister Institute of Preventive Medicine, and 10,o00l. each to the Royal Society, King Edward’s Hospital Fund, King’s College Hos- pital, and the North London and University College Hospital. In the will Lord Lister requests his nephews, Mr. Rickman John Godlee and Mr. Arthur Hugh Lister, to arrange his scientific MSS. and sketches, destroying or disposing of such as are of no permanent scientific interest, and to present the remainder to the Royal College of Surgeons, England. Lord Lister’s orders and medals are bequeathed to the Edinburgh University, and the will states:—‘‘I expressly declare that it is my intention that the University authorities for the time being shall be perfectly at liberty to dispose of all or any part of the gift—for example, by having the medals melted down or the diplomas or other writings destroyed—at any time and in any manner that may seem to them desirable.” Tue Essex Field Club has recently appointed a committee for the purpose of raising a small fund to put in order the tombs of John Ray and Benjamin Allen (which stand adjacent to one another in the NO. 2215, VOL. 89] The retiring | churchyard at Black Notley, but have been allowed to fall into disrepair), and to erect at Braintree a memo- rial to Samuel Dale, of that town, to whom no memorial exists. These three naturalists were friends | and contemporaries, living at Braintree or in its imme- diate vicinity in the closing years of the seventeenth century and the opening years of the eighteenth. John Ray (1627-1705) was by far the most eminent British naturalist of his day, and has been rightly described as “‘the Father of Modern Natural Science.’’ Samuel Dale (1659-1738), though a younger man and of less eminence, was widely known in his day as a naturalist, especially as a botanist. Dr. Benjamin Allen (1663-1738), the youngest and least eminent of the trio, was an excellent naturalist and a skilled physician. For carrying out the work of restoring the two tombs, and erecting a memorial to Dale, the sum of about sol. is required, and subscriptions are invited to make up this amount. Such subscriptions may be sent to Mr. Miller Christy (115 Farringdon Road, E.C.), or the Rev. J. W. Kenworthy (26 Inglis Road, Colchester). Tue one hundredth anniversary of the foundation of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia was celebrated on March 19-21. The actual date of the anniversary was March 21, but the celebration began on the evening of March 19, when delegates to the number of 133, who had been appointed by corresponding societies to represent them, were wel- comed by the Hon. Rudolph Blankenburg, mayor of Philadelphia. After the delegates had presented their letters of credential and congratulation, the president delivered an historical address setting forth the early struggles of the society for existence, allud- ing briefly to the distinguished men whose work had prepared the way for the celebration, directing atten- tion to the special features of the museum, and in- sisting on the importance of natural history studies in their utilitarian aspect, more especially in connec- tion with the parasitic origin of disease. In conclu- sion, he handed over to the society on behalf of the building committee the enlarged hall of the Academy, which, through the liberality of the Legislature of the State, had received important additions and had been made thoroughly fireproof during the past year. The works to be issued in connection with the cen- tenary celebration consist of a quarto volume of illustrated scientific memoirs, the commemorative volume, an index to the entire series of Proceedings and Journal, and a detailed history of the Academy by the recording secretary, Dr. E. J. Nolan. At the sessions on March 20 and 21, summaries were given of communications presented for publication in the commemorative volume, and of other papers on scien- tific subjects. The scientific sessions concluded with a lecture by Mr. Witmer Stone, one of the curators of the Academy. On the evening of March 21, 163 members and guests sat down to a banquet in the new geological hall, formerly occupied by the library. The banquet, in common with all the other details of the programme, was a brilliant success, and the entire celebration will be long remembered as one of the most interesting events in the history of American science. 144 NATURE [APRIL 11, 1912 Tue alleged traces of primitive man in Argentina, the tierras cocidas of Monte Hermoso, have been often referred to in these pages. The views of the late Florentino Ameghino have found a supporter in Colonel A. A. Romero (Anales del Mus. Nac. de Buenos Aires, vol. xxii., 1911, p. 11). It is argued that we know little of man’s precursors, that they may go back to a high antiquity, and that the group- ing of the ‘‘scoria’’ sometimes suggests a united camp-fire. The petrographic arguments now adduced, and the very defective photographs of thin slices, do not add much to the discussion. The scoriaceous earths containing vegetable remains, as shown in plate viii., are much more to the point, as opposing a volcanic origin. In the Journal of the College of Agriculture, Impe- rial University of Tokyo, vol. ii., No. 7, Mr. Kama- Ikichi Kishinouye describes an interesting collection illustrating prehistoric fishing in Japan. This collec- tion was made from a large series of shell-mounds of the Neolithic period, associated with numerous flint implements, pottery, the hard parts of molluscs, fish, turtle, birds, marine, and land mammals. The fishing implements are of the most varied description, including stone arrow and harpoon heads, others of bone or horn, sinkers, &c. In their form they closely resemble implements of the same period found in these islands. The fishing-hooks have usually barbs on the outer side of the stem. One fine landing-hook or gaff, the only example found, is made of horn, about 130 mm. in length, and bent in the middle at an angle of about 90°. This prehistoric race seems to have possessed little of the artistic capacity of their successors, but some clay dishes bear representations of haliotis or anodonta shells, and on another appears a design which may represent the head of a shark. This valuable paper is accompanied by excellent illus- trations of typical specimens. Parts ili. and iv. of vol. viii. of Biometrika have been issued together as a double number. Of the principal articles three—on Egyptian, negro, and pygmy crania respectively—deal with craniology; the two former are from the pen of Miss H. Dorothy Smith, the latter edited by Prof. Pearson from the work of the late Dr. Crewdson-Benington. Mr. Carr Saunders discusses the relation between pigmentation and disease on the basis of data derived from the medical survey of school children at Birmingham, but, unlike earlier workers in the same field, such as Shrubsall and Macdonald, fails to find any appreciable relation. Of the remaining articles we may specially direct attention to three, by Dr. Maynard and Prof. Pearson, bearing on the interpretation of data relat- | ing to the appearance of multiple cases of disease in the same house. The supplementary tables calculated by Mr. Everitt for facilitating the determination of Prof. Pearson’s coefficient for a fourfold table should also be mentioned. A NEW “quarterly review of scientific thought,” with the somewhat imposing title of Bedyvock, has number, several are distinctly noteworthy. Prof. Welton discusses the value, to the teacher and to the scientific worker, of a logic of method, and his com- ments on teaching should prove useful and stimulat- ing. The good teacher, says Prof. Welton, shows his pupil how to go along the high road; the old- fashioned bad teacher plumped him down at_ his destination, as if he had been transported there on a magic carpet; the bad new-fashioned teacher turns him adrift, giving him no indication of the way. Dr. Archdall Reid contributes a characteristic discussion of recent researches in alcoholism, and the reader will find it interesting to follow this by a perusal of Dr. Gossage’s article on ‘‘ Human Evidence of Evolution.” Prof. Poulton’s examination of the facts of mimicry as a crucial test between the theories of Darwin and of Bergson is both admirable and timely, but would have been more easy to follow if the publishers could have seen their way to give the illustrative plates in colour instead of in black and white. The articles on ‘Interaction between Passing Ships,’ by Prof. Gibson, and on ‘‘The Stars in their Courses’ (sub- stantially the Halley lecture) by Prof. Turner, take the reader into different fields of thought, and are both written in a simple and attractive style. Alto- gether the new quarterly opens well. Tue report of the Rugby School Natural Hig Society for 191r records the retirement of its late president, Mr. Henderson, one of whose last official acts was the inauguration of the successful exhibition held in March of the year under review. The astro- | nomical section, which lapsed a few years ago, has been revived, and is doing well, but in the zoological section (which appears to be restricted to ornithology, entomology forming a section by itself) the secretary deplores the lack of enthusiasm displayed by the members. Two unusually interesting new mammals from Tonkin were described at the meeting of the Zoological Society on March 19. The first was a | civet resembling the banded Hemigale hardwickei of | the Malay countries in colouring, but distinguished by the spatulate crowns of its milk-incisor teeth—a difference which its describer, Mr. Thomas, regards as of generic value. The second, described by Mr. Dollman, was a snub-nosed monkey of the genus Rhinopithecus, of which three species, from western and central China and the Mekon valley, were pre- viously known. THE insects causing damage to the chir pine (Pinus longifolia) in the north-west Himalaya form the sub- ject of vol ii., part 2, of the Indian Forest Memoirs. | The timber of the chir is much used for a variety of been launched on its career this month by Messrs. | ea the articles 215, VOL. 89] Constable. included in NO the first purposes in India, owing to the ease with which it is worked, and the tree is also tapped for resin, as a source of turpentine. The long list of insect pests by which this tree attacked given by E. P. Steb- bing shows how sorely it stands in need of protection, one of the worst of these being the beetle Platypus wilmoti, the larvz of which bore into the very heart of the timber. Special attention is directed to the insects parasitic on, or preying upon, the mischievous species. is RD be - hen ela eS = a APRIL II, 1912] NATURE 145 ; ie . | In the Journal of Genetics, vol. ii., No. 1 (February), Mr. A. W. Hill deals with the history of Primula obconica under cultivation, and concludes that the amelioration and development in form and colour of the flowers, &c., which have taken place during the past thirty years, must be attributed to selective pro- cesses, also that there is not sufficient evidence in favour of the view that hybridisation with other species has taken place. It is of the greatest importance that the history of other species which are made the object of extensive breeding experiments should be thoroughly cleared up, as in this paper, which is illus- trated by two beautiful coloured plates. Tue difficult problem of the morphological nature of the endosperm of angiospermic plants forms the sub- ject of a paper by Prof. Coulter in the Botanical Gazette, vol. lii., No. 5. From a critical review of the literature, the author concludes that endosperm formation is not dependent upon the presence of a male nucleus, nor even upon fusion of the two polar ~ nuclei of the embryo-sac, hence these fusions may be regarded as supplementary rather than determinative. Further, the formation of endosperm does not even depend upon having been preceded by a reduction division. The author is therefore led to the view that the fusions associated with endosperm formation do not represent a definite process, but are miscel- laneous in number and order; and that the product of such fusions as do occur is merely an undifferentiated tissue, which practically continues the tissue of the gametophyte, that is, it is simply growth and not organisation. THE concentric growths of chalcedonic silica known as beekite appear as disease-spots in fossil shells, and have spread in some cases until the organic remains are replaced by lumpy masses of silica. Mr. James Strachan brings his considerable experience as a chemist to bear on the origin of beekite in a paper read before the Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club on March 27. He concludes that the chalcedony is precipitated by osmotic action in the colloid matter of the shells, where it replaces calcium carbonate. The rings around the central disc of chal- cedony represent the periodic movement of the chemical action. Mr. Strachan points out that this mode of origin has been suggested by Prof. Sollas for banded flints. It will be noticed that, if animal matter is requisite for the precipitation, the formation of beekite is referred to an early stage in the history of the rocks in which it occurs. THE views of Lugeon and others as to Alpine mountain-structure have been so widely accepted that Mr. Bailey Willis probably does good service by a criticism based on personal observations. In a “ Re- port on an investigation of the geological structure of the Alps” (Smithsonian Miscell. Coll., vol. Ivi., No. 31, 1912), he urges the efficacy of thrust-planes as against recumbent overfolds, and shows how the exotic masses of strata known as klippen may be explained by the intersection of two thrust-planes of opposite slope. He believes that the earlier thrusting in the Alps came from the north-west, and was fol- NO. 2215, VOL. 89] lowed by erosion carried on until a mature type of surface had been produced. The far more recent thrusting from the south-east is regarded as Pliocene, since the scarp weathered out in the Bernese Oberland on the Alpine mass that. was moved forward remains still fresh and young. This short paper clearly gives matter for large discussion. The spelling of some of the place-names seems to want revision. AN important memoir on the climate of the Italian capital has been issued by the Italian Meteorological Office. Rome is one of the few places for which meteorological observations extending over more than roo years are available. In this volume Dr. F. Eredia has gathered together and summarised the available data. For all the principal elements monthly means or totals are given for each year from the commencement of the record up to the end of 1910, the whole forming a historical record of great importance. The observations of precipitation go back to the year 1782 in unbroken sequence. The temperature record also begins in 1782, but there is a gap in the series from 1792 to 1811. Monthly normal values have been computed for all elements, and for pressure temperature, humidity, and wind velocity the diurnal variation has been determined from the records of autographic instruments. The observations are not strictly homogeneous throughout. There have been changes of site, instruments, and methods of observing, but in preparing the results for publica- tion every effort has been made to minimise the effects of such disturbing causes. Tue Danish Meteorological Institute has distri- buted (as in previous years) an excerpt from its nautical meteorological year-book, containing useful information relating to the state of the ice in the Arctic seas in 1911; the monthly summaries for April-August are illustrated by maps. The details seem to us to show that the conditions were, on the whole, somewhat more severe than usual. At the entrance to the White Sea there was much pack-ice in April and May, and Archangel was closed until near the end of the latter month. Novaia Zemlia was not ice-free until comparatively late, and in Barents Sea the ice was more closely packed than usual; the west coast of Spitsbergen became clear in August, but round the north-east coast navigation was im- practicable during the year. On the east coast of Greenland there was. more ice than usual during the summer, but at Angmagsalilk the sea was open un- usually early. In Baffin Bay it was difficult to penetrate the ice throughout the summer. So few reports were received from Bering and Beaufort Seas that it was difficult to form a general ‘opinion; in May and June, however, the conditions seem to have been normal. In the Zeitschrift des Vereines deutscher Ingenieure Dr. Th. von Karman, of Gottingen, shows that the ordinary theory of the flexure of beams cannot be applied to cylindrical tubes of small thickness owing to the considerable changes which take place in the form of the cross section when the tubes are bent. The author gives formule which take this effect into 146 : NATORE [APRIL 11, 1O"2 account, and it is found, both from theory and from experiment, that in certain cases the deflection may be from three to five times as great as that given by the usual EI/p formula. In the case of sudden explosions or volcanic erup- tions anomalous sound phenomena frequently occur, the noise of the explosion being sometimes heard at abnormal distances, while it is inaudible at other places nearer the source. These phenomena were discussed in 1910 by Dr. G. v. d. Borne. In the Proceedings of the Tokyo Mathematico-Physical Society, vi., 9, Mr. S. Fujiwhara gives an analytical investigation based on a formula for the velocity potential subject to the assumptions that the atmo- spheric density follows the adiabatic law, and that the wind velocity varies very slowly with the height, the velocity of sound thus varying with the altitude. In Blatt 4, torr, of the Royal Observatory of Wil- helmshaven, in continuation of similar previous work, Prof. Bidlingmaier gives a graphical representation of the hourly magnetic character of the last half of Ig1rt, based on a scale ‘‘o,” “1, of disturbance. As an extension, he develops a scale of magnetic “‘activity,’’ ultimately dependent on the range of the magnetic elements in each hour. If this lies between 50(n—1)y and sony, the measure of the activity is n°—(n—1)°. This idea is applied to the ten years 1890 to 1899, and conclusions are drawn as to the activity of the earth’s horizontal magnetic field in the several years. In his Nobel lecture to the Academy of Sciences at Stockholm in December last, now issued by Messrs. Barth, Leipzig, Prof. W. Wien gave a valuable survey of the recent advances made by the theory of radiation and of the difficulties which still beset it. Lord Ray- . ’ Baa leigh’s form of the law of radiation of a black body, | based on the equal distribution of the energy amongst the degrees of freedom of the vibrating system, agrees with observation over the longer wave-lengths only. Prof. Wien’s formula, based on his ‘‘law of displace- ment” or compression of radiation, agrees, on the other hand, with measurements over the shorter wave- lengths only. with observation over the whole of the range of wave-lengths at present available, but rests on the conception of energy as atomic in structure. The difficulties which such a conception raises are very grave, and Prof. Planck himself has substituted con- tinuous for discontinuous absorption of radiation (see these ‘‘Notes’”’ for March 16, p. 90, and June 15, p- 528, 1911), while Sir Joseph Larmor devoted his Bakerian lecture in 1909 to a possible alternative. Prof. Einstein’s attempt to bring Dulong and Petit’s law of atomic heats under Planck’s theory has met ‘with partial success only, and Prof. Wien thinks the pro- cesses going on in the atoms themselves must be taken into account before the theory of radiation can be placed on a satisfactory footing. has already been made by Prof. Sommerfeld, who gives the constant h of Planck’s theory an atomic significance. AN interesting series of papers on the chemical effects of light on organic compounds appears in the NO. 2215, VOL. 89] Prof. Planck’s form of the law agrees | A commencement | Gazzetta chimica Italiana (vol. xlii., p. 65 et seq.)- In the first paper, by Prof. Paterno and C. Maselli, the synthesis is described of a substance having alka- loidal properties, by exposing acetophenone dissolved in alcoholic ammonia to bright sunlight during several months. The alkaloid C,,H,,N. forms well-defined measurable crystals, and appears to owe its origin to a complex change in which two molecules of acetone, two of ammonia, and one of alcohol are involved. In the absence of light the alkaloid is not formed. In the later papers, by L. Mascarelli, a striking change brought about in aromatic aldehydes by traces of iodine under the influence of sunlight is dealt with. It has been known for some years that benzaldehyde polymerises to trimeric and tetrameric forms under the influence of the sun’s rays; it is now shown that in the presence of traces of iodine a dimeric form is produced which has the structure of benzyl benzoate. There has, in fact, been reduction of a portion of the benzaldehyde at the expense of the remainder, a result similar to that well known to be induced by the action of alkalies, such as potassium hydroxide. In the January number of the Bulletin de la Société @ Encouragement pour l’Industrie Nationale, M. H. Gault gives a summary of the additions which have been made during the last few years to our knowledge of natural perfumes and other essential oils. Among the principal oils dealt with are those of cloves, eucalyptus, fennel, juniper, geranium, jasmine, lavender, lemon grass, and peppermint. The article is a continuation of one on the same subject published in 1908. Various sources have been drawn upon for the information, Schimmel’s ‘bulletins’ figuring frequently in the references, which include also a fair number of English and American periodicals. A short account of the origin of each oil is given, with par- ticulars of its physical and chemical characters, in- cluding its density, boiling point, refractive index, rotatory power, saponification value, and so on; usually also the chief chemical components are indi- cated. Special points in the chemistry of individual oils are discussed incidentally, but the author reserves for a future article the more general consideration of the chemical constituents of essential oils, as well as a fuller discussion of certain researches. To those interested in the subject the contribution will be useful as a convenient résumé of investigations, the accounts. of which have been disseminated hitherto over a number of publications. Butietin No. 52 of the University of Illinois con- tains an account of investigations of the strength of rolled zinc carried out by Mr. Herbert F. Moore. From the results it appears that zinc, either rolled or cast, has no well-defined yield point, and its elastic limit is very low. Zinc possesses a relatively high degree of plasticity. The ultimate strength of thin rolled zinc plate (not more than o'05 inch thick) is about 24,000 Ib. per sq. in. The modulus of elasticity of zinc in tension is about 11,500,000 Ib. per sq. in. The stress per square inch of area sheared developed | in punching or shearing rolled zinc plates is about 40 per cent. of the stress developed in punching or shearing mild steel plates; the ‘energy required in APRIL If, 1912 | NATURE 147 — ; eos = # punching or shearing rolled zinc plates is about go | 1,813 grams, and of the smallest about 20 grams; per cent. of the energy required to punch or shear mild steel plates. The ductility of rolled zinc is much less than that of mild steel, and the ductility of zinc plate with the grain is greater than the ductility across the grain. 3 In the new Liverpool Adelphi Hotel of the Midland Railway Company, which was opened a few days ago, uniform and accurate time is secured throughout by an installation of upwards of 200 electrical impulse’ ” dials on the ““Synchronome”’ system, all operated by one controlling pendulum. It is necessary that elec- _ tric clocks in bedrooms should’ be silent in action, and this condition is fulfilled by those on the ‘Syn- chronome ” system. Pror. KAMERLINGH ONNEs directs our attention to an error in our note of March 14 (p. 41) on his measurements of the resistance of mercury at low temperatures. The values there given are not re- sistivities, but the resistances of a wire of solid mercury. OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. Tue Ecuipse of Aprit 17.—Anyone intending to see the eclipse of the sun from a station on the central line as it crosses France interest in M. Fayet’s article in the Revue Scientifique for March 30. After explaining eclipses in general, M. Fayet describes the conditions of the coming eclipse, and illustrates his description with several maps and diagrams; he also gives numerous tables of position angles, times, &c., for many stations in France. It would appear that a total eclipse is not likely to be seen in France, and in any case spectrographic and any long-exposure work are out of the question; but M. Fayet shows that from the point of view of geometrical astronomy the eclipse is a most important one, giving exceptional facilities for delicate deter- minations of the moon’s place, the apparent size of the moon, and the figure of the earth. There are, then, plenty of possibilities of a large number of amateurs making observations of great value, even if the eclipse is only an annular one; no expensive instruments will be necessary, and the value of the observations will be greatly enhanced as they are multiplied in number. In France the observers are being officially organised, and preparations are being made for the distribution of the exact time and the coordination of the results. St. Germain-en-Laye, a few miles west of Paris, would appear to be one of the most readily accessible points near to the central line. In the Comptes rendus (No. 14) for April 1 M. Bigourdan discusses very clearly, and explains in detail, the observations which may be made for the better determination of the moon’s apparent diameter and position, and the reasons for making them during this particular eclipse. THe Et Nakura et Banarta Mereorire.—The meteoritic fragments which fell in Lower Egypt on June 28, 1911, are described in detail by Dr. John Ball in Survey Department Paper No. 25. Altogether some forty stones, weighing nearly 10 kgms., have been collected, but, as the explosions producing the fragments are supposed to have taken place at a con- siderable altitude, scattering the pieces over an area about 4°5 kms. in diameter, this probably does not represent the total mass as it entered the earth’s atmosphere. The weight of the heaviest fragment is NO. 2215, VOL. 89] will find several points of | some small fragments have a fused skin all over their surfaces while others are only partially covered, thus indicating a succession of explosions. A portion of ; the stone was submitted to Sir Norman Lockyer for * spectroscopic analysis, and his report places the spectroscopic prominence of the various elements in the order Cr, Na, Ca, Al, Mg, Si, Mn, Fe, V, Ti, and K; the last is very weak. A chemical analysis by Mr. W. B. Pollard gives SiO,, 50; FeO, 20; CaO; 15; MgO, 312; and Al,O,, 165 per cent. ; Cr,O, appears as 0°23 per cent., and traces of the other elements were found. Although this is the first “find”? in Egypt, Dr. Ball believes that a large meteorite fell in a direction 32° W. of true N. from Phila on April 5, 1902; such phenomena as attend these falls were then observed, but no stone was found. A Dayiicut Meteor.—The director of the Meteoro- logical Office informs us that at Brocklesby, Lincs, on March 28, Mr. F. J. Gibbons observed a vivid meteor at 2.50 p.m. in broad daylight on a bright afternoon. The meteor appeared to move from south to east in a downward course. It would be interesting to know if the meteor was observed elsewhere. Observations of meteors in daylight appear to be uncommon, although particulars of a certain number are given in the annual reports of the British Association Com- mittee on luminous meteors. THE StonyHursr OssERVATORY.—Father Sid- greaves’s report of the meteorological and magnetical observations made at Stonyhurst during 1911 contains the usual tabular summaries with a few notes on the more important points. The observations of sun-spots and of magnetic declination point to 1911 being a minimum epoch for each, but later observations must be awaited to fix this point with certainty. PuoroGraPHs oF Hattey’s Comer.—The first fasci- cule of vol. v. of the Annales de l’Observatoire astro- nomique de Tokyo is devoted to Halley’s comet as observed at Dairen, Manchuria, during the months April-June, 1910, by MM. Sotome and Hoasi; photo- graphs taken at Tokyo by M. Toda are also included. The form, changes, and length of the tail and the acceleration of its particles are discussed at length, and there are nineteen plates of excellent reproduc- tions of photographs, 131 in all, at the end of the work. CYCLES OF THE SUN AND WEATHER. ~INCE Sir William Herschel suggested that varia- tions in the visible changes of the sun’s surface might be sensibly reflected in the meteorology of our planet, many investigators of high authority have endeavoured to determine the precise nature of the relationship between solar and terrestrial phenomena. In the seventies of last century it was decisively shown that: the variation of certain meteorological elements coincided with that of photospheric activity as revealed by observations of sun-spots. The con- clusions arrived at were expressed very definitely by Prof. A. Schuster in a paper presented to the meeting of the British Association in 1884. ‘‘There can,’’ he said, ‘“‘be no longer any doubt that during about four sun-spot periods (1810 to 1860) a most remarkable similarity existed between the curves representing sun-spot frequency and the curves of nearly every meteorological element which is related to tempera- ture. This is not, in my opinion, a matter open to discussion : it is a fact.” But though a connection was established, further studies of its character seemed to lead to contradic- tory conclusions. High air temperatures were 145 NATURE [APRIL It, 1912 associated with lowest sun-spot conditions, while the frequency of tropical cyclones and abundance of rain- fall, which should prima facie show the same rela- tionship, suggested that there was increased move- ment and evaporation about the maximum epoch of the sun-spot period. As the results obtained from the different groups of facts could not be reconciled, the discussion of the subject was for some years in abey- ance. Broader views are, however, now being taken; and it is realised that many sun-spots may mean increased rainfall in one part of the world and de- creased in another, or the like inversion of any other meteorological element. Also, the development of means of obtaining more complete records of changes upon the sun’s surface, in addition to those mani- fested by sun-spots, has encouraged further inquiry into the subject of solar influence. Full knowledge can only be secured when the new methods have been used for many years, but, so far as the discussion has proceeded, it indicates that there is no real inconsistency in the earlier conclusions, and that studies of the sun offer the most promising prospects of success in long-range weather prediction. Meteorological analysis of observations made at a solar physics observatory has become even more important than consideration of the results from an astronomical point of view. As was remarked in a report of the U.S. Weather Bureau a few years ago :—‘‘Advances in -the period and accuracy of weather forecasts depend upon the exact study and understanding of atmospheric pressure over large areas, and a determination of the influences, prob- ably solar, that are responsible for ordinary and extraordinary distributions of atmospheric pressure upon the earth’s surface.” We may take it for granted that the weather of any region is determined mainly by the barometric pressure and the interchange of areas of high and low barometer. The most important variations to consider are, therefore, those of atmospheric pressure, and the conclusions arrived at may then be used for comparison with variations of solar phenomena in- dependently determined. The unit of inquiry should, however, be the world, and not one particular region ; and there should be no assumption, as was formerly common, that solar changes indicated by sun-spots or other phenomena would affect the whole of our globe simultaneously and in the same direction at any par- ticular epoch. Investigations carried on in recent years in this spirit have led to results which are both stimulating and valuable. For convenience we will refer first to the meteorological conclusions, then to solar changes, and finally to the relationships found between sun and earth. Periodic plus and minus ‘‘pulses”’ of rainfall in India were described by Sir Norman and Dr. W. J. S. Lockyer in a paper read before the Royal Society in November, 1900, and were shown to be related (some- times inversely) to similar variations at Mauritius, Cordoba (South America), the Cape of Good Hope, and other places. Attention was then devoted to an ex- amination of the variations of pressure over the Indian and other areas, and a period of about 3:5 vears (always referred to later as the 3-8-year periodicity) was found in the mean variation of pressure over the whole of India and at individual stations, and also in other large areas. An inverse variation was found in the pressures at Cordoba, and, referring to it, the authors remarked :—‘‘The cause, therefore, which raises the mean value for the low-pressure months over the Indian area would appear to lower the mean value of high-pressure months at Cordoba simul- taneously. In fact, we have a see-saw”’ (Proc. Roy. Soc., Ixx., June 19, 1002). The area affected by this barometric see-saw was extended in a later paper NO. 2215, VOL. 89] ” (Proc. Roy. Soc., 1xxi., December 4, 1902) to Ceylon, Java, Mauritius, and Australia, and further results were described in 1904. H. F. Blanford and Hildebrandsson had previously found similar evidence of reciprocal barometric varia- tions in widely separated regions, but the extension of the investigation to about a hundred stations in various parts of the earth led to the important result that there exists a world-wide barometric see-saw between two nearly antipodal parts of the earth, one region about India and its neighbourhood showing exactly opposite effects as regards atmospheric pressure in any year to those felt in a region which includes South America and the southern parts of the United States. The pressure variations in the British Isles year by year do not go up or down with either side of this see-saw, but appear to be a mixture of both types. During some years the British area is enveloped in the pressure system that extends over the large region of which India is about the centre, while for another series it is dominated by the conditions of atmospheric pressure experienced in the region of which South America is the middle portion. On this account the cycle of 3-8 years distinctly exhibited in the meteor- ological records of two great regions of the world appears in British meteorology at a period of about three years, in the course of which variations are sometimes very noticeable. An examination of the records of annual rainfall at Greenwich for sixty years shows this three-year cycle very clearly. Taking a series of years, it is found that two wet years are followed by a dry year; but after eight years a re- versal takes place, two dry years being followed by a wet one. This peculiar result is due to the com- bination, in the British Isles, of the Indian and South American pressure systems, which have a definite period of change—one going up while the other goes down—in a period of about 3:8 years. Passing now to solar conditions, we have, first of all, the well-known sun-spot period of about eleven years. This is the mean length of the period; and it must be remembered that epochs of maximum activity, as indicated by frequency and magnitude of sun-spots, do not follow those of minimum activity at constant intervals, but vary from about three to five years. Moreover, when a critical examination is made of solar phenomena, it is found that successive cycles differ from one another in certain respects. Dr. Lockyer discovered that underlying the ordinary sun-spot period there is another of greater length, namely, about thirty-five years. In other words, the sun has to pass through about three cycles of activity before it reaches the same state as it was before. Sun-spots must not, of course, be taken as the sole criteria of the sun’s condition; and it was pointed out by the Lockyers in 1900 that ‘there seems. little doubt that in the future the measure of the change in the amount of solar energy will be determined by the amount and locus of the prominence area ”’ (Proc. Roy. Soc., Ixvii.). The solar latitudes in which sun- spots most frequently appear vary with the epoch of the sun-spot period, and the eruptive prominences have their maxima in the same latitude as the spots. A detailed examination of the records connected with solar spots and prominences revealed subsidiary maxima and minima of about 3:8 years (tbid., Ixx., x03), so that three waves of solar activity have to be considered having approximate periods of four, eleven, and thirty-five years. The condition of the sun at any time represents the algebraic sum of these coefficients of activity. The correlation of the factors of terrestrial weather now becomes possible. In the first place, the old view that the sun’s influence upon weather must be general “ APRIL II, 1912] NATURE 149 has been abandoned—as it should have been long ago. As the earth’s atmosphere is a constant quantity, the crest of a wave in one part must be compensated by a trough in another. Solar action must thus have a double effect of opposite nature upon the atmo- sphere. High pressure in one region must be counter- balanced by low pressure elsewhere, and maximum rainfall in one region will coincide with minimum rainfall in another part of the globe. This is the explanation of the apparent inconsistent conclusions arrived at in earlier investigations of relationships between solar and terrestrial weather. There is now no room for doubt that the earth’s meteorological con- ditions vibrate in sympathetic response to solar eriods of about four, eleven, and thirty-five years. There may be other periods of oscillation, but in any case these three exist upon the sun and earth, and | can be traced in the records of many phenomena. The shortest wave has been established by the Lockyers for solar and terrestrial variations, and the longest, represented by Briickner’s cycle on the earth, was discovered by Dr. Lockyer to have its counter- part on the sun. It is. not surprising that other investigators have arrived at much the same conclusions independently. In a paper published in The American Journal of Science of December, 1894, on “Inversion of Temperature in the 26-8-day Solar Magnetic Period,” Prof. F. H. Bigelow showed that the northern low- pressure and the southern high-pressure belts of THE ETNEAN ERUPTION OF SEPTEMBER, IQIl. ROF. A. RICCO, director of the Observatory of Catania, has issued a preliminary report on the eruption of Etna which took place last September (Boll. Sismol. Soc. Ital., vol. xv., pp. 273-280). The eruption may be said to have begun on the preceding May 27, when a new vent appeared on the north- east flank of the central crater less than a hundred metres below the rim, from which there issued hot white smoke, but no solid matter. In August, rumblings were heard in the central crater and in the new vent, and, from both, smoke and lapilli were discharged. This continued until the night of Sep- tember g-10, when a series of very strong earth- quakes occurred, and a great radial fracture, eight kilometres in length, was formed, running in a N.N.E. direction from the new vent. Some of the earthquakes were felt as far as Mineo, 60 km. from the volcano. In the Observatory of Catania, 30 km. distant, the Vicentini microseismograph was almost continuously agitated from midnight to 6 a.m. on September 1o. The strongest shock occurred at 2.14 a.m., and at the same moment a new vent was opened, about 4 km. from the central crater, from which smoke, ashes, lapilli, and stones were ejected. | Later in the day, three new vents were opened, and North America vary in latitude directly with what he | se described as “solar magnetic intensity.” in the paper to a period of about three years, but his curves (reproduced in The U.S. Monthly Weather Review of November, 1903) only relate to meteor- ology and magnetism, and not to solar activity, the connection between magnetism and prominences not being described by him, so far as we know, until 1902. In the following year Prof. Bigelow published a paper on “Synchronism of the Variations of Solar Prominences with the Terrestrial Barometric Pres- | sures and the Temperatures,”’ and showed direct and indirect changes of both pressure and temperature. In an article in Nature of January 8, 1903, Dr. Lockyer gave full credit to Prof. Bigelow, and stated that the two investigations were in agreement as re- gards three main points, namely :—(1) close connec- tion between solar activity and barometric pressure ; (2) great extent of areas over which very similar pressure variations exist; (3) presence of two large areas over which the pressure variations are reciprocal to each other. Quite recently a paper has reached this country (Bulletin No. 1 of the Argentine Meteorological Office) in which Prof. Bigelow deals with ‘‘ The Synchronism between the Variations of Solar Pheno- mena and the Meteorological Elements in Argentina and the United States.”” It is not clear whether the Bulletin is intended to be a semi-popular statement of the position of the subject or a contribution to scien- tific literature, but the almost complete absence of reference to the work of others suggests the former conclusion. Anyone not familiar with the points of progress would be led to believe that Prof. Bigelow is personally responsible for practically all that is known of solar and terrestrial relationships. L’Etat, c’est moi, said Louis XIV. on one occasion, and this spirit prevails in the paper before us. The only refer- ence to South Kensington relates to photographs with | a spectroheliograph, and no mention whatever is made of the investigations of solar and terrestrial meteor- ology, which, as may be judged from the foregoing | account, form a substantial part of the work of the Solar Physics Observatory. R. A. Grecory. NO. 2215, VOL. 89] He referred | | two lower emitted small streams of lava. | in the same direction is a tract of land to the south- by the next day there were sixteen in action, of which two emitted lava. On September 12, the number of new vents was greatly increased. They seem to have followed the line of the great fracture. The highest group con- sisted of six vents in a N.N.E. line, from which a great quantity of fragmentary material had been ejected, but which on September 12 had become almost inactive. A little lower down, in the same direction, was a row of four vents; and, still farther, a line of six others, very active, which discharged incessantly great masses of smoke and large stones. Lower stili was a fourth group, of four vents, arranged in a line bending towards the N.E., of which the Continuing east of Monte Nero, much fissured, and containing a long string of about thirty vents, from the lowest | and largest of which issued an important stream of | lava. To the north-east of Monte Nero, there started another line of craters (the sixth), about a score in number, from the lowest of which issued a second and larger stream of lava. This stream tollowed | the course taken by the lava in 1646, and, travelling with great rapidity, crossed the Circumetnean railway on the evening of September 12. Between the two craters emitting lava was a seventh group of cones, throwing out incandescent matter. On September 15 and 16, great masses of smoke were still emitted from the central crater and the vent of May 27. The two upper groups of vents were almost spent, the third continued very active; the fifth group of thirty or more vents emitted dense smoke and incandescent materials; in four days they had piled up cones some tens of metres in height; from the lowest lava still issued. The sixth group was also surrounded by lofty cones, from the lowest of which lava continued to flow at the rate of three metres a second. The eruption ended tranquilly on September 23.’ On October 1 the vents were again examined, and several changes were noticed. Those of the third group were united in four large craters; the fourth group consisted of twenty-seven vents, the fifth of 1 The date is given as the 13th inst., but this is clearly a printer's error. | On October 1 the eruption had been ended about a week. 150 NATURE [APRIL II, 1912 forty-two cones, the sixth of twenty-eight high cones, | while the seventh group had disappeared, probably beneath the lava-streams. The Circumetnean railway was occupied by the lava-streams for a length of 800 metres, the lava being piled up over it to a height of 30 metres. The front of the lava reached the Vallone Crasso, about 2 km. beyond the railway. Great quantities of sand and ashes were erupted continuously from the central crater, especially be- tween September 11 and 16. On the days on which the dust fell over Catania, the air was thick, the sun and moon near the horizon were redder than usual; sometimes also the sun, when high up, was reddish and surrounded by a reddish-yellow aureole; but there was no sign whatever of a Bishop’s-ring. D WATER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES.* (GC SESONEED with eight water supply papers, varying in size from 78 to 370 pp., embracing an area of country which is half the United States, and exhibiting a comprehensiveness of treatment which covers river-gauging, well-sinking, water analysis, irrigation, topography, physiography, geology, and meteorology, one is constrained to admit that any attempt to do justice to such a mass of material within the brief compass of a short notice is an impracticable proceeding, foredoomed to failure. It will only be possible, in fact, to turn over the numerous pages of carefully recorded data and valu- able information, and pick therefrom, almost at random, one or two of the more interesting and salient facts. At the outset one is arrested by a photograph exhibiting in a marked degree that wonderful illimit- ability and fascinating monotony of the desert which is only to be likened to the corresponding spaciousness of ‘told ocean’s grey and melancholy waste,’”’ and one learns that there is good evidence to show that the central portion of the Estancia Valley, in New Mexico, with its area of 2000 square miles, was once the bed of a lake, at the margin of which are still to be seen beach ridges and other features of littoral formation. Debouching into this central plateau are a number of broad avenues, or arroyos, of gradually increasing depth, which extend backward to the cliff- edged cafions in the mountainous borderland. These arroyos, generally speaking, hold no permanent stream, but form avenues for the escape of storm waters, which disappear even before they reach the lowest level, leaving behind them the sediment and detritus which they carried. This vanished lake of New Mexico has a counter- part of vaster dimensions in western Utah, where, in the Pleistocene epoch, it is affirmed, there existed a lake some 20,000 square miles in area. Its surface was about 5200 feet above the present sea-level, or about 1000 feet above the present level of the Great Salt Lake. More or less distinct shore lines can be traced as the lake gradually sank and dwindled through the later stages of its history; two, particu- larly, can generally be recognised, one marking the time of its maximum development, and the other an intermediate condition. 1 United States Geological Survey, Water Supply Papers:—No. 263, Surface Water Supply of Ohio River Basin, 1909; No 266, Surface Water Supply of Missouri River Basin, 1909; No. 267, Surface Water Supply of Lower Mississippi Basin, 1009; No. 268, Surface Water Supply of Western Gulf of Mexico; No. 273, Quality of Water Supplies of Kansas; No. 275, Geology and Water Resources of Estancia Valley, New Mexico; No. 277, Geology and Underground Waters of North-Eastern Texas; No. 279, Ground Water in Juab, Millard, and Iron Counties, Utah. (Washington, Igii.) NO. 2215, VOL. 89] In Texas there is the problem of the mounds. Scattered over the north-eastern portion are innu- merable small mounds, varying from 20 feet to 100 feet in diameter, and from 2 to 5 feet in height. In general they are circular in outline, but in some localities they show a tendency towards elongation in a north-east to south-west direction. Various sug- gestions have been put forward to account for their origin: human or animal agency, water erosion, glacial action, wind. No definite evidence in favour of any one is forthcoming, and the question remains an open one. Other points might be noticed, but these few will suffice to show that, apart from the columns of figures, there are many items of interest and much wealth of general information contained in these water supply papers of the United States Geological Survey. THE PORT ERIN BIOLOGICAL STATION. pee twenty-fifth annual report of this station shows that it continues to be an active instru- ment in advancing biological teaching and research, sixty students and research workers having occupied the tables during the year. Among the several re- searches in progress may be mentioned a biometrical investigation of the variation in the shells of the common limpet, which shows that specimens collected near low-water mark are flatter than those taken near high-water mark, and that, contrary to expectation, there was no difference in height between shells obtained from exposed and from more sheltered posi- tions, if taken at the same water-level. Bidduhphia sinensis, a diatom from the Far East, which made its appearance in European seas eight years ago, and was recorded from Port Erin in the last report, was found again in quantity and in vigorous condition, in September and October, 1911. Prof. Herdman gives an account of the occurrence of the Peridinian Amphidinium operculatum at Port Erin. This flagellate organism was first observed there on April 7, and from this date to May 1 it occurred in such profusion as to form brown deposits in the ripple-marks on the sand at about half-tide level. On the same patch of sand there were, from June 3 to July 22, deposits similar in appearance to those already noticed, but on microscopic examination they were found to be composed of diatoms, chiefly Navicula (probably N. amphisbaena), and careful search failed to reveal the presence of any specimens of Amphidinium. On September 9 and 10, however, dense swarms of the latter organism were again pre- sent, but diatoms were absent, and this condition was maintained for a few days. On September 16 the naviculoid diatoms returned in force, and remained abundant during the two following days. By October 2 the diatoms had again vanished, but Amphidinium had reappeared, and it continued to be more or less in evidence until the 27th. Between October 28 and November 1 no _ specimens of Amphidinium were found, but on November 2 three small patches composed of this flagellate made their appearance in the usual positions on the beach, and then died away. From this date to the time of writing neither the flagellate nor the diatoms had been observed. Prof. Herdman suggests that the alternate occurrence, in the same area, of these two organisms is probably due to a physiological cause, and that each organism in turn exhausts or alters some essential constituent of the environment, so as to prevent its own continued existence in quantity, but leaves the ground suitable, or even favourable, to the physiological needs of the other set of compet- ing organisms. : APRIL 11, 1912| NATURE 151 HEAT-WAVES IN ASIA: SUNSHINE AT TRIESTE. R. H. VON FICKER contributes to the Sitzungs- berichte d. K. Akad. der Wiss., of Vienna (vol. cxx., part vi., June, 1911), a comprehensive dis- cussion of “heat-waves”’ travelling across northern Europe and Asia during the years 1898-1902. He deals with eleven cases in which the mean daily tem- perature increased by at least 10° C. in twenty-four hours, and the course of the change could be traced over a large area. The majority of the ‘‘heat-waves”’ occurred in winter, and three of these and the single summer-'‘ wave” are discussed in detail. The mean values for the eleven cases are treated very fully, the synchronous conditions of wind, pressure, change of pressure, humidity, and cloud each receiving as full a consideration as the available data permitted. In a previous investigation of cold waves in the same region, Dr. Ficker found that the wind in the cold area was roughly perpendicular to the wave-front, indicating that the change of temperature was pro- duced by the horizontal transference of a mass of cold air. The result may be compared with the deduc- tions of Lempfert and Corless from a detailed investi- gation of line squalls in this country. With heat- waves, however, the wave-front travels towards the east or south-east, while the wind is from south-west. The author concludes that there is a continuous south- west current which is lifted temporarily by the mass of cold air in the cold waves, and that in the general circulation of the atmosphere this warm south-west current is the medium through which air is carried polewards. He does not attempt to determine the motive nower which pushes the cold air equatorwards. It may be the unexpended momentum of a south-west current which has crossed the polar regions, or it may be due to the effect of the earth’s rotation on the south-west current in the rear of the cold wave. In the northward progress of the warm current, the cooling is less than the warming which the cold wave experiences as it moves towards the equator, and this is attributed to the lifting of the warm current, which is thereby removed from the cooling effect of the earth. The latent heat of the vapour carried by the current ought also to be an important factor. The maximum temperatures at different places in the ‘“‘heat-wave”’ differ much less from one another than in the cold wave, and the increase of tempera- ture is greatest in the coldest places. There are exceptional cases in Central Asia which are explained by the dynamic warming of descending air (Fohn). The velocity of the wave-front is about 33 km. per hour, which agrees fairly well with the corresponding velocity found for cold waves. The latter would naturally expand laterally as they progressed, so that the actual velocity of the wave-front ought to be less in the case of heat-waves, for which no such lateral expansion is possible. The relative humidity frequently increases with the advent of the ‘‘heat-wave,”’ and the absolute humidity invariably does so. The amount of cloud also in- creases in general. The conclusion is drawn that the ‘‘heat-wave”’ cannot be attributed to descending air, but must be due to the horizontal flow of warmer and more humid air. It is difficult to reconcile this with the conclusions based upon the observations of wind, and it is possible that the surface wind does not provide a satisfactory basis for the theory developed by Dr. Ficker. It is now established that the upper wind, at moderate altitudes, deviates considerably from the wind at the surface, and has approximately the same direction as the surface isobars. Above the south-west winds found by Dr. Ficker, there would probably be a general current from west to east, or NOw@225, VOL. 89] | { approximately in the direction of motion of the wave- front, and the general progress of the wave may be governed by this upper current. The paper will contribute to the solution of the problem of scientific forecasting in its wider aspects, and the author is to be congratulated on the excellent use which he has made of the data contained in the publications of the Russian Central Observatory. The same number contains a discussion by Dr. E. A. Kielhauser of nineteen years’ records of the duration of sunshine at Trieste. In the daily variation the maximum occurs at 1 p.m. in winter and at 2 p.m. in the other three seasons, but in summer there is a secondary maximum at Ii a.m. with nearly the same value as the principal maximum. At Kew the principal maximum in summer occurs at or before 11 a.m., and is consider- ably in excess of the secondary afternoon maximum. The most interesting table is one giving the number of occasions in each month on which series of 1, 2, 3 . consecutive days without sunshine occurred. October had the greatest number of single days, and December of series of 2, 3, 4 days, but January had the greatest total number, and stands out as the month in which the longest sunless periods occur. No period, however, exceeded eleven days, so that Trieste is more favourably treated than London in this respect. At Westminster in January of the present year there were thirteen consecutive sunless days, at Kew fourteen. The difference in favour of Trieste is not sufficient, however, to justify its inclusion in the ‘sunny south.” In winter the chances are in favour of a sunless day being followed by a second sunless day, but the case is reversed in summer, and on no occasion did two consecutive sunless days occur in August, which had only ten such days in the nineteen years. July is the month with the greatest total duration, but August had the smallest number of sunless days. E. Go.p. THE TOTAL ECLIPSE OF THE SUN, APRIL, 1911, AS OBSERVED AT VAVAU, TONGA ISLANDS." Ors to very unfavourable weather, the eclipse of last year was observed in the presence of a large amount of cloud. The lecturer, while only being able to refer to the few results that were secured, took the opportunity of explaining why ex- peditions were sent out to observe eclipses, and how a large expedition is organised when it is known that the assistance of one of his Majesty’s ships is avail- able. Introducing the subject with a few words as to the conditions which cause total solar eclipses, their occurrence in families, &c., he then pointed out that the sum total of time spent in useful observation at all the eclipses which have been observed up to date is very short, and amounts probably to less than three hours, for an eclipse cannot last longer than eight minutes, and does not, as a rule, exceed three minutes. The line of totality of last year’s eclipse extended across the Pacific Ocean, commencing at New South Wales, Australia, and terminating in the ocean just to the west of Central America. The central portion of the track passed near the islands of Tofua, Vavau, Tau, Nassau, and Danger Islands. Tofua being an active volcano, and Tau, Nassau, and Danger Islands difficult of access, most of the expeditions located themselves on Vavau, where there was a very safe anchorage for ships and where stores were obtainable. All the parties settled close to Neiafu, the chief village 1 Abstract of a discourse delivered at the Royal Institution on Friday March 1, by Dr. William J. S. Lockyer. 152 NATURE [ApRIL II, 1912 of Vavau, and there the duration of totality was com- puted to be three minutes thirty-seven seconds, or 217 seconds. In the earlier days of eclipse expeditions those who took part in them had to be content with eye observa- tions alone. The discovery of and rapid advance made in the sensitive photographic plate, and its successful application in 1860 to eclipse work, revolutionised eclipse programmes altogether, so that an abundance of facts may now be photographed in a brief interval of time, and these be examined at leisure at a less exciting moment. It is well to remember that many inquiries, which in the earlier days formed part of eclipse programmes, need attention no longer. Thus, for example, the corona was first thought to be the illuminated lunar atmosphere until observations proved it to be a solar appendage. Further, during eclipses the corona was supposed to be either quickly rotating or pulsating | W600 . 1700 * 18200 . 18900 ey 19000 « SUNSPOTS IEAM DAILY ARCAS noe ntniaPnere UIT) me LaTiTuD® SOLAR ACTIVITY O)PROMINENCES| Meco RinSCARY o SPOTS éntenwien the main solar inquiries will be able to be conducted without waiting for their occurrence. In recent years, among the most important work of eclipse expeditions, that of the study of the form-and chemistry of the chromosphere and corona has taken first place. Even now the research on the chemistry of the chromosphere is in process of being divorced from eclipse work. This is due to the magnificent work that is being carried on at the Mount Wilson Solar Observatory with large-scale instruments. At that observatory the chromospheric spectrum has been photographed in full sunlight. The method employed, while surpassing in accuracy of wave-length measures those made from eclipse spectra, may in time equal; or even possibly exceed, them in detail. Thus the chemistry and form of the corona are practically the only large inquiries which are re- stricted to eclipses, and probably we may not have long to wait before even these form part of the daily routine of solar physics observatories situated in good observ- ing localities. Time will not permit me to tell you even briefly how the special results obtained during eclipses help the ad- vancement of solar and _ celestial physics. When it is remembered, however, that our sun has a temperature of about 7ooo° at its surface, and perhaps several hundreds of thousands of de- grees at its centre—that the very sun- spots which appear to us as black spots on its surface are brighter than the brightest arc lamp—then the im- portance of the study of every attain- able part of this very effective group of furnaces in and out of eclipse is imperative for the advancement. of knowledge. If one be permitted to refer briefly to the progress of our knowledge of the form, origin, and chemistry of the corona, you are well aware that. its 100 * ©2200 Fic. 1.—Curves to show that while the different forms of the corona exhibit a regular variation, c 1 1 sun-spot areas and prominence trequency, it is the promin- ences (which, unlike the spo s, are not limited to any latitude) that are responsible for the corresponding in-time to those varying systematic changes of form of the corona. visibly, but subsequent observations have shown that during those times it is apparently as rigid and stationary as an Indian order suspended in the sky. The prominences, those ruddy, brilliant tree-lilke forms which appear during totality at the edge of the moon’s limb, were also considered as belonging to our satellite, until observations in 1860 demonstrated them as belonging to the sun. While we know that they are solar, there is even now no necessity to waste time during eclipses on either the study of their forms, positions, or chemistry. The reasons for this are that in 1868 a method was devised by which they can be individually studied visually any day when the sun shines, and in 1891 a means was afforded of photographing in a few minutes, on one plate, all the prominences situated on the sun’s limb. The solution of these and other problems which might be mentioned are gradually reducing the importance of observing eclipses, and it is well within the bounds of possibility that in the near future all NO. 2215, VOL. 89] shape is not the same at every eclipse, but that there seems to be a systematic ps | aa change going on, extending | over 1300 wwe several years (Fig. .1). A study of these forms has shown that the changes repeat themselves about every eleven years, and since the mean daily areas of sun-spots are known to have a periodicity of this length of time, their close association is generally conceded. It happens, however, that when the coronal streamers are most prominent in highest solar latitudes, and when at the same epochs the mean daily spotted area is at a maximum, the mean latitude of the spotted area is very low, being only about 15°. Thus there seems reason to question the conclusion that sun-spots at such a low latitude can originate coronal streamers so distant as the solar poles. It must not be forgotten that a study of the fre- quency of solar prominences has disclosed the fact that not only have these phenomena a periodicity of about eleven years, synchronising exactly with the spotted area, but that when their frequency is at a maximum they are conspicuous at the highest solar latitudes. Thus there occur at the same time promin- ences and coronal streamers near the solar poles, a very possible and probable condition for cause and effect. In the eclipses of roo1 and 1905 several striking a ea APRIL II, 1912] NATURE 153 photographs were secured illustrating intimate association between prominence and the overlying coronal material, thus affording further evidence of their close connection. While, therefore, prominence activity is most likely responsible for providing and raising the material from the body of the sun in the various latitudes according to the diflerent epochs of prominence activity, what action is it that organises and arranges the streamers which extend sometimes five or six millions of miles into space? The close association between the occurrences of terrestrial magnetic storms and solar disturbances, and the results of the researches which were described in this institution in 1909, namely, the discovery of solar vortices and the presence of powerful magnetic fields which result from the revolution of the nega- tively charged particles, termed corpuscles, in them electro- —these suggest strongly a cause, namely, magnetic action, to explain the effect. being of the “slit” type, employing a 1o-ft. concave grating, while the other was of the ‘‘slitless” or prismatic camera type, in which the dispersion was secured by four 6-in. prisms of 45° angle. The lecturer then referred to the various eclipse parties, namely, the two British official parties under himself and Father Cortie, a private party under Mr. Worthington, an Australian party under Prof. Baracchi, and two other observers who went out separately. The great assistance which the officers and men rendered to the lecturer’s party can be gathered from the fact that 14 officers and 107 men took part in the observations. Vavau was reached on April 2, and a camp was set up about a mile and a half up the harbour. Work was commenced at once to clear the for the eclipse and living camps, to cut paths, erect landing-stages and steps. The various groups of volunteers confined themselves to their several duties, and general working parties were formed for ground and to Fic. 2.—A view of the eclipse camp (Solar Physics Observatory expedition). So long, then, as the corona can only be observed during eclipses, the study of its general form and its structure in close proximity to prominences should be minutely recorded and discussed. About the chemistry of the corona nothing is known. The spectroscope on many occasions has permitted observers to photograph the many radia- tions that it emits, and while numerous determina- tions of the wave-lengths of these radiations have been made, no terrestrial equivalents have yet been discovered. Thus its composition is still a mystery. For the occasion of last year’s eclipse the main work intended to be accomplished by the expedition of which I was in charge was a study on a large scale of the spectra of the chromosphere and corona, together with the form of the corona. For the spectroscopic work, two instruments giving large dispersion were constructed, adjusted, and “taken out, and several coronagraphs of different focal lengths were utilised for recording the form of the corona. The large spectroscopes were of two kinds, one NO. 2215, VOL. 89] fetching dead coral, sand, and water for the concrete pillars, for building the pillars, and putting together and covering the instrument-huts and dark-room. The weather experienced for the first week was all that could be desired in the way of absence of rain, but the high humidity, coupled with a high tempera- ture and the presence of millions of flies and thousands of mosquitoes, rendered the work of the camp formation extremely arduous. In the water we had other enemies in the form of sharks and snakes. At a later stage a rainy type of weather set in, and it was the exception to have a day free from it. Tropical downpours were very frequent, and special precautions had to be taken to have efficient coverings for every instrument and to Reach the small com- pounds in which each instrument was enclosed. By April 20 arrangements were sufficiently advanced to warrant the commencement of rehearsals, and on six days before the eclipse these rehe arsals took place (Fig. 2). During the period occupied in preparing the instru- sea- 154 NATURE [ApriL 11, 1912 ments for the eclipse, transit observations were being conducted for time and position, meteorological observations were being made at fixed times, and con- tinuous records were being secured by a barograph, thermograph, and hygrograph. In order to eliminate any doubt as to the possible inaccuracy of the computed times of the contacts of the limbs of the sun and moon, and also to give certain prescribed signals to those observers whose programmes necessitated them, a special telescope was set up (in conjunction with the siderostat of the 6-in. prismatic camera) to throw an image of the sun on a previously marked disc. The face of this disc was so graduated as to enable the observer to esti- mate the angle subtended at the centre of the dark moon by the remaining bright crescent of the un- eclipsed portion of the sun; previous calculations had shown that when the crescent subtended angles of go°, 45°, and 30°, there remained 42, 9, and 4 seconds respectively before totality began. This method only holds good when clouds do not obstruct the view of the sun. In order to allow for the contingency of second contact not being seen on account of clouds, the observer was furnished with a deck-watch to give all the necessary signals at their computed times. The 10 minutes before totality (wind | clocks, caps off, lamps lit)... Bugle 5 minutes before totality... | > | 42 seconds ich 3 blasts (whistle) | |2 9 ry «| 2 | ** Rouse up” and iG DIARY OF SOCIETIES. THURSDAY, Apri 11. MATHEMATICAL Society, at 5.30.—An Application of the Theory of Integral Equations to the Equation v2«+é#2«=o0: H. S. Carslaw.—On Mersenne's Numbers : A. Cunningham. Concrete Insriture, at 8.—The True Bending Moments of Beams with various degrees of Fixity : Maurice Béhar. FRIDAY, Aprit 12. Rovat AsTRONOMICAL SocIETy, at 5.—(1) Recent Observations of Nova Cygni (1876); (2) Micrometrical Measures and Focal Peculiarities of Nova Lacerte (Espin): E. E. Barnard.—The Planet Jupiter in 1889: A. Stanley Williams.—The Spectrum of the New Star in Gemini, 1912, March: W. E. Curtis.—Definiton of Correlation Coefficients: IEG, Kapteyn.—Probable Papers: (1) A Proposal for the Comparison of the | Stellar Magnitude Scales of the Different Observatories taking part in the Astrographic Catalogue. Second Note: The Bordeaux Magnitudes. (2) A Tentative Explanation of the “Two Star Streams” in Terms of Gravitation. Second Note: The Position of the Centre of our System: H. H. Turner.—Nova Geminorum, Positions for r900°o of Ninety- five Stars surrounding it: F. A. Bellamy —Photographs of the Spectrum of Nova Geminorum No, 2: Cambridge Observatory. Maracotocica Society, at 8.—The Genus Dosinia and its Subdivisions: A. J. Jukes-Browne, F.R.S.—On the Generic Name to be applied to the Venus islandica, Linn. : E. A. Smith.—Note on Lapparia Parki: H. Suter.—Characters of Three New Species of Fresh-water Shells from Uruguay ;, New Species of Limicolaria from British East Africa: H. B. Preston. Institurion oF Civit ENGINEERS, at 8. —Exminster Sewage-di Works : H. G. Hoskings. i seg Er MONDAY, Apri ts. VicToRIA INSTITUTE, at 4.30.—Directivity of Life as seen in the Structure of Plants and Animals: Prof. G. Henslow. NO. 2215, VOL. 89] TUESDAY, Apri. 16. InstITUTION oF CiviL ENGINEERS, at 8.—The Remodelling and Equip- ment of Madras Harbour: Sir Francis J. E. Spring, K.C.I.E.—The Alteration inthe Form of Madras Harbour: H. H. G. Mitchell. ILLUMINATING ENGINEERING SOcIETY, at 8.—Lighting of Private Houses. by Gas and Electricity: W. H. Y. Webber and W. R. Rawlings. WEDNESDAY, Aprit 17. Royat Society or Arts, at 8.—Municipal Chemistry: J. H. Coste. Gro.ocicat Society, at 8.—The Pre-Cambrian and Cambrian Rocks of Brawdy, Hayscastle, and Brimaston (Pembrokeshire): H. H. Thomas and Prof. O, T. Jones.—The Geological Structure of Central Wales and the Adjoining Region : Prof. O. T. Jones. RovaL METEOROLOGICAL SOCIETY, at 7.30.—Report on the Phenologicah Observations for 1911: J. E. Clark and R. H. Hooker.—A Method of Summarising Anemograms : R. G. K. Lempfert and W. Braby. Royat MicroscopicaL Society, at §.—Note on the Life-history of a Marine Diatom from Bournemouth: J. D. Siddall.—A modified form of the Lever Fine-Adjustment, and a Simple Turn-out Device for the Substage Condenser: E. B. Stringer. THURSDAY, Apriv 18. Roya. InsTiITuTION, at 3.—Synthetic Ammonia and Nitric Acid from the Atmosphere : Prof. A. W. Crossley, F.R.S. } Linnean Society, at 8.—Botrychioxylon paradoxum, a Palzxozoic fern with secondary wood: Dr. D. H. Scott, F.R.S.—On Psyginophyllune majus, sp. nova, from the Lower Carboniferous rocks of Newfoundland, together with a revision of the genus, and remarks on its affinities > Dr. E. A. Newell Arber.—The Alpine Flora of the Canadian Rocky Mountains : Mrs. Henshaw. INSTITUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Adjourned Discussion : The Causes Preventing the More General Use of Electricity for Domestic Purposes. INSTITUTION OF MINING AND METALLURGY, at 8. FRIDAY, Apri 19. Royat INsTITUTION, at g.—Electricity Supply: Future: A. A. Campbell Swinton. INSTITUTION OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Tenth Report to the Alloys Research Committee on the Alloys of Aluminium and Zinc = Dr. W. Rosenhain and S. L. Archbutt. Past, Present, and CONTENTS. Krummel’s Handbook of Oceanography PAGE 133 deheWMnsurance Act, 1900) ee eee tere er LOR Jaekel’s Classification of Vertebrates. By R. L. . 134 (ThesProdiuction of Wheat. | By Ay DOH. V3 cea mas Actual Electrochemistry. By J. Swinburne, F.R.S. 136 Avireatise‘on Cholera.) ByiRe Go He. <)> een tas Our Bookshelf : Re: So oes Wh AR CESS Beye Letters to the Editor :— Skull of a Neanderthal Type in the Cambridge Fens. Prof. A. Keith . ~edey ae kG a eS Are Eyes Autophanous ?>—K. H. Barnard ... . 138 Centre of Pressure on Triangular Plane Gliders at Small Angles of Incidence. (W2th Diagrar.)— Prof. Herbert Chatley . PM cc aS Red Water.—H. Warth . Sh Bias o_o ieee aR Siam. (///ustrated.) . . Rohe ie ty la’ s)he Se The Smoke Problem. (///ustrated.) {i kee ES The British Antarctic Expedition. ........ I4I Notes ei ra age Bice oso St Cece 142 Our Astronomical Column :-— The Eclipse of April 17 . ; oe 147 * The E] Nakhla el Baharia Meteorite . 147 A Daylight Meteor ..... 3 147 The Stonyhurst Observatory . . . 147 Photographs of Halley’s Comet . . 2” (=e eA Cycles of the Sun and Weather. By Prof. R. A. Grepory oP. - . . isi. 5 o cs bon do Sp eye The Etnean Eruption of September, 1911. By C.D. 149 Water Resources of the United States adn) eso) The Port Erin Biological Station. . airs nites 150 Heat-Waves in Asia: Sunshine at Trieste. By Dr. HeGOlG ts. - » (Seer - ie 151 The Total Eclipse of the Sun, 1911, as Observed at Vavau, Tonga Islands. (///ustrated.) By Dr. William J. S. Lockyer OAL IS Baran ean. is The Relationship of Neanderthal Man and Pithec- anthropus to Modern Man. By Prof. Arthur BGS) eS 5 6 obo O fammeneesh ole) a WR University and Educational Intelligence. .... 156 Societies and Academies SRC — eee i 156 BookspReceivied oc... ccd on ees rns ate 158 Diary of Societies . 158 A WEEKLY ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL -OF SCIENCE. “To the solid ground Of Nature trusts the mind which builds for aye.’ *—Worpsworth. No. 2216, VoL. 89] THURSDAY, Registered asa 1 Newspaper Ge General Post Office. ee (oat Gee THE “STONYHURST” SIMPLEX SUNSHINE RECORDER Records the intensity and duration of sunshine for 24 hours on a prepared photo- graphic chart which merely requires washing in cold water to become permanent. This instrument, which is well made and thoroughly efficient, has been designed to enable accu- rate records to be obtained by those who do not wish to go to unnecessary expense. The _ “*Stonyhurst” Simplex Sun- shine Recorder, with divided arc to suit any latitude, with roo charts and directions for use, complete ... ... 35/=- Sole Makers: NEWTON & CO., 72 Wigmore St., London, W. Established over 200 years. Telegrams: Write for Illustrated Catalogu General Scientific ‘“ NewTosar, Lonpon.” of Optical, Meteorological, and Apparatus. Post free on request. THE “LONDON” MICROSCOPE. A New Form for Research Work. (THE REGENT MODEL.) Slow motion four finer than usual. Swing-out centring focussing substage. Iris diaphragm in stage level with surface. times and Finder divisions to mechanical stage, &c. CANTOR LECTURES By Conrap Breck on the Theory of the Microscope, Price I/= R. & J. BECK, LTD., 68 CORNHILL, E.C. cee ee APRI Hs 1912 " [Price SIXPENCE [an Rights I Reserved. REYNOLDS & BRANSON, Ltd. GRAND PRIX AWARD, TURIN, 1911. SOLE AUTHORISED MAKERS OF STROUD & RENDELL SCIENCE LANTERNS. The ‘* University” Lan- tern, with Russian iron body, sliding baseboard, two superior objectives, | plane silvered mirror “A,” which is moved by a knob causing the rays to be reflected upwards for the projection of objects in a_ horizontal plane, condenser 4} in. diam., prism with silvered back which can be used at “C,” or as an erecting prism in .nount “D,” lime-light burner, slide carrier. Price complete in travelling case, without nererele adjustable table “B, £9 10 0 Ditto, ditto, with “ Phoenix” arc lamp con at A076 Reversible adjustable table ‘‘B” for supporting apparatus, extra 7 6 The ‘‘ College” Lantern, without Ue Ee with lime-light burner complete A Fe 712 6 Ditto, ditto, with ‘‘ Phoenix” arc lamp = SynOn 0) Slit and prism for spectrum with support, ‘for either lantern . eee! erie Polariser and analyser ... Zn) 0; Catalogues. post free. Optical J. anterns and Accessory Apparatus, 223 pages. New Abridgee ist of Chemical Apparatus and Chemicals, 44 pages. Mechanic dels for teaching Building and Machine Construction. 1a Cc AMERCIAL STREET, LEEDS. The Anemo-Biagraph records the Velocity of the wind. Price £20 0 0 Wind Direction Recorder registers the Direction of the wind. Price £17 10 0 And the Combined Apparatus re- cords the Velocity and Direction simultaneously upon one chart. Price £35 0 0 Pamphlets describing above, and list of Meteorological Instruments free on request. Negretti & Zambra, Holborn Circus, London, IDs OF Branches: 45 Cornhill, E.C.; 122 Regent St., W. xiv NATURE [Aprit 18, 1912 UNIVERSITY OF LONDON. KING’S COLLEGE. FACULTY OF SCIENCE. Courses of Study are arranged for Degrees in the University of London. Students may also join for any of the subjects without taking the complete course. Several valuable Scholarships and Prizes are offered. The Laboratories of the College are open to post-Graduate and Research students. Heads of Departments. Mathematics «. Prof. S. A. F. WuitTg, M.A. Pnysics .. Prof. C. G. BarKxia, D.Sc. Chemist een Joun M. Tuomson, LU.D., F.R.S. SS *-\ Prof H. Jackson, F.I.C., F.C.S. Botany x .. Prof. W. B. BorromMiey, Ph.D., F.L.S. Zoology ... 4 Prof. AxrHUR Denpy, D.Sc., F.R.S. Geology and Mineralozy T. Franktin Sisiy, D.Sc. Physiol f Prof. W. D. Hatiisurton, M.D., B.Sc., WS1OLCEY, 30m aes MARS S: Psychology W. Brown, M.A, D.Sc. The TERM commences WEDNESDAY, MAY yg, rorz2- For information and prospectus apply to the SecrETaARY, King’s College, Strand, London, W.C. EAST LONDON COLLEGE. (UNIVERSITY OF LONDON.) Patron—HIS MAJESTY THE KING. Classics ... F. R. Earp, M.A. English H. Bectoc, M.A. French Mina Paguter. German ... J. Sterrpat, Ph.D History ... vs THomas SeccomsE, M.A. Mathematics... THE PRINCIPAL. Physics ... =o ie 5 aCe a EES! D.Sc.) aReos Chemistry 6 io eee te Hewirr, DSc VsReSs Botany ... 5 co one «. FE. E. Fritscu, D.Sc. Geology .. x .. W. L. Carrer, M.A, Civil - ’ Engineering... xe D. A. Low, M.I.M.E. Electrical Engineering J. T. Morris, M.L.E E. Valuable Entrance Scholarships awarded by Drapers and Mechanical \ Fees moderate. Company. Special facilities for Post-Graduate and Research Students. Particulars of fees, courses of study, &c., on application to the REGISTRAR, or to J. L. S. HATTON, M.A., Principal, at the College. BEDFORD COLLEGE FOR WOMEN, (UNIVERSITY OF LONDON.) YORK PLACE, BAKER STREET, W. Princrpat—Miss M. J. TUKE, M.A. COURSE OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUCTION IN HYGIENE. Recognised by the Sanitary Inspectors’ Examination Board. The Course is designed to furnish training for Women Sanitary and Factory Inspectors and Teachers of Hygiene. A Post-graduate Scholarship of £35 for one year is offered for the course beginning October, 1912. Applications should be forwarded not later than June x to the Principat, from whom further particulars may be obtained. LONDON HOSPITAL MEDICAL COLLEGE AND DENTAL SCHOOL. The SUMMER SESSION opens on MAY 1. Students entering then are eligible to compete for the Entrance Scholarships in September. For prospectus and particulars apply to the Dean, WiLtLtiam WRIGHT, M.B., D.Sc., F.R.C.S., who will be glad to make arrangements for any one wishing to see over the Medical College and Dental School. London Hospital Medical College, Mile End, E. PRIFYSGOL CYMRU. UNIVERSITY OF WALES THREE FELLOWSHIPS of the annual value of £125, tenable for wo years, are open to graduates of this University. Applications must be received before September 1, 1912, by the REGISTRAR, University Registry, Cathays Park, Cardiff, from whom further information may be obtained. THE UNIVERSITY. OF .LEEDS. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Applications are invited for the appointment of ASSISTANT LEC- TURER in AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. Particulars may be obtained from the CLERK TO THE SENATE. FOR SALE.—Five milligrams of Radium Bromide. Offers to be addressed to ‘‘ Box No. c/o NaTurRgs, St. Martin’s Street, London, W.C. 1912,” ] IMPERIAL COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, SOUTH KENSINGTON. INCLUDING ‘THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF SCIENCE, the ROYAL SCHOOL OF MINES, and the CITY AND GUILDS (ENGINEERING) COLLEGE. A Special Course of Advanced Lectures will be given, beginning on Wednesday, May 15 next, on the MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF METALS AND ALLOYS, by S. W. J. SMITH, A.R.C.S., M.A., D.Sc. For furiher information and for admission to the Course application should be made to the SECRETARY. BOROUGH OF WIDNES. MUNICIPAL SECONDARY SCHOOL. Principal—J. A. Coorer, B.Sc. WANTED, in SEPTEMBER, an experienced MASTER, with Honours Degree in Science. Principal Subject, Chemistry, to University Scholar-hip Standard ; Subsidiary Subjects, Physics. Mathematics. Assist- ance with Games essential. Secondary School Diploma and Musical ability desirable. The present Master has been appointed to a Head- mastership. Jnitial salary, 4130-4170 (four years’ previous experience in recoznised Secondary Schools requisite for the latter), with annual incre- ments of £10 to £2co, and, if specially recommended, to £250, according to the Lancashire County Council scale. Applications from those withcut previous Secondary School experience will not be considered. Master appointed required to undertake about six hours’ Evening Work per week, at 5s. per hour. Forms of application, which must be filled up by all applicants, to be had, on receipt of stamped addressed envelope, from the PRINCIPAL, to whom they must be returned not Jater than APRIL 30, 1912. CITY OF BIRMINGHAM EDUCATION COMMITTEE. HEAD OF DEPARTMENT OF METALLURGY. Applications are invited for the post of HEAD of the DEPARTMENT of METALLURGY of the MUNICIPAL TECHNICAL SCHOOL. Commencing salary, 4300 per annum. Full particulars will be forwarded on application to the Secretary of the School (Mr. G. MELtor), Suffolk Street, Birmingham. The last date for sending in applications is May 1, 1912. Personal canvassing of Members of Committee by applicants or their friends will be a disqualification. JNO. ARTHUR PALMER, Secretary of Education. Sales by Eluction. STEVENS’ AUCTION ROOMS. Esvtp. 1760. LEPIDOPTERA. Tugspay, APRIL 23, at One o'clock. MR. J. C. STEVENS will Sell by Auction at his Rooms, 38 King Street, Covent Garden, London, W.C., the Fourth Portion of the Collection of Lepidoptera formed by the late J. W. Tutt, Esq., F.E.S., comprising long series in fine condition of British Tortrices, including long and varied series of Peroneas, also British Tinea ; good series of Psychid# and Nepticule in excellent condition, and the remainder of the British Geometers, together with the Cabinets in which they are contained. On view day prior and morning of Sale. Catalogues on application. March 21, 1912. STEVENS’ AUCTION ROOMS. Esrp. 1760. A Sale by Auction is held EVERY FRIDAY at 12.30, which affords first-class opportunities for the disposal or purchase of SCIENTIFIC AND ELECTRICAL APPARATUS, Microscopes and Accessories, Surveying Instruments, Photographic Cameras and Lenses, Lathes and Tools, Cinematographs and Films and Miscellaneous Property. Catalogues and terms for selling will be forwarded on application to Mew. J. C. STEVENS, 38 KING STREET, COVENT GARDEN, LONDON, W.C. BOOKS ! Edueational, Medical, all other subjects, and for all Exams. SECOND-HAND AT HALF PRICES! New, at 25% Discount. CATALOGUES FREE. State Wants. Books sent on approval. BOOKS BOUGHT: Best Prices Given. W, & C, FOYLE, 135 Charing Cross Road, London, W.C. TYPE-WRITING undertaken by Woman Graduate (Classical Tripos, Girton College, Cambridge ; Intermediate Arts, Lendon). Research, Revision, Shorthand. CAMBRIDGE TYPE-WRITING AGENCY, 5 Duke Street, Adelphi, W.C, Telephone: 2308 City. Books on Scientific, Technical, THURSDAY, APRIL 18, 1912. PROGRESS OF THE STEAM TURBINE. Steam Turbine Design. With especial reference to the Reaction Type, including chapters on Condensers and Propeller Design. By Dr. J. Morrow. Pp. viii+471+chart. (London: Ed- ward Arnold, 1911.) Price 16s. net. Marine Steam Turbines. (Forming the Supple- mentary Volume to ‘‘Marine Engines and Boilers.”) By Dr. G. Bauer and O. Lasche; assisted by E. Ludwig and H. Vogel. Trans- lated from the German and edited by M. G. S. Swallow. Pp. xvi+214+ entropy chart. (Lon- don: Crosby Lockwood and Son, 1911.) Price tos, 6d. net. The Steam Turbine. The Rede Lecture, 1911. By Sir Charles A. Parsons, K.C.B. Pp. iti+57. (Cambridge: University Press, 1911.) Price Is. 6a5 net. Be literature of steam turbines grows apace. This growth is seen to be natural enough when one considers the immense developments which have taken place in prime movers of the type during recent years, as well as their varied | applications for land and marine purposes. On land, steam turbines are now almost universally preferred to reciprocating engines for electric generating stations; while low-pressure turbines are largely utilised—as auxiliaries to reciprocating engines—in iron works, factories, and engineering establishments. One of the most notable develop- ments in modern mechanical engineering consists in the adoption of methods for utilising heat which had previously been wasted in carrying on manu- facturing processes. In this endeavour to secure increased economy the steam turbine has played a great part, although its successful applications have unquestionably been greatly assisted by the work of electrical engineers. The fundamental principle of this increased economy is found in the capability of steam turbines, especially those of the “reaction” type, to carry the expansion of steam much further than is practically possible with re- ciprocating engines. Superheating, higher vacuums and greatly improved arrangements for condensing steam have necessarily had to be devised in order that the full efficiency of turbines might be realised; and it worth noting that these advances have not only produced beneficial results in association with the use of steam turbines. Their range of usefulness has been much wider, and has affected the economical use of earlier types of reciprocating engines, both afloat and ashor 1S re. NO. 2216, VOL. 89| vid 7 Chee ate 159 Marine engineering has benefited quite as much as, if not more than, mechanical engineering on | land from the introduction of steam turbines. It is indeed a simple statement of fact to assert that | steam navigation could not have reached its present position had not steam turbines been in- | troduced. This statement applies to the largest and swiftest ocean passenger steamers, to the latest battle-ships and battle-cruisers, to fast cross- channel and coasting steamers, and to the won- derful little craft classed as the “torpedo flotillas ” of modern war-fleets. When such a revolution has been effected, and further advances are in progress, it is, as was said above, quite natural that text-books and treatises on steam turbines | should be multiplied in number, and multiplication has been attended by greater specialisation of treatment in successive publications. The first and second of the three volumes now under notice have been issued with the distinct | intention of serving as text-books for men actually engaged in the design of steam turbines. In ' both these books is contained a clear, yet brief, | statement of thermo-dynamical principles under- | lying designs of turbine machinery; but the authors have assumed that readers desiring to master these principles will turn to existing text- books in which the subject has been treated thoroughly, and in a fashion adapted to the needs | of students. Dr. Morrow is lecturer in engineering at the Armstrong College, Newcastle-on-Tyne; and, as | everyone knows, the Tyne was the birthplace of the Parsons type of turbine. In the hands of Sir Charles Parsons and his licensees in the Tyne district, this type of machinery has been manu- factured on a gigantic scale; but it is right to add that the Tyne district in no sense stands alone in its acceptance and use of steam turbines. In the circumstances it is natural to find the author devoting by far the greater portion of his book to the “‘reaction”’ type of steam turbines, and to the Parsons type in particular. “Impulse” turbines | are also dealt with briefly, but students must turn to other works for full details of their designs. The characteristic features of Dr. Morrow’s book are clearness of description, excellence of illustra- tion, a wealth of examples of methods and details of design, and a strict regard for fundamental principles. Dr. Morrow concludes his preface with the remark that “in a work containing so | much original matter, the author cannot but feel _ that errors of judgment and mistakes in details will be found”; and he invites readers to favour him with corrections and suggestions. This is the attitude which an author ought to assume in such H 160 NATURE [Aprit 18, 1912 a case; and later editions will benefit therefrom. Taking the book as it stands, it will undoubtedly prove of much use to men who are engaged in the design of steam turbines. For that reason it will be likely to find a large circulation, although it is probable that its interest will not be limited to engineering draughtsmen and students. The second volume in our list is a translation of a German book on “Marine Steam Turbines,” issued as a supplement to a treatise on “ Marine Engines and Boilers,” which one of the authors published a few years ago, and which has also appeared in an English translation. The author of this earlier work (Dr. Bauer) is the director of the great marine engineering works at Stettin. Mr. Lasche, who is joint-author with Dr. Bauer, is a director of the Allgemeine Electricitats Gesell- schaft (better known as the A.E.G.) works in Berlin. Both these gentlemen have had large experience in the design and construction of steam turbines of various types, and they have been | interested in the application of the A. E.G. turbine and the American Curtis turbine to the generation of electricity and the propulsion of ships. The present book, however, relates entirely to marine steam turbines, and the greatest prominence is naturally given to that class of turbine with which the authors have been mostly concerned. They very properly point out that only these two types of marine steam turbines and the Parsons type have as yet been practically tried on a large scale. As a matter of fact, the Parsons type has been used in by far the greater number of turbine- driven ships yet constructed. The Curtis type has been hitherto its only real competitor in the United States, and in Germany the A.E.G. type is being steadily developed for marine purposes. Proof of the relative progress of the Parsons type up to date is found in the circumstance that in the two huge Atlantic steamers now building in Germany for the Hamburg-American Steamship Company, and in all the largest and swiftest armoured cruisers built or building for the German fleet, that type is still preferred. The general line of treatment followed by Dr. Bauer and Mr. Lasche closely resembles that adopted by Dr. Morrow. The book is of a very practical character, giving methods of calcula- tions and examples of the application of those methods to the design of details of steam turbines of various types, the settlement of the dimensions of shafting and propellers, and the arrangements of condensing apparatus. It will have special interest for English readers as coming from a German source, and containing a considerable amount of information in regard to German prac- NO. 2216, VOL. 89] tice. In size, the book is only about half as large as that noticed above. It is exceedingly well produced, and very tersely expressed, the authors stating their own conclusions on many points where differences of opinion prevail, with- out entering into elaborate arguments in support of those opinions. No objection need ‘be taken to this method of treatment; in fact, it has distinct advantages for the men who are expected to be the principal users of the volume; but it is neces- sary to note that in many points, especially in those where comparisons are made between British and German or American types of turbines, the opinions expressed by the writers are not shared by no less competent authorities. In some cases the endeavour to compress statements within narrow limits has been accompanied by what, no doubt, is an unintentional omission of important facts. These, however, may be regarded as minor blemishes on what is, on the whole, a good per- formance; and there can be no doubt that such a book will naturally find a place on the shelves of all who are interested in the design of steam turbines, representing as it does the experience of two leading German engineers. The third book in our list is a slender volume of less than sixty pages, in which the Rede Lecture for 1911 by Sir Charles Parsons is reproduced. The authorities of Cambridge were fortunate enough to secure, on this occasion, a lecturer who is one of the most distinguished living graduates of the University, and to find him ready to describe the principal features of his own great invention, as well as those of competing types of steam turbines. This little book contains a wealth of illustra- tions, an epitome of the history of the progress of steam turbines, and a summary of the matured opinions of the man who knows most about that class of prime movers. Sir Charles Parsons has set down in modest and simple fashion his main conclusions on a subject of which he is the acknow- ledged master. The utterance is itself but a brief summary of facts and opinions; consequently, it is impossible even to mention its main points in this review. All who are interested in the subject should read the book itself, and its low price ought to ensure for it a large circulation One characteristic feature of the book, however, deserves mention. Throughout his references to types of turbines which have been originated by other inventors, the author displays great fairness of judgment and a generous appreciation of merits possessed by machines which are in competition with turbines designed by himself. Sir Charles Parsons has thus taken a course differing from ApriL 18, 1912] hat which many inventors have followed when ealing with the work of rivals; in doing so, he added—if that be possible—to the high repu- ation which he had previously acquired as an ngineer. W. H. W. INFERIOR RACES. The Mind of Primitive Man. By Franz Boas. A Course of Lectures delivered before the Lowell Institute, Boston, Mass., and the National Uni- versity of Mexico, 1910-11. Pp. xi+294. (New York: The Macmillan Co. ; London : Mac- millan and Co., Ltd., 1911.) Price 6s. 6d. net. A FAMOUS psychological novelist has asserted that racial differences are irreducible, and hat even when love unites two members of dis- inct races their life, however harmonious, is lived ver a slumbering volcano of hate. There is a opular fallacy that racial antipathy is based on Shysiological foundations. But in so far as such ntipathy is real, there is nothing physiological in causation; and its emotional strength depends the law that the more automatic and uncon- scious a habit is, the greater is the displeasure elt and the disgust aroused by infractions of the nmabit. The most plausible form of this racial Qabit is one which even scientifically trained minds ind it difficult to transcend. This is the attitude 9f superiority consciously or unconsciously idopted by civilised men towards the semi- ivilised, and among the civilised by the so-called Saucasian race. As Prof. Boas puts it, “ Proud of is wonderful achievements civilised man looks down upon the humbler members of mankind.” he European looks down on the civilised Driental. The point of interest, however, is that ne clams to be of a higher type, possibly physical, but certainly psychical, on the assumption that achievement depends solely upon aptitude for achievement. In these lectures, delivered before the Lowell nstitute and the National University of Mexico, “the main thread of Prof. Boas’s argument is that type are unproven. In support of his argument he employs data from the whole field both of phy- Sical and of social anthropology, and the resulting exposition of the salient features of difference be- een the civilised and the primitive types of man has the advantage of the author’s first-hand ex- “perience and personal investigation. He notes that the ancient civilisation of the Did World, not essentially superior to that of the New, reached its height 3000 years earlier for accidental reasons. He explains the European aptness for civilisation as not necessarily due to NO. 2216, VOL. 89] NATURE this assumption and this claim-of superiority of | 161 superior faculty. Due regard is had to heredity and environment, and several confusions ot thought on the subject are cleared up. In reference to environment, his own remarkable observations are introduced, namely, that the American-born children of European immigrants (European-born) respond at once ina curious way. The short, dark- haired, and longheaded Sicilian loses in stature; the head increases in width and loses in length, becoming brachycephalic. The medium-sized, short-headed native of Central Europe gains in stature and in narrowness of head. The tall, long-headed European of the north-west grows taller. The observation made by Fritsch on the Bush- man is applied generally to man. Europeans, for instance, are to savages as domesticated ani- mals are to wild. Their bones, that is, become, though heavier, less solid and less slender; their structure is more open. The mental change in domesticated animals is undoubted. Modifica- tions of type, physical and mental, he concludes, are largely due to the progressive domestication of man incidental to the advance of civilisation. The author’s discussion and explanation of the causes and results of variation within a race, brief though they are, supply the most convincing theory that has yet appeared. The whole question of permanence and variation of type, in fact, is treated in a masterly way. The ordinary view of the mental deficiencies of the “inferior races” is remorselessly criticised. The lowest savage does possess self-control. He is not improvident, but rather optimistic. He can concentrate his mind. He possesses originality. Savages who do not count beyond three or ten easily adapt their language and intellect to civilised methods of reckoning. The same is the case with abstract and general ideas, as Prof. Boas has himself proved by experiment. The point is that these civilised methods are not needed in the primitive state, where each man on a war- expedition is known by name, though the number of the troop may not be reckoned. Both in mind and in body there is little to choose between the ordinary barbarian and civilised man. The thesis is applied to a practical purpose in the last lecture, the question of the influence of the negro and of the European immi- grant upon the type of the American citizen. No one interested in this or in other racial questions can afford to pass over this most sane and scien- tific critique. The whole volume is conspicuous both for halanced reasoning and for brilliance, and as a practical application of anthropology is of the first importance. A. E. CRAWLEY. 162 NATURE [APRIL £8, .1912 APPLIED CHEMISTRY. A Dictionary of Applied Chemistry. By Sir Edward Thorpe, C.B., F.R.S. Assisted by Eminent Contributors. In five volumes. Vol. i. Revised and enlarged edition. Pp. vili+758. (London: Longmans, Green and Co., 1912.) Price 45s. net. T will be remembered that the first edition of Thorpe’s ‘“‘ Dictionary of Applied Chemistry ” appeared in 1890, when the great ‘‘ Watts” was at the same time abridged and edited by Dr. Foster Morley and Mr. Pattison Muir. Since that time it has served as a standard reference book, and has had a most useful life. But in a subject so progressive as applied chemistry, twenty-two years are a very long period, and the call for this new edition has heen imperative. It is very characteristic of Sir Edward Thorpe’s inex- haustible energy and enterprise, that on the eve of his retirement from his official position—a time when most men would be looking for some leisurely occupation—he should undertake a task which might daunt the most vigorous of his juniors. We have reason to know that his editor- ship has been of the most active and real kind. We have heard from many sides of an almost inexhaustible flow of autograph letters of courteous but insistent character, addressed to gentlemen who, in some cases, were looking with unstable resolutions on approaching holidays; and we have seen on proof-sheets the track of the same pen constraining the exuberance of a con- tributor’s verbosity. We feel sure that all chemists will unite their admiration of Sir Edward Thorpe’s achievement, and in acknow- ledgment of the latest of many great services which he has rendered to his time and generation. We may be permitted to anticipate that on his retirement he will return to the field of scientific biography, where he has accustomed us to look to him for work of such rare excellence. The new edition of the dictionary is both re- vised and enlarged, and the five volumes, which are to replace the original four, will evidently constitute, as the editor says, practically a new book. The scope of the work has also been ex- tended so as to include articles on important topics that are not strictly those of applied chemistry. The list of contributors to the first volume fully justifies the satisfaction which the editor expresses in regard to the collaboration he has secured, and certainly the chief value of a dictionary of applied science must arise from the cooperation of genuine experts who are able and are at liberty to speak from personal knowledge and experience. In the NC 2216, .V 01. | 89)| in present volume we have this very notably before — us. Dr. G. H. Bailey writes on aluminium, Mr. Bertram Blount on cement, Dr. Colman on am- monia, Dr. Hiibner on bleaching, Prof. Lewes on | acetylene, and Dr. T. KX. Rose on assaying. L. J. Spencer deals with a number of minerals. Among the organic subjects we have various series of colouring matters dealt with by Prof. Mr. W. H. Perkin, Mr. A. G. Perkin, and Dr. Cain. | Mr. A. D. Hall writes on cereals, Dr. E. Bam Armstrong on bread and carbohydrates, Mr. C. Pe Cross on cellulose, Mr. John Heron on brewing, Dr. Lewkowitsch on various oils and fats, and Mr. Stubbs on butter. Prof. Senier treats of a number of drugs, and there are also articles on topics of chemical physiology by Prof. Halliburton, and of agricultural chemistry by Mr. Herbert Ingle. Germany is represented by Dr. O. N. Witt, who | has an article on azines. Miss Beatrice Thomas and Dr. M. A. Whiteley are important lady con- tributors. the main current is an admirable one on chemical Among articles lying a little ical affinity by Dr. J. C. Philip, whilst the old and | valuable article on the balance by the late Prof. Dittmar is reprinted. Special mention must be made of an article on analysis by Dr. G. T. Morgan, with a supple- mentary one on electrochemical analysis by Dr. I. M. Perkin. These occupy a hundred pages, and constitute, indeed, an excellent, compact treatise. The only fear is that it may be rather lost in a dictionary, and this is the only important case where the present writer has been struck with any disproportion in the allotment of space. It is, of course, not to a general dictionary that anyone engaged in a branch of applied chemistry will go for detailed information on his own subject, fi but it is of great service to have concise and ~ authentic summaries of other people’s subjects, and this requirement is admirably met in the worl: under review. A comparison of the new articles with those of the original edition has convinced the reviewer, in those cases where he is at all competent to form an opinion, that the revision has been thoroughly carried out. Such a com- parison gives a vivid impression of the great advances which have been made in chemical in- dustry; see, for example, the manufacture of aluminium and acetylene. In concluding this notice with renewed con- gratulations to the editor on his success in pro- ducing a most serviceable dictionary, we must — | allow a word of acknowledgment to the rank and who have contributed a vast on minor file of workers, amount of indispensable information APRIL 18, 1912] NATURE topics. The binding of the book is strong, plain, and apparently durable; the edges of the leaves are coloured with the lurid pigment usually in- dicative of specially pious literature. Perhaps, however, it will mellow rapidly in chemical sur- roundings. S: AGRICULTURE IN THE SCHOOL AND AFTERWARDS. Beginnings in Agriculture. By Albert R. Mann. Pp. xii+ 341. (New York: The Macmillan Co. ; Londen: Maemillan and Co., Ltd., 1911.) Price as. 6d.) net. Dairy Cattle and Milk Production. Prepared for the use of Agricultural College Students and Dairy Farmers. By Prof. Clarence H. Eckles. Pp. xii+342. (New York: The Macmillan Co. ; London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1911.) Price 7s. net. T is universally agreed by all who have con- sidered the subject that the education of the child ought to have some relation to the surround- ings among which its life will be passed, and that, in consequence, the education of the country school should be directly connected with country life and the great rural industry. In America this principle has long since been translated into prac- tice—how completely is best seen by the flood of agricultural books issuing each year from the publishing houses—and we have in the first of these volumes an illustration of how it was done in a particular case. Wherever reformers have tried to make rural education fit country life, the question has sooner or later cropped up: Ought agriculture to be taught in schools? and this speedily raises another: Can agriculture be taught in schools? Mr. Mann’s little book is a serious attempt to show that a great deal can be done to educate the American child through the experience that it has, or can easily get, of farm life, and, further, that the thing can be done without doing any violence to the exigencies of village school conditions or assuming too much from the teacher. That he has achieved a certain measure of success is undeni- able; how much can only be ascertained by actual use in a school. Setting out with the assumption, probable enough throughout wide areas of the western States, that the child is a member of a new com- munity the older members of which broke up the prairie, the author begins with a history of a typical community and shows the interde- pendence of the various sections. But of all the members the farmer is the most important, because he is the producer of food and of clothing material. Hence farming is an honourable occupation; it NO. 2216, VOL. 89] has, besides, many collateral advantages over other professions. But if it is to be done properly it must be well organised. The farm should be laid out so that the farmer will lose little time in getting to his work, and can take full ad- vantage of natural features specially adapted to any particular treatment. Further, the farm should be attractive and beautiful, with a “neat and picked-up appearance,’ to use the author’s expressive Western phrase. So much for generalities; the author then passes on to deal with the special factors in agriculture, the farm plants, the soil, and the animals. Liberal use is made of photographs, and at the end of each chapter a number of problems are set for the scholars to work out, some arithmetical, some observational, and some experimental. Thus the child is taught to observe and to think—in other words, he is educated—and at the same time he learns to think in terms of country things and acquires a stock of knowledge that cannot fail to be helpful to him afterwards. He is shown that country life and country work are interesting, and he has their other attractive features put before him in a very pleasing way. The book will prove interesting to education- ists in this country who are seriously studying our rural educational problems, and it will be appre- ciated most by those who have some knowledge of the American child, with its strangely serious outlook on life and its premature realisation of its responsibilities. Prof. Eckles’s book on dairy cattle deals with a specialised branch of agriculture in a manner well suited to the requirements of the advanced student. The animals described in detail are Holsteins, Jerseys and Guernseys, Ayrshires, and Brown Swiss as pure dairy cows, and Shorthorns as dual-purpose cows. A short but sufficient history of the breed is followed by an account of its chief characteristics and typical requirements. Photographs of good pedigree animals are given, and finally a score card is set out showing the number of marks to be allotted to each of the various points in estimating relative values. This feature is specially useful. The score card is a well-recognised method of instruction in the States, where it has repeatedly justified itself by its results; one or two teachers of agriculture have adopted it in this country also, and wherever it has been tried it has been found advantageous. Any- thing, therefore, that popularises so useful an instrument is to be commended. A good deal of attention is devoted to feeding. The author considers it safe to say that “the yearly average milk production per cow could be increased one-half or three-fourths by following 164 better méthods of feeding.” The importance of sufficient food is emphasised, but the author might have dealt even more fully with this point. As the dairy industry advances, cowkeepers increase their rations, until, in districts where the industry is very highly developed, as in many parts of the home counties, they tend to give too much food for profitable milk production. It has been shown by experiment that an in- crease in the quantity of the ration leads to an increased production of milk, but the return obtained per unit of food becomes less and less, and finally is not worth as much as the food costs, The great difficulty about dairy farming in the States seems to be the labour supply. ‘The special objections raised to the labour on the dairy farm are the long hours, the steady, regular work, and the nature of the work.” The same diificulty is felt in British agriculture, and to meet it machinery is being invented. Strenuous efforts are being made to perfect the cow-milking machine, which will considerably ease matters. E. J. Russet. ALGEBRAIC NUMBERS. The Elements of the Theory of Algebraic Num- bers. By Prof. L. W. Reid. With an introduc- tion by Prof. D. Hilbert. Pp. xix+454. (New York: The Macmillan Co. ; London : Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1910.) Price 15s. net. T is almost a misfortune that Gauss and Smith were such consummate masters of mathe- matical style. Nearly everyone who writes on an arithmetical topic is tempted to imitate them, at least in their brevity and severe deductive method, and the result is that many are frightened away | from a delightful study because of its dry. and, so to speak, inaccessible aspect. Prof. Reid’s book ought to do much to remove this misapprehension ; he has assumed no previous knowledge of the subject beyond elementary arith- | metic, and he has been careful to give a very large number of special examples, as well as discussions of special fields. Thus the reader is able to see, much more than is usually possible, the really inductive character of arithmetical research, and is provided with material on which he may make experiments of his own. : As an introduction to the general theory of algebraic numbers, the work follows mainly the treatment of Hilbert and Dedekind; the principal difference from the latter being that, for instance in a quadratic field, an ideal (a, 8) is (ultimately) defined as the aggregate of integers \a+ 8, where A, # are any two integers in the field, and a, B are given integers therein. This saves a good deal NATURE [APRIL 18, 1912 kind’s own definition of an ideal is adopted, and detracts little, if anything, from the naturalness of the sequence of theorems. After four chapters dealing with the ordinary rational theory (including the law of quadratic reciprocity), we have four others, each devoted to a special quadratic field, namely, those derived from / —1, /—3, V2, “—5 respectively. In the last of these it is made perfectly clear how the law of resolution into prime factors appears to break down, and how it is restored by the intro- duction of ideals. Moreover, examples are given to show the distinction, in this field, between prin- cipal and non-principal ideals. The next four chapters give general theorems on algebraic numbers, a discussion of the general quadratic field, its discriminant and ideals, and the theory of congruences with respect to ideal moduli in such a field. Finally, there are two chapters, of a rather more advanced kind, on the units of the general quad- ratic field, and on the number of its ideal classes. In the latter use is made of Minkowski’s remark- able theorem that every ideal class contains am element whose norm does not exceed |/d|, where d is the discriminant of the field. Prof. Reid has elsewhere published a list of classes of cubic fields calculated on the same principle; but the work is tentative and laborious, and it is still a desideratum, even for cubic fields, to determine, by some simple method, the fundamental units. and representatives of each ideal class. Fortun- ately, however, in working with an ideal, any one of its forms will do in using it as a modulus, find- ing its prime factors, and so on: just as (6, 9) or (6, 9, 27) define 3 (as a greatest common measure) just as well as 3 itself for purposes of this kind. It is very gratifying to see that the higher arithmetic is attracting more and more attention, and it is certain that books like Prof. Reid’s will greatly help to popularise “the queen of the sciences,’’ as Gauss so affectionately called it. GuBaMe A HISTORY OF EUROPEAN CULTIVATED PLANTS AND DOMESTIC ANIMALS. Kulturpflanzen und Haustiere in ihrem Uebergang aus Asien nach Griechenland und Italien sowie in das iibrige Europa. Historisch-linguistische Skizzen von Victor Hehn. Achte Auflage. Neu herausgegeben von O. Schrader. Mit botani- schen Beitragen von A. Engler und F. Pax. Pp. Xxvili+665. (Berlin: Gebriider Borntraeger, 1gi1.) Price 17 marks. ICTOR HEHN’S book, the result of years of V labour, first appeared in 1870. A second of rather delicate reasoning, necessary if Dede- | edition was called for in 1874, to which the essay NO. 2216, VOL. 89] Bt So A ttm - nae a ae a - ArriL 18, 1912] NATURE: 165 on the horse was added, and in which replies to critics fill most of the preface. A third edition was issued in 1877, a fourth in 1883, and a fifth in 1887. Hehn died on March 21, 1890, leaving his book in the hands of Prof. O. Schrader, editor-in- chief of the three editions which have appeared since that date. The work opens with a long extract from the preface to the sixth edition, from which the above particulars have been taken. In nearly a quarter of a century (1870-94) knowledge had increased greatly, and many additions and corrections were necessary. Herr Schrader addressed himself to his task on the lines laid down by De Candolle. To cope with the botanical work became the duty of Prof. Engler, assisted later by Prof. Pax, of | Breslau. With regard to the sections treating of domestic animals, the editor called in the help of Prof. A. Nehrings. The general revision and philology were Prof. Schrader’s special care; but he is very ready to acknowledge help received from Dr. Kurt Muller, Dr. Hugo Prinz, and others. All additions and corrections are placed, in small type, at the end of each essay. The adop- tion of this plan was no doubt due to respect for Hehn’s work. Even then the method is a bad one, and the present writer cannot see anything in Hehn’s original text to warrant such respect. To a reader coming fresh to the book it is somewhat irritating, and causes waste of time. The writer of this notice worked carefully through the essay on the horse, making critical notes, only to find that the editors had made all necessary corrections in their notes placed at the end of the section. Articles dealing with domestic animals are scat- tered about among those dealing with cultivated plants. No fewer than ninety-nine pages are occu- pied by original “notes”—pp. 531-629. This adds another drawback to the work. Either the reader must turn away from the page to the “note” at once, breaking the thread of attention, or the “notes ” must be left to be read later, when it may easily happen that the point referred to is not clearly remembered. The book contains a good table of contents and a _ satisfactory index. In the introduction we get a record of the good and harm that man may work upon virgin soil. The early Aryan invasion found Greece thickly forested and with a fruitful soil. Much harm was subsequently done by exhaustive cultivation and destruction of forest. Such ruined areas recovered partly when deserted, often to pass through similar stages as is recorded by Fraas, in 1847, of parts of the peninsula. About one hundred culti- NO. 2216, VoL. 89| | most complete account is given. vated plants are dealt with, the most important being the vine, olive, fig, citrons, plums, almonds, flax, hemp, maize, rice, and tobacco. Of the domestic animals—a more limited class—an al- In the original text, and in all subsequent additions, the au- thority for borrowed statements is given with scrupulous care. If genius is taking pains—a definition ascribed to Sir Isaac Newton—Victor Hehn was a genius. That his work needed cor- rection as the years went by is to be expected. The work has been well done, and the line quoted by Prof. Schrader is well applied :— “Was fruchtbar ist, allein ist wahr.’’—Gorrue.”’ Je lak ad Wve GENERAL SCIENCE. Introduction to General Science, with Experiments. By Percy E. Rowell. Pp. xxix+302. (New York: The Macmillan Co.; London: Mac- millan and Co., Ltd., 1911.) Price 3s. 6d. net. : HE author of this book has a great belief in what he calls general science, which appar- ently amounts to a slight knowledge cf many sciences. A pupil who knows a little about a great many subjects will, he con- siders, be able to obtain a bird’s-eye view of the whole ground of knowledge, and to reason from many points of view on the phenomenon of nature. Further, a general course of this kind should reach every pupil somewhere and stimulate his ambi- tion to learn more of at least one subject. Thus in the three hundred or so pages of this little volume we find sections devoted to almost all known sciences, illustrated by 100 experiments, with cross references to a large number of text- books and bulletins. To say that the book is sketchy, incomplete, and not infrequently inaccurate is to make an obvious criticism applicable to any book of this kind. At the same time one must feel sympathy with the object of the author and admiration for his courage in tackling so formidable a list of subjects and writing about them. He usually confines himself to applications of science to the common things of daily life, and does not concern himself with great generalisations. A few ex- periments on combustion thus lead to oxygen, then to fuels, and so by easy transitions to blast- ing, animal heat, flames, first aid to the burnt, sterilisation, disinfectants, &c., throughout the book. Indeed, as the author says with some 166 NATURE [APRIL 18, 1912 pride, the course may be commenced anywhere, and it will always lead to a study of all science. The only danger the author sees is that the teacher may specialise in some particular part that he likes and knows something about; unless this tempta- tion is resisted the course ceases to be general. In order that the pupil should be kept up-to-date, he must be urged to get the “bulletin habit,” and to obtain as fast as they appear the very numerous publications of the Department of Agriculture. Reaction was bound to set in sooner or later against the specialisation that has of late years characterised science teaching in many schools, and the book before us is one of the fruits of this reaction. Whilst we do not think that the author has found the final solution of the difficulties connected with the problem, we distinctly like his plan of utilising the experience of the child for all it is worth in the science course. OUR BOOKSHELF. South African Zoology. A Text Book for the use of Students, Teachers, and Others in South Africa. By Prof. J. BD: BP. Gilchrist. Pp: xi+ 323. (Cape Town and Pretoria: T. Maskew Miller. Pietermaritzburg and Durban: P. Davis & Sons, n.d.) Price 10s. 6d. net of “ec THE object this book, as stated in the preface, is to give illustrations of the South African fauna with special reference to the more familiar forms, for the benefit of students of nature study, as well as the agriculturalist.”” Dr. Gilchrist, therefore, has a fine opportunity of re- placing the hackneyed examples that have done duty so long in zoological teaching by Ethiopian types. In this, however, the book is disappoint- ing. The European Rana temporaria, Hydra, Bougainvillea, Aurelia, the liver-fluke, the beef tapeworm, the common Lumbricus terrestris, the cockroach, the snail Helix aspersa, the dogfish, rabbit, and pigeon are once again employed for descriptive purposes. It is a more pleasing task to point out the share devoted to African animals in this work. The section upon insects is in this respect the best in the book, the accounts of the locusts, termites, and ants being particularly interesting. briefly considered, but the spiders are summarily dismissed. An African crawfish, Palinurus, is described as an introduction to the Crustacea. The life-histories of certain African parasitic Protozoa are also given. The African vertebrates, however, are only briefly referred to; the antelopes, for ex- ample, are not described, though their distribution | is given. Incidentally, a number of interesting points are mentioned, e.g., the use of the ascidian Polycarpa as a bait in seafishing, the habits of th rain-frog in burrowing into the nests of ants and NO. 2216, VoL. 89] | | | termites, and the almost entire absence of eels. | from the westerly-flowing rivers. | More bionomical information would have been valuable. For example, we are not told anything about the habits of African Annelids, whereas the introduced forms are referred to at some length. Dr. Gilchrist’s experience as an officer of the South African Fisheries investigations must have made the marine fauna of the Cape very familiar to him, but we are unable to form any picture of the common objects of the Cape shores. The book has been carefully revised, but the irritating forms “Rhodent ” and “ Rhodentia” are surely an over- sight. An excellent index has been compiled for this work, which is illustrated throughout. Physiology. By Prof. W. OD. _ Halliburton, I.R.S. (Dent’s Scientific Primers. Edited by Dr. J. Reynolds Green, F.R.S.) Pp. xi+176-. (London: J. M. Dent and Sons, Ltd., n.d.) Price 1s. net. In this volume Prof. W. D. Halliburton “aims at presenting the main facts of modern physiology in an elementary way and in language as free from technical terms as possible.” In a sense, he has succeeded in this aim. The facts are nearly all there, crowded into 167 pages of excellent and not very small type, with many illustrations, and the language is not obtrusively technical but has an appearance of simplicity. Technical language, however, is a species of shorthand, and in com- pressing into so small a space without its aid all that Prof. Halliburton considers main facts, there is an inevitable loss of real intelligibility. Without some rigorous selection a book of this size tends to become a succession of statements hardly assimilable by a mind not previously ac- quainted with the subject, and so of little educa- tional value. Yet the work is obviously intended for students extremely junior, not so much in age as in knowledge. It is not, indeed, quite obvious | what public the author seeks to reach, but per- haps we may be guided by such remarks as those on the “need for diligent use of the tooth-brush, . tooth-powders are not to be recommended,” and “it is hardly necessary for me to preach to | readers the necessity for temperance in the use of alcohol.’? The complete absence of any reference to the reproductive system of either sex—a re- markable omission in a scientific primer on phy- siology—may perhaps be also taken as an indica- tion that here we have “popular” science of a : | familiar kind. The ticks are | Colour-Music. The: Art of ‘Mobile Colour. By Prof. A. Wallace Rimington. Prefatory Notes by Sir Hubert von Herkomer, M.V.O., and Dr. W. Brown. Pp. xx+185. (London: Hutchinson and Co., 1911.) Price 6s. Ir is difficult to give a fair impression of the value of this book. Its author obviously lacks scientific training (hence the inclusion of a chapter “on some scientific opinions ”) and adequate knowledge of the “laws” of colour mixture; he fails to Apri, 18, 1912] NATURE 167 describe the apparatus and the methods he em- ploys with sufficient detail; his acquaintance with e psychology of esthetics is defective; the analogies which he presses between tones and colours are unsound. Yet, despite these manifest shortcomings, the book is to be welcomed as the sincere attempt of an enthusiast, who has spent much time and money on his hobby, to give the world some idea of its interest and of its value. No doubt, seeing is here verily believing; but “it is easily imaginable, as Sir Hubert von strument and improvise for half an hour whilst atching the ever-varying combinations of colour an unspeakable delight, but of real health-giving effect on the sense of colour.” Apart from his absurd division of spectral colours on the basis of our musical scale, “the main advantages of colour-music as an art” would, as the author rightly says, “remain unaffected, and the force of the chief arguments, which can be advanced in ‘support of it as a separate and distinct art, would ot be weakened in the least.”’ It is, as we have aid, impossible to describe such esthetic enjoy- ent; one must experience it. GaS. MM: nnals of the Royal Botanic Garden, Calcutta. Vol. xii., Part i. :—‘‘Asiatic Palms—Lepi- “The Species of Deemonorops.” Vol. i., Letter- press. Pp. vii+237. Price Rs, 8 or 12s. Vol. ii., Plates. Pp. vii+1og plates. Price Rs. 39 or 2l. 18s. (Calcutta: Printed at the Bengal Secretariat Press, 1911.) HE appearance of the first portion of Dr. eccari’s monographic account of the Asiatic _Lepidocaryee, devoted to the genus Calamus, was recorded in Nature of August 12, 1909. It affords us pleasure to announce now the appear- ‘ance of a second instalment of this great work, dealing with the genus Demonorops, which, like Calamus itself, consists of ‘“Rotangs,” and, ‘among the genera of Palmez, is only less im- /portant than Calamus because it includes a “smaller number of recognisable forms. The methods and the style adopted in the treat- ‘ment of the previous genus have been followed in the case of Demonorops. These have already been noticed in detail, and, therefore, do not require further discussion. The ample descrip- ‘tions and excellent illustrations are equal in merit to those in the earlier contribution, and this further instalment of the author’s monograph places systematic students once more under a great obligation to him and to the Calcutta ‘Botanic Garden, of the “Annals” of which it ‘orms part. All who are interested in palms will ook forward with interest to the conclusion of the task on which Dr. Beccari is engaged, and to hich, as the two contributions already at our isposal testify, he has devoted himself with such atient enthusiasm and so great a fund of accurate knowledge. NO. 2216, voL. 89] on the screen produced by the playing is not only | docaryee.”’ By Dr. Odoardo Beccari. Part ii. :— | | species of plants and animals, of which the | acquired. “use and injury.” LETTERS TO THE EDITOR. [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of Nature. No notice taken of anonymous communications. | is The Principle of Reflection in Spectroscopes. THE application of a reflector to pass light back through a prism, or prisms, is usually ascribed to Littrow. Thus Kayser writes (‘Handbuch der Spec- troscopie,” Bd. I., p. 513), “Der Erste, der Riickkehr der Strahlen zur Steigerung der Dispersion verwandte, war Littrow” (O. v. Littrow, Wien Ber., 47, ii., pp. 26-32, 1863). But this was certainly not the first use of the method. I learned it myself from Max- well (Phil. Trans., vol. 150, p. 78, 1860), who says, “The principle of reflecting light, so as to pass twice through the same prism, was employed by me in an instrument for combining colours made in 1856, and a reflecting instrument for observing the spectrum has been constructed by M. Porro.”’ I have not been able to find the reference to Porro; but it would seem that both Maxwell and Porro ante- dated Littrow. As to the advantages of the method there can be no doubt. RAYLEIGH. Acquired Characters and Stimuli. In my letter in Nature of March 21, I pointed out the fact that Dr. Archdall Reid does harm by declar- ing that the term ‘‘ acquired characters" as ordinarily used by biologists is not intelligible (is, in fact, non- sensical), giving as his reason that all characters are That is a ‘quibble,’ because the term used by Lamarck (which has been translated as “acquired characters ’’) is ‘‘ changements acquis,”’ and it is abundantly clear that the change spoken of by Lamarck is a change from the normal characters of a wild species. Such normal characters may be, of course, described as ‘‘acquired’’ when considered in comparison with those of the germ from which an individual develops. But that is not the comparison made by Lamarck or by anyone else who uses his term or the English modification of it, and it is a perversion of fact to pretend that it is. It is the plain fact that the acquired changes indicated by Lamarck are changes as compared with the normal characters of the species. There was no allusion in my letter to the terms ‘‘innate characters ” or ‘‘ congenital char- acters.” They, of course (as Dr. Reid says), do not mean the same thing as ‘congenital variation.” Dr. Reid in condemning them is beating a mannikin dragged in by himself, diverting attention from the matter in hand. The “acquired changes’’ or “‘acquired characters” of Lamarck are properly contrasted with normal characters and not with Dr. Reid’s imaginary congenital characters. | Considerations as to whether the blacksmith’s arm or that of an ordinary man is ‘“‘normal’’ are not to the point, since Lamarck was concerned with wild “normal specific form” and the ‘normal specific environment ”’ are understood and known in some detail. Nor is Dr. Reid justified in attempting to limit the influences under which ‘acquired changes” or de- partures from normal specific form are developed to A variety of factors of the en- 165 NATURE [AprIL 18, 1912 vironment, not to be described as use or injury, but broadly classed as excess or defect of heat, light, strain, moisture, chemical constituents of food, may set up in an organism changes of growth, structure, and function of the most striking and obyious character, greatly in excess of the apparent magnitude of the responsible factor. Take, for instance, such cases as that of the rest-harrow grown in dry upland as con- trasted with that grown in moist meadowland. I also objected (and do so again) to the loose use of the word ‘‘stimulus”’ in this connection by Dr. Reid. A particular, definite, measurable agent setting up by its action on living matter a reaction is, in biological terminology, said to stimulate that living matter, and both it and its immediate action are called ‘“a stimulus.’ The exact nature of the stimulating activity, whether set up by this or that chemical sub- stance, by this or that fluctuation of light, heat, or by electrical conditions, is stated with precision, and its amount and duration compared with the effect on the living matter. To call the nutrition—the normal, persistent nutrition of a growing seed or young plant— *\a stimulus”’ is inadequate and misleading. A good deal of analysis is omitted by so doing. When nutri- tion, the necessary normal supply of chemical materials in the presence of which a seedling grows and unfolds or develops its specific qualities, is described baldly as ‘‘q stimulus,”’ whilst a slicing cut, removing a man’s ear and leaving a growth of scar tissue in its place, is also dismissed as ‘‘a stimulus,” it is obvious that two things profoundly different in character and im- portance are confused under a common heading. The first is the absolutely essential and widely distributed condition for the continued existence ef a living thing; the second is exceptional—an abrupt change with correspondingly exceptional result. Neither is cor- rectly described as ‘a stimulus,” though many stimuli of different nature occur in connection with both. Dr. Reid says he will admit that he is quibbling about the meaning of the term “acquired characters” if I will indicate how an inborn trait is more inborn and less acquired than an acquirement. The term ‘inborn trait” has nothing to do with the matter, as I have explained above. The words ‘‘change” and “acquire’’ imply an existing standard from which there is change or to which there is addition. The fact that the standard is itself an acquirement when viewed in relation to another phenomenon, namely, a reproductive germ, is irrelevant. Dr. Reid quotes passages from Wallace, Weismann, and Romanes which do not treat of the matter under discussion, and suggests that he “sins with them,” and that they agree with his forced interpretation of the term ‘‘acquired characters.” The suggestion seems to me to be devoid of justification. Chiefly, however, I object to Dr. Reid’s stating that I have called this ‘ta historical discussion,” implying that I attach historical importance to it. I have used no such words. This statement by Dr. Reid is erroneous, as is also his attribution to me of certain opinions about the muscular development of an ordinary individual and of a blacksmith. He says, “Sir Ray Lankester regards the former as normal and therefore inborn and inheritable, and the latter as abnormal and therefore acquired and non-inheritable.” This is entirely imaginary. I never wrote a word on the subject of muscular development, nor have I stated that abnormal qualities are necessarily acquired and non-inheritable, or anything of the kind. I do not desire to continue a discussion in which fictitious words and opinions are attributed to me. Nor do I NO. 2216, VOL. 89| desire to obtain any ‘‘admission” from Dr. Reid. 1 am content to leave the matter to the judgment of your readers. April 5. E. Ray LANKESTER. Giouds and Shadows. On the evening of aster Monday 1 noticed in the ~ western sky an eifect which was unlike anything | had ever seen before. he sun was just setting behind a great bank ot cloud, the rest of the sky being tairly clear, except for a thin veil of alto-stratus (it was not very high), which was moving at a good rate from — the north-west, and stretched across the whole sky. This stratus was scarcely noticeable at first, as the sun’s rays shining through it produced a milky kind of light in the sky. In startling contrast to this there appeared about halfway between the horizon and the zenith, to the south-west, what looked like an extraordinary ‘cloud,’ which compelled attention. It was obvious, however, that this was no cloud, as it remained quite stationary, while the stratus (which I now observed) and also a few small lower clouds _ were driven quickly across the sky. : I became greatly interested in the phenomenon, and watched it closely for half an hour or more, and the impression I got was that the apparent cloud was really a heavy shadow, cast upon the otherwise brightly illumined stratus by some unseen object away in the west, which was intercepting the sun’s rays. The ‘dark patch’ varied in shape and size, | expanding and contracting, but preserving on the | whole a shape somewhat like a fan, and keeping the same position in the sky. Atter a time I noticed an exactly similar effect — growing into shape, halfway between the first one and the point where the sun had set, so that a line drawn through them from the sun would be at an — angle of about 45° with the horizon. I made notes and rough sketches at the time, and could give more complete details as to the conditions existing, and the varying shapes and positions of the dark ‘“‘shadows.” It may be that this effect is — not uncommon, and is easily accounted for; but _ although I have studied the skies for many years” 1 have never before seen anything like it, and I feel confident that it must have been, at any rate, unusual. ‘ - While freely confessing ignorance of any scientific knowledge on such matters, I should be very glad to be enlightened as to the explanation of © the phenomenon, and also to hear whether anyone else noticed the occurrence. Cuas. TILDEN SMITH. “Chisbury,”” Little Bedwyn, Wilts, April 15. Winter in India. I notice that in Nature of February 15 your re- viewer quotes without comment a_ passage from “Freshwater Sponges, Hydroids and Polyzoa”’ (Fauna of British India Series) which implies that winter in coolest. This must be a slip on the part of the author. — Not only is there a considerable quantity of water” in rivers, tanks, and pools in winter compared with the spring and early summer, but the relative humidity is very much higher. In cases where I have collected figures the mean relative humidity is at about the average of the whole year in December and January, and then drops continually up to the first half of May, but it would doubtless vary in different parts of the country. inls Jals del: Camp, Central Provinces. India is the driest time of the year as well as the | f { APRIL 18, 1912] RECENT RESEARCHES ON CAST IRON. “T° HE volume before us is an able work, con- taining much original matter, in which an attempt is made with considerable success to reconcile the theory of the physical chemist with the practice of the scientific metallurgist. The author is obviously impressed with the broad reality of the iron-carbon equilibrium diagram. No doubt this has some value, but its teaching's are very limited from a practical point of view. For instance, the area usually marked in such diagrams “‘ martensite,’’ instead of ‘‘ hardenite,’’ gives no indication that steel quenched at the Cementite - pearlite structure of white iron: combined carbon per cent., 3°00. Carbon equal to slightly — super- saturated steel. Saturation o'80 to o"’90 per cent. Pearlite with ferrite increasing. Skin of ferrite. Fic. t.—Stages of decarburisation of white iron by iron ore. Magnified 130 diameters. Etched HNOs. lower end of the range is good, and at the upper end worthless, a matter of some little importance to the steel maker. The influences of various ordinary elements on cast iron, viz., silicon, manganese, sulphur, and phosphorus, are very well dealt with. The in- fluence of more rarely present elements, such as vanadium, chromium, titanium, is also con-’ sidered. In his treatment of malleable cast iron, the author, as one of our ablest authorities on the subject, is naturally at home, and publishes many 1“ Cast Iron in the Tight of Recent Research.” By W. H. Hatfield. Pp. xtii4+-249. (London: Charles Griffin and Co., Ltd., 1912.) Price ros. 6d net. NO. 2216, VOL. 89] NAT ORE 1 | | | t ) 169 original and interesting photo-micrographs. It is clear that the author’s experiments in the higher ranges of the iron-carbon diagram have led him to the conclusion, long held by many steel metallurgists, that the carbon at high tem- peratures is in solution as carbide, and not in the free state. A section is devoted to a considera- tion of the ‘‘ growth ”’ of cast iron. The appendices contain a well-expressed series of definitions and a useful set of typical analyses of cast and malleable cast irons. All makers of such products should study this excellent book. __A figure showing micrographically the stages of decarburisation of white iron is here repro- duced (Fig. 1). Another figure (Fig. 2) repro- duces an excellent photo-micrograph (lent to the author by Wiist) of a 1°76 per cent. carbon steel quenched from 1130° C, ‘ Fic, 2,—1°76 per cent. carbon steel quenched from 1130" C. Etched. Magnified 200 diameters, In view of the experimental facts contained in the advance copy of a paper to be read at the Iron and Steel Institute in .May, 1912, the author’s views on the influence of allotropy on the hardening of steel will require revision in any future edition. J. O. ARNOLD. THE INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF AMERICANISTS. epee eighteenth session of the International Congress of Americanists will be held in London, with Sir C. R. Markham as President, from May 27 to June 1 of the present year, at the Imperial Institute, South Kensington. The object of the Congress is to promote scientific inquiry into the history of both Americas and of their inhabitants. It will be divided into six sec- tions—Paleoanthropology, Physical Anthropo- logy, Linguistics, Ethnology and Archeology, General Ethnology, and Colonial History. This meeting, which has been organised under the in- vitation of the Royal Anthropological Institute, 170 NATURE [ApriL 18, 1912 has already received the patronage of the univer- sities and leading scientific societies both at home and abroad, which will be represented by delegates. The programme of papers already contains con- tributions from the best known authorities on the history and ethnology of the vast region over which its operations extend. It may be hoped that the many persons interested in prehistoric America will assist in the work of the Congress, and that collectors will contribute specimens of antiquities to the exhibition which will be or- ganised in connection with it. In view of the approaching Congress, Mr. Harlan J. Smith, superintendent of the Archzeo- logical and Ethnological branch of the Geological Survey of Canada, appeals for the aid of trained field-workers in the exploration of the vast number of prehistoric sites in various parts of the Dominion. In one township in Ontario a casual investigation disclosed no fewer than thirty ancient sites, and on the seacoast the kitchen middens are of great extent and interest. Canada at present cannot supply a surficient staff of trained workers to carry on this survey, and the scheme suggests a promise of interesting scientific work in which some of the younger anthropologists trained in our university schools may be inclined to cooperate. PROF. EDWARD DIVERS, F.R.S. ive regret having to record the death of Prof. April 8. Born in London on November 27, 1837, he was educated at the City of London School, at the | Royal College of Chemistry, and at Queen’s College, Galway. In 1870 he was appointed lecturer on medical jurisprudence at the Middle- sex Hospital Medical School, and in 1873 he went to Japan as professor of chemistry in the College of Engineering of the Imperial University at Tokyo, of which he became principal in 1882. He remained in Japan until 1899, when he was made emeritus professor and received the Order of the Sacred Treasure, in addition to that of the Rising Sun, which had been previously conferred upon him. During the whole period of his active professor- ship, Dr. Divers alone and in collaboration with a succession of his Japanese students, Shimosé, Shimidzu, Haga, Kawakita, Nakamura, Ogawa, and Hada, was a prolific contributor to chemical science—hyponitrites, the constitution of fulmin- ates, the quantitative separation of tellurium and selenium, the production of hydrosulphides, the Edward Divers, F.R.S., which occurred on | Chemistry, President of the Chemical section of the British Association, President of the Society of Chemical Industry, and at the time of his death was still serving as the representative of the last-named society on the governing body of the Imperial College of Science and Technology, whilst as late as last year he contributed to the Society of Chemical Industry a lengthy paper on “A modification of Raschig’s theory of the Lead- Chamber process.” Prof. Divers married in 1865 Margaret Theresa Vitzgerald, daughter of D. G. Fitzgerald, of Mayfield, Co. Cork, by whom he had one son and two daughters. His son died in early life, and he lost his wife in 1897, shortly before his return from Japan, but his two daughters survive him. A man of fine physique, and, until within the last few months, of splendid health, he appeared to suffer only from defective sight, largely the result of a laboratory explosion, which practically destroyed the sight of his right eye. This accident happened in 1885, but he did not allow it seriously to interfere with his work, though it was painful to others to watch him read or write with the book or paper held within a few inches of his eyes. In public he always felt the disability of being unable to recognise acquaint- ances that were more than a few feet distant, and this naturally gave him an appearance of reserve. | But in small gatherings and among intimate | friends he was a delightful companion, genial and humorous, especially pleased to talk about Japan and the Japanese, for everything connected with which he was always most enthusiastically appre- ciative, ever ready to discuss a chemical problem, and, to the last, keenly interested in chemical progress. ; Prof. Divers leaves behind him in England and Japan a host of friends who will long mourn the loss of a very sterling character. He was buried at Brookwood on Thursday last, April 11, and though, in consequence of the Easter holidays, many of his friends were away from home, the Royal Society, the Chemical Society, the Society of Chemical Industry, the Institute of Chemical Industry, and the Institute of Brewing were all | represented at his funeral and the memorial ser- | vice. the following | Prof. constitution of sulphazotised salts, the red sulphur of Japan, hydrocarbon from Japanese petroleum, the composition of Japanese birdlime, the eco- nomical preparation of hydroxylamine sulphate, and many other subjects were dealt with in papers published in the Journal of the Chemical Society and the Philosophical Transactions. In 1893 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. On his return to England, Professor Divers did not cease his activity. He was a Vice-President of the Chemical Society and of the Institute of NO. 2216, VoL. 89] In addition to the members of his family, were present, viz.:—Sir Wm. Tilden, Prof. Emerson Reynolds, Prof. Gowland, Mondy, Prof. Hodgkinson, Dr. Rudolph Messel, Messrs. Tyrer, Reid, Hemingway, Grant Hooper, Coste, Baker, Cresswell, Pilcher, Carr, and others. NOTES. Tue appalling disaster to the Titanic on Monday morning, by which more than 1300 of the passengers and crew have lost their lives, has brought several scientific subjects into prominence. Such subjects are: the dynamic effects of a mass of 50,000 tons moving at a speed of about 15 knots, the conditions of stability of a vessel built upon the watertight bulk- head system when an extensive injury has been Aprit 18, 1912] NATURE 171 isolated by closing the watertight doors, the beneficent use of wireless telegraphy in summoning assistance to a vessel in distress, and the means of detecting the presence of icebergs at a distance. The Titanic, w hich was making her maiden voyage from Southampton to New York, was the largest vessel in the world, miles by day and treble this distance by night. The bing through the ether and was detected by wireless telegraphy operators on several vessels. The on essage was: “Have struck an iceberg 41°46 north, 50°14 west. Are badly damaged. Rush aid.” This time). Several vessels the disaster, but Monday, Greenwich hastened to the place of “nearest ship appears to have been 170 miles distant from the Titanic when the message of | distress was received, and none of them was able to reach her before she foundered at 2.20 a.m. (New York time) on Monday morning—four pathia reached the Titanic’s position at daybreak, “and found boats and wreckage only. In the boats were 868 survivors of the crew and passengers—mostly women and children—the remainder of the human f freight of 2200 souls having found a grave with the "vessel in the Atlantic. No more terrible disaster at sea than this has ever occurred; and that a vessel which was said _ to have been designed with all the precautions which engineering science can provide should meet with such a calamity on her first voyage is almost un- believable. It was claimed that the vessel was prac- tically unsinkable, yet she was only able to keep afloat a few hours after crushing against the iceberg. The existence of immense fields of ice and great ice- bergs, the visible parts of which are only about one- eighth the mass of the portions submerged, consti- tutes a danger in the North Atlantic against which “no satisfactory safeguard has yet been devised. A | vessel which represented the best work of science applied to marine engineering has disappeared with its Geils of human lives beneath the waters of the Atlantic as the result of a catastrophe which could only have been avoided by following a course south of the danger zone caused by ice. Until science has suggested a practical means of detecting masses of floating ice at a distance sufficiently great to enable “vessels to avoid them, and thus prevent calamities such a that which the nation now mourns, it is to be hoped that the steamship track across the Atlantic will be more southerly than that hitherto recognised. Tue Memorandum on Naval and Military Aviation ssued on April 12 provides for seven aéroplane “squadrons of twelve machines each, one airship and kite squadron of two airships and two flights of kites, _ and one line of communication flying corps workshops —the total number of flyers required being 182 officers and 182 non-commissioned officers. It sounds the . -knell of the airship, in that it specifically states hat the only advantage that this type of aircraft NO. 2216, VoL. 89] and the most juxuriously equipped. She was installed with Marconi wireless telegraphy instruments having | sphere of influence with a radius of about 500 | first news was the appeal for help which went throb- | the | the | hours after the collision with the iceberg. The Car- | possesses over that of heavier-than-air lies in its ability to receive and transmit wireless messages over a large area. “It is hoped, however,’ says the memorandum, ‘‘that means will be found for over- coming difficulties in this respect, and experiments in this direction are now being conducted which give prospects of success.” The other scientific aspect of this scheme is the desire to subsidise flying grounds or aérodromes, where safe landing places are avail- able, all over the kingdom in order that cross-country flying—an essential for practice in military work—may be carried out in comfortable circumstances. This practically amounts to mapping out the whole country into air-ways, and from the meteorological point of view is of the greatest importance. From a settled system of cross-country flying, most valuable data will be obtained as to general wind direction and to the existence of ‘‘remous,’”’ or eddies, and what are now termed ‘tholes in the air.’’ No coordinated in- formation: is at present available as to where such aérial phenomena may be expected or as to their actual cause. The whole science in this respect -is lament- ably deficient, and the hiati may be filled up by the system of cross-country flying proposed. It is to be hoped that ample funds will be allotted to this new and important branch of both services, not only for the defences of the country but also on account of increased knowledge of meteorology. WE regret to learn of the death of Mr. A. Lawrence Rotch, director of the Blue Hill Meteorological Observatory, Mass., U.S.A. ; Tue sixth annual meeting of the British Science Guild will be held at 4 p.m. on Friday, May 17, at the Institution of Electrical Engineers, Victoria Em- bankment, W.C. The dinner will be held on the evening of the same day at Prince’s Hall, Piccadilly. A REuTER message from Mobile, Alabama, U.S.A., states that the captain of a steamer which arrived there on April 10 reports the destruction of thousands of people and a number of Indian villages by an eruption of Chiriqui Peak, near Bocas del Toro, Panama, on April 5 A course of four lectures on some mathematical subjects will be delivered at the University of London, South Kensington, on May 3, 4, 10, and 11, by Prof. Henri Poincaré, professor of mathematical astronomy in the University of Paris. Two of the lectures will deal with the philosophical aspects of mathematics, one with a subject in pure mathematics, and one with a subject in applied mathematics. Further in- formation and tickets of admission may be obtained on application to the Academic Registrar, University of London, South Kensington, S.W. Tue Board of Agriculture and Fisheries has been informed that the Lords Commissioners of his Majesty’s Treasury, on the recommendation of the Development Commissioners, have sanctioned the payment from the Development Fund of a sum of 2,500l. per annum for three years to be distributed by the Board as grants to certain institutions in England and Wales to enable them to supply tech- NATORE 2 [APRIL 18;er@r2 advice to landowners and others interested in Owing to inadequate resources, institutions forestry departments have hitherto nical forestry. possessing instruction to students. It is now proposed to attach an experienced forest expert to the forestry depart- ments of two universities and three colleges, whose chief duty will be to supply to landowners and others advice as to the general and detailed working of their | woods. Each institution will, therefore, become for a given district a centre for information, to which application may be made on all questions relating to the formation, treatment, utilisation, and protection of woods. THE annual meeting of the Iron and Steel Institute will be held at the Institution of Civil Engineers, Westminster, on May 9 and to, commencing each day at 10.30 a.m. At the morning meeting on the first day, the retiring president, the Duke of Devon- shire, will induct into the chair the president-elect, Mr. Arthur Cooper; the Bessemer gold medal for 1912 will be presented to Mr. J. H. Darby; and the president will deliver his inaugural address. On the morning of May 10, the Andrew Carnegie gold medal for 1911 will be presented to Dr. P. Goerens, of Aachen, and the award of research scholarships for the current year will be announced. Among the papers to be read and discussed during the meeting the following may be mentioned :—Dr. J. O. Arnold will deal with the chemical and mechanical relations of iron, vanadium, and carbon; Sir Hugh Bell, Bart., will described a bloom of Roman iron from Corstopi- tum (Corbridge); Mr. C. Chappell will discuss the influence of carbon on corrosion; and Dr. J. N. Friend, J. L. Bentley, and W. West the corrosion of nickel, chromium, and nickel-chromium steels and the mechanism of corrosion. Sir Robert A. Hadfield, F.R.S., will describe Sinhalese iron and steel of ancient origin, and Dr. H. Nathusius, of Frieden- shiitte, Upper Silesia, the improvements in electric steel furnaces and their application in the manufac- ture of steel. In the House of Commons on April 1o Mr. Lewis Harcourt, Colonial Secretary, announced that the terms of reference to the Royal Commission on the Trade Resources of the Empire are as follows :—To inquire into and report upon the natural resources of the Dominion of Canada, the Commonwealth of Aus- tralia, the Dominion of New Zealand, the Union of South Africa, and the Colony of Newfoundland; and, further, to report upon the development of such re- sources, whether attained or attainable; upon the facilities which exist or may be created for the produc- tion, manufacture, and distribution of all articles of commerce in those parts of the Empire; upon the requirements of each such part and of the United Kingdom in the matter of food and raw materials, and the available sources of such; each such part of the Empire with the other parts, with the United Kingdom, and with the rest of the world; upon the extent, if any, to which the mutual trade of the several parts of the Empire has been or | is being affected beneficially or otherwise by the laws now in force, other than fiscal laws, and, generally, NO. 2216, VOL. 89] Re=))) stricted their attention for the most part to imparting | upon the trade of | | to suggest any methods, consistent always with the existing fiscal policy of each part of the Empire, by ] which the trade of each part with the others and with the United Kingdom might be improved and ex. tended. WE record with regret the death on April 12 ofl Dr. William Ogle, a distinguished statistician and _ physician, in his eighty-fifth year. He held the office of superintendent of statistics in the department of the Registrar-General of Births, Deaths, and Marriages for | England and Wales from 1880 to 1903, in succession | to Dr. William Farr. In that capacity he continued the practice of his predecessor by contributing to every annual report of the Registrar-General a memoir on sume subject of interest arising out of his ree searches. He became a member of the Statistical Society in 1885, served on its council, and contributed — papers on the alleged depopulation of the rural dis- tricts of England, on marriage rates and marriage ages with reference to the growth of population, and on the trustworthiness of the old bills of mortality. In 1891 the well-deserved compliment was paid to- him of election to the Athenzeum under rule 2 of that club, as distinguished in science and for his public services. He was also a member of the Institut Inter- national de Statistique. His services to medical é%. om urgical Society, lecturer and physician at St. George’s — Hospital, medical officer of health, and in other posi- tions, were conspicuous, and he contributed to medical literature translations of Aristotle and other works. He belonged to a medical family, being a son of the Regius professor of medicine at Oxford. There he took the degree of M.D. He became a fellow of the Royal College of Physicians in 1806. In_ official, scientific, and academic circles he was _ highly © esteemed, and many friends will mourn his loss. 4 In the January-February issue of L’ Anthropologie MM. Breuil and Obermaier contribute an account of the operations of L’Institut de Paléontologie Humaine, recently founded by that enthusiastic student of the sciences, Prince Albert I. of Monaco. Its work is at present largely devoted to an exploration | of those caves in the Spanish peninsula which were occupied by primitive man. That at Valle, in the province of Santander, has produced some harpoons | of the Azilian and Magdalenian periods, and a bone engraved with a group of horses. From the Hornos de la Pefia cave we have a frontal bone of a horse, — with a drawing of that animal. The newly dis- covered cave containing frescoes at La Pasiéga sup- plies drawings of a stag and a chamois. Of special interest are the sketches of primitive hunters pur- suing stags with their bows and arrows, and some rudely conventional representations of human beings from caves in Almeria, Andalusia, and Murcia. The Institute founded by Prince Albert has thus under- taken a wide scheme of exploration which is sure to supply material of the highest importance to students of primitive man. M. J. Decuetetre, in L’Anthropologie for January- February, suggests a new interpretation of the origin of the spiral carvings at the grave-mounds of New — Grange and Gayr Inis, which Mr. G. Coffey and ArriL 18, 1912] other British authorities recognise to be an extension of the great AZgean spiral motive which passed through a large part of Europe in the early Bronze age. M. Dechelette now endeavours to trace the pattern through seven types: tattooed images of the Mother goddess of the A2gean area, and figurines from the second stratum at Hissarlik; anthropo- morphic pillars from Fivizzano in Italy; Sardinian menhirs; plaques from the Iberian peninsula; menhirs and cave sculptures, with fragments of vases, from France; cylinders from Follkton Wold in York- shire; and Scandinavian vases. This essay, which is well provided with figured representations of the assumed transitional types, is sure to furnish material for discussion. The art student will probably desire more evidence of the approximation of these motives in their original home, the AZgean area, whence, whatever the exact source may be, the type was certainly derived. In the April issue of Man Mr. Harold Peake de- scribes an elaborate scheme for an anthropological survey of the British Isles. It is intended to include not only the physical types from which the existing population has been derived, but extends to all forms of human activity, both in the past and at the pre- sent day. It is proposed, as part of the project, to compile a series of maps showing the course of dis- tribution of trade articles in prehistoric times—bronze celts, amber, pigs of lead, and the like—with the posi- tion of the mines of gold, copper, and tin known to the ancients. In order to afford facilities for com- paring the culture of the past with that of the pre- sent, he suggests the preparation of maps showing soil and vegetation, the distribution of woodland and marsh, the mineral supply, the distribution of the Neolithic people, the early centres of metallurgy, and the movements of invading tribes. As regards exist- ing facts, we need surveys of the density of the pre- sent population and its economic conditions, such as the prevalence of lunacy, poverty, and crime. He proposes to initiate this elaborate scheme through a central bureau working in cooperation with field clubs, county museums, and the like. There can be no question that such material, if collected in a scien- _tific way, would be of great service; but it needs an amount of cooperation between the unorganised body of workers which, for the present at least, is not within the range of practical politics. Mr. H. Hasenicut of Gotha, in a pamphlet on “Die antediluvianischen Oasen bei Taubach und Tonna,” attributes the occurrence of northern erratics in the Thiringian loess to catastrophic flooding, which took place at the close of the steppe-epoch that followed on the first extension of the continental ice. A picturesque detail is drawn from the fossil birds’ eggs in the Taubach tufa; the flood broke across Thiiringia ‘“‘on a fine day of early summer.’’ This overflow, however, was general, owing to a sudden subsidence, and the mammoth—its hairy covering notwithstanding—is said to have been thus trans- ported northwards. The damp atmosphere, checking the sun’s rays, is held responsible for the second extension of the ice. The author, however, does not NO. 2216, VOL. 89] ) NAT CISE 173 o hope for general sympathy in his revival of the belief in a universal deluge. Last year the Marine Biological Station at St. Diego celebrated the twentieth anniversary of the movement that led to its foundation, and advantage was taken of the occasion to publish an account of its rise, progress, and future. This has been drawn up by Mr. W. E. Ritter, and issued as No. 4 of vol. ix. of the University of California Publications in Zoology. The scope of this report is very wide, taking into consideration the larger meaning of science in general, and of biology in particular. Reference is made to the present condition of the station, to the work already accomplished, and to projects for the future. In the concluding section it is urged that every scientific institution ought to do something towards diffusing an accurate knowledge of modern scientific work among the general public. This should be done—largely through the public press—by persons who have themselves been engaged in scientific work, and should by no means be left to those who merely read up science. For several years past Prof. E. C. Case has been working at the wonderful Permian vertebrate fauna of North America, and some of his latest results are embodied in ‘‘A Revision of Amphibia and Fishes” of this formation, published as a quarto memoir by the Carnegie Institution of Washington (1911). The memoir opens with a review of previous work on the subject, this being followed by a table of the classi- fication of the Amphibia as now revised, after which comes a detailed synopsis of the various groups. With the exception of one genus referred to the same group (Urodela) as modern salamanders, the whole of the amphibians are referable to the stegocephalians, or labyrinthodonts, in the classification of which the author follows in the main the lead given by Cope. A discussion of the fishes is given by Mr. L. Hussakof, who concludes with a comparison of the fish-fauna of the Permian of America with that of Bohemia, in which it is pointed out that there is a great similarity between the two, with the exception that the acanthodian sharks are unrepresented in the American formation. Tue Journal of the Royal Society of Arts of March 29 contains the report of a lecture on modern whaling, delivered by Mr. T. E. Salvesen at the sixteenth ordinary meeting of the society. After an historical account of whaling, the lecturer stated that the great recent development of the industry has taken place in the southern hemisphere, where the chief objects of pursuit are rorquals and humpbacks. In South Georgia 7000 whales, yielding some 200,000 barrels of oil, were taken last year; in the South Shetlands the catch was 3500, and in South Africa 4000, the total number of whales taken during the season to the south of the equator being about 17,500, with a yield of some 500,000 barrels of oil, and a gross value of about 1,750,o00l. For the whole world, the catch was about 22,500 whales, with a yield of some 620,000 barrels of oil. The present year’s take is expected to exceed that of 1911 by at least from 1o to rg per cent. It is a matter for 174 NATURE regret that in the discussion which followed the paper no one pointed out the serious nature of this enormous drain and the urgent necessity of an inquiry to ascer- tain what effect it is having on the numbers of the whales. On the face of it, no species appears likely to be capable of holding its own against such tremendous slaughter for any length of time. Tue threatened extinction of the sandal tree (Santalum album), which occurs over a limited area in India and is practically absent elsewhere, and the great economic value of sandalwood oil, have led to many attempts to extend its area by plantings and sowings, but these have been rarely successful, owing to the fact that, although the sandal is a root para- site, absolutely dependent upon other plants for its nourishment, it has in most cases been treated like other trees in the methods adopted for its propagation. M. Rama Rao has just published (Indian Forest Records, ii., 4) an elaborate account of the host- plants of the sandal, in which he describes the rela- tions between the roots of this tree and those of more than 250 species found growing in association with it. Of this number no fewer than 150 species are actually host-plants attacked by the roots of sandal, and the author believes that further investiga- tion will result in additions to this remarkable census. Apparently evergreen plants are better hosts than deciduous species; sandal plants growing on evergreen hosts themselves remain evergreen, while those on deciduous hosts actually become deciduous; and there is a marked tendency for the sandal to become deciduous in very dry localities, where the plants associated with it are few and are deciduous. A SEVERE earthquake was felt in South Africa on February 20 at 3.4 p.m., especially in the south- western portion of the Orange River Colony. The shock is remarkable for the large area over which it was strong enough to damage buildings. This area, so far as can be judged from the numerous accounts published in The Cape Times, is about 150 miles in diameter, and contains more than 17,000 square miles. In Kimberley and Bloemfontein, a few houses were injured, but the epicentre of the earthquake lies about 50 miles to the south-east of Kimberley, -in the neighbourhood of Koffyfontein, Jagersfontein, and Fauresmith, at which places, also, most of the after-shocks were felt. Although many buildings were demolished and the ground fissured in this dis- trict, the earthquake was not one of very great intensity, though unusually strong for the South African colonies. It was felt, however, over a very wide area, from Paarl (480 miles to the south-west of the epicentre) to Mafeking (250 miles to the north), Johannesburg (290 miles), and Durban (360 miles to the east). The disturbed area must therefore have contained about half a million square miles. Tue last Bulletin (vol. iv., No. 3, 1912, Tokyo) of the Imperial Earthquake Investigation Committee consists of Prof. Omori’s third paper on the applica- tions of the seismograph to the measurement of the vibrations of railway carriages. The recent experi- ments were made in a new imperial carriage and a first-class carriage, both six-wheel bogie-cars, and NO. 2216, VOL. 89] | needle-inclinometer is reported. [Aprit 18, 1912 weighing 36 and 27-3 tons respectively. The trains containing these carriages were similarly made up and run along the same course with approximately the same velocities. The records in the two carriages in the same portions of the course were so similar that individual vibrations could be identified, especi- ally in the lateral-vibration curves. The intensity of the vertical vibrations in the imperial carriage was | 40 per cent. less, and of the lateral vibrations 26 per cent. less, than in the other. Under ordinary condi- tions, the maximum acceleration recorded in the imperial carriage amounted to 1100 mm. per second per second for the lateral vibrations and to 2000 mm. per second per second for the vertical vibrations, the latter being nearly as great as that experienced at Nagoya during the great Japanese earthquake of 1891. The vertical vibrations in the same carriage were practically unaffected when the train entered on a curve of from 20 to 60 chains radius, but the lateral vibrations, though unchanged when the | velocity ranged from 25 to 30 miles an hour, were ; nearly double as large as on a straight road when the velocity was as low as 15, or as high as 40, miles an hour. Tue report of the work of the Prussian Meteor- ological Institute in 1911, issued by Prof. G. Hell- mann, states that the existing materials are so great that it was thought advisable to devote as much time as possible to. the deduction and publication of results, rather than to take up fresh observations. The report contains several interesting and useful short discussions, to one or two of which we hope to refer later on. The arrears in the discussion of magnetic observations have been brought up to date. A curious incident relating to the uncertainty of the Four needles had _ been in use, three of which gave concordant results, and the fourth very discordant values, and its use was given up; but some years later it was discovered that the discarded needle was the one which had given correct results. At the end of 1911 the meteor- | ological stations numbered 201, exclusive of a very | The Potsdam, large number of rainfall and thunderstorm stations. Brocken, and Schneekoppe observa- tories are entirely maintained by the institute. pleasing to note that his Majesty the Emperor confers from time to time special honours on both officials and observers of long standing. In the Trans. Roy. Soc. of Canada (vol. v., sec. iii., 1899) Dr. W. Bell Dawson gave illustrations of some remarkable sea-seiches, or secondary tidal undula- tions, which occurred in the estuary of the St. Lawrence. He remarked that they seem to be con- nected with stormy weather. The subject is resumed in a paper jointly by Mr. Kétaré6 Honda and Dr. Dawson, published in the Science Reports of the Tohoku Imperial University, vol. i., No. 1, p. 61 (1912), in which they discuss the periods of the Canadian seiches, showing that they conform to the Japanese theory. The authors are of opinion that the seiches are due to meteorological causes. In the Proceedings of the Tokyo Mathematico-physical Society for February, p. 196, Mr. Honda traces the It is. : ‘ PS ot Aprit 18, 1912] NATURE 7s connection between the advance of a barometric de- pression and the sea-seiches observed at eight ports in Japanese waters. THE new catalogue of physical apparatus issued by Messrs Baird and Tatlock (London), Ltd., is a quarto | volume of 650 pages, and is well illustrated. It con- tains descriptions of several new pieces of apparatus, as, for example, the induction solenoids on p. 536, and Milner’s automatic mercury pump. It would be an advantage if British instrument makers would in their new catalogues cease to figure and describe apparatus hopelessly out of date, like Lavoisier and Laplace’s ice calorimeter. Tue theory of the universe which was propounded eight years ago by the late Prof. Osborne Reynolds in his “‘Sub-mechanics of the Universe’’ has found a popular exponent in the person of Mr. J. Maclxenzie, a copy of whose lecture on the subject, delivered before the Minnesota Academy of Sciences and the American Association for the Advancement of Science at Minneapolis, has just reached us. It contains a clear account of a theory which is not by any means easy to follow in the original, and is illustrated by several figures of Prof. Reynolds’s experiments, including that of the thin indiarubber bag partly filled with sand which supports 200 Ib. on its edge. Prof. H. du Bois. Concrete INSTITUTE, at 8.—Discussion on reports presented by the Tests. Standing Committee, entitled (1) The Testing of Concrete, Reinforced Concrete, and Materials Employed therein ; (2) The Testing of Reinforced Concrete Structures on Completion. FRIDAY, Aprit 26. Roya INSTITUTION, at 9.—Sir William Herschel: Sir George Darwin, K.C.B., F-R.S. PuysicaL Society, at 5.—Adjourned Discussion> The Coefficients of Expansion of Fused Silica and Mercury: H. Donaldson.—The Solution of Net-work Problems by Determinants: R. Appleyard.—A Method of Measuring Small Inductances: S. Butterwerth. : INsTITUTION OF CiviL ENGINEERS, at 8.—The Principles and Practice of Accountancy in Relation to Engineering Design and Work: T. Frame ‘Thomson. . CONTENTS. PAGE Progress of the Steam Turbine. By W.H. W. . . 1590 Inferior: Races. . By, A EgCrawley 4. . 7 >. See eeeeton Appliedi@hemistry. By S-) eyes.) =) | letenreenelos Agriculture in the School and Afterwards. By Dr. Si Russell . . .9. sae ep: 2 (ston Algebraic Numbers. By GJ By Mee 2) -).. . 2 eeemtod A History of European Cultivated Plants and Domestic Animals. ByJ.H.T.W..... . 164 GeneraliScrence .) . : Eps eieesee cnt...) - pe em Our Bookshelf MR 0G) os woe TBS py CIS: Letters to the Editor :— The Principle of Reflection in Spectroscopes.—Lord Rayleigh, O.M:, FiRUSS es) 0. Cees Acquired Charactess and Stimuli. — Sir E, Ray Lankester, K C.B., F.R.S. .. « ae Sa Clouds and Shadows.—Chas. Tilden Smit 168 Winter in India.—H: Hie a - -, - eee Recent Researches on Cast Iron. (J/lustvated.) By Profy)..O: Arnold, PF. Ris gememretee yes) 14) ileal The International Congress of Americanists. . . . 169 Prof. Edward Divers, F.R.S. 170 Notes : +. re 170 Our Astronomical Column :— The Solar Eclipse of April 17 . 175 A Daylight Meteor . E a Se a! Wace 175 The Nova, or Variable, in Perseus, 871911 175 A New Star Catalogue . 3 +, eA 175 The Photographic Transit 176 Physics and Astrophysics. . . . . . 176 The Parallax of Nova Lacerta, 1910 176 Nova Geminorum No.2...... 176 Portland Cement. ByB By .. Ola. Biagueanyindial. . .. . eee 177 Four Mammal Surveys. By R. L. HPs 8 SS Treasury Grants to Universities and University Collegesi’..:. . . .. ee. 2 ee Fiords in Relation to Earth Movements. By Prof. ~ J. W. Gregory, F.R.S. " ~ ev societtesiandsAcademies: 3) apeuimnuneneican.) co) nee 183 BooksyReceived: : . . |= :eeReeReGt > . cCmemmloe Diary of Societies. ....... 184 Wo 4; ue i, “ong! Musev = + A WEEKLY ILLUSTRATED JOURN AL OF SCIENCE. “To the solid ground Of Nature trusts the mind which builds for aye. _No. 2217, VOL. 89] Registered asa Newspaper at the General Post Office. is VITASCOPE, An entirely novel Instrument for examining and observing living insects in the garden or the house under high magnifi- cation without disturbing them or removing them from their natural surroundings. ‘a The magnification a —_ can be varied from 12 to 60 diameters. In case complete. Garden Stand, 5/= PATENTED AND REGISTERED. Descriptive Pamphlet Post Free. SOLE MAKERS— NEWTON & CO., 72 WIGMORE ST., LONDON W. Established over 200 years. “Newrobar, London." Jou J. GRIFFIN gj KEMBLE STREET, KINGSWAY, LONDON, W.C. MAKERS OF Physical Apparatus AWARDED GRAND PRIX DIPLOMA OF HONOUR AND 3 GOLD MEDALS TURIN INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1914 Telegrams: SONS LTD. MHOURSDAY, APRIL 25 i012 7 | Solid beam . ”’_WORDSWORTH. __ [Price SIXPENCE (all Rights Reserved. REYNOLDS & BRANSON, LTD. MAGNALIUM BALANCES. The beam, standard, and pans of these balances aré made of magnalium, which is lighter and cleaner than brass, and not as readily affected by fumes and gases. The knife- edges and planes are of agate. roo gis. 250 gms. 500 gms. Sensitive to— 24 6 26 0 310 Open ,, 25 6 27 6 32 0 **Rystos” Balance Case (Regd. No. 532952), with sliding door which folds back and rests upon the top of the balance case, obviating the Gia for catches or balance weights. Mahogany, 8/6, 10/6, 14/6 each ANALYTICAL BALANCES WITH MAGNALIUM BEAMS. Price List on Application. 14 Commercial Street, SUNSHINE RECORDERS Iliustrated List free on request. leeds. Negretti & Zambra, Holborn Circus, E.G. Branches : E.C.; 122 Regent ‘ ee London, ¢ hag 45 Cornhill, Ixxiv NATURE [APRIL 25, 1912 ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN, ALBEMARLE STREET, PICCADILLY, W. Tuesday next (April 30), at three o'clock, Frank BaLrour BROWNE, Esq., M.A., F.R.S.E., first of Two Lectures on ‘‘ Insect Distribution with Special Reference to the British Islands.” Half-a-Guinea the Course. Thursday (May 2), at three o'clock, Professor J. Norman Coctir, first of Two Lectures on ‘‘ Recent Explorations in the Canadian Rocky Moun- tains.” Half-a-Guinea. Subscription to all the Courses in the Season, Two Guineas. IMPERIAL COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, SOUTH KENSINGTON. INCLUDING THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF SCIENCE, the ROYAL SCHOOL OF MINES, and the CITY AND GUILDS (ENGINEERING) COLLEGE. A Special Course of Advanced Lectures will be given, beginning on Wednesday, May 15 next, on the MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF METALS AND ALLOYS, by S. W. J. SMITH, A.R.C.S., M.A., D.Sc. For further information and for admission to the Course application should be made to the SECRETARY. UNIVERSITY OF LONDON. A Course of Lectures in Advanced Mathematics will be delivered by Monsieur HENRI POINCARE, Professor of Mathematical Astronomy in the University of Paris, at the University of London (South Kensington, S.W.), on May 3, 4, 10 and 11, 1912, at 5 p-m. The Lectures will be delivered in French. Admission free, by ticket obtainable from the ACADEMIC REGISTRAR, University of London. EAST LONDON COLLEGE. (UNIVERSITY OF LONDON.) Patron—HIS MAJESTY THE KING. ‘Classics .., F. R. Earp, M.A. English H. Bettoc, M.A. ‘French Mina Paguier. German ... Se J. Steprrat, Ph.D History ... ee ‘THomMaAS SEccomBE, M.A. Mathematics... THE PRINCIPAL. Physics ec a ce v1, OH. GEES; (D!Sc:, FuRes ‘Chemistry a Se as co) Jeb eWwitt Sch hones Botany Be 7a a3 Pree a) (RITSCHS DSCs Geology ... + W. L. Carter, M.A. Civil and Mechanical \ % Engineering e: aa D. A. Low, M.I.M.E. ‘Electrical Engineering J. T. Morris, M.LE E. Fees moderate. Valuable Entrance Scholarships awarded by Drapers ‘Company. Special facilities for Post-Graduate and Research Students. Particulars of fees, courses of study, &c., on application to the REGISTRAR, or to J. L. S. HATTON, M.A., Principal, at the College. SOUTH-WESTERN POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE, MANRESA ROAD, CHELSEA. Telephone: 899 Western. An Introductory Course of Lectures with Practical Work on the BIOLOGY OF THE SEA WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO FISHERIES, BY J. T. CUNNINGHAM, M.A., F.Z.S., Tuesdays, 7 p.m., commencing May 7, 1912. Fee for the Course, 35. FOR SALE.—Five milligrams of Radium Bromide. Offers to be addressed to ‘‘ Box No. 1912,” c/o NATURE, St. Martin's Street, London, W.C. | 1 BIRKBECK COLLEGE, BREAMS BUILDINGS, CHANCERY LANE, E.C. COURSES OF STUDY (Day and Evening) for the Degrees of the UNIVERSITY OF LONDON in the FACULTIES OF ARTS & SCIENCE (PASS AND HONOURS) under RECOGNISED TEACHERS of the University. SCIENCE.—Chemistry, Physies, Mathematies (Pure and Applied), Botany, Zovlogy, Geology. ARTS.—Latin, Greek, English, French, German, Italian, History, Geography, Logie, Economies, Mathematics (Pure and Applied). Evening Courses for the Degrees in Law and Economics. ( Day: Science, £17 10s.; Arts, £10 10s. SESSIONAL FEES , Evening: Science, Arts, or Economics, £5 5s, POST-GRADUATE AND RESEARCH WORK. For particulars apply to the SECRETARY. G. ARMITAGE-SMIVH, M.A., D.Lit., Principal. BEDFORD COLLEGE FOR WOMEN, (UNIVERSITY OF LONDON.) YORK PLACE, BAKER STREET, W. Princirpat—Miss M. J. TUKE, M.A. COURSE OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUCTION IN HYGIENE. Recognised by the Sanitary Inspectors’ Examination Board. The Course is designed to furnish training for Women Sanitary and Factory Inspectors and Teachers of Hygiene. A Post-graduate Scholarship of £35 for one year is offered for the course beginning October, 1912. Applications should be forwarded not later than June 1 to the Principat, from whom further particulars may be obtained. LONDON HOSPITAL MEDICAL COLLEGE AND DENTAL SCHOOL. The SUMMER SESSION opens on MAY 1. Students entering then are eligible to compete for the Entrance Scholarships in September. For prospectus and particulars apply to the Dean, Witttam WriGHT, M.B., D.Sc., F.R.C.S., who will be glad to make arrangements for any one wishing to see over the Medical College and Dental School. London Hospital Medical College, Mile End, E. RESEARCH STUDENTSHIPS IN PHYSIOLOGY. The LINDLEY STUDENTSHIP of £100 and the UNIVERSITY STUDENTSHIP of £50 will be awarded shortly to students qualified to undertake Research in Physiology. Applications for either Studentship must reach the undersigned not later than May 31, 1912. Detailed Regulations may be obtained cn application to the Principal. HENRY A. MIERS, Principal. University of London, South Kensington, S.W., April 22, 1912. GENTLEMAN owning synthetic process, the invention of well-known University Professor, for manufacturing product at one-fourth present price, supply of which at present strictly limited and controlled by ring, requires £20,c00 in addition to similar sum. Commercial scale trial already successful Only principals fully disclosing identity and agreeing not to inform others will be communi- cated with, as it is important to prevent ring obtaining knowledge. It is not unreasonable to anticipate dividend of 150 p.c. per annum. Full investigation offered and strictest references given and required —Write ‘‘Box 306,” c/o Messrs. R. F. Wuite & Son, Genl. Advng. Agents, 33 Fleet Street, F.C. BOYS’ MODERN SCHOOL, LEEDS. WANTED, in September next, CHEMISTRY MASTER with good qualifications and some experience. Salary, A£t4o to £160 per annum, according to qualifications and experience. Application forms, which may be obtained from the undersigned, should reach the Education Offices not later than May 22, 1912. JAMES GRAHAM, Secretary for Education, Education Offices, Calverley Street, Leeds. UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, READING. PROFESSOR OF AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. The Council of University College are about to appointa PROFESSOR of AGRICULTURAL CHEMISILRY. Applications must be received by May g. Particulars can be obtained from the REGISTRAR at the College. WATORE 185 THURSDAY, APRIL 25; ro912: t IN NATURE’S BYWAYS. Die Pflanzengallen (Cecidien) Mittel- und Nord- europas, ihre Erreger und Biologie und Bestim- mungstabellen. By Dr. H. Ross. Pp. ix+ 350+x plates. Price 9 marks. Die Gallen der Pflanzen. Ein Lehrbuch fir Botaniker und Entomologen. By Prof. E. Kiister. Pp. x+437. (Leipzig: S. Hirzel, 1911.) Price 16 marks, MONG the byways that lie in the borderland between botany and zoology and appeal to the students of both sciences, few, if any, offer more attractions than the study of galls. That certain organisms can change the modes of action of the living substance in some other, and can make it produce new structures to benefit themselves, is an intervention of a kind to arouse interest. But that power is shared by plants and animals of widely different types, and so related to others that do not possess the power as to indicate that it has often been independently acquired. The effects produced by some amount to little more than sufficient to heal wounds, while at the other extreme we find growths unlike any uninjured structure of the host; and between these are galls of varied forms and structure, each true to its type. The wide diffusion of the power to influence | the work of the protoplasm seems to point to the readiness of that substance to respond to certain kinds of stimuli, and to give some warrant for the hope that means to regulate its activities may be discovered. As yet, however, the attempts to produce galls artificially have failed. The literature on galls is already very extensive, though comparatively recent; but much of it is scattered in periodical literature, or forms large and costly works. The two before us are among the latest contributions to the mass, and though comprehensive in treatment are among the less expensive books. They treat the subject from different points of view. “Die Pflanzengailen Mittel- und Nordeuropas,” by Dr. Ross, is intended to supply a descriptive catalogue of the galls recorded from Central Europe and Scandinavia, including those caused by plants as well as those of animals. The de- scriptions are limited to the briefest possible state- ment of the distinctive features, in keys of tabular form, of all the galls in each genus. The characters have been carefully selected, though sometimes too brief; but contractions are freely used for the organs of the hosts, and the tables have not the clearness of those in Houard’s NO. 2217, VOL. 89] : | under Quercus, (Jena: Gustav Fischer, rg1t.) | | maturity. “Zoocécidies des Plantes d'Europe.” Somewhat above a hundred of the galls caused by animals are figured, often with details of structure, on the ten plates., All the galls in each genus are treated in a single table, the species of the hosts being named after the description of each gall, except where Cerris receives distinct treatment from the other oaks, owing to the multi- tude of galls on these trees. For ease of reference the genera are arranged alphabetically, but the gain is more than balanced by the loss in the separation of nearly allied host-plants, and the consequent obscuring of the relationships between the galls on them. The tables are preceded by eighty pages of general discussion. The author defines “gall,” in the widest sense of the word, as any deviation of structure due to growth produced (usually by a chemical stimulus) on a plant by an organism living parasitically or symbiotically on the plant. He treats of the forms and structure of galls, the various types of animals and plants that give rise to them, the effects on the host-plants, the dis- tinction of galls into ‘‘organoid” (which allow recognition of the parts of which they are modi- fications) and “histoid” (not evidently compar- able with parts present in the plant naturally), the limitation of the gall-forming response to the meristem, the nature of the stimuli employed by different gall-makers and of the response to each, the formation of ‘“procecidia”? (growths aban- doned by the larve very early), and other topics of great biological interest, such as the different relations to production of galls exhibited within the limits of certain species of gall-makers. Some of these in alternate generations produce galls of different structure on the same host; or they pass from one host to another, producing galls on both, or on one host but not on the other; or the galls may be formed by some individuals (e.g. of certain weevils), and occupied by their larve, while other larve of the same species may live healthily on the same host without a gall being formed. The ‘‘ambrosia” galls, in which fungi grow, to serve as food for the larve, also find mention. Brief directions are given for collecting and pre- serving galls, and for rearing the makers to Within the limits set, the book will be found a helpful and suggestive guide to the deter- mination of the galls of Central and North Europe, and a good introduction to their study. Dr. Kiister’s ‘Die Gallen der Pflanzen ”’ not attempt to give an exhaustive list of the galls of any one region or country, its aims being to afford a comprehensive and trustworthy introduc- tion to the study of galls, illustrated by series of selected types, to indicate the progress already I does 180 NATURE [APRIL 25, 1912 made, and to point out and direct attention to some of the many problems that suggest them- selves more or less urgently at each step forward. The term “gall” is employed in almost the same sense as by Dr. Ross, and the subjects treated of by him are also met with in this work; but the whole subject is discussed far more thor- oughly, and from other points of view, with very copious notes and bibliographical references. The introduction gives a historical outline of the investigation of galls from the earliest records onwards. Some of the earlier beliefs as to their origin are similar in kind with the strange ex- planations of the origin of fungi at the same period; and they form a striking contrast to the views expressed by Malpighi, the founder of the scientific study of galls, in his treatises, ‘De gallis” and “De variis plantarum tumoribus et excrescentiis.” But for a long period after Malpighi, little interest was shown in them except by Réaumur, and a catalogue of galls due to animals (zoocecidia) published in 1858 included only about 300. How rapidly knowledge has advanced since then is evident from the catalogue by Houard, issued in 1909, enumerating more than 6000 from Europe and the Mediterranean area of Africa and Asia, while numerous records have recently appeared on the galls of other regions. Dr. Kiister divides his book into comprehensive chapters devoted to the great divisions of his sub- ject, beginning with one on the gall-producing animals and plants considered class by class. The second consists of a review of the gall-bearing plants, also treated systematically. The situations of galls on their hosts and their morphology receive very full consideration, as do also their internal structures and their relations to the healthy tissues of the host-plants. Then follows a brief account of the chemistry of galls, including the physiological processes that go on in them. The two last chapters are the most important and suggestive of all, the one being devoted to the etiology and the other to the biology of galls. Under etiology are considered the prerequisites for their formation, the varying degrees of ability shown by the gall-makers to originate and to develop them, general questions as to means employed by their makers, the formation of galls as affected by absorption, nutrition, and wounds, their connection with alterations of correlation in the members and tissues of the host, their tend- ency to induce permanent variations (very slight, as tested by cases where the growth extends beyond a gall), abnormal galls, and the informa- tion that they yield as to their etiology, and as to the effect on their growth of the death of the NO. 2217, VOL. 89| many | maker or its early abandonment of the gall. The great need of further efforts to produce galls experimentally is dwelt on, while the small result from the experiments of the past is fully recog- nised, and makes still more evident the need to observe very carefully the actual course of things in the development of galls, both normal and abnormal. Many show themselves to result from stoppages of advance in complexity, while increase goes on in mass of tissues, Under the biology are included a number of most interesting topics, such as the grade of restriction to certain host-plants, alternation of generations, with or without alternation of hosts, tendency to produce “physiological species” or races restricted to certain hosts, though scarcely differing morphologically, relative frequency in various habitats (e.g. water plants, dry moor and mountain floras, deciduous trees, &c.), methods of distribution in space, paleontology, relations between galls and their makers (duration of life, sexual dimorphism of galls, methods of emergence of makers), effects of galls on welfare of host, and relations to other organisms (feeders on galls, inquilines, “ambrosia,” and parasitic fungi, &c.). A brief account is given in an appendix of the relatively few galls (“thylacia”’) upon the bodies of animals. Space will not allow of quoting any of the remarks on the numerous problems to which the reader’s attention is directed as in need of investi- gation. For these, as for much else, we must refer those interested in galls to the work itself, assured that they will find no better or more trustworthy guide. Its value will be most fully felt by those who have already gained some know- ledge of galls in the field. As already stated, it does not aim at being a descriptive catalogue. Numerous good figures in the text (not always correctly referred to, however), and a sufficient index add to the value of this excellent work. SOIL STRUCTURE AND PLANT GROWTH. Boden und Klima auf kleinstem Rawm. Versuch einer exakten Behandlung des Standorts auf dem Wellenkalk. By Prof. G. Kraus. Pp. vit184+Taf. vii. (Jena: Gustav Fischer, 1911.) Price 8 marks. O one can pass from a sand to a chalk forma- mit tion without being struck by the very sharp changes in vegetation, even where similar climatic conditions persist, changes which clearly indicate marked or even fundamental differences in soil conditions. But so far as we know no one has taken the trouble to investigate a particular case with anything like the completeness it de- eee Ty —« APRIL 25, 1912] serves. The author of the present volume set out to remedy this deficiency by making adequate study of a little region near Karlstadt-on-the-Main, where the sandstone with its green woods and red, moist soil gives place to limestone and a dry, glistening white soil. In similar instances it has been the practice to attribute the difference of flora to the presence of calcium carbonate in the limestone soil and its absence from the sandy soil, and the author began with this hypothesis in view by making numerous determinations of calcium carbonate in the soil. But he was soon driven to the conclusion that calcium carbonate is an exceedingly variable quantity; indeed, he doubts whether any esti- mate can be obtained of the amount in the layers of the soil immediately in contact with the plant root. cepted way, however, and comparing the analytical results with the vegetation, he failed to find any plant that occurred exclusively on soils of even approximately the same calcium carbonate con- tent; there were always variations within very wide limits. A vague relationship unly could be traced: some plants showed a clear preference for soils containing a high amount of calcium car- bonate, whilst others were found on soils containing only small quantities. Thus Festuca glauca occurred on soils containing 28 to 64 per cent., Teucr:um montanuni on soils containing 11 to 73 per cent.—more generally, however, when more than 35 per cent. was present—and Melica ciliata where 24 to 60 per cent. occurred. Against these the limits for Brachypodium pinnatum were 2 to 43 per cent., for Koeleria cristata 1'4 to 27 per cent., and for Hieracium pilosella 16 to 56 per cent. A mixed flora was found where the limestone merged into the sandstone. True chalk plants like Pulsatilla and Hippocrepis grew in spots where calcium carbonate was absent, while calcifugous plants like Calluna and Vaccinium were found in places where more than 3 per cent. of calcium car- bonate occurred, and alongside Anemone sylvestris flourished. With the exception of a few plants that require large amounts of calcium carbonate the author seems to have found most of the local ealcicolous plants on soils entirely free from cal- cium carbonate. the lime content of the soil as a true basis of dis- crimination, and looks forward to the time when every calcicolous plant shall have been found on chalk-free soils. The wandering of plants for which cal- cium carbonate is supposed to be essential on to chalk-free soils has been already observed, but never accounted for. When exceptions to a rule Making the determination in the ac- | He has completely lost faith in | NATURE 187 invent a new name to describe the exceptional case and after a while to take the name as an explana- tion of the phenomenon, and the cynic might argue that something of the sort has happened with the word invented in this instance—heterotopism. The present author, however, goes further; since the calcium carbonate hypothesis fails, he turns to a second hypothesis, the view that the physical pro- perties of the soil and not the calcium carbonate really determine the distribution of plants. The particular set of properties best suited to calcicolous plants are usually found in soils rich in calcium carbonate, while those suited to calcifugous plants are associated with soils poor in calcium carbonate ; but the carbonate itself does not play the control- ling part in the matter. The author is not prepared to say that calcium carbonate exerts no specific action on the plant, but he knows of no proof that it does. Even small quantities of calcium carbonate | are known to affect markedly the properties of the soil; he therefore made mechanical analyses, deter- mined water-contents and temperatures of the soils, and also noted their aspects and general relation to their surroundings. Working over very small areas in great detail, he finds distinct similarity in general physical conditions on spots where the same plants are growing. In the last instance the physical properties of the soil are some function of the soil structure, which therefore he considers to be the determining factor. Whether the author’s conclusions are wholly justified can only be ascertained by further experi- ments, but he certainly makes out a strong case for his main thesis that the botanist must pay more attention to the properties of the soil if he wishes to account for the distribution of plants. The book will be found of much interest to ecologists as a piece of painstaking and methodical work, and it emphasises the important fact that careful in- vestigation over a limited area is likely to prove very fruitful in the study of ecology. E. J. Russet. THE ADVANCE OF PHOTOGRAPHY. The Advance of Photography: its History and Modern Applications. By A. E. Garrett. Pp. xiii+ 382. (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Triibner and Co., Ltd., 19rz.) Price 12s. 6d. net. T is about forty years since Dr. Hermann if Vogel wrote his volume entitled ‘‘ The Chemistry of Light and Photography in their Application to Art, Science, and Industry ” for the “Tnternational Scientific Series,” so well known by their red covers. The copy before us is a “new and revised” edition issued in 1876, and about begin to crop up, there is a strong temptation to } two-fifths of its contents are devoted to historical NO. 2217, VOL. 89| 188 NATURE [| APRIL 25, 1912 facts and processes, two-fifths to the applications of photography, including photo-mechanical methods, while the remaining fifth is devoted to the action of light, the correctness of photo- graphs, perspective, &c., with a final chapter on “Photography as a subject to be taught in art and industrial schools.” In this last chapter Dr. Vogel makes an earnest plea for the inclusion of photo- graphy in the courses of study of technical institu- tions, not “to train professional photographers... but so far as it is of importance for art and science.” He bases his plea, not only on the opinions of others, but also on his nine years’ experience as professor of photography in the Royal Industrial Academy of Berlin. This is the book that Mr. Garrett has sought to modernise, or “bring up to date,” as the saying is. The present author has given the volume a new title, transferred Vogel’s name from the title- page to the preface, and states that “although the present book is of necessity practically a new work, it is based upon the lines laid down in the original publication.”” The only noteworthy omis- sion of the substance of the original volume that we observe is the last chapter, that is the plea for the consideration of photography as a subject to be included in the curriculum of colleges, because of the importance and the universality of its applications. Perhaps the author is justified, for, in this country at least, there is little “advance ” to record with regard to this matter. The study of photography, even by those who need its aid, too often means no more than working from the instructions issued by manufacturers, with per- haps an occasional question across the dealer’s counter. The remainder of the volume is rearranged somewhat and added to. The chief additions are on gelatino-bromide dry plates (which, of course, were not in use when Vogel wrote), photography in natural colours, Réntgen-ray photography, photo-telegraphy, and animated photography. These final chapters are interesting, instructive, and well illustrated, though they sometimes wander rather far from photography, as, for ex- ample, in the consideration of the apparatus used in R6ntgen ray work. When a matter such as this is treated and illustrated so fully, we natur- ally expect that the more purely photographic subjects will have received at least as much atten- tion, but here we are disappointed. Within the space of four pages there is all that we can find with regard to carbon printing, the gum bichro- mate process, ozobrome (ozotype is not men- tioned), printing-out papers, toning and fixing, phosphate papers, bromide printing, gas-light papers, and platinum printing ! NO. 2217, VOL. 89] Lenses are classified into (1) rapid rectilinears, | (2) portrait lenses, (3) wide angle lenses, and, as a kind of supplement, telephoto lenses. All that we can find about Abbé and Schott, and the optical work they carried out which has revolutionised the construction of photographic lenses, is that when they “undertook to construct a lens suit- able for this work,” that is, exact work, “they had the very great advantage of having a definite aim in view.” The author’s style is generally clear, but there are some sentences which_need a little expansion or explanation, because as they stand they are liable to mislead the reader. For example, at p- 323 we are told that “the superiority of apochromatic lenses in micro- photographic work is only very apparent when the preparation to be photographed is unstained, and extremely minute details are required such as can only be resolved with light of short wave- length. Hence it is that the cheaper achromatic lenses are much more frequently used in conjunc- tion with stained preparations, autochrome plates, or orthochromatic plates and colour screens.” The unqualified statement that it is “essential ’” to have a stand of “a large type and provided with a rotating and centering stage” for the pur- poses of photomicrography, appears to us to be contrary to general experience. When such matters as these are elucidated, the volume will be an interesting and useful treatise, though it can scarcely claim to be comprehensive. Cue THE GRAMMAR OF SCIENCE. The Grammar of Science. By Prof. Karl Pearson, F.R.S. Part i., Physical. Third edition, re- vised and enlarged. Pp. xx+394. (London : A@vand C! Black, ronr)eerice ‘6s. nets HE notices formerly given of the first and second editions of Prof. Pearson’s well- written ‘Grammar of Science” (see NATURE, vol. 46, pp. 97-99, 1892, and vol. 62, pp. 49-50, 1900) scarcely need to be added to in the way of a general review. The main feature of the new edition which differentiates it from the others is the addition of two new chapters: chapter v., on contingency and correlation, and chapter x., modern physical ideas. The former chapter is particularly noteworthy, presenting as it does in a wonderfully small compass the scientific signifi- cance of the two terms contingency and correla- tion. The general reader, whose mathematical symbolism is of the most elementary type, will probably find difficulty in appreciating the fulk scope of this chapter. A simple concrete example might not have proved amiss. ye APRIL 25, 1912] NATURE 189 To keep the volume a reasonable size the addi- tion of this new matter has compelled the author to reserve for a second volume the subjects which were formerly discussed in the last two chapters, namely, life and the classification of the sciences. In other respects there is singularly little change, the author being evidently convinced that the original statement could not be improved upon. It is a pity, perhaps, that some of the more polemical sections have not been modified so as to prevent misunderstanding as to the intention of some of the earlier writers who are attacked. Prof. Pearson himself ‘speaks of “the acceleration of A due to B,” but carefully adds a footnote to guard the reader against taking the phrase in its obvious meaning. Newton and others were guilty of similar anthropomorphism, for which they are denounced. They failed to add warning footnotes, partly because they had a grand faith in the common sense of their readers, partly because they were writing a constructive scientific treatise, and not a critical grammar of science. These attacks, however, add spice to the pages of a book which excels in the clearness with which the significance of natural law is discussed. It should be mentioned in conclusion that chapter x., on modern physical ideas, is contri- buted by Prof. E. Cunningham. The scope of the chapter is sufficiently indicated by the titles of a few of the sections, such as: the electromagnetic constitution of the atom, electromagnetic mass, fluid or space distribution of electricity, and the theory of relativity. The expanded second volume of this interesting work will be looked forward to with great expectations. A BIOLOGICAL DICTIONARY. Worterbuch der Biologie. By Dr. Schmidt. Pp. viii+581. (Leipzig: Kroner, 1912.) Price 10 marks. RITERS on_ biological subjects have always used a rich vocabulary, but with the growth of information and knowledge there has arisen such a wealth of technical terms and of classificatory nomenclature that readers, and even writers themselves, are often at a loss, and it is difficult to refer an inquirer to any handy work containing an adequate glossary of terms used in anthropology, botany, and geology. Ziegler’s “Zoologisches Wé6rterbuch” supplies the want for zoologists, and supplies it well, but there is undoubtedly room for such a dictionary as this which Dr. Schmidt has written. At a rough estimate it contains 10,000 definitions, and the labour of compiling it must have been very great, for not only are descriptive words explained NO. 2217, VOL. 89| Heinrich Alfred | but there are also many generic terms and expres- sions that appeal only to the advanced systematist. The derivations of the words are not given. Use, and use alone, can test the value of this dictionary. So far as we have been able to deter- mine its accuracy and inclusiveness, the work has stood the test very well. As an example of the unexpectedly interesting information afforded in dealing with arid or forbidding names, we select “Lebensdauer.” Under this heading a most in- teresting summary is given of the relative longe- vity of plants and animals. We are told on the authority of Hesse’s work, “Tierbau und Tier- leben,” that an earthworm lives ten years, a leech twenty or even twenty-seven years, a pond mussel twelve years, a (fresh-water) pearl mussel fifty to a hundred years. Most of the definitions we have examined seem well arranged, though here and there a little inaccuracy has crept in. For ex- ample, under “body-cavity”” we are told that a true coelom is well-developed in limulus, spiders, millipedes, and insects, whereas, of course, the well-developed cavity in these animals is not a true coelom at all. The terms .used in classification seem needlessly numerous, and are sometimes very unhappily ex- pressed. Protozoa, for example, are divided into “Cytomorphe”’ and “Cytoidee,”’ a new and abominable classification. Certain cases of omis- sion have occurred in the course of a few days’ use. The term “lipoids,” about which so much is heard just at present, might have been included. The class of pigments known as lipochromes is left out, whilst the melanins are included. But these considerations are of small account in com- parison with the mass of successful definitions which testify to the author’s tireless researches. A few illustrations are given, and a geological table is added as an appendix. OUR BOOKSHELF. Links with the Past in the Plant World. By Proteaceae Seward. Hakwos Pps six-timaa. (Cambridge: University Press, 1911.) Price Is. net. Tue object of this neat little volume is best ex- plained in the author’s words. ‘‘I hope,’’ he says, ‘‘that I may succeed in attracting some of my readers who are already interested in living plants to the study of plants of former ages.’’ The book is likely to fulfil its purpose. Without attempting any serious discussion of evolutionary theories, the author brings home to the reader the deep interest of a number of problems in the history of plants and their ¢cis- tribution, The introductory chapter the always attractive subject of the longevity of trees, and explains very clearly how a tree grows begins with 190 NATO RE [ApRIL 25, 1912 and the nature of the so-called annual rings. From the age of individuals we are led on to archeological evidence of antiquity. ‘‘ From the period claimed by archeologists we pass by gradual stages into the domain of the geologist.” Before entering on this field, a chapter on geographical distribution, a subject of which the importance has not always been realised by modern students, is appropriately introduced. Darwin’s high appreciation of the study of dis- tribution, which he called “that almost keystone of the laws of creation,” is emphasised. Quite recently, interest in distribution, stimulated by the kindred study of ecology, has much revived. In his sketch of the geological record, Prof. Seward points out that the history of the world’s flora must go back immensely farther than our records show. “The relics of plant-life furnished by the Devonian and succeeding formations re- present the upper branching-systems of a deeply rooted and spreading tree, the lowest portions of which have been Spiers or have left no sign of their existence’’ (p. 4 “The preservation of pics as fossils is the subject of chapter iv. A particularly striking picture of the flood-plain of the Rio Colorado, with drift-wood stretching over a tract 25 miles across, gives a vivid idea of how a fossil ‘‘ pine- raft ’’ may have been formed. The four succeeding chapters illustrate the general theme by special examples of ‘links with the past,’’ taken from the ferns, the big trees of California, the Araucaria family, and the maiden-hair tree. The illustrations throughout are remarkably good. Mr. Tansley’s photographs of Malayan ferns are of exceptional beauty. The book con- cludes with a full bibliography and a useful index. IDE ists Se How to Attract and Protect Wild Birds. By M. Hiesemann. ‘Translated by Emma S. Buchheim. With an introduction by Her Grace the Duchess of Bedford. Second edition, with many revisions. Pp. 101. (London: Witherby and Co., 1911.) Price 1s. 6d. net. We have already directed attention (Nature, July 22, 1909) to the first edition of the useful little work by Martin Hiesemann on the practical preservation and protection of birds by the pro- vision or creation of opportunities for their breed- ing, winter feeding, and by fighting the enemies of birds, and little remains to be said of the second edition except that it has been revised and enlarged in many essential points. This excellent little book was written for Germany, where the birds’ natural conditions of life differ somewhat from those prevailing in this country. For instance, our winters are less severe, and so less systematic feeding at that season may be necessary; our country is, generally speaking, less open and more wooded (hedgerows, gardens, and ornamental grounds and plantations being taken as woodlands in this connection), so that the provision of special breeding plantations may NO. 2217, VOL. 89| not be desirable here. Our birds of prey have been closely killed down, and there seems to be no way (permitted by law) of dealing with the domestic cat, the birds’ worst enemy in this country. But the portion of the book dealing with the provision of nesting places for birds which breed in holes deserves the closest consideration by those who wish to encourage the different species which fall under this category; for the difficulty experi- enced by these birds in finding nesting places has greatly increased, since by the rules of modern forestry nearly every old tree is felled, without regard to the fact that the holes it con- tains serve as shelters and nesting places. Those men who care only for what is of practical use grudge the old, decayed trees the little space on which they stand, and prefer to convert them into firewood. The remedy for this is the provision of nesting boxes, and we are told here what is the right sort of box, and the right—and the wrong—way of hanging them up. The illustra- tions are numerous and very useful. Applied Biology. An Elementary Textbook and Laboratory Guide. By Prof. M. A. Bigelow and Anna N. Bigelow. Pp. xi+583. (New York: The Macmillan Co. ; London: Macmillan and|Go., Ltd:, 1910) ebrreeios= net Tuis volume has been prepared for use in higher schools during a year’s course of five hours per week. The frog and the bean-plant are taken as types for the study of animal- and _ plant- structure and biology. The succeeding part of the book contains an account of the structure and life-histories of “seed-plants” and “spore plants ’’ (ferns, mosses, alge, fungi, and bac- teria). The chief phyla of the animal kingdom are traversed in the third part of the book; but the authors have attempted to compress too much material into these 140 pages, with the result that many subjects are necessarily considered so briefly that only imperfect ideas of them are ‘conveyed. For instance, “‘ Paramecia reach a state when they are unable to continue to divide. Two such individuals come into contact, and through their delicate cell-walls some of the nucleus of each one passes over to join the nucleus of the other,’’-—is surely an incorrect and inadequate account of the conjugation phenomena. There are a few slips in this part of the work, e.g., the sword-fish is placed among the car- tilaginous fishes. The succeeding part of the work deals in an interesting manner with the structure of the human alimentary canal, diges- tion, food-values, blood, respiration, excretion, and nervous activity, and leads up to an applica- tion of biological principles to personal hygiene. The book contains much information on bio- logical subjects of public interest, e.g., toxins and anti-toxins, mosquitoes and flies in relation to disease, the bacterial treatment of sewage, parasites in meat, and shows clearly the important bearing of a knowledge of biological science on many aspects of human life. ' planters in this country. APRIL 25, 1912] LETTERS TO THE EDITOR. {The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of Nature. No notice is taken of anonymous communications.] Insect Parasites on Trees. Tue note in Nature of April 11 (p. 144) about the ravages of insect parasites upon the chir pine (Pinus longifolia) in the Himalayas suggests a consideration which, I think, is not enough present to foresters and 1 am too destitute of biological or physiological knowledge to venture an opinion upon the causes. which lead to the excessive multiplication of parasites, whether animal or fun- goid, upon animals and plants whereof the vitality has been impaired by some other agency; but the phenomenon must be familiar to most people, though it is generally wrongly interpreted. Normally vigorous organisms may, and do, entertain a reason- able number of parasitic guests without appreciable loss of vigour; but these guests seem to bide their time until the host is weakened by accident or disease, when they display a surprising amount of latent fecundity. In the case of the chir pine, the opportunity occurs when the vitality of the tree is lowered by tapping for resin; in other words, when it is depleted of its protective juices, the diminution of which gives easy access to the Platypus larve. To an analogous process may be traced the preva- lence of larch canker, which, during the last fifty years, has brought such heavy loss upon owners of woodland, having previously attracted no attention whatever from foresters. It has now become the most widely destructive tree disease in Britain. The hostile agent in this case is a pesizoid fungus, Dasycypha calycina, the ravages of which generally manifest themselves on poles from seven to fifteen years old. Many of these die or become hopelessly deformed, and all attempts to arrest the evil have hitherto proved futile, although recent works on forestry bristle with recommendations on the subject. Yet I am convinced that planters have the remedy in their own hands—at least as regards planting in the future. The fungus Dasycypha is no new creation; it has always found a home on the larch. Dr. Hartig found traces of it in Swiss larch of 100 years’ standing. I have found it also on Corsican and Scots pines, where it is quite innocuous. The European larch has suc- cumbed to its attack in Great Britain because, under the conditions to which foresters too often expose them, the young plants receive a severe check at the critical time of planting, and do not recover strength before the mycelium has penetrated the tissues so far as to hinder or prevent recovery. This check is the result of the drying of the roots during transport from a distant nursery. There is Dasycypha in the noble larch woods of Dunkeld, but no cankered larches. The parasite has never had a chance of overcoming its host, because these trees were all reared from seed in home nurseries and planted out straight away. The Japanese larch (Larix leptolepis) is very nearly akin to the European species, but is distinguished by its immensely superior vigour in youth. Hence, although the characteristic larch parasites—Dasy- cypha, Chermes, and the large larch sawfly—may all be found in a plantation of Japanese larch here, the trees are none the worse for their presence. The lesson to be learnt by our foresters seems to be that although the native climate of the European NO. 2217, VOL. 89] NATURE Ig! larch is very different from that of the British Isles, it adapts itself readily to British conditions, provided that care be taken to protect it from any check to its vitality, and that they may treat with indifference prescriptions against this and other tree diseases for exterminating parasites or checking their attacks, such as hand-picking, smoking, spraying, &c., all of which are childish in their futility and prohibitive in expense when applied to large woodland areas. Monreith, April 15. Herbert Maxwe er. The Propagation of Long Electric Waves during the Solar Eclipse. Ir is now common knowledge that the long electric waves employed in wireless telegraphy over great dis- tances appear to travel better during the hours of darkness than in the daytime. It is known besides that the natural electric waves produced by atmo- spheric electrical discharges—which are heard in the telephones of receiving stations as clicks or scratching noises, and are called ‘‘strays” or “X’s” by those engaged in wireless telegraphy—are also propagated better in darkness than in light. These differences between day and night propaga- tion suggested to me that observations of the strength and number of strays, and of the strength of signals, during the solar eclipse of April 17, might prove to be of interest. Accordingly a record of strays and signals was made at my laboratory in London during the progress of the eclipse. The apparatus was set so as to receive signals of wave-length 5500 metres, which is approximately the wave-length of the signals emitted from the Marconi Transatlantic station in Ireland. About the time of the eclipse strays were fairly numerous. The table below is a convenient summary of them. The number entered under each of the times was obtained by making a sort of rough time- integral of the number and intensity of the strays heard from half a minute before to half a minute after the beginning of the minute indicated. Time 11.46am. 47 48 49 5O 51 52 53) end 55 Strays 1c 10 Iz 12 13 17 21 20 21 22 Time x1.56am. 57 58 59 m2’0mnoon x 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Strays 22 17) 12) x2 13 <5 149) 18) x2 24) agi 23 ‘Time! 12.9) mo) irr sae: Wes” ivaa ine) 6) arg 5 8) 19. 20) 26 Strays 25 24) 26 i777 e422 eer) 90.) ao) 27, 14 Time 12:22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 3r 22 33 34 Strays 13 PRs eres yids Mv pene ine!) 3s ov. y Time 1236 37-38 39, go, g2 ge G7 Strays 12 11 Ir 10 10 10 12 14 14 14 12 10 These results are exhibited in the curve, with the times as abscissze. _~. ’ ‘ ae aN a0 sO /2n00n 10 20 30 40 50 The message-bearing waves from Clifden were brief and irregular, so no measurements of their intensity were obtained; but it was very noticeable that they were loud when the strays were loud, and vice versa. The observations show that on the whole the dark- 192 NATURE [APRIL 25, 1912 ness has its usual effect of facilitating the propaga- tion of electric waves over great distances, but that there are portions of time during the period of greatest | ‘and the air saturated. At 885 metres, however, the ‘temperature was 32’9° F., the’ wind direction S.E., darkness at the receiving station when propagation is hindered. This minimum is not an accident, and was, in fact, not unexpected by me. It can be ex- plained in some measure by a hypothesis which I have embodied in a paper and submitted to a learned society; but until the paper is published I feel pre- cluded from discussing the phenomenon, and am writing to you merely to put the results of the observa- tions on record. I may add that Mr. Lempfert, of the Meteorological Office, has kindly informed me that there was not any trace of thunderstorm during the eclipse shown on the Daily Weather Reports of April 17 and 18. The distribution of pressure was not favourable for thunderstorms over the continent of Europe, though electric disturbances may have occurred in the low- pressure systems over the Spanish peninsula and the north of Norway. W. H. Ecctes. 37 Chelsea Gardens, S.W., April 10. Glazed Frost. Jupcine from the letters recently published under this heading (Nature, pp. 414, 447, 484, 516, and 550), the phenomena known in New England. as ‘ice storms ”’ are of rare occurrence in Old England. They are of frequent occurrence along the Atlantic coast of North America, and the conditions which produce them are well understood. In W. M. Davis’s ‘‘Elementary Meteorology ” (1893), p- 294, they are described as ‘follows :—‘t Re- gions of strongly variable temperatures are subject to occasional. winter storms in which the precipitation occurs. as rain, but freezes’ as soon as it touches any solid body, such as the branches of trees, or tele- graph wires, or the ground. This happens when the ground and the lower air- have been made exces- | sively cold during a spell of clear anticyclonic weather, when a moist upper. current: in advance of an ap- proaching cyclone brings clouds and rain. Serious damage is caused by breaking down over-weighted wires and branches at such times. Wires may be increased -in’ weight’ ten to twentyfold, and twigs even more than a hundredfold.”’ Hann describes the | phenomenon under the term ‘‘Glatteis”’ in his ‘‘ Lehr- | buch der Meteorologie "’ (1906), p. 190. In a recent study of New England ice storms made under the direction of Prof. A. Lawrence Rotch by Mr. Charles F. Brooks in a research course in Har- vard University, he found that twelve such storms occurred each year in the average for the period 1886 to 1911, inclusive. For the various months the fre- quency of occurrence was in the following order : January, February, March, December, November, and April. He concluded that the essential and ever- present conditions accompanying ice storms were: (a) rain falling; (b) when the temperature of the lower air was below freezing; and (c) with an inversion stratum aloft in which the temperature was above freezing. He found that the raindrops coming from the relatively warm stratum aloft are cooled below | their freezing point as they pass through the colder stratum beneath, but are not solidified before reach- ing the ground or exposed objects, on which they form an ice sheet. On December 13, 1895, rain con- tinued to fall when the temperature of the lower air was but 9° F. Data obtained in kite flights during ice storms at Blue Hill Observatory verify the presence of this inversion stratum aloft. On February 9, 1005 (see Annals of the Astronomical Observatory of Harvard College, vol. Iviii., part iii., p. 168), the temperature NO. 2217, VOL. 89| decreased with height from 293° F. at the observa- tory, 195 metres above sea-level, to 276° F. at 702 metres, the wind being uniformly E.S.E. in direction, and the humidity 100 per cent. The base of the | relatively warm stratum from which the moisture came in the form of raindrops was apparently between the last two heights quoted. The drops were under- cooled as they descended through the colder stratum | beneath, but did not change to ice until striking the ground. A somewhat similar condition was observed in the last international kite flight, that of March 7 last. On that occasion the auxiliary kites added to lift the line became so heavily coated with ice that they pulled the leading kite down instead of aiding its ascent, thereby rendering the maximum height reached during the flight ‘considerably lower than usual. On that occasion the air was practically iso- thermal from the summit of Blue Hill to 625 metres | above sea-level, the temperature being about 30°8° F-. Above the latter level, however, the temperature increased steadily with height, and was 368° F. at 874 metres, the maximum height reached by the leading kite. Rain falling from this relatively warm stratum was undercooled by its passage through the colder air below, and changed to ice upon reaching solid objects. Inthe vicinity of the observatory, after the occur- rence of recent ice storms, it is not uncommon for the ice to accumulate to a depth of an inch on all exposed objects, and on one occasion, February 14-16, 1909, ice formed to a thickness of three inches, and did not disappear until February 20. During such storms we are able to keep the anemometer in opera~ tion only by frequently dashing hot water over the revolving cups and the other exposed parts. Blue Hill Observatory, ANDREW H. PatMeEr. Hyde Park, Mass., April 2. f Animal Intelligence. Tue following incident may be of interest to readers of Nature. We have a black retriever dog, very well trained. She is kept chained in a kennel in the yard, to which a number of fowls have access. During the last few days a black hen nearly every day lays an egg in the kennel, the dog meanwhile sitting outside. Unless someone takes the egg out directly afterwards, the dog takes possession of it and eats it. This curious proceeding raises the question whether the hen lays the egg in the kennel for the dog’s benefit, and whether the dog for her own advantage allows the hen to enter the kennel without molesta- tion. M. N. W. Frankland, St. Leonards, near Tring, April 19. THE ECLIPSE OF THE SUN ON APRIE ty. Te solar eclipse which occurred on April 17 appears to have been observed under ideal conditions all along the available track, and the question as to whether a total eclipse would occur is settled in the affirmative, for a totality of one- half to one second was witnessed in Portugal near Ovar. No astronomical phenomenon of recent years appears to have attracted more general popular attention. Even the Lords Justices temporarily adjourned their sittings at the Law Courts in order to witness the unusual event. A large number of well-known astronomers APRIL 25, 1912] NATURE journeyed to various environs of Paris in order to locate themselves on the central line, and were rewarded by a magnificent view of an annular eclipse which was so near total as to present vividly the phenomenon of Baily’s beads. Among these was a party including Dr. W. J. Se Lockyer and Mr. Frank McClean, whose telegram we published last week. Dr. Lockyer states that at Chavenay they were located exactly on the line given by the American ephemeris, which corresponded with the amended path given by Dr. Crommelin. There is no doubt that the eclipse there was central; the phenomenon of Baily’s beads, starting symmetrically from both ends of the diameter, made a_ glorious No corona,was seen, but there were two large prominences. Referring to the latter phenomena, Mr. A. A. Buss states that he ob- served two prominences, spectroscopically, in position angles 116°-120° and 182°-206°. The former was very bright, and agrees in position with one of those reported by Dr. Lockyer, and shown on a “disc” spectroheliogram taken at South Kensington at 12h. 6m. 18s. p.m.; but the position of the other is not in agreement. Unfor- tunately, Mr. Buss does not give the time of his observations, but they indicate that considerable changes were taking place among the prominence structures about eclipse time. We learn from Dr. Lockyer that some such changes are indicated on the excellent series of photographs secured by M. Deslandres, with the various forms of spectro- heliographs, during the eclipse period. Another party, located at St. Germain, also close to the central line, included Prof. Turner, Mr. Howard Payn, M. Antoniadi, Mr. Whitmell, and others. According to the Times corre- spondent, the eclipse commenced at 1oh,. 48m. 51s. G.M.T., and as the moon advanced three lunar peaks were plainly visible at the satellite’s limb. Prof. Turner saw a narrow ring of corona round the southern limb of the sun, Mr. Whit- mell, with a slitless binocular spectroscope, could discern numerous Fraunhofer lines at 11h. 52m., and Mr. Payn succeeded in catching sight of Mercury. The thermometric observations made by M. Antoniadi indicated a distinct fall of temperature nearly concurrent with the passage of the lunar shadow; at rth. 25m. the shade tem- perature was 57° F. nang gradually decreased to a minimum of 49° F. at 12h. 18m., i.e., about Sm. after the ean phase. The reports from Portugal show that the party of British astronomers organised by the British Astronomical Association enjoyed ideal conditions at Milhiondos, near Oporto, and saw the whole sun covered except for two luminous points, probably prominences. In a cablegram to Dr. Lockyer, Mr. Worth- ington—-who was fortunate enough to be able to good photographs at Vavau last year reports a totality about one second, during which he obtained a photograph of the corona. This shows a corona of the “wind vane” type, such as one naturally expects at such an epoch the present, when we appear to be in the NO. 2217, VOL. 89| s pectacle. secure of ais lof 193 trough of a minimum of solar activity. Mr. Butler, of the Solar Physics Observatory, was also in Portugal, and in a communication to the Daily Express reports that Mr. Dean and _ himself made observations from Olhomarinho, four and a half kilometres north of Ovar. ‘otality appears to have been certainly less than one second, and a glare around the dark moon was thought to be the lower corona, but no streamers were seen: nor were any large prominences detected. A por- trait-lens camera of large aperture was employed to photograph the corona, and photographs of the chromosphere at the moment of the reversal the dark lines were attempted. The visual observations showed bright chromospheric rings corresponding to the radiations of hydrogen, helium, &c. Both Mercury and Venus, but no stars, were visible. Reports from Brussels show that the central line passed over Waremme, between Liége and Brussels, where an annular eclipse, with the Fic. 1.—Spectroheliogram taken at the Solar Physics Observatory on April 17, 12h, 6m. apparent diameters of the sun and moon very nearly equal, endured for a few seconds. At Berlin the conditions for observations were remarkably good, and Prof. Schwarzschild, director of the Potsdam Observatory, watched the eclipse from the Zeppelin airship, which ascended from Frankfurt-on-Main. At Gedser, Denmark, where the magnitude of the eclipse was o'98, the air temperature fell 9° F. between the beginning and end of the eclipse. At Cambridge, Prof. Newall graphs of the spectrum of the limb near the cusps, which showed bright superim- posed upon the ordinary dark lines of the Fraun- hofer spectrum. At the Solar Physics Observatory, South Kensington, a series of photographs was secured with the spectroheliogré uy oh throughout the various phases, and the “limb” photographs té iken after the eclipse showed two small prominences. We reproduce here the photographs secured photo- sun’s lines one of ‘dise 194 NATURE [APRIL 25. 1912 taken near mid-eclipse (Fig. 1), showing the thin crescent of the sun as photographed in the calcium radiation K. For visual observations the crescent was projected, by a 34-inch telescope, on to a white screen, the 4-inch image thus obtained showing exceedingly well the mountain peaks on the moon’s limb. A noticeable feature was the ease with which one could produce crescent images through small apertures. The spaces between the fingers of an extended hand produced several, while thousands were seen projected on to a door by the uneven and dusty elass of a south window. The peculiar gloom which overspread everything near the maximum phase was very striking, being similar to that which precedes a dark thunderstorm. The charts exhibited at the Meteorological Office show the thermometric effects of the solar obscuration very markedly. For the usual daily sheets, “quick-run” sheets were substituted on the various recording instruments for the eclipse period. The minimum air temperature during the run was recorded at 12h. 21m., 10°4 minutes after the maximum phase; during the eclipse the temperature ranged from 56° to 54° F., the maximum for the whole day being 59°3° at 2h. 45m. p.m. The Callendar radiation recorder showed an average rate of radiation received on a horizontal surface, during the eclipse time, of o'030 watt per sq. cm., the maximum being o'054 watt at th. 30m. p.m. and the mini- mum rate being o'007 watt from 12h. 11m. to 12h. 15m., just after the maximum phase of the eclipse; the maximum rate of radiation for the day was 0'057 watt per sq. cm. at th. 50m. {1 cal. per minute=0°07 watt). : The fall in temperature was very perceptible, but the actual readings are somewhat complicated, in their possible interpretation, by a breeze which sprung up about 11 a.m. and lulled at about th. 30m. p.m. At Balham Mr. Creeze recorded shade temperatures of 56° F. at the beginning, 52° at maximum phase, 51° at 12h. 30m. p.m., and s5256 ab 1a S5m. p.m. SARDINES. CASE recently decided at the London Guild- 4 hall by Alderman Sir George Woodman, in which a large part of both the evidence and the arguments turned on the question of the true | meaning of the word “sardine,” has excited con- siderable interest. On one side it was contended that sardines were the young of the pilchard (Clupea pilchardus) preserved in a particular way in oil and put up in tins, according to the methods employed on the west coast of France. On the other side, an attempt was made to show that the name “sardine” had in practice been ex- tended, so that it included any small fish pre- | served in oil and put up in tins. Although the defendant, who was being prosecuted for selling Norwegian sprats or brisling put up in oil in tins as “sardines,” won his case (without costs) on decision on the question of the meaning of the name “sardine” followed closely the evidence given by the majority of the scientific experts. The Alderman’s decision on this point was :— ‘““My decision is that the term ‘sardine’ is of French origin. It is the French name for the pilchard, the fish scientifically known as Clupea pilchardus. he industry of packing the immature pilchard in tins was started in France in 1882, and the fish so packed and imported into this country were universally known as ‘sardines.’ The word “sardine ’ has now become anglicised, and I hold that the meaning of the term is ‘the immature pilchard prepared and packed in oil in tins.’ This is not what the defendant sold. The ‘ Skipper Sardines’ sold by him were the Norwegian fish known as ‘ brisling.’ The ‘brisling’ is the Clupea sprattus of the same family, but of a different species from the Clupea pilchardus, and it is the same fish, allowing for differences caused by local environment, as the Eng- lish sprat.” The most interesting and complete account of the name ‘‘sardine” which we have seen was not, however, given in the evidence presented to the court, in so far as that evidence was published, but occurs under the signature “ Quibbon,” which we believe conceals the identity of a well-known and trustworthy authority on fishery questions, who writes in the Fish Trades Gazette (March 30, 1912) as follows :— “The name ‘ Sardine.’ This. name is very widely applied either to the young of the pilchard, as with us, or to the pilchard itself. Thus the species Clupea pilchardus, our pilchard, is called sardina in Italy, sardinha in Portugal, sardina in Spain (where it seems also to apply to the anchovy), sardine in France and in Germany, sardin in Norway and Sweden (also pilchard in Swedish), pelser in Holland, and pilchard in Denmark; in Russia it is called Ssardinka. It is interesting to learn that it was the first of the Latin names to be used among the Anglo-Saxons for the herring. Eleven hundred years ago the Italian priests who endeavoured to instil a little learning into the Anglo-Saxon mind gave the name sardinas as the equivalent to the word hervingas, but later on this gave way to the name allec. The smelt (Anglo-Saxon smeltas) was called sardus. The word is derived from the island Sardinia (Greek Saoéd), and the fish was known to the Greeks as sardine (aapdim or wapdwos). It is curious that to this day the term sardyn or schardyn is applied all along the Dutch coast to the sprat, and the usual net for catching sprats is called sardynkuil. A Dutch fisherman confines the term sprott to the smoked sprat; the fresh sprat, or the sprat fishing, is always referred to as above stated. This has been the case for a very long time, as is evident from an old work, ‘Nieuwe Cronyk van Zeeland,’ published in 1696. Centuries ago Dutch trade with the Mediterranean was very great, and no doubt the mariners brought back the term ‘ sardine’ as applied in that sea, and used it in Holland for the small clupeoids, the sprats.” It is an easy matter to distinguish the sprat either from the young herring or from the young pilchard by the very much greater development of the spines alone the ventral edge of the body in the sprat. The distinction can be made by the sense of touch alone, as is well known to many fishermen, for if the finger be passed along the the ground that he had acted innocently, the { belly of the fish from the tail towards the head, NO. 2217, VOL. 89| OL & pe ee ee a _ I Ta mee ‘ APRIL 25, 1912] NATURE 195 the sharp spines of the sprat are distinctly felt, whereas the pilchard and the herring both feel comparatively smooth. To distinguish between young pilchards and young herrings, especially after they have been preserved in oil, is a more difficult matter, the size of the scales, which are relatively much larger in the pilchard, being the best guide. PROF. A. LAWRENCE ROTCH. ROF. ABBOTT LAWRENCE ROTCH, whose death we recorded with regret last week, was born on June 6, 1861. He received his education at the Massachusetts Institute of Tech- nology, whence he graduated in the department of mechanical engineering in 1884. He became in- terested in meteorological investigation, and in 1885 founded a meteorological observatory at Blue Hill, Massachusetts, at a height of 635 feet above sea-level, for the purposes of observation, re- search, and local prediction. He showed charac- teristic independence in refusing at the outset to accept official help in maintaining the observatory at the expense of fettering it with official control. His main work was done in connection with this observatory, which he maintained and directed throughout. The results obtained were published from time to time in separate parts of the Annals of the Astronomical Observatory of Harvard Col- lege. For the first ten years the work consisted principally of the routine of an ordinary first-order observatory with reduction and analysis of the records, and special investigations of certain problems. In 1894 the exploration of the free atmosphere by means of kites was begun at the observatory, and continued through succeeding years, steel piano wire (first used by E. D. Archibald in the early eighties) and a winding gear driven by a steam engine being adopted as the work de- veloped, until a complete series of records up to a height of three miles had been obtained. In this work Rotch was a pioneer, and his methods were adopted at a later date in this country and on the | Continent and by the United States Weather Bureau at the Mount Weather Observatory. In 1904 and the three following years seventy-six balloons carrying self-recording instruments were sent up under his direction at St. Louis, and of these seventy-two were recovered. Some of these reached heights exceeding ten miles, and tempera- tures below —70° C. were recorded. Our know- ledge of the higher parts of the free atmosphere in the United States is almost entirely due to the results obtained in this series of ascents. But Rotch’s efforts were by no means confined to his own country. He was a constant visitor to meteorological meetings in Europe, and he was ever alert and ready to help in meteorological en- terprise. With M. L. Teisserenc de Bort he fitted out expeditions in three successive years to explore the atmosphere over the tropical Atlantic, and the results obtained have exceeded in interest nearly all other contributions to meteorological discovery in recent years. Our knowledge of the variation NO. 2217, VOL. 89] | of the height of the stratosphere with latitude rests almost entirely on the evidence obtained in these expeditions. His most recent work was an atlas of charts of the atmosphere for aeronauts and aviators, in which he included a chart showing the best aerial routes in summer for a dirigible balloon travelling across the Atlantic between Europe and America. The importance of his work was recognised by scientific societies both in Europe and America, and the Governments of France and Germany conferred honours upon him. He was generous in his recognition of the work of others, and gave kindly encouragement to younger men engaged in research. His death, which occurred suddenly on April 7, 1912, at his Observatory at Blue Hill, will be regretted by meteorologists of all lands. E.G: NOTES. WE are informed that the provisional programme of arrangements for the forthcoming celebration of the 250th anniversary of the Royal Society are as follows :—Monday, July 15—An evening reception of delegates at the rooms of the Royal Society. Tues- day, July 16—In the morning a commemorative ser- vice in Westminster Abbey; in the afternoon the official reception of delegates at the Royal Society and presentation of addresses; in the evening a com- memorative dinner at the Guildhall. | Wednesday, July 17—In the morning visits to places of interest in London; in the afternoon the Duke of Northumber- land gives a garden-party at Sion House; in the evening a conversazione in the rooms of the Royal Society. Thursday, July 18—In the morning visits to places of interest in London; in the afternoon H.M. the King gives a garden-party at Windsor, to which the delegates and fellows of the society will be invited. Friday, July 19—The delegates will visit Oxford and Cambridge Universities. In The Times of April 17, and in The Morning Post of the following day, reference is made to the drift of a sealed bottle which was thrown overboard from the steamship Indraghira on November 17, 1908, in lat. 51° 38’ S., long. 96° 15’ E., by a pas- senger during a voyage from London to Melbourne. The bottle contained a note of the ship’s position with a request that the finder would notify the sender, Mr. H. P. Adams, of Carshalton, Surrey, of the facts of the discovery. The bottle was picked up early last winter, it is thought, on the eastern coast of Welling- ton Island, south of Chili, in lat. 49° 42’ S., long. 74° 25’ W., having drifted eastward a distance of at least 7100 nautical miles, presumably in 1100 days or less, at a minimum rate of six miles per day. This drift, though remarkable, is by no means the longest on record. The late Mr. H. C. Russell, when | Government astronomer at Sydney, contributed several papers to the Royal Society of New South Wales on ‘Current Papers,’’ in which he recorded the drift of | numerous bottle messages, ranging from 50 to 5000 nautical miles, and several from 8000 to more than 9800 miles. The ostensible veason for launching these 196 NATURE [APRIL 25, 1912 bottles is to gain knowledge relating to ocean cur- rents. It is difficult, however, and generally impos- sible, to obtain trustworthy information in this con- nection from the drift of bottles, because when a bottle is sufficiently weighted to present little surface to the wind, it sinks when covered with barnacles, and if not so weighted is influenced by winds as much as or more than by currents. Moreover, it is the resultant drift during a period of unknown length, not the direction and velocity of the various currents a bottle encounters, that can be estimated. Bottle messages might, however, be utilised with advantage to shipping were the drifts charted of even half those that have been recovered—their name is legion. Such charts would be useful for tracing the probable tracks of disabled steamers and thus locating them. Mr. R. N. Lyne, director of agriculture in Portuguese East Africa, has been appointed the director of the mew agricultural department of Ceylon. Tue following have been nominated president and vice-presidents of the Institution of Electrical Engineers :—President, Mr. W. Duddell, F.R.S.; vice-presidents, Mr. W. Judd, Mr. C. H. Merz, Major W. A. J. O’Meara, C.M.G., and Mr. J. F. C. Snell. An official announcement from Mr. C. E. Adams, Government astronomer for New Zealand, states that the adopted position of the transit instrument at the Hector Observatory, Wellington, is latitude 41° 17/ 3°76" south, longitude 11h. 39m. 427s. east of Green- wich; height above 1909 mean sea-level, 418 ft. Mr. Gustav Portax, who is preparing a biography of Michael Heilprin and his sons, will be glad to receive any letters by the late Prof. Angelo Heilprin. They may be sent to Mr. Pollak at No. 21 West Eighty-fifth Street, New York, and will be returned to the senders promptly if required. ReuTer’s AGENcy has received the first letters which have reached this country from Dr. Mawson’s Australian Antarctic Expedition. It is stated that, although in the earliest stages of its worl, the ex- pedition has disproved the existence of Clairie Land, confirmed the existence of Termination Land, dis- covered by Wilkes, but not seen either by the Challenger or the Gauss, discovered numerous islets along the Great Barrier, and charted a great deal of previously unknown coast-line. Tue death is reported, at the age of fifty-one, of Dr. Perry L. Hobbs, professor of chemistry at the Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio. He was one of the first men in America to specialise as a chemical engineer, and was widely known through his experiments in the manufacture of concrete. : Mr. E. C. Hawkins, the chief engineer of the Morgan-Guggenheim properties in Alaska, has died in the New York Hospital after an operation. In his construction of the White Pass and Yukon and the Copper River and Northern railways he met and overcame several problems of engineering that were new to the profession. In building the Childs Glacier NO. 2217, VOL. 89| ; any success bridge across the Copper River, for example, he had to evade the Miles glacier on one hand and the Childs glacier on the other. Mr. Williams was born in 1860, and was educated at the Rensselaer Insti- tute, Troy, New York State. On Tuesday next, April 30, Mr. F. Balfour Browne will begin a course of two lectures at the Royal Institution on ‘Insect Distribution, with Special Reference to the British Islands,” and on Thursday, May 2, Prof. J. Norman Collie will give the first of two lectures on ‘Recent Explorations in the Canadian Rocky Mountains.” The Friday evening discourse on May 3 will be delivered by Mr. W. C. Dampier Whetham on “The Use of Pedigrees,”’ and on May to by Prof. W..Sfirling on ‘‘The Gaumont Speaking Kinematograph Films”’ (illustrated by the aid of M. Gaumont). Tue Home Secretary has appointed a committee to inquire and report whether the following diseases can properly be added to those enumerated in the third schedule of the Workmen’s Compensation Act, 1906, namely—(1) cowpox; (2) Dupuytren’s contrac- tion; (3) clonic spasm of the eyelids, apart from nystagmus. The following are the members of the committee :—Mr. Ellis J. Griffith, K.C., M.P., Sir T. Clifford Allbutt, K.C.B., F.R.S., his Honour Judge A. Ruegg, K.C., and Dr. T. M. Legge. The secretary of the committee is Mr. Alexander Maxwell, of the Home Office, to whom all correspondence on the sub- ject of the inquiry should be addressed. In The Times of April 22 appears a description by a correspondent of the archaeological work of the Egyptian Research Account, directed by Prof. Petrie, during the past season. From this it appears that Prof. Petrie and his coadjutors have made very interesting discoveries of antiquities of the time of King Narmer, of the First Dynasty, which show that the crocodile worship in the Fayyfim was already established in his time. These finds were made in a necropolis at Kafr Ammar, in Middle Egypt. “Surprising discoveries’? were made also at Helio- polis, where excavation has not hitherto met with whatever. These are to be described later. At Memphis an alabaster sphinx weighing 80 tons has been found. Tue Manchester Oriental Society was _ recently started by that well-known scholar Prof. Hope W. Hogg, whose premature death was a serious loss to science and a subject of general regret. The first part of the Proceedings of the society, prepared under his supervision, has just appeared. The most interesting contribution takes the shape of a symposium of well-known scholars with the object of solving a problem suggested by Prof. Elliot Smith. In examining Egyptian mummies, he noticed that it was a general habit to leave the heart in situ, while this was not apparently the case with other internal organs. The psychological explanation of this differentiation of treatment is still uncertain, though it is suggested by Prof. Rhys Davids, on evidence from India, that the heart was regarded as the seat of the soul. Prof. J. G. Frazer remarks that among > en APRIL 25, 1912] NATURE 197 7 if savage races little attention seems to be paid to the | kidneys, save among some of the Australian tribes,” and further evidence on this point from observers of savage life is much to be desired. In the third part of the Journal of the Gypsy Lore Society for the current year Miss E. Lyster gives an interesting account of the custom of marriage over the broomstick which prevails among some branches of the tribe in this country and other parts of Europe. The editor suggests that as in many places the besom is supposed to be an efficient instrument for scaring | ghosts from the house, the stepping over it is prob- ably a method of getting rid of their undesirable attentions. Others, again, are inclined to believe that, being specially used by women, its employ- ment at marriage points to a stage of belief when mother-right was in force. Others suggest that the object of the bride stepping over it at marriage is to promote her fertility by associating her with the productive spirit of the tree from the branches of which it is made. Prof. Frazer in the second part of the new edition of ‘‘ The Golden Bough”’ describes the belief that harm is done to a person or thing by stepping over him or it. This, however, seems to depend on a train of thought different from that on which the Gypsy custom rests, and the exact ex- planation of the latter is still obscure. WE have been favoured with a copy of the first part of an illustrated account, in Spanish, of the ‘ micro- fauna,” that is to say, the fresh-water plankton fauna, of the Argentine Republic, by Dr. J. M. de la Rua, published under the auspices of the National Uni- versity of Buenos Aires by J. H. Kidd and Co. of that city. This part is devoted to protozoans. One remarkable result of the collecting cruise of the Siboga in the Indo-Malay Archipelago was the extraordinary number of new forms of free crinoids discovered. These were handed over to Mr. A. H. Clark, of the museum at Washington, by whom no fewer than twenty new species—one of which is re- ferred to a new genus—belonging to the families Antedonidz and Atelecrinidz are described in vol. xxxiv., No. 2, of Notes from the Leyden Museum. ArTICLES on the proposed new library and art gallery at Manchester, and the London Museum in Kensington Palace, form the leading features of the April number of The Museums Journal. From the former it appears that the original intention was to erect the new building on the site of the old infirmary in Piccadilly, Manchester, and the article contains reproductions of the designs which have been accepted on that understanding. An alternative site has, how- ever, been suggested, which would seem to require a building of a different type; and until the question of site is definitely decided, no further progress in the matter can be made. The estimated cost of the building approved for the Piccadilly site is 250,000l. ; BULLETIN No. gt of the U.S. Bureau of Entomology (U.S. Department of Agriculture) contains a detailed account by Messrs. L. O. Howard and W. F. Fiske of the attempts made to check the increase of the NG3 2217, VOL. 89] | Destructive Earthquakes from A.D. 7 | trict in which observations were taken. gipsy moth (Porthetria dispar) and the brown-tail moth (Euproctis chrysorrhoea) by importation into the United States of their parasites and natural enemies from Europe. The task was much more arduous than was anticipated at the beginning, and a great deal of original research upon the enemies of the two moths had to be undertaken in order to deal with the problem intelligently. It was found that the rapid dispersion of the introduced species necessitated the liberation of larger and stronger colonies than had been contemplated. It is hoped, however, that an efficient and automatic control of the gipsy moth in the United States will be obtained by 1916. The report is fully illustrated, and is a valuable contribution to the bionomics of insects as well as an object-lesson in methods of dealing with a serious economic problem. In 1895 Prof. Milne published his great catalogue of 8331 earthquakes recorded in Japan during the years 1885-92, the analysis of which has thrown con- siderable light on the distribution of earthquakes both in space and time. He has now further in- creased the debt of seismologists to him by compiling, at the cost of several years’ labour, a ‘‘ Catalogue of to A.D. 1899,” a memoir of nearly a hundred pages issued under the | auspices of the Seismological Committee of the British Association. Though containing only half as - many entries as the earlier volume, its value, it may be anticipated, will be even greater. Being con- fined to shocks of an intensity sufficient to damage buildings, it deals with those movements which are of chief consequence in the moulding of the earth’s crust. An analysis of the catalogue for different | epochs should reveal to us some of the laws which govern the distribution of seismic energy within extensive regions, such, for instance, as the Pacific coast of the American continent. Herr Fritz Kiurte contributes to the Berichte der _ naturforschender Gesellschaft (Freiberg in Breisgau, Band xix., Heft i., rg11) a paper on “ Die Schneereste _ der Schwarzwalder im Friihsommer und die Bezieh- ungen ihrer Lage zu den Stellen ehemaliger Vergletscherung.”’ After the heavy snows which fell on the Schwarzwald during the winter of 1906-7, it occurred to Prof. L. Neumann to send round inquiries | as to the times and places where it lingered longest. These brought him 182 forms duly filled up, which he placed in Herr Klute’s hands to work out. He obtained others for the winter of 1910, which brought the number up to 230. In this paper he gives a sketch of the geology and physical structure of the Schwarzwald, with a separate discussion of each dis- The dura- tion of the snow depends chiefly on height and meteorological conditions (sunshine, warm winds, and rain being favourable to removal), and a useful map shows the contour lines, stations, and traces of former glaciers in the southern Schwarzwald. Here, out, of 128 places of observation, only 21 have no connection with these traces; in the central region as many as 49 out of 62, and in the northern 14 out of 40. In the last the snowfall appears to be heavier than in 195 NATURE [APRIL 25, 1912 the first at the same elevation. The results, how- ever, do not at present lead to any definite conclusion, which, indeed, was hardly to bé expected, but they were worth undertaking, and it is to be hoped they will be continued, for they may enable more precise estimates to be made of the change of temperature that would bring back an ice age, and the meteor- ological conditions most favourable to it. The small glaciers in the Alps tell us the conditions under which they can exist at the present day, so that we may infer from the relics of similar glaciers in the Jura, Schwarzwald, and similar ranges that like conditions prevailed in them during the Ice age. Tue Italian Ministry of Foreign Affairs has issued a useful report on the climatology of Tripoli and Benghazi, prepared at the Central Meteorological Office by Dr. Eredia, with an interesting preface by Prof. Palazzo. Some of the observations used have already been published in the Annals of the French and Italian Meteorological Offices and other publica- tions, but the recent occupation of those parts by Italy has made it desirable to issue a separate publi- cation, brought, so far as practicable, up to date. All the principal meteorological elements are dealt with in considerable detail; we have extracted the follow- ing notes :—Tripoli (July, 1892, to May, 1911): Mean temperature, January, 121° C.; July, 25:8°; year, 197°; absolute maximum, 43:0°, in June and Sep- tember; minimum, 1-4°, in January. Mean annual rainfall, 420-4 mm.; wettest month, December, 113-7 mm.; driest, July, 0.5 mm. Average number of rain- days, 51:1. Benghazi (January, 1891, to May, 1905) : Mean temperature, January, 13:2°; July, 25-6°; year, 203°. From another series (August, 1886, to February, 1891) the absolute maximum was 40:0°, in June; minimum, 6-6°, in February. Rainfall (1886— 1905): year, 276-3 mm.; wettest month, 77-4 mm., in January; driest, 0-0, in August. The rain-days were 55:1 in the yearly average. June-August were practically rainless. In The Times of April 16, and in Symons’s Meteoro- logical Magazine for April, Dr. H. R. Mill discusses the rainfall of the winter six months, October, 1911- March, 1912, in the British Isles. In this period the excessive rainfall was as remarkable as the drought of the summer of 1911. He shows in a very interest- ing manner, by selecting representative stations from the mass of materials at his disposal, that although as a whole excessive, the distribution of the rainfall siderable area had an excess of more than 50 per cent. Expressed in percentages of the average, England and Wales as a whole had a mean of 141, Scotland 111, Ireland 136 per cent. For the Thames Valley above Teddington, an area of about 3800 square miles, the rainfall of the winter six months, 1911-12, was greater than the annual amount in seven years out of the last twenty-nine. Many of our readers will remember that the management of the Kew Observatory (Surrey) and the Eskdalemuir Observatory (Dumfriesshire) was recently transferred to the Meteorological Committee. The meteorological and geophysical elements observed at these stations, together with those made at Valencia Observatory (Kerry), and the wind com- ponents for four representative stations are, from January, 1911, published monthly in The Geophysical Journal. This work forms a very useful addition to the ‘‘ British Meteorological and Magnetic Yearbook.” All the units employed are based on the C.G.S. system, and although these have to some extent been used in the ‘‘Weekly Weather Report” they are not _ necessarily obvious to ordinary observers; their mean- ing is, however, lucidly explained by Dr. Shaw in the preface. The following examples illustrate some of the changes from the usual notation : atmospheric pressure is expressed in “‘bars,’’ one bar being ap- proximately equivalent to the pressure of 750 mm. of mercury; temperature is given in degrees absolute measured from a zero of 273° C. below freezing | point; solar radiation is expressed in “‘ watts” per | em.?, instead of the usual gram-calorie; the latter | unit is equivalent to 0-07 watt. | tofore, was very irregular, and he remarks:—‘It is very | common, perhaps we might say usual, to find the rainfall at the opposite ends of Great Britain swinging | to opposite sides of the average and the same diverg- ence is also apparent in Ireland.” The rainfall was below the average in Scotland, north and west of the Great Glen, but above the average everywhere else. In the eastern mountain mass between Perthshire and Aberdeenshire the excess was 40 per cent. and upwards. England had an excess of more than 50 per cent., and Sussex 7o per cent.-and upwards. In the extreme north-west of Ireland the excess was less than 1o per cent., while in the south-east a con- NO. 2217, VOL. 89] Most of South Wales and the south of | | date, THE annual summary of the Indian Weather Review for 1910 contains abstracts of observations taken at a large number of stations, and special reports from the Kodaikanal and Bombay Observatories. One of the most notable features of the year observed at the former station was the rapid decrease in sun-spot activity. In 1909 the mean daily number was 379; in 1910 18. The sun’s disc was free from spots on fifty-six days. In the valuable discussion of the meteorological elements the year is divided, as here- into four seasons: cold and hot weather, south-west monsoon and retreating south-west mon- soon periods, while the rainfall is illustrated by maps for each of the four periods. On the whole, 1910 was the coldest year on record since 1894. Only February and May had an excess of temperature. April, November, and December were much colder than usual. On the general average of all stations in the plains, 1910 had the heaviest rainfall since the above notwithstanding that the winter and spring seasons were drier than usual. THE remarkably fine weather recently has had decided effects upon plant and animal life. A corre- spondent states that he saw a cabbage butterfly, Papilio brassicae, flying in his garden in the Hamp- stead Garden Suburb on Wednesday, April 17, and on April 21 several were seen in the course of an hour. The earliest date given by Gilbert White is April 28. Cabbage whites were seen at Appledram, near Chichester, on April 13, and the cuckoo was heard | | APRIL 25, 1912] NATURE 199 for several minutes about 5 p.m. of the same day. White’s earliest date for the cuckoo is April 7. The first Sulphur butterfly and a Peacock butterfly were seen at the same place on April 6. As is well known, the brimstone or sulphur butterfly is one of the earliest to make its appearance, and may some- times be seen on a fine day in winter months; while Peacock butterflies which have hibernated are not infrequently seen in early spring. THERE exists in France a technical committee the object of which is to study and extend the knowledge of the means of prevention and of extinction of fire, and of averting accidents. It is a voluntary organisa- tion supported by public bodies, and includes amongst its members many well-known French officials. We have received from the committee two bulletins, one relating to the precautions to be taken against fire and accidents at exhibitions, the other to precautions against fire in villages. Both documents bear evidence of the thoroughness of the work done by the committee, and can be obtained for a few pence. We notice that in neither case does the com- mittee advise the provision of ‘‘extinguishers’’ or “‘orenades,”’ but insists on simple buckets of water. The headquarters of the committee are at 45 Avenue Trudaine, Paris. THE magnetic survey of Egypt, commenced in 1908, has been completed, and the results obtained at eighty-one stations are summarised in a pamphlet issued by the Survey Department. The field work has been carried out by Messrs. H. E. Hurst and C. B. Middleton with instruments standardised at the HelwAn Observatory. In the delta the declination varies from 3° west in the west to 2° 30’ west in the east, the dip from 43° in the north to 40° 30’ in the south, and the horizontal intensity from 0-294 in the north to 0-302 in the south. In Upper Egypt the limits are nearly the same for the declination, but the dip decreases to 30° 36’ and the horizontal intensity increases to 0-325 in the south. tion is 4° in the west and 2° 42’ in the east; the dip decreases to 26° 32’ at Wadi Halfa, where the hori- zontal intensity is 0-328. Values for the western desert are also given, and when the present survey of the Sudan is completed a full report covering the whole country is to be issued. Mr. STEPHEN Pacet, secretary of the Research Defence Association, has written a book summarising in ten chapters the evidence given before the Royal Commission on Vivisection, as well as the Inspector’s Report for 1910, and giving in a final chapter a brief account of the commission’s report. The volume will be published by Mr. H. K. Lewis. Messrs. WITHERBY AND Co. will shortly publish ‘tA Hand-list of British Birds,”’ giving a detailed account of the distribution of each bird in the British Isles and a general account of its range abroad, together with details of the occurrences of rarities. The hand- list is the joint work of Messrs. E. Hartert, F. C. R. Jourdain, N. F. Ticehurst, and H. F. Witherby. Messrs. Jack announce that among the volumes to be included in the second dozen of ‘“‘The People’s NO. 2217, VOL. 89| In Nubia the declina- | Books,’’ which are to be issued on May 15, will be “The Foundations of Science,” by Mr. W. C. D. Whetham, F.R.S.; “Inorganic Chemistry,” by Prof. E. @. G3} Baly, F:R.S.; ‘ Radiation,” bya Drees Phillips; ‘‘Lord Kelvin,” by Dr. A. Russell; “Huxley,” by Prof. G. Leighton; and “ Francis Bacon,” by Prof. A. R. Skemp. OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. ComeEtary Statistics.—Some interesting figures concerning comets have been educed by M. Borrelly, and appear in Nos. 51-52 of the Gazette Astronomique. | For 376 comets discovered since the sixteenth century | with 16, 15, 14, 12, and 12 respectively. he gives the place of discovery, Marseilles heading the list with 64, Paris coming second with 46, and Geneva, Florence, Lick, Nice, and Berlin following It is note- worthy that of British observatories, Slough is top with seven discoveries, and Bristol, twenty-second in the complete list, has four to its credit. Nearly two- thirds of the comets discussed were discovered in the morning before sunrise, and the second half of the year has proved more prolific in cometary discoveries than the first. Of these 376 comets, 106 were periodic and 19 have been observed at more than one return: only 56 have been visible to the naked eye, and seven could be seen during full daylight. Tue Best VALUE OF THE SOLaR Constant.—In the current number of the Astrophysical Journal (vol. xxxv., No. 2, March) Messrs. Abbot and Fowle traverse Prof. Very’s criticism of their determination of the solar constant noted in this column on January 18. Among other things they deprecate the deduction of a value for the constant from such unknown and fragmentary data as the reflection and emission of the earth, the moon, and Mars, the temperatures of the two latter, and the dependence of terrestrial tempera- ture on insolation. They maintain that many other variables beside the insolation, e.g. cloudiness, dis- tribution of land and water, mountains, &c., con- siderably complicate terrestrial temperatures, and show that they have not departed from Langley’s methods except in so far as they are improved by thirty years’ extra experience. OBSERVATIONS OF SATURN AND ITs’ Rincs.—To No. 4566 of the Astronomische Nachrichten Dr. H. E. Lau contributes a note describing his observations of Saturn, with the ro-inch refractor of the Urania Observatory, during the years 1908-1910. He found the colour of the south pole to be bluish-green chang- ing to a brownish-green at a little distance from the actual polar region. For the various rifts he records various shades of colour and also places on record the appearance of whitish cloud masses in the equatorial zones in December, 1909, and September, 1910. Measures of the rings on seven evenings in 1909 and 1910 gave 40:03" for the outer diameter of the A ring, 34°59” for the Cassini division, 26°48" for the inner diameter of the B ring, and 21°34” for the inner diameter of the C ring; the breadth of the Cassini division was found to be 0:71". Differences of colour between the different parts of the various rings are also recorded. THE CANON Diasto Crater.—An interesting paper by Mr. Elihu Thomson appears in No. 109, vol. xlvii., of the Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, in which the author, having visited the famous Coon Butte or ‘‘ Meteor Crater,’’ speculates as to the probability of the crater having been pro- duced by the impact of an enormous meteor. He states that the amount of rock blown out of the cavity could not have been less than two or three 200 hundred million tons, and, on a moderate estimate, this would require some ten million tons of meteoric iron to be accounted for. Mr. Thomson advances many arguments, and evidently concludes that the crater was produced by a meteoric fall. To account for the non-discovery of the main mass, he suggests that, as the meteor would probably not fall vertic- ally, bore-holes should be made under the southern and south-western walls of the crater where the strata are peculiarly disturbed; the twenty-eight bore-holes already made have all been near the centre and have revealed undisturbed sandstone at a depth of 850 ft. below the crater bottom. NOVA. GEMINORUM NO. aR HE brightness of Nova Geminorum would appear to have reached that stage when further diminu- tion is very slow but steady. On Friday last at 8.45 p-m. an observation made in a 4-inch finder showed the nova to be but a shade brighter than the neighbouring star 984, of which the magnitude is given variously between 68 and 7 By the courtesy of Father teats we have been permitted to examine four excellent spectrograms of the nova, secured by him at the Madrid Observatory on March 17, 19, 22, and 24 respectively, and trans- mitted to Nature. 2 le NOVA GEMINORUM MADRID NOVA RERSE! MAR 3 ie = = KENSINGTON — Bs apne : a ™ an 2 Mong = oe : Bas a | ae ae =— | Ennancer ENHANCED Fe { tROW Lincs LINES Father Iniguez reports that between March 16 and April 10 the spectrum underwent important modifi- cations, of which he especially mentions the changes in the structure of the hydrogen lines, the almost total disappearance of the bright calcium radiation, Kk, since March 20, and the marked diminution of the ultra-violet part of the spectrum. The principal radia- tions are those of hydrogen, each bright band being accompanied by the usual well-marked dark band on its more refrangible edge; during the last days of March the more refrangible bright hydrogen bands became relatively weaker, He becoming much weaker, relatively, than H8 and Hy, while the bright H¢ nearly disappeared. In addition to the bright lines there are numerous dark lines, especially between HS& and Hy, which Father Ifiguez describes as absorption bands, and among which he recognises the helium lines at AA4026, 4144, 4388, and 4472, and the spark line of magnesium at A4481. He also directs attention to the apparent separation of the bright and dark hydrogen lines which attained its maximum between March 22 and 24; the apparition of a bright line traversing the dark companions gave the hydrogen pairs an appearance of duplication which, we believe, has also been recorded at the Cambridge Observatory. Father Ifiguez states that considerable variation in the number, intensity, and definition of the numerous bright and dark lines has been very notice- able. From March 22, when a magnificent spectrum NO. 2217, VOL. 89] NATURE [APRIL 25, 1912 was photographed, the lines became more prominent and also became more uniform inter se, more par- ticularly between H8 and Hy; generally speaking, the dark lines are relatively diffuse and ill-defined. A recrudescence of activity in the star was observed on March 23-25, since when the nova has gradually decreased in brightness. The increase of redness con- temporaneous with the decrease in the intensity of the ultra-violet spectrum is remarked upon by Father Ifiguez, who further discusses his spectra in No. 16 of the Comptes rendus. For the purpose of comparison we reproduce two of Father Ifiguez’s spectrograms, taken on March 19 and 22 respectively, alongside a spectrum of Nova Persei photographed at South Kensington on March 3, Igor. It will readily be recognised that although there are important differences in the minor details, the two spectra are, in general, very similar; conse- quently the explanations of the chemical origins of the lines in Nova Persei given by Sir Norman Lock- yer in 1go1 hold good, generally, for those in the spectra of Nova Geminorum. In that paper it was shown that the chief bright lines other than hydrogen could be adequately represented by the principal en- hanced lines of iron, and, in a less degree, of other metals. Comparing the crease of the bright calcium radiation, March 19 and 22 is very readily discerned. Madrid spectra, the abnormal de- K, between Attention seg should also be directed to the apparent reversal of the | dark hydrogen lines, especially noticeable in Hy on | March 22, which is evidence in favour of these dark _ bands, at least, being true absorption phenomena. While the comparison shows that the spectra of the two nove are in general very similar, there are differences in the details, as is shown in the subjoined description by Mr. F. E. Baxandall, based upon a careful examination and discussion of the several photographs at the Solar Physics Observatory :— Spectra of Nova Geminorum. A comparison of the excellent spectra of Nova Geminorum obtained on March 19 and 22, by Father Iniguez, of the Madrid Observatory, with that of Nova Persei photographed at Kensington on March 3, 1901, shows that in the main features the spectra of the two nove are the same. The well-marked bright hydrogen lines in Nova Geminorum are accom- panied by strong absorption lines on the more re- frangible side, and the isolated bright bands between Hy and H5 typical of novee spectra are present. The Nova Persei band at A4130, probably due to proto- aap frA4128'2 4 P e 2 ; | silicum 4 A130 | and identical with the conspicuous double line in such stars as @ Cygni, Rigel, and Sirius, is either lacking in Nova Geminorum or occurs only very faintly. Between Hy and HB8 the spectra show the usual complex set of bright lines seen in previous nove. AprIL 25, 1912] NATURE 201 Amongst these are what appear to be absorption lines, but, judging from other regions of the spectrum, the bright lines are the authentic ones, and the apparent absorption lines are more likely to be inter- spaces between bright lines, and have little or ,no significance as spectrum lines, The well-known series of bright nova lines on the less refrangible side of HB at Adqg24, 5018, 5169, 5276, 5317, seen in Nova Persei and Nova Aurigz, are not well shown in the Madrid spectra, only the first two of these being faintly seen. This is probably due to the plates used by Iniguez being not very sensitive to this part of the spectrum, and not due to any real lack of lines in the spectrum. These bright lines and those previously mentioned between Hy and Hé (AA4176, 4233, 4300) were recorded by Sir Norman Lockyer in a series of Royal Society papers on Nova Persei in 1902, s being due Eek the i 4173 5\ 4523-2 J 429971, iron AA 41790) 422 3) 1 4303°3 49241, 50186, 51692, 52762, 5316'5. These are the only enhanced lines of iron in the two regions men- tioned, and they are all represented by strongly marked lines in « Cygni. A direct comparison of the a Cygni spectrum with that of Nova Persei will show that these isolated strong lines of « Cygni fall exactly on the middles of the broad, bright nova lines. Some of the lines mentioned have, in previous pub- lications on novz spectra, been ascribed to various origins. The 4924 and Asor8 lines have often been referred to as helium lines, although much stronger lines of the same element have been lacking. ‘The line A5018 is also sometimes identified with the chief nebular line. The line A5169 is often referred to as being probably the ‘‘b” group of magnesium, and the line A5316°9 as being probably the chief corona line. The fact that all these lines occur together as strong lines in the spectrum of a normal star—a Cygni —and that they can all be adequately accounted for by specially behaved lines of one chemical element— and those the only special lines of that element in the region discussed—must surely be taken as convincing evidence that the identity is a real one. In the region between Hy and H&, the nova spec- trum is far more complex, but so also is that of « Cygni, and here again the chief lines in the nova spectrum agree in position with lines or groups of lines in a Cygni. In this part of the « Cygni spectrum there are enhanced lines of iron, magnesium, chromium, and titanium, but there is little or no doubt that in the nova spectrum the chief lines, other than those of hydrogen and calcium, are due to iron. The most striking changes between the spectrum of March 19 and that of March 22 are: (1) the occurrence of what seems to be a fine bright reversal in the middles of the dark Hy and H6 bands (more particularly the former), and (2) the appearance of a bright band, the centre of which is at about 4440, superposed on what was a broad, dark band on March 19. One of the strongest lines in Wolf Rayet spectra occurs at or near this position (4442), and the two lines may possibly be identical. Unless, however, some of the other strong Wolf Rayet bands, such as AA4652, 5692, 5813, are also found in the spectra, little weight can be attached to the suggested identification. F. E. BaxanDaLt. Magnitude observations of the nova are published in Nos. 4566-67 of the Astronomische Nachrichten, and Dr. Rosenberg describes his observations of the spectrum at the Tiibingen Observatory. On March 19 a red-sensitive plate showed well-marked radiations corresponding to He, Hf, and Hy. Their breadth was about 30 A.U., of which 9 A.U. was shifted towards the red, and 21 A.U. towards the violet from NO. 2217, VOL. 89] enhanced lines of | present. the normal positions. Hy presented three maxima at AA4348, 4339, and 4332 respectively, and an examina— tion of the spectrum for polarisation effects gave a negative result. In a report to the Harvard College Observatory Prof. Frost states that a spectrogram taken on March 15 shows the H and K lines bright, at about their normal positions; they are strong and broad and crossed by very sharp, dark lines. The lines at 44923 and As5016, which Prof. Frost ascribes to helium, are strong, both bright and dark, but the line at A4472 is not conspicuous, although probably Witu1am E. Rorsron. LAE LOSSNOR LAE, “PL TANG: HE terrible loss of life on account of the disaster to the Titanic has directed emphatic attention to various aspects of the employment of wireless tele- graphy in times of crisis at sea. The point which is at the moment attracting most of the public attention is that of the erroneous messages, or alleged messages, which appeared in the newspapers in the day or two following the disaster. Possibly some of these messages may have been invented by imaginative reporters, but others seem to have been perversions of messages which had actually passed between vessels at sea, but which were not concerned with the accident. This kind of mistake is well illustrated by the transformation undergone by a message containing the words, ‘‘Am towing oil-tank to Halifax.” Such mistakes as these are possible in all kinds of telegraphy, but they probably arose in the present case at the hands of some of the amateur wireless telegraphists that swarm on the American coast. Some of these amateurs, it is: widely believed, may indeed have originated of set purpose a number of the early reassuring messages, and it is clear that the possibility of rigging the insurance market by such messages affords motive enough for their concoction. It is most unlikely that intelligence of this character should have been sent in irresponsible moments by operators on liners, for the operators are under the direct control of the captains, the service discipline is strict, and every message has to be recorded. All this raises more prominently than ever the chaotic condition of wireless telegraphy in the United States. For years the legitimate users of wireless telegraphy have complained of the unbounded freedom enjoyed and abused by the American amateur; perhaps they may now look forward to the imposition of some salutary restrictions. But besides that aspect of the matter just discussed, there is another which this catastrophe has brought into prominence. It is now impressed on us that the most urgent call for help will pass unheeded if none of the operators on the ships within hail are on duty. In fact, it seems to have been a mere chance that the Carpathia operator was at his apparatus at the time the Titanic called. On ships that carry only one operator—and very few carry more—the man cannot always be on the look-out. For this deadly con- tingency one obvious remedy is for each ship to carry more operators; another remedy lies in the provision of an apparatus that will ring up the telegraphist when a message reaches it. This latter desideratum is, unhappily, as yet unattained. Engineering aspects of the disaster are discussed in the leading article in Engineering for April 19. As but little definite information is available as yet, the drawing of conclusions is premature, but several questions present themselves as ripe for discussion and settlement. The effect of centre-line or longi- tudinal wing bulkheads is one of these Such have 202 NATURE [APRIL 25, 1912 advantages in confining any water admitted to a part of the width, but have disadvantages even from the point of view of stability under disastrous conditions. The effect of impact on the superstructure of very large ships will have to be considered. In such ships it has become a practice to have two or three decks above the moulded structure. Would inertia have effects somewhat similar to those experienced in rail- way collisions, in which the body of the carriage is driven from the under-frame? As the boats and launching gear are carried’ on these decks, there is a possibility of damage to them under such conditions. The position of the Board of Trade in relation to lifeboat accommodation in large ships is regarded with considerable anxiety by the general public. The law, as at present laid down by this department, called for 8250 cubic feet only in the case of the Titanic, which would provide for 825 passengers. The American law requires, for vessels of 20,000 gross tons, that the boats carried should have a capacity of 12,420 cubic feet, and an additional 225 cubic feet for each successive 500 tons above 20,000 tons. The Titanic accommodation exceeded that re- quired by British law, but was less than the American law lays down. The engineers of the ship have all been lost—their claim to recognition is the simplest and best; they did their duty to the end. The leading article in The Engineer is also devoted to the loss of the Titanic, and raises other urgent questions besides those mentioned above: the arrangements adopted for securing water-tight sub- division, comprising not only the number and dis- position of bulkheads, but also the height to which they extend and the watertightness of the deck at their upper extremity; the construction of trans- verse and longitudinal bulkheads, in connection with which it will not be found that any consistent standard of strength is observable under conditions implied by the existence of the bulkhead. The time is ripe for the revision of Table 2, Appendix B, of the bulkhead committee’s report—a report which is taken as a standard by the Board of Trade. Prof. J. H. Biles contributes a separate article to The Engineer in which the effects of flooding compart- ments are fully dealt with. His conclusions are :— (1) the transverse bulkheads should in all cases be carried as high as possible; (2) the decks should be made effectively water-tight. If, however, the whole bow be smashed by hitting a vertical wall of ice, the value of watertightness of the decks would be reduced. REPORTS UPON METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. (Ces METEOROLOGICAL SERVICE (1907). —This report, which extends to xx+748 quarto pages, is considerably belated, owing probably to the immense amount of data included in this extensive system. It should be borne in mind, however, that the results for about 300 stations, with synopses of the weather, are published one month after date in the Monthly Weather Review, and also that a map is issued three days after the close of each month. The present volume is divided into seven parts, which may be summarised as (1) observations at ordinary stations of various classes, mostly taken at local time; (2) ob- servations at telegraphic reporting stations, taken at 75th meridian time; and (3) magnetic observations made at Agincourt Observatory. The tables, with monthly and yearly means, are very complete, but in the absence of maps it is difficult to obtain a general view of the annual distribution of the different elements. The outstanding feature of the year was NO. 2217, VOL. 89] the exceedingly cold weather experienced in the western provinces in January. In some of these it was the coldest January on record, the mean tempera- ture being 6-22° below the average. At some stations in Alberta minimum temperatures as low as 56° F. below zero were registered. (On January 11, 1911, we note that a temperature of —76° was recorded at Fort Vermilion, Alberta.) The weather forecasts issued for all districts were very successful, the average of complete and partial success being 856 per cent. Western Australia, Meteorological Observations (1907).—This volume, only recently received, and apparently published in i910, contains results of observations made at Perth Observatory and other places. At the observatory the mean annual tempera- ture was 647°; highest mean monthly maximum, 87°5° (February); lowest mean minimum 49'6° (June) ; absolute maximum, 1036°; minimum, 395°; maxi- mum solar radiation, 164°2° (January 30); bright sun- shine, 2803 hours; rainfall, 40°12 inches; rain days, 132. Some very high shade temperatures at the out- stations were recorded, especially on the north and north-west coast, and inland; at Onslow and Marble Bar readings of 116°1° and 116'8° respectively were reached. Morning and afternoon weather forecasts formed an important part of the work at the central observatory. The volume includes a useful rainfall map, with isohyets for 1907, and tinted areas showing where the fall was above the average. Transvaal Meteorological Department (1910).—The results for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1910, are arranged as in previous reports. In some cases only the means of hourly or daily observations are given, but the original data are carefully preserved and are available if wanted. The observers for the year numbered 663, an increase of 64 since the last report; all those appointed by the observatory are volunteers or are attached to other departments. The year was generally mild and of a normal character, with the exception of a heavy snowfall in August and an un- seasonable frost at the end of September. The rain- fall was in most parts satisfactory, being equal to or more than the average; it was very deficient along the western border and in the northern Zoutpansberg. The average rainfall for the whole State for six com- plete seasons (1904-5 to I9g09-10) was 29'5 inches on seventy-three days; this value is subject to some un- certainty, perhaps to the extent of o'5 inch, owing to the want of observations in some localities. Weather reports and forecasts are drawn up daily, and the latter are transmitted to all postal telegraph offices for exhibition. The synoptic charts on which the forecasts are based are not published, because of the expense. Christiania Meteorological Institute (1910-11).—The administration report for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1911, exhibits a large amount of useful activity. Observations were received during the year from 506 stations, dealing chiefly with rain and snow; the results are included in the publications, ‘‘ Meteoro- logical Year Book ”’ and ‘‘ Rainfall Observations,” to which we have before referred. Among other impor- tant matters we may mention the installation of a station of the first order in Spitsbergen in connection with the radio-telegraphic station there. Meteoro- logical data are regularly supplied to various institu- tions, including the International Solar Commission in London. The ordinary weather forecasts average a success of 87'1 per cent.; special forecasts are also issued at certain seasons for agriculturists and for fishermen. Storm warnings are issued from Bergen. Observations of the movements of the upper air by means of balloons and the drift of clouds are com- municated to Prof. Hergesell at Strassburg. “Le? a eS. .- ApRIL 25, 1912] NATURE 203 THE ORIGIN OF RADIUM. pte theory of atomic disintegration, which affords a philosophical explanation of radio-activity, was based on simple chemical observations of the regenera- tion of radio-active constituents in substances from which they had been chemically separated, and not, as has sometimes been asserted, upon any physical or chemical theories as to the nature of the atoms of matter. Only two of the large number of new problems originally suggested by this theory remain at present unanswered. One had to do with the nature of the ultimate product or products of the distintegration of the atoms of the two primary elements, uranium and thorium. This problem may be likened to the task of trying to find a meteor after its flight, when its energy is spent and nothing but the matter remains. Much indirect evidence points to lead as the final product of uranium, although no direct proof has been obtained, whereas for the case of thorium there is still no hint of the answer. The other had reference to the origin of radium. This element in the intensity of its activity, and therefore in the rapidity of its disintegration, resembles the short-lived active constituents uranium X and thorium X, whilst in the apparent permanence of its activity it resembles the primary radio-elements. Even the first rough estimates indicated that the period of average life of radium was not greater than a few thousand years. The present estimate, due to Ruther- ford, is 2500 years. A few thousand years hence the radium in existence to-day will for the most part have disintegrated. Very little of the radium in existence at the time the Pyramids were being built can still exist. Hence arose one of the most interesting and crucial of the problems of atomic disintegration. Does the regeneration of radio-active constituents, observed in the cases where the period is short com- pared to the span of human life, apply also to radium —to an element, that is, with a definite spectrum, atomic weight and chemical character, filling a vacant place in the periodic system, and forming one of a family of common elements? After the separation of radium from a mineral does the non-radium part of the mineral grow a fresh crop with lapse of time, the quantity present before separation being the balance or equilibrium quantity when the rate of pro- duction is equal to the rate of supply? A somewhat similar prediction made with reference to the produc- tion of another well-defined element, helium, in the radio-active process had only to be tested, as it was first in 1903 by Sir William Ramsay and myself, to be proved correct. The question, however, of the origin of radium is still, in spite of many discoveries, not entirely solved. At first sight the experimental trial of the view appeared easy. This problem is not analogous to the finding of a meteor after its flight is spent. The quanti- ties of radium which can be detected and recognised unequivocally by radio-active methods are thousands of times smaller than can be detected even by the spectroscope, sensitive as the spectroscopic test of radium is. The first product of the disintegration of radium is a gas, the radium emanation, and the test for radium consists in sealing up a solution of the substance for a month, then boiling the solution in a current of air, and introducing this air into the electroscope. For the instrument employed and shown, a millionth of a milligram of radium would be rather an undesirably large quantity, whilst a few hundredths of this amount is the best suited for accurate measurement. The volume of radium 1 From a discourse delivered at the Royal Institution on Friday, March 15, by Mr, Frederick Soddy, F.R S. NO. 2217, VOL. 89| emanation, measured at N.T.P., obtainable from one gram of radium is only 06 cubic millimetre, a volume comparable to that of a pin’s head. If a thousandth part of this quantity were distributed uniformly through the air of this room, estimated as 50,000 cubic feet, or about 13 tons by weight, and the electro- scope were then filled with the air of the room, it would produce an effect much greater than any dealt with in the work to be described. (The effect of breaking a tube containing the emanation in equili- brium with 3 mg. of radium, outside in front of the fan supplying air to the building, was demonstrated by the electroscope, through which a slow current of air from the room was aspirated.) Since radium is found in uranium minerals and since uranium and thorium are the only elements known of atomic weight greater than that of radium, it was natural to suppose that uranium was _ the primary parent, in the disintegration of which radium results. Preliminary experiments nine years ago on a kilogram of uranyl nitrate, purified from radium by precipitating barium sulphate in the solution, proved that uranium could not be the direct parent of radium. For in this case, from 100 grams of uranium, the growth of radium should be readily detectable after the lapse of only a few hours. Whereas from a kilo- gram after 500 days, although a distinct increase of the quantity of radium was observed, it was at-most only 1/1000 part of what should have been formed. In the meantime, indirect, though conclusive, evidence that uranium was the primary parent of radium was obtained by McCoy, Strutt, and Boltwood, who showed that in all unaltered minerals there is a con- stant ratio between the quantities of the two elements, and this is what is to be expected if they are genetic- ally connected. Unfortunately, this is still the only evidence available of the connection between the two elements. To account for the excessively slow growth of radium in the first-uranium preparations studied it was necessary to suppose that between the uranium and radium an intermediate product existed of period of life great by comparison with the time of the experiment. Such a product would enormously retard the initial growth of radium. Its existence compli- cates what first appeared as a very simple problem in many other ways. It is no longer a question of simply detecting a growth of radium. It is necessary to measure the form of the growth-curve accurately. In the first place this intermediate parent must be present in uranium minerals, and therefore, to greater or less extent, in commercial uranium salts. The mere separation of radium therefrom initially, as in the first experiment, is not sufficient purification. In addition every trace of the intermediate parent must also be separated, or a growth of radium will not prove that uranium is the parent. On this account, in conjunction with Mr. T. D. Mackenzie, a fresh series of experiments was begun in Glasgow in 1905, in a new laboratory uncontaminated by radium. Three separate quantities, each initially of 1 kilogram of uranyl nitrate, were purified by repeated extraction with ether, which was considered to be the method most likely to separate all the impurities, not merely the radium. Observations on these preparations have now been in progress for six or seven years. At the same time a portion of the impure fraction separated from the original material was sealed up, freed from initial radium by the barium sulphate method, and tested for radium from time to time along with the pure uranium preparations. The diagram (Fig. 1) shows the growth of radium in this impure fraction. The unit used for expressing the quantity of radium is 10-12 gram. It confirms unequivocally the original 204 observation that a substance is present in commercial uranium salts capable of generating radium and not removed from it by the barium sulphate method used first for separating the radium, but separated, at least mainly, by the ether method. In the meantime a cognate discovery of first im- | portance was made by Boltwood, in America, who 120 ROM SIMPURIMIES SEPARATED FROM eo +. = —> QUANTITY OF RADIUM ae Us (YEARS Oo 2 ae Fic. x. proved that actinium preparations obtained from uranium minerals, and initially free from radium, grow a fresh crop of radium with lapse of time. The growth is not by any means a very minute one as in my experiments, in which the growth can only be put beyond all doubt after the lapse of years. | The growth of radium from constituents | NATURE PRODUCTION OF RADIUM [APRIL 25, 1912 similarity with known elements is one of the features of the chemistry of radio-elements. Returning to the experiments with the uranium solutions purified by ether, Fig. 3 shows the growth of radium therein. The three curves labelled Hs JUL. III. refer to these preparations. No. III. was the last prepared, after experience with the others, and contained. both the greatest quantity of uranium and the least radium initially. No. IV. refers to a much later experiment with no less than 6 kilograms of uranyl nitrate, purified by repeated crystallisation in the course of other work. In all, there has been a distinct growth of radium, but it is so small, and the period over which the measurements extend is so prolonged, that the errors of the individual measurements are relatively great. The general scope of the curves, as indicated in the figure, is, how- ever, probably not far wrong. A conservative view to. take is that in all cases the curves are straight lines. There is some indication in No. I. of an increasing slope, but it is negatived by the evidence of Nos. II. and IT. The quantity of uranium in the four pre- parations differs widely. In Fig. 4 the curves are replotted in a different way to eliminate this difference. The ordinates represent the quantities of radium formed in terms of the amounts of radium in equilibrium with the uranium. The equilibrium amount is the amount that theoretically should be formed after the lapse of sufficient time, if uranium is the ultimate parent of radium. It will be seen that the slopes of the four curves are all different and diminish in order, the growth in the first being the greatest, and in the last, after all the experience in methods of purification, the least. This is additional evidence that, so far, the radium formed is derived, not from the uranium, but from varying infinitesimal quanti- ties of ionium still unremoved by the purification processes. separated from minerals can be readily de- tected and measured in a relatively short space of time. The curve shown (Fig. 2) is taken from a paper by Keetman (Jahr. Radioact. Elektronik, 1909, vi., 270), who has worked upon this parent of radium in Germany. Although the total quantity of radium represented by this curve is only nine millionths of a milligram, it is enormous compared with that shown by the other diagram (Fig. 1), in which the quan- tity of radium produced in a period about eight times longer is nearly a hundred times less. Further work on this parent of radium proved that it was not actinium, but a new radio-element admixed with it, which Bolt- wood called ionium. It is radio-active, and its radiation consists entirely of a-rays of very low range. The chemical nature of this ionium is absolutely identical, so far as is known, with that of thorium, and it cannot be separated from it. On the other hand, it is easily separated from any mixture, how- ever complex, by adding a trace of thorium Menge Radium (< 107 © mg) and senarating and purifying the latter. It is interesting to note that no fewer than three at least of the known radio-elements—ionium, radio- thorium, and uranium X—are absolutely identical in chemical properties with thorium. This complete | NO, 2217, VOL. 89] Fic. 2. Taking No. III. as the best of the first batch of preparations, the growth of radium therein is only about 1/30,000 part of what would have occurred if uranium were the direct parent of radium. Some idea of the minuteness of the quantities of radium APRIL 25, 1912] got by the following | at its present price | For the element, | 750,0001. per ounce. | To represent indicated by these curves can be consideration. Radium bromide costs about 16]. per milligram. radium, this is at the rate of Fig. 3 represents a diagram 2 ft. high. 48 S 8 3 QUANTITY OF RADIUM FIG. 3. a pennyworth of radium on this scale would require | a diagram more than 6000 ft. high, whereas to repre- sent Keetman’s curve (I"ig. 2) would require one as high as St. Paul’s Cathedral. These results, therefore, confirm absolutely the view that uranium does not produce radium directly. As Rutherford first showed, if ionium is the only long-lived radio-element between uranium and radium, the growth of radium from uranium must initially be proportional to the square of the time, and should be represented by the equation R=6x10-8AT?, where R is the radium formed per kilogram of uranium, T is the time in years, and 1/A is the period of ionium. Hence, if uranium is the primary parent of radium, it is to be ex- pected that the rate of growth of radium from the preparations will increase as time goes on accord- ing to some power of the time higher than unity. As Fig. 3 shows, there is still no evidence of this increase of slope in any of the preparations. This indicates, either that the period of ionium must be enormously long, or that several intermediate long-lived members intervene. If ionium is the only intervening member a minimum possible limit to its period may be arrived at by applying the above equation to the results. If it is assumed that the growth observed is due to uranium and that no ionium was initially present, the minimum periods calculated in the several experiments are follow :—No. I., | 28,000 years; No. II., 41,400 years; No. III., 80,000 NO. 2217, VOL. 89] x 1078 EQUILIBRIUM QTY as NATURE 205 years; and No. IV., 69,200 years. Since, in all, cer- tainly some of the growth is due to ionium initially present, the period of ionium must certainly be greater than the longest of these periods. We may safely conclude, if ionium is the only intermediate member, that its period is at least 100,000 years. This is forty times longer than the period of radium itself. Entirely independent confirmation of this conclusion was obtained in another The way. gap in our knowledge is, strictly speaking, not between uranium and ionium, for the direct product of uranium is well known, and is called uranium X. It gives B-rays alone in disinte- grating and has a period of only 35°5 days, so that in all the pre- ceding work it has not been neces- sary to take it into account. It would retard the growth of radium inappreciably. But, if the view is right, the product of uranium X must be ionium, which gives a-rays. Concomitantly with the rapid decay of the intense S-rays of uranium X there should occur a growth of a-rays due to the ionium produced. Whether these a-rays can be actually detected will depend on the period of ionium. From experiments on the uranium X separated from 50 kilograms of uranium nitrate no growth of a-radiation, concomitant with or subse- quent to the decay of the f8-radiation, could be de- tected, and from these negative results the minimum period ionium can possess, if it is the only long-lived intermediate product, is 30,000 years. The question arose whether by any means an upper limit, or maximum value, for the period of ionium could be assigned. By the law already discussed there must be many times as much ionium as radium in uranium minerals, and if the actual ratio were known 200 NATURE [APRIL 25, 1912 the period of ionium could at once be found. For example, if the period were 100,000 years, there should be 12°5 grams of pure ionium per ton of uranium. Auer von Welsbach, in a masterly chemical separation of the rare-earth fraction from 30 tons of Joachims- thal pitchblende, separated a preparation, which he described as thorium oxide, containing ionium, the activity of which was measured by Meyer and von Schweidler. To obtain a maximum estimate for the period of ionium, I assumed that Welsbach’s prepara- tion was in reality pure ionium oxide (which it cer- tainly was not, as it gave the thorium emanation), and so I obtained the period of a million years as the upper possible limit. In proportion as the per- centage of ionium oxide present is less than 100 per cent., this period must be reduced.2 Thus we have fixed the period of ionium as between 10-° and 107° years, if ionium is the only intervening long-lived member. Quite recencly a method has been devised for cal- culating the period of ionium from the range of its a-particles, which is based upon an empirical mathe- matical relation holding between this range and the periods of the substances giving a-rays in the case of the other members of the series.* The most recent estimate by this method is about 200,000 years, which may be accepted provisionally as the most probable at the present time. If this is correct, there should be 25 grams of ionium per ton of uranium in minerals. A variety of evidence thus leads to the conclusion that to detect the growth of radium from uranium either still larger quantities of uranium or still longer time is necessary. Even after ten years, that is, at the end of 1916, if the period of ionium is as estimated, the uranium in No. III. preparation should only have produced 12x 10-'* grams of radium, which is rather less than half the amount that will then have been formed by the ionium initially present. Nos. I. and Il. preparations are very much less favourable. But it is interesting to consider No. IV. preparation, which, though only 26 years old, has more than seven times as much uranium as No. III. From the present slope of the curve it appears to have little more than one-half as much ionium, relatively to the uranium, as No. III., whereas the relative initial quan- tity of radium is about twice as great as in No. III. After eight years, that is in 1917, the quantity of | radium produced from the uranium should be about equal to that which will have by then been produced from the ionium present. A distinct upward slope should be detectable in the growth curve some time | before this. But this is the best, if the estimate of the period of ionium assumed is correct, that the present set of experiments can offer to the solution of the problem. With the experience already gained, especially in dealing with large quantities of uranium and in the methods of measurements of the minutest quantities of radium, there should be no difficulty in 20 kilograms, of the requisite degree of purity as regards ionium and radium, to determine directly in a few years the period of ionium from the growth curve provided it is not greater than 200,000 years. A favourable opportunity is being awaited to initiate this large-scale experiment. It requires a small room to itself in a permanent institution uncontaminated with radium, and some guarantee that once installed | the preparations will remain undisturbed for a reason- able term of years, and that the measurements will be continued in a comparable manner should the period of life of the original investigator prove in- 2 Soddy, Ze Radium toro, vii., 297- A AN 3 Geiger2 Nuttall, Phil. Mag., rot, xxili., 613} 1912, Xxili., 439- 2217, VOL. 89] ne sufficient. It is not enough to set aside a quantity of uranium for our successors to see if any radium has grown in it. It is essential that the exact form of the growth curve should be known before the problem in question can be fully answered. There may be more than one long-lived intermediate product between uranium and radium. NHowever, such. in- direct information as has been acquired as to the life period of ionium indicates that it alone is sufficient to account for the present results as regards the absence of growth of radium from uranium. THE CROCKER LAND EXPEDITION. eee ENCE was made in Nature of February 22 (p. 560) to the expedition organised by the American Museum of Natural History and the American Geographical Society to reach and map Crocker Land, in the north polar seas north-west of Grant Land, and to make all the scientific studies en route and in other parts of the Arctic regions that circumstances may permit. The expedition will leave Sydney, N.S., by special steamer about July 20, 1912, and it is proposed to land on the south side of Bache Peninsula (Flagler Bay), lat. 70° 10’ N., and establish winter quarters. The ship will then be sent home. About the middle of September, sledging supplies to Cape Thomas Hubbard will be begun, and the work will be carried on throughout the winter during the moonlight periods. _ Cape Thomas Hubbard will be left with the return of dawn in February, 1913, and the expedi- tion will push across the ice to Crocker Land. Crocker Land will be left about May 1, and a return will be made to Cape Thomas Hubbard. Scientific work will be carried on in Grant Land and along the return route to winter quarters on Flagler Bay, where the expedition expects to arrive in July, 1913. In the spring and summer of 1914 there will be an expedi- tion from Whale Sound (Inglefield Gulf) directly east- ward to the summit of the ice-cap of Greenland, at | the widest part of that island. The return to New York will be in the autumn of 1914 by special ship. The leaders of the expedition -will be Mr. George Borup, assistant curator of geology in the American Museum of Natural History, and Mr, Donald B. MaeMillan, both of whom are well known by their worl done under Admiral Peary in his last polar expedition. It is estimated that not less than fifty thousand dollars (10,000l.) should be provided for the absolute needs of the expedition, in order to enable it to accom- plish the results that have been outlined above. On the proviso that sufficient funds are contributed from outside sources, the American Museum of Natural History has agreed to appropriate in the course of the expedition six thousand dollars in money, and has taken over its organisation and management. | The American Geographical Society has made an obtaining and dealing with sufficient uranium, say | appropriation of six thousand dollars toward the ex- pedition, and Yale University an appropriation of one thousand dollars, while other subscriptions have been promised. UNIVERSITY AND EDITCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE. Grascow.—The degree of Doctor of Science was conferred upon the following on April 22 :—Leonard Findlay: Thesis, ‘‘The Etioloey and Condition of the Blood in Spontaneous and Experimental Rickets, with additional papers.” David Robertson: Tliesis, “The Mathematical Design of Transformers; Elec- trical Meters on Variable Loads; and other original | : APRIL 25, 1912] NATURE 207 papers.’ George Duncan Campbell Stokes: Thesis, **A Critical Comparison of the Overlapping Section | of the Oxford and Potsdam Astrographic Catalogues ; An Original Solution of the Problem of Two Bodies; An Analytical Study of Plane Rolling Mechanisms.” Commemoration Day will be observed on June 25. A meeting will be held in the Bute Hall, when Prof. F. O. Bower, F.R.S., will deliver an oration on “Sir Joseph Hooker,’’ and honorary degrees will be conferred. It is expected that a number of the dele- gates attending the Congress of the Universities of the Empire will be present. THE resignation is announced of Prof. Arthur Searle, Phillips professor of astronomy at Harvard University. Prof. Searle, who graduated from Har- vard in 1856, has taught in the University for forty- two years. A course of four lectures on ** Heredity Considered from the Point of View of Physiology ana vathology ”’ will be delivered by Dr. F. W. Mott, F.R.S., in the Physiological Laboratory, King’s College, on Mon- days, May 20 and 27, and June 3 and Io, at 4.30 p.m. The lectures are free to members of King’s College, London, to internal students of the University, and to , : | of 75,0001. granted by the Clothworkers’ Company medical men. At the celebration of the 75th anniversary of the foundation of the University of Athens, on April 10, honorary degrees in medicine were conferred on Profs. von Behring (Marburg), Celli (Rome), Ehrlich (Frank- fort), Exner (Vienna), Golgi (Pavia), Kronecker (Berne), Laudouzy (Paris), Richet (Paris), Sir Ronald Ross (Liverpool), Roux (Paris), Schulze (Wiirzburg), Weichselbaum (Vienna), and others. The degree of doctor of philosophy was conferred on Sir Donald MacAlister (Glasgow), Delbriick (Jena), Dérpfeld (Athens), Gubernatis (Rome), Harnack (Berlin), Kenyon (London), Mahaffy (Dublin), Wheeler (Berkeley), and others; and the degree of doctor of science on Profs. Depéret (Lyons), Haldcsy (Vienna), Lacroix (Paris), Lepsius (Darmstadt), Partsch ‘(Leipzig), and Philippson (Bonn). THE programme of the annual conference of the Child-Study Society, to be held in the University of London on May 9-11 inclusive, is now available. The subject arranged for discussion is the health of the child in relation to its mental and physical development. The presidential address will be delivered on May c by Sir James Crichton Browne, F.R.S. Among papers to be read at the conference may be mentioned :—The influence of defects of hear- ing in relation to the mental and physical development of the child, by Dr. J. Kerr Love; the influence of sick nursing. In August the courses will be con- cerned with practical mathematics and mechanics, handrailing, metal work, and rural science. Though most of the courses will be held in Dublin, some have been arranged for other important centres. Teachers desiring to take advantage of these courses must fill up and return the appropriate form of | application so as to reach the oflices of the depart- ment, Upper Merrion Street, Dublin, not later than April 30. ATTENTION was directed, in our issue of April 4 (vol. Ixxxix., p. 129) to the opening to-morrow of the spinning section of the textile department of the University of Leeds by the Master of the Cloth- workers’ Company. The new extension is intended to afford facilities for instruction in the principles and theory of the manufacture of worsted yarns on the Continental system. To secure the most suitable equipment for this branch of technological teaching, textile institutes, spinning works, and conditioning laboratories in Belgium, France, Germany, and Switzerland were inspected, and a full inquiry was made as to the commercial value and technical nature of this system of worsted yarn construction. The extension has been designed by Mr. Paul Waterhouse, and erected‘at a cost of 5oool., making a total amount for technical education in the textile industries and dyeing departments of the Leeds University. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. LonpDon. Zoological Society, April 2—Dr. A. Smith Wood- ward, F.R.S., vice-president, in the chair.—R. I. Pocock: A rare stag (Cervus wallichii) from Nepal, recently presented to the Zoological Society by his Majesty King George. The author pointed out the distinctive peculiarities of this species, which, on account of its great scarcity, had never been satis- factorily classified since it was described by G. Cuvier in 1825 from a coloured illustration of a specimen living at that time in the Barrackpoor Menagerie.— F. E. Beddard: Species of tapeworms of the genus Inermicapsifer obtained from the hyrax, with notes on the genera Zschokkeella and Thysanotenia. An account of the structure and characters of the species was given, together with the description of a new genus and two new species.—Dr. Bashford Dean: | Living specimens of the Australian lung-fish (Cera- defects of vision in relation to the mental and physical | development of the child, by Mr. N. Bishop Harman; | the tuberculous child, by Dr. Jane Walker; and mental hygiene in relation to the development of the child, by Dr. T. Hyslop. Fuller particulars of the meeting can be obtained from the secretary of the London Society, 90 Buckingham Palace Road, London, S.W. Tue Department of Agriculture and Technical In- | struction for Ireland will conduct summer courses of instruction for teachers on July 2-26 next, and on August 6-31. Among the courses arranged for July we notice for teachers in day secondary schools and | in technical schools a course in experimental science; | for those in secondary schools only, one in domestic economy; and for domestic economy instructresses one in advanced cookery, housewifery, hygiene, and NO. 2217, VOL. 89] todus forsteri) in the society’s collection. This paper contained some further observations made by the author in June, 1911, supplementary to his previous communication published in 1906, and dealt with the coloration, size, and age of the specimens. Détails of the rate of growth of this species were also given, with notes on their method of breathing, their food, and an account of the regeneration of a portion of the left ventral fin which had suffered an injury. Royal Astronomical Society, April 12.—Dr. Dyson, F.R.S., president, in the chair—E. E. Barnard: Recent observations of Nova Cygni (1876). A series of measures of stars in the neighbourhood showed little evidence of motion; the nova seemed to have become stationary in brightness.—E. E. Barnard ; Micrometrical measures and focal peculiarities of Nova Lacertz, (Espin). Photographs were shown, from which it appeared that the nova existed as a 13th mag. star in 1893.—H. F. Newall: Photographs of the spectrum of Nova Geminorum (Enebo) made 205 NATLORE [APRIL 25, 1912 at Cambridge Observatory. The remarkable changes that had taken place in the spectrum of the nova were described, and Mr. Stratton further dealt with the Cambridge results, no fewer than 200 features having been measured upon the plates.—W. E. Curtis: The spectrum of the new star in Gemini. Prof. Fowler showed the photographs taken by Mr. Curtis.— Royal Observatory, Greenwich: Observations of Nova Geminorum. The President showed a series of photo- graphs of the spectrum of the nova taken at the Royal Observatory, and described the changes that had taken place. the aid of a grating, which was shown to the meet- ing. The grating was placed in front of the object glass, causing it to give a number of images of the star, and much facilitating the observations. Father Cortie described the observations of the nova made at Stonyhurst, the measurement of the spectra giving velocities similar to those shown by Nova Persei. Mr. Storey described the spectroscopic observations of Nova Geminorum made at the Royal Observatory, Edinburgh, and showed photographs taken. Dr. Duffield urged that the effects of pressure should be taken into consideration in our interpretation of the changes in the spectrum of the nova. The Rev. T. E. R. Phillips had made visual observations, and spoke of the great intensity of the He line. The star was an intense crimson at the end of March; its brightness had shown fluctuations.—Prof. H. H. Turner: A tentative explanation of the ‘‘two star streams"? in terms of gravitation. Second paper: The position of the centre of our system. In his previous paper he had propounded a_ hypothetical constitution of our stellar system round a centre of attraction, on which view the centre should lie in the direction of one of the vertices. A number of entirely independent lines of investigation pointed to a vertex at 90°+11° It appeared that Boss’s moving cluster in Taurus occupied a position near the centre of our system; the oscillation period of our sun would be about 4oo million years, the sun having passed pericentron about a million years ago. Royal Meteorological Society, April 17.—H. N. Dick- son, president, in the chair.—J. E, Clark and R. H. Hooker: Report on the phenological observations for 1911. The outstanding features of the weather during the year were the severe cold of early April; the summer of abnormal dryness, heat and sunshine; and the continuous rainfall when once the drought thoroughly broke about mid-October. After referring to the flowering of plants, the appearance of insects and the song and migration of birds, the authors dealt with the yield of farm crops, and showed that potatoes and wheat were above the average, but most of the other crops were below the average, especially beans, roots, and hay. Throughout Great Britain harvest began generally a fortnight to three weeks earlier than usual, and the duration was very short, the result being that the termination of the harvest was fully a month earlier than the average..—R. G. K. Lempfert and H. W. Braby: A method of summarising anemograms. The tabulation of the hourly values of wind velocity and of wind direction as recorded by many anemometers in the British Isles forms part of the routine work of the Meteorological Office, but little has been done hitherto to summarise the tabula- tions. The authors have made a preliminary discus- sion of a few records, and in this paper they gave the results in the form of wind-roses for four stations, | which had been selected as being typical of the ex- treme north, the extreme south, the east coast, and the west coast of Great Britain, viz., Deerness, Scilly, Yarmouth, and Holyhead. NO. 2217, VOL. 89] Photometric observations were made by | CAMBRIDGE. Philosophical Society, March 11.—Sir George Dar- win, president, in the chair.—Prof. Pope and C. S. Gibson: The resolution of racemic benzoylalanine. An account was given of the resolution ot racemic benzoylalanine by the method of Pope and Peachey.— Prof. Pope and J]. Read: The optically active hydroxy- hydrindamines. ‘The authors described the resolution of hydroxyhydrindamine into optically active com- ponents by means of a-bromocamphor-z-sulphonie acid and the preparation of salts and other derivatives of the racemic and active bases.—C. T. Heycock and F. E. E, Lamplough: The boiling points of zinc, cad- mium, mercury, sodium, and potassium, and their alteration with change of pressure. An account was given of the more trustworthy previous determinations of these data, the wide differences being noted. The authors’ experiments, in which platinum resistance thermometers were used, were described, and the results of many closely agreeing experiments were given. At 760 mm. pressure the boiling points were found to be as follows :—Zinc, 905°70°; cadmium, 765°93°; mercury, 357°70°; sodium, 882'6°; potassium, 762°2°.—F. E. E. Lamplough: The metastable condi- tion of undercooling in metals. Investigations have been made to determine whether a metastable condi- tion of undercooling before solidification exists in metals. In no case have positive results been ob- tained. Tin, which on solidifying exhibits super- fusion in a notable degree, does not show a meta- stable undercooling greater than at most half a degree.—J. Satterly: The quantities of radium and thorium emanations contained in the air of soils. (1) The amounts of radium emanation in the air of different soils have been measured at intervals ex- tending over a year. For depths of from 100 to 150 cms. in gravelly soil the amount of emanation is, on the average, equal to approximately 200x 10~-'* curie per litre or 2000 times as much as there is usually in atmospheric air. (2) Experiments showed that a litre of soil-air was in association with 14,000 gm. of damp soil (12,000 gm. when dry), whence the apparent radium content of the soil is 17x 10-* gm. per gm. of (dry) soil. As the actual radium content is more likely to be seventy times this it follows that little of the emanation generated in the solid particles of the soil can escape into the air around them. (3) The proportion of radium emanation to thorium emanation in soil-air has been measured for various depths and the ratio has been found to increase from 1600 near the surface to 26,000 at a depth of 400 cm. At a depth of 150 cm. it is 8600, whence, taking the radium content of the soil as r1x10-'* gm. per gm., the thorium content works out as 14X10~° gm. per gm. This is of the right order.—J. A. Crowther : A theory of the dissymmetrical distribution _ of secondary Réntgen radiation—A. E. Oxley: The variation of magnetic susceptibility with temperature. A criticism of the conclusions reached by Profs. du Bois and Honda concerning the invalidity of the Curie-Langevin laws.—H. H. Paine: The coagulation of colloidal copper. Rate of coagulation.—R. Kleeman: The different internal energies of a sub- stance. The author showed that the internal energy of a substance can be divided into three parts, viz. : (1) the kinetic energy of the molecules due to their motion of translation: (2) their molecular internal energy; (3) the potential energy due to their attraction unon one another. Tt was proved that the kinetic energv of a molecule is eaual to that if possesses in the gaseous state at the same temperature, that is, it >) 2 TR F is equal to — » where T is the absolute tempera- APRIL 25, 1912] NATURE 209 internal therefore constant. The molecule ture and R is energy of a_ substance (U.+ y+ sR?) where U, is the energy due to mole- the gas is per cular attraction and uw, the internal energy. Formulz for the specific heat at constant volume and constant pressure, the Joule-Thomson effect, &c., were deduced and compared with the facts. Paris. Academy of Sciences, April 15.—M. Lippmann in the chair.—J. Boussinesq : The geometric theory for a non- rigid body of continuous displacements, as well as the deformations and rotations of its particles—Yves Delage: A self-recording bathyrheometer. A descrip- tion of an instrument for measuring and recording surface currents. It has the advantage of being capable of total immersion, and measures both veloci- ties and directions of the currents.—M. Le Chatelier : Remarks on a work by F. W. Taylor dealing with the principles of scientific organisation of works.— J. Bosler and P. Idrac: The spectrum of the new star in the Twins. Observations made at Meudon showed a complete series of the bright lines of hydrogen. The principal nebular line was also noted.—Fr. Iniguez: The new star in the Twins. From March 15 to 19 the lines HS, H¢, and K were brilliant. The line K disappeared on March 20.—Etienne Delassus : The linkages of any order of material systems.—B. Mayor: The deformations of certain elastic systems. —Emile Borel: The geometric bases of statistical mechanics.—J. Bergonié: The phenomena of light- ning. A description of some peculiarities caused by a lightning stroke on March 20 near La Flouquette. —C. Dauzére: The stability of cellular vortices——M. Deslandres: Remarks on the preceding communica- tion.—A. Blondel: An_ electro-chronograph with synchronised sparks. The vibrator of the secondary coil producing the sparks is controlled by a tuning- fork, not directly, but by the action of a current itself controlled by the tuning-fork. The necessary precau- tions are given in detail.—C. Camichel: The measure- ment of the differences of phase of two alternating currents.—B. Szilard: The radio-activity of the thermal springs of Saint Lucasbad (Hungary).— Albert Bruno and P. Turquand d’Auzay: The estima- tion of sulphates in solution by a physico-chemical volumetric method. The changes in electrical con- ductivity are measured when a solution of baryta is added to the sulphate solution. In the case of wine the method was found to be untrustworthy.—Georges Dupont: The oxidation of some ketohydrofuranes.— André Meyer: The action of oxyurea upon some B-ketonic esters —MM. Amouroux and Murat: Some syntheses starting with butyrone. Butvrone can readily be obtained in quantity by the catalytic action of thoria upon butyric acid. Various derivatives obtained by the Grignard reaction from this ketone are described.—Paul Gaubert: The circular polarisa- tion of liquid crystals.—Lucien Daniel: The trans- formation of a chrysanthemum as a result of repeated budding.—Henri Piéron: The variation of the sensa- tion law as a function of the intensity of stimulation. —Raphael Dubois: The physical properties of physio- logical light. Remarks on a recent note by M. Ozorio on this subject—Edmond Hue and Marcel Baudouin: The atavic characters of certain lumbar vertebrzee of men of the polished stone period. The Causes Preventing the More General Use of Electricity for Domestic Purposes. Captain H. R. William FRIDAY, May 3. Royat InstTiTuTION, at 9.—The Use of Pedigrees : F.R.S. LNSTITUTION OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Reswmed discussion: Tenth Report to the Alloys Research Committee: on the Alloys of Aluminium and Zinc : Prof. J. O. Arnold. W. C. D. Whetham, PAGE CONTENTS. In Nature’s Byways . ote 185 Soil Structure and Plant Growth. ey Dr. E. I Russell... an 186 The Advance of Photography. By oe a aed 187 The Grammarof Science... . ae 188 A Biological Dictionary . 3 RF dee SEL ce gin lel. Our Bookshelf , . os) GER eee se. eee Letters to the Editor :— Insect Parasites on Trees, —Right Hon, Sir Herbert Maxwell, Bart., F.R.S. . . 19r The Propagation of Long Electric Waves during the Solar Eclipse (l¥7th Diagram.)—Dr.W.H.Eccles 191 Glazed Frost.—Andrew H. Palmer . . 192 Animal Intelligence.—_M. N. WW. . .. .. .. 192 The Eclipse of the Sun on ee wz ai? ; 192 Sardines . . SAINT CS 194 Prof. A. Lawrence Rotch. By E.G. Puan 195 INotesiy. - Oo. o9 8 oa RG. ol 195 Our Astronomical Column :-— Cometary Statistics . . . ie, 2s OO) The Best Value of the Solar Constant Spo oS) Observations of Saturn and its Rings . 199 The Cafion Diablo Crater . So hee cas | arta) Nova Geminorum No. 2. (//lustrated.) By F. E. ; Baxendall ; William E. Rolston. Mec) 2 The Loss of the ‘ Titanic” 201 Reports upon Meteorological Observations pia, 215¥3 The Origin of Radium. (lth Diagrams.) By Rrederick soddy, F:R°S) -eeeemeen enc. ies 203 The Crocker Land Expedition . A Ge 0 206 University and Educational Intelligence Saran © 206 Societiesand Academies ...... 207 Books Received 209 Diary of Societies . 210 A WEEKLY ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. \%, “To the solid ground Of Nature trusts the mind which builds for aye.’’—WoORDSWORTH. @ Yonal Museu _No. 2218, Vor. 89] === THURSDAY, MAY 2, 1912 _{Price SIXPENCE | __ Registered : asa a Newspaper + at the General Post Office.]_ The “INSTANTA” INDUCTION COIL The most Scientifically Designed and Efficient Coil in the World. le Makers: NEWTON & WRIGHT, L1p. (Late Electrical Department of Newton "e a 72 WIGMORE STREET, LONDON, WRITE FOR ILLUSTRATED SL ae It is the Key to Success in Photography. Who can expect to excel who does not understand how to use the diaphragm, the swing back, the rising front, focussing scale, &c., &c.? All such questions are lucidly and simply explained in “PHOTOGRAPHIC LENSES : A SIMPLE TREATISE.” 350 pages, 44 plates, numerous diagrams and illustrations, cloth bound. R. & J. BECK, Ltd., $8, SQR€5IL. | a ae 8914. CYLINDROMETER, for measuring the curvature of lenses, provided with vernier. It consists of a plain rectangular metal plate, with a rectangular recess of accurately known dimensions cut out of it. It is applied to the surface of a cylinder or sphere as shown in the illustration, the distance C D is measured directly by means of small steel scale, with vernier reading, and the distance A B and C E being known, the radius of the cylinder or sphere can at once be calculated from the lengths of A B and DE by the usual application of Euclid III. Stock size. Dimensions of recess, 5 cm. by 5 cm. £0 15.6 (EXTRACT FROM NEW PHYSICAL LIST.) (all “Rights Reserved. Loan ar | BAIRD & TATLOCK (London), LTD., Negretti & Zambra’s new patent 14 Cross Street, Hatton Garden, London, E.C. WIND DIRECTION RECORDER proves a simple solution to an awkward problem. Descriptive pamphlet sent post free. 38 Holborn Viaduct, London, E.C. Branches 45 JN Cornhill, pes IxxxIiv NATURE [May 2, 1912 UNIVERSITY OF LONDON. The following Advanced Courses of Lectures, to which admission is free, will be delivered :— Eight Lectures on ‘‘ Tug History oF CARBOHYDRATES IN THE ANIMAL Bopy,” by Professor J. J. R. MACLEOD, M.B., Ch.B., D.P.H., at the Physiological Laboratory of the University, South Kensington, on Tuesdays at 5 p.m., beginning on May 7, 1912. Four Lectures on ‘THe Use or VERTEBRATE Fossits IN STRATI- GearHicaL Geotocy,” by A. SMILH WOODWARD, LL.D., F-.R.S., in the Geological Department of the Imperial College, Royal College of Science, Scuih Kensington, on Mondays at 5 p.m., beginning on May 13, 19gt2. Three Lectures on ‘‘ THE EvoLuTion oF THE Mamma tian Brain,” by P ofessor G. ELLIOT SMITH, M.A., M.D., F_R.S., in the large Lecture Room of Bedford College, Baker Street, W., at 5 p.m., on Friday, May 24, Tuesday, May 28, and Wednesday, May 29, 1912. P. J. HARTOG, Academic Registrar. IMPERIAL COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, SOUTH KENSINGTON. INCLUDING THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF SCIENCE, the ROYAL SCHOOL OF MINES, and the CITY AND GUILDS (ENGINEERING) COLLEGE. A Special Course of Lectures will be given, beginning on Wednesday, May 15 next, on the MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF METALS AND ALLOYS, by S. W. J. SMITH, A.R.C.S., M.A., D.Sc. For further information and for admission to the Course application should be made to the SECRETARY. EAST LONDON COLLEGE. (UNIVERSITY OF LONDON.) Patron—HIS MAJESTY THE KING. Classics ... F. R. Earp, M.A. English H. Be toc, M.A. French Mina PagQuirr. German ... tee J. Sterrat, Ph.D. History ... cre Tuomas Seccomse, M.A. Mathematics... THE PRINCIPAL. Physics C. H. Legs, D.Sc., F.R.S. Chemistry J. T. Hewitt, D.Sc., F.R.S. Botany oo F. E. Fritscu, D.Sc. Geology .. we cot o3 W. L. Carter, M.A. Civil and Mechanical Engineering... e3 D. A. Low, M.I.M.E. Electrical Engineering J. T. Morris, M.I.E E. Fees moderate, Valuable Entrance Scholarships awarded by Drapers Company. Special facilities for Post-Graduate and Research Students. Particulars of fees, courses of study, &c., on application to the REGISTRAR, or to J. L. S. HATTON, M.A., Principal, at the College. BEDFORD COLLEGE FOR WOMEN. (UNIVERSITY OF LONDON.) YORK PLACE, BAKER STREET, W. Principat—Miss M. J. TUKE, M.A. COURSE OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUCTION IN HYGIENE. Recognised by the Sanitary Inspectors’ Examination Board. The Course is designed to furnish training for Women Sanitary and Factory Inspectors and Teachers of Hygiene. A Post-graduate Scholarship of 435 for one year is offered for the course beginning October, 1912. Applications should be forwarded not later than June x to the Principat, from whom further particulars may be obtained. BEDFORD COLLEGE FOR WOMEN. (UNIVERSITY OF LONDON.) YORK PLACE, BAKER STREET, LONDON, W. REID TRUSTEES’ SCHOLARSHIP. ONE SCHOLARSHIP, value £60 a year for three years, is offered by the Trustees on the result of the College Entrance Scholarship Examination in June next. The scholar will be required to come into residence at the College in the October following the award. Further particulars on appli- cation to the Hon. Sec. TO THE ReEip Trust, Bedford College. COLLEGE ENTRANCE SCHOLARSHIPS THREE ENTRANCE SCHOLARSHIPS (one in Arts and two in Science) will be offered for competition in June next, vi :— Reid, in Arts, value £30 a year for three years. Pfeiffer, in Science, value £50 a year for three years. Henry Tate, in Science, value £40 a year for two years. Fall particulars on application to the PrincipaL. INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. FouNnpDEb 1877. INCOkPORATED BY Royat CHARTER, 1885. The next INTERMEDIATE EX*MINATION will commence on TUESDAY, JULY 2 FINAL EXAMINATIONS in (a) Mineral Chemistry, (4) Metallurgical Chemistry, (c) Physical Chemis ry, (a) Organic Chemistry, and (¢) The Chemistry of Food and Drugs, &c., will commence on MONDAY, JULY 1, or on MONDAY, JULY 8. Candidates will be closed on MONDAY, JUNE 3. Forms of application and further part'culars can be obtained from the RecistrRAR, Institute of Chemistry, 30 Bloomsbury Square, London. W.C. The Regulations for the Admission of Students, Associate, and Fellows, Gratis. Examination Papers: 1908-09 (2 years), 6¢. ; 1910, 6. ; 1911, 6d. “A List of Official Chemical Appointments.” Fourth Edition, now ready, 2s. (post free, 2s. 3d.)- APPOINTMENTS REGISTER.—A Register of Fellows and Associates of the Institute of Chemistry who are seeking appointments is kept at the Offices of the Institute. Applications for the services of professional chemists should be forwarded to the Registrar, stating the reyuirements. The List of AUSTRALIAN INSTITUTE OF TROPICAL MEDICINE, TOWNSVILLE, QUEENSLAND. Applications are invited for (r) FIRST ASSISTANT at £600 per annum, to be an expert in Tropical Medicine, skilled in laboratory methods, capable of taking charge in absence of Vr. Breinl, the Director ; (2) SECOND ASSISTANT at £500, to have a good general knowledge of Tropical Medicine and of laboratory methods, but specially to have a sound knowledge of tropical hygiene and epidemiology, preferably with Indian experience; (3) THIRD ASSISTANT at £400, to be a Bio- chemist with sound knowledge of Organic Chemistry and some experience in physiological work. Tenure in each case five years. Salary to com- mence on arrival at Townsville. £1oo each for expenses from Europe. Applications to be sent to the Orrictat SECRETARY, Commonwealth Offices, 72 Victoria Street, Westminster, S.W., not later than May 31, with qualifications, recent photograph, and not more than four testimonials. Age to be stated. The candidates chosen must submit approved certificates of health. New laboratories are in course of erection. The Common- wealth Government provides 44000 per annum, ROYAL SOCIETY OF LONDON. MACKINNON RESEARCH STUDENTSHIPS. There are two Studentships each of the value of 4150. One of them is awarded for research in the group of the Physical Sciences, including Astronomy, Chemistry, Geology, Mineralogy and Physics; the other is awarded for research in the group of the Biological Sciences, including Anatomy, Botany, Palaontology, Pathology, Physiology and Zoology. The Studentships are awarded annually for one year, but are renewable for a second year. Under exceptional circumstances they may be renewed for a third year. The Studentships are restricted to British subjects. The present holder of the Physical Studentship is a candidate for reappointment. The appointment will date from October 1. Applications must be received not later than June 1. Further particulars and forms of application can be obtained from the AssIsSTANT SECRETARY OF THE Rova_ Society, Burlington House, London, W. BRITISH MUSEUM (NATURAL HISTORY). An ASSISTANTSHIP of the Second Class in the Department of Geology is now vacant, the duties being chiefly the Systematic arrange ment of the collection of Fossil Plants. Limits of age, 20 and 25 years. ‘The salary commences at £150 per annum. Candidates will be required to undergo a competitive examination by the Civil Service Commissioners in English Composition, and translation from either Greek or Latin, and either German or French, as well as in Morphological and Systematic Botany and Physical and Stratigraphical Geology. Applications, accompanied by not more than three testimonials, must reach the Director, Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London, S.W., not later than June 15, 1912. COUNTY COUNCIL OF CUMBERLAND. The Principal of the New County Technical and Secondary Schools, Workington, invites applications from qualified men for the post of HEAD of the ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT, The salary is at the rate of £200 per annum, and the successful candidate will be required to enter upon his duties on July 1. Candidates should have a degree in Engineering, or the equivalent thereof, and have had experience in the teaching and organising of such a Department. Applications, giving age, full particulars of training and experience, and copies of three recent testimonials, should reach the undersigned not later than May 15. G. H. WOOLLATT, Victoria Institute, Worcester. NATURE ult THURSDAY, MAY 2, torz2. CHEMICAL SPECTROSCOPY. Introduction & l'Etude de la Spectrochimie. Par Prof. G. Urbain. Pp. iii+248+ix plates. (Paris: A. Hermann & Fils, 1911.) Price 1o francs. | ara URBAIN has written an exceedingly interesting and valuable introduction to spectroscopy treated more especially in relation to chemistry and chemical analysis. He has based this book upon his course of lectures de- livered at the Sorbonne, and with undue modesty explains that it is mainly written for those younger chemists who, in their desire to enter a field full of promise, wish rapidly to acquire | the fundamental ideas necessary for the theoretical and experimental study of the subject. Prof. Urbain is singularly happy in his preface, wherein he deals with the position of the spectroscope in relation to chemistry. Quite truly he points out the very valuable services that spectroscopy has rendered to chemistry and to astronomy. As for the former, it was a very long time before the subject formed more than a very restricted adjunct to chemical analysis. In truth, spectro- scopy now deals with numerous facts which have but a dim connection with chemical analysis, and it deserves to rank as one of the principal branches of physical chemistry along with electrochemistry and thermochemistry. The discoveries that chemistry owes to spectro- scopy are many. To all is familiar the detection of rubidium and cesium by Bunsen and Kirch- hoff, followed by the isolation of indium, thal- lium, and gallium. The spectroscope, however, has also proved itself to be the only guide in that apparently insoluble labyrinth of elements, the rare earths. To the spectroscope we owe the discovery of samarium and-dysprosium by Lecoq de Boisbaudran, of holmium and thulium by Soret, of neodymium and praseodymium by Auer von Welsbach, and of europium by Crookes and by Demarcay. Finally there is the brilliant work of Prof. Urbain himself, which has resulted in the separation of ytterbium into neoytterbium and lutecium, and the discovery. of the new element celtium. Again, the value of the spectro- scope in Ramsay’s work on the rare gases is within the common knowledge of all. Modern chemistry would have been in debt to the spec- troscope for its most beautiful discoveries had not M. and Mme. Curie found in radioactivity a method of investigation which, although less NO. 2218, vor. 89} general in its application, is certainly more sensi- tive in certain cases. When Bunsen and Kirchhoff published their method of investigation by flame _ spectra, chemists naturally welcomed this with enthusiasm. Ever since that time the textbooks of analysis have religiously incorporated their methods. Very few, if any, of these books describe the | modern methods of investigation, although the value of these has clearly been proved. These modern methods are only to be found in special- ised books which students have not the leisure to read and the skilled chemist rarely consults. Prof. Urbain shows how the confidence felt by chemists in spectroscopy received a severe blow when the plurality of spectra was enunciated by Pliicker and Hittorf. It was felt that spectrum analysis no longer possessed that rigour and in- fallibility at first attributed to it; nothing, after all, was so sound as the good old methods of pure chemistry; spectrum analysis was a com- plex subject, and it was abandoned to the speci- alist. In spite of this attitude of the pure chemist, the advance of spectro-chemistry has been enormous, and the variety of the modern methods is extraordinary. Flame spectra, spark spectra, spectra of gases and of solutions, arc spectra, absorption spectra, phosphorescent spectra, and infra-red emission and absorption spectra—all have their value in particular cases. The time has surely come for this subject to take the rank which it deserves in the chemical laboratory. At present the students of chemistry have a poor idea of the part played by the spec- troscope in analytical research. The faint-hearted ones hesitate to take risks in so unknown a field, while the bolder ones perhaps try a few experi- ments, but are soon discouraged owing to their ignorance of the technique. With the view of removing this ignorance, Prof. Urbain has written this book, and he treats in a most admirable way all the modern methods of work. In the first four chapters he describes the character and nature of spectra and the methods of illumination. Without going fully into the spectroscope itself, he gives in detail a most excellent account of the modern methods of illumination. The fifth and sixth chapters deal with phosphorescence and absorption, to the literature of which the author himself has con- tributed so largely. In the seventh chapter is to be found a concise description of series of lines and their relationships. In fine it may be said that this book forms a most admirable introduction to chemical spec- troscopy, and it is to be cordially recommended K 22, NATURE (May 2, Tone to every chemist, student, and expert alike, for it should go far to dispel that somewhat doubtful confidence which the author quite rightly com- plains is still felt by the pure chemist as regards this important and fascinating branch of science. BiG. ©. Bauye THE CONSTITUTION OF THE SILICATES. Die Silicate in chemischer und _ technischer Beziehung: unter Zugrundelegung der seitens der philosophischen Fakultit der Universitat Géttingen preisgekrénten Hexitpentit - Theorie nebst Umwandlung derselben in eine allgemeine stereochemische Theorie. By Dr. W. Asch and Dr. D. Asch. Pp. xv+4o9. (Berlin: Julius Springer, 1911.) Price 16 marks. HE present work, which is an expansion of ol an essay originally submitted for a prize offered by the philosophical faculty of Géttingen, is a bold and original attempt to grapple with the difficult problem of the chemistry of the silicates and related compounds. The authors have sought to give a structural explanation of the behaviour of such compounds consistent with the doctrine of valency. ‘The “ Hexite-Pentite ”’ hypothesis, which forms the basis of the work, assumes that silicates and alumino-silicates are not, in general, derived from the simpler hydroxides, such as Si(OH), and Al(OH),;, but from compounds formed by the con- densation of six such molecules, with elimination of water, to form a closed ring. Less frequently, five-membered rings may be produced, and com- plex molecules are built up by the union, according to certain definite principles, of two or more such “hexite” or “pentite” groups. By the replace- ment of hydroxylic hydrogen by metals, of hydroxyl by fluorine, &c., formule are constructed which are capable of expressing with remarkable completeness the properties and reactions of many silicates and aluminosilicates. The formule, especially in the contracted nota- tion chiefly employed in the text, strongly recall the Kekulé theory of aromatic carbon compounds, but the analogy is not a real one, as the linking is | never from silicon to silicon or aluminium, but always through an intervening oxygen atom. Praise is due to the authors for the ingenuity with | which the hypothesis is applied, and for the labour expended in recalculating the enormous number of analyses given, and expressing them in terms of the new structural theory. A certain arbitrariness in the choice of many of the formule is unavoid- able, in the absence of experimental investigations specially designed to test the points in question. The most serious defect of the work is its disregard of physical considerations, owing to the NO. 2218, VOL. 89] ‘affording assistance in the further exclusively chemical viewpoint adopted. This one- sidedness is well seen in the lengthy and detailed treatment of Portland cement and blast-furnace slag. Definite hexite-pentite formule are assigned to a great variety of these artificial products on the evidence of ultimate analyses only, and the that microscopical proof such materials are heterogeneous is brushed aside in a_ single sentence. Thermal analysis, by means of which such great advances are being made, including the brilliant work of the Geophysical Laboratory in Washington, is not considered, and the names of Day, Shepherd, and their collaborators do not even appear in the bibliography, although this includes some 1500 references. Again, the great additions made in recent years to our knowledge of colloids and of the part played by them in the chemistry of silicates are passed over in silence or with a brief allusion, in spite of the intimate bearing of such work on the weathering of felspars, the setting of cements, the hydration of zeolites, and similar questions, all of which are discussed from a purely structural point of view. Even to glasses and porcelain definite structural formulz are assigned. By replacing silicon and aluminium atoms by other elements, and by introducing stereochemical considerations, the hypothesis is extended to com- plex salts, metal-ammonia compounds, and salts with water of crystallisation. Some shorter chapters are devoted to further and more hazard- ous speculations, the hexite-pentite arrangement being applied to aliphatic organic compounds, and even to the structure of the atom and the explana- tion of radioactivity. These extravagances, how- ever, do not detract from the value of the main thesis, which certainly deserves the attention of inorganic chemists and mineralogists, as possibly study of a C. H. Descu. complex and difficult subject. BRITISH VEGETATION. Types of British Vegetation. By members of the Central Committee for the Survey and Study of British Vegetation, Edited by A. G. Tansley. Pp. xx+416+36 plates. (Cambridge: Univer- sity Press, 1911.) Price 6s. net. HE great impetus that has been given during “E recent years to the study of the British flora is largely owing to the development of that branch of botany known as ecology. This subject—the study of plants in connection with their habitat— has raised many questions, and amongst them that of plant-communities has received foremost attention, and has been zealously investigated. The committee which was formed in 1904 to May 2, 1912] NATURE 292 organise and carry out a-systematic survey of the | vegetation of the British Isles has worked hard. Much surveying and mapping has been done, and several memoirs dealing with widely separated areas have been published. Though further work is required before a complete account could be presented, yet enough has been accomplished to obtain a general idea of the principal types occur- ring. The volume now issued summarises in a clear and useful manner the results that have so far been obtained, and provides the student with a sketch of the British vegetation from an entirely new point of view. The book is based on the work of the committee referred to. Mr. A. G. Tansley has acted as editor, chapters being furnished by dif- ferent workers, he himself, moreover, being responsible for a large proportion of the whole. The joint authorship works well, and results in a certain freshness of style, owing to each writer being specially familiar with the region he describes. A short section in the first part of the book deals with the general conditions obtaining in the British Isles, the whole of part ii. being devoted to the description of the various formations and associations recognised. The plant-formations of clays and loams, of sandy soils, and of heaths are first described by the editor, and a chapter follows, by C. E. Moss, on the plant-formation of the older siliceous rocks. The vegetation of calcareous soils is next taken up, Tansley and Rankin dealing with the sub-formation of chalk, and Moss with that of the older limestones. A short chapter on general aquatic vegetation is inserted, though in- formation on this subject is scanty. The fen and aquatic formations of East Norfolk are, however, dealt with in detail by Miss Pallis; and G. S. West gives a short account of the Phytoplankton of the lakes of the British Isles. The moor formation receives considerable attention, the lowland and upland moors being described by Rankin, and by Lewis and Moss respectively. A very interesting section on the Arctic-alpine vegetation is contri- buted by W. G. Smith, who deals chiefly with the slopes and corries of Ben Lawers, though here again much further work is required. The final chapter concerns the vegetation of the sea-coast, and contains, amongst others, an account by Oliver of the maritime communities of the Blakeney Harbour district. The principal formations are in many cases divided into three associations, representing woodland, scrub, and grassland, and these, if need be, are subdivided into a number of smaller com- munities (sub-associations and societies). Progres- sive and retrogressive associations receive due NO. 2218, VOL. 89] attention, and the serious amount of degenerating woodland that exists in England repeatedly emphasised. Although many areas in Great Britain and Ireland remain to be investigated, Mr. Tansley’s “Types of British Vegetation” forms a most welcome addition to ecological literature, and one which will be indispensable to every student of the subject in this country. Well arranged, and illus- trated by a number of excellent photographs, the book will not only be valuable to botanists, but should attract and stimulate inquiry amongst all who take interest in the vegetation of our islands. ARDC: is RECENT BOTANICAL PUBLICATIONS. (1) Plant Life: a Text-book of Botany for Schools and Colleges. By Prof. Eug. Warming. Translated from the fourth edition of the Danish (Eug. Warming and C. Raunkizr) by Metta M. Rehling and Elizabeth M. Thomas. Pp. viii+ 244. (London: G. Allen and Co., Ltd., rgrr.) Price 4s. 6d. net. (2) Wild Flowers as they Grow: Photographed in Colour Direct from Nature. By H. Essen- high Corke. With descriptive text by G. Clarke Nuttall. Second series. Pp. vii+ 197. (London: Cassell and Co., Ltd., 1911.) Price HSalet. (3) Plant Life and Evolution. By Prof. D. H. Campbell. Pp. iv+360. American Nature Series. (New York: Henry Holt and Co., rgtt.) Price 1.60 dollars net. (4) An Intermediate Text-book of Botany. By Ernest Evans. Pp. viii+394. (London: Longmans, Green and Co., 1911.) Price 6s. N the first of these volumes the treatment of the subject matter is excellent, and follows a plan which is considerably different from that generally adopted in most of the English ele- mentary text-books. The whole book bespeaks of the wide range of knowledge possessed by its illustrious author, and is written with a terseness and accuracy which is the outcome of a deep and extensive store of fact. A good feature of the ‘book is the reference to so many plants with which the student has and almost every-day acquaintance. The illustrations are for the most part very good, and not only are they more varied than is usually the case in such a small volume, but they are likewise considerably different in character from those found in most of the English text- books. The illustration of Atropa belladonna (on p. 178) is poor, and that of Sphagnum (on p. 210) presents a peculiar appearance owing te a common 214 NATURE [May 2, 1912 being inverted. On p. 214 the name “Alg@” should be in clarendon type so as to be in con- formity with the other groups, such as fungi, lichens, &c.; and on p, 218 the spore-bearing plants with stem and leaves might be well termed Archegoniates, but not “ Bryophyta.” The translators are to be congratulated upon putting before the English public a most interest- ing elementary work on botany, and one which cannot fail to be stimulating to the junior student. The second work treats of the flowers of twenty- five species of British plants, each one of which is illustrated by a photograph in colours and small text-illustrations of various parts of the flower. The text is very well written, and is full of folk-lore and legends concerning the plants dealt with. One useful feature of the book 1s the description of the pollination of the various flowers, but it must be mentioned that through- out the book the author makes the technical error of using the word “fertilisation” for pollination. This is the only flaw in a book which is an ex- cellent one of its kind, and which would make a charming gift to any person interested in wild flowers. The majority of the plates are good, the best of them being the illustrations of Arum maculatum, the crab-apple, the cowslip, and the toothwort. The colouring of the gorse, and especially that of Orchis mascula, is scarcely true to life. In the third publication there are ten chapters dealing with “Plant Life and Evolution.” All are good, from the admirable introductory chapter to the concluding one on the ‘Origin of Species.” The chapters dealing with the factors in evolution, with environment and adaptation, are excellent, but perhaps the best section of the book is that on the “Problems of Plant Distribu- tion.” Prof. Campbell’s account of the “Origin of Land-plants ” is just such a brief summary as so many students require, but it should be re- marked that in it the author inclines to Bower’s antithetic view of alternation of generations. The chapter on “Seed-plants” is a good résumé on the evolution of Gymnosperms, There is some doubt whether diatoms are so recent in origin as suggested by the author, and not everyone would agree that Euglena structurally more like an animal than a plant.’’ The book must be considered as a_ valuable addition to the smaller text-books on botany, and exactly suited to the student who has mastered the elements of botany, and requires an insight into the principles of evolution. The intermediate text-book by Mr. Evans is an ccs 1S attempt by the author to condense a rather large NO. 2218, VOL. 89] amount of fact into a relatively small space. It is pervaded throughout by a looseness of ex- pression, and the mistakes in the earlier part of the book are almost too numerous to mention. Some of these errors are serious from the point of view of the student. The treatment of the Spermatophytes is much better, but even here the author’s account of photosynthesis would be much improved by careful revision. On the whole, one could not recommend this book to an “Tntermediate”’ student unless considerably revised. OUR BOOKSHELF. Hydro-Electric Practice. A Practical Manual of the Development of Water Power, its Con- version to Electric Energy, and its Distant Transmission. By H. A. E. C. von Schon. Second edition. Pp. xvii+383. (Philadelphia and London: J. B. Lippincott Company, 1911.) Price 25s. net. WE heartily welcome this second edition of Mr. von Schon’s admirable treatise on ‘‘ Hydro- I:lectric Practice.” Although only four years. have elapsed since the first edition appeared, general interest in hydro-electric schemes has. greatly increased, partly, no doubt, due to the way in which the public imagination has been fired by the possibilities of electrochemical and. electrometallurgical processes, particularly as. applied to the manufacture of iron and steel, and to the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen. It is on. this, if on no other, account to be regretted that the book deals solely with conditions as they exist in America, and that no illustrations are drawn from the vast water-power schemes now in course of construction or operation in Norway, for example. As in the first edition, the book consists. essentially of two portions, the first a general’ survey of hydro-electric projects and possibilities, intended for the investor and capitalist rather than for the engineer, and the second portion a really valuable account of the design and con- struction of a water-power equipment which will be indispensable to engineers actually engaged in constructional work. The sections dealing with the electrical equip- ment are somewhat meagre, and they should at least have been supplemented by a full biblio- graphy of the extensive existing literature cover- ing this branch of the subject. It is a pity that the author should have dis figured his otherwise perfectly lucid descriptions by writing such a sentence as is to be found on p- 25, in which the terms ‘‘energy” and’ ‘‘power ’’ are used indiscriminately in hopeless confusion. Again, why ‘‘ cubic second feet ”’ in- stead of ‘“‘ cubic feet per second’’? These may | seem, and no doubt are, small points, but a writer who uses scientific terms loosely is bound’ to arouse suspicion; in this instance at least May 2, 1912] NATURE 215 the suspicion would be quite unfounded, and the author is merely putting an easily avoidable obstacle in the way of a general acceptance of his treatise by responsible engineers. Mendelism. By Prof. R. C. Punnett. Third edition. Pp. xiv+176. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1911.) Price 5s. net. Att who knew Prof. Punnett’s little book entitled ** Mendelism ”’ in its original form will welcome the greatly amplified edition of it which he has now published. This edition has been entirely re- written, and is illustrated by five coloured plates. Prof. Punnett’s book, in its original form, did so much to familiarise the public with Mendelian phenomena and hypotheses that the present work requires no recommendation from ‘‘the old shuffling bribed sots, called Reviewers,’’ to use the words of William Cobbett. The book is especially valuable because it is, in the words of the author, ‘‘in some measure a record of the work accomplished by the Cam- bridge School of Genetics.” If the book were a complete record (which, of course, it is not), the work of that school would be an achievement of which a larger group of investigators working over a longer period of time might well be proud. The theories which have been put forward to explain the new facts may or may not survive the test of future experiment and criticism; they may be nearer the truth than the more cautious of us dare to hope. But whether they survive these tests or not, the new facts discovered con- stitute a solid advance in human knowledge which the carpings of those who criticise the theories put forward to explain these new facts cannot rob of one iota of its value. The attempt to answer the question how far the Mendelian theory as held by Prof. Punnett approximates to the true explanation (if we may make the extravagant assumption that there can be such a thing) is a fascinating exercise for those who are more interested in the relation between the human mind and the so-called objec- tive world than in the objective world itself. But this is neither the time nor the place to discuss the truth of the Mendelian hypothesis. It is enough, for the present, that the Cambridge School of Genetics has contributed handsomely to the capital of our knowledge of hereditary phenomena, and that the book before us is an admirable presentation of these contributions. Boiler Draught. By H. Keay Pratt. Pp. vii+ 138. (London: Constable and Co., Ltd., 1911.) Price 4s. net. In this little book the author has endeavoured to assist those to whom the efficient working ot steam plant is of importance by explanations of methods of determining whether existing arrange- ments are satisfactory. The book opens with a number of elementary calculations regarding the pressure, volume, weight, and temperature of air, and the resistance to flow. Calculations in rela- tion to chimney, forced, and induced. draught NO. 2218, VoL. 89] , follow. There are also sections dealing with the construction of chimneys, the applications of mechanical draught for land and marine purposes, and the chemistry of combustion. The treatment of the subject is designed to suit those practical men whose knowledge of mathematics and. science may be scanty. Indeed, the author states in his preface that while mathematical investiga- tion is well appreciated, the results are likely to be greatly misleading if relied on too completely to the exclusion of practical experience. ‘‘ It is for this reason that men of high scientific attain- ments are sometimes at fault when they have to tackle a problem in practical work.’’ That there may be another side to this question is also rendered very clear in the book. Thus in chapter vi. are given methods of calculating the approximate over-all dimensions of a fan. The methods employed can give rough results only, yet we find data stated to five significant figures and worked into the calculations, including one case of the weight of a cubic foot of water taken as 62°418 lb. While many valuable results and suggestions occur here and there, obtained from the author’s practical experience, there is very little reference to recent experimental work, such as that conducted at the Manchester School of Technology and elsewhere. LETTERS TO THE EDITOR. [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of NaturE. No notice is taken of anonymous communications. ] Burdon Sanderson and Vitalism. In his interesting and sympathetic notice, in Nature of March 21, of the Memoir of Burdon Sanderson, your reviewer discusses Burdon Sander- son’s attitude towards ‘“‘vitalism,’ and thinks that the editors of the Memoir (my sister and myself) have scarcely represented this attitude satisfactorily. Our task in this connection was a somewhat difficult one, and we may have failed in it; but the grounds of the difficulty are of so much general scientific interest that it may perhaps be worth while to refer to them more fully. We quoted in the Memoir from the following letter, written by Burdon Sanderson from Algiers in 1904 to Miss Florence Buchanan, D.Sc. (who was then assisting him), with reference to a general paper which he was endeavouring, in the face of ill-health, to prepare on the general results of his electro-physiological work. “From your pencil notes on my MS. I take it that you regard as the result of an investigation of the excitatory process the complex of data relating to localisation, time-relations, and intensity of elec- trical change—all of these being measurements. To me it appears that when you have got by measure- ment a complete knowledge of what happens elec- trically (intensity, localisation, and _ time-relations), this knowledge, however exact it may be, is of no value unless it enables you to conjecture the nature of the excitatory process of which these phenomena are the concomitants. “The excitatory process can best be defined as a sudden transition from less functional activity (the 210 NATURE [May 2, 1612 so-called rest state) to greater. It is not a measur- able physical change, but a vital one which cannot be measured, and which therefore lies outside the scope of scientific knowledge. The two acts which seem to constitute the excitatory process, viz. excita- tion and response, are not continuous, but are joined together by a non-measurable link. This link is a subject of scientific conjecture, not of scientific know- ledge; for nothing that is not measurable is known. It is, in short, something which is involved in organism, for which the most proper designation is organismal, “The point to be emphasised is that the organismal link or nexus is the essential part of the excitatory process; for neither the physical effect of the stimulus nor that of the response is effectual by itself. It is only when these two are coupled by the organismal nexus that the excitatory process is constituted. “The propagation of the excitatory process thus constituted tales place, not through or by any measurable process, but is wholly and solely organismal, and therefore not measurable. The electrical machinulee are acted on by the organismal stuff, and not by their neighbours. Propagation is a vital process, not a physical one. “The purpose of the paper will be (in case it is ever written) to show (1) that the mere statement of measurable data stops short of its purpose because it misses the essential fact in the excitatory process; (2) that every electrical change accompanying excita- tion which is cyclical corresponds to a single organ- ismal change; (3) that the organismal change is modified by (a) exhaustion and (b) injury, these being localised (a) at the proximal contact and (b) at the distal, and having opposite signs.” (Here, of course, the ligatured muscle preparation is re- ferred to.) While your reviewer is certainly right in empha- sising, as, indeed, we have done in the Memoir, Burdon Sanderson’s strong objections to vitalism, it seems to me that in this letter he also lays his finger, deliberately and accurately, on the weal spot in the physico-chemical theory of life. It is the connection between ‘‘physical’’ or ‘‘chemical” stimulus and “ physiological’? response that is unintelligible from the point of view of the physico-chemical theory of life. Burdon Sanderson concluded that this connec- tion lies outside the scope of scientific knowledge, and in this way he avoided the many scientific diffi- culties and defects of traditional vitalism. But we felt bound to point out the gap which is left if no attempt is made to deal scientifically with what he calls (the italics are his own) “the essential part of the excitatory process.” In every department of physiology there is the same gap; and what remains for exact physical and chemical investigation would seem to be only the outer fringe of the real pheno- mena. . J. S. Harpane. Oxford, April 16. A Peculiarity in the Shadows Observed during a Partial Eclipse of the Sun. Durinc the recent partial eclipse of the sun, I observed a peculiarity in the shadows cast by the sun’s rays which may be worth recording. If eclipses occurrea more frequently, this peculiarity would be familiar to everyone; as it is, I am not aware that it has been noticed, which is probably due to the fact that the attention of most observers was concentrated on the appearance of the sun itself. : While the eclipse was progressing I was walking along a country road white with dust. Along the edge of the road were young trees about 15 ft. high, decked with small, undeveloped leaves. The shadows NO. 2218, VOL. 89| of these trees, cast on the road, presented a peculiar appearance. What first attracted my attention was the number of salient angles in the shadows: these angles were not due to the shapes of the leaves, which were practically oval. A closer scrutiny re- vealed the fact that, where a leaf was isolated, its shadow took the form of a crescent; in fact, each such shadow was a negative image of the visible portion of the sun’s disc. This observation recalled to my mind a _ pheno- menon to which my attention was directed some years ago by Mr. L. H. Winn. Mr. Winn observed that if a white screen be placed at some distance from a window which looks towards the sky, and a pencil be placed between the window and the screen, the shadow of the pencil takes the form of a faint negative image of the window, the vertical sashes being represented by bright lines, while the clear panes are represented by dark rectangles. Mr. Winn explained this phenomenon correctly by tracing the paths of individual rays; he also performed a number of other experiments which confirmed his reasoning. The explanation which will be given in this communi- cation is of a somewhat more general character, and is a particular instance of Babinet’s principle. The following laboratory experiments illustrate the pheno- menon to be explained in a striking manner, and, at the same time, suggest its explanation. Let a magic lantern (preferably illuminated with an arc lamp) be directed towards a white screen at a distance of 15 to 20 ft. Remove the focussing lens and cover the condenser with tissue paper. Next, let the circular illuminated area of the tissue paper be partly covered with an opaque disc, so that a brightly illuminated crescent remains visible. Place a sheet of cardboard, in which a hole about a centimetre in diameter has been bored, between the lantern and the screen. An inverted positive image of the illumin- ated crescent is formed on the screen: this image is produced in accordance with the principles which are exemplified by the pinhole camera. When the per- forated sheet of cardboard is removed, the illumina- tion of the screen is approximately uniform; and if a small ball about a centimetre in diameter, sus- pended by a fine thread, is placed in the position previously occupied by the perforation in the screen, it will cut off those rays which, by themselves, would form a positive inverted image on the screen. The part of the screen which was previously rendered bright by the rays which passed through the perfora- tion in the card is now rendered dark by the inter- ception of these rays, and the shadow of the ball takes the form of a dark crescent, which is'a negative inverted image of the bright crescent from which the rays emanate. The ball must be placed so far from the screen that the umbra of the shadow is not formed; for the rest, there is considerable latitude as to the position in which the ball is placed. A body of about the same size, but with a shape differing considerably from the ball, casts an identical shadow. If a larger body is used, its shadow still has the form of an inverted negative image of the extended source of light, but the definition is less perfect. If the disc which partly covers the illuminated tissue paper be removed, and a sheet of card, in which a stencil letter has been cut, is substituted for it, an inverted negative image of the stencil letter is obtained on the screen. Instead of the stencil letter, we may use a letter painted in transparent red on the tissue paper, the remainder of the illuminated area being painted blue; in this case the shadow of the ball thrown on the screen takes the form of an inverted image of the letter in blue, on a reddish ground. These experiments show that when light from am i a May 2, 1912] NATURE 207, extended source throws the shadow of a small object on a screen, under such conditions that the umbra of the shadow is not formed, then the shadow is the negative inverted image of the source of light. Another shadow phenomenon observed during the partial eclipse may be mentioned here, although its explanation is obvious. In cases where the leaves of trees were so far advanced that most of the sun’s rays were intercepted by them, the rays which passed through the small apertures between the leaves formed on the ground positive inverted images of the visible part of the sun’s disc. The oval patches of light seen on the ground beneath thick trees under ordinary conditions of sunlight are due to the same cause. During the eclipse, the rays of the sun re- flected from the free surface of water in a small glass formed a positive inverted image of the visible crescent of the sun on the walls or ceiling of the room in which the glass was placed. Epwin EDsErR. Halo during the Solar Eclipse of April 17. As Nature contains no mention of the circular halo that appeared for about half an hour during the solar interest, for possibly the appearance was very local. I was in the south of the Isle of Wight, at sea- level, and noticed, just as the air began perceptibly to cool, that a faint and very gauzy film of cloud collected round the sun. This was transparent enough for the sun to appear through it unmasked, but just dense enough somewhat to relieve the glare and make it possible to take hasty glances at the sun itself with the naked eye. After the clouds drifted into position, they remained through the whole time of the eclipse, but disappeared when the sun’s warmth returned. Shortly after their accumu- lation I saw a perfectly circular halo; this was coloured, but the bands of colour were only red, yellow, and greenish. The halo gradually increased in apparent diameter until it faded, as the eclipse waned. Marie C. Sropes. University College, London, April 27. The Smoke Problem. UnperR this head an anonymous notice appeared in Nature of April 11 of a little volume by Mr. Ruston and myself, in which the reviewer refers to certain ““weaknesses in what is otherwise so excellent a work.” As the ‘‘ weaknesses” form the bulk of the review, I have permission to try to explain them. The first ‘‘weakness”’ is in reference to the origin of soot, which we ascribe partly to mechanical re- moval of dust and partly to incomplete combustion. The reviewer denies that coal-dust is a product of incomplete combustion, and also that tar and free carbon are formed in the destructive distillation of coal. I had imagined that tar and coke were among the principal by-products of the gas industry. The next criticism occurs in the paragraph that follows, and refers‘ to the amount of tar (we call “‘tar"’ the oil extracted by ether from soot and coal) in the original coals. The reviewer concludes, after citing some of our analyses, ‘‘surely the authors do not believe that a ton of these coals contains about a couple of gallons of ready-made tar.’ But suppose the authors have the weakness to accept the results of their analyses, what then? The reviewer offers no suggestion. In the next paragraph the reviewer finds fault with the statement: ‘‘The chimney gases were drawn off at the rate of about a litre a minute (i.e. through a NO. 2218, VoL. 89] narrow brass tube), which would approach the speed of the gases passing up the flue.’’ Although he is | good enough to interpret the passage for us in the | used that is the important factor.” only way in which it could possibly be interpreted, he concludes with the remarkable non sequitur that “if the flue draught was a litre a minute, it is no wonder their figures are abnormal.’’ Of course, there is no such suggestion that the flue draught was a litre a minute (which has no meaning, unless the area of the flue is known), nor is it so stated. Having made this gratuitous assumption, on what grounds does he conclude that our figures are abnormal? What are the normal figures? I believe that the figures of the late Sir W. Roberts-Austen and our own are the only records of the kind, and they substantially agree. In the next paragraph, among other remarkable items of information, is the statement that ‘‘the per- centage of soot to carbon burnt is of no practical importance. It is the percentage loss on the fuel The reviewer apparently fails to see that (1) the entire object of the experiments was to ascertain the amount of soot emitted, and (2) the percentage of soot on carbon | burnt can be easily calculated on the fuel used if the eclipse on April 17, the following facts may be of | amount of carbon in the fuel is known (as it was in every case). I do not wish to extend this reply by referring to our other ‘‘ wealxnesses,’’ which are of the same gross order. I can only thank the editor for his courtesy in giving me his permission to show how and where some of them, at least, may have had their origin. J. B. Couen. In the above remarks by Prof. J. B. Cohen on the review of ‘‘Smoke: a Study of Town Air,’”’ which appeared in Narure of April 11, the reviewer is first taken to task for denying that ‘‘coal-dust is a pro- duct of incomplete combustion, and also that tar and free carbon are formed in the destructive distillation of coal.’ The passage in the review was: ‘‘ Dust is not, as a rule, a product of incomplete combustion, nor is the tar and free carbon formed in the destruc- tive distillation of coal.’ The reviewer is still of opinion that coal-dust is not a product of incomplete combustion; by a strong chimney draught some coal- dust may be drawn up the flue, but it has certainly not been produced by combustion (unless Prof. Cohen looks upon the natural formation of coal as a process of incomplete combustion). Prof. Cohen elects to read the second part of the sentence as a denial that tar and coke are formed during gas manufacture, but it is doubtful if anyone else will do so; the reviewer’s statement is that the tar and free carbon formed in the destructive distillation of coal are not products of incomplete combustion. The authors give analyses of the original coal used in some of their experiments, and amongst the con- stituents of the coal figure certain percentages of tar, in one case amounting to 1-64 per cent.; and the reviewer says: ‘Surely the authors do not believe that a ton of these coals contains about a couple of gallons of ready-made tar.’’ To this Prof. Cohen replies: ‘“‘But suppose the authors have the weak- ness to accept the results of their analyses, what then? The reviewer offers no suggestion.” If the authors do believe it, I am afraid they would take any suggestion the reviewer could make as an impertinence. In replying to the criticism with regard to the rate of flow of the chimney gases in the flue, Prof. Cohen quotes from the book, and inserts five words which make the meaning clear, but which were not in the original paragraph. NATURE [May 2, ro12 Prof. Cohen claims that his figures for soot forma- tion agree substantially with those obtained by the late Sir W. Roberts-Austen; but do they? Sir W. Roberts-Austen’s figure was 6 per cent. of soot on the coal burned, whilst Prof. Cohen’s figure is 6:5 per cent. of soot on the carbon burnt to carbon dioxide—carbon dioxide being the product of com- plete combustion, whilst soot has been defined by the authors as a product of incomplete combustion. As pointed out in the review, no such method as that employed by the authors can give even approxi- | mately accurate results unless the carbon escaping as carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons is also estimated ; and when Prof. Cohen says that the reviewer fails to see that the percentage of soot on carbon burnt can be easily calculated on the fuel used if the amounts of carbon in the fuel and carbon dioxide in the flue gases are known, he is truly stating the case. In conclusion, I can only say that my opinion of the book is unchanged by Prof. Cohen’s reply, and that it is a pity that so excellent a work has been marred by the points to which attention was directed in the review THe REVIEWER. Remains of Prehistoric Horse in the Stort Basin. WirHIN the last few weeks a metatarsal and an astragalus identical in type with those previously found at Bishop’s Stortford (see Report B.A., Ports- mouth meeting, Ig1I, p. 521) have been exhumed from beneath 3 ft. of native peat and 2 ft. of an overlying pond-silt of probably outwash from the Boulder Clay capping of the Essex Plateau. The site is about 300 ft. O.D. at Pledgdon Hall Farm, in the parish of Henham, on the left bank of the brook which flows through Stansted Mountfichet into the Stort. I am contemplating further excava- tion, with the kind permission of Sir Walter Gilbey, the proprietor. I may say that the shallow cutting for the new light railway to Thaxted makes the stratigraphy of the high ground to the north of this minor upland valley quite clear; and there again we have evidence of the ‘‘rubble-drift’” movement on the hill-slope, of which I have already recorded a good number of examples in the Stort Valley. I reserve details until the excavation has been carried further. Meanwhile, it may be interesting to note here the exhumation of a fairly complete skeleton of probably a medizeval ox (a ‘‘stray,’’ perhaps, of the time of the ancient Essex ‘‘forest-laws’’). The characteristic structural features of the skull rank it very closely with the type furnished by the remains of Bos from Newstead, as described by Prof. J. C. Ewart, F.R.S. (“On . Skulls of Oxen from the Roman Military Station at Newstead, Melrose,”’ Proceedings. of the Zoological Society of London, 1911, text-figure 74), while the lower jaw and its dentition present us with but a slight modification of those of the Bos primi- genius of the glacial shingle of the Stort Valley, at the: same time. differing strongly from those of B. longifrons (see B.A. Report, loc. cit.). This Essex ox-skeleton was cut through by Mr. H. G. Featherby, of Bishop’s Stortford, in sinking an iron cylinder on the site of a spring for water supply to the farm. It was found in what is probably interglacial gravelly sand, and beneath some 3 ft. of remanié boulder clay stuff, which had worked down (‘rubble-drift ’? again) from the Boulder Clay capping of the plateau above. It was evidently one of a number of landslides, which have furrowed the sloping meadows on both sides of the brook at Collier Street Farm, on the Barrington Hall Estate, in the parish of Hatfield Broad Oak. Bishop’s Stortford, April 27. A. IrvING. No. 2218, vot. 89] An Anode Dark Space in the Discharge in Oxygen. Ir may be of interest to readers of Nature to know that I have recently obtained unmistakable evidence of an anode dark space in the discharge in oxygen at low pressures. The anode which ex- hibited this remarkable phenomenon was an | aluminium plate which had been used as an anode during an extended series of measurements of the Crookes dark space with kathodes of different metals. As these were continued for some months, and as the phenomenon was not noticed when the anode was fresh, one is inclined to connect the occurrence with the excessive fatigue of the metal surface. The anode dark space is a region of comparative darkness just in front of the anode, and can only be seen when the latter is immersed in the bright nega tive glow. Its thickness is small, but as its edge is exceedingly sharp, it can be measured with fair accuracy. The rough values already obtained are very interesting, as they show it to be entirely un- affected by changes of pressure and to vary inversely as the square root of the current density; with the latter at one-tenth of a milliampere per sq. cm., its value is about 1-2 mm. in pure oxygen. The same anode showed it, though faintly, in air and nitrogen, but no trace of it could be observed in hydrogen. F. W. Aston. Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge, April 25. May Meteor-showers. Tue following meteor-showers become due during the period May 1-24, their arrangement being accord- ing to the times of the principal maxima :— Epoch May 3, oh. 30m. (G.M.T.), approximately tenth order of magnitude. Principal maximum, May 3, 22h. 5om.; secondary maxima, May 3, 18h, 50m., and May 5, 19h. 4om. Epoch May 4, sh., third order of magnitude. Principal maximum, May 4, 5h. 10m.; secondary maximum, May 4, 17h. 50m. Epoch May 8, r1h., twelfth order of magnitude. Principal maxima, May 5, 13h. 25m., and May 7, toh. 1om.; secondary maximum, May 7, 12h. 20m. Epoch May 8, 14h. 30m., approximately fifteenth order of magnitude. Principal maximum, May 9, 13h. rom.; secondary maximum, May 9, oh. 4om. Epoch May 12, 23h. 30m., twenty-fifth order of magnitude. Principal maximum, May 11, 16h. 15m.; secondary maxima, May 9, 19h. 30m., and May 12, Epoch May 13, toh., approximately twenty-fifth order of magnitude. Principal maximum, May 13, 15h. 55m., May 14, 23h. 25m., and May 16, 1rh. 45m. Epoch May 19, 6h., fifteenth order of magnitude Principal maximum, May 18, 17h.; secondary maxi. mum, May 18, oh. 55m. Epoch May 10, 18h., fourteenth order of magni- tude. Principal maximum, May 18, 5h. 30m.-: secondary maxima, May 19, 13h. 55m. and 16h. 5m. Epoch May tg, 18h., thirteenth order of magnitude. Principal maxima, May 19, 20h. 55m., and May 21 16h. 55m.; secondary maxima, May 21, sh. 45m. and 12h. 50m. Epoch May 21, 22h., second order of magnitude. Principal maximum, May 23, 13h. 45m.; secondary maxima, May 22, toh. 30m., and May 23, 7h. 30m. The intensity of an epoch being inversely as its order of magnitude, the greatest meteoric activity occurs on May 4 and May 23. The epoch of May 21. 22h., apart from its high intensity, is a very interest ing epoch, and this remark applies also to the double epoch of May 10, 18h. April 20. Joun R. Henry. May 2, 1912] NATURE 219 McClean and Mr. W. N. McClean, and myself, for it is possible that these observations, com- bined with those made by other observers, may France. help to locate the exact path of the moon’s ' pee recent eclipse of the sun was of interest | shadow as it swept across the country, and so from several points of view, but chiefly in | determine the differences between the observed the opportunity it afforded of determining the | and the numerous calculated tracks. We arrived at Paris in the f h pet i ~~ 4 1\ L722 la Fret XQ. “Cormeilles. en Ph early morning of the eclipse day O° Vernodilety WW ncnthes\ .fOR— 5] ye (r7th), and decided to take up SS rh} - ; Reeeees Our position on a portion of the j track which would possibly be less frequented by other ob- servers. We had heard that the region about Saint Germain-en- Laye, a point easily reached by train from Paris, would be fully occupied, so we determined to intercept the track more to the south-westward. The accompanying chart (Fig. 1) shows the region to the north- west of Paris, with Saint Ger- main-en-Laye near the centre. The several lines lying in the direction south-west to north- east are the positions of the tracks of the shadow in that region as given by the various authorities. Thus, commencing with the upper one and working downwards, they represent the »Fic. r.—The region to the north-west of Paris, showing the several computed lines for the central pesiions Sepia by (1) une Bete eclipkettoni(s) °Gerliner Jahrbuch,” (a) © Naniiexi Almeniac,” (4) Dr. (Cesare ncaa “Berliner Jahrbuch,” (2) “Nauti- Ephemeris,” (5) ‘‘ Connaissance des Temps,” (6) ‘‘Carte du Bureau des Longitudes.” cal Almanac,” (3) Dr. Cromme- lin, (4) ‘““American Ephemeris,” exact path of the moon’s shadowand theduration | (5) ““Connaissance des Temps,”. and (6) “Carte du of totality. It was well known that there existed | Bureau des Longitudes.” This chart is a portion a great deal of uncertainty as to both these | of a much larger chart published recently in items, the calculations depending on the different values employed. rt oo Ce me SNC Rr Ea It was generally considered fairly certain that the total phase would be observed from stations near the north of Portugal and Spain, and that totality would only last for a second or two at most if the correct position were selected. It was my intention to have proceeded on April 5 to Ovar, in Portugal, and place myself as near the centre of the track as possible, relying on the calcula- tions of Dr. Crommelin, but un- fortunately unforeseen circum- stances rendered it impossible for me to undertake the journey. I was enabled, however, at a later date (16th) to go to Fic. 2.—The main road (looking westward) from which we made our observations. Paris and observe the annular phase from a station some miles outside that | L’Astronomie, but here the track calculated by capital. Dr. Crommelin has been indicated. The present communication deals with the Being unaware of the position of Dr. Crom- observations made by my companions, Mr. Frank | melin’s line, we decided to place ourselves on that NO. 2218, VOL. 89] THE SOLAR ECLIPSE OF APRIL 17. The Annular Eclipse as Observed near Chavenay, Jp Porc 5 * 220 NATURE [May 2, 1912 indicated by the “American Ephemeris.” A motor-car made it possible easily to reach the spot we selected, which lay on a part of a main road about three-quarters of a mile to the north- east of the village of Chavenay. This village is marked with a black disc in Fig. 1, and our camp is shown by a black circle near it. The locality in which we settled was rather high, in slightly undulating country and very open, so that we had a good view for miles in all directions. The accompanying photograph (Fig. 2) shows the country looking westward along the main road. We had this region all to ourselves, for only four other persons were within a quarter of a mile of us on either side of our position. The weather was all that could be desired, only very small patches of cloud moving lazily in the sky. After first con- tact had taken jplace at about 1oh. 48m. (the times mentioned are only approxi- mate), we gave ourselves up to noting any pecu- liarities that might be worth record- ing. There was scarcely a breath of wind, and a balloon which was silently making captive ascents at about a mile from us appeared to go vertically up and down. A little later we experi- enced some small intermittent breezes from the south. Numerous skylarks were singing merrily above and around us, and twice the whirr of the Gnome engine was heard when a biplane and monoplane came over in our direction from the south. Two hawks were soaring leisurely in the sky in our vicinity, and one went off south-eastward and seemed to try to outvie the captive balloon, which was then quite still at its greatest altitude. As the sunlight grew appreciably more feeble and everything began to take on that weird, ashen hue so typical of eclipses, the skylarks were hushed and a few birds flew by as if homeward bound. This was at about five minutes past twelve, or about five minutes before the maxi- mum phase. Observing with a pair of binoculars (magnifying No. 2218, VOL. 89] 2°5 times) shielded with dark glasses fixed to the front of the objectives, I watched the progress of the moon over the sun. At first the crescent sun had been growing less and less in length, but at a later stage, as second contact was approaching, the thin remaining crescent began to lengthen out, at first slowly and then more rapidly. Just beyond the end of the horn of the crescent in the south-eastern quadrant I observed the summit of a prominence (orientation about 8 o'clock), quite isolated, and I called to the others to notice it. The further movement of the moon allowed more of it to be brought into view, | and the well-known ‘“ Baily’s beads” had already begun to be clearly observed along the limb, Fic. 3.—The eclipse as observed just before the beginning of the annular phase. successively forming in an anti-clockwise direc- tion. Almost simultaneously with the above appear- ance a like phenomenon was happening in the north-western quadrant. The “beads” were forming there in a clockwise direction, and a prominence also became visible (orientation about 2 o'clock), though of smaller dimensions (radially) than that seen in the other quadrant. The successive formation of the “beads” in both quadrants reminded me vividly of the electric night sky-signs in London, when numerous nearly adjacent small incandescent lamps are succes- sively lighted up. So far as I could see, the phenomenon was symmetrical in both quadrants, neither quadrant ne ae — a May 2, 1912] NATURE 221 predominating in intensity. Both these sets of strings of “beads” travelled, or rather were successively formed, until they almost met in the middle of the limb in the south-west quadrant. Unfortunately I could not observe any longer, as I had previously arranged at this stage to move a lever on my Thorp grating camera to expose a plate for one second; thus my attention had to be turned to the instrument. When I looked up again, about two seconds afterwards, the sunlight had just begun to break out in the south-western quadrant. The accompanying sketch (Fig. 3) illustrates approximately the conditions I observed just previous to the beginning of the annular phase. The impression I gained was that the eclipse, from our point of observation, must have been very nearly if not actually central. Mr. Frank McClean, who was likewise observ- ing, also concluded that the eclipse was central; he recorded prominences at about 9, 1, and 7.30 o'clock, and estimated the duration as two or three seconds. Mr. W. N. McClean observed two prominences, one at 8 o’clock and the other at half-past one, and both were visible, according to him, “some time before Baily’s beads flashed out round the dark are.” The eclipse “appeared to be quite central, and the duration of darkness about two seconds.” Our attention being fixed on the immediate region of the sun, no observations were made of stars, planets, shadow-bands, or such like pheno- mena. Since my return to London, Dr. Crommelin kindly communicated to me the position of his predicted line of central eclipse, and this I have inserted in Fig. 1. This line, it will be seen, lies a little to the north of that representing the American prediction. Dr. Crommelin saw the eclipse well from a station on the road from St. Germain-en-Laye, just north-west of the railway crossing, and in the above mentioned communica- tion he says, “But from the actual result I think that the true line was nearer the ‘American Ephemeris’ line than my line.” Wriuiam J. S. Lockyer. French Observations of the Eclipse. In the Comptes rendus for April 22 (No. 17) there are seventeen papers giving accounts of the observa- tions made, chiefly by French observers, during the eclipse of the sun which took place on April 17, but in the following notes we can only refer to some of the more important results. M. Deslandres organised a very complete set of observations at Meudon, and also despatched observers to Grignon, where M. Bernard used a large spectrograph with a circular slit fed by a ccelostat, and other members of the expedition took direct photographs of the sun through red screens. At both stations excellent results were secured. At Meudon M. Perot’s attempt to measure the rotational velocity of the corona was frustrated by the fact that he could only be sure of measuring the wave-length of the green corona line on the west NO. 2218, VoL. 89] side of the sun, 1’ from the limb just before the maximum phase. By a rapid setting he found the wave-length to be 5303-7, the value published by Sir Norman Lockyer. The spectroheliograms secured show that, although there were no spots or faculz on the disc, there was considerable activity, in the form of prominences and dark filaments, in the upper layers of the solar atmo- sphere, especially near the poles. M. Deslandres sug- gests that at sun-spot minimum the activity is transferred from the lower to the higher layers and | latitudes. The positions, dimensions, and intensities of the chief prominences shown on the photographs in “K” (calcium) light, taken with the smaller spectro- ae at 8h. 56m., are shown in the following table :-— Latitude E. or W. Breadth Height Intensity o e 4“ (1-5) 22N. E I 40 a I 47 N. E 3 75 4 17 N. W. 2 10 2 5319, B. 2°5 50 5 47 S. W 15 60 5 28 S. W 7 30 3 I2/S. se W 2 25 2 It will be seen that the largest prominence (47° S.) was duplicated by one diametrically opposite, and it will be interesting to see the coronal extensions in these localities if such have been photographed. Photographs taken with the spectroheliographe polychrome show that the congeries of particles were more intense thereabouts than in the neigh- bouring regions, and a similar intensification is shown on the plates taken with the large spectro- heliograph, using the green coronal line. At Grignon the red-screen photographs show the larger prominences, but no details attributable solely to the corona. The photographs with the large photoheliograph are 10 in. in diameter, and should furnish exact measures of position; the central line was obviously south of the observing station at Grignon. M. Bigourdan gives a chart of the positions of his several instruments at Cormeilles-en-Parisis, and finds that he was very near the central line; this was in longitude 0° 7’ 20” W. of Paris, and latitude 48° 58’ 55” N., the altitude being 163 m. Baily’s beads were very fine, and frequently the horns of the decreasing solar crescent were completely detached a Aa interposition of irregularities on the moon’s imb. A little before second contact M. Bigourdan believed he saw the exterior edge of the dark moon projected against the lower corona or the upper chromosphere. M. Eysséric, who _ successfully observed shadow bands at the 1905 eclipse, was un- able to detect any on this occasion. In addition to those actually observing at the observatory itself, the Paris Observatory had several parties located at various points along the eclipse path, and the results secured were so numerous and various in character that but a small part of them may be briefly mentioned here. It appears certain, however, that nowhere in Europe was the eclipse definitely total. Even in Portugal, M. Salet reports, Baily’s beads were to be seen around the moon throughout the whole of the maximum phase, and no one at Ovar saw the corona; he was located near the Bay of Aveiro. Messrs. Slater and Worthington, located about 1-5 km. north of Ovar, saw it for the fraction of a second, and thus it would appear that the ‘“‘Connaissance des Temps” line was too far south. M. Salet’s report would place the central line to to Ny about half-way between it and that given by the “American Ephemeris.”” This was confirmed by observations made from a dirigible, and a captive, balloon, by MM. Fournier and Bourgeois near St. Nom-de-Bretéche, where the respective observers quite independently registered the passing of the shadow at the same moment. M. Giacobini saw Baily’s beads form a chaplet of brilliant points, three or four seconds after maximum phase, which rotated about the lunar circle 180° in eight or ten seconds. Many bright chromospheric arcs are shown on M, Millochau’s plates, taken with the large spectroscope at the Paris Observatory, but the attempt to photo- graph the green coronal radiation was not successful. At his station near St. Nom-de-Bretéche, M. Puiseux saw the bright annulus complete, except for | the breaks caused by lunar mountains, for about two seconds, and estimates that he was but slightly north of the true central line. MM. Esclangon and Stephan, at the Chateau de Talmont (Vendée), recorded that the eclipse was neither total nor annular; Baily’s beads appeared almost instantaneously. They, also, conclude that they were very slightly north of the true central line, and to an observer 4 km. further north the eclipse was palpably not central. Interesting observations were made at the Lyons Observatory, where some 6000 kinematograph pictures were made of a screen on which the images of the sun and moon were projected, and on which a carefully rated watch was also hung. On an aver- age, ten photographs were taken per second, and it is hoped to derive very exact times for the contacts from the results. Encouraged by the fact that at Vavau last year he was able to see, faintly, the green coronal line two minutes after totality, M. Stéfanik prepared to photograph the corona at Cormeilles-en-Parisis, using Wratten green-sensitive plates and suitable screens. But only the inner corona, as a very thin ring, is shown on his plate, and is easily distinguishable from the halation effect. Prof. Ifiguez, at Madrid, found his observations seriously hampered by clouds, but succeeded in see- ing, as very intense and long lines, the bright chromospheric radiations of H, Na, He, and Mg. Although the magnitude of the eclipse was only o-9, he was able to observe the bright lines for some thirty minutes. M. Eginitis, at Athens, observed the times of the contacts, and compares them with the predicted times as follows :— Calculated from the data of the Observed Conn. des Temps Nautical Almanac lot pt, & ean ts. I jb Ge First contact ... 0 54 17 0 54 336 0 54 45'0 Last ,, eT aEZONZs, BONS Sid une SE ZOnaEO As in 1905, the observed are seen to be in advance of the calculated times. An important series of observations was made by L’Ecole Polytechnique at the suggestion of M. Hamy, and under the supervision of M. E. Carvallo. Equipped with field-glasses (x8), the students were echeloned in twos across the eclipse track along a line 12 km. long on the route between Trappes and Neauphle; successive pairs were separated by a distance of 1 hectometre, the idea being to locate exactly the central line and to compare the relative sizes of the lunar and solar discs. At the extremities and at the middle of the echelon photographic and kinematographic, observations were made. The results show that the central line was_ situated 35:5 km. along Route No. 12 from Paris to Brest, and NO. 2218, VOL. 89| WATURE [May 2, Toile lay between the lines predicted by the **Connaissance des Temps’ and the *‘ American Ephemeris,” 500 m. from the former and 2400 m. from the latter. They also showed that the minimum diameter of the moon —between the valleys—was about 1-2” less than that of the sun, while the maximum diameter—including lunar peaks—was about o:8” greater. if [In the article on the eclipse of the sun, in Nature of April 25, for ‘“‘disc’’ in line 23 of column 1 on p- 193 the author should have written ‘limb,’’ and for 12h. 6m. 18s on the next line he should have given th. 31m.]| COLONIAL SURVEYS. ps8 report of the Surveyor-General of New Zealand for the year ending March 31, Igtt, has recently been published, and shows both a larger outturn and a decreased cost under most headings. Topographical survey shows the largest output of more than two and a quarter million acres, while nearly half a million acres were covered by the triangulation. The previous report referred to the urgent need for an effective major triangulation as a control for the very extensive network of minor triangles, and the present report shows work on triangulation of the second order as being done in the Wellington district, but apparently not elsewhere, except a new base-line in Taranaki district. This base-line was almost ten miles long, and formed one of the sides of a polygon of the major triangulation. It was measured twice with each of two standard 1oo-link steel tapes belonging to the survey, thus giving four values for the length. The tape was supported and strained to a tension of 25 lb. in the same manner as a previously measured base which was described in the report of last year, and satisfactory results were ob- tained; the mean values of the two measurements with each of the two tapes differ only by 00445 link on a length of 79,605 links, and the probable error derived from the measurement of the sections of the base is given as being 1 in 5,142,370; the probable error of the base when temperature, standardisation, and such other sources of error are taken into account is not given. Three months were occupied in preparing the line, and forty-five days were occupied in the measurement which gave such good results. At the present time, when base measurement has been so much simplified and cheapened by the use of wires, this base seems long, and the time it required was considerable, but no doubt local reasons were against the use of a shorter base and a base extension network of triangles. Surveyors will regret the absence of technical details in this report, for they would be most interesting and instructive. The accuracy of the triangulation, the density of the points, and the rate of its execution in different districts could be easily included, and would give a far clearer idea of the work described, and the same may be 1 Report on the Survey Operations for the year roro-11. New Zealand Department of Lands. By J. Strauchon, Surveyor-General. (Wellington, OE Fonial Report No. 685. Annual. The Surveys of British Africa, Ceylon, Cyprus, Fiji, Jamaica, Trinidad, and British Honduras for the year 1909-10. Price 1s. 6d. re May 2, 1912] NATURE 23 said of the standard traverses. The regulations of the department (1908) admit the same closure error, 20" for the triangles of both the major and minor triangulation ; but doubtless in the new second order work the average error is much less. Magnetic and seismographic records were regularly obtained at the observatory at Christ- church, and progress was made with the reduction of the observations of the magnetic survey, though no mention is made of an extension of the field work. The most important seismograph traces are reproduced. Tide gauges are in operation at ten ports, and the methods of reducing the observations are dis- cussed. To economise time and labour mechanical computation is largely employed, and mechanical plotting of coordinates with the aid of a co- ordinatograph is about to be introduced. In this connection we note the commencement of precise levelling at Wellington, but neither the instru- ments nor the permissible differences in the work are mentioned The report of the Colonial Survey Committee for the year 1910-11, dealing with the surveying work which is being carried out in the Crown colonies and in Ceylon, contains much interesting information, and shows a steady improvement in peur work. Thee ae onlend | established in 1885 and directed up to the time of his measurement and work connected with it in ten colonies amounted to about 65,o00l., besides about 80,000]. which was expended by Ceylon. Everywhere the need for accurate surveys is felt, and in every colony where work has been done cadastral (landed property) surveys are in progress. For these a higher accuracy for control is needed than for topographical surveys, which are on smaller scales and do not deal with so sharply defined boundaries. The employment of trustworthy triangulation is steadily increasing, but still it is in progress in five only of the nine colonies which report that cadastral surveys are being carried on. For some colonies the accuracy of the work is stated, and triangular closing errors Of 22eto) 16! for second order triangulation and of 8” to 12” for third order triangles speak of ex- cellent work done under conditions which are fre- quently most trying. There are some survey departments which do not report on the accuracy of their work in this way, and the value and interest of the report would be greatly increased if not only the angular precision were stated but generally the accuracy, the rate, and the cost of the different classes of work. The number of control points available for the detail survey is also a matter of great interest to surveyors, and the interchange of such informa- tion on a systematic plan, as is done in the reports of the survey of Indian and of most foreign sur- veys, would be of much value. In Fiji a base-line 19,320 ft. in length was measured with a probable error of field observation of 1 in 4,000,000, but including errors arising from coefficient of error and temperature of the tape and of standardisa- tion, the probable error of the base is put at 1 in 260,000. NO. 2218. voL. 89] The stereophotographic method of sur- , presidency of Johns Hopkins University, vey is being employed here for iuthiee on the scale of 1: 31,250 with 1oo-foot contours. Cyprus appears in the report for the first time, and here a cadastral survey of the landed property in the island has been commenced, as required by the law passed in 1909 for the revaluation and | registration of property in the land; it is based on a triangulation originally executed for topo- graphical purposes, and will therefore need some revision to make it adequate as a control of the registration of small Race El, Goes NOTES. Tue first conversazione of the Royal Society this year will be held in the rooms of the society Burlington House on May 8. for at Dr. C. H. Reap has been elected president of the Society of Antiquaries for the ensuing year. WE regret to see the announcement of the death, on April 28, of Mr. J. Gray, honorary treasurer of the Royal Anthropological Institute and examiner at the Patent Office. Ir is stated in Science that the late Prof. Abbott L. Rotch has bequeathed to Harvard University the Blue Hill Meteorological Observatory, which he death. He has further provided an endowment fund of 10,000l. On Friday, May to, the third May lecture of the Institute of Metals will be delivered by Sir J. Alfred Ewing, K.C.B., F.R.S., on “The Inner Structure of Simple Metals.’’ Cards of invitation admitting to the lecture can be obtained on application to Mr. G. Shaw Scott, secretary of the Institute of Metals, Caxton House, Westminster, S.W. THE annual dinner of the Society of Engineers (Incorporated) will be held at the Criterion Restaurant, Piccadilly Circus, W., on Saturday, May 11, when Mr. John Kennedy, the president, will talke the chair. Among those who have promised to attend are Sir Wm. H. M. Christie, K.C.B., F.R.S., Sir David Gill, K.C.B., F.R.S., Sir Maurice Fitz- maurice, chief engineer to the London County Council, Mr. Alexander Siemens, past-president Inst.C.E., and Mr. H. P. Boulnois, chairman of the Royal Sanitary Institute. Tue Royal Meteorological Society will meet at Southport at the end of next week, by invitation of the Mayor and Corporation. On Saturday, May 11, a popular lantern lecture, ‘“‘A Chat about the Weather,” will be given by Mr. W. Marriott, and on | Monday, May 13, there will be visits to the Marsh- side Anemograph Station and the Fernley Observa- tory, Hesketh Park, succeeded by a meeting of the society, at which the papers to be read are :—Results of hourly wind and rainfall records at Southport, 1902-11, by Mr. J. Baxendell; the south-east trade wind at St. Helena, by Mr. J. S. Dines. Dr. Ira REMSEN has sent in his resignation of the Baltimore, 224 NATURE [May 2, 1912 to talse effect at the end of the present academic year. He succeeded the late Dr. Daniel Coit Gilman, the first president of the University, in 1g02. Dr. Remsen will retain the chair of chemistry, which he has held since 1876, and hopes to find time to return to research work. In his letter to the board of trustees, he points out that the University is con- fronted by new problems, and urges that the policies to deal with them should be entrusted to someone who has ‘ta reasonable expectation of a long term of service.”’ Tue death is reported, at Beguio, in the Philip- pines, of Dr. Paul Caspar Freer, at the age of fifty. He was a graduate in medicine of the Rush Medical College, Chicago, and took the Ph.D. of Munich in 1887. After spending a short time as assistant to Dr. Perkin, at Owens College, Manchester, he joined the staff of Tufts College, Massachusetts. From 1889 to 1903 he was professor of general chem- istry at the University of Michigan. He then went to Manila as superintendent of the Government laboratories there, and in 1905 was appointed director | of the Bureau of Science for the Philippine Islands. He was the editor of The Philippine Journal of Science, and the author of various chemical text- | books and monographs. He had been mentioned recently as a possible successor to Dr. Wiley as chief | of the Bureau of Chemistry at Washington. THE council of the Association des Ingénieurs | électriciens sortis de l’Institut électrotechnique Monte- fiore has circulated the conditions of award of the prize known as the Fondation George Montefiore. The prize represents the accumulated interest at 3 per cent. on a capital of 6o000l., and is awarded every | three years for the best original work on the scien- | tific advancement and progress in the technical appli- cations of electricity in all its branches. The prize was awarded for the first time in 1911, and will be offered again in 1914. The last date for receiving competing works is March 31, 1914, and they should be addressed to M. le Secrétaire-archiviste de la Fondation George Montefiore, l’hétel de 1’Associa- tion, rue St-Gilles, 31, Liége, Belgium. A vERY promising career has been ended prema- turely by the accidental death of Mr. George Borup, who was drowned in Long Island Sound a few days | ago through the upsetting of acanoe. As announced | in last week’s Nature, Mr. Borup was to be one of | the leaders of the expedition which will shortly set out to reach and map Crocker Land, in the north polar seas. He was assistant curator of geology in the American Museum of Natural History, and was well known by his work with Admiral Peary in the expedition to the north pole, and his book “A Tenderfoot with Peary.’’ During the past two and a half years he had been devoting his whole attention to studies in the field and at Yale to fit him thoroughly for scientific geological and geographical exploration. He took up geographical work seriously and from a scientific point of view; and it is with regret that we have to announce the loss of a life from which many years of valuable work were | anticipated. | NO. 2218, VOL. 89| | 0-09 in. | museums APRIL was almost rainless over the south-east of England, and without doubt in a few isolated posi- tions there was absolutely no rain throughout the month. At Greenwich the only rain measured is 0-02 in. on April 9, and with the exception of 0-07 in. on March 31, this is the only rain since March 23. The monthly records of rain at Greenwich from 1815 fail to show any month with so small an amount of rain. The previous smallest amounts are in July, 1821, 0-04 in., and in February, 1891, 0-05 in. The total rainfall in April has only twice fallen below OI in., these being in 1817, 0-06 in., and in 18655,. In the memorable spring drought of 1893 the rainfall for April was o-12 in. The duration of bright sunshine at Greenwich for April was 225 hours, which is 85 hours more than the average of the past thirty years, but it is 25 hours less than the duration of sunshine in April, 1909. The mean temperature for April was 49-7°, which is 1-6° in excess of the average; and on three days, from April 19 to 21, the sheltered thermometer rose to 70° or above. The temperature was generally lower _ towards the end of the month, due to the setting in of a northerly and north-easterly wind. The aggre- ¥ gate rainfall for April was only o-o2 in. at Oxford, - o14 in. at both Dover and Shields, o-19 in. at Clacton-on-Sea, 0-20 in. at Nottingham, and 0-25 in. at Bath. The most recent summary of the weather _ issued by the Meteorological Office shows that for the eight weeks of spring ending April 27 the aggre- | gate rainfall is in excess of the average in all dis- tricts, except in the east of Scotland and in the east and north-east of England, whilst the rainfall since the commencement of the year is everywhere in excess of the average, except in the north and east of Scotland. A CONFERENCE of members of the Museums Association and others interested in the work of museums was held at Stockport on Thursday, April 25. Besides members of the committee of the Stockport Municipal Museum and local visitors, re- presentatives attended from some twenty public in Lancashire, Cheshire, and Yorkshire, including those at Manchester, Liverpool, Sheffield, Hull, Salford, Ralton, Bootle, Rochdale, and Warrington. The conference assembled at the Vernon Park Museum, which was duly inspected. After tea, to which the members were invited by the museum committee, a meeting was held in the Town Hall, under the presidency of Alderman Briggs, Mayor of Stockport, and chairman of the Education Committee, who welcomed the conference on behalf of the Corporation, adding a few words on the value of museums as factors in the education problem of which insufficient use was made. Mr. T. Sheppard (Hull) in a humorous paper gave an interesting account of the development of the Museum of Fisheries and Shipping which was recently opened as a department of the Hull Municipal Museum. The paper contained many practical suggestions and a moral for other curators. ' Mr. R. Butterfield (Keighley) read a short paper advocating the use of three-ply board as a backing May 2, 1912] for cases and other purposes, which led to consider- able discussion; he also exhibited and described a relief model of the district surrounding the Keighley Museum, which could be used as a basis for the elementary teaching of geology, natural history, and history, as well as for geography. Mr. Hewitt (Stockport) read an account of the history of the Stockport Museum, pointing out the difficulties under which it labours, and foreshadowing the lines on which it might profitably be developed. Mucu new light is thrown on the possibility of the production of symmetrically formed prehistoric pottery without the use of the wheel or a regularly con- structed kiln by the researches of the Rev. J. W. Hayes, recorded in the Journal of the Royal Anthro- pological Institute for July-December, 1911. At one small factory at Verwood, near Wimborne, he found most primitive methods in operation for the produc- tion of mill and water pans, the clay being worked up in a tank by barefooted boys, as Italian peasants tread the grapes in a wine-vat, the only tool used, | besides a piece of string to cut the finished article off the wheel when finished, being a piece of hoop iron to smooth the edges of the pot. It is interesting to note that the process of building up the jar by the junction of separate pieces, the joinings being closed by tapping with a mallet, is still apparent in many prehistoric pots in the British Museum. In the issue of the Journal of the Royal Anthro- | pological Institute for July-December, 1911, Major A. O’Brien gives a graphic and interesting account of the difficulties experienced by a district officer in dealing with the guardians of the multitudinous shrines of Mohammedan saints which abound in the valley of the Indus. stitutes the working faith of the majority of the population, and the appeal to Allah or the Prophet is forgotten in the reverence paid to their local vice- regents. All sorts of miracle-working powers are attributed to these holy men, and pilgrimages to their shrines are undertaken to provide for all the ordinary wants and hopes of the peasantry. The permanence of primitive animistic beliefs of this kind is shown in the fact that sanctity clings to certain sites from prehistoric times. Thus at the shrine now occupied by the saint Sakhi Sarwar, in the Dera Ghazi Khan district, men, women and children, Sikhs, Hindus, and Mohammedans alike resort to make vows and present offerings to the officiating guardians, in- cluding a company of old women representing the wife of the holy man, who devote themselves to the collection of dues from female votaries. A SEVENTH report on research work, by Dr. Houston, director of water examinations, has been issued by the Metropolitan Water Board. The search for pathogenic microbes in raw river water, with special reference to the typhoid bacillus, has been continued. Taking all the results together, the study of 20,771 specially selected organisms derived from 215 samples of raw river water has resulted in the discovery of only two typhoid-like microbes. Typhoid bacilli derived directly from the patient, and without cultivation on artificial media, are found to NO. 2218, VOL. 89] NATURE Devotion to these worthies con- | 225 be less resistant and to die out quicker in water than the same organisms after artificial cultivation. The temperature of the water influences the rate of disappearance of typhoid bacilli from water; the effect of low temperature (41° F. to 32° F.) is to delay considerably the diminution in numbers of typhoid bacilli. In a previous report, storage of the raw river water was shown to improve materially the con- dition of the water. Experiments are detailed on the use of a precipitation method (with ‘alumino- ferric ’’) antecedent to storage as an additional means of purification. This is found to possess considerable advantage, but it materially increases the cost of purification. Tue April number of The American Naturalist con- tains the first part of a Harvey lecture delivered by Prof. H. F. Osborn on January 20 on the continuous origin of certain unit characters as observed by a paleontologist. Comment may be reserved until the completion of the report. EeLs, new and otherwise, from all parts of the | world, form the subject of a long article by Dr. H. W. Fowler in the February issue of the Proceedings of the Philadelphia Academy. The forms described as new are nine in number, and two new subgeneric terms are also proposed. It may be noted that the name Leptocephalus conger is adopted for the conger, and that Echidna is employed for another genus, the latter usage barring the application of that term, in a generic sense, to the spiny anteater of Australasia. Fossit whales akin to the modern finners form the subject of an article by Prof. F. W. True, pub- lished as vol. lix., No. 6, of Smithsonian Miscel- laneous Contributions, which mainly consists of a summary of a paper in Danish by Dr. H. Winge. Both writers consider that among a multitude of extinct generic divisions which have been proposed, four are undoubtedly valid, namely, Aulocetus, Ceto- therium, Herpetocetus, and Plesiocetus, and of these, as well as of the two allied existing genera, diagnoses based on osteological characters are appended. As the first portion of a work entitled ‘‘ The Fishes of the Indo-Australian Archipelago,” Drs. Max Weber and L. F. de Beaufort have compiled an index to the ichthyological papers of Pieter Bleeker, pub- lished, as a volume of 410 pp., by E. J. Brill, Ltd., Leyden. Bleeker’s papers are not only very numerous —the more important comprising no fewer than 432— but much scattered; and this index, not only of the articles themselves, but of the genera and species mentioned in them, will prove of great value to ichthyologists. The volume commences with a por- trait and biography of Bleeker, who was born at Zaandam in 1819 and trained as an apothecary. In 1840 he qualified, however, as a surgeon and general practitioner, and in the following year was appointed surgeon in the Dutch East Indian Army. He arrived at Batavia in the spring of 1842, where he spent the greater portion of the next sixteen years, the intervals including sojourns at other stations and a trip to- Celebes and the Moluccas. Here he soon commenced: the study of the local fish-fauna, which culminated ins 226 the issue of the “‘Atlas Ichthyologique des Indes Orientales,” the completion of which was prevented by the death of the author in 1878. In The Kew Bulletin (1912, No. 3), J. H. Holland gives a useful review of the sources whence alcohol is obtained, these sources being treated under the heads of fruits, grain, roots, rhizomes, stems, leaves, inflorescences, wood, and peat. Interesting statistics are given with reference to the distillation of indus- trial alcohol from the potato in Germany and Poland, from the beet in France, and from maize and wood in the United States. There appears to be no bar, apart from fiscal and transport difficulties (which could readily be overcome), to the development of flourish- ing industries of this kind in our own country. The statements available at present regarding the produc- tion of alcohol on a commercial scale from peat are, unfortunately, meagre and contradictory; success has been reported from Sweden, failure from France. The Swedish experimenters claim that alcohol made from peat can be sold at less than one-half the pre- sent price of alcohol, and lower than the present price of petroleum. Pror. R. PEpPeERT, in a memoir issued by the Ministry of Agriculture in the Argentine Republic, deals with the world’s supply of citric acid, which comes chiefly from Sicily, and gives interesting details concerning the species and varieties of Citrus, chemical analyses of the fruits used in the industry, and the methods of extraction on the commercial scale. Mention is made of Wehmer’s discovery that citric acid can be made from artificial glucose by fermentation by various micro-organisms (Citro- myces pfefferianus, Penicillium lutem, Mucor pyri- formia), but it seems that this process yields only 2 or 3 per cent. of citric acid instead of the 50 per cent. promised by the laboratory experiments. The author points out that the climate and soil in the fertile Tucuman province of Argentina are admirably suited for the growing of lemons, that the fruits grown locally are in no way inferior to those of the Mediter- ranean region in their yield of citric acid, and that with capital and enterprise a flourishing citrate indus- try may well be established in Argentina. Mr. P. Macnatr, whose useful ‘Introduction to the Study of Rocks”’ has been already noticed (Nature, April 13, 1911), now issues an ‘‘ Introduc- tion to the Study of Fossils and Guide to the Palzontological Collections in Kelvingrove Museum,”’ Glasgow, price 3d., with some forty illustrations. The Silurian eurypterids and fishes of Lesmahagow are well referred to, and Scottish fossils are properly emphasised throughout. The book will no doubt soon reach another edition, and certain misprints in generic names can then be rectified. Tue prehistoric human remains near Cuzco, in Peru, which occur low down in the face of a high gravel cliff, are dealt with in considerable detail in three papers by H. Bingham, T. Bowman, and G. F. Eaton in The American Journal of Science NO. 2218, VOL. 89] NATURE [May 2) arene (vol. xxxiii., pp. 297-333, April). The bones de- scribed appear to be contemporaneous with the bedded gravels, which are regarded as a glacial series, an approximate age being assigned to them of 20,000 to 40,000 years ago. The valley of Ayahuaycco quebrada, or ‘“‘dead man’s gulch,” in which they occur, has been used in modern times as a burial ground, and great caution is shown by the explorers in making the above suggestion. Symons’s Meteorological Magazine for April con- tains an account of the meteorological service of the Argentine Republic, by Sr. W. G. Davis (director), which is of much interest, owing to geographical position and large extent of country, as well as to the activity with which the science has been pursued. The service was established by Dr. B. A. Gould in 1872, and the results of the observations made up to the time of his retirement in 1884 were printed in four large quarto volumes. The service was con- tinued on the same lines by the present director until the year 1900. The first daily weather chart was published in 1902, and forecasts are now issued for thirty-six hours in advance. The charts show the _ conditions existing from Para (Brazil) to the southern- most limits of the Republic, extending over 55° of latitude. In addition to the central office at Buenos Aires, there are two principal observatories at Cordova and Chacarita where special researches are carried on; and a fully equipped meteorological and magnetic station is maintained at South Orkney, in 61° S. latitude. The work of the meteorological office includes a seismological service, which will shortly embrace a line of stations along practically the whole of the north-to-south extent of the Republic. A REPORT on the daily sunshine in Russia was pre- sented to the Imperial Academy of Science in January (Bulletin, February 15). The duration of sunshine in European Russia increases on the whole from north to south and from west to east, being, how- ever, somewhat longer on the coast than in the interior. In the yearly means the lowest maximum is recorded at St. Petersburg, where it occurs between noon and one o’clock, and attains to 11°9 hours (this figure being obtained from the means of thirty days in each month). The highest maximum in European Russia is 198 hours in Uralsk; in Bairam-Ali it is 239 hours, and 236 hours in Chita. The monthly maximum occurs at Bairam-Ali in August, and amounts to 308 hours, i.e. during thirty-one hours of observation the sun is on an average obscured by clouds for only twelve minutes. In St. Petersburg the maximum is reached in July, and is 188 hours. Sunshine is more frequent in winter during the after- noon and in summer in the forenoon. Only in St. Petersburg is sunshine more prevalent after noon in all months, attaining 60 per cent. of the possible in December and 50°4 in October. In January sunshine is more frequent at all stations in the afternoon, and in May in the forenoon, except in St. Petersburg, but the difference between the morning and afternoon is much less in summer than in winter. The greatest difference occurs in Irkutsk, where the sunshine in May 2, 1912] the afternoon amounts in December to 65 per cent. of the possible. From twenty-five years’ observations in Pavlovsk, it appears that in winter the maximum occurred later, and the afternoon sunshine was greater, in the clear months, that is, those in which the sunshine was above the average during the was the case. Tue Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences for April 4 contains a summary of the results NATURE | | | | 227 is much simplified by this process, which has the further advantage that solid or continuous lines in the original are not broken up as they are when reproduced by means of a lined screen. The author calls this process “ stagmatypie,” and gives two illus- ” | trations of it which certainly show that the process period; whereas in the summer months the reverse | obtained by Messrs. Day and Sosman, of the Geo- | physical Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution, in their recent determination of standard melting and boiling points on the constant volume nitrogen thermometer and in terms of the thermodynamic scale. In some cases the determination was made directly, in others by the intervention of platinum- platinum-rhodium or copper-constantan thermo- couples. The following melting points were found :— cadmium 320:8°, zinc 419:3°, antimony 629:8°; and the following boiling points at normal pressure :— benzophenone 305-85°, sulphur 444-4°, on the constant volume nitrogen thermometer. These become on the thermodynamic scale 320:9°, 419:4°, 630:0°, 305-9°, and 444°55° respectively. Two sets of measurements of the electric charge on rain made during last year are already available. The first, covering the short period March to June, were made in Dublin by Prof. McClelland and Mr. Nolan, and are published in the February Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy; the second, from May to December, made at Puy-en-Velay, central France, by M. Baldit, appear in the March number of Le Radium. positive over negative electricity brought down by rain, and the Dublin observations show that large drops are nearly always positively charged. At Puy- | en-Velay the charge per cubic centimetre of rain is greater for negatively charged than for positively charged, while the reverse is true for Dublin. The mean electric current to earth per square centimetre of surface during rain, according to the Puy-en-Velay observations, is between 3 and 5 x 10-'* ampere. Dr. Hans Srrecker finds that if strong aqueous solutions of gelatine and gum arabic are shaken together they do not mix, but form an emulsion. On standing there is much agitation of the droplets of the one that is in the smaller proportion, they coalesce to a certain extent, and there results an even dis- tribution of spherical globules of an approximately equal size, the size depending upon various condi- tions. He describes in the last number (April 15) of the Revue générale des Sciences the use of such an emulsion in various photomechanical processes. It will take the place of the asphalt grain in photo- gravure, and it will serve instead of the lined screen in the making of half-tone blocks. For these pur- poses the gelatine is in excess, and the particles of gum in the dried film are less easily penetrated by the etching liquid than the gelatine in which they have been formed. The making of half-tone blocks NO. 2218, VOL. 89] Both sets agree in giving an excess of | | has the advantages claimed for it. In vol. iv., part i., of the Transactions and Notes of the Concrete Institute is contained an interesting photograph of a rag bolt found last summer embedded in a slab of concrete composed of Portland cement, ballast, and broken bricks. The concrete formed part of the foundations of the 1862 exhibition buildings at South Kensington, and had not been disturbed up to the time of its removal. The bolt was found when cutting through the concrete slab for some alteration in connection with the Imperial Institute, and was at ground-level. Both concrete and bolt were under cover. Only the top end of the bolt where exposed to the atmosphere, and the bottom end where embedded in the soil, were corroded; the remainder was quite clean, with the original blue scale thereon. This may be regarded as another proof that the reinforcement bars in ferro- concrete work will be preserved for an indefinite time | provided that the concrete is maintained free from cracks. OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. ASTRONOMICAL OCCURRENCES FOR May: May 3. 14h. 9m. Jupiter in conjunction with the Moon (Jupiter 5° 2’ N.). 4. 2h.om. Mars at greatest heliocentric latitude N. 7. 13h. 36m. Uranus in conjunction with the Moon (Uranus 4° 41' N.). 5 23h.om. Uranus stationary. 12. 15h. rom. Mars in conjunction with Neptune (Mars 2° 9’ N.). » 2th.om. Mercury at greatest elongation W. 14. 6h.om. Saturn in conjunction with the Sun. I5. toh 45m. Venus in conjunction with the Moon (Venus 3° 11’ S.). 16. oh. 11m. Saturn in conjunction with the Moon (Saturn 4° 58’ S.). 20. sh. 1m. Neptune in conjunction with the Moon. (Neptune 5° 46’ S.). 5, 12h. 4m. Mars in conjunction with the Moon (Mars 3° 42’ S.). 27. 8h. 47m. Venus in conjunction with Saturn (Venus 1° 7’ N.). 30. 5h. 49m. Jupiter in conjunction with the Moon (Jupiter 4° 48’ N.). 31. 22h.om. Jupiter at opposition to the Sun. CometTarY SpeEctrA.—In an article recently noted in these columns, MM. Pluvinel and Baldet, while agreeing as to the identity of certain doublets in the spectra of Morehouse’s comet with similar doublets in Prof. Fowler’s spectrum of carbon monoxide at very low pressure, pointed out that only twelve of their twenty-one cometary bands were represented in the published laboratory spectrum, and of these twelve there were serious discrepancies of wave- length in two cases. Prof. Fowler now points out (Astrophysical Journai, vol. xxxv., No. 2) that there are probably NATURE [May 2, 1912 far more doublets in the CO spectrum than he pub- lished, but, owing to the difficulty of producing the spectrum bright enough to photograph, and the admixture of other lines, he could not be absolutely certain of them. As the comet spectrum seems to be of nearly pure origin, it will probably serve as a key in the problem of recognising the CO doublets in the laboratory spectrum. The discrepancies in wave-length are probably produced by the difficulty of determining the wave-iengths accurately in the cometary spectrum. Prof. Fowler thinks the identi- fication of their A 4846 doublet with his ‘indication of a faint band”’ at A 4887, 4916 is a mistake on the part of MM. Pluvinel and Baldet, and shows, by computation from his observed data, that in a brighter laboratory spectrum there should be a CO band at A 4843. He also suggests that the less refrangible doublets included by MM. Pluvinel and Baldet in their brighter series (A) should be placed in a distinct series by themselves, and, on this assumption, calculates wave- lengths which fit their observations equally well, while representing the blue bands with much greater accuracy. We reproduce a photograph from which it will Morehouse’s comet (1908c). a, Direct photograph, 4 hrs.; 4, Objective-prism spectrogram, 7 hrs. : H. D. Curtis, Santiago, March 20, 1909. ¢, Spectrum of carbon-monoxide at oor mm. pressure : Prof. A. Fowler, South Kensington. readily be seen how conclusive is the agreement between the CO doublets and those photographed in the spectrum of Morehouse’s comet by Dr. H. D. Curtis at Santiago, Chile, on March 20, 1909. The strong band on the left of the laboratory spectrum is due to an impurity of nitrogen, and is suitably represented by a single band in the cometary spec- trum, whereas those due to CO are double. As will be seen, the latter are represented, in this comet, both in the head and the tail, but in several other comets they occur in the tail only, and should be regarded as characteristic of that part of the comet. THE Sprrat Neputa.—An interesting article on spiral nebulz is published by M. Puiseux in No. 14 of the Revue Scientifique. In it the author reviews, popularly, the history of the observations of these important structures, and shows how our knowledge of them has steadily increased since Marius directed attention to the great Andromeda nebula in 1612. But there are many questions, as to their structure and their position in sidereal evolution, still outstand- ing, and it is with reserve that M. Puiseux advances the opinion that they are huge agglomerations of stars, set at enormous distances from us in space, from which the condensations are moving outwards. NO. 2218, VOL. 89] | LEEDS UNIVERSITY: NEW TEXTILES EXTENSION. "| HE Leeds University has gained in reputation by the worl of its technological departments. One of the principal and earliest of these is that of textile industries, founded in 1874 as part of the Yorkshire College of Science, the institution which has developed into the Leeds University. Textile teaching was then regarded by literary and scien- tific men, and also by manufacturers and those associated with the weaving industries, as a doubtful educational experiment. It had to be proved in what way a course of textile study could be formulated which would contribute to industrial progress. Such has been, however, the growth of this department, the widening of the curriculum of study, and the success of the students trained, that the late Vice- Chancellor of the University (Sir Nathan Bodington) asserted that the expansion of the University as a whole has been largely influenced by the prosperity of the textile industries department. A recent important extension of the spinning section was formally opened on April 26 by the Master of the Clothworkers’ Company (Mr. F. G. Fitch, J.P.), and pre- sented to the University. On behalf of the Uni- versity, the buildings were accepted by the Chancellor (his Grace the Duke of Devonshire). Provision has been made in the equipment for ex- perimental instruction in the methods of producing worsted yarns on the Continental system, and also for research in the use of wool and other fibres in manufacturing. Machinery and apparatus have been designed and arranged primarily in re- gard to educational utility, but the practical character of the opera- tions of yarn construc- tion has also been attained. Hitherto it has been possible in the department to treat wool and other fibres by the woollen system of machinery and by two standard English systems of worsted yarn manufacture. The various grades of cross-bred and Merino wools may be treated from the raw condition to the manufactured fabric. The new addition affords facilities for experiment in a method of worsted yarn making not extensively practised by British spinners. One feature is that in the processes only a small percentage of oil is applied, and that removed after the processes of combing. This necessitates the employment of apparatus for humidifying the atmosphere, to minimise the electrification of the fibres, and to impart a quality of adhesiveness which is essential in the preparation of the material and in the spinning of the yarn on this principle. Equipment has been provided for various opera- tions of yarn production, and humidifying plant, a section for carbonising, garnetting, and other machines, and also class-rooms for colour-matching, testing, and machine drawing. The building has been erected at a cost of 5000. The Clothworkers’ Company of London has now contributed for buildings and for equipment at the ee Lae a May 2, 1912] NATURE 229 Leeds University a sum of 75,000l., which has been augmented by donations from leading textile firms and machinists. The company’s total contributions amount to 160,0001. for educational purposes in relation to the textile industries. MEMOIRS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. HE ‘Summaries of Progress’’ issued by the Geological Survey of Great Britain are not by any means dry official reports, but contain a number of results, available for general use, which otherwise might remain unknown for several years. One of the chief features of the Summary for 1910, issued in June, 1911 (price 1s. 6d.), is W. B. Wright’s account of the district round Loch Ba in Mull. This is accompanied by a map and sections, one of the latter (p. 36) showing the immense number of inclined in- trusive sheets of basic rock that penetrate the “hybrid”? mass of gabbro invaded by granophyre on the slope of Glen Forsa. On p. 39 it is mentioned that G. W. Lee’s work in Morvern has led to the detection of two new localities for Cainozoic sedi- ments among the basalts. The thin Cainozoic coals of southern Mull are discussed on p. 40. | Carbon- iferous strata have received attention in Denbighshire and Warwickshire, where the observations are certain to have a considerable economic bearing, since these areas have not previously been mapped on the six- inch scale. In Appendix iii. (p. 80), R. G. Carruthers describes a mass of Lower Cretaceous sandstone, associated with fossiliferous Cainozoic clay and Boulder-clay, which rests on Old Red Sandstone in the heart of Caithness. This huge block, in which a quarry 160 yards long has been opened, has been investigated with the aid of borings, for the expense of which a grant was made by the Royal Society— whether of London or Edinburgh is not stated. The results show that the mass is an erratic brought in by the North Sea ice, and we become impressed by this further evidence of the wide extension of marine Cretaceous strata between Scandinavia and Britain in former times. A second edition of the Explanation of Sheets 326 and 340 of the English map appeared in 1911 (price 1s. 6d.). The joint colour-printed map was published (price 1s. 6d.) in 1906. On this, the Clay with Flints is shown, covering with great regularity the plateaus of Cretaceous rocks. The district includes the famous landslip between Lyme Regis and Axmouth, which occurred in 1839, and was described by W. D. Conybeare, then vicar of Axminster, and speedily illustrated in Lyell’s ‘‘ Principles of Geology.’’ It is pleasant to find that active author A. J. Jukes-Browne still associated with H. B. Woodward and W. A. E. Ussher in the preparation of the present memoir. We are interestingly reminded on p. 4 that W. Buckland was born at Axminster, while H. De la Beche lived at Lyme Regis from 1817 to 182t. The long-continued borings into the concealed Coal Measures in Kent have added to our knowledge of the overlying Mesozoic rocks, and the results are now described by G. W. Lamplugh and F. L. Kitchin (On the Mesozoic Rocks in some of the Coal Ex- plorations in Kent,’ 1911, price 3s. 6d.). Lower Lias rests on the Carboniferous at Dover, and the upward succession of Jurassic and Cretaceous strata is prac- tically complete, with a break between the Kim- meridge Clay and the base of the Hastings Sand. At Brabourne, however, between Folkestone and Ash- ford, even Portland beds are represented, with Pur- beck beds above them, while Triassic marl and conglomerate occur below the Lower Lias. The NO. 2218, vor. 89| ' Paleozoic rocks, here of doubtful age, are reached at 1g21 ft. from the surface, while the boring begins in Gault. Correlating the two sections, G. W. Lam- plugh states (p. 35) that they are, so far as he knows, ‘‘unparalleled in Britain—or ... in any other part of the world—in the geological range and continuity of formations proved by them to exist in actual super- position in a single small area.’”’ The shorthand habit of recording horizons merely by a specific name leads to the anomaly of frequent references to the ‘““Mammillatus zone,’? as a familiar term, while the zone-fossil is called in the same pages Douvilleiceras mammillatum. The crypts bored by Pholadidea from the Sandgate beds at Dover down into the Atherfield Clay still retain the shells in them, and are interest- ingly illustrated in the frontispiece. This occurrence is described on pp. 12 and 102. Clement Reid, George Barrow, and others of the staff write on ‘‘ The Geology of the Country around Tavistock and Launceston’? (1911, price 3s.). The accompanying colour-printed map, Sheet 337 (price 1s. 6d.), shows that for ‘‘ around’? we should read ““between,’’ and that those who visit Tavistock for its comfortable proximity to Dartmoor must consult Sheet 338. The section at the foot of the map is a pleasing illustration of the possibility of working without an exaggerated vertical scale, and would have pleased the master, De la Beche. The interesting lavas at Brent Tor—the memoir preserves this spell- ing, though the map does not—are shown (p. 52) to possess pillow-structure and to be of the albitic ‘« spilite ’? type. We should like to know the author of the charming sketch on p. 53. Dr. Flett remarks that Rutley’s memoir on Brent Tor was “‘ the first to contain the results of microscopic investigation of rock sections.’? Clifton Ward, however, was_prob- ably the pioneer in his Lake District memoir of 1876, while the Brent Tor memoir appeared in 1878, not 1876, as is here stated. The radiolarian cherts of Carboniferous age form a considerable feature on the map, and the new boundaries introduced show the importance of revision in this historic area. D. A. Macalister describes the tin and copper mines in detail, including those of Calstock and of the granite land of Bodmin Moor. An important memoir on ‘‘ The Geology of the Glasgow District ’’ (1911, price 4s. 6d.) has been pre- pared by almost the entire staff of the Scottish branch of the Survey. It is accompanied by a composite colour-printed map of the district, with vertical and longitudinal sections (price 2s.), and it seems almost unfortunate that either of these works should be pro- curable without the other. The numerous and energetic attendants at geological classes in Glasgow will welcome these publications, equally with the members of the well-known local Geological Society. The elaborate subdivision of the igneous rocks may be a phase of the present epoch; but it comes natur- ally from a land where mineral studies have been developed with a traditional aptitude for classification. By means of letters on the map, as well as by more general colours, five types of basalt of Calciferous Sandstone age are distinguished, and also four others intrusive in the strata of the district. The separation on a map of intrusive from clearly contemporaneous rocks of the same composition is easily defensible, since the forms of the outcrops may convey no in- formation. The coloured vertical sections on the margins of the map serve admirably to illustrate the contrast between the coal-bearing beds of the Clyde Basin and those of central England or South Wales. The memoir takes its place at once among our text- books as a work to which all interested in European stratigraphy will refer. It will equally be the ' authority on the economic geology of a district where 230 NATURE [May 2, 1912 mines and quarries are of high importance. Among j the many places where modern research has been aptly utilised, we may mention E. B. Bailey’s prefer- ence (p. 9) for ascribing a continental origin to the Old Red Sandstone, and his comparison of the ““cornstones ? with the kankar of tropical Africa— the original Indian examples might well have re- ceived mention. The alleged unconformity between the Barren Measures and the productive Coal Measures is regarded (p. 61) as improbable, owing to C. T. Clough’s observations, published in 1910. G. W. Lee contributes a chapter of sixteen pages on the palzontology of the Carboniferous rocks of the district, from which it is pleasant to see how much we owe to members of the Geological Society of Glasgow. The interesting paragraphs (p. 94, &c.) on the life-zones of the system show how difficult it is to define, to the satisfaction of palaobotanists and palzozoologists alike, the lower limit of the Upper Carboniferous series. The base of the upper, or Visean, division of the Avonian, or Lower Carbon- iferous, lies somewhere below the Hollybush Lime- stone in the Calciferous Sandstone stage. All the “Carboniferous Limestone”? stage near Glasgow is thus correlated with beds high up in the “ Carbon- iferous Limestone ”’ of southern England. E. B. Bailey (pp. 124-50) treats of the petrology of the igneous rocks with enthusiastic thoroughness. We are glad to note the use of ‘alkali?’ as an adjective, rather than ‘‘alkaline,”’ for types of rocks rich in sodium or potassium. Nepheline has now been found in several of these in the Glasgow dis- trict, notably in the ‘ alkali gabbro ’’ of Lennoxtown. The influence of Rosenbusch in establishing rock- species has spread to the Central Valley of Scotland, since a rock, already described as a theralite, becomes thus qualified (p. 135):—‘In these characters it approaches much more closely the bekinkinites of Madagascar, which are a highly melanocratic type of ijolite.”” We regret to read that several other ultra- basic rocks of the area ‘‘ have a composition which places them near to the bekinkinites,’? so that the way lies open for at least one new name, indicating, as must so often happen, nearness rather than identity. May we quarrel also with the word “ macro- porphyritic,’? which does not quite represent the author’s meaning? It is interesting to find Abich’s term “‘ trachydolerite ’—a very bad one from the point of view of rock-structure—revived for rocks that might surely be styled trachytic andesites. Harker’s ““mugearites,’’ those interesting fine-grained types with orthoclase, oligoclase, augite, and often olivine, are recognised in the Carboniferous rocks near Glasgow. The discussion and diagram of the com- position of the quartz-dolerites (p. 146) are of especial interest. The chapters on the origin of local topographic features, including details of recession and river- capture on the escarpment of the Campsie Fells, bear further witness to the thoroughness of the Geological Survey work. These pages could be read with appre- ciation by persons who have never seen the district, and they will tempt many from the smoke of the great city into the gaps in the highland border that open up another world. The Scottish branch also issues a memoir, by E. H. Cunningham Craig, W. B. Wright, and E. B. Bailey, on the ‘Geology of Colonsay and Oronsay, with Part of the Ross of Mull’ (1011, price 2s. 3d.) The one-inch geological map issued in con- nection with it (Sheet 35, price 2s. 6d.) is mainly concerned with the Atlantic Ocean, and Oronsay lies beyond it on the south. Plate i. of the memoir, how- ever, completes the island group. Most of the sedi- mentary rocks are believed to be representatives of NO. 2218, VOL. 89] | Madrid (yearly mean 1'5° the Torridon Sandstone. There is a considerable range of igneous rocks, and W. B. Wright and E. B. Bailey describe and illustrate an attractive example of the interaction of an ultrabasic hornblende-rock with included blocks of quartzite (p. 29). The quartzite, during solution, has led to a local concen- tration of allalies. Many of the blocks, ‘‘ surrounded by a magma which is overwhelmingly hornblendic, are actually replaced by alkali felspars and quartz.”’ Tectonic features are described in detail, and we wish that James Hutton could again come to life to see how, in this and other instances, physical geology holds its own in Scotland. The glaciation of Colon- say took place from the east, and a map (p. 61) shows the course of boulders over the island from the main- land beyond Loch Awe. A pre-glacial rock-shelf, due to marine erosion, with accompanying cliffs, is trace- able as high as 135 ft. above high-water mark (p. 62). E. H. Cunningham Craig in part ii. describes part of the Ross of Mull, and supports Judd’s view that the great mass of granite is of later Paleozoic age. Both in this memoir and in that on the Glasgow district the petrographic details owe much to the advice and notes of J. S. Flett. A third Scottish memoir, by ten authors, deals with Knapdale, Jura, and North Kintyre (1911, price 3s.). The immense part played by quartzite in Jura is well brought out on the accompanying map, Sheet 28. The term ‘vitreous quartzite” (p. 99) seems a little misleading, like the ‘‘ glassy felspar’’ of older writers. This series in Jura may be 15,000 ft. in thickness (p. 106). A pleasant feature of the memoir is the introduction by J. B. Hill, where the geological struc- ture and the raised beaches are concisely brought into relation with the human interests of the district. GaAs eee DISCUSSIONS OF CLIMATOLOGY. A DISCUSSION by Dr. A. B. Rosenstein of the conditions of temperature in central and southern Spain is published in vol. xxxiv. (part iii., 1911) of Aus dem Archiv der deutschen Seewarte, based on observations of the last twenty years of the last century, and including a longer series for Lisbon, San Fernando, Coimbra, and Madrid. The last four stations represent essentially different climatological types, as previously pointed out by Hellmann. The author deals with the observations in considerable detail (twenty-seven tables), but we can only very briefly refer here to one or two of the results. The amplitude of the daily range, being chiefly dependent upon the season, is smallest in winter (December) at the above-mentioned stations (at San Fernando in April), and greatest in summer (August); in the latter season the mean daily range at Madrid is 13°8° C., twice that at Lisbon and San Fernando. With refer- ence to the yearly range, one of the tables shows the deviations of the monthly from the yearly means, the sum of the greatest plus or minus monthly departures being given as the expression of the mean yearly oscillation. The stations are divided into three groups: (1) coastal, where the aggregate mean yearly oscillation is between 11°5° and 15°3° C.; (2) more inland, oscillation between 159° and 182°; and (3) central tableland and plateaux, oscillation between 189° and 201°. This useful paper closes with tables showing the interdiurnal variability of temperature at C.) and San Fernando ro°). A discussion of ‘‘ The rainfall of Jamaica from about 1870 to end of 1909,’’ with monthly and annual maps, has been published recently by Mr. Maxwell Hall, Government meteorologist. It includes means from a large number of stations, so’ far as observations were available, and general averages for each of the May 2, 1912] NATURE 231 several sections into which the island is divided for meteorological purposes. While the rainfall is fairly well distributed over the year, it is rather heavy in each division in May, June, September, and October ; the north and north-east divisions have winter rains in November and December, and the north-east and | west-central divisions have summer rains in July and | August. The annual average for the whole island is 71°77 inches, maximum go'61 inches in 1886, mini- mum 4518 inches in 1872. The heaviest falls occur in the north-east division, where the aggregate average is 93°52 inches, the annual amounts exceeding 100 inches in many years. Some remarkable flood rains in twenty-four hours are reported during cyclonic dis- | turbances, frequently exceeding 20 inches, and on one occasion (November 6, 1909) exceeding jo inches on the Blue Mountain range. A table of the mean diurnal range at Kingston shows that the rainfall increases more or less regularly from the early morn- ing until 3h. and 4h. p.m., after which it decreases to a minimum at midnight. The work is a valuable addition to our knowledge of the rainfall in the West Indies. Dr. O. L. Fassig has sent us a useful paper on “The Climate of Porto Rico,’ chiefly based upon observations of the U.S. Weather Bureau during the years 1899-1909. The island, which is the most eastern of the Greater Antilles, and one of the most favoured regions within the tropics, has always been primarily devoted to the pursuit of agriculture. It has an equable and comfortable climate; the mean annual temperature at forty selected stations (com- bining all the records) is given as 764°, February 733°, August 791°, absolute maximum 103° in August, minimum 43° in February and March. The mean values naturally vary somewhat at individual coast and mountain stations; there is a fairly con- stant difference of 6° to 8° between the coast tempera- | tures and those of the higher inland stations through- out the year. whole island is 77°30 inches; the amounts vary greatly from year to year, e.g. 93°72 inches in 1901, and only 64°18 inches in 1907, while in the Luquillo mountains, where rainfall is heaviest, the average annual amount exceeds 135 inches, and along portions of the south | coast it is less than 40 inches. The average number of rainy days is 169 for the island as a whole; there are no well-defined wet and dry seasons. Porto Rico is comparatively free from storms of all kinds; the centre of a hurricane has only passed over the island three times in forty years, all in the month of August. BIRD NOTES. {ee Agricultural Research Institute at Pusa, Bengal, has taken up the subject of the food of Indian birds, and issued a preliminary report (Mem. Dept. Agric. India, Entomology, vol. iii., January, 1912) by Mr. C. W. Mason, edited and supplemented by Mr. H. Maxwell Lefroy. To a great extent the report is a compilation of extracts from the writings of Indian ornithologists relating to the food of birds, but it also includes an analysis of the contents of the stomachs of a considerable number of specimens (1325) which have been examined in the laboratory. It is very largely a confession of ignorance, as at present little is known with certainty as to the economic utility or harmfulness of Indian birds, and it is consequently impossible in most cases to make definite statements. Mr. Mason is, however, of opinion that as weed-killers—by consuming seeds— birds are of no value at all in India. Such birds “may keep weeds down to a certain extent, but this is of minor importance in a country where labour is NO. 2218, VoL. 8q] The average annual rainfall for the | cheap and where farming is not practised on such intensive lines as elsewhere. Even in intensive culti- vation we cannot rely on weeds being kept down by birds, and the expense of cultivation to eliminate weeds is, I believe, not reduced in the slightest by the action of birds.” It is noteworthy that although hawks and owls are regarded, in the main, as beneficial, yet they are considered to be undoubtedly harmful on account of destroying insectivorous shrewmice, toads, frogs, and lizards. In the February number of Witherby’s British Birds Mr. Ogilvie Grant points out that the partridge possesses two seasonal plumage-changes—one in the male and the other in the female—which have been hitherto overlooked. During the autumnal moult, lasting from July to September, the cock develops on the sides of the head and neck light umber-brown feathers marked by narrow buff, black-bordered shaft-stripes; this so-called eclipse-plumage replacing for about two months the normal black-waved grey feathers. In the hen during May the ordinary plumage of the same parts, as well as of the back, is replaced by sandy-brown feathers mottled or barred with black, and having buff shaft-stripes, and usually a terminal spot of the same hue. This breeding plumage, which is retained until September, produces a mottled appearance, especially round the neck, which is held to be protective to the sitting bird. The April number of the same journal contains a supplementary record by the editor of the dispersal of little auks over the inland districts of England due to the stormy weather which prevailed in the early part of January. The birds seem to have struck the coast in greatest numbers between Norfolk and | the Firth of Forth, those reported from the western and midland counties having probably travelled from the east. Although the number of birds appears to have been fewer than in the visitation of 1895, they seem to have been spread over a wider area of country. he Notes on the breeding of the white-headed stilt in a swamp near Melbourne are contributed by Mr. C. French to the January numbers of The Emu and The Victorian Naturalist. This is believed to be the first record of the breeding of these beautiful birds in Victoria. Unfortunately, the swamp dried up before the nesting was completed, thus causing many of the eggs and young to be deserted. The nests, which were from zo to 1s ft. apart, and were made of dried water-plants, were constructed on tussocks of sea crab-grass (Salicornia); the first eggs were laid early in October. In his review of Norfolk ornithology for 1911, published in The Zoologist for April, Mr. J. H. Gurney suggests that the breeding of a pair of bitterns in the county may have been due to the drying up of some of the Dutch swamps by the unusual heat and dryness of the summer. Another event was the nesting of a pair of curlews near King’s Lynn. We have received a copy of the second number of The Austral Avian Record, a new journal, edited by | Mr. G. M. Mathews, and published by Messrs. | Witherby and Co., primarily devoted to the study of Australian birds. This number contains a long list | of new subspecies and other addenda _ to the | Australian fauna, which from internal evidence is clearly from the pen of the editor, although there is no other indication of its authorship. f The birds of Lower Egypt form the subject of an article by Mr. C. B. Ticehurst in the February issue of The Zoologist; Mr. M. J. Nicoll is also writing on | the same subject in The Ibis. lodpalto) -O- NATURE [May 2, tore In a pamphlet published for Government at the National Printing Department, Cairo, Mr. Nicoll gives a list of the species of wild birds (other than those kept in captivity) observed in the Giza Zoological Gardens between the years 1898 and 1911 inclusive. The list includes 200 species, of which 187 are indigenous to Egypt, while the remaining 13 are foreign, and were doubtless represented by individuals escaped from captivity in Cairo. Raw UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE. Lreps.—On the recommendation of the Livesey Memorial Committee, the University Council has appointed Mr. John William Cobb to be Livesey pro- fessor of coal gas and fuel industries from the end of the present academic year, when the chair will be vacated by Dr. W. A. Bone, F.R.S., who has accepted the professorship of fuel and refractory materials at the Imperial College of Science and Technology. On the recommendation of the advisory committee on higher commercial education, the University Council has decided to develop the teaching of geo- graphy in connection with the department of economics, and has appointed Mr. Llewellyn Rodwell Jones as assistant university lecturer in geography. Mr. F. A. Durriretp has been appointed demon- strator in experimental physiology and pharmacology at the University of Sheffield. Tue annual meeting of the Parents’ National Educational Union will be held at University College, London, on Tuesday, May 14, when an address on “Some Educational Ideals” will be delivered by the Rev. A. A. David, headmaster of Rugby School. THE committee of University College, London, will shortly proceed to make an appointment to the post of senior assistant in the department of zoology and comparative anatomy, which has been rendered vacant by the election of Dr. W. N. F. Woodland to the professorship of zoology in the Muir Central College, Allahabad. Tue Maryland Legislature has, we learn from Science, voted the sum of 120,000l., to be followed by an annual grant of 10,000l., to establish a school of technology in connection with the Johns Hopkins University. Our contemporary also announces a gift of 60,0001. to Princeton University from Mr. W. C. Proctor, of Cincinnati, for the endowment of the Charlotte Elizabeth Proctor fellowships in the graduate school. Mr. Proctor has previously given 100,000l. to the graduate school. A SCHOLARSHIP of 35]. for one year is offered at Bedford College for Women (University of London) for the course beginning in October next. The scholar, who must hold a degree, or an equivalent certificate, will be required either to take the full diploma course at Bedford College or to pursue some special line of investigation in cognate subjects under the supervision of the lecturer in hygiene. Names of intending candidates, with particulars of previous study, should be forwarded not later than July 1 to the Principal, Bedford College, from whom further particulars may be obtained. A CONFERENCE on diet in public secondary and private schools will be held at the Guildhall on May 13, when the Lord Mayor will preside. A provisional programme has been circulated, and it is expected the following papers will be read and discussed :—Diet NO. 2218, VOL. 89] as a factor in physical, intellectual and moral efficiency, by Dr. Clement Dukes; existing methods and the main lines of reform, by Miss Robertson, Drs. Mumford and J. Sim Wallace, and Mr. Prosser; instruction in the elements of physiology and personal hygiene, by Mrs. Burn and Dr. Reddie; and problems in institutional feeding and training in institutional management, by Mrs. Stanley Hazell. Full particu- lars will be supplied to anyone sending a stamped addressed envelope to Mr. C. E. Hecht, National Food Reform Association, 178 St. Stephen’s House, Westminster. Tue Australian Institute of Tropical Medicine is inviting applications in connection with the appoint- ment of three new officers, one to be a laboratory expert capable of taking charge in the absence of the director, the second to be an expert in tropical hygiene and epidemiology, and the third to be a bio- chemist. This is the outcome of the large increase of endowment recently granted by the Commonwealth Government. Extensive new laboratories are in process of erection at Townsville, Queensland, and special wards have already been equipped in the Townsville Hospital. The first report of the director, Dr. Anton Breinl, is full of hopeful augury. An Australian diploma of tropical medicine is being established simultaneously by the Universities of Sydney, Melbourne, and Adelaide, the bulk of the teaching being entrusted to the institute. The affairs of the institute are supervised by a committee in- cluding representatives of the Governments of the Commonwealth and of Queensland, and the Universi- ties of Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide, and Brisbane. THE second reading of the Education (School Attendance) Bill was agreed to in the House of Commons on April 26 by a substantial majority. The Bill provides that no child shall be allowed to leave a public elementary school below the age of thirteen, with the proviso that if a child leaves school between the age of thirteen and fourteen it shall only do so on condition that it is to enter into beneficial employment. The effect of the Bill would practically be to abolish half-time employment. It is generally admitted that the half-time system has little to recommend it so far as the great majority of districts are concerned. A recent departmental committee decided unanimously against it, and re- commended its abolition. But, as the speeches in the House of Commons showed, some authorities wish to preserve the system in agricultural districts, though there has been a marked diminution of half- timers in country areas- in recent years. The system is most in vogue in the textile districts of Lancashire and Yorkshire; but the debate served to demonstrate that its abolition would be greatly to the advantage of the children, and would result also in a marked improvement in the standard of the schools, where work has been retarded greatly by the regular absence from them of part of the children for a por- tion of the school day. Tue fourth annual report of the governing body of the Imperial College of Science and Technology, for the year ended August 31 last, has now been published (Cd. 6132). It provides interesting par- ticulars of the progress already made in the provision of adequate accommodation for the extended work and activities of the college. The governing body has had under consideration its position as regards the Royal Commission on University Education in London, so far as it has reference to the work of the Imperial College, and has resolved that the autonomy of the Imperial College should be maintained and incorporation with the University of London should May 2, 1912] NATURE 239 mot take place; also that some means should be found, either by the establishment of an independent department or faculty of technology or otherwise, by which students of the Imperial College who satis- factorily complete the associateship courses of the college, and students duly qualified by research, advanced study, or in other approved ways, may obtain degrees without further examination. To maintain the departments of applied science in the college, so that they may be of the greatest possible usefulness to their related industries, small com- mittees of experts are being formed with the express object of keeping the college specially informed as to the needs of that industry. Throughout the re- port there are many instances of the strenuous endeavours of the governing body to equip and main- tain the college in a manner worthy of its name. In a paper read before the Royal Colonial Institute on April 23, Mr. A. E. Shipley, Master of Christ’s College, Cambridge, dealt with the problem of fitting men for their practical post-academic life. The Americans, he pointed out, set great store by the practical nature of education. Not infrequently boys who in the ordinary course of events would leave school at fourteen or so, go up to the high school, where they maintain themselves, altogether or partly. The path from the school to the university is a straight one. But the system in America is beset by many grave disadvantages. The teaching staffs of some of the great universities are far from adequate, and the priceless feature of individual instruction and attention is neglected. College degrees may, he said, be “crammed” for, and the system stifles originality. Several Americans have told Mr. Shipley that comparatively few things are actually invented in America—that most inventions come from abroad, but are eagerly taken up and exploited in the States. Where the American really shines is not as an inventor, but as a manufacturer. Originality is rare in America, and this must be accounted for by the educational system. The remedy is either a gigantic increase in the teaching staffs of the universities or else a rigorous elimination of the first-year students. At present, he continued, the older English universi- ties are producing the best men, but the field from which they draw is small. By making slight re- forms, America could be on the same footing as the English universities, with the added advantage of a universal field from which to select the raw material. THE completion of another important addition to the many departments housed under the roof of the Battersea Polytechnic was inaugurated on Monday, April 22, when his Honour Judge Benson (Master of ] | ‘the Worshipful Company of Drapers) attended for | the purpose of opening the new hygiene and physio- logy laboratories, presented by that body as a further step towards the thorough equipment of the poly- technic. The new laboratories with their class- rooms are equipped and arranged on the latest prin- ciples for the study of hygiene, physiology, bacterio- logy, and geology. Dr. Rawson, principal of the polytechnic, presented an interesting report on the work of the past year, in the course of which he pointed out that the number of both day and evening | students showed a gratifying increase. In the matter of examination results, thirty-eight scholarships and exhibitions (to the value of 21151.) had been gained daring the year, together with nine medals and six- teen prizes, and other awards. The number of uni- versity students and their successes at the university examinations also showed a great increase over previous years. In conclusion, Dr. Rawson referred to the great help the new laboratories given to the NO. 2218, vo. 89] polytechnic by the Drapers’ Company would prove. In the past, so far as the study of hygiene and physiology was concerned, the work had been seriously hampered for want of accommodation, but that has now been remedied. Judge Benson then dis- tributed the prizes and formally opened the new laboratories. Later he delivered an address, in which he contrasted the present educational system with the opportunities which existed in his youth, and urged the students in their efforts to perfect them- selves in technical arts and crafts, not to neglect that general culture which is necessary to the proper development of the human intellect. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. LonpDon. Royal Society, April 25.—Sir Archibald Geikie, K.C.B., president, in the chair.—J. S. Townsend: The diffusion and mobility of ions in a magnetic field. The mobility and diffusion of ions in a magnetic field is investigated on the same principles as_ those employed in the ordinary kinetic theory by consider- ing the motion of an ion along its free paths between collisions with molecules. If U and K_ be the mobility and coefficient of diffusion when the mag- netic force is zero, U, and K, the corresponding quantities in directions at right angles to a magnetic force H, then = K , and K;, Theol? where o=He/m and T the mean interval between collisions. The magnetic deflection 9 of a stream of ions moving with a constant velocity in an electric field is also investigated, and a method is indicated of determining the velocity U due to an electric force X. When @ is small, tan@=HU/X, and when @ is large, tandX/=HU,.—J. J. Manley: The observed variations in the temperature coefficients of a pre- cision balance. In this paper is given an account of experiments which supplement and extend an earlier research (Phil. Trans., A, ccx., p. 387) dealing with changes which may be observed in the resting points of precision balances. Attention is directed to the following :—(a) the possibility of the change from a positive to a negative value for the temperature co- efficient of a balance; (b) the critical temperature range of a balance; (c) the various causes tending to give rise to a temperature coefficient ; (d) the necessity for the ‘‘ageing” of a beam either naturally or artificially. In addition to the above, certain minute and temporary lateral displacements of the whole beam are investigated. A method for measuring these movements is given, and their origin disclosed. —Dr. Guy Barlow: The torque produced by a beam of light in oblique refraction through a glass plate. In accordance with the principle that light carries with it a stream of momentum, the passage of a beam of light through a refracting plate should give rise to a torque on the plate, it being supposed that the re- action is on the matter through which the beam is passing. In 1905 Prof. Poynting and the author made experiments which confirmed this result, but as disturbances, due to gas action, were not eliminated, more exact measurements appeared desirable. In the present experiment the original double-prism arrange- ment was abandoned in favour of a single cube. A glass cube, of 1 cm. edge, was suspended axially by a fine quartz fibre. A strong beam of light was sent obliquely through the cube, the angle of incidence having been so adjusted that the beam entered through one half of one face, and emerged through the half-face diagonally opposite. The torque was U u=— h Teme 234 NATURE [May 2, r912 determined from the observed angular deflection of the cube. with pressures ranging from o-1 to 76 cm. Hg. The disturbance due to radiometer action was found to be inversely proportional to the gas pressure, and could be eliminated. After allowing for the reflected beams, the observed torque (of the order 2x 10-° dyne cm.) was within 2 per cent. of that calculated from the energy of the beam.—Dr. T. C. Porter: Contributions to the study of flicker. Paper III. This paper is a continuation of two former papers : Proc. Roy.) s0C.y5voOle ix sp. 347, and) vol Vix, p- 313. If n be the number of revolutions per second for a disc with white sector ‘‘w” and the rest black, just to appear flickerless under illumination ‘I,’ then n= — 27-83 + (8-57+2-79 log I) log w (360—w) ; this holds when I is greater than 3-98. If I be less than 3-98, then n= —38-6+(12-4+0-77 log I) log w (360—w). The existence of the remarkable break in the line con- necting » and logI for w=180 has been confirmed. The relation of n and I for perfectly symmetrical discs of four or more sectors is established, and appli- cation made to the measurement of high illumina- tions. Asymmetrical discs are considered, and it is proved that » is independent of the direction of their rotation. With the aid of a reasonable assumption there is deduced a curve expressing numerically the rise and fall of retinal excitation with time when the eye has presented to it suddenly a white surface, which is afterwards suddenly withdrawn. This curve is drawn to scale for a given illumination of the white surface. Royal Microscopical Society, April 17.—Mr. H. G. Plimmer, F.R.S., president, in the chair.—J. D. Siddall; The life-history of some marine diatoms from Bournemouth. Living and mounted examples, draw- ings, photographs, and lantern slides were exhibited in illustration of the author’s observations, the chief interest of which centred in a Coscinodiscus, about 1/400 in. in diameter, furnished with very numerous radiating pseudopodial filaments. The specimens shown demonstrated the certainty of this beyond any possibility of doubt, and thereby set at rest the old and much-debated controversy as to the possession and utilisation of pseudopodial appendages, at any rate in this particular diatom, which, for the sale of con- venience, he proposed should receive the specific name heliozoides. The presence of pseudopodial appendages, much smaller, fewer, and still more difficult to dis- cern, was also notified in Nelosira, Surirella, Bid- dulphia, and Triceratium. The cause of the peculiar movement of Bacillaria paradoxa was also _ briefly discussed in the paper, which concluded with the suggestion that further study of living diatoms with modern microscopical appliances would explain much of the meaning and purpose of the exquisite minutia of their siliceous skeletons.—E. B. Stringer : A modified form of the lever fine-adjustment, and a simple turn- out device for the substage condenser. The essential feature of the fine-adjustment was that the movement of the lever was carried to the top of the limb by means of a strong steel pin working through a guide, the opposing spring being at the bottom, and friction between the lever and the pin eliminated by means of a ball-bearing. Freedom from lateral movement and greater sensitiveness was thus secured. A simple two-speed movement was also provided. The turn-out device acted on the top lens of the condenser alone, thus affording illumination adapted to the power of the objective in use. A note was added on the value of the Bertrand lens in ordinary microscopical work. NO. 2218, VoL. 89! Observations were made in hydrogen and air | Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, Bedford McNeill, vice-president, in the chair.—E. Hatschek and A. L. Simon: Gels in relation to ore deposition. Actuated by the already known fact that dissolved substances will diffuse into and out of “gels,” such as gelatine and silicic acid gels, the authors have made a series of experiments, from which it appears probable that many features of the occurrences of gold in quartz can be explained by the assumption that such occurrences originated in the reduction of gold salts in a medium of gelatinous silicic acid, In these experiments the agents employed for the reduction of gold chloride in the gels were various, and comprised two groups: in aqueous solution—oxalic acid, ferrous sulphate, formic acid with ammonia, and sodium sulphite; gaseous—sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide, illumin- ating gas, and hydrogen. The reverse process of adding the reducing agent to the ‘‘ gels,’ and after- wards pouring in the gold chloride solution, was also tried. The results of these experiments, as demonstrated in test-tubes, throw, in the authors’ opinion, a new light on certain gold deposits, and afford a more satisfactory explanation of their genesis than has been hitherto suggested. This is a matter of some importance, as the finding of alluvial gold has frequently led to the expenditure of vast sums of money in the endeavour to locate the primary rock source, which is possibly non-existent if these experiments are interpreted aright. The authors are making further and more exhaustive investiga- tions on the same lines which may lead to even more conclusive results.—J. I. Hoffmann: Recent practice in diamond drilling and borehole surveying. This paper may be regarded as supplementary to others on the same subject read previously before the institu- tion, and described more recent practice, including a detailed account of the surveying instrument now exclusively employed on the Rand, the invention of Mr. Oehman, with improvements by Mr. A. Payne- Gallwey. In this instrument the survey is photo- graphically recorded, two discs of sensitised paper being placed so that at a given moment they receive impressions from a small electric lamp, and the varia- tion in the image transmitted to each enables a ready April 18.— | estimation to be made of both the dip and direction of the borehole at the point where the record is made. | The paper contains folding plates giving diagram- matic views of two typical Rand boreholes surveyed by means of this instrument. A description of a deflecting wedge invented by Mr. Wm. Gallagher, used for the purpose of correcting the deviation of a borehole while in process of being drilled, or of making an offset from one already drilled, added interest to the paper and assisted in bringing it up to date.—Two other papers were on the agenda, but | had to be taken as read; these were:—G. T. Holloway: Notes on the valuation of ores and minerals and on _ metallurgical calculations; and T. A. Rickard : The domes of Nova Scotia. Linnean Society, April 18—Dr. D. H. _ Scott, F.R.S., president, in the chair.—Dr. D. H. Scott: Botrychioxylon paradoxum, a Paleozoic fern with secondary wood. The plant is from the Lower Coal- measures, and is a member of the family Zygo- pterideze, belonging to the Primofilices of Arber. The stele has a “mixed pith,” consisting of internal tracheides and parenchyma; the surrounding zone of wood is entirely secondary, diminishing in thickness upwards. The branching of the stem, as in Ankyropteris corrugata and some other Zygo- pteridez, is dichotomous. The leaf-trace, like the stele, shows a considerable development of secondary | xylem, but in the petiole the tissues of the bundle are May 2, 1912] NATURE 235 entirely primary. The structure differs from that of Ankyropteris in the apparent absence of “ peripheral loops.’ ‘“Aphlebiz,’’ forming branched, organs, are borne both on stem and petiole.—Dr. E. A. Newell Arber: Psygmophyllum majus, sp. nova, from the Lower Carboniferous rocks of New- foundland, together with a revision of the genus, and remarks on its affinities. This paper deals with a rare and little-known genus of Palzozoic plants. A new species of Psygmophyllum (P. majus, sp. nov.) from the Lower Carboniferous rocks of Newfound- | land is first described, and a full account of P. flabellatum, Lindl. and Hutt., the British repre- sentative, is added. The genus is revised and the affinities of the genus discussed. Paris. Academy of Sciences, April 22.—M. Lippmann in the chair.—J. Violle, M. Bassot, H. Deslandres, G. Bigourdan, B. Baillaud, MM. Fournier and Bourgeois, Joseph Eysséric, Louis Fabry, M. Stéphanik, Fr. Iniguez, D. Eginitis, A. Lebeuf, E. Cosserat, Charles André, Alfred Angot, Henry Bourget, E. Carvallo, and Maurice Hamy con- tributed papers dealing with the eclipse of the sun of April 17 (see p. 221).—Paul Appell: Remarks on the possible use of the energy of acceleration in the equations of electrodynamics.—A. Lacroix: The radio-active uraniferous niobotantalotitanates of the Madagascar pegmatites and their frequent associa- tion with minerals containing bismuth. Analyses are given of four of these minerals. Details of the radio-active properties of these substances are re- served for a later communication.—A. Chauveau : The stereoscopic inversions caused by the association of two systems of retinal impressions in opposition and of unequal power. The influence of the pre- ponderating impression. It is shown that in the stereoscope, in the case of two retinal impressions in the same visual field and of unequal strength, the feebler retinal impressions are subordinated to the stronger ones. The latter can cause the inversion of the retinal impressions produced by the former.— Pierre Termier and Robert Douvillé: The rocks and fossils of the region of the high plateaux between Bou-Denib and the Mlouya, on the southern Algero- Morocco border.—Arnaud Denjoy: Calculation of the primitive of the most general derived function.— Harald Bohr: The ¢(s) function in the half-plane o>1.—Ch. Fremont: The distribution of the deforma- tions in metals submitted to forces. Case of the folding of tubes.—G. Keenigs: Joule’s cycle. parison of the efficiency of an internal-combustion motor working on a Carnot cycle and a Joule cycle. —Samuel Lifchitz: The path of particles in Brownian motion. The formation of vortices.—E. E. Blaise : Syntheses by means of mixed organo-metallic deri- vatives of zinc. Formyl-lactyl chloride with the zinc compound R—Zn—I gives lactic acid and the alde- hyde R—CHO. The method is general, and in some eases furnishes a serviceable process for the prepara- tion of aldehydes.—Mme. Ramart-Lucas: The de- hydration of pseudo-diphenyl-carbinol.—M aurice Lanfry: The action of hydrogen peroxide upon the bromothiophens. | Monobromothiophen is __ partially converted into the dibromo-derivative; tribromo- and tetrabromo-thiophens are not attacked by the reagent. —Edouard Bauer: Reduction of the 8-diletones. Acetylacetone can be reduced to the corresponding diglycol by reduction with sodium in boiling alcohol. A. Wahl: Researches on coal. A study of the sub- stance extracted by boiling pyridine from various classes of coal.—R. de Litardiére : The phenomena of somatic kinesis in the radicular meristem of some Polypodiacee.—M. Ravin: The carbon nutrition of Phanerogams with the aid of some organic acids and NO. 2218, VOL. 89] spine-like | A com- | | and Surfaces. e525 their potassium salts.—G, André; The displacement of the food substances contained in seeds by water.— Em. Bourquelot and Mile. A. Fichtenholz: The presence of arbutin in the leaves of Grevillea robusta.—Albert Robin; Delay in the consolidation of a broken limb in a tuberculous case. Treatment based on the dis- turbances in the exchanges caused by tuberculosis.— MM. Desgrez and Dorléans : The hypotensive action of guanine. Experiments with dogs and rabbits proved that guanine lowers the arterial pressure, and is opposed in this respect to the action of adrenaline.— Jean Effront: The action of light and hydrogen peroxide upon albumenoids and amido-acids.—A. Zimmern and P. Cottenot : The effects of irradiation of the suprarenal glands in physiology and therapeutics. A, Trillat: The favourable influence exercised on the development of certain cultures by association with Proteus vulgaris. GOTTINGEN. Royal Society of Sciences.—The Nachrichten (physico- mathematical section), parts i. and ii., for 1912, con- tain the following memoirs communicated to the society :— March 7, 1908, and July 29, 1911.—The late K. Zoep- pritz, L. Geiger, and B. Gutenberg: Seismic waves, part v. December 10, 1910.—Angenheister and Ansel: The Iceland expedition of 1910, part i. (observations on terrestrial magnetism) and part ii. (observations on atmospheric electricity and meteorology from May 10 to June 2, with reference to the passage of Halley’s comet). BOOKS RECEIVED. Text-book of Hygiene for Teachers. By Dr. R. A. Lyster. Pp. viiit+49g6. (London: W. B. Clive.) 4s. 6d. Grandeur et Figure de la Terre. By J. B. J. Ouvrage augmenté de notes, &c., by G. Pp. viiit+4o02. (Paris: Gauthier-Villars.) Delambre. Bigourdan. 15 francs. Volumetric Analysis for Students of Pharmaceutical and General Chemistry. By C. H. Hampshire. Pp. vii+104. (London: J. and A. Churchill.) 35. 6d. net. Scottish National Antarctic Expedition. Report on the Scientific Results of the Voyage of S.Y. Scotia during the Years 1902, 1903, and 1904 under the Leadership of Dr. W. S. Bruce. Vol. iii—Botany. Parts i-xi. Pp. ix+153+12 plates+chart. (Edin- burgh: Scottish Oceanographical Laboratory; Edin- burgh and London: Oliver and Boyd.) 23s. 6d. The Life of the Plant. By Prof. C. A. Timiriazeff. Translated by Miss A. Chéréméteff. Pp. xvit+355- (London: Longmans and Co.) 7s. 6d. net. A Geography of Europe. By T. Alford Smith. Pp. xi+272. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd.) 2s. 6d. Wild Flowers as they Grow. Colour Direct from Nature. By H. E. Corke. With descriptive text by G. C. Nuttall. Third series. Pp. viii+199. (London: Cassell and Co., Ltd.) 53s. net. The Horse and its Pp. xii+286. (London: ios. 6d. net. Lectures on the Differential Geometry of Curves By Dr. A. R. Forsyth. Pp. xxili+ (Cambridge: University Press.) 21s. net. The Doctor and the People. By H. de C. Wood- cock. Pp. xii+312. (London: Methuen and Co., Ltd.) 6s. net. Handbuch der vergleichenden Physiologie. Edited by H. Winterstein. 21 Lief., Band-iv. (Jena: G. Fischer.) 8 marks. Photographed in Relations. By R. Lydekker. G. Allen and Co., Ltd.) 236 NATURE [May 2, I91 Die neuen Vererbungsgesetze. Correns. Pp. vilit+75. (Berlin: traeger.) 2 marks. Experimental Domestic Science. By R. H. Jones. Pp. ix+235. (London: W. Heinemann.) 2s. 6d. Matter and Energy. By F. Soddy. Pp. 256. (London : Williams and Norgate.) 1s. net. Ueber Vererbung und Rassenhygiene. By Prof. H. Bayer. Pp. iv+50+5 plates. (Jena: G. Fischer.) 2 marks. Trattato di Chimica Organica Generale e Applicata By Prof. C. | Gebrtider Born- all’ Industria. By Prof. E. Molinari. Seconda Edizione. Pp. xxiv+1087. (Milano: U. Hoepli.) 18 lire. Modern Science and the Illusions of Prof. Bergson. By the Hon. S. R. Elliot. Pp. xix+257. (London : Longmans and Co.) 5s. net. Cocoa: its Cultivation and Preparation. By H. Johnson. Pp. ix+186. (London: J. Murray.) 5s. net. The National Physical Laboratory. — scored Re- searches.- Vol. viii., 31912. Pp. 251+ plates. (Teddington : The National Physical Daberaeen) The National Physical Laboratory. Report for the Year ror. Pp. 103+plates. (Teddington: The National Physical Laboratory.) For and Against Experiments on Animals. By S. Paget. (London: H. K. Lewis.) 3s. 6d. net. Handbuch der Pharmakognosie. By A. Tschirch. Lief. 29 and 30. Pp. 641-775+xi. (Leipzig: C. H. Tauchnitz.) Each 2 2 marks. DIARY OF SOCIETIES. THURSDAY, May 2. Royat Society, at 4.—Election of Fellows.—At 4.30.—Petrifications of the Earliest European Angiosperms: Dr. Marie C. Stopes.—The Distribution of Oxydases in Plants and their 7#Ze in the Formation of Pigments : Dr. F. Keeble and Dr. E. F. Armstrong.—-The Manifestation of Active Resistance to the Growth of Implanted Cancer : Dr. B. R. G. Russell. —The Nature of the Immune Reaction to Transplanted Cancer in the Rat: Dr. W. H. Woglam.—On the Instability of a Cortical Point: T. G. Brown and Prof. C. S. Sherrington, F.R.S —The Measurement of 7>yfanosoma rhodestense: Dr. J. W. W. Stephens and Dr. H. B. Fantham. Roya InstTiTuTION, at 3.—Explorations in the Canadian Rocky Moun- tains: Prof. J. Norman Collie, F.R.S. Linnean Society, at 8.—On the Structure of the Paleozoic seed Lagengo- stoma ovoides, Will: Miss T. L. Prankerd.—Additions to the Flora of Western and North-Western Australia: Dr. Karl Domin.—Freshwater Rhizopoda from the States of New York, New Jersey, and Georgia, U.S.A. ; with a Supplement on the Collection from the Seychelles: G. H. Wailes.—Ligidium hypnorum, a Woodlouse new to Britain: W. M. Webb.—New Light on the Linnean Herbarium: The General Secretary. * INSTITUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS. at 8.—Adjourned Discussion : The Causes Preventing the More General Use of Electricity for Domestic Purposes. FRIDAY, May 3. Romee INSITE ORION, at 9.—The Use of Pedigrees : W. C. D. Whetham, InsTITUTION OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Resumed discussion : Tenth Report to the Alloys Research Committee: on the Alloys of Aluminium and Zinc: Prof, J. O. Arnold. Geotoaists’ AssocraTion, at 8.—The Geology of Sunderland and District with special reference to the Whitsuntide Excursion: Dr. D. Wi oolacott’ MONDAY, May 6. Society OF ENGINEERS, at 7.30.—The Effect of Intermittency in Limiting Electric Traction for City and Suburban Passenger Transport: W. Yorath Lewis. ARISTOTELIAN SOCIETY, at 8.—Imagery and Memory: Beatrice Edgell. oye cee Society, at 8.30.—United Nigeria: C. L. Temple, Royat Society or Arts, at 8.—Heavy Oil Engines: Captain H. R. Sankey, k.E. Victoria INSTITUTE, at 4.30.—International Arbitration in the Greek World: Marcus N. Tod. Society or Cuemicat InpustRy, at 8.—A New Apparatus for the C oking Tests of Coal: R. Lessing.—A New Method for the Determination of Ferrocyanides : H. E. Williams.—A Drying Oven: J. H. Coste.—India Rubber as a Protective Colloid: E. W. Lewis and H. Waumsley. TUESDAY, May 7. Roya. INstITUTION, at 3 —Insect Distribution, with special reference to the British Islands; F. Balfour Browne. Royat ANTHROPOLOGICAL INSTITUTE, at 8.15.—Geographical Distribution of Certain Primitive Appliances : H. Balfour. ZooLocicat Society, at 8.20.—Lantern and Kinematograph Demonstra- tions of Photographs of Fishes and Aquatic Animalsin Natural I/lumina- tion: Dr. Francis Ward.—On a Collection of Fishes made by Mr. A. Blayney Percival in British East Africa to the East of Lake Baringo : G. A. Boulenger, F.R.S.—Studies in the Fossorial Wasps of the Family Scoliidz, Sub-families Elidinze and Anthoboscin#: Rowland E. Turner. —Notes on the Spanish Ibex: Abel Chapman. NO. 2218, VOL. 89] R6nTGEN Society, at 8.15.—The Education of the Brain, considered as an Electrical Machine: W. Deane Butcher. _ Roya Society oF Arts, at 4.30.—Colonial Vine Culture ; Alan Burgoyne, M.P. WEDNESDAY, May 8. Royac Society or Arts, at 8.—British Rule in Nigeria: E. D. Morel. THURSDAY, May 9. ‘ Rovat Society, at 4.30.—Prolable Papers: On the Variation with Tem- perature of the Rate of a Chemical Change, with an Appendix by Prof. W. Esson, F.R.S. : Dr. A. Vernon Harcourt, F.R.S.—Some Phenomena of Sun-spots, and of Terrestrial Magnetism: Dr. C, Chree, F.R.S.—On the Ultimate Lines and the Quantities of the Elements producing the Lines in Spectra of the Oxyhydrogen Flame and Spark: Sir W. N. Hartley, F.R.S., and H. W. Moss.—The Transformations of the Active Deposit of Thorium : E. Marsden and C. G.. Darwin,—On the £ Particles Reflected by Sheets of Matter of Different Thicknesses : W. Wilson. Rovyat Institution, at 3.—Recent Explorations in the Canadian Rocky Mountains: Prof. J. Norman Collie, F.R.S. INSTITUTION OF ELECTRICAL MKNGINEERS, at 7.30.—The Bela of D.C. Watt-hour Meters, more especially for Traction Loads: S. W. Melsom and H. Eastland.—Electric Meters on Variable Loads: Prof. D. Robertson. FRIDAY, May to. : Royat INnsTITUTION, at 9.—The Gaumont Speaking Kinematograph Films : Prof. W. Stirling. Roya. ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY, at 5. ? MALACOLOGICAL Society, at 8.—A Synopsis of the Recent and Tertiary Fresh-water Mollusca of the Californian Province: Harold Hannibal.—On Dosinia lucinalis, Lam., and its Synonyms: A. J. Jukes-Browne, F.R.S. —New Generic Names and New Species of Marine Mollusca: T. Iredale. Puysicar Society, at 8.—A Method of Measuring Small Inductances: S. Butterworth.—The Conversion of Starch into Dextrin by X-Rays: H. A. Colwell and Dr. S. Russ.—Dzmonsrration of Apparatus for showing the Generation of Electricity by Carbon at High Temperatures: Dr. J. A. Harker and Dr. G. W. C. Kaye.—Calibration of Wave-meters for Radio- telegraphy : Prof. G. W. O. Howe. InstiTUTE OF METALS, at 8.30.—The Inner Structure of Simple Metals: Sir J- A. Ewing, K.C.B., F. -R.S. CONTENTS. PAGE Chemical Spectroscopy. By Prof. E. C. C. Baly, Pleo nF 211 The Constitution of the Silicates. “ByDr. C.H.Desch 212 Butishesvegetation. By A. DiC Tees.) rere ae Recent Botanical Publications. = 2 2 .. . 2 =. 283 QurnjBookshelf, .... ... eee = e-em Letters to the Editor :— Burdon Sanderson and Vitalism.—Dr. J. S. Haldane, RAR S. 5. 215 A Peculiarity in the Shadows Observed ‘during a a Partial Eclipse of the Sun.—Edwin Edser .. . 216 Halo during the Solar Eclipse of April sir Marie C. Stopes .. 217 The Smoke Problem.—Prof. J.) B. Cohen, F.R.S.; 5 The Reviewer .. = oe ey Remains of Prehistoric Horse in the Stort Basin. — Rev. Dr. A. Irving . . 218 An Anode Dark Space in the Discharge i in Oxygen. — BPEVVeeASSOn 5. % es oy May Meteor-showers. —John R. Henry . «) kant See The Solar Eclipse of April 17. ee wee) By Dr. Walkiamny..S: Lockyer. 22) ae. Sioidec So) 2) Colonial Surveys. By H. G. tae. 5) 2 emo Notes > OLS So GemeoeA vet ©. B23} Our Astronomical Column: — ; Astronomical Occurrences for May ....... ~- 227 Cometary Spectra. (Z//ustrated.)........ . 227 The Spiral Nebulae . Rie seto 125 Leeds University: New ‘Textile Extension ... . 228 Memoirs of the Geological Survey. BY G. a . E C. 229 Discussions of Climatology ....... Ape 29> Bird Notes. ByR.L. . Mee 5 ey! University and Educational Intelligence ee cin 23)2 Nocietiesiand Academies = sues) >.) Neen BooksyReceived . . . . — (emma - Meio mE=OD DiarylofiSocieties . . . . . Seewee >. «7. seanemEeRD SUPPLEMENT. Ho Human Geography . . )iiebrce 6d. per packet of six pictures. Messrs. Brack issue these illustrations, which measure about six by five inches, as part of their scheme of school geography. Packets 1 and 2 are concerned with processes of weathering, and the pictures are described by Miss S. M. Nicholls. Their low price allows of the use of several copies in a class, the teacher pointing out the salient features, and the pupil following his remarks with the aid of the abridged description on the plate. The views of granite in the Scilly Isles, of wind- carved rocks in Colorado, and of the interior of a cave at Cheddar, seem particularly happy. The text is clear and to the point, though the two attempts to spell the Snowdon buttress, Crib-y- Didysgl and Cribs-y-Dysel, will not please Welsh- men. G. AeyaGe May 9g, 1912] NATURE 241 LETTERS TO THE -EDITOR. (The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of Nature. No notice is taken of anonymous communications.] The Solar Eclipse of April 17. Tue study of the article by G. Fayet in the Revue Scientifique of March 30, an account of which was given in Nature, convinced me that, with favourable weather, the solar eclipse of April 17 would prove to be interesting, although its totality was extremely | doubtful. a I went to Paris on Aprif16 and put up at the Gare du Nord. At to a.m. on April 17 I took a suburban train from that station to Eaubonne, which was on the central line, as shown in the map given in Fayet’s article. I arrived there about 10.35, and after look- ing round I took up a station at a seat by the road- side in front of the school. When I arrived the boys and girls were being dismissed, by order of the | Minister of Education, so that they might see the | eclipse. Some of them came round me while I was looking out for the first contact. They were much interested, and were very well behaved. They all had the red glasses supplied by an advertising firm, but they had a curiosity to see the sun through my glass, which showed it in its natural colour, and they were delighted with the effect. During the first hour they played about, because watching the gradual encroachment of the moon on the sun was tedious. When the diminution of day- light made itself felt they began to gather round me; so I told them they must not look at me but look at the sun and moon, and notice all that they saw, and that, while the eclipse was going on, they must not speak to me or to each other. ‘‘Ne pas parler?” “Yes,”’ I said, *‘ne pas parler—you must look and do nothing else.” They retired into the back part of the playground and stood in a group, and they no doubt looked, for they were quite silent. When the central phase was over and I had taken my glass away from my eyes, they rushed up in a body and surrounded me, and I asked them if the sun had become quite dark or if there had been some light all the time. Their opinion was divided. From this I concluded that the sun had been at no time completely obscured, for this would certainly have impressed them. As I was working alone it was useless to try to take the times of contact. Moreover, the second and third contacts, which are the most important, would happen so close to each other that, if I attempted to time them, it would interfere with my seeing what happened. I therefore devoted myself entirely to fol- lowing the eclipse and observing as well as I could everything that took place. It was certain that “Baily’s beads’’ would be a feature of the eclipse, and I had great curiosity to study them. The sky was cloudless and the sun very powerful. I had with me an ordinary binocular of low power, which I hoped: to find useful when the short-lived central phase, whether total or annular, arrived. In order to be able comfortably to follow the eclipse from the beginning to the end, I had the hand glass which pleased the school children. It was a com- bination of three coloured glasses measuring 110 x 35 millimetres, so that the sun could be observed through it, using both eyes, whether it was used-alone or in conjunction with the binocular. NO. 2219, VOL. 89] The effect produced | by this combination of colours was that the sun, viewed through it, appeared of its natural hue. The density of the coloured medium was such that nothing but the sun’s direct rays penetrated it, and the sky, in which the sun appeared to be set, was quite black. I bought this glass of a hawker in the-streets of Barcelona on the eve of the total eclipse of August 30, 1g05, and I found it very useful, although the interest of that eclipse centred almost entirely in the total phase, which lasted nearly four minutes, and during it reducing glasses were not required. Very for- tunately 1 was able to lay my hands on it before starting for Paris, and it was indispensable during the eclipse. The three glasses have an aggregate thickness of 7 millimetres, and they consist of one green glass 3 millimetres thick and two pink glasses, the external one being 23 and the internal or middle glass being 14 millimetres thick. These seem to be pieces of the same glass, and differ from each other only in thick- ness. They have the same colour, which is very nearly that of a dilute solution of permanganate of potash. The colour of the green glass is a chromium- green, and the colour-intensity of its thickness of 3 millimetres has been successfully compensated by a 4-millimetre thickness of the pink glass. The result of the combination was most satisfactory. Having noticed that first contact had taken place, I settled down to follow the progress of the eclipse, and I continued making observations every five minutes. The rate of encroachment on the periphery of the sun became less and less, though the augmentation of the area eclipsed proceeded rapidly. At 11th. 35m. the eclipse appeared to be affecting the general illumination, and I looked round at. the school-house to the north of me. The ultramarine blue of the sky was getting darker and more of an indigo. Looking towards the horizon, which was masked by trees, the illumination was becoming decidedly fainter. The indigo colour of the sky spread round and became deeper as the eclipse went on, and, by 11h. 5om., there was an impression of ap- proaching nightfall. At 1th. 40m. the invasion of the sun’s disc had reduced it to a crescent with very sharp cusps. The limb of the moon still looked quite circular, but at 1th. 45m. it became somewhat ogival, and by rrh. 50m. this effect was very marked. By this time the schoolboys were observing the sun without coloured glasses. I now noticed the peculiar appearance of the shadows of the foliage of a tree cast on the ground close to my station. I also noticed that the illuminated surface of the dusty playground became more and more sombre, while the shadows under the — trees preserved the same tone, so that, while the illumina- tion of the exposed ground diminished rapidly, that of the ground in the shade of the trees had- already nearly reached its minimum of illumination before the eclipse was complete. After this my attention was confined entirely to what was taking place in the sky. I was now using the binocular with the reducing glass in front of the eyepieces. With it the rapid diminution of the luminous crescent could be easily followed and the view furnished was very sharp. As the area of the luminous crescent diminished rapidly before the advance of the dark lunar disc the colour of its light suddenly changed to red. This suggested to me that a brilliant display of protuber- ances might be expected. The tone of the red reminded me, at the moment, of that of nitrous fumes escaping into the air; it was therefore a very pure red. It became visible only after 242 the overwhelming intensity of the relatively white light of the middle of the sun’s disc had been screened oft by the interposing moon; but it would have been impossible to perceive the red colour, intense though it was, had it not been for the perfection of my reducing glass, which, while it reduced the intensity, preserved the natural colour of the sun’s light. Before the most striking phenomena of the central phase began to crowd across my view, I noticed the beginning of the phenomenon which most impressed me when witnessing the eclipse of May, 1882, in Egypt. In the last moments before totality the rate of extinction of light was very great, and 1 compared it with that which would take place in a well-illu- minated room when a shutter is rapidly drawn down over the window. In the case of the 1882 eclipse the shutter was drawn quite down, and nocturnal darkness was produced with the appearance, not only of all the principal stars, but also of an unsuspected comet in the immediate vicinity of the sun. In the case of the present eclipse the shutter was at first being drawn down quite as rapidly, but it stopped short, and was almost immediately pulled up again. I have no doubt whatever that if the eclipse had been total, it would have been a very dark one. The central phase was now close at hand, and the appearance of the luminaries changed so rapidly that it was impossible to time the changes. After the light of the whole solar crescent had become quite red, my attention was attracted to the lower (S.E.) luminous cusp, which seemed to become indented by black bands or teeth. Then the upper (N.W.) cusp showed a similar phenomenon; and, almost in a moment, the black teeth spread over the whole crescent, which then offered a magnificent spectacle. The bands or teeth did not span the crescent always by the shortest path, but they crossed and intersected each other like a crystallisation. There was, however, but little time to study them. Very quickly the dark disc of the moon advanced and pushed the beautiful network over the eastern edge of the sun, which it totally obscured, and, apparently at the same moment, the network reappeared, coming over the western edge of the sun, attached to the black limb of the moon, and at the same time held by the limb of the sun. In a few moments the uncovered crescent of the sun had in- creased so much that the delicate lacework could no longer bear the tension; it parted and disappeared instantly, while at the same moment the dark limb a the moon recovered its perfect smoothness of out= ine. The central phase of the eclipse was over, and I could not say that I had seen either a total eclipse or an annular one, but I had witnessed a very remark- able natural phenomenon. i All the phenomena were so astonishing and followed each other so closely that it was impossible to pay attention to every detail. The two crescents, the dis- appearing and the reappearing one, seemed to be situated diametrically opposite to each other. T per- ceived nothing on the upper (N.) or the lower (S.) edge of the common disc, but there might have been a thread of light or a string of minute “beads” on one or both of them; and, consequently, I cannot say if the light of the disappearing crescent passed round the northern or the southern limb of the common disc and so preserved continuity between the departing and the arriving crescents, or if it passed round at all. All that I saw was the extinction of the departing crescent, and, post saltum, the illumination of the arriving crescent. When the moon is in conjunction and the sun is behind it, the mountains cut by a tangential surface cannot be very evident, because they can only be the NO. 2219, VOL. 89] NATURE [May 9, 1912 summits of the very loftiest peaks. The valleys are wholly masked. My binocular, the magnifying power of which is only twofold, shows the mountains and valleys beautifully when the moon is in quadrature, but during the eclipse it made the edge of the lunar disc appear as a smooth and con- tinuous line. The mountains were perfectly invisible on it; yet what we take to be their images were enormous. The phenomenon is not a subjective or an instrumental spectre, because it is seen by everybody, with every kind of instrument and without any in- strument at all. It is a reality; it must therefore be due to a substantial cause, and to one which can be shown to be capable of producing the effect. May not this substance be the often suggested lunar atmo- sphere; and, if so, what is its exact specification ? May 3. J. Y. BucHANnan. The Distastefulness of Anosia plexippus. REFERRING again to the above topic (NATURE, December 21, 1911), I wish to make clear my position on the subject. Mr. Pocock’s experiments indicate that Anosia plexippus is distasteful to many birds, but it is desirable to know whether or not Basilarchia archippus is palatable to birds, and it is absolutely necessary, before the usefulness of this case of mimicry can be shown, to know that North American birds eat some butterflies, but scarcely, if at all, molest these two forms. My former letter was prompted by the evident assumption in the note of October 12 that the case was necessarily one of useful mimicry. The only case I know of North American birds taking butterflies to any extent only serves to empha- sise the lack of attractiveness of butterflies to birds. In this case (referred to by the observer in Nature, February 15, 1912) only five out of forty-five species of birds observed could be found by direct observa- tion and stomach examination to eat the Eugonia californica, which occurred in such countless numbers as to constitute a pest. Two species of fly-catchers captured them to some extent, meadow larks were shown to take them sparingly, and the omnivorous blue-fronted jay, so far as the evidence went (two stomach examinations) ate the butterflies to the extent of one-third of their food. But the only avian species which was shown generally and extensively to utilise these butterflies as food, notwithstanding their excessive abundance everywhere, and the exceed= ing ease of their capture, was the Brewer blackbird (an omnivorous bird which habitually eats whatever is most easily available, from flies and stinkbugs to seedling grain and fruit), which, in common with the farmyard chickens and ducks, took them in great quantities. Even this rather moderate attack upon butterflies by North American birds (under conditions so exceptionally favourable) far surpasses the aggre- gate of all previous records. That North American birds very rarely molest adult butterflies is indicated by at least two lines of evidence. In the first place, observers seldom or never see a butter- fly pursued or eaten by a bird. One cannot ordinarily by field observation distinguish the insects taken by birds, because the majority of them are inconspicuous forms. But if butterflies were taken, even uncom- monly, field naturalists should be able to note the fact more often than once or twice in a lifetime. It is a noteworthy fact to American observers how very seldom, if ever, they see a butterfly taken by a bird. For a number of years trained experts of the United States Department of Agriculture have been engaged in determining the food of native birds by examina- tion of the contents of thousands of bird stomachs May 9, 1912] collected in all sections of the country and in all | seasons of the year. The bearing of these findings upon the question of butterflies as food for birds has recently been summed up by one of these experts as follows :—* Four records of birds eating butterflies are all that are afforded by the records of the examination of more than 40,000 stomachs in the Biological Sur- vey, and one of these probably relates to the capture of a very recently emerged specimen, or to one torn from the pupa before emergence, as it was accom- panied in the stomach by a pupa of the same species. This was an Epargyreus tityrus taken by a crow. The other records are Eudamus (sp.?) eaten by a yellow-billed cuckoo, and two pierid butterflies cap- tured by king birds’’ (W. L. McAtee, The Condor, January-February, 1912). Such a mass of evidence (obtained by most careful and painstaking methods from the time the bird is shot in its natural habitat until the last recognisable portion of the stomach contents is identified and tabulated) demonstrates that as a food for North American birds butterflies are negligible, so that the distastefulness of Anosia plexippus and its close re- semblance by Basilarchia archippus appear of no pos- NATURE sible advantage to these species so far as birds are | concerned. Nor can this be lightly pushed aside as “negative evidence.’ It shows positively that our birds do not eat butterflies to an appreciable extent, else immensely more than four butterflies should be found in more than 40,000 stomach examinations. In a recent article relating to the palatability of insects to birds (Proc. Zool. Soc., September, 1911) Mr. Pocock explains that the behaviour of birds ex- perimented upon in the Zoological Gardens was prob- ably due in a measure to “inability in the gardens to feed the birds on living insects other than meal worms. The living prey was evidently a great treat to them, and over and over again I was impressed with the persistence shown by birds in persevering with insects that were obviously not to their liking, returning to the morsels repeatedly as if food of such a nature was too good to be wasted.’’ But in the first succeeding paragraph he says:—‘‘The insecti- vorous birds in our aviaries seemed to know at once what the butterflies were; they were on the alert the moment one was liberated and pursued it with deter- mination and precision, following its every turn and twist, and either catching it upon the wing or pounc- ing upon it after settling. It is true that this pre- datory deftness may have been acquired in relation to the chase of insects other than Lepidoptera, but unless the birds recognised butterflies in general—a group which cannot be mistaken for other insects—as part of their natural prey, it is difficult to understand their eager excitement at the sight of those I offered them.” 243 frequent pursuit of butterflies by one another rather than from the supposed attacks by birds. The pertinency of experiments made under such abnormal conditions and the validity of conclusions reached from them are open to serious question. McAtee (Journ. Econ. Entom., vol. iii., pp. 437-8, 1910) has very well shown the futility of basing conclusions as to their natural food upon experiments with birds removed from their natural environment. He cites a number of cases of captive birds which refused specific articles of food known to constitute a large part of their normal diet, and of others which willingly accepted food which they never get in their wild state. For examples, a confined blue jay refused acorns and beech nuts; a captive bluebird refused one of the ground beetles, Scarites subterraneus, and a caged song sparrow refused seeds of lamb’s quarter and smartweed; yet these birds in a wild state are known to take these respective foods in quantity. On the | other hand, a captive shrike willingly accepted and devoured a goldfish and a black bass, food it probably never takes in the wild state. Since Mr. Pocock implies that I am one of “the dwindling minority of mimicry sceptics,” I should like to suggest that before he assumes too much re- garding this ‘dwindling minority,’ he make a census of the opinions of working zoologists (with reference to the usefulness of this particular case of mimicry, for example) and learn where the majority actually stands and toward which side of the question the dwindling really tends. A. M. Banta. Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y. From Mr. Banta’s concluding paragraph I am afraid my reference to the disbelievers in mimicry as a dwindling minority hurt his feelings. I hasten, therefore, to explain that it was written in a spirit of ‘‘chaff,"’ without any intention to give umbrage. | Apart from this, there is nothing in my contributions As an explanation for the conduct of the birds in | Mr. Pocock’s experiments the first quotation above seems to me sufficient as regards the avidity with which the birds in the gardens pursued butterflies. As regards the deftness with which the birds caught them, it would seem very remarkable indeed if an insectivorous bird normally taking its prey upon the wing could not catch insects relatively so slow and clumsy on the wing as butterflies. The highly theo- retical suggestion that ‘‘birds recognise butterflies as part of their natural prey’’ seems to me fanciful, entirely unnecessary, and certainly not preferable to Mr. Pocock’s first explanation for the eagerness with which ail insect food was received by the captive birds. As to the converse, it would seem more reasonable and plausible to attempt to explain the deftness of the dodging butterflies as arising from the admittedly | NO. 2219, VOL. 89] to the question of the distastefulness of Anosia plexippus which, in my opinion, needs explanation or qualification. The statistics Mr. Banta quotes to prove that North American birds do not eat butter- flies are full of interest. They show at all events that the birds examined had not eaten butterflies within a few hours of being shot, and they justify the belief that the birds in the areas investigated do not trouble themselves to catch butterflies when other insects are obtainable. It would be very interesting to know if the Department of Agriculture found empty stomachs in any birds shot in districts where butterflies of various kinds were plentiful and other insects scarce. That would be a very important piece of evidence in favour of the contention Mr. Banta upholds. There is perhaps nothing so impressive in connec- tion with the theory of mimicry as the vast amount of corroborative evidence that has been accumulated since it was first propounded. This stands out in strong contrast to the complete inadequacy of the explanation of the facts on which it is based put forward by its opponents. The repetition of this truism is prompted by Mr. Banta’s suggestion that the skill butterflies display in evading the swoop of insectivorous birds has been acquired, not, be it observed, in connection with the pursuit of voracious enemies, but in con- nection with the apparently often sportive chase of one butterfly by another. If we push this argument to its logical conclusion, we must also explain the vanishing of many butterflies when they alight as the result of that same factor. With this view I can only sav that I do not agree. R. I. Pocock. Zoological Society, April 27. 244 NATURE [May 9, 1912 Clouds and Shadows. In a letter to Nature (April 18) Mr. Chas. Tilden Smith directs attention to a peculiar shadow he noticed in the western sky last Easter Monday after sunset, and which he no doubt correctly attributed to ‘*some unseen object intercepting the sun’s rays,” and so casting a shadow on the high and still directly illu- minated stratus he mentions. Such shadows are by no means uncommon in lower latitudes, and are certainly caused either by clouds, especially the towering columnar cumuli (so common in the Caribbean Sea) or by mountains. For many years past the writer has been collecting data regard- ing such shadows and working out the position, size, and shape of the objects causing them. He has suc- ceeded in (a) predicting correctly the form, position, and duration of the shadows caused by moun- tains for a sunset viewed from a_ known position (supposing that clouds did not interfere), e.g. from a ship to the east of Cuba, in which case it was possible to assign some of the observed shadows to definite peaks; and (b) he has succeeded in (conversely) deducing from the observed positions and forms of these shadows the general configuration of the mountain ranges which caused them—e.g. off the eastern coast of Brazil. Such shadows to be seen well require (1) a clear lower atmosphere, and (2) a reflecting layer at a con- siderable height—e.g. six miles. The writer hopes to be able before long to publish these and many other observations and deductions, together with the formulz necessary for the analysis of this part of a sunset. _ T. C. Porter. Upton, Slough, May 3. THE ROYAL ACADEMY AND’ NATURE- SIMON ASHE annual.exhibition of pictures at the Royal Academy always affords a-good opportunity of examining the works of the several contributors as far as they may be considered representations of natural phenomena. The following notes have therefore been made regarding such points as clouds, sun, moon, sunset skies, &c., and these are brought together under their respective heads. Mists. 163. The Cradle of the Storm. Frank T. Carter. The mist or low drifting cloud about the mountains is here beautifully portrayed, and the swirl-forms indicate local eddies; the lighting is very true. 190. A Highland Loch, Peter Graham, R.A. Beau- tifully graded mists on the mountain sides, and the effect of the rift, which is an important feature in the picture, is well indicated. Cioups (Nimpi or Ratn Ctowps). 22. The Midlands. C. E. Johnson. and colour very good. Excellent representation of a rain squall on the right. 169. The Hunters. C. Napier Henry, R.A. Form and colour and general arrangement of the clouds quite natural. 170. Dryslwyn. T. Hodgson Liddell: The cloud forms here are accurately shown, but the falling rain is not well represented, being not sufficiently trans- parent for such a close squall. 184. A Passage Perilous Maketh a Port Pleasant. W. L. Wyllie, R.A. The cloud forms and colour here NO. 2219, VOL. 89] Cloud forms | are very natural, and the reflection on the water true. 189. The Passing Snowstorm. Ernest Procter. The clouds here are too dark and coarse. (When looked at from some distance the effect is improved.) 193. Bredon on the Avon. Alfred Parsons, R.A. Both form and colour of the clouds beautifully repre- sented. A fine cloud study and one to be copied. 221. Rain Clouds: Bosham. Moffat Lindner. The large nimbus is far too solid-looking and lacking in detail. Such a cloud in nature is full of detail, both in structure and light gradations. As here depicted it looks like a lump of dough. 285. The Approaching Shower. Beatrice Bland. Both the clouds and falling rain are well represented. The shower, however, is not approaching but travelling nearly from left to right, as indicated by the slant of the falling rain. 117. The Approaching Gale. Julius Olsson. The clouds and waves are both good in form, but why the violet colour in both ? 359. Stormy Evening on the Cornish Coast. Julius Olsson. This picture, like 117 above, is too violet all over. 360. Evening on the Nebelhorn, Bavaria. Edward T. Compton. The contrast between the fair weather on the right of the picture, the approaching rain clouds on the left, and the brightly illuminated snow- fields in the foreground is well thought out and ren- dered very true. Cioups (Cumutt, Fring WEATHER CLoups). 20. Woodland and Hill. Sir E. A. Waterlow, R.A. Very fine representation of clouds with excellent detail and gradation. Perhaps some of the upper portions of them are not white enough. 40. The Incoming Tide: Porth, New Quay. .B. W. Leader, R.A. Good cloudscape, but must not be looked at too closely to obtain desired effect. 81. Submarines and Torpedo Craft: Old Ports- mouth. W. L. Wyllie, R.A. Most excellent clouds, showing the result evidently of much observation. Indications of ascending air and upper horizontal air currents very natural. Reflection on twater well graded. ; a 115. The Hills of Appin. J. Campbell Mitchell. Forms of clouds most unnatural. Too much drawn out vertically, and little detail shown. 162. Marazion Marsh, Cornwall. J. Noble Barlow. Clouds badly formed, and, like those in 115, too vertical. 323. The Home of Labour. E. Blair Leighton. No idea of cloud form, and lighting all wrong. Clouds are drawn out like 115 and 162. 393. ‘‘The Toiling Year’s Last Breath.” Frank Walton. The clouds are good, both in form, detail, colour, and gradation. Their lower flat surfaces should be horizontal and not all inclined similarly. 461. The Walls of England. R. Gwelo Goodman. Absolutely impossible skyscape. 582. Spring Sunshine. Alfred Parsons, R.A. The cumuli clouds and sky are here very naturally depicted, and the artist has blended the sky with the landscape most successfully. The tints of the blossoms on the trees are true and admirably represented. 755. A Fine Morning on the Sussex Coast. B. W. Leader, R.A. A well-painted and natural skyscape with the same proviso as 40. 129. The Mass at Dordrecht. Moffat Lindner. Well-shaped cumuli and good reflections of clouds in water. 198. Skirt of the Dunes at Condette, Pas-de-Calais. H. W. B. Davis, R.A. Gradation of blue sky from horizon upwards is possibly changed too suddenly. May 9, 1912] CrLoups (Cirrus, Hic Croups). 390. A Gentle Breeze. Hon. Duff Tollemache, Form and colour of the cirrus cloud very natural. 505. Fifteen-metre Yachts Rounding the East Lepe Buoy: Cowes Regatta. Alice Fanner. The cirrus cloud in this seascape is very good. The small cumuli and wisps of cirrus very natural. NATURE 689. Six-metre Yachts Racing at the International | Regatta, Solent, 1911. Alice Fanner. The cirrus clouds are well represented. SUNSETS, SUNRISES (SKy). 13. Scur-na-Gillian, Sligachan. Finlay Mackinnon. A beautiful picture with a bold effect of sunset. Is not the near side of the right-hand peak too much illuminated ? ‘ 55: Evening on the Sands of Towyn. 8B. W. Leader, R.A. A fine sunset sky; shape and colour of clouds very true. Reflection in water and break- ing wave very effective. A fine picture. — 147. “‘The Day was Sloping towards his Western Bower.” Joseph Farquharson, A. Have we not here a too great diversity of colours? Should not the yellow tinge be more universal and be more repre- sented on the hill on the left (which seems too pink) and also on the under portions of the clouds? 205. Evening’s Last Gleam. B. W. Leader, R.A. A fine study and lighting excellent. The sunlight on the upper portion of the clouds very effective. 429. The Matterhorn, from the Triftkummen: Sun- rise. Edward T. Compton. The colours here are very true in tone, and the wisps of mists on the mountains appear already to be in the process of being dissipated. ; 465. The Prize. Donald Maxwell. A bold picture. Very striking sunset effect, both in the sky and by reflection, Excellent colouring. ; 669. A Peaceful Valley. Hon. Walter James. This sunset scene is accurately painted, and the cloud forms, colouring, and general gradation of the tones very true. The atmospheric absorption in the distant landscape naturally indicated. 790. Into the West. Robert W. Allen. The sequence of the colouring at the different altitudes very natural. The type of cloud represented is true, but there is not sufficient of the sunset colours re- flected in the water. Sun’s Disc. 29. The Wane of an Autumn Day. J. Coutts Michie. The disc of the sun is very much too large, and, judging by the angles subtended by the objects in the foreground, it is more than twice the size it should be. Moon. 353- Moonrise: the Dunes, Pas-de-Calais, France. H. Hughes-Stanton. The full moon much too large, judging by the trees in the foreground. 369. Moonlight on the Cornish Riviera. R. Borlase Smart. Moon too large for similar reasons; also sky around the moon too blue. 782. Moonrise over the Marsh. Stuart Lloyd. The moon here is more natural, but still a little too big judging by the trees in the foreground. 122. Evening. William Brock. In this picture only a small portion of the upper part of the moon is seen above the horizon. By its horizontal extent and curvature it is very much too large, and calcula- tions suggest that if the whole disc were visible it would be three or four times too large. 123. Twilight. Fred Hall. The size and colour of the moon are good. The woman and cattle in fore- ground are perhaps too much illuminated. 151. An Autumn Evening in the Alps. Adrian NO. 2219, VOL. 89] 245 | ' Stokes, A. The sun is here supposed to be below the | horizon on the right, consequently the visible illu- | minated portion of the moon ought to be leaning slightly over to the right also, and not as shown. The | clouds are also too bright relative to the moon. Rainsow. 468. The Home Port. W. Ayerst Ingram. This would be a fine picture if the rainbow were omitted. | The sun is setting on the right of the picture more than 90° away from the observer. This can be gathered from the position and sunlight on the ship in the centre of the picture and other illuminated objects. As one of the fundamental conditions for | seeing a rainbow is that the sun should be at the back of the observer, it is not possible for a rainbow to be included in the picture under the existing sunset position. REFLECTIONS. 167. A Little Mishap. Sir E. J. Poynter, Bart., P.R.A. An excellent study of reflections. Wituam J. S. Lockyer. INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF CHEMICAL SOCIETIES, HE International Association of Chemical Societies held its first formal meeting in Paris in April, 1911, when the delegates nominated by the French, German, and English Chemical Societies met and ratified the statutes of the association, the council of which as at first constituted consisted of Profs. Béhal, Hanriot, and Haller representing the Société Chimique de France, Profs. Jacobson, Ostwald, and Wichel- haus representing the Deutsche chemische Gesell- schaft, and Profs. Frankland, Meldola, and Sir Wm. Ramsay representing our Chemical Society. The second conference was held in Berlin last month, under the presidency of Prof. Ostwald and the vice-presidency of Prof. Wichelhaus, when the council was further enlarged by the addition of Profs. Carrara, Oglialoro, and Paternd representing the Italian Chemical Society, Profs. Kurnakow, Tschugaeff, and Walden representing the Russian Chemical Society, Dr. Day and Profs, Noyes and Richards representing the American Chemical Society, and Profs. Fichter, Guye, and Werner representing the Swiss Chemical Society. Certain other societies representative of Holland, Denmark, Austria, and Norway were also affiliated, but were not directly represented on the council. Prof. Meldola, having been unable to attend the meeting, withdrew from the repre- sentation of the Chemical Society, and was re- placed by Prof. Crossley. The first work of the Association is the con- sideration of the nomenclature of inorganic and organic chemistry and the unification of the nota- tion of physical constants. In connection with the latter part of the programme, the committee has been strengthened by the addition of M. Marie, of the French Society of Physical Chemistry. The English committees appointed to report upon these preliminary branches of work are, for in- organic nomenclature, Sir Wm. Ramsay, Dr. J. C. Cain, and Dr. Harden; for organic nomen- clature, Profs. Kipping and Wynne and Dr. 246 NALURE [May 9, 1912 Cain; and for physical constants, Drs. Wilsmore and Cain and Prof. Findlay. Dr. Cain’s ser- vices have been secured for all three committees in view of his editorship of the publications of the Chemical Society. The other chemical societies have also appointed influential committees to deal with these same subjects, and the reports of these committees were considered at the Berlin congress last month. At this gathering thirteen societies having a total membership of 18,000 were repre- sented. The next meeting of the Association is to be held in London in September, 1913, under the presidency of Sir Wm. Ramsay, when, in addition to the subjects already being dealt with, the question of the possibility of arriving at an international understanding with respect to edit- ing and to the publication of abstracts will be considered. In view of the overlap and duplication of pub- lication now being carried on by several societies all doing the same kind of work, it will be seen that great need exists in the interests of chemical literature for making a serious effort towards centralisation. This can only be done by inter- national co-operation, and it is to be hoped that some practical scheme may be developed as one result of the useful and valuable labours which the new Association has entered upon. MR. JOHN GRAY. WE announced with regret last week the death of Mr. John Gray, one of the examiners of the Patent Office, and well known for enthusiastic and painstaking efforts on behalf of anthropology. Mr. Gray was born at Strichen, Aberdeenshire, on January 9, 1854. He was educated at the Aberdeen Grammar School and at Edinburgh Uni- versity, where he took the second prize in Prof. Fleeming Jenkin’s class in 1873. He obtained the first Royal Exhibition at the Royal School of Mines, London, in 1875, and later received the associateship in metallurgy. He took his degree in Edinburgh in 1878, and entered the Patent Office in that year. Mr. Gray made a study of many electrical problems, especially those bearing on electrical influence machines. He published a book on this subject, in which he traced the historical develop- ment of influence machines, and described such modern forms as those of Kelvin, Voss, Holtz, and Wimshurst. He was well known for his con- nection with physical anthropology, and took an active part in all recent efforts to secure its recognition by the State. He was elected treasurer of the Royal Anthropological Institute in 1904, and his efforts to improve the financial condition of that body were crowned with complete success. In 1904 he gave evidence before the Interdepart- mental Committee on physical deterioration, and, in conjunction with the late Prof. Cunningham, submitted a scheme for a national anthropometric survey. At the request of the Royal Anthropological Institute, Mr. Gray organised» a deputation to meet the late Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman, the NO. 2219, VOL. 89| object of which was to impress on the Government the necessity of carrying out the recommendation. of the Physical Deterioration Committee with regard to a national survey. He designed a number of novel anthropometric instruments, some of which are extensively used by anthropologists, and for which he received a diploma of honour at the Franco-British Exhibition. Mr. Gray took a deep interest in his native county, and, in conjunction with Mr. J. F. Tocher, conducted a_ series of anthropometric’ measurements on the population of Aberdeenshire from 1895 to 1899, the results of which were published in the Journal of the Royal Anthropo- logical Institute, and in the Transactions of the Buchan Club, of which he was president in 1899. In 1901-1902, along with Mr. Tocher, he advo- cated a survey of the colour characters of school children of Scotland, and joined the Scottish com- mittee on its formation, the other members being Sir William Turner, K.C.B., F.R.S., Prof. R. W. Reid, and Mr. Tocher. Both he and Mr. Tocher published memoirs bearing on the results of the survey from different viewpoints. Mr. Gray’s memoir appeared in the Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute (Vol. 37, 1907). ° In this memoir Mr. Gray gave his views on the distribu- tion of colour in Scotland, and displayed local groupings by a system of contour lines in a series of maps. Mr. Gray’s many contributions to anthropo- logical literature include the following :— “Measurements on Papuan Skulls” (J.R.A-I., tgor), “Indian Coronation Contingent” (B.A. Report, 1902), “England before the English” (B.A. Report, 1906), ““A New Instrument for Determining the Colour of the Hair, Eyes. and Skin” (Man, 1908), and “Who Built the British Stone Circles?” (Nature, December 24, 1908). Mr. Gray is survived by a widow and one daughter. NOTES. Tue French Ambassador took the chair on May 3 at the first of the series of four lectures being de- livered by M. Henri Poincaré on mathematical subjects at the University of London: the two remaining lec- tures will be given on May to and 11. M. Poincaré, who was born in 1854, was educated at the lycée at Nancy, entered the Ecole Polytechnique, being placed first on the list, and on leaving it became a Government mining engineer (ingénieur des mines), this employ- ment being reserved for those who occupy very high places at the examen de sortie of the school. He exercised this profession only for a short time; in 1881 he was appointed to a lectureship in pure mathe- maties at the Sorbonne, and when M. Lippmann exchanged the chair of mathematical physics for a chair of experimental physics, M. Poincaré succeeded him. Later, on the death of M. Tisserand, M. Poin- caré succeeded to the chair of mathematical astro- nomy. He has made contributions of the greatest importance to pure and applied mathematics, astro- nomy, and mathematical physics, and also to scientific eT Ns i May 9, 1912] NATURE . 247 method, with which he has dealt “Science et Hypothése’’ and ‘‘La Valeur de la Science.” There is no mathematician living of greater eminence, and probably none whose writings cover so wide a field. It is the historic custom of the French Academy to number amongst its members one or two of the members of the Academy of Sciences whose reputation is best known to the world at large, in his books, ings and a few tiny, spherical bubbles. A simple and trustworthy test of this kind is very important on account of the great disparity between the prices of the two kinds of rubies. Men of science may con- sider the synthetical stones of greater interest; the | general public views them otherwise. and after the death of M. Berthelot (though not, we | believe, as his successor) M. Poincaré was appointed to that body. mond Poincaré, the French Premier. Tue Bill for the Protection of Ancient Monuments, introduced by Earl Beauchamp, has now passed its second reading in the House of Lords. The provision by which the right of pre-emption of valuable sites in the event of sale is reserved to the State was opposed by Lord Curzon in an impressive speech, in which he urged that the example of the destruction of historical buildings like Temple Bar and Tatter- shall Castle justified the extension of the powers at present possessed by the Government in such matters. But he pointed out the improbability of the Treasury granting funds for the purchase of such monuments, and he urged that the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings, which had been in existence for nearly forty years, should have a representative on the Advisory Board, and that a subordinate board should be formed in Scotland to report to London. Further additions to the staff of inspectors were also advisable. He made the startling suggestion that, as matters stand at present, the vicar and churchwardens of Stratford-on-Avon might remove the bust of Shake- speare from the church under their control. The Archbishop of Canterbury remarked that a faculty was necessary in the event of such a proposal, but he seemed to be inclined to admit that more rigid supervision over restorations and the disposal of church plate and stained glass should be provided through the diocesan courts. In a recent letter to The Times, apropos of a case in the Law Courts, Dr. G. F. Herbert Smith com- | mented on the difficulty with which jewellers are confronted owing to the success that has been achieved in the manufacture of rubies. In the case in ques- tion the stones were styled reconstructed, but they were no doubt synthetical stones formed by the fusion of alumina powder by the method described by Prof. A. Verneuil in 1904. The former term is properly restricted to the cloudy, inferior stones resulting from the fusion of fragments of natural rubies. In both processes the colouring agent is chromic oxide. According to one witness, an expert jeweller could immediately detect a reconstructed ruby, because it had-a different colour and lustre. M. Poincaré is a cousin of M. Ray- | ApRIL, with its total rainfall of o’o2 in. at Green- wich, is not only the driest April on record, but it is drier than any month at any period of the year during the last 100 years. The absolute drought at Green- wich, which has now been brought to a close, con- tinued for twenty-three days, from April 10 to May 2, which is the same length of time as the longest drought in the memorable summer last year, when no rain fell from July 1 to 23. The London area has only experienced about five droughts of a longer period during the Jast fifty years. The aggregate rainfall at Greenwich from March 24 to May 3, a period of forty-one days, was only o’1o in., and the total fall from March 24 to May 6, a period of forty-four days, yields o'29 in. The partial drought, not exceeding o’or in. per day, may be prolonged into May, but it cannot claim to be thrown further back into March. Some further results yielded by the observations pub- lished in the Daily Weather Report of the Meteoro- logical Office show Oxford to have experienced an absolute drought for twenty-three days, and a partial drought from March 24 to May 3, with o'r8 in. of rain, whilst the total to May 2, a period of forty-one days, only measured 0’07 in. At Nottingham the abso- lute drought continued for twenty-two days, from April 11 to May 2; at Jersey twenty-two days, from April 12 to May 3; at Bath, twenty-one days, from April 13 to May 3, and the aggregate fall at Bath from March 24 to May 6, a period of forty-four days, is 0°57 in. The copious rains during the early part of March and throughout the past winter naturally rendered the recent drought far less serious than many previous | spring droughts of somewhat recent years. An en- tirely different type of weather seems now to have set in, and the conditions have become favourable to a series of disturbances arriving over us from the Atlan- tic, so that fairly copious rains may be anticipated. One of the chief objections to the Daylight Saving Bill is the dislocation the scheme would effect in the zone system of time reckoning established by inter- national conferences held successively in Rome and Washington thirty years ago. Mr. W. Ellis, F.R.S., refers particularly to this point in a short article in the March number of The Horological Journal. At present the prime meridian of Greenwich regulates the time of the civilised world. If the clocks of Great Britain are put forward one hour in summer, as pro- | posed by the Bill, they will not show Greenwich time, | but mid-European time; that is to say, our prime While possibly true | of the reconstructed, it is certainly not true of the | synthetical stones. of the molecular constitution the latter have the same lustre as natural rubies, and, although the artificial stones are usually made of one particular shade of Owing to the essential identity | red, yet the same tint is common in natural stones. | Discrimination is, however, easy, because the syn- thetical rubies invariably contain faint curved mark- NO. 2219, VOL. 89] meridian, accepted by nations as regulating the time of the world, will be discarded by us for five months in every year, in total disregard of existing well- considered and well-established international relations. An Act to enforce the alteration of clocks by putting them forward for one hour in summer would introduce confusion in a scientific system and disturb accepted international standards. We cannot believe that such a proposal will ever be seriously entertained by Par- to ax oe) NATURE [May 9, 1912 liament. tion may usefully be directed is the reckoning of hours from one to twenty-four in order to avoid the desig- nations of a.m. and p.m. The Nord and Est Rail- way Companies of France have just introduced this twenty-four hour system for their clocks and time- tables, and the Orient express is now timed to leave the Paris Gare de l’Est at 19h. 13m. instead of 7.13 p.m. as heretofore, while on the station clocks the figures from 13 to 24 have been inscribed on the face within the outer circle of the existing hour figures. It would be a decided advantage if the 24-hour method of describing time were adopted in Great Britain. At the meeting of the Institution of Electrical Engineers on May 16, a marble bust of the late Lord Kelvin will be presented to the institution on behalf of Lady Kelvin. Tue governing body of the Imperial College of Science and Technology has appointed Mr. W. Frecheville to be professor of mining in the Royal School of Mines, in succession to Prof. S. Herbert Cox, who is about to retire. Mr. Watter E. ArcHER, C.B., who, as assistant secretary, has been in charge of the Fisheries Division of the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries since its establishment in October, 1903, has been compelled to retire from the public service owing to ill-health. His retirement took effect on May 1. WE are informed by Dr. Shaw, director of the Meteorological Office, that the superintendent of the observatory at Eskdalemuir, Dumfriesshire, reports that the seismographs at the observatory recorded a violent earthquake on May 6, at 7 p.m. The position of the epicentre is 63° N. latitude, 21° W. longitude, which indicates a place in the Atlantic not far from Iceland, to the south-west of the island. Mr. H. C. K. Prummer has been elected by the Board of Trinity College, Dublin, to be Royal Astronomer in Ireland, in succession to Dr. E. T. Whittaker, who was recently elected professor of mathematics at Edin- burgh University. Mr. Plummer is the son of Mr. W. E. Plummer, director of the Liverpool Observa- tory, and has been second assistant to Prof. H. H. Turner at the Oxford University Observatory since Igol. On Tuesday next, May 14, Prof. W. Bateson will begin a course of two lectures at the Royal Institu- tion on “The Study of Genetics,’ and on Thursday, May 16, Prof. H. T. Barnes will deliver the first of two lectures on ‘‘The Physical and Economic Aspects of Ice. Formation in Canada.’ The Friday evening discourse on May 17 will be delivered by Mr. W: Duddell on ‘‘ High-frequency Currents,’’ and on May 24 by Mr. A. D. Hall on “* Recent Advances in Agricul- tural Science—the Fertility of the Soil.” THE services of the official guide to the collections at the British Museum, Bloomsbury, have been so highly appreciated that a similar officer has been ap- pointed, experimentally, at the Natural History Museum, South Kensington. Mr. J. H. Leonard has been selected for the position, and he will probably NO. 2219, VOL. 89] t E : : ; : A more promising subject to which atten- | take up his duties before Whitsuntide. The guide will make two tours of the museum daily, each tour lasting an hour. Provision will also be made for special tours, and for these, special application will have to be made. : Ar the annual general meeting of the Institution of Civil Engineers held on April 30, the following were elected president and vice-presidents :—Presi- dent, Mr. Robert Elliott-Cooper; vice-presidents, Mr. A. G. Lyster, Mr. B. H. Blyth, Mr. J. Strain, and Mr. G. Robert Jebb. The council of the institution has made the following awards for papers read during the session t1g11-1912:—Telford gold medals to Messrs. E. and W. Mansergh; a George Stephenson gold medal to Mr. R. T. Smith; a Watt gold medal to Mr. A. H. Roberts; Telford premiums to Messrs. J. Goodman, A. B. McDonald, G. M. Taylor, D. C. Leitch, W. C. Easton, and D. H. Morton; and the Manby premium to Mr. S. H. Ellis. In the report of the council of the Chemical Society presented at the annual general meeting on March 28, and published in the last number of the Proceedings, it is stated that in the opinion of counsel any person using the letters ‘‘F.C.S.” without authority and for the purpose of wrongfully assuming the status of a fellow of the Chemical Society, can be restrained by injunction from so doing. Mention is made that the Becquerel memorial lecture is to be delivered by Sir Oliver Lodge in the place of Prof. Rutherford. In connection with the publication of the Journal it is stated that the cost is about 5200]. a year, which represents about five-sevenths of the society’s income. The congratulations of the council have been offered to Mr. E. Riley, who has completed sixty years of fellowship, and to Major C. E. Beadnell, R.A., Mr. H. O. Huskisson, and Mr. F. Norrington, who, during 1911, attained their jubilee as fellows. FURTHER particulars have been received of the arrangements in connection with the International Congress of Applied Chemistry, to be held in Wash- ington and New York next September, to which reference has been made on previous occasions. It is stated that 573 papers have now been definitely promised to the respective sections. Five general lectures have been arranged: Mr. George T. Beilby, F.R.S., of Glasgow, on ‘“‘Some Physical Aspects of Molecular Aggregation in Solids’’; Prof. Gabriel Bertrand, of Paris; ‘‘Des réles des infiniment petites chimiques en chimie biologique”’; Prof. Carl Duis- berg, of Eberfeld, ‘‘The Latest Achievements and Problems of the Chemical Industry’; Prof. Giacomo Ciamician, of Bologna, ‘‘La foto chimica dell’ avvenire”’; and Prof. Ira Remsen, of Baltimore, ‘*Priestkey in America.” Mr. W. J. L Assorr contributes to the July-Decem- ber issue of the Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute a useful article on the classification of the prehistoric British stone industries. He points out the danger of assuming that the evolution of culture has progressed along a line of unbroken chronological sequence, and he shows that the evidence derived from our river deposits must be accepted with the qualifica- | Ee May g, 1912] tion that in different areas there have been tectonic movements and phenomena attending differential elevation, depression, and denudation, which have contributed to destroy a consecutive altitudinal chronology. Palzolithic man being a nomad, he con- structed his implements according to hereditary custom, while discoveries of improved methods were not easily disseminated over the wide areas occupied by these wandering groups. In the course of the discussion he suggests a new series of terms to desig- nate various forms of implement. It is obvious that innovations such as these, unless accepted by a congress of anthropologists, are likely to lead to further confusion, and his proposal to assign the name “Prestwich” to one and ‘‘Evans” to another type, after two distinguished geologists and antiquaries, though based on the analogy of terms like ‘‘ohm,” “watt,” or ‘‘farad,” is scarcely likely to meet with general acceptance. To The Field of April 17 Mr. Lydekker contri- butes extracts from a letter from the British Resident in Nepal in regard to the so-called unicorn rams of that country, of which examples were exhibited some years ago in the London Zoological Gardens. Mr. Lydekker had previously suggested in the same journal that the fusion of the horns is due to arti- ficial manipulation of those of young lambs of the barwal breed; and this is fully confirmed by the inquiries instituted by the Prime Minister at the request of the Resident. The budding horns of young lambs are seared with hot irons, and treated with soot and oil, after which, instead of spreading outwards, they coalesce and grow backwards. In connection with the treaty between Great Britain, the United States, Russia, and Japan for the suppres- sion of pelagic sealing, Dr. F. A. Lucas contributes to the American Museum Journal for April an article on the Alaskan fur-seal. ‘‘ The fur-seal,’’ he observes, “would long ago have been swept out of existence but for the fact that the breeding-grounds are carefully guarded, and while the herd is but a tithe of its former size, it still comprises many thousands. If pelagic sealing can be brought to an end, the seal- herd will recuperate rapidly, even though the death- rate is high, and not more than half the seals born in any one season live to return the next. Whether or not this desirable end can be brought about remains to be seen, and some of us are not very hopeful.” Tue twenty-second annual report of the Missouri Botanical Garden contains two long papers on the genus Agave, by Dr. Trelease, who also contributes a shorter paper on two new Yuccas. The Agave memoirs are illustrated by no fewer than eighty fine photographic plates, numerous new species being de- scribed, chiefly from Lower California. A further in- stalment of Griffiths’s studies on the genus Opuntia is also included; this is illustrated by seventeen beau- tiful plates, representing ten new species. From two articles on Podophyllum emodi, in The Indian Forester (April, 1912) and the Forest Bulletin (No. 9), by Puran Singh, it would appear that the Indian species has strong claims on many grounds for inclusion in the new edition of the British Phar- NO. 2219, VOL. 89] NATURE 249 macopeeia, which is now being revised by a com- mittee of the Pharmaceutical Society. It ‘has been definitely established that the Indian species yields a considerably higher percentage of resin,- containing the active cathartic and purgative principle podo- phyllotoxin, than the American species (P. peltatum) which has hitherto been universally employed as the source of the drug podophyllin. No. 48 of the Scientific Memoirs of the Govern- ment of India, by Major D. McCay, details investi- gations into the jail dietaries of the United Provinces. It contains a mass of statistical and. analytical data on the subject which will be of the greatest value. The nutritive values of the diets at present in use, and the coefficients of protein and carbohydrate absorption of the different materials entering into those dietaries, have been determined, and from the data obtained eight new dietaries of practically identical nutritive values have been framed. Certain side-issues have also been investigated. Thé percentage of nitrogen in the faces is practically constant, whatever the type of diet may be, and when inferior vegetable food- stuffs are made use of the loss of protein by the faces is very great. A final conclusion is of considerable importance: from the facts collected with regard to the inhabitants of the United Provinces and martial races of the plains, it would appear that, other things being equal, diet is the all-important factor in deter- mining the degree of physical development and general well-being of a people, and that with a low level of nitrogenous interchange deficient stamina, morally and physically, must be expected. The meteorological chart of the North Atlantic for May, issued by the Meteorological Office on April 18, includes synoptic weather charts for April 8-17. During this period a large anticyclone moved north- eastward from the southern part of that ocean. The weather was fair over western Europe, but to the westward of longtitude 30° W. conditions were change- able and showery. The latest ice reports from Canada referred to the existence of heavy, close ice and numerous bergs in Belleisle Strait; off Cape Race (Newfoundland) no ice was visible. Mention is made of the fact that the bergs which appear annually in the. North Atlantic have their origin, as a rule, in western Greenland; only a few come from Spits- bergen, and still fewer from Hudson’s Bay. The mean limits of field-ice and of icebergs in May are laid down on the chart, the extreme boundaries being about 42° N., 45° W., and 39° N., 40° W. respec- tively. A LECTURE on daylight delivered by Prof. E. L. Nichols before the Franklin Institute is reproduced in the April number of the Jcurnal of the Institute. In addition to a summary of the facts about daylight, which are comparatively well known or can be found in a standard work like Pernter and Exner’s *‘ Meteoro- logische Physik,’’ it contains an account of the measurements made by the author at home and in Switzerland by means of a spectrophotometer. These cover such subjects as the relative brightness of clear and partially or wholly clouded sky, the distribution of light of different wave-lengths in daylight at 250 NATURE [May 9, 1912 dawn and later, the effect of mist or an approach- ing storm on the distribution, and, lastly, the means talken in artificial illumination to imitate daylight. In the February number of the Bulletin of the Academy of Sciences of Cracow, Prof. Natanson has an article on the energy content of material bodies in which he points out an important distinction between Prof. Planck’s theory of radiation and Prof. Einstein’s idea that every material body consists of an assemblage of Planckian vibrators, the energy of which constitutes the heat energy of the body. While in the general theory of radiation it is unnecessary to inquire how many vibrators of a given period are present per gram of a material, so long as the inter- change of energy of different wave-lengths can be effected by their means, in the latter theory it is of fundamental importance to determine the number of each kind present. Without this knowledge Prof. Ein- stein’s interesting theory cannot be pursued further. In the course of a valuable paper on ‘‘Some Aspects of Diesel Engine Design,” read by Mr. D. M. Shannon at the Institution of Engineers and Ship- builders in Scotland, the author takes up the im- portant question of the proper design of cams for operating the valves. The noise caused by some cam and roller gears is due principally to two causes, the first and greater being the speed with which the cam strikes the roller, and the second being the valve striking the seat. The latter need cause no incon- venience, since it occurs inside the cylinder, and is therefore of a muffled nature. To get rid of the former cause, the flat part of the cam profile should slide under the roller at a tangent, and should grip the roller with no velocity. If this is done, the valve can then be pushed open as rapidly as desired. The closing of the valve should be obtained in a similar manner. Diagrams are given showing the abrupt changes in speed and acceleration produced by a badly designed cam, and are contrasted with the curves given by a cam properly designed. There are many makers of internal-combustion engines who might profit by a careful study of Mr. Shannon’s paper. Messrs. J. anp A. CHURCHILL have just ready for publication vol. vi. of the new edition of ‘‘Allen’s Commercial Organic Analysis.” This volume has been rewritten under the editorship of Mr. W. A. Davis and Mr. S. S. Sadtler. Amonc the new books and new editions announced for publication by Messrs. C. Griffin and Co., Ltd., are the following :—‘‘ Practical Agricultural Bac- teriology,” Prof. Lohnis, translated by W. Stevenson ; ‘Notes on Foundry Practice,” J. J. Morgan; ‘‘ Modern Road Construction,” F. Wood; “Modern Pumping and Hydraulic Machinery,” E. Butler; ‘‘ Calculations on the Entropy Chart,” Dr. W. J. Crawford; ‘ The Evolution of the Internal Combustion Engine,” E. Butler; ‘‘The Gas Turbine, Theory, Construction, and Working Results of Two Machines in Actual Use,” H. Holzwarth, translated by A. P. Chalkley; ‘“A Manual of Marine Engineering: comprising the Designing, Construction, and Working of Marine Machinery,” A. E. Seaton; ‘‘A Treatise on Mine Sur- veying,”” H. Brough, revised by Prof. S. W. Price; NO. 2219, VOL. 89] I. Electrical Photometry,” Prof. H. Bohle; ‘* Celluloid,” a translation from the French of Masselon, Roberts, and Cillard, by Dr. H. H. Hodgson; ‘‘ A Handbook on Metallic Alloys,” G. H. Gulliver; ‘‘ Mathematics and Mechanics for Technical Examinations,’ C. A. A. Capito. OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. A Brituianr Mereor.—A meteor of unusual bril- liance and low velocity was observed by Mr. Rolston at South Kensington at gh. 46m. (G.M.T.) on May 2. The approximate commencement and end of the flight were at 150°+14°, and 1423°, o°, respectively, and the time occupied in traversing the path was esti- mated as at least two seconds. Both in colour and brightness the meteor was very like Arcturus, and no train was visible along which it had passed. The position of the commencement of the apparition is a little uncertain, because Mr. Rolston was not actually engaged in watching for meteors, his attention being first directed to the phenomenon by its extraordinary brightness. Nova GeminoruM, No. 2.—In No. 4569 of the Astronomische Nachrichten, Prof. Max Wolf publishes some remarks on the apparently periodical changes in the structure of the complicated hydrogen bands in the spectrum of Nova Geminorum. As Prof. Iniguez has pointed out, the most intense portion of each band has changed its position in the band, and Prof. Wolf finds that a certain periodicity is displayed by the variations. The brightest part moves gradually, first towards the red and then towards the violet, the changes taking place in regular steps in about four- teen, or seven, days. Thus on March 15 and 29 the dark absorption line in the Hd band, at A4093, became obvious, and on April 13 the structure of the band was similar to that which obtained on March 17. It is suggested that the seven-day magnitude varia- tion remarked by Dr. Kritzinger may be related to these changes in the structure of the spectral bands. Fant Stars witH Larce Proper Morions.—The comparison of photographs of several star clusters taken in 1909-10 with the large Pulkowa astrograph with similar plates taken eleven to fifteen years earlier has disclosed a number of large proper motions, of which Herr Kostinsky gives particulars in No. 4569 of the Astronomische Nachrichten. The magnitude of the proper motions was measured in the first place with a Zeiss stereocomparator, and was shown in every case to be more than 1o” per century on a great circle. The annual motions of the seven stars de- scribed range from 0113” to 111” on a great circle. Four pairs of plates, having intervals of about one year, show that the star BD+53° 2911 (mag. 9°5) has a mean annual proper motion of 1'23”+0'04"; this star appears on the photographs of the Nova Lacertz (1910) region, its position (1911’0) being 22h. 29m. TO¢2Sey 153° 20) 3)": SoraR PROMINENCES IN IgI0.—Prof. Riccd pub- lishes his annual (1910) summary of the prominences observed at Catania in No. 3, vol. i., series 2, of the Memorie della Societa degli Spettroscopisti Italiani. It shows that while from month to month the mean frequency of prominences varied irregularly, there was, on the whole, a regular decrease in the northern hemisphere, while the frequency was fairly constant in the southern. For the four trimestres the frequencies were :—N. hemisphere, 2-3, 1-5, II, and o-4; S. hemisphere, 1-4, 13, 13, and 1-3, re- spectively, the mean frequencies for the year being 1-3 in each hemisphere. This gives 2:6 as the mean frequency for both hemispheres, a value notably smaller than that for the immediately preceding = a gy Oe Orr ETS ————— May 9, 1912] NATURE 251 years; the dimensions of the prominences showed a similar decrease, while the mean latitude was a little higher, and the prominences more evenly distributed, in both hemispheres. THE EBGPAPSE OF THESSUN. APRIL 1. UR EFEREING to Dr. Marie Stopes’s observation of a halo about the eclipsed sun on April 17, Mr. Patrick Hepburn writes that Mrs. Hepburn, observ- ing from near the central line in France, noticed what seemed to be rather of the nature of a corona than a halo, although they concluded that it had no connec- tion with the true solar corona; it was coloured, with the violet outwards. Mr. C. O. Bartrum also dis- cusses this phenomenon, and from two friends, one of whom saw the eclipse from near Paris, the other from Highgate, he gathers that ‘‘the appearance of a circle round the sun" seems to have been a corona due to diffraction, the colours appearing purer and brighter than usual because of the reduction in the effective size of the sun. On photographs taken at Funchal (Madeira), and sent to us by Mr. Michael Grabham, there is obviously light cloud producing a ‘‘corona” effect around the sun, but the halo so plainly shown on them is palpably a photographic halation phenomenon. Another photo- graph shows several excellent crescentic images pro- jected on to a wood floor through the foliage of stephanotis. Mr. A. A. Buss writes that the time of his promin- ence observations (Nature, April 25, p. 193) was from 8.0 to 8.30 a.m. The positions he gave agree very well with prominences photographed by M. Des- landres (NaTURE, May 2, p. 221), although Mr. Buss | did not note the large prominences in 47° N. lat. (E.) and 47° S. lat. (W.) as being especially conspicuous ; the position angles would be about 17° and 197° respectively. But Mr. Buss observed visually in He radiation, while M. Deslandres used the K (calcium) radiation for his spectroheliograms; this and _ the difference in time would readily explain the apparent changes, especially as the fact that considerable pro- minence activity occurred on the day of the eclipse is confirmed by both observers. Mr. Buss states that prominences were seen near p.a. 117° from April 14 to 29, thus forming a chain extending more than half-way round the sun; the western extremity of the chain was detected at the W. limb towards the end of the month. Possibly the Ha spectroheliograms taken during this period will show magnificent ‘‘ fila- ments’ in the position indicated. Mr. Buss pictures the grandeur of such phenomena could they be spectro- scopically observed from a position in space on the sun’s axis prolonged. Mr. Worthington, who, with Mr. Slater, was operating near Ovar, secured a photograph of the bright chromospheric arcs, which shows a_ large number of lines between A3100 and D. Only the lower halves of the chromospheric circles are shown, the upper halves being lost in continuous spectrum, probably produced by portions of the sun which re- mained uncovered at the moment of exposure. The original negative is deposited at the Royal Astro- nomical Society’s rooms, as were those secured at Vavau last year, where it may be inspected by anyone interested in the matter. Several papers dealing with the eclipse appear in the Comptes rendus for April 29 (No. 18). MM. Carimey, Raveau, and Stablo describe bands of dark- ness which they observed from near the central line on the plateau de la Beauce. Comte de la Baume- Pluvinel was at St. Germain-en-Laye, and took a large number of kinematograph pictures of the eclipse, NO. 2219, VOL. 89] | with a chronometer alongside, at the rate of 13 or 14 per second. A study of these gives the time of central eclipse at 12h. 1om. 4’5s.+0'2s., but this may be a little modified if the lunar depressions on oppo- site sides were not equally deep; for last contact the time determined was rh. 32m. 7s. Four plates taken with an objective of 15 metres focal length show a slight aureole attributable to the corona, but no details of coronal structure. A three-prism spectroscope, with a wide slit, was directed to part of the chromosphere between two Baily’s beads in p.a. about 130°. A considerable number of monochromatic images of the chromosphere were shown between A486 and A380, about forty appearing between H and K. At Clayes (long. 0° 21’ 9/8” west, lat., 48° 49’ 13” N.), MM. R. Jouast and P. de la Gorce determined the variations of the intensity of the light on a horizontal plane during the eclipse. There was a steady decrease from 50,000 units at roh. 55m. 155s. to 16 units at 12h. gm. 55°5s-, then a more rapid increase to 50,000 units at 12h. 50m. 4o0s. Kinematograph pictures were oan by MM. Vlés and J. Carvallo at Cacabelos, in pain. MATTER AND MIND. CIR GEORGE REID is known to be a versatile thinker, and he shows himself to be also a philo- sopher in an address on ‘“‘The World of Matter and the World of Mind” delivered by him recently before the Royal Scottish Geographical Society. We live on a single globe among millions of similar. bodies, and we have no direct evidence of life elsewhere in space. Yet, “If living things exist only on this globe, living things are the loneliest of all the objects which the telescope can reach, or the microscope reveal, or the mind of man conceive. Man would be the loneliest of all, for he stands alone even among the living things of his own planet.’” Moreover, the achievements of man in the few thousand years of historic time are so brilliant in comparison with what was accomplished in the million years or so of geo- logical man that Sir George Reid considers the argu- ment derived from the remains of a physical struc- ture resembling our own furnishes no conclusive proof that we are in body and soul the lineal descendants of fossilised ancestors. The principle of continuity breaks down when the evolution of mind is considered; if a Plato, Newton, or Darwin can be developed from a cave-dweller, ‘‘is not such an evolu- tion a greater tax on human faith than the marvels of a direct creation can be?” Man, the intelligent centre of progressive life, is conscious of directive control: the will is merely the executive officer of the mind, and behind it there must be ‘some sort of pilotage.”’ This position is not new, and has been occu- pied by many philosophers from Aristotle to Bergson without any completely satisfactory view being obtained from it. The rise and progress of mental life, the emergence of volition, or the will to decide between reason and desire, and the idea of will behind phenomena, find no clear place in the naturalistic scheme of human evolution. Matter— whether organic or inorganic—is yielding to the importunate efforts of scientific investigators, but mind as a subject of serious study is given little attention even at the universities. Sir George Reid pleads for greater encouragement to the work of psychologists in these seats of learning, and his address should do something to save the Cinderella among the sciences from her present condition of neglect. 252 ABRIAL FLIGHT.? EGINNING with balloons, as having the priority in point of time, it may be remarked that the whole subject is included in the last 130 years dating from the experiment ofjthe Montgolfiers, who made their first ascent in 1785, but were at work for some years before this, and that other designs quickly followed containing in principle most of the appli- ances which are in use to-day. The ballonet, for instance, was proposed and tried by Charles and Robert. We find also designs for dirigible balloons of much the same shapes as dre now familiar to us. All attempts at propelling these vessels naturally failed for want of adequate power, and in some cases the proposed form of propulsion was impracticable, but in others a screw of nearly the same proportions as that now in use was actually tried. It was soon found, however, that the speed which could be developed by man-power or by any engine that the balloon could lift only amounted to a few miles an hour, less, that is, than the speed of a very light breeze. Thus, so far as directing the course of a vessel was concerned, the mechanism was almost useless, and few further attempts at mechanical pro- pulsion were made until the advent of the internal- combustion engine. Independently of outward form, balloons may be divided into two classes, according as the lifting gas carried is (a) constant in mass, or (b) constant in volume, and these again may be subdivided according to the relation of the pressure or density of the enclosed gas to that of the surrounding air. All the conditions, however, may be conveniently represented by supposing that the gas is contained in a massless vertical cylinder closed at the top by a fixed cover and. below by a moyable piston. The piston may be supposed to be free or clamped, and to be acted on by the gaseous pressures only or by any other additional force. I do not propose here to go into the questions of the relative merits of the rigid and non-rigid forms, questions which turn on structural details rather than on general principles, but something may be said on the nature of the envelope used for retaining the hydrogen which is now usually employed for lifting purposes. The best information on the subject is due to work recently carried out at the National Physical Labora- tory at the request of the Advisory Committee for Aéronautics, and will be found in detail in their published reports. It appears that among the fabrics in use there are enormous differences in their retentive power (that is, in the rate of the diffusion of hydrogen through them irrespective of actual leaks), differences of nearly two | hundredfold appearing between the worst and best specimens. Indiarubber coatings are the least satisfactory, allowing an escape in some cases of more than 0-7 cubic foot for every square foot of material in twenty- four hours when new, and deteriorating as time goes on. The most retentive hitherto tested are various oiled silks, goldbeaters’ skin, and some other artificial membranes. When the large surface which all dirigible shapes expose to the air is considered, it will be seen how important is the choice of material, and that with the best the necessary hydrogen renewal is not a small matter, even if no ascents are made, and may well be more than 1000 cubic feet a day for a moder- ately large vessel. Much more than this, however, must be lost when 1 Abridged from the ‘‘ James Forrest” Lecture, delivered before the Institution of Civil Engineers on April 19 by H. R. A. Mallock, F.R.S. NO. 2219, VOL. 89] NATURE | each such cycle work | from place to place _ this case [May 9, 1912 the dirigible is in use. A thousand cubic feet of hydrogen gives a lifting force of about 75 lb., and the engines of one of the larger dirigibles will part with many times this weight in fuel and other ways in less than twelve hours. To keep the vessel at a constant height the lift has to be diminished or the downward force increased at the same rate. While travelling this may be effected to some extent by steering, but when stationary the balance can only be obtained by allowing the equivalent amount of gas to escape. To rise again an equal amount of ballast must be discharged. The number of ascents, therefore, which can be made without a fresh supply of hydrogen is limited by the quantity of ballast which can be carried. We may now direct our attention to the more promising field presented by true flying machines— machines, that is, which are heavier than air and are supported by the reaction of a downward current of air called into existence by the engines in ordinary flying or by the diversion of natural upward components of the wind in soar- ing. It is theoretic- ally possible also to maintain flight (with- out expenditure of work on the part of the flying machine) in a horizontal wind the velocity of which increases with the altitude or varies at the same level. In the flying machine has to descend in the direc- tion of the wind and then turn and ascend against it. In is gained, and the work is obtained from the difference of wind velocities. One or two ex- amples may be given illustrating the de- pendence of the power required on HiNem tien: nai nia] velocity. First take the case of a parachute, which may be supposed to be massless and to carry a long ladder up which a man climbs (Fig. 1). If the man is to maintain a constant elevation above the ground he must be able to climb as fast as the parachute falls. Now it is known from experiment that a surface such as a parachute experiences a resistance while falling through the air equal to about 14/1000 of a pound for every square foot of area at a speed of 1 foot per second. If we give the parachute a diameter of Fic. 1. | 36 feet, its area will be about 1000 square feet, and if we suppose the man to weigh 150 lb., the terminal 150 velocity will be given by Ue Se or v=3:3 feet per second. This, of course, is much more than a man can do. If we take a man-power as one-tenth of a horse- power, 55 feet per minute, or, at the outside, 1 foot per second, may be taken as the rate at which he can raise his own weight for any considerable length May 9, 1912] NATURE 253 of time. The area which, when loaded with 150 Ib., drops at the rate of 1 foot per second, is ae or 10,600 square feet, that is, a circle of 113 feet diameter. With such a parachute a man could by climbing keep himself stationary in the air. It is not necessary, in order to impart this momentum to the air, that the surface should itself have this area of 10,600 square feet. The same momentum may be given by a much smaller inclined surface moving horizontally. If a perfectly efficient screw or inclined plane were a physical possibility, there would be nothing to pre- vent people from flying by their own muscular effort, and it is worth while to examine the causes which prevent the realisation of such a result. Fic. 2 We will now consider more closely the causes which produce the very marked difference between the theoretical curves given in Fig. 2 and the correspond- ing quantities as determined by experiment. _ It is well known that the fluid with which mathe- maticians deal, and which is supposed to surround the plane in Fig. 2, is an ideal body which is with- out viscosity (that is, opposes no resistance to shear), and that in contact with a solid it experiences no frictional retardation. In such a fluid pressure and velocity are connected by an invariable law, the sum of the potential and kinetic energies of any portion of the fluid re- maining constant for all time. This law, together with the necessary con- dition of continuity, which for an incompressible fluid merely implies that the volume of a given mass of fluid remains constant, no matter what shape it takes, constitutes the foundation of all the propositions regarding the stream lines of a perfect fluid which have hitherto been worked out, and for such a fluid the stream lines indi- cated in Fig. 2 are an exact solution of the problem. Now real fluids differ from the perfect fluid in having both viscosity and surface friction. They require that work should be done if distortion ‘is going on, and they adhere to the surfaces of solids immersed in them. Thus a plane which, if moving edgewise in a perfect fluid, would meet with no resistance, does meet with resistance in a real fluid on account of the adherence of the fluid to the solid surface and the consequent distortion produced in the neighbouring layers of the fluid. It is true that for fluids such as water and air the viscosity is so small that the direct effects would hardly be noticeable. Indirectly, however, they have immense influence, and it is not too much to say that the most remarkable features in the flow of the winds, tides, and streams are due to the modification of stream-line motion set up by fluid friction and viscosity. NO. 2219, VOL. 89] The indirect action referred to depends on the fact that when a stream is retarded by friction the velocity is reduced, although the pressure remains unchanged, and thus the fundamental relation which connects velocity and pressure in a jerfect fluid is violated. So long as the stream concerned is of constant section and is neither accelerating nor retarding, as, for instance, when the flow is through a straight pipe of uniform bore, the effect of friction shows itself merely by rendering the stream lines irregularly sinuous, in a way which has not yet been investi- gated, and as giving rise to a resistance which is proportional to a power of the velocity something rather less than the square, i.e. to the 185th or roth power. When, however, the stream is divergent (so that in the absence of friction the velocities and pressures, although constant across each section, change from one section to another, but keep the total energy of the flow across each section the same), the effect of friction and viscosity is much more conspicuous. On the up-stream side of the plane friction does little to modify the conditions except in the neigh- bourhood of the edges, but down stream we find, instead of a pond of still fluid, a complex wake con- sisting of a central current moving forwards towards the plane, bordered by a series of eddies the origin of which is of the same nature as those just referred to in the expanding channel, namely, to degradation of the streams passing round the edges of the plane, which, having insufficient velocity to follow the stream-line path of Fig. 2, are deflected inwards and become involved with the reversed central stream, about half the fluid in each eddy being supplied from up stream and half from the wake. The eddies are formed periodically, growing to a certain size, and then, breaking away from their place of birth, they form part of the train which borders the wake current. The wake current itself is due to the constant removal of fluid in this way from the back of the plane, and the fact that the outflow from the back has its maximum velocity close to the edge where the composite eddy is being formed shows that the pressure on the back of the Fic. 3.-—Frictional flow : stream oblique to plate. plane is lower at the edges than in the centre. Hence it could be stated with certainty, even’ without any experiment, that the total resistance of a plane must be greater than pv?“ =!" * _, 4+7 sina pressure over the rear surface is uniform and equal to the general pressure at a distance. Experiment, however, is required to determine the actual resistance, and when the plane is broadside to the stream this is found to be about half as much again as the head resistance alone, or about 20 or which assumes that the | 25 per cent. greater than the dynamic head x the area of the plane. When the angle a is small, as it always is in flight, the character of the wake takes the form shown in Fig. 3. Here the wake stream is only recognisable | as a reversed current quite close to the plane, and the small eddies as fast as they are formed are so 254 NATURE [May 9, 19f2 rapidly degraded that after travelling a short distance they are merely recognisable as slight variations in the direction of the general current. The abstraction of wake water by eddy-making continues, however, even for very small values of a, and has the effect of deflecting the upper boundary of the wake as shown. The deflection may be considered from another point of view as the outcome of the defective pressure on the down-stream surface of the plane. This short account gives a general explanation of the observed difference between results calculated for the discontinuous flow of a perfect fluid and those actually found by experiments in air and water, and if the nature of the flow over the back surface were accurately known, the value of « for the maximum of L/R could be predicted. Even in the absence of this knowledge, the assumption that surface friction varies as v* and acts only on the up-stream side, leads to a value of a that is not far removed from truth. Let AB, Fig. 4, be the plane making a small angle a@ with the stream, and let L and R be the lateral force and resistance which would be experi- enced if there were no friction. If L’ and R’ are the same quantities, taking fric- tion into account, and putting Fv’ as the frictional force parallel to AB, we have L’=L—Fa and R’=R+Fv?, and since L=R,a, and R=R,a’, R, being the normal resistance Av’, L’=L—Fa=av?(A,,—F), and R’=R+ Fv? =v7(Aa?+F); Be A Fic. 4. hence L’/R’=a(A—F)/(a?A+F), and this is a maxi- mum when a=/7F/R. Lanchester’s experiments make | F/R=o0-0075; Zahn’s experiments make F/R=o0-0037, which corre- spond to 2=6-5° or 3-5° respectively. The actual value found from direct experiments on L and R lies between these two, and although 6-5° is nearer the truth than 3-5°, this does not imply that 00075 is the more nearly correct value of F/R, for the complete theory must take into consideration the action of the streams on both sides of the plane. If ascending currents can be found, or if use can be made of differences of speed in the wind at different levels, there is no reason why engineless flight should not succeed, but the opportunities are rather limited. The heaviest birds which can fly (great bustards, turkeys, and some of the vultures, eagles, and peli- cans) weigh between 20 and 30 lb. Of these, bustards and turkeys are short-winged, and the load is more than 2 Ib. to the square foot of wing. But their flights are short and their wing movements rapid, and the power expended while rising from the ground must be very great in proportion to their size. The large birds which make long flights have wing areas giving a load of less than 2 Ib. per square foot, and are all adepts at making use of ascending air currents, so that for the most part of their time in the air they have but little work to do. Much controversy has arisen on the question of the sufficiency of upward currents or upward components NO. 2219, VOL. 89] of currents of air to account for such flights, but the more the circumstances are examined the more clearly it appears that soaring is in most cases effected in this way, although the origins of the ascending currents are very various. Sometimes they are caused by natural obstructions in the path of the wind, such as cliffs, hills, the sides or sails of a ship, or the slope of waves, but on a larger scale they are chiefly the result of air ascending after having been warmed by contact, direct or indirect, with the ground. At low levels such vertical movements are very small, and at the surface of the ground any motion must, of course, be parallel to the surface; but at considerable heights, especially in sunny countries, these convection currents must always exist, even when the weather is calm, except in the rare event of large tracts of sea or country having the, same temperature as the air in contact with them. To anyone flying at a height, the sense of true vertical which we have, and by which we adjust our balance when standing or moving on the ground, is replaced by the direction of the resultant force of gravitation and any acceleration which the machine may be subject to. In still air or in a uniform wind, acceleration can only be the result of an alteration of level or of the engine speed, and the effects due to the latter cause cannot be very large or rapid. When, however, the machine passes quickly from a region of still air into a wind, or vice versd, which is what happens practically in gusts, the sensation of vertical direction is lost, and although the speed and direction of travel of the machine only change gradu- ally, the resultant of the forces acting on it does so instantaneously, not only in direction, but in magni- tude. The three diagrams in Fig. 5 show the direction in which a short pendulum at the centre of gravity of the machine would point (a) when the flight is in uniformly moving air, (b) when in an overtaking gust, (c) in an opposing gust. The connection between the angle (@) which the pendulum makes with the true vertical being Propulsive force — Resistance Lifting force ‘ It is hardly to be wondered at that such changes in the apparent vertical should be confusing to the pilot, and that accidents, which are often fatal, should happen while experience is being acquired. Side gusts may produce still more embarrassing effects, the character of which depends on the class of machine and the disposition of the wings to a greater degree than is the case with gusts in or against the direction of motion. At the present time the wings and framework of all machines are made as rigid as possible by wire stays, &c., with the result that the breakage of any one part is likely to wreck the whole, and it is probable that as time goes on more attention will be directed to increasing their pliability so as to allow a reasonable amount of distortion without crippling the structure. The problem of determining the greatest possible flexibility which can be given to a structure of a definite shape, size, and weight, which is also to have a definite initial stiffness, is theoretically capable of solution in terms of the strength, density, and dynamic worth of the materials (by dynamic worth is meant the worth which can be stored elastically in the unit volume), and although I am not aware that any case has been worked out, the subject is worthy of investigation. The most important questions which can be raised about flying machines relate to their stability in flight and the ease or difficulty of starting or stopping them, tan d= rs 7 er i'd May 9, 1912] and on each of these questions I will say a few words. First, as to the theories of stability which have been given from time to time. Some of these I believe to be correct so far as they go, but none of them are anything like complete, since they are all based on the pressures and variations of pressure act- ing on the up-stream surfaces of wings and omit the variations due to the eddy formation which goes on on the down-stream side. Before proceeding further, it will be as well to define what I mean by stability in connection with flight. A flying body is stable if, when acted on by a propulsive force and the reactions of the air (but not steered), any small angular velocity imposed about a horizontal axis tends to die out, and any small dis- placement about a vertical axis to reach a constant RES! Bt PROPULSIVe FORCE } | \ OF GRAVITY (Q@) DIRECTION OF RESULTANT FORCE. IN GUSTS ROPULSIVE PROPULSIV FORCE JM RESISTANCE RESISTANCE <— >= FORCE DOOWNWARD FORCE A x =-LIFT rre RESISTANCES AND LIFT ARE INCREASED TO HERE RESISTANCE AND LiFT ARE REDUCED TO J*eOFr THEIR ORIGINAL VALUE, THE PROPULSIVE TIMES THEIR VALUE FORCE BEING DOUBLED IN| STILL AIR. THE PROPULSIVE FCRCE BEING HALVED (6) Gust HALF SPEED OF “FLIGHT OVERTAKING MACHINE DOWNWARD FORCE | =-LIFT (C) GUST HALE SPEED OF FLIGHT MEETING MACHINE Fic. 5. value. Or, in other words, any accidental motion of | the nature of pitching or rolling must tend to dis- NATURE 255 of the wings (that is, in the angle a) which they can produce in one period is inconsiderable, and the stability or instability depends chiefly on the distribu- tion of pressure on the up-stream surfaces, but the case is very different when the machine is passing through variable currents and the angle at which the air meets the wings is liable to large and rapid changes. The alterations in the arrangement of the pressures on the back surfaces are then much greater and take longer to go through their phases—long enough, in fact, to make the process of correction exceedingly baffling. That flying machines should be unstable in ordinary circumstances is really of very little consequence. The same objection applies to walking. No conscious effort, however, is required to keep upright on terra firma, but on the deck of a small vessel in seaway we all know that sea legs are only got by practice, often | involving many falls. The flying machine in gusty weather is much in the same condition, but the falls have more serious consequences. I think it very unlikely that any type of flying machine will be evolved which, without guidance, will _ be safe in bad weather, but it is quite possible that appear, while an arbitrary twist to the right or left must put the machine on a new, but straight, course. Technically, stability is compatible with the | presence of forces which produce increasing oscilla- | tions as the result of disturbance; but for the present purpose not only must the average force so called into play be a restituent force, but the disturbing motions must also tend to die out. The oscillations, in fact, must be damped, and not maintained. None of the flying machines at present in use are stable in the sense in which the word is here used, but in the ordinary conditions of flight the eddies formed behind the wings are small and their period of formation so rapid that the change in the attitude NO. 2219, VOL. 89] BO WAWAR DEGREE | the necessary corrections should be applied by an automatic device, and if flight is to be anything but a fair-weather pastime, something of the kind will probably be found necessary. What is required is an apparatus which will so trim the wings as to keep the machine related in a definite manner, firstly to the true vertical, and secondly to the direction of the resultant force at the time. The various ways in which this could be done might furnish subjects for several lectures, and I will only say here that the many proposals which have been made to use pendulums or gyroscopes to act directly on the correcting mechanism are certainly bound to fail. : It is essential to the success of any automatic control that the forces called into play to make the corrections of trim should not react on the director of those forces, whether this is a pendulum or gyro- scope or any other equivalent device. The only instance in which this condition has been fulfilled is the ‘‘steady platform” of the late Mr. Beauchamp Tower. In this Mr. Tower caused a _ gyroscope (which, in effect, was a pendulum with a very long period) to direct an axial jet of water on a group of openings connected by pipes to a series of rams in such a way that if the openings did not face the jet symmetrically water flowed into one or other of the pipes, and so altered the position of the openings until symmetry was restored, the restituent force having no tendency to alter the direction of the axial jet. There may be other methods of attaining the same object in the case of wing-trimming or control for flying machines, but any device in which the correct- ing force tends to alter the position of the corrector is more likely to do karm than good. The question of stability also becomes important when the flying machine is coming to the ground. In alighting, the machine either has to touch the ground at full speed and trust to retardation, sup- plied chiefly by the ground, for coming to rest, or it must alter the wing attitude with reference to the path so as to experience a greater resistance for a given lift. This latter method is adopted by birds when pitching on the ground, and in their case at the last moment is generally supplemented by flapping the wings when the velocity is so much reduced that the greatest lift the wing area is good for will not sustain their weight. Birds when pitching on any 256 NATURE [May 9, 1912 elevated perch, such as a bough of a tree or a rock, nearly always finish their flight in an upward direc- tion; but neither this nor wing flapping is at present open to flying machines on account of the mechanical difficulties of construction. Alteration of the trim of the wings, however, pre- sents no great constructional difficulty, but when the angle between the wings and the path is large the effect of accidental variations of pressure due to eddy formation is more serious, and the instability is greater than when the angle in question, is the gliding angle; and here, therefore, automatic correc- tion would be very important. If this could be used successfully, a machine the flying speed of which was 40 miles an hour and which had a gliding angle of 1/7 could, as may be found from the resistance diagrams, reduce its velocity by alteration of the trim of the wings to 25 miles per hour before the weight ceased to be air-borne. Further, since for the whole time the resistance would average about one-fourth of the whole weight, the time taken in effecting the reduction of speed would be four times that required for gravity to generate the difference between 40 and 25, being 15 miles per hour. During this time—2-7 seconds—the average speed would be 32 miles per hour, and the machine would cover about 120 feet. These rough figures can be easily corrected from the curves giving lift and resistance for any particular machine, but there can be no doubt that it would be a substantial gain if the high speeds, which are becoming more and more common, could be quickly and safely reduced before reaching the ground. It is quite possible to imagine a flying machine made with lifting screws which would rise vertically from the ground and remain poised and stationary in the air; but no success has hitherto attended any attempts in this direction, partly because the inventors have not realised the very large blade area necessary for: reasonable economy of power. One way of realising the stationary condition would be to con- nect two flying machines travelling at the same speed in opposite directions with a length of rope and letting them circle round one another. No ‘banking ”’ would take place, as the centrifugal force of each would be taken by the pull of the rope. If the latter were shortened as far as possible, the pair would, in effect, form a single machine with a lifting screw. The experiment would be dangerous, and is not recommended: for trial, but is mentioned rather as indicating the size of the screw blades which the hovering type of machine would require. In taking a general view of the present condition of the art of flying, it must be admitted that much remains to be done before it ceases to be a fine: weather sport, and I think the right course to pursue would be to try to evolve a type of machine which js fairly safe even in turbulent winds, and can arise and alight on the smallest possible area. When the essential’ features of the design which secures these results are recognised, the machines may be specialised for war or other purposes, and additional improvements may be introduced for convenience, comfort, or speed. The opinion seems to be gaining ground that fly- ing machines are more likely to be usefully developed than dirigible balloons, and in this opinion I fully concur, more especially as regards the larger dirigibles, which I have always considered too frail and too liable to accident to be of much real service. All aircraft, whether heavier or lighter than air, will for some time to come be designed for the pur- poses of sport or war rather than for commerce, and although for war-machines cost tales a second place, it must be remembered that a dirigible costs rather more than a torpedo-boat, whilst a flying machine NO. 2219, VOL. 89] costs rather less than a torpedo. Further than this, there are very few services to be performed by a dirigible which could not be carried out as well, or better, by a flying machine, the only, and rather dearly purchased, advantages attaching to the balloon being its power of rising quickly and of leaving the ground without the necessity of taking a run; and I think the best policy for us would be, while recog- nising the occasional usefulness of dirigibles of moderate size (and building a sufficient number for experiment), to devote our attention chiefly to the elaboration of the most efficient means of destroying them. From the purely scientific point of view it cannot be said that the ascents of any large balloon have added much to our knowledge. The small balloons, however, recently used for carrying self-recording instruments have ascended to heights (60,000 feet or more) at which personal observation is impossible, and have brought bacl: valuable information which could scarcely have been attained in any other way; and although the records, as a rule, only deal with pressure and temperature, there is no reason why solar radiation should not alse be measured by suitable apparatus. Such measures would give a better knowledge of the temperature of the sun than could be got by direct observation, even on the highest mountains. In conclusion, and speaking generally, I may say that it seems desirable to encourage experiment on the widest scale, even if much of the work is not on strictly scientific lines; bearing in mind ‘that great improvements may result from the working out of ideas which, as originally conceived, were unsound or even absurd, and that this is the more likely to be the case in such a subject as flight, for which, as I have endeavoured to point out, a considerable part is not yet subject to accurate theoretical treatment. APPENDIX. The relative densities of different gases at the same altitude may be conveniently expressed in terms of heights of homogeneous atmosphere of each. The height of the homogeneous atmosphere for a gas is defined as the height of a column of the gas of uniform density (equal to that which it has at sea- level) the weight of which produces the atmospheric pressure at its base. Thus the height of the homo- geneous atmosphere H, for air is in feet the number of cubic feet which weigh 2100 Ib. nearly, and since 1 cubic foot of air weighs o-o80 Ib., H,=26,000 feet nearly. ct For hydrogen H,=H, x the ratio of the densities of the two gases (namely, 16), so that H,=416,000 feet nearly. If the distribution of temperature in the atmosphere is isothermal, the actual height (h) above sea-level at which the pressure is p is h=H log Po Thus when h=H the pressure is p,/e, and the pressure does not vanish until an infinite height is reached. If, on the other hand, the temperature decreases according to the adiabatic law (that is, if the tempera- ture of the air at height h and pressure p is what it would be if with surface temperature to start with it was lifted without loss or gain of heat to the given height), at (s-(2) so A (-(2)) In this case, therefore, there is a definite upper limit to the atmosphere, for when p=o, h=H in (rather more than 17 miles for air and for 275 miles hydrogen). ge May 9, 1912] NATURE 257 What the actual limit of the atmosphere may be is | Donations may be sent to the treasurer, Mr. F. A. not known, but experiment shows that for the lower strata, at any rate, the adiabatic distribution of temperature is not very far from the truth. If we have two short columns, one of hydrogen and one of air, of the same length, and both at height h, then (putting aa ; =K, for air, Ky hydrogen, and N for the ratio of the densities, p,/px at sea-level, the density of the air at h is p,(K,—h)'”, and of the hydrogen pu(Ky —/)!”. If the balloon carries no weight it will ascend until the densities are equal, which occurs when NZ Ny-1 ) or, since N=i6 for air and hydrogen, and y=1-41, N7-1=3'1, N’¥=51, and K,=17 miles, h=NKa( palOX17 X21 , or I1°5 miles, and no hydrogen-filled balloon could ascend higher than this if the temperature was the adiabatic temperature. The ascents of the balloons with recording instru- ments, however, lead to the belief that at heights exceeding 6 or 7 miles the temperature is constant, or nearly so, so that the practicable height of ascent may very considerably exceed the 11-5 miles just mentioned. UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE. CaMBRIDGE.—The General Board of Studies will shortly proceed to the appointment of a Stokes lecturer in mathematics, in succession to Mr. J. H. Jeans, who is resigning the lectureship. The appointment will be from June 24, 1912, to September 29, 1913. The annual stipend is 2001. Candidates are requested to send their applications, with a statement as to the branches of mathematics on which they are prepared to lecture, and with testimonials if they think fit, to the vice-chancellor on or before May 22. Dr. A. H. Garpiner, Laycock student of Egypt- ology at Worcester College, Oxford, has. been appointed reader in Egyptology in the University of Manchester. Reuter reports that the King of Siam has sanctioned a scheme for the establishment of a University of Bangkok. There will be eight faculties, including medicine, law, engineering, agriculture, commerce, pedagogy, and political science. THE annual conference of the Association of Teachers in Technical Institutions will be held at Whitsuntide in London, at the Polytechnic, Regent Street. A paper will be read by Sir Alfred Keogh, K.C.B., on “The Relations between the Imperial College of Science and Technology and Technical Institutions.” There will also be a discussion on the important question of the cooperation of employers in technical education, following a paper on this subject by Mr. E. A. Atkins. Tue Bethnal Green Free Library, one of the pioneer institutions of the free library movement in Great Britain, has now completed thirty-six years of work without endowment or State aid. We are informed that a million readers, borrowers, and students have used the library and attended the classes in connection with it. A plan is now on foot to secure the per- petuity of the work, and a reserve fund of 10,0000l. has been started, to which the King has contributed. NO. 2219, VOL. 89] | bureau. | the Chinese coast and three in | Bevan, 54 Lombard Street, London, E.C.; the bankers, Messrs. Barclay and Co., at the same address; or to the librarian, the Free Library, Bethnal Green, London, E. In the House of Commons on May 6, Mr. Runci- man said, in reply to a question relating to agricul- tural education:—‘‘I am carefully considering by what means the various agencies, actual and prospec- tive, for the provision of agricultural education and research and of technical advice in agriculture may most effectively be brought into cooperation. I think it will probably make both for efficiency and for economy if county councils and agricultural colleges will combine for the purpose of joint action in respect of many of their agricultural activities. I am not yet, however, prepared to make a definite statement on the subject, as to which I shall hope, before taking any decision, to learn the opinions of county councils and agricultural colleges.” Tur University of Chicago has established a system or retiring allowances for professors or their widows. A fund of 500,000l., says Science, taken from the 2,000,000l. Rockefeller gift of 1g10 has been set aside for this purpose. This pension system will grant to men who have attained the rank: of assistant professor or higher, and who have reached the age of sixty-five and have served fifteen years or more in the institution, 40 per cent. of their salary, and an additional 2 per cent. for each year’s service over fifteen. The plan also provides that at the age of seventy a man shall be retired unless the board of trustees specially continues his services. The widow of any professor entitled to the retiring allowance shall receive one-half the amount due to him, provided she has been his wife for ten years. Tue University of the Philippines has, we learn from The Manila Times of March 7 last, conferred the honorary degree of doctor of science upon Father Jose Algue, director of the official weather bureau of the Government of the Philippine Islands. Dr. Algue, who was born in Manresa, Spain, in 1856, was in 1891 appointed assistant director of the observatory in Georgetown, D.C. In 1894 he became assistant director of the Manila Observatory, conducted by the Jesuit fathers, which in 1901 was made the official He held this position until the death of its founder, Father Faura, in 1897, when he was ap- pointed director. Father Algue reorganised the meteorological service of the institution and perfected a system whereby the observatory receives daily tele- graphic report from over thirty meteorological stations in the islands, ten in Japan, six in Formosa, four on Indo-China. He is a leading authority on earthquakes, and his observa- tions in the Philippines, where seismographic phenomena are of such frequent occurrence, have been of great service. The University of the Philip- pines confers but one honorary degree each year, and its scroll at present bears only the names of Dr. Algue and one other honorary doctor. THE experienced instructor appeals in teaching to as many of the pupil’s senses as possible. The eye, for instance, is being more and more pressed into service to assist the ear in its work, and good lectures and school lessons are consistently illustrated by pic- tures and diagrams. The most recent of these pic- torial aids is provided by the kinematograph, and it is satisfactory to learn that manufacturers and dealers are taking active steps to familiarise lecturers and school teachers with the possibilities of kinemato- graphy in increasing the value of their work as well as simplifying it. The proprietors of The Bioscope, 258 NATURE for example, are organising a series of invitation demonstrations to be given at Cinema House, Oxford Street, London, on Wednesdays, June 5 and 12, and Saturday, June 15, at 11 a.m., to show the educational possibilities of kinematography. The first performance is exclusively for members of the medical profession, and the films shown will be purely technical; the second will be devoted to natural science, and the third to the educational uses of the kinematograph. Short addresses will be delivered by authorities associated with the particular subject of the demonstrations. Tickets may be obtained on application to the office of The Bioscope, 85 Shaftes- bury Avenue, W. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. Lonpon. Royal Society, May 2.—Sir Archibald Geikie, K.C.B., president, in the chair.—Dr. Marie C. Stopes: Petrifactions of the earliest European angio- sperms. The paper gives an account of the anatomy and the geological bearing of three new petrified angiospermic stems. These three fossils are all in the British Museum collections. Their age appears undoubtedly to be Lower Greensand (Aptian), and they are consequently the earliest angiosperms of which the internal anatomy is known. They are also of interest as coming from northern Europe at a time when angiosperms have hitherto been supposed not to have penetrated to that region. The three specimens differ so considerably in their structure that it seems justifiable to place them in three dis- tinct, new genera.—Dr. F. Keeble and Dr. E. F. Arm- strong: The distribution of oxydases in the plant and their véle in the formation of pigment. The methods of investigation in general use do not admit of the determination in detail of the distribution of oxydases in the tissues of plants and animals. Hence the hypo- thesis that pigments are produced by the action of oxydases in colourless chromogens, though rendered probable by recent researches, cannot be regarded as established. Methods are now described which allow of the macroscopic and microscopic recognition of plant oxydases. By the application of these methods it is shown that in the Chinese primrose (Primula sinensis) the distribution of oxydases in the tissues coincides with that of the pigments of the flower and other parts of the plant. Thus, the hypothesis with respect to the réle of oxydases in pigment-formation receives confirmation. It is proved that P. sinensis contains two peroxydases which differ from one another in their chemical reactions and in their localisation. It is proved definitely that dominant white flowers contain a substance which inhibits, but does not destroy, peroxydase. Experiments with recessive white flowers, the genetical behaviour of which indicates that they lack either peroxydase or chromogen, show that they contain peroxydase. Inas- much as recessive whites contain no inhibitor of oxydase, failure to form pigment is to be attributed to lack of chromogen. The distribution of peroxydases in P. sinensis is to be regarded as typical of that in flowering plants generally, and the method appears to be capable of wide application in the study of the distribution of oxydases.—Dr. B. R. G. Russell: The manifestation of active resistance to the growth of implanted cancer. (1) The reaction which is evoked by the implantation of transplantable tumours of the rodent varies widely with different tumour-strains. The reaction has been determined by exercising all the growths in a series of animals on a given day, and then testing the. suitability of the animals for the growth of a tumour-strain growing in 90 to Ioo per cent. of normal animals. Some strains do not affect NO. 2219, VOL. 89] [May 9, 1912 the natural suitability of the animals, others render every animal resistant to re-inoculation, and the re- maining strains occupy intermediate positions. (2) The individuality of the animal inoculated may con- tribute to the development of the resistance, although not to so marked a degree as the tumour parenchyma. (3) Simultaneous inoculation of a tumour-strain which induces no resistance, and a strain which induces resistance, may be followed by marked inhibition of the growth of the former strain. (4) Mice bearing progressively growing tumours can be rendered re- sistant to re-inoculation, but the tumour first inocu- lated need not necessarily be affected. (5) Repeated inoculation of tissues, such as mouse embryo-skin, which renders animals resistant to subsequent inocu- lation, has not been shown to have a constant effect upon the growth of established tumours. (6) The conclusions drawn in (4) and (5) support the view previously expressed that immunity to cancer is directed mainly against the stroma-eliciting properties of the cancer cells—Dr. Wm. H. Woglom: The nature of the immune reaction to transplanted cancer in the rat. The paper discusses the reactions to tumour grafts displayed by normal rats and by those rendered resistant through preliminary treatment with tumour or embryo skin. The elaboration of a stroma and the provision of blood-vessels observed in normal rats is absent in refractory animais, irrespective of the method of immunisation.—T. Graham Brown and Prof. C. S. Sherrington: The instability of a cortical point. The reflex reactions obtainable from simple spinal preparations, even when elicited from one and the same receptive ‘“‘locus,’’ are subject to a certain amount’ of variability. The variability is somewhat greater when preparations which are decerebrate are employed. With loci in the motor region of the cere- bral cortex the variability is greater still. The experi- ments reported in this paper were undertaken to examine the nature and extent of the variability of response observable in the reactions from one and the same locus in the motor cerebral cortex. It is found that the inconstancy of response amounts under cer- tain conditions to an actual reversal of the effect of the cortical point as examined in the muscles of the limb. The factors determining this reversal of cor- tical effect are examined, and the reversal itself is studied by graphic registration. A prominent factor in the conditions underlying the reversibility of the cortical effect appears to be the quiescence or activity of points of cortex antagonistic in their effect to the particular point under examination.—Dr. J. W. W. Stephens and Dr. H. B, Fantham: The measurement of Trypanosoma rhodesiense. The paper contains the results of the measurements of 1000 Trypanosoma rhodesiense, 400 of which were measured from different hosts, namely, man, monkey, horse, dog, rabbit, guinea-pig, mouse, while the remaining 600 trypano- somes were measured from rats only. The authors’ chief conclusions are :—(1) That in the case of di- morphic trypanosomes, like T. rhodesiense, samples of twenty trypanosomes from a particular slide on a par- ticular day are too small, because the average length may vary by as much as 4°7#. (2) The day of infection on which the sample is taken is very important, as on one day to per cent. of stumpy forms may be found and on another day 95 per cent. The authors therefore recommend taking samples of trypanosomes from each day of infection of the host. (3) As the host from which the sample of trypanosomes is taken is probably also important, the authors suggest using the same animal throughout, e.g. a tame rat. Geological Society, April 17.—Dr. Aubrey Strahan, F.R.S., president, in the chair.—H. H. Thomas and Prof. O. T. Jones: The pre-Cambrian and Cambrian : | May 9, 1912] rocks of Brawdy, Hayscastle, and Brimaston (Pem- brokeshire). The district lies about eight or ten miles to the east of St. Davids, and consists of pre- Cambrian plutonic and volcanic rocks intimately associated with sedimentary rocks of the Cambrian system. The pre-Cambrian igneous and pyroclastic | rocks are brought to the surface along an anticlinal axis which ranges in an east-north-easterly and west- south-westerly direction; they are divisible into two classes, an older volcanic series and a newer plutonic | and hypabyssal series. The Cambrian has _ been divided into two main groups, the Welsh Hook group below and the Ford beds above. The Welsh Hook group consists of basal conglomerate, green sandstones, red shales, and purple sandstones. The position of the Ford beds, which are mostly shales, is not so certain. The basal bed of the Cambrian apparently rests upon rocks of different ages in different parts of the district, and indicates that: the Cambrian reposes unconformably on a complex series of tuffs and lavas and of plutonic rocks intruded into these voleanic rocks. The structure of the district is that of a horst, faulted on all sides and surrounded by much younger beds. Much of the faulting is of pre-Carboniferous age.—Prof. O. T. Jones: geological structure of central Wales and the adjoin- ing region. This paper deals with the structure on a large scale of an area of about 1800 square miles, comprising the western portion of Wales, and is accompanied by a map, based partly on personal observations and partly on information gathered from various publications. There are two principal anticlinal axes, which follow in the main the valleys of the Teifi and the Towy, and are named after these rivers; between them is an important syncline (the central Wales syncline) which coincides nearly with the principal watershed of central Wales. Both the anticlines can be traced towards Pembrokeshire, but cannot be distinguished beyond the northern boundary of the area. The syncline becomes more important in a northerly direction, but is lost towards the south- west. The variation in the pitch accounts for the form of the outcrops. Royal Anthropological Institute, April 23.—J. Reid Moir and A. Keith: Human skeleton found under a stratum of chalky boulder clay near Ipswich. The skeleton was discovered on October 6, 1911, at a depth of 43 ft. below an undisturbed stratum of decalcified chalky boulder clay in the brickfield of Messrs. Bolton and Laughlin, about one mile north of Ipswich. The stratum of boulder clay under which the skeleton lay is part of the great sheet of chalky boulder clay found in East Anglia. The skeleton was embedded at the junction of the boulder clay and the underlying strata of mid-glacial sands, and the section of the strata showed no sign of having been disturbed, and it was therefore inferred that the skeleton must have been in situ before the deposition of the chalky boulder clay. mid-glacial sands on which the skeleton lay repre- sented an old land surface. In these strata and in the overlying deposits of boulder clay he had dis- covered flint implements which, in the opinion of M. Rutot, belonged to the pre-Strépyean type. The skeleton lay on its right side, in an ultra-contracted posture; nothing was found with the skeleton; there was no evidence of burial. The skeleton was that of a man about 1800 metres (5 ft. 10 in.) in height, and probably between thirty and forty years of age. In the characters of the skeleton and skull the remains resembled modern man, and showed none of the marked features of Neanderthal man. The skull is estimated to have had a maximum length of 192 mm., maximum width 144, auricular height 111, cephalic index 75. The only peculiar feature was found in the NO. 2219, VOL. 89] The | In Mr. Moir’s opinion, the upper part of the | NATURE 252) shape of the tibia. In place of the anterior border being raised into a ridge or crest, it was flat, thus differing from all known tibia, ancient and modern. In the opinion of the speakers, the modern type of man, as represented by the Ipswich skeleton, the Galley Hill skeleton, the Bury St. Edmunds cranial frag- ments, and by numerous human remains found in France, was evolved long before the Neanderthal type of man became extinct in Europe. Zoological Society, April 23.—Dr. S. F. Harmer, BIRSSt)) |vice-president, -in, the chair.—€:; (HE O'Donoghue: The circulatory system of the common grass-snake (Tropidonotus natrix). Several interest~ ing features correlated with the loss of limbs and the elongation of the body were stated to occur in the blood-vessels. The vessels, like the viscera they sup- plied, were asymmetrical; not only were those on the right anterior to those on the left, but they were also noticeably larger. No indication of the descent of snakes from a limb-bearing ancestry was to be found in the circulatory system, save perhaps a small pair of veins which might correspond to the pelvic veins in Lacertilia.—Julian S, Huxley: The courtship of the redshank (Totanus calidris). The first purpose of this paper was to direct attention to the many valuable results to be obtained by simple watching of very common British birds; and the second was to show how the facts observed in the redshank bore on the theory of sexual selection. In this species there was no rival display between several males at once: a single female was courted by a single male, as in man. But in quite go per cent. of observed courtships the female rejected the male, either during the pursuit or during the dis- play, by simply flying away. Thus the consent of the hen was absolutely necessary if pairing were to take place, and this consent was usually withheld; in other words, selection by the female was a reality in the redshank. Other interesting points were as fol- lows :—The plumage of the two sexes was identical, and was decidedly cryptic when the birds were at rest. During flight the white underside of the wings and the white tail were conspicuously revealed, and prob- ably served as recognition marks. The significance of the red legs was unknown. During display the male directed attention to the underside of the wings by raising and vibrating them, to the tail by fanning it out, and to the red legs by his slow, high steps; | besides this he uttered a note heard at no other time. Thus, since the actual colours and structures used in display were found in both sexes, the only peculiarly male possession—the only secondary sexual character of the redshank—was a special behaviour, devoted to showing off these common colours and structures in a special way. This seemed to show that secondary sexual differences in birds were originally differences of behaviour, and that only when these were estab- lished did differences of colour and structure come to be developed.—Mrs. E. W. Sexton: Brackish-water Amphipoda from Bremerhaven. Special reference was made to a new species of Gammarus, which inhabited both fresh and brackish water, and was interesting as showing in a marked manner the effects of environ- ment on development.—C. Tate Regan: Descriptions of ten new species of South American fishes of the family Loricariide in the British Museum collection. Challenger Society, April 24.—Dr. E. J. Allen in the chair—Dr. H. Muir Evans: Poison organs and venoms of poisonous fishes. After reviewing previous work, the author pointed out that the researches of Briot were incorrect, and that this observer had obtained his results by means of a filtered glycerine extract of the spines of Trachinus (the weever). Dr. Evans had used fresh venom for his experiments, and found that haemolysis took place with fresh venom 260 NATURE [May 9, 1912 alone, that is, without the addition of heated serum. But if fresh venom were mixed with glycerine and filtered through filter-paper, the results were similar to those of Briot; they were, however, different if a Berkefeld filter were used instead of filter-paper, just as the action of liver extract is affected according as it is filtered through cloth or through filter-paper. Dr. Evans then described the conclusions of Porta, from examination of sections of the spine of the sting ray (Trygon pastinacea), conclusions which had been disputed by Pawlowsky, who stated that Porta had confused glandular tissue with deformed blood- corpuscles, and denied that poison. glands with groups of small cells existed in the spine of Trygon. By photomicrographs Dr. Evans then showed not only that Porta’s triangular glands existed, but that they were only part of a large system present through- out the whole spine. The latter was described as consisting of (1) an intracaudal portion, of bony mesh- work, containing round-celled glandular tissue and masses of secretion surrounded by flattened cells; (2) an intermediate portion with the ventral ridge still embedded in the tail, with gland follicles either radiating towards the convex surface or running longitudinally in the ventral prominence; formed secretion can be seen leading into the lateral grooves; (3) the free portion with the triangular glandular masses of Porta, and cavities occupied by small-celled tissues and formed secretion; towards the tip of the spine these become three, one in each lateral portion and one in the ventral ridge. The hamolytic proper- ties of these venoms were described, and in the ensuing discussion the painful toxic effects of the sting were described by one speaker from personal experi- ence. MANCHESTER. Literary and Philosophical Society, April 2.—Prof. F. E. Weiss, president, in the chair.—J. Mangan: The presence of Maxillula in larvze of Dytiscide. It was shown that in this family of water-beetles the mouth of the larval form is armed with a pair of strong processes, at the base of the mandibles, which appear to be homologous with the maxillulze or superlinguz of certain primitive insects.—Prof. W. H. Lang: The interpretation of the vascular anatomy of the Ophio- glossacee. The author described the anatomy of the stem and leaf-trace of rhizomes of Helminthostachys of various ages; and the progression of the stele towards the mesarch condition was followed. The occasional development of accessory or secondary xylem was recorded. The distribution of the tissues in the stele was compared with that in the stele of Zygopteris, the centripetal xylem in Helminthostachys being regarded as corresponding to the inner xylem of Zygopteris. The departure of the leaf-trace also exhibits points of resemblance. The occasional development of centripetal tracheids forming a mixed pith was described for Botrychium lunaria and Ophio- glossum, sp. The pith of the Ophioglossacez appears to be of intrastelar origin and not due to intrusion of cortex. Ophioglossaceze and Ccenopterideze appear to throw mutual light on one another as regards morphological and anatomical structure. The anatomical evidence supports the view that there is a real, though it may be a collateral, relationship between the two groups. DUBLIN. Royal Irish Academy, April 22.—Rev. Dr. Mahaffy, president, in the chair.—The following papers were read:—M. J. Conran: The Riemann integral and measurable sets. In this paper a method is given of extending the notion of integration to measurable sets without making use of any theory of generalised integration. Following the NO. 2219, VOL. 89] | of a fairly general character obtained. treatment of the theory of content, the integral is first defined for a single interval, then for a set of open intervals, then for a closed set, &c. In apply- ing the method to double integrals, it has been found necessary to examine the conditions under which the double and repeated Riemann integrals are equal when the region of integration has a frontier of posi- tive content. This has been done, and some results W. West: Fresh-water algz (in connection with Clare Island Survey). About 1100 species, varieties, and forms are enumerated, some with many localities, others being local. The research has proved that the district, lying on the older Paleozoic rocks, is a very rich one for this class of plants, and has resulted in the addition of a number of species, varieties, and forms new to science, as well as adding many others to the already known rich Irish algological flora. This is one of the most comprehensive reports of the investigation.—G. P, Farran: Decapoda (Clare Island Survey). The Decapoda of the Clare Island district include most of those recorded from the west coast of Ireland, with the exception of the burrowing forms. The majority of the species represented range. from the Mediterranean to Norway, those having a distinctly northern distribution being very few.—W. M. Tattersall: Schizopoda and Cumacea (Clare Island Survey). Thirty-five species belonging to these groups of crustacea are enumerated from the Clare Island marine area. None are new to science, but one Mysid is new to the fauna of Ireland and eight Mysidz to the area under consideration.— N. H. Foster: Land and fresh-water Isopoda (Clare Island). The terrestrial isopod fauna of Clare Island is similar to that of the adjoining mainland. Nine species were observed on the island, and of these eight have likewise been taken on the West Mayo mainland. Detailed notes are given respect- ing these species, and it is noted that many specimens of Oniscus asellus and Porcellio scaber are of larger size and brighter coloration than usually obtains in Ireland. Asellus aquaticus was the only fresh-water species found on the island.—R. Southern: Platy- helmia (Clare Island Survey). This paper dealt chiefly with the free-living Turbellaria of the. dis- trict. _ Fifty species were found, five of which live in fresh water and forty-five in the littoral and shallow waters of Clew Bay and Blacksod Bay. Five of these had not previously been recorded from the British Isles, and twenty-nine were additions to the Irish fauna. Paris, Academy of Sciences, April 29.—M. Lippmann in the chair.—M. Bassot: The compensation of the new meridian of Quito. Remarks on the memoirs of the geodesy expedition to the equator, dealing with the observations obtained in the measurement of the arc of the meridian of Quito and the reduction of these observations.—Maurice Hamy: The temperature regu- lator in use with the stellar spectrograph of the Paris Observatory. The expansion of creosote, contained in a long serpentine tube, actuates through a mercury column an electrical relay. The instrument is capable of controlling the temperature to about o’o1° C.—A. Chauveau: The réle of the preponderating retinal impression in stereoscopic inversions.—MM Carimey, Raveau, and Stablo: Observation of a shadow on the sky after the central phase of the eclipse of April 17.—A. de La Baume-Pluvinel: The observation of the solar eclipse of April 17. A kinematograph was arranged to photograph the sun and a chrono- meter simultaneously, with a velocity of thirteen, to fourteen images per second. The times were checked analogy of Young’s } by wireless signals from the Eiffel Tower.—R. Jouast May g, 1912] and P. de la Gorce: Photometric measurements made during the eclipse of April 17. the results is unsymmetrical with respect to the time of the maximum. phase.—Fred Vlés and Jacques Carvallo; The kinematographic registration of the solar eclipse of April 17 on the Spanish portion of its trajectory.—M. Yazitzéica: Isothermal networks.—E. Delassus ; Lagrange systems with principal parameter. —KEmile Borel; Arithmetical and analytical models of apparent irreversibility —G. Ribaud: The appearance of new lines in a Geissler tube containing bromine placed in a magnetic field. a secondary effect due to a modification in the nature of the. discharge. In a Geissler tube, the magnetic field transforms the continuous discharge into a more or less condensed discontinuous discharge.—R. Fortrat : The structure of some spectral bands. An analysis of the green carbon band, the bands of hydrocarbons and of water.—Jean Meunier: Gaseous combustion in vortices and its analogy with the appearance of nebulz | and comets.—Paul Bary: The approximate value of the molecular weight of india-rubber. On assumption that vulcanised rubber is (C,oH,,),S., ex- periments on the least amount: of sulphur required to vulcanise a fixed amount of rubber gave a value for n of 18'4.—N. L. Miiller: Remark on the communica- tions of M. Pierre Achalme on the réle of the inter- atomic electrons in catalysis and electrolysis. A claim for priority.—P. Achalme : Concerning the communica- | tion of M. N. L. Miller. A reply to the preceding paper.—Albert Granger: The methods of manufacture of earthenware obtained from the excavations at Suziane.—Camille Matignon: The function of the valency in the stability of binary metallic compounds. —Maurice Nicloux: The preparation of iodic acid for the estimation of carbon monoxide. The Stas method of preparing iodic acid by the reaction of fuming nitric acid and iodine is capable of giving much higher yields than those indicated by Stas, more than 90 per cent. of the iodine being converted into iodic acid if suitable precautions are adopted.—J. B. Senderens: The catalysis of the cyclanols in the wet way by means of sulphuric acid. The preparation of the cyclenes. The cyclanols lose water readily under the influence of diluted sulphuric acid, giving cyclenes. The reaction must be referred to a specific catalytic action of the sulphuric acid rather than to a direct dehydration.— Marcel Delépine: New classes of oxyluminescent sub- stances.—E. Carriére: The acylic acid aldehydes. The acid aldehyde of succinic acid. Formyl-succinic ethyl ester, (C,H,.CO.).CH,.CH(CHO)(CO,C.H.), is readily hydrolysed by aqueous oxalic acid, the acid aldehyde, OCH.CH,.CH,.CO,H, being formed. — Georges Dupont: The aci-nitro-derivative of tetramethylketo- furane.—Henry Hubert: The gold-bearing strata in western Africa.—Ph. Nogier : based on increasing and decreasing the activity of the endocrinal glands by physical methods. The glandular secretions can be stimulated by using the electric current or reduced by using filtered X-rays or the y radium rays.—A. Conte: Encyrtus sericophilus and its use in sericiculture.—A. Pézard: The deter- mination of the secondary sexual characters in the Gallinaceze.—Mieczyslaw Oxner: New experiments on the nature of the memory in Coris julis.—R. Fosse : The direct production of urea at the expense of albu- minoids either by oxidation or hydrolysis. An account of the method of isolating the urea formed from albumin by the action of an aqueous solution of potassium permanganate.—H. Labbé and G. Vitry: Contribution to the study of non-dialysable substances in urine.—Louis Gentil : The origin of the folds of the Saharan Atlas.—Fernand Meunier: The Protoblattine and Mylacrinz of the Commentry coal measures. NA, 22170, vou. 8a] The change of colour is | | and under indefinitely high pressure. Therapeutic methods | NATURE The curve expressing | 261 GOTTINGEN. Royal Society of Sciences.—The Nachrichten (physico- | mathematical section), parts i. and ii., for 1912, con- the | tain the following memoirs communicated to the society :— July 13, 1911.—K. Forsterling: Theoretical con- siderations on the propagation of light in absorbing active uniaxal crystals. October 28, 1911.—C. Runge: The astronomical determination of position in ocean ships and aircraft. December 9, 1911.—F. Kérber: The two limiting volumes of a liquid at the absolute zero of temperature December 23, 1911.—B. Diirken: Unilateral extirpa- tion of the eye in young tadpoles. December 23, 1911.—L. Bieberbach: Minkowski’s reduction of the positive quadratic forms and the finite | groups of linear integral substitutions. January 13, 1912.—R. Fricke: Contributions to the transformation-theory of the automorphic functions (ii.).—G. Révész: Demonstration that in so-called musical pitch two independent properties of sound are distinguishable. February 3, 1912.—E. Riecke: The molecular theory of the piezoelectricity of tourmalin. BOOKS RECEIVED. Das Tierreich. Edited by F. E. Schulze. 28 Lief. Hymenoptera. Apidae I.—Megachiline. By Dr. H. Friese. Pp. xxvit+44o. (Berlin: R. Friedlander & Sohn.) 32 marks. Das Tierreich. Edited by F. E. Schulze. 30 Lief. Hymenoptera. Ichneumonidea—Evaniide. By Prof. J. J. Kieffer. Pp. xix+431. (Berlin: R. Friedlander & Sohn.) 31 marks. Icones Plantarum Formosanarum. Fasc. i. By B. Hayata. Pp. iv+265+x1 plates. (Taihoku: Bureau of Productive Industry, Government of Formosa.) Tables Annuelles de Constantes et Données numé- riques de Chimie, de Physique et de Technologie. Vol. i., 1910. Pp. xxxix+727. (Paris: Gauthier-Villars; London: J. and A. Churchill.) Cloth, 24s. net; paper, The Statesman’s Year Book, 1912. Edited by Dr. J. Scott Keltie. Pp. Ixxxiiit+g plates+pp. 1428. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd.) tos. 6d. net. The Teaching of Physics for Purposes of General Education. By Prof. C. R. Mann. Pp. xxv+304: (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd.) 5s. 6d. net. The Nervous System. By Dr. J. D. Lickley. Pp. xii+130. (London: Longmans and Co.) 6s, net. Koninklijk Nederlandsch Meteorologisch Insti‘uut. No. 104. Tabellen. Pp. vi+200; Kaarten. Plates 1-25. (Utrecht: Kemink & Zoon; Amsterdain: Seyffardt’s Boekhandel.) 6.50 florins. Observations made at the Royal Magnetical and Meteorological Observatory at Batavia. Vol. xxxi., 1908. Pp. xlviiit173+4 plates. (Batavia: Govern- ment Printing. Office.) Practical Geometry for Schools. By S. A. Switzer. Pp. viiit+161. (London: Methuen and Co., Ltd.) 2s. | 21s. 6d, net. Qualitative Organic Analysis. By F. ‘B. Thole. Pp. xi+68. (London: Methuen and Co., Ltd.) Is. 6d. An Introduction to Quantitative Analysis. By Dr. S. J. M. Auld. Pp. xi+215. (London: Methuen and Coreletd:)) ss: By F. W. Headley. Pp. x+ The Flight of Birds. 163+xvi plates in text. (London: Witherby and Co.) 5s. net. Physiologisches Praktikum fiir Mediziner. By Prof. Max Verworn. Zweite Auflage. Pp. xii+262. (Jena: G. Fischer.) 6 marks. 262 Bleaching and Dyeing of Vegetable Fibrous Mate- rials. By J. Hiibner. Pp. xxilit+434. (London: Constable and Co., Ltd.) 14s. net. Foods: their Origin, Composition, and Manufac- ture. By Dr. W. Tibbles. Pp. viiit+o50. (London: Bailliére, Tindall and Cox.) 18s. net. Practical Exercises in Physiological Optics. By Dr. G. J. Burch. Pp. 164 (Oxford: Clarendon Press.) 4s. net. Aus Indiens Dschungeln. By O. Kauffmann. Band i., pp. v+192+plates in text. Band ify; Dp: 193-352+plates in text. Biermann.) 20 marks. Das Pflanzenreich. Edited by A. Engler. 53 Heft, iv., 129. Pp. 640. 54 Heft, iv., 277 and 277a. Pp. 207+1-6. (Leipzig: W. Engelmann.) 32 marks and 10.80 marks respectively. Rubber. By E. A. Browne. Pp. viii+88+plates in text. (London: A. and C. Black.) 1s. 6d. net. How to Use the Microscope. By Rev. C. A. Hall. Pp. viiit+88+20 plates in text. (London: A. and C. Black.) is. 6d. net. Deutsche Stidpolar-Expedition, 1901-1903. (Leipzig: Klinkhardt and Edited by E. von Drygalski. Il. Band, Geographie und Geologie. Heft vii. Pp. viii+617-662, and Taf. xxxiv. and xxxv. (Berlin: G. Reimer.) 7.50 marks. Atlas Photographique des Nuages. By Dr. J. Loisel. Pp. 8+10 plates. (Paris: G. Thomas.) 18 francs. Les Merveilles du Monde Sidéral. By M. G. Ray- mond. Fasc. i. Pp. 96. (Paris: G. Thomas.) 4 francs. Geologische Rundschau. zig: W. Engelmann.) The Structure of the Atmosphere in Clear Weather : a Study of Soundings with Pilot Balloons. By C. J. P. Band iii., Heft 2. 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Vernon Harcourt, F.R.S.— Some Phenomena of Sun- spots, end of Terrestrial Magnetism : Dr. C. Chree, F.R.S.—On the Ultimate Lines and the Quantities of the Elements producing the Lines in Spectra of the Oxyhydrogen Flame and Spark: Sir W. N. Hartley, F.R.S., and H. W. Moss.—The Transformations of the Active Deposit of Thorium: E. Marsden and ©. G Darwin.—On the £ Particles Reflected by Sheets of Matter of Different Thicknesses : W. Wilson. Rovat InstituTIon, at 3.—Recent Explorations in the Canadian Rocky Mountains: Prof. J. Norman Collie, F.R.S. INsTITUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEFRS, at 7-30.—The Behaviour of D.C. Watt-hour Meters, more especially for Traction Loads: S. W. Melsom and H, Eastland.—Electric Meters on Variable Loads: Prof. D. Robertson. FRIDAY, May xo. Roya AstronomicaL Society, at 5.—Radiant Points of Shooting Stars: 1899-1911: W. F. Denning. ‘—Publication of Heliocentric Places of Planets: Nautical Almanac Office.—The Solar Eclipse of 1912, April 16-17: Rev. W Sidgreaves and Rev, A. J. Cortie; G. J. Newbegin; Rey. C. D. P. Davies.—Spectroscopic Observations during the Eclipse of 1912, April 16-17; A. Fowler.—Measures of Southern Binary Stars in NO. 2219, VOL. 89] NATURE [May 9, 1912 i9rr: J. Tebbutt.—Stellar Photometry by Focal Displacement : Maxwell Hall.—Preliminary Observations of Spiral Nebula in Polarised Light > J. H. Reynolds.—On the Motions and Distances of Certain Stars of Types B8 and Bg : H. C. Plummer.—P7obable Papers: The Effect of Magnetism on the Rates of Chronometers and Watches : S. Chapman and T. Lewis., —Positions of the Sun’s Axis as Determined from Photoekaphsy 1874-1011, Measured at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich: F. ryson and E. W. Maunder.—Constitution of the Solar Corona. ie Jen Wa Nicholson.— Observations of the Partial Solar Eclipse of 1912, April 16-17, at the Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford: A. A. Rambaut.—Note on the Appearance of the Corona of 1912, April 17: J. H. Worthington.— Prof. Lowell will be present, and give an account of the Spectroscopic Discovery of the Rotation of Uranus at the Lowell Observatory. Royat InstiTuTion, at 9.—The Gaumont Speaking Kinematograph Films > Prof. W. Stirling. MALAcoLocicat Society, at 8.—A Synopsis of the Recent and Tertiary Fresh-water Mollusca of the Californian Province : Harold Hannibal.—On Dosinia lucinalis, Lam., and ics Synonyms: A. J. Jukes-Browne, F.R.S. —New Generic Names and New Species of Marine Mollusca : T. Iredale., Puysicar. Society, at §.—A Method of Measuring Small Inductances : S. Butterworth.—The Conversion of Starch into Dextrin by X-Rays: H. A. Colwell and Dr. S. Russ. —Demonstration of Apparatus for. showing the Generation of Electricity by Carbon at High Temperatures: Dr. J. A. Harker and Dr. G. W. C. Kaye.—Calibration of Wave-meters for Radio- telegraphy : Prof. G. W. O. Howe. InstituTE oF Merats, at 8.30.—The Inner Structure of Simple Metals = Sir J. A. Ewing, K.C. B. ap NESSES. MONDAY, May 13. Arts, at 8.—Heavy Oil Engines: TUESDAY, May 14. ES Ae ea aD at 3.—The Study of Genetics: E.R Roya Society oF Captain H. R. Sankey, R.E. Prof. W. Bateson, WEDNESDAY, May 1s. GEOLOGICAL Society, at 8. Royvat METEOROLOGICAL SOCIETY, at 4.30. Roya Society oF Arts, at 8.—The Manufacture of Nitrates from the Atmosphere : E. K. Scott. ‘ Royat Microscopicat Society, at §.—British Enchytraids. 1V. The Genus Henlia: Rev. Hilderic Friend. THURSDAY, May 16. Royat Society, at 4.30.—Probable Papers: (1) The General Theory of Colloidal Solutions ; (2) The Tension of Composite Fluid Surfaces and the Mechanical Stability of Films of Fluid; (3) On the Formation of a Heat- reversible Gel: W. B. Hardy, F-R.S. ~G) Studies on Enzyme Action. XVI. The Enzymes of Emulsin. II. Prunase, the correlate of Prunasin > (2) Studies on Enzyme Action. XVII. Enzymes of the Emulsin Type. Il. The Distribution of B-enzymes in Plants: Prof. H. E. Armstrong, F.R.S., E. F. Armstrong, and E. Horton.—Studies on Enzyme Action. XVIII. Enzymesof the Emulsin Type. ITI. Linase and other Enzymes in Linacez : Prof. H. E. Armstrong, F.R.S., and J. V. Eyre.—Reflex Rhythm Induced by Concurrent Excitation and Inhibition : Dr. Alexander Forbes.—The Factors in Rhythmic Activity of the Nervous System: T. Graham Brown. Roya InstiruTIoN, at 3.—Ice Formation in Canada. I. The Physical Aspect: Prof. H. T. Barnes, F.R.S. INSTITUTION OF MINING AND METALIURGY, at 8. INSTITUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS, at 7.45.—Annual General Meet- ing.—At 8.30.—Condensers in Series with Metal Filament Lamps: A. W. Ashton. Roya. Society oF Arts, at 4.30.—Indian Railways : FRIDAY, May 17. Roya InsTITUTION, ato.—High Frequency Currents: W. Duddell, F.R.S. Neville Priestley. CONTENTS. PAGE Medical Morphology. By A. K. > (shoe) Dee History of Determinants. By G. B. AVE, 2 eae 237 Chemistry of Cellulose . . Mere eek An Astronomical Poet. By Dr. if K ‘Fotheringham 239 Our Bookshelf . . 3 Giese S525 See Letters to the Editor :— The Solar Eclipse of ooo 17.—_J. Y. Buchanan, RS 241 The Distastefulness of Anasia flexipous. —A. M. Banta; R_ I. Pocock, F.R.S Guc Bike Clouds and Shadows. —Dr. T.C. Porter... 244. The Royal Academy and Nature-study. By Dr. William J. S. Lockyer . . - 244 International Association of Chemical Societies . - 245 Meson Gray...) 2 gee + aaa Notes: :. . . Hee... SaaS Our Astronomical Column :— ASBrilliant: Meteor > - 2 Saeki) re, eee Nova Geminorum, No. 2 . SiN Oe 250 Faint Stars with Large Proper Motions PALES 250 Solar Prominences in. 1910. . oY EN Cog 2Qe The) Eclipse of the Sun, Aprilgge. 4°. = 4 a coe Matter and Mind .. . Nea. E . Seat Aerial Flight. (Ulustrated.) By H. R. A. Mallock, BRS Hc. «| eee University and Educational Intelligence peo s | -5y Societiesiand’ Academies . “a5 7.5: - / 2 3 25s BookspRleceived . .: «2: Si Seeameebes src cy inare eee Diaryrof Societies)...» .. eNews: umes i — “Ans ONAN Ins Les MAY 27 A WEEKLY ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. “To the solid ground Of Nature trusts the mind which builds for aye.’-—WoORDSWORTII. No. 2220, VOL. 89] THURSDAY, MAY 16, 16, 1912 mr [PRIcE SIXPENCE REYNOLDS & BRANSON, Ltd., Chemical and Scientific Instrument Makers to His Majesty’s Government (Indian, Home, and Colonial), Laboratory | Furnishers and Manufacturing Chemists. : The “RYSTOS” CONDUIT DEVELOPING TANK. (REGD.) Registartdias asa 1 Newsp: aper at Hie General P Post O Offite. ] (All Rights | Reserved. For use when developing photographic plates by the Time or Stand Method, with conduit for circulating the developer by inclining the tank at intervals, thus preventing uneven develop- ment. With light-tight lid and Simple Cyroscopes from 10/6 tt : T elegrams : “ Newtob ar, removab'e rack. SOndoneg Size Price in Copper Price in’ Ger. Sil. Established 2 Lpl. ... To hold 6 or 12 9/- 11/- over 200 Years. <_<) > ; plates back to back. tS 5 in 4 in Do. 39/6 11/6 | Post Illustrated Price List of Gyroscopes 54 AU gehen Ae Do. 3/6 “ 11/6 | Free to be had post free from t roe a 3h as : é He es 2 a 6 See 84 in. X 64 in. Do. r s « ia NEWTON 6& CO., Opticians to H. M. King Baie V. Other sizes at proportionate prices. 72 WIGMORE STREET, LONDON, W. New Catalogue, 104 pages, past free on application 14 COM MERCIAL STREET, LEEDS. \ THE HANDLE LONDON MODEL. The very best Binocular for This is a new model, in which Naturalists the limb is made so as to form 4 a a convenient handle for lifting | is the the microscope. Otherwise it > ‘“ Folding Minim ” is similar to the ordinary London model. No. 1325. Stand, incase, £3 5 6 No. 1329. Stand, inease, with spiral - focussing | . . . . 1 | which is easily carried in the breast pocket. The Rev. H. Carter, of Needham Market, states “The ‘Folding Minim’ is admirably aljapted for watching birds, and n one can carry it so easily tat it is seldom likely to be left at home. T he power of 5.5 is quite sufficient, and the field very wide for the size. Full description and price- free on request. substage .. 4 Q O No. 364A, Eye- ec Negretti & Zachos piece ... i. 5 Ox« Holborn Viaduct, London, E.C. 45 Cornhill, E.C.; 122 Resa) St., W. Tlustration are one-third No. 801. #rds Object Glass 12 0 No. 803. ith !Object Glass 110 O Fut ParTicuLaRs oF R. & J. BECK, 68 Cornhill, E.C. cvill EAST LONDON COLLEGE. (UNIVERSITY OF LONDON.) Patron—HIS MAJESTY THE KING. Classics . F. R. Earp, M.A. English H. Betroc, M.A. French ; Mina Paguikr. German ... as J. Sterpat, Ph.D History. cn THomas SeccoMmBE, M.A. Mathematics... Tur PRINCIPAL. Physics ... : C. H. Less, D.Sc., F.R.S Chemistry J. T. 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Forms of application and further particulars can be obtained from the ReGisTRAR Institute of Chemistry, 30 Bloomsbury Square, London. W.C. The Regulations for the Admission of Students, Associates, and Fellows, Gratis. Examination Papers: 1908-09 (2 years), 6d. ; 1g10, 6d. } 1911, 6d. “A List of Official Chemical Appointments.” Fourth Edition, now ready, 2s. (post free, 2s. 3¢.). APPOINTMENTS REGISTER.—A Register of Fellows and Associates of the Institute of Chemistry who are seeking appointments is kept at the Offices of the Institute. Applications for the services of professional chemists should be forwarded to the Registrar, stating the requirements. BEDFORD COLLEGE FOR WOMEN. (UNIVERSITY OF LONDON.) YORK PLACE, BAKER STREET, W. Principat—Miss M. J. TUKE, M.A. COURSE OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUCTION IN HYGIENE. Recognised by the Sanitary Inspectors’ Examination Board. The Course is designed to furnish training for Women Sanitary and Factory Inspectors and Teachers of Hygiene. A Post-graduate Scholarship of £35 for one year is offered for the course beginning October, 1912. Applications should be forwarded not later than June x to the Principat, from whom further particulars may be obtained. AERIAL NAVIGATION.—Mr. Eric Stuart BRUCE, M.A., Oxon., F.R. Met. Soc., Late Honorary Secretary and Member of Council Aéronautical Society of Great Britain, Vice- President Aérial League of the British Empire, and Membre d’Honneur Aéroclub of France, can accept engagements for his phenomenally successful lecture, “‘ THe ComInG OF THE AEROPLANE,” profusely illustrated by a very choice series of lantern pictures, and elaborate experiments and working models, including actual flights in the lecture ball of miniature Biplanes, Monoplanes, Helicoptéres, etc., etc. For prospectus, terms, etc., address E. S, Bruce, Esq., Airth, Sunningdale, Ascot. THE VICTORIA UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER, JOHN HARLING FELLOWSHIP. The next award will be made in June, 1912, For conditions, apply to the REGISTRAR. BOOTHAM SCHOOL. Wanted, in September, a MASTER to take Nature Study and Biology; he must be a well-qualified field naturalist. (Elementary Mathematics on modern lines also desirable.) Apply, stating qualifications (study, train- ing, experience, &c.), to the HEAD Master, Bootham School, York. EX-PUBLIC SCHOOL MAN of good family and of strong physique—possessing a fair general culture and knowledge of Natural History derived from observation and reading, desires post as Assistant and Secretary to Naturalist. ences —‘‘ M.,” Office of NATURE. NATURE Highest refer- | [May 16, 1912 INDIAN INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE, BANGALORE, INDIA. Patron: HIS EXCELLENCY THE VICEROY OF INDIA. APPOINTMENT OF ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY. The Council of the Institute invite applications for the post of ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY- The appointment will, in the first instance, be made for a period terminar. ing on July 1, rors. The salary and allowances amount approximately to 4600 per annum. Further informatiyn can be obtained on application to the Director, Indian Institute of Science, c/o Messrs. Jeremiah Lyon & Co., 4 Lombard Court, London, E,C. MORRIS W. TRAVERS, Director. INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE, BANGALORE, INDIA, Parron ; HIS EXCELLENCY THE VICEROY OF INDIA. APPOINTMENT OF ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, The Council of the Institute invite applications for the post of ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING. The appointment will, in the first instance, be made for a period terminat- ing on July 1, 1915. The salary and allowances amount approximately to 600 per annum. Further information can be obtained on application to the DirEcToR, Indian Institute of Science, c/o Messrs, Jeremiah Lyon & Co., 4 Lombard Court, London, E.C. MORRIS W. TRAVERS, Director. EDINBURGH SCHOOL BOARD. BOROUGHMUIR HIGHER GRADE PUBLIC SCHOOL. The Board invite applications for the position of ASSISTANT CLAS- SICAL TEACHER (Woman) in Boroughmuir Higher Grade School. , Candidates must satisfy the requirements of Chapter 5 of the Regula- tions of the Scotch Education Department for the Training of Teachers. Salary, £100, rising by £ro per annum to £160. The successful candidate must underrake not to engage in evening school work. Canvassing will be a disqualification. Twenty-two letters of application stating age, experience, and present employment, accompanied by twenty-two sets of testimonials (which will not be returned), must be lodged with the undersigned not later than Wednesday, 2gth inst. J. W. PECK, Clerk to the Board. INDIAN School Board Offices, Castle Terrace, Edinburgh, May 14, 1912. UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY. NEW SOUTH WALES, AUSTRALIA. CHAIR OF BOTANY. Applications are invited from candidat-s qualified for the above position. Salary, 4900 per annum, with £roo allowed for travelling expenses to Sydney. Particulars from the undersigned, to whom applications, stating age, and accompanied by references and ten copies of recent testimonials should be sent not later than June 1, tgr2. AGENT-GENERAL FOR NEW SOUTH WALES. 123 Cannon Street, London, E.C., May 2, 1912. UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY. NEW SOUTH WALES, AUSTRALIA. CHAIR OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY—PURE AND APPLIED. Applications are invited from candidates qualified for the above position. Salary, £900 per annum, and £100 allowed for travelling expenses to Sydney. bbe. Particulars may be obtained from the undersigned, to whom applications, stating age, and accompanied by references and ten copies of recent testi- monials, should be sent not later than June 1, rg12. AGENT-GENERAL FOR NEW SOUTH WALES. 123 Cannon Street, London, E.C., May 2, 1912. UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF NORTH WALES. (A Constituent College of the University of Wales.) Applications are invited for the pest of ASSISTANT LECTURER and DEMONSTRATOR in BOTANY. Salary, £r4o. Applications and testimonials should be received not later than Saturday, June 8, by the undersigned, from whom further particulars may be obtained. JOHN EDWARD LLOYD, M.A., | Secretary and Registrar. Bangor, May 10, 1912. NATURE 263 THURSDAY, MAY 16, 1972. RECENT WORKS IN EUGENICS. (1) Heredity and Society. By W.C.D. Whetham, F.R.S., and Catherine D. Whetham, his wife. Pp. viii+190. (London: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1912.) Price 6s. net. (2) An Introduction to Eugenics. By W. C. D. Whetham, F.R.S., and Catherine D. Whetham, his wife. Pp. viii+66. (Cambridge: Bowes and Bowes; London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd. ; Glasgow: James Maclehose and Sons, 1912.) Price rs. net. (3) Heredity in Relation to Eugenics. By C. B. Davenport. Pp. xi+298. (New York: Henry Holt and Co., 1911.) Price $2.00 net. (1) HE authors of this volume record that one of them, on being presented to “a distinguished bishop and penetrating scholar of the last generation,’ was asked: “What is your opinion of the theory of politics?’’ The chapter entitled ‘“ Heredity and Politics” contains the answer, which was not ready at the time, namely, that the ultimate object should be to improve the innate qualities of the race; for if this be done improvement in environment will follow as a necessary consequence. It contains also an examination of the probable results of some of the more recent humanitarian legislation, which, hurriedly aiming at the relief of distress, does not stop to inquire whether that relief will not produce a few years hence a manifold increase of the distress which it is intended to eliminate. Yet the hurry manifested in some forms of legislation is no more noticeable than the delay in others. The case of the feeble-minded quoted in the following paragraph will serve example for the present :— as an “A Royal Commission has taken voluminous evidence and issued a report in favour of com- pulsory care and detention. Nothing stands in the way of reform save the apathy of our legisla- ture on a question where all competent opinion is agreed, but which does not appeal to the votes of the multitude, and the perversity of some of our educationalists, who persist in thinking that they can make a silk purse out of a sow’s ear.” We rejoice that this reproach on our legislature is shortly to be removed. Among the other points dealt with in this chapter is the eugenic effect of the. present incidence of local and imperial taxation, tending as it does to penalise marriage and parenthood among the self-supporting. Separate chapters are devoted to the biological influence of religion, the birth-rate, and the position of women both in the past and in the present. To attempt to sum- NO. 2220, VOL. 89] marise them would be to do them an injustice. We can cordially recommend them to anyone interested in the bearing of these questions on the future of the race; the treatment is thought- ful and sincere, and could not be in any way offensive to people whose views are strongly opposed to those expressed by the authors. (2) This volume should form a useful intro- duction to the study of eugenics, and should go far towards spreading eugenic ideas. It contains the short and simple annals of the subject, a statement as to what constitute “racial quali- ties,” and an account of the various methods by which knowledge has been or may be acquired. It concludes with a chapter on the construction of society and a descriptive bibliography. (3) The point of view of the author of this book is that Mendel’s laws are universally applicable and the best, indeed the only, guide in practical eugenics. The chapter somewhat inappropriately headed “The Method of Eugenics” contains an illustration of these laws drawn from the results of crossing red- and white-flowered four o’clocks, together with an account of the phenomenon of karyokinesis, particularly in the maturation of the germ-cells. The reducing divisions are described as the mechanism by which segregation is brought about. The author rightly insists that it is the germ-plasm which is transmitted, and in order to avoid falling into the verbal error of describing somatic characters as inherited, the word germ-plasm is used very freely, and some- times a little awkwardly, as, for instance, in the phrase on p. 207, “‘a germ-plasm which easily developed such traits as good manners, high cul- ture, and the ability to lead in all social affairs.” More than half the volume is occupied by ‘“‘ The Inheritance of Family Traits.”” As something like one hundred different characters are dealt with, in- cluding many out-of-the-way diseases like congenital traumatic pemphigus, in 150 pages partly occupied with pedigree charts and photographs, it can be supposed that the treatment is not in all cases exhaustive; indeed, it may in parts be described as scrappy, but this is partly compensated for by the fullness of the bibliography. After this more general questions are discussed, such as the geo- graphical distribution of inheritable traits and the modification of racial characters brought about by immigration and emigration. The extraordinary influence for good or evil which may be exerted by the descendants of a single individual forms the subject-matter of an interesting chapter, and the work concludes with a discussion of the rela- tion between heredity and environment and some suggestions as to the organisation of applied eugenics. M 264 NATURE [May 16, 1912 With regard to the subject of immigration, the author makes a somewhat startling proposal for legislative action, namely, that the Federal Govern- ment should organise an army of “field workers” in foreign countries who would inquire into the family histories of all intending immigrants in order to ascertain whether their germ-plasms are suitable for introduction into the United States. ES Bass STUDIES IN BIOLOGY. (1) Anleitung zum praktischen Studium niederer Tiere: Protozoa, Coelenterata, Vermes, Echino- dermata. By Dr. W. Schleip. Pp. vii+154. (Berlin: Gebriider Borntraeger, 1911.) Price 3 marks 50 pfennig. (Bibliothek fiir naturwis- senschaftliche Praxis.) (2) First Book of Zoology. By T. H. Burlend. Pp. vili+159. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1911.) Price 1s. 6d. (First Books of Science.) (3) More Animal Romances. By Graham Renshaw. Pp. x+252. (London and Manchester: Sherratt and Hughes, 1911.) Price 7s. 6d. net. (4) Lehrbuch der Biologie fiir Hochschulen. By M. Nussbaum, G. Karsten, and M. Weber. Pp. xi+ 529. (Leipzig: Wilhelm Engelmann, 10911.) Price 12 marks. HERE is something in these new biological books for every class of reader, except for those whose interest is bounded by the study of genetics in the narrower sense of the word. The amateur microscopist will find in the first volume helpful practical instruction. The organiser of education in country areas will do well to recom- mend the second to the teachers of nature study in his district. Those who seek a melodramatic pre- sentation of episodes in the wilds can have their fill of excitement by reading Dr. Renshaw’s latest volume; and lastly, there is the magistral essay with full references for the specialist and univers- ity worker in the remarkable work that stands last on this list, for, as is explained below, the book is quite unsuitable in its present form to be adopted as a text-book in high schools, and we are anxious that its great merits should not be over- looked, as indeed may easily happen if the inade- quacy of the title is not emphasised. (1) Dr. Schleip sets out to assist the beginner in methods of microscopical technique as applied to the study of accessible examples of simple in- vertebrates, and proceeds to give short descrip- tions of each example selected. He begins by showing how to collect, mount, and cultivate dif- ferent kinds of Amcebz, which are certainly not easy objects for a beginner to find or manipulate. From this starting point the author proceeds to NO. 2220, VOL. 89] other groups of Protozoa (including such unusual forms as the ciliates of the ruminant stomach), and then to a brief consideration of the Hydrozoa. Sponges and Turbellaria are dismissed with a few words, whilst. the more modified Cestodes and Trematodes are dealt with at some length. A curious mistake seems to have crept into the section on ‘“‘Earthworms-Nematodes.”’ It is an excellent idea to obtain these eelworms by allow- ing earthworms to decay, but the author improves upon this idea, and advises the worker to fill up the body-cavity with soil. He then will find in a few days that the earth contains many adult and young specimens of Nematodes belonging to the genera Diplogaster and Rhabditis. Two precau- tions are here overlooked. In the first place, the Diplogaster is almost certainly not an earthworm- nematode, but a soil-form which the experimenter has introduced. In the second, Rhabditis, whilst possibly a true earthworm-nematode, will only develop if Lumbricus is used, and will not appear (or only very rarely) if the equally common Allo- lobophora is employed as a nutritive medium. brief account of these Annelids follows, and the book closes with a very sketchy chapter on Echinoderms. Care has been taken to make the treatment throughout as simple as possible, and the book will be found useful to those who wish to begin the study of the lower animals. (2) Teachers of elementary biclogy in rural schools will be glad of Mr. Burlend’s brightly- written and well-arranged introduction to the study of animals. An attempt is made to interest the reader in such a way as to lead him or her to observe and record observations in an orderly manner. Many of the examples selected are such as are not usually described in so cheap a work (for example, the house-fly, garden snail, and brown trout), whilst all are obtained without diffi- culty. The figures appear to have lost something /of their sharpness of outline and detail in the f process of reproduction, but the three coloured plates are attractive. The remark about the dif- ferent disposition of the wings in moths and in butterflies during repose on p. 62 needs altering, and the word Fritillaries as synonymous with Nymphalidz is misleading, but these points do not detract from the value of the work as a means of stimulating powers of observation and of arousing an intelligent interest in the subject. (3) Dr. Renshaw is known to many readers as / an ardent naturalist and an imaginative writer. In this volume, a companion to an earlier one of similar title, he attempts ambitiously to “restore ” the animal life of bygone times in a series of word- pictures, and he includes also a number of gor- geous descriptions of present-day episodes in dif- May 16, 1912] NATURE 265 ferent parts of the world. In his scene-painting the author shows an alert mind, in which the memory of his own travels and the knowledge that he has industriously acquired from direct observation and from books are ingeniously blended together. In his own special line—that of describing the association and interaction of animals against a suitable background—Dr. Renshaw displays a notable gift, and his heart is in the work of attract- ing his readers to that which he himself finds so absorbing. The vividness, the fullness, the tense- ness of tropic nature are ever in his mind, but the attempts to depict them would have been more successful had more restraint been exerted. “ War to the adjective” might well be his motto. The gory element is certainly too obtrusive for most readers’ tastes, and we could well have spared some of the tales of blood and fury which end in clouds of flies. However, the careful observation and the attractive illustrations make amends, and we can confidently recommend this volume to all who have found the earlier works by Dr. Renshaw a stimulating account of moving incidents by flood and field. (4) This book differs from all other text-books | of biology with which we are acquainted in de- scribing organisms from the point of view of experimental morphology; that is to say, it takes for granted a knowledge of general anatomy, physiology, and classification, and proceeds to show what factors are at work in the production and maintenance of form and of structure. From the modernity of its point of view and its wide scope, this work goes far to provide what is so greatly needed—a really biological text-book; and it is only the immense and increasing amount of material and the rapid changes of knowledge in- volved thereby, that have prevented the authors from effecting a still more intimate association | between the factors that govern the zoological side of the problem and those that condition the botani- cal one. The book consists of three parts, which are severally the work of distinguished biologists. Prof. Nussbaum, of Bonn University, has written the opening section, and deals with that special aspect of experimental animal morphology which presents itself upon consideration of the regenera- tive and regulatory processes in animal tissues; Prof. Karsten deals in the second section with the ecology of plants; and Prof. Max Weber has written the concluding part upon the factors of animal life. From the student’s point of view, the middle section should have come first, since it is not only simpler in its subject, but also because it is written in a more simple manner. For the same reasons the chapter on animal biology should NO. 2220, VOL. 89] have preceded Nussbaum’s section on special problems. The order, however, is of comparatively little importance to those who wish to consult rather than to read the work consecutively. On their several topics these writers are indis- putable authorities, and write out of the fullness | of their knowledge and experience. The result is a work of unusual value. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY FOR AGRICULTURAL STUDENTS, ~ Plant Physiology, with special reference to Plant Production. By Prof. B. M. Duggar. Pp. xv+ 516. (New York: The Macmillan Company.; London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1911.) Price zs. net. (The Rural Text-Book Series. Edited by L. H. Bailey.) « LANT physiology,” the author states in his preface, ‘‘finds its practical application in plant production. . . . It is somewhat strange, therefore, to find that as a separate course plant physiology is not yet offered in some of the col- leges whose purpose is primarily to train persons for practical or rural pursuits.” In helping to remedy this state of affairs, the author has pro- duced a very readable book, useful to the student whose life is to be passed among plants and whose living is to be got out of them, and at the same time interesting to the general reader who loves his garden and has an appreciative eye for flowers and trees. That the book is American goes without saying ; the large proportion of our modern books for agricultural students comes from the States. Its distinguishing feature is that at every turn it brings in such practical applications of particular | facts or principles as have been made, thus empha- sising the economic importance of the subject while _ adding considerably to the interest. The general plan of the book is as follows :—After a descrip- tion on the usual lines of the plant cell, the student is led on to the water relationships of the plant, to the root and soil, to absorption, transpira- tion, and water requirements of crops; then to a consideration of mineral nutrients and their special functions and relations. The student is now directed to the leaf, the intake of carbon and the making of organic food, the assimilation of nitrogen and the working up of simple nitrogen compounds into protein, and the general pheno- mena of nutrition, respiration and growth. Next comes the discussion of seed formation and repro- duction. Then come three chapters that look out | of place, dealing respectively with the effects of temperature, of light, and of deleterious chemical | agents on plant life. Finally we get back to the 266 NATURE [May 16, 1912 main argument, with chapters on variation and heredity. A general criticism, applicable not only to this but to many other American books, is that too little is made of the classical researches that have created the subject and too much of the latest results of the latest bulletin. To some extent this defect is remedied in the lists of papers given at the end of each chapter, where the classical papers are usually included, but there are some omis- sions; for instance, at the end of the chapter dealing with nitrogen fixation by bacteria there is no reference to Winogradsky’s papers. This is a defect that the teacher will have little difficulty in remedying if he wishes to do so, while the in- clusion of newer work has, at any rate, the advantage of familiarising the student with the work going on at the various experiment stations. At the end of each chapter a number of practical exercises are given, bearing on the work that has been discussed. The experiments are simple and convincing, and cannot fail to be helpful to the student. References are also given to larger works so that any particular point can be looked up. The illustrations are numerous and very good. Probably few teachers of plant physiology realise how many practical applications of their subject there are, or how much is added to the interest of the discussions by bringing in a few illustrations from agricultural or horticultural Particularly in these latter days, when numbers of botanists and mycologists in different parts of the world are applying science to crop production, is there a great amount of material accumulating which must soon react on the study of plant physiology. The teacher, at any rate, wiil be well advised to look through this volume in search of illustrations, and he may find it worth while to adopt some of the methods. practice. NON-EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY. Bibliography of Non-Euclidean Geometry, includ- ing the Theory of Parallels, the Foundations of Geometry, and Space of N Dimensions. By Dr. D. M. J. Sommerville. Pp. xii+ 404. (London : Harrison and Sons, St. Martin’s Lane, 1911, for the University of St. Andrews, Scot- land.) Price 10s. net. Ca its subject, this bibliography seems at first sight extraordinarily large; but there are several reasons why it is not so formidable as it looks. The actual list of titles occupies pp. 1-261; this is arranged chronologi- cally, each year’s titles being indexed by the NO. 2220, VOL. 89| | authors’ names. ‘Then (pp. 261-310) we have a subject index, an alphabetical list of subjects, and an author index. Finally, Mr. Sommerville has included various topics not strictly belonging to the subject, but more or less closely connected with it; for instance, quaternions, Cantor’s theory of aggregates, Minkowski’s ‘‘ Geometrie der Zahlen,’’ and so on. At the other extreme, we have reviews of books, references to the subject in fiction, and even “‘the realm of spirits.” In a work of this kind it is better to be inclusive than exclusive; so long as the list is reasonably complete, and the subject-index arranged on sound principles, the compiler has done his duty. There is every reason to believe that, in both respects, Mr. Sommerville has achieved success. As a few examples out of many that could be given, we may note the entries under “time of two or more dimensions,” and “‘time as the fourth dimension,” the latter including a reference to Lagrange; those on the philosophy of geometry, significantly headed by Bergson; and, on the lighter side, those on the extension of magic squares and cubes to n dimensions. After making all deductions, we cannot fail to be impressed by the astonishing growth of this theory in recent times. Most remarkable of all, perhaps, is the fact that some eminent men of science are seriously suggesting time as, in a sense, a fourth dimension, the effect of which is to bring the physical universe sub specie eterni- tatis as a given configuration, parallel sections of which are realised by us as successive events, or aspects, in time. How far this is a mere way of speaking, or how far it may lead to a radical change in our assumptions of the ultimate undefin- ables of physics, it is too early to attempt to decide. Meanwhile, attention may be directed to M. Bergson’s “‘ Creative Evolution,’’ in which a distinction on purely philosophical grounds, between time as a metaphysical notion and the ¢ of mathematical physics. This conten- tion is not to be lightly dismissed, urged as it is by a philosopher who differs from the bulk of his profession in really understanding the methods and results of physical, biological, and mathemati- cal science. It is to be hoped that Mr. Sommerville’s excel- lent index will help to arouse even wider interest in the subject, which is not only fascinating and educative in itself, but, as we have just seen, not unlikely to be of wholly unexpected importance in the applications of mathematics to physics. The very last entry that we find is that of Minkowski’s collected mathematical memoirs; could anything be more suggestive ? G: Bu MM: is drawn, a Fe —E_- May 16, 1912] NATURE 267 OUR BOOKSHELF. Our Weather. By J. S. Fowler and William Marriott. (The Temple Primers.) Pp. xi+131. (London: J. M. Dent and Sons, Ltd., 1912.) Price 1s. net. Tuts book belongs to a series of small volumes intended to form introductions to the subjects of which they treat. Into its 120 pages Messrs. Fowler and Marriott have compressed a great deal of useful information. After a brief intro- ductory chapter explaining why a popular book about weather is a practical necessity, they discuss in turn pressure, temperature, humidity, wind, and allied phenomena. They with weather-forecasting, the upper air, and phenological observations, and conclude with a chapter on proverbs and rhymes. The book is very readable, and the authors have carefully refrained from explanations or reasoning which might puzzle or bore the un- initiated reader. There are, however, a few points to which it may be useful to direct atten- tion. The chapter on pressure contains a table showing the heights at which pressures of 20, 28, . 21 inches are reached when the pres- sure at sea-level is 30 inches, but the tempera- ture with which the values correspond is not stated, nor is there any indication to the reader that temperature affects the results. In connection with the curve of annual variation of temperature, it is stated that the most noticeable irregularities are the cold days about the middle of May, and the warm spell at the end of November, but a reference to the curve shows that only the slightest irregularities occurein May. The most marked feature is the cold period in the second and third weeks of June, which is also mentioned by Hann as the general outstanding irregularity in the annual variation of temperature in Europe. Months of unequal length are a general source of trouble in meteorological statistics, and the authors repeat the common mistake of including February with March as the driest of the twelve months at Greenwich, although the daily rainfall in the former month is greater than in April. In connection with forecasting, the statement that the information received by telegram is plotted on two maps, one for pressure and wind, and one for temperature and weather, is erroneous: the information is plotted on one working chart. BeaaG: Philips’ Comparative Series of Wall Atlases. Edited by J. F. Unstead and E. G. R. Taylor. Europe. 8 maps. (Mounted complete as a wall atlas, on cloth, with roller.) Price 21s. Explanatory Handbook (to accompany the above). Pp. 16. Price 6d. net. (London: G. Philip and Son, Ltd.; Liverpool: Philip, Son, and Nephew, Ltd., 1912.) Tuis series of maps should prove of great service to teachers of regional geography, as they show political conditions, railways and configuration, climate, density of population, and economic con- ditions. The map showing communications illus- trates admirably the influence of mountain NO. 2220, VOL. 89] then deal | | ranges, passes, and river valleys on transport. It is generally complete, though for some reason the Algerian railways have been omitted. The Density of Population is a graphic map with suffi- cient detail for the comparison of regions with one another. Used with the other maps, it should help to indicate the dependence of popula- tion on manufacturing areas, railway lines, river valleys and lowlands, and the comparative isola- tion of mountain areas, tundra, and desert. Un- fortunately, this comparison is not possible in | Africa and Asia, as the map stops short at the boundaries of Europe. The climate maps show winter and summer conditions of temperature, pressure, winds, and rainfall. Actual temperature conditions are not shown, but the orographical features are printed on the map of summer and winter lines of tem- perature, so that reference can be made to real temperatures by allowing for elevation at any particular place or along any given line of tem- perature. Detailed maps of actual temperature must, like detailed orographical maps, be very complex, but we cannot help regretting that some simple maps of this kind have not been added to the series for summer and winter, with perhaps . only a few selected lines of critical temperatures, | as their value is incontestable as a means of comparison between regions. On the whole, we have nothing but praise for | this series, which affords most valuable material for the study of regional geography. The text- book which accompanies the maps points out clearly the general way in which they may be used. The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma. Edited by Dr. A. E. Shipley, F.R.S. Assisted by Guy A. K. Marshall.— Coleop- tera. General Introduction and Cicindelide and Pausside. By Dr. W. W. Fowler. Pp. xx+529. (London: Taylor and Francis; Calcutta: Thacker, Spink and Co.; Bombay : | Thacker and Co., Ltd.; Berlin: R. Friedlander & Sohn, 1912.) Price 20s. Tue volume before us differs somewhat in plan from most of those which have preceded it. The first half (up to p. 218) consists of a very elaborate introduction to the Coleoptera, giving a detailed account of the whole series of families (103, exclusive of Strepsiptera) recognised by the author in the order, whether represented in the Indian region or not. The ‘‘ Abnormal Coleop- tera: Strepsiptera or Stylopide,’’ incidentally alluded to, are not yet proved to be Indian. We may point out that it was Kirby, the original discoverer of these insects, who proposed to make them a separate order (Strepsiptera), and West- wood merely followed him. The two families of beetles dealt with in the latter half of this volume are specially interesting : the beautiful and active Cicindelide, or tiger beetles, and the Pausside, which are remarkable for the curious structure of their antenne, and also for their habits, several species being found in ants’ nests, and detonating like the well-known | bombadier beetles (Brachinus). 268 NATURE [May 16, 1912 LETTERS TO THE EDITOR. (The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of Nature. No notice is taken of anonymous communications.] Clouds and Shadows. In Nature of April 18 Mr. Charles Tilden Smith described a cloud-like appearance which he considered was no cloud, as it remained quite stationary while stratus and small lower clouds were driven quickly across the sky. I think I can throw some light on the subject, as I observed a similar appearance both on April 5 and on April 8, the date of Mr. Smith’s observation. On April 5 I was observing pilot balloons when my attention was directed to a cloud which formed in the east; it was a cloud with very soft edges, which were constantly changing their shape and were fre- quently ripple-marked. I enclose a photograph of the cloud taken about 6 p.m. What chiefly attracted my attention was the fact that the cloud remained stationary, though it was obvious from the motion of the pilot balloons that there was a very strong wind in the upper air. The pilot balloon ascents at 5-27 p-m. and at 6.24 p.m. showed that at one kilo- metre above the surface the velocity was 20 metres per second or more, which is fairly high for such a low level; the velocity fell off a little at greater heights, but it was 15 metres per second or so at three kilometres. As a north-west wind, which was the direction on this day, never seems to decrease very materially below the level of the stratosphere, it is obvious that the cloud in question was remaining stationary, though it was floating in a strong wind; presum- ably the particles of which it was composed were condensing on the windward side and evaporating on the leeward side of the cloud, as in cloud streamers seen round the peaks of mountains. That this was really the case I could not determine at the time, as I was taking observations of balloons, but on April 8 I noticed very similar clouds shortly before sunset, and by watching them carefully it was quite clear that in this case the above supposition was correct. There was a great development of these soft-edged clouds just before sunset; they were arranged more or less in parallel bands, with a vanishing point in the south-west; the particles of which they were NO. 2220, VOL. 89] composed were coming from the north-west. At one time I noticed that the edges of one cloud broke up into ripple clouds which moved rapidly from the north-west until they reached another cloud into which they merged. If Dr. W. N. Shaw’s supposition is correct that changes of pressure in the lower layers of the atmo- | sphere are caused very largely by changes which occur in the level just below the stratosphere, it follows that a diminution of pressure at this level _will cause a decrease of pressure through the whole | crests. of the underlying layers, and, as Dr. Shaw has pointed out, condensation and formation of cloud may take place wherever there happens to be a damp _ layer, and we get, what is so often seen, the simul- taneous formation of sheets of cloud at widely different levels. On April 5 there was a great development of cloud at different layers at sunset. If at any particular layer condensation is almost taking place, any uplift of air will hasten it, and any wave motion that may exist will become visible by condensation in the wave On April 5 the strong wind passing over the irregularities of the surface, such as the South Downs in this neighbourhood, might have caused local uplifts of air which might have extended to con- siderable heights; thus at some particular layer condensation might take place, the cloud particles forming where the air was rising and evaporating further to leeward, where the air was descending. Soft-edged clouds, way, may sometimes be seen covering the tops of the Downs and closely following their contours, giving the hills a strange appearance of increased height, as recorded by Richard Jefferies in ‘‘Wild Life in a Southern County.” It is difficult to estimate the heights of the clouds seen on April 5 and 8, but I think, though I am not quite sure, that I saw a pilot balloon projected on one of them when it,was at a height of about three kilometres; if this were so, the clouds must have been at a greater height. Cuartes J. P. Cave. Ditcham Park, Petersfield, May 5. Mammalian Remains at the Base of the Chalky Boulder Clay Formation in Suffolk. Mr. E. P. Riptey, Mr. Frank Woolnough, curator of Ipswich Museum, Mr. Fredk. Canton, and myself have to-day assisted in the removal of a large curved tusk which was found at the base of the chalky boulder clay formation, and on the top of the under- lying middle glacial sand, at a depth of 11 ft. 3 in. from the present surface of the ground. Numerous pieces of bone evidently belonging to the same animal have been found lying near the tusk, but were removed before we arrived. The spot where this discovery has been made is in a shallow valley at Charsfield, a village about eleven miles north of Ipswich, and it is owing to the kindness of Mr. W. H. Youngman that I was apprised of the find. This shallow valley is a typical example of the dry valleys so often met with in Suffolk and elsewhere, and is not apparently connected with any present river system. The section in the small pit, which is being worked for stone, shows 1 ft. of surface humus, 3 ft. of blackish gravel, 4 ft. of chalky boulder clay, develop- ing into, and evidently a part of, a loamy gravel about 3 ft. in thickness. At the bottom of the section the fine, stoneless middle glacial sand is exposed. The accompanying formed in a somewhat similar — ine” May 16, 1912] NATURE 269 photograph, taken by Mr. Frank Woolnough with the camera suspended over the pit, shows the tusk in situ, it being afterwards removed by my man Baxter and myself, who, finding it very friable, had to use great care in getting it up intact. The remains have been sent away for identification, but it was obvious that they presented the same amount of mineralisation as was present in the human bones found by me at exactly the same horizon at Ipswich, in October of last year. As in this latter case the remains were found lying partly embedded in glacial sand and partly in the different overlying material, also in both cases the amount of iron stain- ing is very slight. This discovery appears to me to be of some import- ance, and affords an answer to those of my critics who were dissatisfied with my discovery of the human skeleton because I had not found any other mamma- lian bones at the same horizon at which this occurred. It is also an additional piece of evidence that the top of the middle glacial sand was a land-surface in pre-chalky boulder clay times. J. Rem Morr. 12 St. Edmund’s Road, Ipswich, May 5. Les Eclipses d’Hiver et les Eclipses d’Eté. Nous venons d’assister 4 un phénoméne trés curieux le 17 avril dernier. Au premier abord il parait avoir été le résultat d’une faveur exception- nelle d’Eole. Monsieur Angot, le savant Directeur du bureau central météorologique de France, a compulsé avec soin histoire de la science qu’il cultive si assidiment, il est arrivé a l’idée que les astronomes faisant d’immenses préparatifs pour observer 1’éclipse A terre avaient trés peu de chance de rencontrer un ciel serein permettant d’arriver 4 des mesures | angulaires irréprochables; il leur en attribuait huit sur cent. Monsieur Angot oubliait que l’éclipse qui a soulevé une si vive émotion se produisait dans les jours froids du printemps, que les vents soufflaient dans la direc- NO. 2220, VOL. 89] | temps tion de l’Est ou du Nord et que, par conséquent, le refroidissement produit par 1l’éclipse devait trés difficilement déterminer la formation de nuées suffisamment épaisses pour empécher d’observer le Soleil. D’aprés le compte rendu qui m/’est com- muniqué des treize ascensions exécutées Aa Paris par Messieurs Bans et Barbotte, le refroidissement a été trés énergique; a la hauteur de 2500 métres ow ils étaient parvenus ils ont constaté que leur thermo- métre était descendu a plusieurs degrés centigrades au-dessous de zéro, Cependant grace a la constitu- tion atmosphérique qui est fréquente en pareille saison les observations terrestres ont été partout irréprochables. Si l’éclipse eut été réellement totale au lieu de l’étre d’une facon hypothétique, on aurait vu les couronnes, les protubérances d’une facon merveilleuse sans avoir besoin comme l’ont fait si souvent Sir Norman Lockyer et J. Janssen de se transporter dans les Indes, dans 1’Indo-Chine, en Egypte et dans les iles les plus isolées de 1’Océan Pacifique. Mais il existe une circonstance fort intéressante | dont Mr. Angot n’a pas tenu compte et qui justifie parfaitement les efforts qu’a fait récemment le fils de Sir Norman pour suivre |’exemple de son illustre pére. En été dans le voisinage de la fin de juin, le disque du Soleil est réduit 4 son minimum parce que la terre arrive a son aphélie; alors notre satellite a beaucoup moins de peine a le recouvrir. Si par hasard a l’heure de 1’éclipse la lune est voisine de son périgée le phénoméne atteint son maximum; il peut durer plusieurs centaines de secondes, et on a tout le d’explorer le voisinage de l’astre qui malheureusement ne peut nous éclairer sans nous éblouir et nous cacher par conséquent tout ce qui se passe autour de lui. Mais A cette époque, au moins dans notre hémi- sphére, lair est saturé de vapeurs de sorte que les belles observations d’éclipse sont trés rares; il est excessivement difficile d’en profiter pour résoudre les | magnifiques problémes dont on s’occupe si vivement depuis qu’Arago s’est immortalisé en les _signalant lors de la grande éclipse totale visible 4 Perpignan en 1842. C’est ce qui fait qu’on a attaché tant de prix aux travaux de Sir Norman qui a imaginé et pratiqué avec tant d’habileté les recherches spectro- graphiques autour du Soleil sans se préoccuper des éclipses. Il est bon de faire remarquer que 1’hémi- | sphére austral se trouve A ce point de vue dans une situation beaucoup plus favorable que le nétre et que les astronomes de Sydney ont beaucoup plus de chance que les nétres d’observer de belles éclipses totales. En effet lorsqu’elles arrivent dans leur | hiver qui correspond A notre été le Soleil est a son minimum. Te ne peux terminer sans faire remarquer que l’éblouissement produit par le Soleil diminue rapide- ment par l’altitude A laquelle parvient 1’aéronaute quoique la puissance calorifique du Soleil augmente. Il en résulte qu’on voit certaines étoiles plus voisines de l’astre que si l’on restait A terre. Par conséquent en s’élevant trés haut lors du crépuscule ou de l’aurore on peut explorer d’assez prés la banlieue du Soleil. C’est méme cette circonstance qui faisait que Le Verrier avait désiré dans les derniéres années de sa carriére faire exécuter des ascensions 4 I’observa- toire de Paris pour découvrir la planéte Vulcain a Vexistence de laquelle il croyait fermement. On peut voir du reste dans les comptes de ce grand établissement les dépenses qu’il a faites, lorsqu’if m’a chargé en 187¢ de remettre en état le ballon de l’observatoire, malheureusement cet appareil avait | 6té si maltraité par les aéronautes qui l’avaient eu 270 NATURE [May 16, 1912 entre les mains pendant la durée du siége qu’il fut impossible de le réparer et que les intentions presque testamentaires de Le Verrier n’ont pu recevoir aucune exécution. W. DE FONVIELLE. St. Broing, 23 avril. The Ammonia Flame. Ir is generally recognised that Strutt’s discovery of an active form of nitrogen is one of the most interest- ing results of recent investigations: it may be oppor- tune, then, to direct attention to a phenomenon which seems to have some connection with active nitrogen. The colour of the flame of ammonia burning in oxygen is yellow, and of the same tint as the nitrogen glow in Strutt’s experiment; the spectrum of the light emitted is similar. The structure of the flame is also exceptionally interesting; it consists of an inner bright yellow cone and an outer, almost non- luminous, flame. It would seem that the ammonia is first of all split up into nitrogen and hydrogen, and that the light of the inner cone is due to the combination of nitrogen atoms to nitrogen molecules, as is suggested in the case of the nitrogen glow, while in the outer flame hydrogen burns to water and some nitrogen combines with oxygen to give nitric oxide. An analysis of the products of combustion showed that nitrogen and water were the main resulting sub- stances, but that nitrogen peroxide was also produced in considerable quantity. There are one or two other points which support this view of the combustion. The shape of the flame is interesting; most flames which are due to the com- bination of substances have a pointed cone with more or less inflected sides, when the gases issue from a circular orifice; but in the ammonia flame the inner cone always asumes a rounded apex like a thimble, the outer flame being similar to the usual inflected pointed type of flame. The explanation of the difference in the structure of the flames appears to me to be plain, if in the inner cone a simple decom- position is occurring at a distance from the orifice depending on the velocity of the issuing stream of ammonia, while in the outer cone a combination is occurring with oxygen which is being drawn up along with the flame, as in an ordinary combustion. Another point about the combustion which seems to support this view of the actions occurring in the flame is that it is difficult apparently to make oxygen burn in an atmosphere of ammonia or to get mixed oxygen and ammonia to burn, though such a mixture may explode if in correct proportions. I think, then, the above view of the cause of the luminosity is pre- ferable to that which would ascribe it to the produc- tion of nitric oxide. ALFRED C. EGERTON. R.M.A., Woolwich. REPORT OF THE TUBERCULOSIS COMMITTEE. iia a report just issued, the Departmental Com- mittee on Tuberculosis, appointed in February by the Chancellor of the Exchequer “to report at an early date upon the considerations of general policy in respect of the problem of tuberculosis in the United Kingdom in its preventive, curative, and other aspects, which should guide the Govern- ment and local bodies in making or aiding provi- sion for the treatment of tuberculosis in sanatoria or other institutions or otherwise,” has made a pronouncement the importance of which will be realised only as the advice followed in that report NO. 2220, VOL. 89] comes to be followed and its suggested provisions put into force. Up to a recent date the treatment of tuberculosis has been left, to a very large extent, to voluntary effort, and whilst excellent work has been done by the various associations that have undertaken this work, aided later by municipal and other health authorities, and eventually by Government and the Local Government Board, there has been a sad lack of coordination and want of organisation. This has militated seriously against the success of the campaign undertaken against the white plague. In the report now before us we have the “opinion” of a body of experts who have considered the question of the prevention and treatment of tuber- culosis on what may be described as a national scale. These experts have already been engaged in some department or other of the crusade. Legislators, administrators, heads of institutions specially designed for the treatment of tuber- culosis, medical officers of health, and other members of the medical profession, each in turn has brought some special knowledge and experi- ence to bear, with the result that we have no pressing forward of incomplete or ill-considered schemes, no exaggerated claim for any special method of treatment, and no presentation of a panacea for all cases of tuberculosis. The committee has taken its duties and respon- sibilities very seriously, and is evidently impressed with a sense of the importance of its functions. It has looked beyond those who are already in an advanced stage of tuberculosis, and has brought within its purview the measures that must be adopted to prevent the affection of those who are still sound or who suffer but slightly. Further than this, however, it is in full accord with the framers of the Act that much of what is now being contemplated is based on the know- ledge that has been gained by research, in the ward to some extent, but primarily in the labora- tory. It is impossible, of course, to affirm that in time we might not have reached our present view- point as regards the general treatment of tuber- culosis in its various forms by a careful clinical study of the disease and a prolonged study, by rule-of-thumb methods, of the various drugs and certain of the modes of treatment; but it may be affirmed, and that most strongly, that this could not have been during the life of the present generation, and probably for several of those suc- ceeding. Experimental investigations carried on by Villemin and Chauveau, by Burdon Sander- son, by Cohnheim and Salomonsen, and finally by Robert Koch, brought us, however, by a “short cut”? to a point from which the rate of advance along the above and other lines has been pheno- menally rapid; of this we have evidence in the report now before us. The first aim under the Insurance Act is to find out tuberculous patients, and this, it is suggested by the Committee, is to be done through the “dispensary ”’; the second is to prevent the spread of the disease by the administrative work of our public health departments and our hospitals: oti ee ee May 16, 1912} NATURE 271 the third is to bring the patients to as high a state of physical health as possible through the agency of dispensaries, hospitals, sanatoria, open- air schools, and the like. Whilst all this is going on, however, the laboratory investigator is to be formally adopted the word ‘ sardines’ to describe the brisling packed in oil. He, in my opinion, believed that the description he applied was a true description, and, notwithstanding the very able legal arguments I have just listened to from Mr. Bodkin, I hold that he has proved that he acted innocently within the encouraged to contribute to that stock of know- ledge on which most of the administrative pre- ventive and curative methods of dealing with tuberculosis are based. The public health authority, both central and local, the tuberculosis expert, the general medical practitioner, the volun- tarv anti-tuberculosis organisation, and the labora- tory worker are brought together in the scheme of the committee; funds are provided—whether in sufficient amount still remains to be seen, but they are a good beginning—and the scheme starts under the most favourable auspices. That an enormous amount of good will be effected no one can doubt; that a whole-hearted attempt is being made to get the best of the scheme is equally certain; and should modifications or alterations have to be made in the future, it will be only as more light is thrown upon, and a better view obtained of, a very difficult and complicated question. SARDINES IN SCIENCE AND COMMERCE. (ne has been suggested to us by a correspondent that the publication of the full text of Alderman Sir George Woodman’s judgment in the recent “sardine ” case, referred to in NATURE of April 25 (p. 194), would be of interest. In our article Sir George was incorrectly stated to have said that the industry of packing the im- mature pilchard in tins was started in 1882; this date, as will be seen from the subjoined report with which he has kindly favoured us, should have been 1822. “My decision is that the term ‘sardine’ is of French origin. It is the French name for the pilchard, the fish scientifically known as Clupea pilchardus. The industry of packing the immature pilchard in tins was started in France in 1822, and the fish so packed and imported into this country were universally known as ‘ sardines.’ The word ‘ sardine’ has now become Anglicised, and I hold that the meaning of the term is ‘the immature pilchard prepared and packed in oil in tins.’ “This is not what the defendant sold. The ‘Skipper sardines’ sold by him were the Norwegian fish known as the ‘ brisling.’ The ‘ brisling ’ is the Clupea sprattus of the same family but of a different species from the Clupea pilchardus, and is the same fish, allowing for differences caused by local environ- ment, as the English sprat. There was a false trade description. “The defendant has not proved that, prior to the passing of the Merchandise Marks Act, 1887, the description ‘sardine’ was generally applied to any small suitable fish prepared and packed in oil in tins, but I am satisfied that for the last twenty years at least the use of the term ‘ sardines’ has been ex- tended in commerce, especially amongst retail traders, to include any such small fish so packed and prepared. To the defendant, who started his own business in 1903, and was selling Norwegian sardines twenty years ago, the word had this extended meaning. He also knew that the Norwegian Government had NO. 2220, VOL. 89] meaning of Section 2, Subsection 2 (c) of the Mer- chandise Marks Act of 1887. I therefore dismiss the summons.” We should like to have similar legal pro- nouncements upon several other commodities which are sold under misleading trade descrip- tions. For instance, the names under which furs are sold in shops often conceal from the public the nature of the animals from which the furs have been obtained. It is regarded as permis- sible by dealers and tradesmen to describe the fur of white rabbit, dyed, as “chinchilla coney,” Australian opossum as “Adelaide chinchilla,” American opossum as “Russian marten,” and Belgian hare as ‘‘ Baltic lynx.” Such designations seem to us to be just as misleading as describing sprats as sardines when they are packed in oil. Again, quarry-owners and contractors for road- metal claim that any stone used for this purpose | may be described as “granite,” with the result that limestones or other inferior rocks for road- making are purchased by local highway authori- ties under the impression that they are obtaining true granite. We make no claim to impose specific scientific terms upon the common vocabu- lary or the labels of commerce, but we are sure | that the trade custom of describing one thing as another of a superior class cannot be justified by any satisfactory standards of precision or ethics. THE ROYAL SOCIETY CONVERSAZIONE. ghee first of this year’s conversaziones of the Royal Society was held at Burlington House on May 8, and was, as usual, largely attended. Many objects and experiments relating to recent work in science were on view, and in the course of the evening short demonstration lectures were given by Mr. C. V. Boys on soap bubbles, the Hon. R. J. Strutt on active nitrogen, particularly _ as to the striking effects of pressure and tem- perature on active nitrogen, and Dr. J. S. Haldane on mountain sickness and acclimatisation to high altitudes. We are unable to find space for a list of the numerous exhibits, but we extract from the official catalogue a few descriptions of some of the chief objects of interest. AnTHROPOLOGY.—Mr. W. Dale: Paleolithic flint implements from the gravel beds of the River Test at Dunbridge, Hants, at about 100 to 150 ft. above Ordnance datum. The implements are diverse in form and in the character of their patination. A marked feature is the presence of pointed forms quite unwater-worn, which have acquired the white colour of the upper part of the gravel. These are taken as dating the gravel, and assigned to the St. Acheul period. The largest and most pointed is even con- sidered to belong to a later and transitional period. In the same gravels are found older and water- NATURE [May 16, rome worn forms, which must have travelled from higher levels. Sir Ray Lankester, K.C.B.: Flint implements from beneath the Red Crag of Suffolk. Many worked flints of a previously unknown shape, viz. that of an eagle’s beak (rostro-carinate) and of other forms, have been discovered by Mr. Moir, of Ipswich, in the bone-bed of the Suffolk Crag. Several of these were exhibited, and also three rostro-carinate flint implements from the mid-glacial sands of Suffolk. Both the Red Crag sea and that of the mid-Glacial period swept these implements from an old Suffolls land surface. Those from below the Red Crag are of Pliocene, and possibly of Miocene, age. NaruraL History.—Dr. H. B. Fantham and Dr. Annie Porter: Nosema apis, the parasite of Isle of Wight disease in bees. This pathogenic protozoon was discovered in 1g06 by the exhibitors, and shown experimentally by them to be pathogenic, not only to hive bees, but also to wasps and mason bees. The parasite, which belongs to the Microsporidia, is allied to the organism causing pébrine in silkworms. Mr. H. R. A. Mallock, F.R.S.: Apparatus for showing the disappearance of iridescent colouring under mechanical pressure. The coloured scales are placed between a flat plate and lens of quartz on the stage of a microscope and viewed during the process of compression with a low-power objective. The seales in the compressor were from Ornithoptera Poseidon. These are bright green by reflected light, but appear red when the light is transmitted. On applying pressure to a scale the colour first changes and then disappears, thus showing that its origin is due to the structure of the scale and not to colouring matter. Dr. C. J. Patten: A selection of specimens and photographs illustrating some features in bird migra- tion as observed during eight weeks’ residence at the Tuskar Rock Lighthouse, Co. Wexford. The follow- ing points are noteworthy :—first, that in a com- paratively short period, several rare birds—some new to Ireland—have been secured, which, had _ they reached the mainland, might never have been re- corded; secondly, that birds supposed by some observers not to migrate, or at most to do so ina very desultory manner, have been found migrating in considerable numbers together; and thirdly, that re- markable variations in size and plumage may be seen in some species. Prof. E. B. Poulton, F.R.S.: Butterfly mimicry and mutation. It has been argued, especially by Prof. Punnett, that the mimetic patterns of butterflies arose, ready-made and complete, by a sudden ‘‘ muta- tion.” The examples which he has specially men- tioned are the mimetic females of the African Papilio dardanus and the two mimetic forms of Euralia wahlbergi. The exhibited series shows (1) the gradual origin of mimicry in the former, through the transitional form trimeni leading from the pattern of the non-mimetic females in Madagascar and Abyssinia to the mimetic hippocoon female; (2) the existence of a roughly mimetic representative of the two mimetic forms of the Euralia, in an allied species, FE. dinarcha, and of intermediates which breed true, and are therefore not hybrids (heterozygotes), in a still more closely allied Euralia: all these bred by Mr. W. A. Lamborn in the Lagos district; (3) the four sharply separated mimetic patterns of a Pseudacrzea, collected by Mr. C. A. Wiggins at Entebbe, connected by intermediates and running into one another on the islands in the Victoria Nyanza, where the Acraine models are relatively scarce. The latter collected by Mr..G. D. H. Carpenter. Astronomy.—Dr. Percival Lowell (Lowell Observa- NO, 2220, VOL: 60]] tory, U.S.A.): (1) Spectroscopic discovery of the. rota- tion period of Uranus. Two enlarged copies of two (out of seven measured) of the original spectrograms taken in September, 1911, by Dr. V. M. Slipher, one with the camera to the west, one with it to the east, of the telescope, thus reversing the direction of the tilt. The spectrum of Uranus appears in the middle flanked by the two comparison spectra. ‘The slit was parallel to the sateJlite’s orbital planes. Measurement of the original negatives gives a rotation spin of toh. 45m. retrograde. (2) Autumnal morning hoar-frost on Mars. Enlarged positives from the original negatives of Mars, taken November 14, 1912, 39° of longitude apart, showing hoar-frost on sunrise edge of the disc 30° to right of topmost point. The hoar-frost was studied for two months, and a memoir is in course of publication. Theory shows that 60° latitude is exactly where it should first have appeared. | (3) Halley’s comet: last appearance. Photographs with the 4o-in. Lowell reflector by Mr. C. O. Lamp- land, on May 23, 27, and 30, 1911; also positive showing the positions in which the comet was photo- graphed by him up to June 1 inclusive. These are the last views got of the comet as it left. (4) Comet Brooks, 1911. Objective-prism spectrogram taken on October 28, 1911, and November 2, 1911, show mono- chromatic images of the comet, and register the fact that the tail was composed almost entirely of carbon monoxide, while the hydrocarbons and cyanogen were conspicuous in the head. Prof. H. F. Newall, F.R.S.: Photographs of the spectrum of Nova Geminorum, taken at Cambridge Observatory. _ Nova Geminorum was discovered by Enebo on March 12, 1912. It was not recorded at Harvard College Observatory on plates taken on March 10, but appeared as a star of fifth magnitude on a plate taken on March 11. Since its first maxi- mum brightness (magnitude about 3:0) the star has faded, with fluctuations, to magnitude 5.0 on March 18, 1nagnitude 6-0 on April 1, 7-0 on April 15. The photographs of spectra exhibited have been pre- pared from negatives picked out of a series of forty plates secured by Mr. Stratton on thirty-six nights, between March 15 and April 29, with the two-prism spectrograph attached to the 25-in. equatorial, with exposures varying from twenty-five minutes to five hours. They illustrate the rapid changes in the nature of the light emitted, especially in the first ten days after the outburst of the star on March 11. Puysics.—The National Physical Laboratory: Apparatus for measuring the visibility of point sources of light. (Exhibited by Mr. C. C. Paterson and Mr. B. P. Dudding.) The apparatus contains a pin-hole of known area with a flame of known intrinsic bright- ness behind it. The intensity of the transmitted light can be varied at will by calibrated absorption wedges placed in the beam to the observer’s eye, the com- bination forming a variable standard point of light of known candle-power. The distant source of light is seen in the same field of view as the standard point source, and the latter is adjusted to be equal to it in brightness. There are arrangements for illuminating the background of the standard pin- hole when observations are being made on nights which are not quite dark. The lower limit of visi- bility is that of a point source of about one ten- millionth of a candle one metre from the eye of an observer. Mr. C. T. R. Wilson: (1) Apparatus for making visible the tracks of ionising particles by vapour con- densed upon the ions set free along the paths. (2) Cloud photographs showing the nature of the ionisation. produced by different kinds of rays. By the sudden dropping of the floor of a cloud chamber, May 16, 1912] NATURE 273 the moist air within it is cooled sufficiently to make water condense on any ions which may be present, | no appreciable stirring of the air resulting from the expansion. Ionising particles passing through the | air leave visible trails, consisting of cloud particles | condensed on the ions. Cuemistry.—Sir W. Crookes, O.M.: Properties of pure fused boron, and the volatility of metals of the platinum group. Pure fused boron, prepared by Dr. | Weintraub by decomposing a volatile boron com- | pound in the electric arc, is deposited on water-cooled copper electrodes. denses in a crystalline form. fused in a mercury are furnace. easily scratches quartz and corundum. remarkable property of pure fused boron abnormal value of its resistance. Between ordinary room temperature and a dull red heat the resistance drops in the ratio of 2x 10° tows in series with an electric lamp, at room temperature, obstructs nearly all the current. Warming the boron reduces the resistance, and the lamp lights. Platinum, in the form of very thin ribbon, heated for many hours to a temperature approaching its melt- ing point, sublimes and deposits beautifully formed crystals on the surrounding vessel. Iridium is more volatile than platinum at a high temperature. A plate of pure iridium, after having been heated for twenty-two hours, at 1300° C., has a_ beautiful ‘““moirée” surface. A crucible of iridium, showing signs of crumbling after long heating, was exhibited. Messrs. Carl Zeiss (London), Ltd.: Apparatus for demonstrating liquid crystals with polarised light (projection on screen). This instrument consists of an automatic feeding arc lamp of 5 amperes, con- densing lenses, water cooler, mounted on optical bench, a microscope, with specially wide body tube situated on the end of optical bench in upright posi- tion, and provided with a blow-pipe arrangement and air blast for the purpose of heating chemical pre- parations to a temperature up to 800° C. Analyser and objectives are provided with cooling chambers, and the object stage is arranged with terminals for passing a current across the stage. A specially constructed polariser is fitted below the object stage possessing a large aperture as compared with its length. ENGINEERING.—Mr. J]. Dewrance: An _ adhesion pump. A viscous fluid enters by gravity a shallow spiral channel cut on a revolving surface that is held against the smooth surface of a corresponding chamber. progresses along the channel and is delivered at the other end at considerable pressure. Pure boron can be It is very hard, and is the The agglomerated boron con- | The most | A small piece of fused boron mounted | electric | Motor-gyrostats are mounted in various ways within wooden boxes. By operating the gyrostats by means of electromagnets, the boxes, which are provided with arms and legs, are caused to walk on the floor and to walk arm over arm along wires stretched horizontally. NOTES. Ar a meeting of the London Section of the Deutsche Kolonial-Gesellschaft on May 11, Dr. A. Smith Woodward gave an address on the significance of the recent discoveries of Cretaceous Dinosauria in German East Africa. Since 1909 excavations have temperature coefficient of | been in progress in the Tendaguru Hills, under the immediate supervision of Prof. W. Janensch and Dr. E. Hennig, and an appeal is now being made for funds to proceed with a fourth year’s work. In describing the results, so far as he had seen them in the Berlin Museum, Dr. Woodward emphasised the importance of an exhaustive comparison of the sauropodous dinosaurs of Africa with those of North America, which would now soon be possible. He also alluded to the problems suggested by the gigantic size of some species, which much exceeded the extreme limit of growth calculated to be possible by the late Prof. Marsh when he first discovered the femur of Atlantosaurus. Prof. W. Branca sent for exhibition to the meeting a plaster cast of the humerus of Gigantosaurus, 2:10 metres in length, which is shortly to be placed in the British Museum (Natural History); while Prof. Janensch lent an important series of photographs which he had taken at different stages during the excavations. The German society is to be congratulated on its enlightened interest in purely scientific work under- taken in a colonial possession, and English science will appreciate the compliment paid to one of its exponents by his being invited to deliver the address in question. Pror. FrRUHLING, who died at Brunswick on April 24, at seventy-one years of age, did much towards enabling young men engaged in practical sugar work | to obtain a scientific training. After graduating in The fluid adheres to both surfaces, and | 1866 with a thesis on the nitric acid contents of agricultural crops during the various periods of their | growth, he started, in 1870, a public analytical labora- Prof. E. G. Coker: Special polariscope for examin- | ing engineering models under stress. The polari- scope is constructed for examining long transparent models of engineering structures by circularly polarised light. Plane polarised light, obtained by reflection from a black glass plate, is afterwards circularly polarised by large quarter-wave plates of mica. The object under stress is viewed through an analyser constructed of glass sheets, and a model, 40 in. by 10 in., can be viewed at one time without the aid of Nicol’s prisms. Dr. J. G. Gray and Mr. G. Burnside: (1) Con- tinuous-current motor-gyrostats for the demonstration of the properties and practical applications of the gyrostat. The gyrostats, which are motors of the Gramme Ring type, are provided with accessories for demonstrating the properties and practical applica- | tions of the gyrostat. Experiments (both qualitative and quantitative) can be carried out with convenience and precision. (2) Walking and climbing gyrostats. NO, 2220, VoL. 89| tory, and two years later added a department at which instruction in sugar work was given. This ‘Schule fiir Zucker-Industrie zu Braunschweig ”’ has flourished ever since, and been attended by students from prac- tically every sugar-producing country in the world, among them being fourteen Englishmen. His ‘“Anleitung,”’ or methods of analysis for all products connected with the sugar industry, has been trans- lated into several foreign languages; in 1911 it reached its seventh edition. He also published an “Anleitung,” or laboratory guide, for soil analysis, and edited Stammer’s pocket calendar for sugar manu- facturers since 1894. The majority of sugar factories in the north of Germany retained him as their official analyst. He also invented several useful pieces of apparatus, which have been adopted for sugar work in a large number of Continental sugar laboratories. 274 NATURE Pror. PoyNnriInG being unable to deliver his lectures at the Royal Institution on May 30 and June 6, the lectures on those dates will be given by Prof. C. G. Barkla, F.R.S., upon the subject of ‘X-rays and Matter.” Tue final meeting of the British subcommittee of the Anton Dohrn Memorial Fund Committee was held on Wednesday, May 8, in the University of London. The hon. treasurer, Prof S. J. Hickson, presented the accounts, and stated that after all expenses had been paid there was a balance in hand amounting to 1631. 18s. 9d. It was resolved that the account of the British subcommittee be closed, and the balance forwarded to the treasurer of the Inter- national Committee. A CORRESPONDENT of The Times states that last | Bureau, having outgrown the accommodation pro- week the Italian naval and military authorities, who have been carrying out experiments in wireless tele- phony, established communication between Monte Mario and the wireless station of Becco di Vela, on Maddalena Island, a distance of about 160 miles. A long extract from a newspaper was read in Rome and heard and repeated at Maddalena. The voices were perfectly distinct, so much so that the listener in Sardinia detected immediately the substitution of a different speaker half-way through the message. WE are officially informed that the post of Inspector- General of Agriculture in India has been combined with that of the director of the Agricultural Research Institute and principal of the Agricultural College, | tion, will quickly become available for the remote Pusa, under the designation of Agricultural Adviser to the Government of India and Director of the Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa. All’ communi- cations, publications, &c., intended for either of the two offices should therefore be addressed to the Agricul- tural Adviser to the Government of India and Director of the Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa. The designation of the post of Assistant Inspector-General of Agriculture in India has also been altered to the Assistant to the Agricultural Adviser to the Govern- ment of India. Tue London Institution (Transfer) Bill—or, to give the full title, ‘‘A Bill to provide for the transfer to the Commissioners of Works of certain property of the London Institution for the purposes of a School of Oriental Studies, and for the dissolution of the Institution, and for purposes in connection therewith ” —has now been circulated. It is proposed that the property and funds of the institution shall be trans- ferred to the commissioners, and that certain books and manuscripts will be retained by the institution. There will be paid to the institution, in consideration for the vesting of the property in the commissioners, 12,0001. out of moneys provided by Parliament. The books and manuscripts retained by the institution are to be transferred to such public institutions as may be determined by the committee of management. The institution will eventually be dissolved, and the charter of the institution revoked. The sums of money to be paid to the proprietors of the institution to discharge their shares are specified in a schedule to the Bill. NO. 2220, VOL. 89] Tue Colonial Office has issued a memorandum announcing that from July 1 the Sleeping Sickness Bureau will be known as the Tropical Diseases Bureau. The Sleeping Sickness Bureau had_ its origin in the International Conference on Sleeping ' Sickness held in London in 1907 and 1908, to concert measures for the control of that disease, which was spreading rapidly in tropical Africa. After its establishment it soon became evident that what the Bureau was doing for sleeping sickness could be done in the same way for tropical diseases generally. Lord Crewe, during his term of office as Secretary of State for the Colonies, and Mr. Lewis Harcourt have interested themselves in the expansion of the Bureau, and the arrangements are now completed. The ex- pansion entails increased expenditure, and the annual available sum is now approximately soool. The vided by the Royal Society, will have its quarters at the Imperial Institute. The new Bureau will deal with all exotic diseases which are prevalent in tropical and subtropical regions, and will publish at frequent intervals a Tropical Diseases Bulletin, which will take the place of the present Sleeping Sickness Bulletin. The director will have the help of an assistant director and a number of experts, who will be responsible for the different subjects, and will furnish authoritative | reviews and summaries of published papers, to appear in the Bulletin. Thus the results of the most recent researches on every tropical disease in every country, new methods of treatment, improved means of preven- worker in the tropics. The tropical diseases of animals will be treated in a separate publication. Many ethnologists are probably unaware of the important collections possessed by Marischal College, Aberdeen. These have now been rearranged and described in an admirable and well-illustrated cata- logue, the work of the curator, Dr. R. W. Reid. At the present time, when proposals for the establish- ment of a folk museum are under consideration, it may be remarked that this class of objects is very fully represented at Aberdeen. Besides a fine collection of prehistoric objects, the museum is particularly rich in specimens of those domestic and rural implements and appliances which are rapidly passing into disuse and will soon be unprocurable. Thus there are numerous examples illustrating the arts of spinning and weaving, rude agricultural implements, house- hold utensils, such as crusie lamps, the “puirman” for holding pine splinters used for illumination, and many others of equal interest.. Of special importance is the marshal staff of Scotland, presented in 1760 by George, tenth and last Earl Marischal, great- great-grandson of George, fifth Earl Marischal, who founded the college in 1593. Tue Report of the Bacteriologist and Bulletins Nos. 8, 9, and ro of the State Board of Agriculture, Michigan, dealing with various bacteriological sub- jects, which have been sent us, indicate how actively agricultural biology is being applied in the United States to the elucidation of practical problems, e.g. diseases of stock, the treatment of hog-cholera with a serum, soil and dairy bacteriology, and so on. [May 16, 1972 J : , “ a » x May 16, 1912] WE have received a report to the London School of Tropical Medicine on dysentery in Fiji during the year 1910, by Dr. P. H. Bahr, who was sent out specially to investigate the disease by funds gener- ously provided by Lord Sheffield and Mr. E. W. Blessig. The disease in Fiji is of bacillary origin, and a number of varieties of the dysentery bacillus were isolated. Evidence is adduced that the housefly is the principal agent in its spread. Treatment with a polyvalent anti-dysentery serum seemed to give the best results. The report is a very valuable one, and is well illustrated. Ever since 1857 British coleopterists have been on the look-out for Claviger longicornis, a species not uncommon in ants’ nests on the Continent. Certain beetles taken in Oxfordshire in 1906 prove, according to Mr. J. J. Walker, in the May Entomologists’ Monthly Magazine, to belong to the missing species. Tue migratory British species of Salmo—in other words, salmon and trout—form the subject of a very fully illustrated article by Mr. Boulenger in The Field of May 4. Figures are given of the age-phases and the adults of the two sexes of both species at different seasons, and likewise of some of the supposed local species of the trout. AccorpDING to the third part of the Bergens Museum Aarbok for 1911, Norway experienced fourteen shocks of earthquake during 1910. The most severe was that of July 26, which was felt from Gildeskaal to Mo in Rauen. Four occurred in the earthquake district in Nordre Bergenhus Amt, on the west coast, another four in the disturbed district between, southern Sgndre Bergenhus Amt and Ryfylke in Stavanger Amt, two in the northernmost seismic area, and the remainder, which were all local, in districts usually free from disturbance. In The Field of May 4 is recorded the birth of an Indian elephant calf at Copenhagen on April 6th, this being the offspring of the same parents which produced a calf in 1907. It is the third recorded instance of such an event in Europe. In the case of the first Copenhagen calf the gestation period was twenty-three and in the second twenty-one months. Both calves showed black bristles on the back, but not apparently the coat of fine hair which was present in the calf born in London in 1903, the skin of which is mounted in the Natural History Museum. Dr. Mark JANSEN has published, in a brochure entitled ‘“‘Achondroplasia: its Nature and its Cause” (Leyden: E. J. Brill, Ltd., 1912), the results of his studies on the phenomena exhibited by human dwarfs. He suggests that these phenomena may be due in part to abnormally high amnion pressure during certain stages of development, which may disturb the nutrition and growth of part of the foetus without interfering with the normal development of other parts of the body. He also discusses the influence of the pituitary body and the phenomena of acromegaly. Tue April number of the Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science (vol. lvii., part iv.) contains im- portant additions to our knowledge of two of the smallest and at the same time most interesting groups NO. 2220, VOL. 89] NATURE 275 of the animal kingdom. Mr. E. S. Goodrich gives a full account of the anatomy of the worm WNerilla antennata, hitherto regarded as a small Polychete, and shows that it is really an Archiannelid. It occu- pies a central position amongst the somewhat hetero- geneous members of that group, which it thus serves to bind together, and at the same time it in some measure bridges over the gap which separates the Archiannelida from the more highly organised Poly- cheta. Mr. C. L. Boulenger describes a new species of fresh-water medusa, Limnocnida rhodesiae, from Rhodesia. This form, which is very closely related to the well-known Limnocnida tanganicae, of Lake Tanganyika, was discovered by Mr. R. H. Thomas, in a tributary of the Hunyani River, which itself flows into the Middle Zambesi. AN important contribution towards a complete flora of the Chinese Empire has been published in the Kew Bulletin, Additional Series, No. 10, by E. T. Dunn and W. J. Tutcher, the former and present superintendents of the Botanical and Forestry De- partment at Hongkong. This consists of an account of the flowering plants, ferns, and fern-allies of Kwangtung, the southernmost province of China, and of Hongkong itself. The short introduction to the flora deals with the climate, geology, and ecology of the area. This is followed by a key to the natural orders, which is skilfully worked out, and will prove of great use to students of general systematic botany apart from its special purpose—that of enabling col- lectors in China to determine their plants. Keys are also given to the genera of each order and to the species of each genus, and the bulk of the work is occupied by an enumeration of the species. The price of this Flora, which contains 370 pages, is 4s. 6d. Dr. C. E. Moss, curator of the Cambridge Univer- sity Herbarium, who some time ago published a critical account of the British oaks, has just contri- buted to The Gardeners’ Chronicle (Nos. 3718-3720) a much-needed revision of the British elms. After a critical discussion of the various species, varieties, and hybrids of the: genus as represented in Britain, the author gives a concise key and conspectus of these forms. Of the five species noted, the Wych Elm (Ulmus glabra), the Smooth-leaved Elm (U. nitens), and the Small-leaved Elm (U. sativa) are regarded as being indigenous, while the English Elm (U. campestris) and the Cornish Elm (U. stricta) are not indigenous. Of the two U. glabra x U. nitens hybrids, the Dutch Elm (x hollandica) and the Hunt- ingdon Elm (xvegeta), the former appears to be native in some localities. The Jersey Elm is described as a new variety (U. stricta, var. sarniensis, Moss). The articles are illustrated by photographs of her- barium specimens, and will undoubtedly be of great assistance to field botanists in the determination of the British elms, which have for so long remained in almost hopeless confusion. WE have received, by the courtesy of the director, an advance copy of No. 1 of the new issue of the Bulletin of the Imperial Institute, the publication of which has been undertaken by Mr. John Murray. The 276 NATURE [May 16, 1912 great activity in tropical planting enterprise in recent years has resulted in a large demand for this quarterly bulletin, which is now considerably enlarged, and will be the means of publishing the results of investiga- tions of new raw materials from the Colonies and India carried out at the institute, and recent informa- tion regarding developments in tropical agriculture generally. This number (vol. x., No. 1) contains a concise introductory article on the history and activities of the institute, followed by articles dealing with the rubber resources of Uganda, the cultivation of cotton in Nyasaland and Uganda, the large de- posits of diatom earth in East Africa, hemp and hemp seed, cultivation and preparation of ginger, and the first part of a long and detailed account of the cocoa- nut and its commercial uses—to mention only a few of the interesting papers in this issue of nearly 190 pages. A large number of reports on investigations of new Colonial products are included, and a special section of the bulletin is devoted to giving an account of recent developments of tropical agriculture through- out the world. THe pupils of Ferdinand von Richthofen have agreed to publish annually a collection of geo- graphical memoirs under the title of ‘‘ Mitteilungen des Ferdinand von _ Richthofen-tages,’’ to com- memorate their master, who passed away in 1905. The first part, issued by Teubner, of Leipzig, for IgIiI, appropriately contains three papers on China, that by M. Groll dealing with the progress that can now be made in the production of a general map of the country. The greatest difficulty still lies in the absence of details as to the relief. It seems un- fortunate that these papers cannot be published as special contributions to one of the recognised geo- graphical journals. From the issue of December last of the Monthly Weather Review of the Department of Marine and Fisheries, Canada, some interesting details are given of the highest and lowest temperatures in each province of Canada during that month. The highest temperature recorded was 65° at Alix, Alberta, on December 3, and the lowest was —59° on December 28, at Fort William, in the same province. Other low temperatures recorded during the month were —51° at the Pas, Saskatchewan, on December 20, —50° at Swan River, Manitoba, on the same day, when —40° was recorded at Fort St. James, . British Columbia. Tue separately issued appendix No. 3 to the report for 1911 of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey gives particulars of the magnetic observations made during the year ending at midsummer, I911. Of the 351 land stations occupied during the year, seventy-one were old or ‘‘repeat”’ stations, and particulars are given of the values derived for the secular change of declination at these. Table I. summarises the results of the observations at the land stations, includ- ing nearly sixty stations along the Alaskan boundary, seven in Hawaii and one in British Columbia. Table II. gives particulars of observations made at | sea, in both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, by three vessels attached to the Survey. NO. 2220, VOL. 89] pages are occupied with a description of the land stations and their exact positions. Tue March number of the Journal of the Institu- _ tion of Electrical Engineers contains a summary of the theory of the production of electric oscillations by Mr. A. S. M. Sorensen. After two short para- graphs dealing with oscillations in a single circuit having capacity and inductance, and in coupled cir- cuits, he points out that in actual practice the capa- cities and inductances are not concentrated at par- ticular points of the circuits nor are resistances and damping constant. In the case of an arc in circuit he shows how by the aid of the ‘characteristic curve ” of the arc the main features of the oscillations pro- duced in the three most important cases can be traced without the necessity of appeal to the differential equation of the circuit. A yEAR ago Dr. K. Fredenhagen, of the University of Leipzig, described in the Physikalische Zeitschrift some measurements he had made of the cur- rents produced by the electrons emitted by metals at high temperatures. At the time he believed his results were free from secondary effects, but more recent work on the alkali metals distilled and tested in high vacua has, accord- ing to a short communication to the German Physical Society published in the Verhandlungen for April 15, convinced him that the whole of the current observed in such cases may be due to the reactions taking place between the metal and the trace of gas still present even in the highest vacua. Since the velocities of such reactions would follow exponential laws as the temperature increased, the currents obtained would be expressed by Prof. Richardson’s formula. In his presidential address to the Chemical Society, reprinted in the April number of the Journal, Prof. Frankland has directed attention to the extreme fre- quency with which the rupture of a “double bond” is accompanied by ‘‘trans-substitution.”” It has usually been thought that the addition of a substance XY to a compound such as maleic acid must result in the production of the cis-compound II., in which the radicals X and Y occupy the same positions as the ends of the broken bond. iB H ‘0,O0H H | \. CO.O X.C.CO.OH X.C.COOH | f = | VAC. O. OE - eUOae | mK | H Wf COOH COOH II. cés-Compound I, Maleic acid Ill. ¢xans-Compound This view was confirmed by the oxidation of maleic acid to meso-tartaric acid and of fumaric acid to racemic acid. H H. COOH Hu COOH) ET | - Bg | HO.c.cooH © \e HO.C.COOH | < | > YOO | HO.c.cooH =} iH HO.C.H | XN | COOH HO.0C% SH CO.0H H H gneso-Tartaric Maleic Fumaric Racemic acid acid acid acid But, so far from being the rule, the cis-substitution The last fifty-nine 1 shown above appears to be entirely exceptional, since May 16, 1912] NATURE 277 it rarely (if ever) occurs except in the special case of oxidation. These facts are of considerable importance, as they throw doubt on the assumption, which is almost universally made, that a substituent group normally enters the same position as the atom or linkage which it displaces. Tue seventy-eighth annual report of the Natural History, Literary, and Polytechnic Society of Bootham School, York, for 1912, is noteworthy as providing evidence of the enthusiasm for scientific worlk which can be developed among schoolboys when qualified masters of a boarding-school are willing to devote part of their leisure hours to what is nearly always entirely a labour of love. The Natural History Society has some eleven sections, each devoted to a separate science, and excellent practical work was done in them all during the year under review. A CONVENIENT card for hanging in offices, entitled “Standard Metric Equivalent Tables, comprising Weights, Measures, and Prices in Franes and Marks,” has been published by the Central Translations Insti- tute, Eastcheap, London. The equivalent prices in francs and marks per foot, yard, square yard, cubic foot, gallon, and similar British units will be very handy for merchants. The price of the card is Is. 2d. post free. A new and cheaper edition of *“The Grouse in Health and in Disease”’ is in the press, and will be published in July next by Messrs. Smith, Elder and Co. In the absence of Dr. E. A. Wilson in the Antarctic, the book has been edited by Mr. A. S. Leslie and Dr. E. A. Shipley, and Lord Lovat has contributed an introduction. OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. RepPoRTED Discovery or A NEw Comet.—We learn, from The Daily Mail of May 14, that the following telegram has been received at the Greenwich Observa- tory :—‘A comet-like object with a tail has been observed by Mr. Hansen at Praestoe, Denmark. It is of intense magnitude, and its position, given on May to at two o’clock, was R.A. 20h. 53m. 20s. ; deel. 31° 24! N.? Probably the first statement of the second sentence should read, ‘It is of the tenth magnitude,” for we are told that it is not visible to the naked eye. The position given lies about half-way between ¢ and e Cygni, and is on the meridian at about 5 a.m.; that is to say, it is above our horizon during all the hours of darkness. The origin of the above telegram is not stated, and, so far, we have received no intimation’ of the dis- covery from the Kiel Centralstelle. Tue Roration or Uranus.—When the axis about which a planet revolves makes a considerable angle with the observer’s line of sight, the rotational motion can be detected, or even measured, spectroscopically, because as the planet rotates some regions of its limb must be travelling towards the observer, while others are travelling away from him. At the present epoch | the orientation of Uranus is favourable to such an investigation, and spectrograms giving a measure of the planet’s rotational velocity, secured at the Lowell Observatory, were exhibited and explained by Prof. NO. 2220, VOL. 89] Lowell at the recent meeting of the Royal Astro- nomical Society. On these spectrograms the lines are inclined because the slit was so placed that at the top was the approaching limb, while at the bottom was the receding limb. Thus, in accordance with Doppler’s principle, the extremities of the lines were displaced towards the violet and the red respectively, that is to say, they are inclined to the normal lines of the comparison spectrum photographed on the same plate. Measures of the inclination of a number of these lines, on different photographs, indicate that the planet makes one complete rotation in about 1oh, 45m. Tue Recent Sorar Eciipse.—A large number of communications describing the observations made during the solar eclipse of April 17 are published in No. 4571 of the Astronomische Nachrichten. Observations of the bright-line spectrum were made by Drs. Eberhard and Ludendorff at Berlin, and, like Prof. Fowler at South Kensington, and Prof. Ifiguez, Prof. Eberhard found that he was able to study the bright lines for quite half an hour. Dr. Kempf found that the first and last contacts took place o'4m. earlier than predicted by the Berliner Jahrbuch, while at Lemberg, Dr. Grabowski found they were, respec- tively, o'3m. and o'6m. earlier. Quite a number of observers remark on the unexpected darkness of the eclipse and its observed effect on various flowers (especially tulips), beasts, and birds. M. Felix de Roy gives a very interesting account of the observations made by the mission organised by the Antwerp Astronomical Society, and located at Silenrieux (Hainaut, Belgium), where a true annular eclipse was seen. The inner corona was seen by one observer only, and the chromosphere and prominences were looked for in vain. Among the observers of contacts at the Kiel Observatory was Prince Henry of Prussia. THe OriciIns oF THE BricHt Lines In Nov Spectra.—At the meeting of the Royal Astronomical Society, reported in the current number of The Observatory (No. 448), a number of spectra of Nova Geminorum were exhibited on the screen and after- wards discussed. Prof. Fowler, after remarking on the unfavourable weather experienced at South Ken- sington, exhibited two small-dispersion spectra obtained on March 15 and 29 respectively, and stated that as regards the origins of the lines, those assigned by Sir Norman Lockyer to the lines observed in the spectrum of Nova Persei (1901) would probably serve. The bright lines appearing in nove also appear in the chromosphere and solar prominences, and are mainly those of the enhanced iron spectrum. Prof. Newall also agreed that many of the bright lines may be identified as enhanced lines of iron. Dr. R. H. Curtiss describes the early spectra secured at the Ann Arbor (Mich.) Observatory, in No. 3, vol. xxxv., of The Astrophysical Journal. Five photo- graphs taken on March 13 show a_ continuous spectrum similar in general appearance to that of Altair, but differing in the positions of the lines. Few narrow dark lines were seen, and all the prominent lines of the Fs type, e.g. 44481 and A4549, appear to be absent. Hs, Hy, and H& are all strong lines and very complex, both absorption and emission being represented ; lines at Aso16, 44922, and A4472, and the H and K lines of calcium have similar character- istics, the sharp reversals in the latter indicating. a velocity of +5 km. +2 km. On a photograph taken on March 22 many of the maxima of emission on March 13 were maxima of absorption, and wice versa, and no certain trace of the nebula lines was to be seen. 278 NATURE [May 16, 1912 THE IRON AND STEEL INSTITUTE. ee annual spring meeting of the Iron and Steel Institute was held at the Institution of Civil Engineers on Thursday and Friday of last week. Besides the presidential address, and the ceremonies of presenting the Bessemer medal to Mr. Darby and the Carnegie medal to Prof. Goerens, of Aachen, the meeting had to consider an exceptionally long and in- teresting list of papers covering a very wide range of subjects, and therefore likely to appeal to both the practical and the scientific members of the institute. The complaint is sometimes heard among the prac- tical members of the institute that there are too many papers of a scientific character, and that discussions on scientific metallurgy, and more especially on ‘metallography, are out of place at the institute. Such a view is surely unduly narrow, since the ultimate benefit of the steel industry must go hand-in-hand with the development of those branches of science which are more intimately connected with steel. It is true, of course, that a discussion on the constitu- tion of hardened steel may not be of immediate and direct interest to the manager of a rolling-mill, but | the fact that there appears to be a ‘“‘corrosion zone” even for him the time will come when he must ask for scientific guidance in some new difficulty, and the value of the aid which can be given him will depend upon the accuracy and completeness of our theories on the constitution and transformations of steel. Even the obvious fact that ‘‘ professors” disagree need not alarm the practical man—the “professors ”’ only discuss the few outstanding points upon which divergences of opinion exist—upon the main body of their scientific knowledge they are so completely in agreement that they would no more discuss it than the multiplication table. Where men are working to advance the outposts of our knowledge, divergent views are bound to arise, and vigorous discussion is needed to sift out the truth, but the practical man will make a great mistake if he interprets these dis- cussions as implying uncertainty as to the main body of the science. These considerations have been raised at the recent meeting because the entire afternoon of Thursday was occupied by the discussion—at times of a vigorous character—of scientific subjects, the constitution of steel and the nature and mechanism of corrosion being the two principal questions. On the former, Prof. Arnold, of Sheffield, contributed two short papers, which formed the subject of strong criticism by both Dr. J. E. Stead and Dr. W. Rosenhain. Prof. Arnold cannot yet reconcile himself to the equi- librium diagram of the iron-carbon system and to the attached nomenclature which has found general acceptance by the great majority of metallurgists; he points out, with obvious correctness, that the diagram in question does not explain the difference between the same steel when quenched from a moderate and correct hardening temperature, and when quenched from an excessively high temperature, which still lies in the same ‘‘field’’ of the diagram. That, however, is a criticism on the value of such diagrams in general, and not on the correctness of the particular example, and similar points could be raised concerning most of the well-established diagrams. The conclu- sion is evident that equilibrium diagrams, although they possess a very considerable value in their own special direction, cannot tell us evervthing about the behaviour of metals and alloys. Stable equilibria, which can alone be properly indicated on these diagrams, are comparatively rarely met with in metals as used in practical work, and the equilibrium diagram must therefore be regarded as a basis for the study of those more complex conditions which arise NO. 2220, VOL. 89] | diminished. _ concerned. when meta-stable and labile conditions have to be considered, The subject of corrosion was dealt with in three papers, one—on the influence of carbon on the cor- | rodibility of iron—by Mr. C. Chappell and. two, on the mechanism of corrosion and on the corro- sion of nickel, chromium, and_ nickel-chromium steels, by Messrs. J. Newton Friend, J. Lloyd Bent- ley, and Walter West. The results obtained by the first-named author indicate that an increasing pro- portion of pearlite in rolled, annealed, and | “*normalised’’ steels causes increasing corrosion up to that concentration at which the steel consists entirely of pearlite, while an increase of carbon beyond that point appears to cause a reduction of corrosion, but only one hyper-eutectoid steel has been studied in the paper. In quenched steels, on the other hand, a continuous increase of corrosion appears to accom- pany increasing carbon-content. The paper on the mechanism of corrosion by Dr. Friend and his collaborators is particularly interest- ing, as some rather unexpected sources of error in corrosion tests carried out in tanks of still water in the laboratory are indicated. These errors arise from around any piece of corrodible metal immersed in water, and throughout this zone there is an oxygen concentration gradient; if now the specimen under test is placed close enough to the walls of the vessel to allow these walls to lie within the ‘corrosion zone,’’ then the rate of corrosion will be apparently In the case of bright surfaces of pure iron, the radius of the corrosion zone appears to be approximately equal to the linear dimensions of the specimen, so far as small laboratory specimens are In their study of the corrosion of nickel and chromium steels, the same authors suggest that the corrodibility of such steels is affected by two oppo- site factors; the galvanic action between such sub- stances as cementite in ordinary carbon steels and the complexes containing nickel and chromium in the alloy steels on the one hand, and the more corrodible ferrite on the other, tends to increase with the addition of such metals as nickel or chromium, but this tendency to increased | corrosion is counteracted by the fact that the presence | These two factors of these incorrodible substances themselves affords a considerable mechanical protection against corrosion. are differently affected when acceleration tests are made in acids, so that these become untrustworthy for alloy steels. The most striking positive result obtained is the resistance of chromium steels to sea-water corrosion, and the authors | consider that the ‘‘application of chromium steels in the construction of ships would be justified on this ground alone.” A particularly interesting and somewhat novel feature at the present meeting was formed by a group of four papers dealing with the ancient metallurgy of iron, both in the East and in England. Prof. T. Turner describes the ‘‘ham bones” found in the neighbourhood of Walsall, in Staffordshire, and dis- cusses their probable mode of origin, while Sir Hugh Bell presents an account of a bloom of Roman iron found at Corstopitum (Corbridge), the investigation of this material by Prof. Louis and Dr. Stead being described. The conclusion appears to be established that this mass of iron is built up of small blooms obtained by a ‘‘direct’’ process from the local ore. The purposes ascribed to the object as found vary from a stake anvil to a battering-ram. Mr. H. G. Graves contributes an interesting note on the early use of iron in India, describing some of the large masses of iron utilised in the construction of certain May 16, 1912] NATORE 279 ancient temples. Finally, Sir Robert Hadfield’s account of ‘‘Sinhalese Iron and Steel of Ancient Origin ” throws an interesting light on the materials and methods in Ceylon many centuries ago, particu- laraly in the production of steel tools and implements. We hope to give a separate abstract of this paper in a later issue. The exceptionally full and interesting programme of the meeting is completed by a series of valuable papers dealing more directly with steel manufacture, including an historical survey of forty years’ progress of the industry by the president (Mr. Arthur Cooper) in his address, an interesting paper on steam engines for driving rolling-mills by Mr. J. W. Hall, and an account of the Nathusius electric steel furnace by its originator, with several other contributions of a similar character. Altogether the institute is to be congratulated upon a singularly successful meeting, which revives the traditions of the best days of its history. M. POINCARE’S LECTURES AT THE UNIVERSITY OF LONDON. 1.—May 3.—The Logic of the Infinite——Some years ago, M. Poincaré said, he had = pub- lished a certain number of articles upon the subject, which had involved him in a veritable polemic. He would not attempt to renew the arguments that had been used on either side, or to bring forward any fresh arguments, as he believed that the divergence of the two schools was irreducible. It arose from an essential difference of mentality; he would therefore accept it as an experimental fact, and would endeavour to account for this divergence. For the first school, whom, for the sake of convenience, he would call Pragmatists, the infinite was derived from the finite ; for the second, the Cantorians, the infinite pre- existed, and the finite was only a small piece of the infinite. From another point of view, to use the language of the scholastics, the Pragmatists were extensionists, while the Cantorians were comprehen- sionists. This appeared in the nature of the defini- tions used by the two schools. For the first a definition consisted in the addition of one new object, expressed in terms of the aggregate of known objects; for the second a definition was a fresh subdivision of the aggregate of all objects known and unknown. The Pragmatists were idealists, and for them an object did not exist until it had been thought. The Cantorians were realists for whom the existence of objects was independent of a thinking subject. For them the infinite was independent of man or any thinking being; it was pre-existent and was discovered by man. IIl.—May 4.—Time and Space.—The conception of space arose from our muscular sense. When we saw an object we knew the movements necessary to attain it. The idea of space, then, was the association between certain sensations and certain movements. To the whole of space the principle of relativity applied, that is to say, we had no means of perceiving a transportation, a magnification, or a deformation of the universe, provided that in the transformation all objects were subject to the same law. Space, in fact, was “soft and without rigidity.” We appre- ciated the relations between objects in space by means of our instruments of measurement, of which our body was one, and the science of geometry was a study of these instruments. But the instruments were not perfect, and therefore we replaced them by a series of ideal instruments for the purposes of our geometry, which thus depended upon an aggre- NO. 2220, VOL. 89] . gate of conventions approximating to the actual laws, but simpler. The principle of relativity also applied to time; if all actions were retarded uniformly we had no means of perceiving it. A revolution had recently been brought about by the researches of modern physicists, especially those of Lorenz. Formerly the action of one body upon another was supposed to be instantaneous. But if we supposed that such an action was transmitted through the intervening space at a finite speed, the question of priority of action became very difficult. Formerly we had considered an action a to be anterior to a de- pendent action 8, when @ could be regarded as the cause of 8. But in the new mechanics, if 8 occurred too soon it might happen that « could not be regarded as the cause of 8, nor B as the cause of a. It might be necessary at this stage to abandon our former mechanical conventions and to adopt new ones. IlI.—May 10.—Arithmetical Invariants.—If{ an algebraic form, in two variables, say, F(x, y), was subjected to the transformation x—>ax+ By, y—>yx+by, where ai-By=1. . (1) there were certain functions of the coefficients of F which remained unchanged. These were algebraic invariants. Suppose now that a, B, 7, 6, and also the coefficients of F(x, y) were restricted to be whole numbers, positive or negative, F(x, y) would possess the same invariants as before, but it would also possess others which were termed arithmetical mvariants. The simplest form was F(x, y)=ax+by. This form possessed no algebraic invariants. Some arithmetical invariants, however, could be obtained which were related to the Weierstrassian elliptic functions, the thetafuchsian functions, and the functions of Jacobi. In the case of quadratic forms it was necessary to distinguish between the definite and the indefinite. The definite quadratic form might be reduced for this purpose to a pair of linear forms, but for an in- definite form invariants could only be found if we took certain subgroups of the group of transforma- tions considered instead of the group itself. IV.—May 11.—The Theory of Radiation.—Planck had enunciated some ideas, which, if they were accepted, would bring about in the science of physics the most profound revolution that had occurred since the time of Newton. We owed to Newton the prin- ciple that the laws of nature could be expressed in the form of differential equations. According to Planck, phenomena satisfy not differential, but finite difference equations. By the method of statistics applied to a very great number of separate molecules we arrived at one of the fundamental theorems of thermodynamics, that of Maxwell on the equipartition of mean kinetic energy. Upon the same basis we arrived at Wien’s law of radiation and Rayleigh’s law. The last was con- sistent with the theorem of Maxwell, but it was not justified by experiment. Planck supposed that there existed in incandescent bodies a very great number of resonators, each corre- sponding to a certain wave-length of light; these re- sonators could only acauire or emit energy by a definite increment: a quantum or atom of energy. Planck obtained in this way a law of radiation, which was justified by experiment, but which was not consistent with Maxwell’s theorem. M. Poincaré found that if, instead of considering the action of light upon a molecule, we applied the ideas of Planck to the action of a molecule upon light, we should be forced to conclude that diffusion took place with a certain retardation, and this was certainly not true. Thus the hypothesis of Planck was unsatisfactory, and no, solution to the problem was at present in sight. 280 NATURE [May 16, 1912 FOOD AND THE CHILD. Ee conferences held in London since our last issue show that increasing attention is being given to questions relating to the physical and mental development of children from a national point of view. At one conference, held at the Guildhall, the subjects considered related to diet at public and private secondary schools; and at the other, held at the University of London, the health of the child in rela- tion to its mental and physical development formed the general basis of discussion. Of all that mankind has attempted since the world began, there is nothing which it has practised so regularly, so persistently, and on the whole so success- fully as eating and drinking. It is therefore some- what disquieting to find the great civilised nations suddenly smitten with misgivings as to whether the rising generation is being suitably nourished. It is admitted that the provender provided for the better- class school children of to-day is more abundant in quantity, better in quality, and better served than that supplied to their immediate ancestors; that it is, indeed, exceptional for the fare to be actually deficient in amount, while, whatever its form, it certainly com- prises those essential elements of proteids, fats, and carbohydrates upon which previous generations achieved a national pre-eminence. Yet, evidence accumulates to the effect that all is not well with the school child in relation to his diet; and, this being so, the impression arises that the fault lies with the eater at least as much as with the food supplied to him. This also appeared to be the opinion of most of those who spoke with authority and from experi- ence at the recent conference on school diets. The healthy normal child will eat with avidity of plain wholesome fare, and may even be trusted to eat of it to repletion without risk of injury, it was stated. But, by the healthy normal child was clearly meant one whose teeth were sound, who used them effectively for complete mastication, and whose natural appetite had not been vitiated by a too promiscuous feeding on more highly seasoned viands at home. Now only a small proportion of school children possess quite sound teeth. The rest have mouths more or less septic, and, consequently, infected digestive tracts. Practically none masticate their food com- pletely, and their digestion is by so much the further hampered; while many of those belonging to the upper social classes, when at home, share the more delicately prepared and attractively flavoured foods which are needed to stimulate the faded appetites of their parents, and consequently come to regard simpler fare as insipid and unappetising. The situation is one of national importance. It calls for a reform of the home dietary and upbringing —hbeginnine in the earliest nursery days—dquite as much as for a reform of school diets. The latter may, indeed, be here and there modified with advan- tage, both in matter and in method; these details, important enough in themselves, were more or less clearly hinted at, but a single-day conference did not provide the time for their adequate consideration. The conference, so far as it went, was as a useful and most suggestive troubling of the waters. Its repeti- tion on a more complete and more comprehensive scale would serve to bring out with greater clearness the need for some effective collaboration between the home and the school in relation to one of the most important factors in determining the future of the race. At the conference of child-study societies existing in various parts of the kingdom, held on May o-11 in the University of London, an address was delivered by Sir James Crichton-Browne, the presi- | NO. 2220, VOL. 89] , dent of the central society. He took for his subject the need for proper classification and education of feeble-minded children, with especial reference to the discrimination of those who presented mentally abnormal qualities not amounting to feeble-minded- ness, and those whose mental defects might by suit- able education under medical guidance be removed and their minds strengthened. At the meeting on May 10, papers were read by Dr. Kerr Love, on the influence of defects of hearing in relation to the mental and physical development of the child, and by Mr. Bishop Harman, on the influence of defects of vision in relation to the mental and _ physical development of the child. Mr. B. P. Jones, as a teacher of the deaf, gave a successful demonstration with two ex-scholars of what may be done for the hard of hearing. Dr. Jane Walker read a paper on the tuberculous child. In the afternoon, a visit was paid to Sir Francis Campbell’s normal college for the blind, where an excellent musical performance was given by members of the college. In the evening Dr. Saleeby lectured on eugenics and child-study. At the meeting on May 11, Dr. Hyslop read a paper on mental hygiene in relation to the development of the child, and a discussion ensued in which Dr. Perey Nunn and Mr. Kirkpatrick, of the Normal College, Fitchbury, Mass., took part. A discussion followed on the instruction of the young in sexual hygiene, in the course of which admirable addresses were delivered by several ladies. In the evening the dele- gates were entertained by Sir Richard and Lady Martin at their house in Hill Street. The next con- ference will be held at Liverpool. THE REFORM MOVEMENT AT CAMBRIDGE. (ree progressive party in Cambridge has lost heart about reforming the University from the inside, and a memorial asking for a Royal Com- mission, which has been signed by six professors and some twenty-two other members of the University, is being generally circulated: for signatures. The signatories hope that power may be given to the commission to make statutes in regard to such matters as financial and other relations between the University and the colleges, and the administration of funds devoted to fellowships, scholarships, and ex- hibitions. A certain number of those usually associated with reform movements in the University have withheld their signatures, partly, apparently, because they mistrust the sort of commission they anticipate the present Government would nominate, and partly because they feel that the resident members have by no means made up their minds on what lines they would wish reform to be initiated; but some at least hold the view that it is not desirable that the commission should have power to frame statutes. The petition is as follows :— To the Right Hon. H. H. Asquith, Prime Minister. We, the undersigned resident members of the Senate of the University of Cambridge, desire to lay before you a request that a commission may be appointed to inquire into the constitution of the Uni- versity of Cambridge, the financial and other relations which exist between the University and the colleges, and the administration of funds devoted to fellow- ships, scholarships, and exhibitions; and that power may be given to the commission to make statutes in regard to these matters. We venture to remind you that on July 24, 1907, in the House of Lords, the Marquess of Crewe, speak- ing on behalf of the Government, stated that the May 16, 1912] NATURE 251 Government were unwilling to appoint any com- | raised for such purposes. Between 1883 and 1888, mission for the Universities of Oxford or Cambridge until full opportunity had been given to these Uni- versities to make necessary reform for themselves. In the five years that have since elapsed various pro- posals for constitutional reform have been brought before the Senate of the University of Cambridge by the council of the Senate, but they have been, with- out exception, rejected by the Senate; and it is clear to us that no further attempt of the kind is likely to be successful. We therefore make our present appeal for the appointment of a commission. ELECTRIGIZY SUPPLY > PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE. T was in 1882 that Parliament passed the first of the Electric Lighting Acts. This Act was in part based upon recommendations made by a Select Committee on Lighting by Electricity that sat in 1879, and as an instance of the want of proportion in the ideas that then prevailed it may be mentioned that before that committee Mr. Joseph Rayner, the Town Clerk of Liverpool, explained that one of the reasons why the Corporation of Liverpool were seek- ing for Parliamentary powers to supply electricity within their borough was because they were in a specially advantageous position to do this, as they had an engine which was used during the daytime for working a fountain, and might well be used for supplying electricity during the night, that engine having a capacity of 20 horse-power. At the end of last year the electric supply plant of the Corporation of Liverpool amounted to about 50,000 horse-power, which, when compared engine, affords a commentary on the _ parochial character of the ideas in accordance with which the first of the Electric Lighting Acts was framed. In the year 1882, also, the first electric supply station for supplying incandescent lamps on a public scale in London was established by the Edison Com- pany on Holborn Viaduct. The Holborn station was equipped with two Edison dynamo machines, and it is interesting, as giving an inkling of the notions then prevailing, that these machines were described by the then editor of one of our chief engineering papers as “‘enormous,”’ it being added, evidently as | : : ’ | wards went into the hands of a receiver, leaving un- a matter of wonder, that ‘‘no less than tooo full size or 16-candle incandescent electric lamps were maintained constantly in operation from one machine.”’ It may be mentioned that each of these dynamos was driven by a high-pressure Porter engine of 130 horse-power, which shows that even in 1882 ideas had not progressed very far beyond those to which I have already alluded in connection with Liverpool three years earlier. The design of these early Edison machines, with their multiple- magnet limbs each with its separate winding, is also illustrative of the ignorance then prevailing on electromagnetic subjects, it being obvious in the light of modern knowledge that the arrangement was altogether inefficient and absurd. It was the late Dr. John Hopkinson who first put the design of continuous-current dynamos and their magnetic circuits on a sure foundation. So far from assisting electricity supply, Electric Lighting Act of 1882 had the effect of crushing enterprise in that direction, the period of seven years for which licences, twenty-one years for which provisional orders, were granted to promoters of electric supply undertakings being found quite inadequate to enable money to be 1 From adiscourse delivered at the Royal Institution on Friday, April 19, by Alan A. Campbell Swinton. NO. 2220, VOL. 89] the with this 20 horse-power | immediate | or the | when the Act was amended, only ten licences were applied for, all of which afterwards expired or were revoked, and though in the first year there were a considerable number of applications for provisional orders, not one of these was carried into effect, capitalists refusing to find money for undertakings which had only a tenure of twenty-one years. No doubt, also, this unsatisfactory result was assisted by the severe reaction that had set in from the specu- lative mania in electric lighting affairs of a few years earlier. It was not until 1885 that Sir Coutts Lindsay laid down an installation in Bond Street to light the Grosvenor Picture Gallery and the premises of some of the neighbouring tradesmen, which installation in its subsequent development had probably more influ- ence than anything else on the fortunes of electricity supply, not only in London, but in the country gener- ally. Quite a novel system of distribution was employed, the current being alternating and dis- tributed at high pressure by means of overhead wires, and transformers (or secondary generators, as they were called) on the Goulard and Gibbs system being used to reduce the pressure to suit that of the lamps. To begin with, the system did not work well, and, on the advice of Lord Kelvin, Mr. S. Z. de Ferranti was called in to assist. The station was immediately reorganised and fitted with machinery of much greater capacity, and so successful was the outlook that, early in 1888, the London Electric Supply Cor- poration, Ltd., was formed with a capital of 1,000,000l. sterling, and what were then considered as immense works were started upon as far away as Deptford, six miles from the centre of London, the scheme being to transmit the electricity from where land, coal, labour, and water for condensing could be cheaply obtained, at a pressure of no less than 10,000 volts, with suitable substations where it could be transformed and thence distributed at lower pressures. The great courage shown by those responsible for the venture was deserving of a better fate—but alas for the uncertainty of human endeavours! While the working of the station at Deptford was still in its inception, the plant at the Grosvenor Gallery became | ignited by a short circuit and was burnt out; while the London Electric Supply Corporation soon after- finished, and never to be finished, the 10,000 horse- power sets of dynamo and engine which Mr. Ferranti’s genius had dared to devise. - Though so very unsuccessful financially at its first start off, there can be no question as to the enormous influence that the Deptford undertaking had on the history of electricity supply, not only in London or in this country, but throughout the world. Here, at length, was an electricity supply proposition on a scale similar to those of the great undertakings that furnish gas to the Metropolis, with generating plant and means of distribution designed for the sale of elec- tricity over a large portion of London. The more cautious procedure adopted by other concerns which sprang up about the same time and later was no doubt more successful from a business point of view, but the impulse given by this ambitious scheme became manifest from the great competition that was shown for provisional orders for different parts of London, leading to the public inquiry that was held by the Board of Trade immediately after the passing of the amended Electric Lighting Act of 1888, in which the period of twenty-one years, after which the undertaking was subject to purchase without any allowance for goodwill, was extended to forty-two years. 282 NATURE [May 16, 1912 It is worthy of note that the London Electric Supply | Corporation has now some time ago successfully | emerged from its period of financial distress, while Mr. Ferranti, though, as has been shown, he was one of the pioneers of electricity supply, still remains with us as one of the most vigorous intellects in the electrical industry, and one who, as president of the | Institution of Electrical Engineers, is even now dreaming fresh dreams of higher things and lower costs so far as electricity supply is concerned. During the period with which we have been deal- ing, so far as the public were then aware, the chief improvements that had been effected in connection with machinery for electricity supply had reference to the dynamos which generated the current, the batteries that stored it, the cables and switches and other apparatus that distributed it and regulated its performances. True, to some extent, special designs of steam engines had been got out to suit the require- ments of driving the fast-running dynamos, as, for instance, the well-known Willan’s engine. As yet, however, there had been no departure from the reciprocating engine. Early in the year 1885 the present speaker had the privilege, for the first time, of seeing running in the works of Messrs. Clark, Chapman and Parsons, Gateshead-on-Tyne, the first true rotary engine that ever gave useful results. The invention had been patented by Sir Charles Parsons in April, 1884, and in the interval this first practical steam turbine had been constructed. I am able to show you the actual machine, which the South Kensington Museum authorities have kindly sent here, withdrawing it for the evening from the congenial company of Watt’s beam engine and Stephenson’s ‘ Rocket,” amongst which it now has its appropriate abode. As will be seen, it is a very small machine directly coupled to a dynamo giving about six electrical horse- power when running at the great speed of 18,000 revolutions per minute, and it is interesting to com- pare its parts, as, for instance, its blading, with that of the very large steam turbines on exactly the same principle that have been constructed in recent years, as, for instance, portions of blading such as is used in the turbines of the Mauretania, which, the courtesy of Messrs. C. A. Parsons also able to bring to your notice. The steam turbine has now come into very general use, being employed to the almost complete exclusion of other heat engines where very large electrical powers are wanted. At its inception, however, its inventor had many difficulties to encounter, together with much prejudice. Since the days of James Watt inventors up to that time had been continually trying to-produce a successful rotary engine, and all had failed. It was natural, therefore, for engineers to ask why this new inventor should succeed any more than those who had gone before. They did not realise that the advances that had been made in thermodynamics, and more especially in machine tools and workshop methods, ‘had rendered things practicable which, up till that time, had not been so; stand that here at last the subject was being tackled on really scientific principles by one exceptionally endowed by nature to grapple with it. Another diffi- culty that Sir Charles Parsons had to contend with and Co., I am was that, in the nature of things, experiments must | usually be conducted, in the first instance, on a small scale. Moreover, at that period, when the steam | turbine was only employed for driving dynamos, there . was no'demand for machines of any but what at the present day would be considered of very small size. Now it is one of the peculiarities of steam turbines | NO. 2220, VOL. 89] through | nor did they under- | that they are much easier to make in large sizes than in small sizes to give reasonable economy. Thus it was by reason of the very small powers that were wanted that in these earlier days turbines earned the opprobrious epithet of ‘* steam-eaters.”’ The Parsons steam turbine was first chiefly employed for the electric lighting of ships, but in 1887 the whole of the electricity for lighting’ the Mining, Engineering, and Industrial Exhibition that was held in Newcastle-upon-Tyne was generated by a number of Parsons machines; while a little later the New- castle and District Electric Lighting Company was formed, the works of which on the banks of the Tyne were the first in which steam turbines were employed to afford a public supply of electricity for general lighting and other purposes. The first machines employed in this station were only of about 100 horse- power, while others of an improved type, which were first employed at Cambridge and at Scarborough, were of about double this power, and were considered as very large. The first steam turbines to be employed in London were used for the lighting of Lincoln’s Inn Hall, where they worked for many years, to be followed not long after, in 1891, by three others, each of 50 horse-power, at New Scotland Yard, which still exist, and to-day are providing electricity for lighting, printing, and other purposes, for the Metropolitan Police. Some fifteen years ago, in evidence that he gave before the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in connection with Sir Charles Parsons’s application for a prolongation of his patent, Lord Kelvin charac- terised the Parsons turbine as the most important development in steam engines since the days of James Watt. At the time this seemed a somewhat bold assertion, but in the light of experience it has proved to be a fact. I mentioned just now that it was on the banks of the Tyne that the steam turbine was first applied to the public supply of electricity, and it has also been on the banks of the Tyne, and in the adiacent areas of Northumberland and Durham, that the greatest existing development in this country of electricity supply for industrial purposes has taken place. Not the least of the causes that have led to this is the fact that, apart from London, where the circumstance are very special, in Newcastle-upon-Tyne alone among the great manufacturing cities of Great Britain has electricity supply remained in the hands of private enterprise, and not become municipalised. “The district covered by this vast power-supply undertaking extends as far north as Morpeth, as far west as Consett, is bounded on the east by the sea. and extends right away down through the county of Durham to Stockton-on-Tees, Middlesbrough, and Cleveland. There are seventeen generating stations, of which six are coal-fired stations, and the remainder most interesting waste-heat stations, where steam for making the electricity is obtained either from exhaust steam that has already done work in blowing or other engines, or by steam raised by blast-furnace gas or from the waste heat and gas from coke ovens. Excepting in the old original power station at Neptune Bank, where power supply was inaugurated by Lord Kelvin in June, 1901, and where there are still some reciprocating engines, the whole of the works are equipped with alternators driven by steam turbines, mostly of the Parsons type, supplying 3-phase 4o-cycle current at voltages varying from 3000 to 12,000. The power is supplied to all the lead- ing manufacturers for every kind of purpose, and also to the railway from Newcastle to the sea, which has May 16, 1912] been electrified. The total amounts to nearly 200,000. It is obvious that an undertaking of these vast dimensions, covering as it does large portions of two counties and several large towns and _ industrial centres, could never have been undertaken by a single municipality. It is equally obvious that it could never have succeeded as well as it has had Newcastle itself, which has been from the first the nucleus of the undertaking, been cut out of the area of supply. This explains why other electric power schemes, such as those being worked on the Clyde and in the area round Glasgow, in Yorkshire and in Lancashire, have failed to go ahead anything like so rapidly as the one of which I have just been speaking. Parlia- ment in its wisdom, at the instance of municipal parochialism, cut nearly all the large towns out of the areas supplied by these schemes, with the result that progress has been impeded with real benefit to no one. As to the future, we have seen from the lessons of the past how very dangerous it is to prophesy, it being frequently the entirely unexpected that turns up. So far as the immediate future of electricity generation on a farge scale is concerned, the steam turbine appears likely to hold the field, though in regard to the smaller stations, where units up to 500 or 1000 kilowatts are what are wanted, the internal-combus- tion engine is undoubtedly gaining ground. Will it, however, ever catch up the steam turbine in the case of the really large power stations? Turbine units up to 25,000 kilowatts are now in actual use or in con- templation, and as electricity becomes more and more employed, not only for power, but for electrochemical and metallurgical purposes and for domestic heating, we may expect units of plant of still larger dimen- sions. At present about 2000 horse-power, or about 1500 kilowatts, seems to be about the maximum that it is considered can be safely obtained per cylinder from the internal-combustion engine, so that increased powers can only be obtained by a process of multipli- cation, which leads, in the case of very large units of plant, to great complication. Then again, as the steam turbine, particularly with the employment of superheated steam, tends to increase in fuel economy as the dimensions of the unit of plant are increased at a much greater ratio than does the internal-combus- tion engine, a point must be reached when, as we enlarge the units of plant, taking all things, such as first cost, lubricating oil, attendance, and upkeep, into account, the steam turbine will be as cheap as, or even cheaper than, its rival. So far, the internal-combustion or gas turbine has not been alluded to, but some of the difficulties in the way of its successful realisation may be mentioned. All turbines essentially consist of machines by means of which power is obtained by the passage of fluids or hot gases through narrow apertures, and by their impingement on blades, in such a manner that the fluids or gases are in intimate contact with large surfaces of metal. Now, as all engineers are aware, the law which limits the efficiency obtainable in any heat engine is expressed by the formula (T’—T)+T’, where T’ is the absolute temperature of the working gas and T the absolute temperature of the condenser or the exhaust. From this it is clear that if we are to get maximum efficiencies, the temperature of the working fluid must be as high as possible, and the sole reason for the extra good efficiency of an internal- combustion engine is because in this machine the temperatures that can be successfully dealt with are very high. In the cylinder the combustion takes place when the gas is in considerable mass, and though those portions of it which are in contact with the NO, 2220, VOL. 89] horse-power connected NATURE 283 walls of the cylinder become cooled, still, the interior of the mass keeps very hot, indeed at temperatures which could not possibly be employed in turbines unless we could find the materials of which to con- struct the blades which would maintain their tenacity while running at a red heat. It is conceivable that the science of metallurgy may be able to provide new metals or alloys with the necessary properties for doing this in the future, but at present no such material exists, and the only way in which the internal-combustion turbine can for the moment be worked is by reducing the temperatures of the gases by the introduction of water, steam, or air to a reason- able amount; indeed, in practice the temperature has to be reduced to that usual with superheated steam, when, of course, according to the formula I have quoted, the maximum efficiencies theoretically obtain- able with the internal-combustion engine and the steam turbine become equal. Even then, if other things were equal, the internal-combustion turbine might have some advantage by doing away with boilers; but, unfortunately, there are other difficulties —such as the bad economy of all methods of compress- ing the gaseous mixture as is necessary to obtain the full advantage of its combustion. No doubt the future of electricity supply lies with very large stations employing very big units of plant, and combining the generation of electricity with chemical manufacture, the electricity on the one hand and the chemicals on the other being by-products each of the other’s manufacture. So far as this country is concerned, for electricity supply at all events, we are not likely to depart from the use of coal so long as that source of energy holds out. For the propulsion of ships oil may present advantages, but on land in Great Britain coal must remain the cheaper. In all probability, however, in the future the coal will not be simply burnt. It will be turned into gas, and the sulphate of ammonia and_ the tar, with all its interesting constituents, saved. | Whether the gas will be burnt under boilers for the _ raising of steam to supply steam turbines, or whether it will be used in internal-combustion engines, will depend on the progress made by the latter in regard to attaining larger dimensions, and also as regards improvements in the gas firing of boilers, in respect of which, as has recently been shown by Prof. Bone | in his interesting lecture on surface combustion, there | is still much to be done. | of the demand for power, When the coal and oil and also the peat are ex- hausted, what then? The date may be distant, but come it must, and that within a period short in com- parison with our past civilisation. The water-power existing on the earth, when all harnessed, would only supply a very small percentage ; light, and heat. The utilisation ot the tides does not appear a very hopeful project, any more than does the utilisation of the internal heat of the earth. There remain the energy | dependent on atomic transformation, the availability of which the highest authorities appear to regard as probably impracticable, and the radiant energy that reaches this planet from the sun. The latter, as calcu- lated by Sir J. J. Thomson, amounts on a clear day to no less than 7000 horse-power per acre, or about 4,500,000 horse-power per square mile of the earth’s surface. Here is obviously an ample supply of energy sufficient for all purposes provided it can be converted into work by some reasonably efficient process. This should not prove impossible, and we have therefore here a problem for the physicist of the utmost import- ance to the race. 284 UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE. Lonpon.—At a meeting held on May 7, Convoca- tion received a report from the standing committee, in which is reprinted the statement presented to the Royal Commission on behalf of Convocation. The statement deals exhaustively with the origin of the commission as having reference specifically to the question of the future relations of the Imperial College to the University. Other questions involved in the commission’s terms of reference are not men- tioned in this.statement; but Dr. Senter, one of the witnesses, put in a statement regarding the work of the University on its external side. As a record of the events leading to the establishment of the Imperial College the statement is valuable. Lord Rosebery’s letter, dated June 27, 1903, to Lord Monkswell, then chairman of the London County Council, is reprinted, and a detailed account of the proceedings in the Senate in relation to the question is given. It is urged that the only changes necessary in the constitution of the University for the incorpora- tion of the Imperial College are such as were offered by the Senate in December, 1908. Presentation Day at the University was on May 8, the Vice-Chancellor (Sir William Collins) presiding. The report of the Principal (Sir Henry Miers) showed a decrease in candidates for all examinations as com- pared with 1910-11 of 12,681 to 12,263, due mainly to a decrease of entries at the matriculation examina- tion. The number of degrees or diplomas granted was 1342, and the number of internal students is 4578. The record of endowments and benefactions given or offered during the year for university pur- poses amounts to a capital sum of 650,000l. Refer- ence was made to the resignation of Sir William Ramsay. Finally, the Princinal asserted that the activities of the University had not been checked by the general feeling of uncertainty due to the exist- ence of the Royal Commission. The chief subject for anxiety was the decline of matriculation entries and its financial effect. A letter from Lord Haldane to Sir Francis Mowatt, dated May 7, has been published, containing an account of the actual position of matters in regard to the proposed new university buildings. The sum of 375,000l. asked for the proposed site behind the British Museum was not a settled price. It is stated that the site was regarded as most suitable, because it was ascertained that additional land adjoining might be available for subsequent development. There is a risk, Lord Haldane suggests, that in con- sequence of the action taken by certain persons connected with the University the offers originally made may not now be available, and in the circum- stances it would be idle to take steps to complete the formation of the proposed trust. ‘‘If there is to be a hostile attitude within the University itself, the task of those who wish to help in every way they can becomes a very hard one.” In addition to a studentship in pathology and bacteriology which they endowed some time ago, the Misses Riddell, of Belfast, have now placed 25,oo0ol. at the disposal of trustees to provide a hall of resi- dence at Queen’s University, Belfast, for young Protestant girl students at the University. Exeter Cotiece, Oxford, has appointed Mr. A. M. Hocart, late open scholar of the college, to a senior studentship, tenable for two years, in order that he may conduct anthropological research in Fiji and the adjoining parts of the Pacific region. Mr. Hocart has NO. 2220, VOL. 89] NATURE ! [May 16, 1912 already had experience of field work uader Dr: Rivers in the Solomon Islands, and has since had an oppor- tunity as a teacher of natives in Fiji of mastering the local dialect. Pror. Fitisert Rortu, who recently resigned his chair of forestry at the University of Michigan to accept a similar post at Cornell, has reconsidered his decision, and will remain at Ann Arbor. The Michigan regents have agreed to provide the facilities required for the extension of their forestry depart- ment. A thousand-acre “school forest” is to be pur- chased, which, together with the present eighty-aere forest farm, will give ample opportunity for the field work of the students. ; Mr. Gotpswortuy L. Dickinson, fellow and tutor of King’s College, Cambridge, and Mr. Percy M. Roxby, lecturer in the University of Liverpool, have been elected to Albert Kahn Travelling Fellowships. These fellowships, each of the value of 660l., were established to enable the persons appointed to them to travel round the world. The founder’s object is to enable men of proved intellectual attainments to enter into personal contact with men and countries they might never have known. The trust is adminis- tered at the University of London, and Sir Henry Miers, F.R.S., is the honorary secretary to the trustees, as well as a trustee himself. Tue detailed programme of papers and discussions at the Congress of the Universities of the Empire, to be held in July next, as already announced, is now complete. The congress meets for discussion on six half-days, beginning on July 2 and concluding on July 5. Among numerous other papers, the follow- ing may be mentioned :—Sir Alfred Hopkinson, Vice- Chancellor of Manchester University, on the question of the division of work and snecialisation among uni- versities; Principal Peterson, McGill University, on inter-university arrangements for post-graduate and research students; Prof. A. Smithells, F.R.S., the relation of universities to technical and professional education and to education for the Public Services; Mr. H. A. Roberts and Miss M. G. Spencer, on the action of universities in relation to the after-careers of their students; and Sir James Donaldson, Vice- Chancellor and Principal of the University of St. Andrews, on the representation of teachers and graduates on the governing body of a_ university. Many varied entertainments have been arranged for members of the congress. These include a luncheon to delegates by invitation of the Government at the Hotel Cecil, dinners given by several city companies, and many ‘“‘ At Homes.” Tue Viceroy of India attended the recent Convoca- tion of the Calcutta University, and in his capacity of chancellor of the University delivered an address. Dealing with the need for further progress in_ the provision of facilities for higher education, Lord Hardinge said the Government of India has decided to make a solid advance in the direction of teaching and residential universities. A recurring grant of 3 lakhs of rupees a year has been allotted, of which the Calcutta University will receive 65,000 rupees a vear for the appointment of University professors and lecturers in special subjects, and for the encourage- ment in other ways of higher studies and research. Non-recurring grants amounting to 16 lakhs, of which the Calcutta University will receive 4 lakhs, have been allotted for the provision of University buildings, libraries, and equipment. In addition, a special grant of to lakhs has been reserved for hostel accommodation in Calcutta, which will be non-colle- giate in character. Another sum of to lalzhs has been May 16, 1912] NATURE 285 allotted for the development of accommodation in Dacca and the buildings required for the new univer- sity in that place. Lord Hardinge hopes that the liberality of the Governntent will be supplemented by private liberality, and that before many years have passed efficient teaching universities will take the place of the examining and federal universities which India has to-day. Tue attendance at German universities forms the subject of an article by Mr. R. Tombo, jun., in the issue of Science for April 26. Mr. Tombo analyses the statistics given in the Deutscher Universitats- Kalendar for the summer semester of the present year. There are 57,398 students in German universities, as contrasted with 57,200 for the preceding summer semester. This is, however, exclusive of 5563 auditors, who, if added, would run the grand total to 62,961, as against 61,274 during the summer semester. The University of Berlin continues to lead the list with an enrelment of 9829 matriculated students. The University of Berlin is followed by the University of Munich, with an enrolment of 6797 matriculated students and 782 auditors. The University of Leipzig ranks third with 5170 matriculated students and 925 auditors. Of the remaining universities, Bonn, Bres- lau, and Halle each have more than 3000 students; Géttingen, Freiburg, Heidelberg, Miinster, Strass- burg, and Marburg each have more than 2000, and all the other universities, except Rostock with 955, have each more than tooo students. Of the total number of students in German universities, 52,435 are from Germany, and of the remainder 160 only are from the British Isles. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. Lonpon. Royal Society, May o.—Sir Archibald Geikie, K.C.B., president, in the chair.—A. Vernon Harcourt ; The variation with temperature of the rate of a chemical change. In an inquiry into the connection between the conditions of a chemical change and its amount, one of the conditions varied was that of the temperature of the solution in which the change took place (Phil. Trans., vol. clxxxvi., 1895, A, pp. 817-95). A relation was found to exist between this condition and the rate of change, expressed by the equation a; /A5, = ay Baye where «@ is the rate of change, or the number of minutes in which a definite portion of chemical change is accomplished, T, the absolute temperature 273°, and T any other absolute temperature. Not only do the numbers found from this equation agree very closely with the observed numbers, but the equation expresses a natural law which is nearly related to that upon which all calculations of gaseous volumes have long been based. Several later measurements of the rate of change at different temperatures have been published and compared with numbers calculated from other formulz. In an appendix to the present paper it is shown, by one of the authors of the previous paper, that the numbers thus calculated are in less close agreement with the actual measurements than numbers calculated from his formula given above, while also the formule have no physical interpreta- tion.—Dr. C. Chree: Some phenomena of sun-spots and of terrestrial magnetism at Kew Observatory. An investigation made some years ago by the author indicated the probability that a relation existed between the amplitude of the daily range of the mag- netic elements and the sun-spot area, not on the same day, but several days previously. The object of the present research was to inquire into the reality of NO. 2220, VOL. 89] this connection. It was found that there is a well- marked period of about 27-3 days in magnetic pheno- mena, in this sense, that if a certain day exhibits magnetic disturbance attaining the international standard ‘“‘2,’”’ as interpreted at Kew, a day which follows either 27 or 28 days after has nearly double the chance of attaining standard ‘‘2"’ that the ordinary day has. This 27-28-day period was not so clearly shown in the years of maximum sun-spot fre- quency of the epoch considered as in the years of minimum frequency, and was most clearly shown in certain intermediate years characterised by the number rather than by the magnitude of magnetic disturbances. The conclusion that a period of about 27:3 days exists in ‘‘magnetic storms” had been reached some years ago by Mr. Arthur Harvey and Mr. E. W. Maunder, independently, considering re+ spectively data from Toronto and Greenwich, but their conclusions have not been universally accepted. The present investigation shows that the phenomenon is not confined to the large disturbances usually termed “magnetic storms,” but is exhibited in the daily range of the average day.—Sir Walter Noel Hartley and H. W. Moss: The ultimate lines and the quantities _ of the elements producing those lines in spectra of the oxyhydrogen flame and spark. In a recent paper by one of the authors (Proc. Roy. Soc., 1911, vol. Ixxxv., p- 271, Hartley) on some mineral constituents of a dusty atmosphere as determined both by flame and spark spectra, a brief reference was made to the method employed for ascertaining the weights of matter necessary to give calcium and copper lines in the spark. This work has been extended to about twenty elements. The quantities of the elements which render the ultimate lines in the oxyhydrogen | flame spectra had previously been carefully deter- mined. With the alkali metals it is found to vary between o:0008 milligram in the case of potassium, oor mgrm. rubidium and cesium, and ort mgrm. lithium. In the alkaline earth group, oor mgrm. strontium, o-I mgrm. calcium, and barium I-o mgrm. Silver 0-1 mgrm., copper 1:00 mgrm., and gold 50 mgrms. Gallium, iridium, and thallium | oor mgrm., manganese o-oot mgrm., lead o-1, and tin Ioo mgrms. The gold spectrum shows the heads of very strong bands which correspond with lines in the spark spectrum. Tin shows no lines, but the edges | of bands or flutings which are enfeebled until scarcely | visible-—E. Marsden and C. G. Darwin: | formations of the active deposit of thorium. The trans- The present paper is concerned with a series of experi- | ments undertaken with the view of discovering the genetic arrangement of the various products in the active deposit of thorium, and more particularly the transformations occurring in the product or products included in thorium C. The results give strong ' reason for supposing that, of the atoms of thorium C, 35 per cent. emit @ particles of range 48 cm., and become converted into atoms of thorium D, while the remaining 65 per cent. emit 8 particles and dis- integrate into atoms of a very short-lived a-ray pro- duct, thorium C. The experiments also show that although the 6 rays of thorium C are extremely pene- trating (“=13-5 cm.-1 Al), yet they are practically unaccompanied by y rays, while the relatively soft B rays of thorium D are accompanied by a very intense penetrating y radiation containing more than six times the amount of energy of the 8 rays.—W. Wilson: The 8 particles reflected by sheets of matter of different thicknesses. (1) The radiation reflected when the 8 particles from uranium (loc. cit.) strike a screen can be split up into two parts, one with a very large coefficient of absorption, and the other with absorption coefficient of the same order as that of the 286 NATURE [May 106, 1912 primary beam. (2) The absorption coefficient of the more penetrating part of the reflected beam decreases with increasing thickness of the reflector. (3) The final absorption coefficient of the rays reflected from thick sheets of aluminium, copper, and lead are 33-7, 26-6, and 20:2 cm.~1 respectively. (4) The coefficient of absorption of the easily absorbed part of the radia- tion reflected by aluminium is about 235 cm.—'. The absorption coefficients of the corresponding rays re- flected from copper, lead, and air have not been deter- mined with any degree of accuracy, but are of the same order of magnitude as that of the rays reflected by aluminium. (5) An expression has been obtained for the variation of the amount of reflected radiation with the thickness of the reflector, and has been shown to be in good agreement with the results obtained experimentally by Schmidt. Geological Society, May 1.—Dr. Aubrey Strahan, F.R.S., president, in the chair.—P. Lake and Prof. S. H. Reynolds: The geology of Mynydd Gader, Dol- gelly; with an account of the petrology of the area between Dolgelly and Cader Idris. Mynydd Gader lies immediately south of the area described by the authors in a previous paper (Q.J.G.S., vol. lii., 1896, pp. 511-21). The Tremadoc beds are here succeeded by a group of rocks which are, for the most part, of volcanic origin. These may be divided into a rhyolitic series below and an ashy series above. The rhyolitic series is formed chiefly of lava-flows; the ashy series consists mainly of volcanic ashes and slates, the ashes predominating below and the slates above. Didymograptus bifidus occurs near the base of the ashy series, D. murchisoni in the upper part. The rhyolitic series appears to be older than the main mass of volcanic rocks in the Arenig area, but it may be contemporaneous with the Calymene ashes of that district. It is probably of approximately the same age as the volcanic series of Skomer Island, and the fact that in both places the rhyolitic rocks are soda-rhyo- lites is of considerable interest. HH. Bolton: Insect- remains from the midland and south-eastern coalfields. The writer describes a series of three insect-wings obtained by Dr. L. Moysey from the Shipley clay-pit near Ilkeston (Derbyshire), and a blattoid wing, and three fragments from the borings of the Kent Coal Concessions Company, Ltd., in East Kent. The first series of insect-wings occur in greyish-brown iron- stone nodules, which lie in bands in a yellow clay about 30 or 4o ft. below the top hard coal. The East Kent insect-remains occur in core shales, the horizon of which is not yet determined. The East Kent insect-remains contain one wing, referable to the genus Soomylacris (Ettoblattina), a species of which is already known from the Forest of Dean coalfield. The finding of two species of the same genus in coal- fields so widely separated as those of the Forest of Dean and East Kent is not without interest, in view of the generally-accepted belief in the former con- tinuity of the Coal Measures across the south of England. Linnean Society, May 2.—Dr. D. H. Scott, F.R.S., president, in the chair.—Miss T. L. Prankerd: The structure of the Palzozoic seed Lagenostoma ovoides, Will.—Dr. Karel Domin: Additions to the flora of western and north-western Australia. The account was drawn up from undescribed material in the her- barium of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, consist- ing chiefly of collections by Dr. E. Clement and Captain A. A. Dorrien-Smith. Beside many new varieties, the author characterises fourteen new plants, one being Casuarina dorrieni, eight grasses, three being species of Panicum, and five other Monocotyle- dons.—G, H. Wailes : Fresh-water Rhizopoda from the NO. 2220, VOL. 89] 1 C., and 01385 x 10-° for | States of New York, New Jersey, and Georgia, with a supplementary account of some species from the Seychelles. The gatherings forming the basis of the present paper were collected in the autumn of 1o1r; the Rhizopod fauna is summed up as being rich in species and individuals, about 80 per cent. being similar to those found in Europe. The remainder of the paper was devoted to a systematic account of the species found, including three new species of Nebela, one of Euglypha, and many varieties. Physical Society, April 26.—Mr. A. Campbell, vice- president, in the chair.—The adjourned discussion on Mr. H. Donaldson’s paper on the coefficients of expansion of fused silica and mercury was re- sumed. Prof. H. L. Callendar opened the discussion by communicating a paper on the expansion of vitreous silica. The expansion of vitreous silica at ordinary temperatures had acquired special interest recently in connection with mercurial thermometry and standards of length and expansion. The majority of observers had used the Fizeau method with specimens 10 mm. to 15 mm. long. Somewhat different values had been found for different specimens with different standards of comparison. For a cylin- drical specimen on a platinum-iridium tripod Chappuis found 50x10-® for the expansion from 0° C. to 100° the coefficient at 0° C. Scheel, for a similar specimen, tested against a quartz- crystal ring, found 455 x 10-® from o° C. to 100° C., and 0°217x 10~-° at o° C. For a ring specimen tested in a vacuum by the absolute method he found values almost identical with Chappuis; but Randall, employ- ing a similar ring specimen, also made by Zeiss, found the mean coefficient from 16° C. to 80° C. (which is nearly the same as that from o° C. to 100° C.) to be only 0424 10-°. Such differences might be due to accidental errors, or to differences in form and treat- ment of the specimens employed, or to differences in the standards of comparison. But since the whole expansion of 1 cm. of fused silica between 0° C. and 100° C. was only of the order of one wave-length of light, it was also possible that small constant errors might arise in so delicate an experiment from gas- films or other surface effects variable with tempera- ture. It seemed, therefore, desirable to measure the expansion of the long silica rods at low temperatures by a direct interference method in which such sources of error were excluded. The method used gave a smaller and more rapidly diminishing value for the expansion of the silica rods than that obtained by other observers employing the orthodox Fizeau method with short specimens. With the assistance of Mr. A. Eagle, the author had made some observations on the difference between the radial and axial expansion of a silica tube similar to that from which the bulbs of the mercury weight thermometers employed by Harlow and Eumorfopoulos had been constructed. Three sets of determinations had been made by Mr. Eagle on three different days with closely concordant results. The mean of these showed that the axial coefficient of expansion of the specimen tested exceeded the radial coefficient by 0'20 x 10-® over the range 18° C. to go® C. This result agreed as closely as could be expected with the values of the cubical coefficient deduced from the weight thermometer observations of Harlow and Eumorfopoulos when the values of Callendar and Moss for the absolute expansion of mercury were assumed.—R. Appleyard: The solution of network problems by determinants. The paper is a practical application of the method described before the Physical Society in 1885 bv Dr. J. A. Fleming. Let it be supposed that cyclic currents have been assigned to all the meshes of a given network, and that all capacities (K, in farads), inductances (L, in henries), May 16, 1912] and leakances (S, in mhos) have been converted into resistances in ohms I I iN ip ay The general network problem then is to find the cur- rent, in amperes, in any given branch, corresponding to the application of an E.M.F. of sine form, between any two fixed points in the network. \ Lip, where /=47~ h MANCHESTER. Literary and Philosophical Society, April 23.—Prof. F. E. Weiss, president, in the chair.—R. L. Taylor: The action of bleaching agents on the colouring matter of linen. The author showed that the colouring matter of unbleached linen is quite abnormal with regard to the action of the ordinary bleaching agents upon it, and differs from every other colouring matter with which he is acquainted. | Whereas colouring matters, such as indigo, Turkey-red, and the colour- ing matter of cotton, are bleached much more rapidly by free chlorine or hypochlorous acid than by a hypo- chlorite, with the colouring matter of linen the exact opposite is the case, this being bleached more rapidly by a solution of a hypochlorite. Apparently the maxi- nium bleaching effect on unbleached linen is pro- ‘duced by a solution of a hypochlorite which contains no free alkali, but rather some free chlorine or hypo- chlorous acid. Excess of alkali retards the bleaching action, just as it does in the case of other colouring matters. The addition of a chloride to the solution sometimes accelerates and sometimes retards the bleaching action (this depending upon the amount of alkali in the solution), instead of, as is the case with other colouring matters, always accelerating it. ; Care Town. Royal Society of South Africa, March 20.—Mr. S. S. Hough, F.R.S., president, in the chair.—L. Perin- Suey : Bushman sticks decorated on intaglio and poker- work, a note on the decorative skill of the Bush people and other aborigines. Specimens of sticks, decorated with drawings and carvings, also bust models, &c., were exhibited. On the sticks the intaglios were extremely fine, and represented hunting scenes, in which men in police uniform and on horseback were | depicted with most consummate skill; other sticks were ornamented with poker-work and line drawings of very great artistic merit, but representing modern subjects, a railway train among them. Poker-work was, in his opinion, probably of Kafir origin, and it Was quite possible that the Bush people had obtained it from the latter, but improved on it through their natural artistic disposition. _ He had at one time doubted the authorship of rock-graving in connection with the Bush people, but he exhibited a Bush paint- ing in which the back of the animals had been graved. The Bushman thus combined the two arts, graving and painting.—J. R. Sutton: Some meteoro- logical conditions controlling nocturnal radiation. According to the results obtained, it appears that after allowance has been made for the state of the sky and the movement of the air, the only factor of real importance determining the radiation temperature gradient is the relative humidity.—T. Muir: The resultant of a set of homogeneous lineo-linear equa- tions. Three different methods are given for obtain- ing the resultant, but the main interest is concen- trated on one of them, because of two or three some- what obscure references made to it by Sylvester when studying the problem in 1863.—W. A. Douglas Rudge : The variation in the value of the atmospheric elec- trical potential with the altitude. This paper gives some account of observations taken at various places in South Africa in order to find the relation which NO. 2220, VOL. 89] NATURE 287 exists between the atmospheric potential gradient and the altitude of the places of observation. Observa- tions were taken between Lourenco Marques and Durban, via Johannesburg, passing thus from sea- level to sea-level over a considerabie stretch of country in which the altitudes rose to nearly 7ooo ft. The general result is that there is a great change in the value of the potential gradient with the altitude, the extreme value at the highest point (6500 ft.) being not more than one-eighth of that at sea-level. Similar differences having been observed on previous occa- sions at other places, led to the investigations being conducted. ©The maximum values were about 500 volts per metre at Lourenco Marques and Durban, and 58 volts at Belfast, 6500 ft. above sea-level, and at places in between values were obtained which showed that the greater the altitude the smaller the potential gradient. An exception to this rule was seen at Johannesburg, where the potential gradient was very variable and changed signs at different points in the neighbourhood. These variations were traced to the clouds of steam, and especially of dust, proceeding from the mine heaps. Steam has the effect of increasing the positive gradient, while dust lowers it—H. A. Wager: Respiration and cell energy. 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The Distribution of | 8-enzymes in Plants: Prof. H. E. Armstrong, E. F. Armstrong, and E. Horton.—Studes on Enzyme Action. XVIII. Enzymes of the Emulsin Type. IIf. Linase and other Enzymes in Linacez: Prof. H. B. Armstrong and J. V. Eyre.—Reflex Rhythm Induced by Concurrent Excitation and Inhibition: Dr. Alexander Forbes.—The Factors in Rhythmic Activity of the Nervous System: T. Graham Brown. NO, 2220, VOL. 89] [May 16, 1912 Roya InstiruTion, at 3.—Ice Formation in Canada. I. The Physical Aspect: Prof. H. T. Barnes, F.R.S. InsTiTUTION OF MINING AND METALLURGY, at 8.—Illogical Precision i in Mine Reports: F. Percy Rolfe.—The Law of the Pay-streak in Placer Deposits: J. B. Tyrrell.—Gold and Platinum Alluvial Deposits in Russia: Leon Perret.—A Plant for the Enrichment of Pyritic Blende Concentrates: E. C. Hugon. Institution OF Evecrricat ENGINEERS, at 7.45.—Annual General Meet- ing.—At 8.30.—Condensers in Series with Metal Filament Lamps: A. W. Ashton. Royat Sociery or Arts, at 4.30.—Indian Railways: Neville Priestley. FRIDAY, May 17. Roya InstiruTion, at 9.—High Frequency Currents : W. Duddell, F.R.S. MONDAY, May 20. Roya GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, at 3.—Anniversary Meeting. Royat Society or Arts, at 8. —Heavy Oil Engines: Captain H. R- Sankey, R.E. TUESDAY, May 21. ZooLocicaL Society, at 8.20.—Lantern Exhibition of Game Animals from British East Africa: A. Blayney Percival.—The Local Races of Burchell’s Zebra: Major J. Stevenson Hamilton.—On Two New Larval Trematodes from the Striped Snake : Dr. W. Nicoll —On Differ ofeltis, a New Genus of the Crustacean Order Branchiura: Dr. W. T. Calman.—Second Con- tribution to our Knowledge of the Varieties of the Wall-Lizard (Lacerta muralis). G. A. Boulenger —A Note on the Rare British Nudibranch Hancockia eudactylota, Gosse : Sir Charles Eliot, K.C.M.G. BO Ne TURION, at 3.—The Study of Genetics : Prof. W. Bateson, F.R RovaL ANTHROPOLOGICAL INSTITUTE, at 8.15.—Demonstration of Maor Skulls: Dr, R. J. Gladstone. RoyaL Society oF ARTs, at 4.30.—Australian Railways: Hon. J. G. Jenkins. Roya SraTisTICAL Society, at 5.—Railway Accounts and Statistics = W. M. Ackworth and George Paish. WEDNESDAY, May 22. Rovat METEOROLOGICAL Society, at 4.30. — The Thunderstorm of March 11, 1912, in Hampshire and Sussex: C. J. P. Cave —Ihe Auto- matic Release of Self-Recording Instruments from Ballons-Sondes: Eric S. Bruce. THURSDAY, May 23. Roya Society, at 4.30.—Probable Papers: Theory of a New Mechanism for Varying the Volume of Discharge in the Rotating Slider Crank Form in the Chamber Crank Chain of Rouleaux: H. S. Hele-Shaw.—A New Treatment of Optical Aberrations: Prof. R. A. Sampson.—On the Ex- tinction of Light by an Illaminared Retina: Sir W. de W. Abney, K.C.B. —Optical Measurements at High Pressi res ; Walter Wahl-—The Changes in Certain Absorption Spectra in Different Solvents: T. R. Merton.— Changes in Absorption Spectra of ‘ Didymium” Salts: W. C: Ball.— The Viscosity of Cacbon Dioxide: Dr. P. Phillips. Royat InstiTu1ION, at 3 —Ice Formation in Canada: The Economic Aspect: Prof. H. T. Barnes, F.R.S. FRIDAY, May 24. : Royat INsTITUTION, at 9.—Recent Advances in Agricultural Science: The Fertility of the Soil: A. D. Hall, F.R.S. CONTENTS. PAGE Recent Works in Eugenics. By E.H.J.S.... . 263 Studiesin Biology . + Boe, Saree Plant Physiology for Agricultural Students . pee bieix Non-Euclidean Geometry. ByG.B.M. .... . 266 Our Bookshelf Net Sia oS ho 255 y7/ Letters to the Editor :-— Clouds and Shadows. (J7/ustrated.)—Charles J. P. Cavers . .. aa do. dy CR Mammalian Remains ‘at the Base of the Chalky Boulder Clay Formation in Suffolk. (///estvated.) —J. Reid Moir .. 268 Les Eclipses d’Hiver et les Helipses dhe. —W. de Fonvielle . «| Stet VaezOR: The Ammonia Flame.—Alfred C. Egerton ee 7/03 Report of the Tuberculosis Committee . ... . . 270 Sardines:in Science and Commerce = / ...:. 3:29) 278 The Royal Society Conversazione. ....... . 271 Notesine. bo idem: 255 Our Astronomical ‘Column : — Reported Discovery of a New Comet. . . - ... - 277 Wnewkotation of Uranus) gaerectae bok) cele mea The Recent Solar Eclipse . . rea 447 The Origins of the Bright Lines in Nove Spectra os Pea The Iron and Steel Institute cr 278 M. Poincare’s Lectures at the University ‘of London 279 Food andthe Child. . Le ona eae The Reform Movement at ‘Cambridge . am . . 280 Electricity Supply: Past, Present, and Future. By Alan A. Campbell Swinton : _ Se ee University and Educational Intelligence. 05 | at Societies and Academies’. . | Signy =~ =) eee BooksiReccived =... .. 2. aaah Re oo emremena Diary of Societies. . . ees es os = ysonian Inst, She A WEEKLY ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL OF SCIEN. YUN 7 i971: “To the solid ground / Ne. } a Of Nature trusts the mind gubicld eS eee 4 > Stion | Museu No. 2221, VOL. 89] THURSDAY, “MAY 23, 1912 __ [Price SIxPENCE— —— [All Rights Reserved. REYNOLDS & BRANSON, Ltd. ae | Set “A, SS) ial A t yr a= VITASCOPE. | [mE seks 5 | = = ii TINH Registered asa Newspaper at the General Post Office. } PRICE Consterdine and 25/- 84. Andrews’ Set ** B,” * An entirely novel Instrument *< Practical Z In case complete. for examining and observing Arithmetic.” 75 MODELS, Garden Stand, 5/= living insects in the garden or PATENTED the house under high magnifi- § | AND ' cation without disturbing them REGISTERED. or removing them from their is , natural surroundings. sd ra The magnification as can be varied from Descriptive Pamphiet Post Free. 12 to 60 diameters. SOLE MAKERS— = NEWTON & CO., 72 WIGMORE ST., LONDON W. DESCRIPTIVE LIST POST FREE. Established over 200 years. ‘elegrams ; ‘‘ Newtobar. London.” 14 Commercial Street, Leeds. Jow J. GRIFFIN & SONS) KEMBLE STREET, is the KINGSWAY, LONDON, W.cC. “FOLDING MINIM ” MAKERS OF which, when not in use, folds quite flat. The ideal Binocular for Nature Study ® The Rev. H. Carter, of Needham Market, states | “The ‘Folding Minim’ is admirably adapted for watching birds, and one “can carry it so easily that it is seldom likely to be left at home. The | ““power of 5.5 is quite sufficient, and the field very wide for the size.” Price £7 to o complete. AWARDED ne - Descriptive pamphlet sent post free on request. GRAND PRIX NEGRETTI & ZAMBRA, DIPLOMA OF HONOUR Holborn Viaduct, London, E.C. AND 45 Cornhill, E.C.; 122 Regent Street, W. 3 GOLD MEDALS eater are one-third TURIN INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1944 '; [ESA CXVIil NATURE [May 23, 1912 THE DAVY-FARADAY RESEARCH LABORATORY ROYAL INSTITUTION, No. 20 ALBEMARLE STREET, W. DIRECTOR: Professor Sir JAMES DEWAR, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F R.S. This Laboratory was founded by the late Dr. Ludwig Mond, D.Sc., F.R.S., as a Memorial of Davy and Faraday, for the purpose of promoting, by original research, the development and extension of Chemical and Physical Science. Persons fully qualified to undertake original scientific research admitted to the Laboratory are entitled to the use of the apparatus, and to such materials and chemicals as may be supplied by the Director, subject to the approval of the Laboratory Committee. The Staff of the Laboratory, and a trained Mechanician, are under the control of the Director. MICHAELMAS TERM.—Monday, October 7, to Saturday, December 21. LENT TERM.—Monday, January 13, to Saturday, March 15. EASTER TERM.—Monday, April 7, to Saturday, July 26. Applicants can receive full inf rmation regarding the Laboratory by addressing the Assistant SECRETARY, Royal Institution, No. 21 Albe- marle Street, W. ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN, ALBEMARLE STREET, PICCADILLY, W. Tuesday next (May 28), at Three o'clock, Professor W. M. FLINDERS PETRIE, D.CL., Litt.D., F.R.S. First of two Lectures on ‘‘ THE FORMATION OF THE ALPHABFT.” Half-a Guinea the Course Thursday (May 30). at Three o'clock, Professor CHARLES G. BARKLA, F.R.S. First of two Lectures on ‘‘ X-Rays aND MATTER.” Half-a-Guinea. Saturday (June 1), at Three o'clock, WILLIS L. MOORE, Esq. First of two Lectures on (rt) “THE DevELOPMENT OF METEOROLOGICAI. Science”; (2) ‘THe Utmiries oF METEOROLOGICAL SCIENCE.” Half-a-Guinea. EAST LONDON COLLEGE. (UNIVERSITY OF LONDON.) Patron—HIS MAJESTY THE KING. Classics ... F. R. Earp, M.A. English H. Betioc, M.A. French Mina Pagulkr. German ... J. Steppat, Ph.D. History 00 THomas SEccoMBE, M.A. Mathematics... THE PRINCIPAL. Physics ore SH ae se) GC. ES URES; DSc! ehakeeS) Chemistry HE a +H Je de Bewint, DiSc Neko: Botany 0 co F. E. Fritscu, D.Sc. Geology ee % W. L. Carver, M.A. Civil an echanica . 5s ELcinserincsie. fs \ .. D. A. Low, M.I.M.E. Electrical Engineering «. J. T. Morris, M.LE E. Fees moderate. Valuable Entrance Scholarships awarded by Drapers Company. Special facilities for Post-Graduate and Research Students. Particulars of fees, courses of study, &c., on application to the REGISTRAR, or to J. L. S. HATTON, M.A.. Principal, at the College. BEDFORD COLLEGE FOR WOMEN. (UNIVERSITY OF LONDON.) YORK PLACE, BAKER STREET, W. SECONDARY TRAINING DEPARTMENT. HeEaD OF THE DEPARTMENT—Miss Sara MELuutsH, M.A. The Course includes full preparation for the Examinations for the Teaching Diplomas granted by the Universities of London and Cambridge. Students are admitted to the Training Course in October and January. One free Place (value £26 5s), one Scholarship (value £20), and a limited number of grants of 410 are offered for the Course beginning in October, 1912. They will be awarded to the best candidates holding a degree or its equivalent in Aris or Science. Applications should be sent to the Heap oF THE DEPARTMENT not later than Julv 1, 1912. GRESHAM COLLEGE. Four Lectures on ‘“‘ THe Morions oF THE Eartu”’ will be delivered at the City of London School, Victoria Embankment, E.C., at 6 p.m., by S. A. SAUNDER, M.A, _ F-.R.A.S., as follows’—Tuesday, May 28, ‘The Laws of Motion’’; Wedne-day, May 29, “‘ Rotation”; Thursday, May 30, “‘ Rotation, Rev.lution”; Friday,*May 31, ‘‘ Revolution, Pre- cession.’ Admission Fiee. Experimental and Lantern Illustrations. BIRKBECK COLLEGE, BREAMS BUILDINGS, CHANCERY LANE, E.C. COURSES OF STUDY (Hay and Evening) for the Degrees of the UNIVERSITY OF LONDON in the FACULTIES OF ARTS & SCIENCE (PASS AND HONOURS) under RECOGNISED TEACHERS of the University. SCIENCE.—Chemistry, Physics, Mathematics (Pure and Applied), Botany, Zovlogy, Geology. ARTS.—Latin, Greek, English, French, German, Italian, History, Geography, Logie, Economies, Mathematics (Pure and Applied). Evening Courses for the Degrees in Law and Economics. { Day: Science, £17 10s.; Arts, £10 10s. SESSIONAL FEES , Evening: Science, Arts, or Economics, £5 5s. POST-GRADUATE AND RESEARCH WORK. For particulars apply to the SECRETARY. G. ARMITAGE-SMI'H, M.A., D.Lit., Principal. SOUTH-WESTERN POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE, MANRESA ROAD, CHELSEA, S.W. Day Courses in preparation for London University degrees in Mechanical and Electrical Engineering. in Chemistry, Physics and Natural Science. Session Fee, £15. Similar Avenzng Courses, Session Fee, £3 10s. Technical Day Courses arranged to extend over 3 years and prepare for Engineering, Electrical, Chemical and Metallurgical professions. Mathematics *W. H. Eccies, D.Sc. ; *J. Lister, A.R.C.S. Physics {"*sprW. Jonpax, B'S, and C.F Hocuey, BSc chemistry. {73S ee Wee Botan 4 {*H. B. Lacey; S. E. CHanncer, D.Sc., and piney PK | Mae hes ee Dehgelvlony M. Frack, M.A., M.B. Zoology eas Lal fs cite, CunnincGHam, M.A. Bneinsering (VG CMey noe ey Electrical ee J. Makower, M.A.; *B. H. Morpnuy and Engineering U. A. Oscuwacp, B.A, * Recognised Teacher of the University of London Prospectus from the SECRETARY. post free, 4d.; at the Office, 1d. Telephone : 899 Western. SIDNEY SKINNER, M.A., Principal. CHEMICAL SOCIETY RESEARCH FUND. A meeting of the Research Fund Committee will be held in June next. Applications for Grants, to be made on forins which can‘be obtained from the Assistant Secretary, must be received on, or before, Monday, June 3, 1912. All persons who received grants in June, rocr, or in June of any previous year, whose accounts have not been declared closed by the Council, are reminded that reports must be in the hands of the Hon. Secretaries not later than Saturday, June 1. The Council wish to draw attention to the fact that the income arising from the donaiion of the W sshipful Company of Goldsmiths is more or less especially devoted to the encouragement of research in inorganic and metallurgical chemistry. Furthermore, that the income due to the sum accruing from the Perkin Memorial Fund is applied to investigations relating to problems conn-cred » ith the coal-tar and allied industries. METEOROLOGICAL OFFICE OBSERVATORIES. WANTED, for the Magnetic Ob ervatory at Eskdalemuir, in Dumfries- shire, about 16 miles from Langholm, a SKILLED MECHANIC, used to all kinds of band tools for smali work, to act as mechanic and caretaker for the Observitory. Furnished quarters, with coals and light, are pro- vided in the Observatory building. A HOUSEKEEPER is also wanted for the resident quarters at the Observatory, comprising six bed oums, The situations of mechanic and housekeeper may be taken by a man and his wife if both are suitable for the work required, Application shoul be made in the first instance by letter only, stating age, experience, reference, and present wages, addressed to the DirecTor, Meteorological Office, South Kensington, London, S W., from whom further parti ulars can be obrained. UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF NORTH WALES. BANGOR. (A Constituent College of the University of Wales.) Ss Applications are invited for the post of ASSISTANT LECTURER in FORESTRY. Salary, £180. Applications and testimonials should be received not later than Saturday, June 8, by the undersigned, from whom further particulars may be obtained. JOHN EDWARD LLOYD, M.A., ; Bangor, Secretary and Registrar. May 10, 1912. NATURE THURSDAY, MAY 23, 1912. PICTURESQUE SAVOY. Costumes, Traditions, and Songs of Savoy. By Estella Canziani. Illustrated with fifty repro- ductions of pictures by the author, and with many line drawings. Pp. xiii+-180. (London: Chatto and Windus, 1911.) Price 21s. net. ERE is a book which should give pleasure to many. It appeals to the general reader who wishes to be told in an entertaining manner of journeyings in little-known places, or to look on charming colour reproductions of picturesque costumes, personal ornaments, and beautiful land- scapes. It also appeals to many groups of specialists by its representations of wood carvings, seals, coins, and coats of arms, by its music re- membered from olden times,and by its abundance of legends, customs, and folk-songs. We have vivid accounts of mountaineers, laborious, home- loving, honest, and frugal, who generously com- bine to make up a neighbour’s loss by fire or by death in his herd, help him to tile his new house, and divide amongst themselves the outdoor work for his widow. The people fear crowds and towns, though not the loneliness of their mountain soli- tudes. Their houses are wooden stables with straw-coloured earthen floors, which they share with their animals. Their furniture consists of a few primitive chairs, beds of straw and rags in rough wooden boxes raised on tall legs, and a water tub and a hay box for the cattle. The food is as rude as the hovel. The midday meal at an inn may be boiled cabbage, black bread, and wine, and the staple fare is black bread, milk, and soup, with a little rice. Pigs killed, dried, and salted once a year furnish an occasional and unattractive dish, and mutton (of extraordinary toughness) is an exceptional treat. In these widely different surroundings we find not a few beliefs and practices familiar in our own British Isles. The pigs must be killed under the waxing, and not under the waning, moon. ‘The saint’ of Dieublanc village hangs his cloak on the sunbeams, as did St. Brigit of Kildare. The Bacchu-ber dance (pp. 74-5) closely resembles the complicated sword-dances which Mr. Cecil Sharp has found still lingering near Flamborough and elsewhere. The homeward way of the newly-married was once barred by a cart or plank until drink-money was paid, just as and why it was barred with a rope in rural Eng: land. The future of a bride (whether elle portcra la culotte) is judged by her success in leaping a stream, as it was once in northern England by NO. 2221, VOL. 89] 289 ‘ jumping the “petting stone.” Still more curious is it to meet in Savoy (p. 128) the tale of the cat that, overhearing that “Doldrum is dead,” dashes off to claim the succession as King of the Cats. But most of the beliefs and practices are unlike our own. If the baying of dogs at midnight foretells death, as to ourselves, the hooting of owls is a sign, not of disaster, but of a birth. Moun- tains, glaciers, torrents, and especially caves, are the homes of evil spirits, but lakes and river sources of good spirits. The damned are confined in desolate places and beneath glaciers, whence they can cut their way up to Paradise by labour- ing for countless nights till cockcrow with the ineffective aid of a pin, and peasants still cut out steps to aid this labour of the lost. The Mer de Glace and the lake of Aigueblette each cover fertile lands destroyed on account of the inhospit- ality of their inhabitants. On stormy nights the witches and fays play ball with a baby, which they toss to one another and over the great fire in the midst of their circle, and their victim is ever after distorted and ailing, ‘“‘and only cares for the com- pany of snakes.’’ The Devil is watchful, and picks off at once the red flowers which bloom on the mountain fern on St. John’s Night, and confer invisibility. Sometimes, however, he comes by the worst, as when a saint seized him in the fora of a bear, and forced him to draw the materials for a monastery in the place of the oxen previously destroyed by him. The art of making Chartreuse, by the way, is said to have been filched from the Devil by a monk who stole into the secret grotto where the Arch Enemy was making liqueurs. God’s lightning warns of the coming of the Devil’s thunder, so that one has time to avert evil by signing the cross. But there is no end to the legends—of hidden treasures, lake serpents, ghosts, and animal- guardians of ruins and ancient castles—and the book contains much other interesting matter. We are present with the author at festas, where the “bidder,” dressed up in colours, beats his drum and clashes his cymbals, and then turns somer- saults, as he leads churchwards the peasants in their most gorgeous garments. We sympathise with her vain attempts to hurry the postcart, and we learn the social customs of the valleys. The lover knows without speech the failure of his courtship if oats are dropped into his pockets, or the burnt ends of the firebrands turned towards him, or if he is invited to sit near the logs piled beside the fire. As a funeral passes all doors and windows are shut to prevent entry of the freed soul of the dead, and the white gloves worn by the N 290 NATURE [May 23, 1912 bearers are cast upon the coffin in the grave to get rid of the impurity of death. Miss Canziani does not seem to have found, or noted here, charms or folk-medicine, or the evil-eye belief (which is prevalent at least in Rumilly). We have left ourselves no space to dwell on the characteristic melodies or the songs, but these present less novelty, as MM. A. van Gennep, Tiersot, Ritz, and Servettaz have all published ' collections from Savoy. Miss Canziani tells us that the distinctive village costumes which she depicts so brilliantly are gradually disappearing, that the fays are abandon- ing their mountain homes, and that the old legends are being forgotten. We must therefore congratulate ourselves that the brush and pen of an enthusiastic and painstaking recorder have preserved for us so much of antique beauty, poetry, and custom before they fade away for ever. As Ree THE GEOLOGY OF SELSEY BILL. Selsey Bill: Historic and Prehistoric. By Edw. Heron-Allen. Pp. xvi+404+maps and plates. (London: Duckworth and Co., 1911.) Price 42 2s. net. The Recent and Fossil Foraminifera of the Shore- sands at Selsey Bill, Sussex. By Edw. Heron- Allen and Arthur Earland. (Reprinted from the Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society.) (London: Printed by Wm. Clowes and Sons, Ltd., 1908-1911.) ELSEY BILL, the south-western promontory a of Sussex, is classic ground to the geologist on account of the fossiliferous Middle Eocene deposits (or Bracklesham beds) which are ex- posed along its shores. It is therefore appropriate that any work on this region should devote con- siderable space to its geology, and Mr. Heron- Allen’s sumptuous volume now before us includes no fewer than six chapters dealing with various aspects of the subject. Realising the needs of the general reader, Mr. Heron-Allen does even more than refer to the geological formations which can be actually studied within the area; for he attempts a brief sketch of the successive changes in geo- graphy and conditions which have occurred in southern Britain since the beginning of geological time, and alludes to certain hypotheses and general principles which are likely to excite interest. Following this, he gives a most useful description, illustrated by a map, of the series of fossiliferous Bracklesham beds exposed on the beach, based partly on the work of the Geological Survey, partly on his own observations made in association with Mr. Thomas Woodland. NO. 2221, VOL. 89] The successive beds dip very gently from the western shore under the peninsula in a_north- easterly direction, reappearing on the east side of the Bill; and they are covered partly by patches of Pleistocene deposits, partly by variously mov- ing modern banks of sand and shingle, which render the study of them difficult. Good figures of some of the typical fossils occupy three plates, and will be useful to a beginner; but the nomen- clature adopted in these illustrations and in the long lists added to the geological description will not always satisfy the modern worker. Mr. Heron-Allen’s new observations relate to the Pleistocene and other more recent deposits, which he has evidently studied with great dili- gence. His description of a fresh-water clay from which he obtained the remains of a young mam- moth in April, 1909, is especially interesting, and is illustrated by a plate of photographs of the lower molars and some bones. His records of discoveries of flint implements both of Palzolithic and Neolithic types are also important; and the photographs of a “Mesolithic chisel”? found beneath the Coombe rock on top of the raised beach are especially noteworthy. It is curious that no relics of the Bronze Age have hitherto been met with, though those of the Iron Age are abundant. Mr. Heron-Allen has also worked industriously at the collection and identification of the Foramini- fera which occur in patches on the beach. Alto- gether he has discovered about four hundred species, of which a large proportion agree closely with forms now common in Torres Straits and on the Great Barrier Reef of Australia. Unfortun- ately, these Foraminifera are of very different ages—some Cretaceous, some Tertiary, and some recent—all mixed, and it is not easy to separate them into groups; but in association with Mr. Arthur Earland, Mr. Heron-Allen has contributed an interesting series of papers on the collection to the Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society. These papers have now been reprinted and issued as a separate volume, in which there is an ap- pendix on the preparation and study of Foramini- fera from the Chalk. The greater part of Mr. Heron-Allen’s work on Selsey Bill deals, of course, with history and statistics, with which we are not concerned, and his natural history notes are necessarily brief. He is, however, to be congratulated on his suc- cessful effort to give both an interesting and a trustworthy account of the geology, which should stimulate local observers to devote more attention to the Bracklesham fossils and the Coombe rock than these have received during recent years. A. SaeWe May 23, 1912] NATURE 291 EXPERIENCES OF A BUTTERFLY- HUNTER. Butterfiy-Hunting in Many Lands. Notes Field Naturalist. By Dr. G. B. Longstaff. which are added translations of papers Fritz Miller on the scent-organs of butterflies and moths: with a note by Dr. E. B. Poulton, F.R.S. Pp. xviiit728. With 16 plates, 7 coloured. (London: Longmans, Green and Go., 191es)peerice 21s. net. of a To N the handsome volume before us, Dr. Long- | staff has brought together an account of his collecting experiences. The first chapter, “ Early Reminiscences,”’ describes his work as a collector from 1858 to 1869, chiefly in Britain, and especi- ally during a visit to Rannoch. About 1869 he relinquished collecting, owing to defective sight after the loss of an eye, but from 1903 onward he has been collecting specimens abroad for the benefit of the Oxford Museum, visiting India, Ceylon, China, Japan, Canada, Algeria, South Africa, West Indies, South America, Egypt and the Sudan, New Zealand, and Australia. Although chiefly a collector of butterflies, in- sects of all orders attracted more or less of his attention, while Mrs. Longstaff, who frequently accompanied her husband, paid special attention to land and fresh-water Mollusca. He himself made a point of noting the habits of the insects, | especially their position at rest, and the odours which many of them emit. The frontispiece shows us the well-known African butterfly, Eronia cleo- | dora, on the wing and at rest, and the other coloured plates illustrate not butterflies alone, but numerous interesting insects of all orders, taken by Dr. Longstaff, many of them previously un- figured, and a large proportion actually new to science. The last chapter is devoted to ‘‘ Butterfly Bio- nomics,’’ and deals with such subjects as coloured juices, tenacity of life, mimicry, flight, altitudes, seasonal forms, &c., and the appendix includes a series of twelve important papers by the late Fritz Miller, from various German and Portu- guese periodicals, by no means easy of access, even to those acquainted with the original languages. These are translated by Mr. E. A. Elliott, and are illustrated with nine plates. We wish that Porchinsky’s beautifully illustrated papers on the colours of larve, &c., could also be republished in English from the Russian Entomological Transactions. Dr. Longstaff’s book is addressed chiefly to entomologists, but there are many interesting notes on various subjects scattered through the book, especially his experiences during the earth- NO. 2221, VOL. 89] by | ‘quake in Jamaica on January 14, 1907. There are also some amusing travellers’ tales, which / may be found scattered here and there through the book. It is exceedingly well printed, and, | notwithstanding the enormous amount of technical matter, and the scores of scientific names on almost every page, we have noticed scarcely any | misprints; and, indeed, the only point which ap- | pears to be an error which we have noticed is the | statement that the mongoose was introduced into | Jamaica to kill snakes. We believe that it was | really introduced to kill rats, for venomous snakes are unknown in Jamaica, and harmless ones are not remarkably abundant. Wienke SOME TEXT-BOOKS OF CHEMISTRY. (1) A Text-book of Inorganic Chemistry. By Dr. G. Senter. Pp. xi+583. (London: Methuen and Co., Ltd., 1911.) Price 6s. 6d. (Text- books of Science.) | (2) Chemistry: an Elementary Text-book. By Profs. W. C. Morgan and J. A. Lyman. Pp. xvi+ 429. (New York: the Macmillan Co. ; London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1911.) Price 5s. 6d. net. (3) The Chemistry of the Radio-elements. F. Soddy, F.R.S. Pp. v+92+chart. (Lon- don: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1911.) Price 2s. 6d. net. (Monographs on Inorganic and Physical Chemistry.) (4) 4 Text-book of Practical Chemistry for Technical Institutes. By Dr. A. E. Dunstan and F. B. Thole. Pp. x+ 335. (London: Methuen and Co., Ltd., 1911.) Price 3s. 6d. (Text-books of Science.) (5) Practical Chemistry for Medical Students. By Dr. A. C. Cumming. With a preface by Prof. James Walker. Pp. 171. (Edinburgh: James Thin, 1911.) By (6) Elementary Experimental Chemistry. By F. E. Weston. Pp. viit+1go. (London: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1911.) Price 2s. (7) Chemistry Note-book. By E. J. Sumner. Pp. 92. (Burnley: the Cooper Printing Co., Lidso.ds)) Prices: (8) An Experimental Course of Physical Chemis- try. By Dr. J. F. Spencer. Part i., Statical Experiments. Pp. xiv+228. (London: G. Bell and Sons, Ltd., 1911.) Price 3s. 6d. (9) Laboratory Exercises in Physical Chemistry. By Dr. J. N. Pring. Pp. xiv+163. (Man- chester: the University Press, 1911.) Price 4s. net. (1) NTIL recently the problems which are now discussed under the heading of “Physical Chemistry” were usually relegated to the preliminary chapters of a text-book of general 292 NATURE [May 23, 1912 chemistry, and only very occasionally touched upon in the later chapters of the book. Such a text-book had undoubted advantages from the point of view of the teacher ; the text-book supplied the dry bones of chemistry, and in a course cf lectures the flesh and blood could be added with- out any undue risk of duplicating the teaching derived from the book. But for the solitary student it was an obvious disadvantage that such questions as mass-action and reversible changes should be dealt with in an isolated chapter, and their application to the “daily round” of chemical changes forgotten or neglected. It was to remedy this defect that the book now under review was written. The author has not merely professed the policy of stating facts before theories, but, in wel- come contrast with some recent writers, has held to this policy, so that atomic weights are not introduced until chapter x., page 115. Criticism of the book is largely limited to points of detail. Thus the adoption of the old convention that one molecular proportion of a gas occupies ‘two volumes” appears to the writer to introduce un- necessary confusion, and seems to carry with it some lurking suspicion that the oxygen molecule O, occupies two volumes because it contains two atoms, although the volume occupied is precisely the same in the case of the monatomic molecule of mercury. More emphasis might have been placed upon the fact that molecular weights are now referred to O,= 32 instead of H,=2, the state- ment on p. 109 that “the molecular weight of a gas double its vapour density referred to hydrogen as unit” being therefore only an ap- proximation and not an exact definition; we have also not noticed on a first reading any statement of the fact that Avogadro’s hypothesis is itself only an approximation which becomes accurate only at zero pressure. In reference to the illustrations, two points have been noticed. The crystal drawings on p. 302 are for the most part correct, but have been printed in curious positions, the upper part of the figure being on the right in Fig. 60, on the left in Fig. 65, and at the bottom of Fig. 63. In Fig. 24.the author has perpetuated the mistake (so often repeated as almost to have become a dogma of the chemical creed) of representing Dumas’s experiments on the composition of water as having been made with a Bunsen burner with U-tubes of the modern pattern some six or eight inches long; a reference to the original paper shows that these tubes were a metre in height, and that the beak of the massive copper oxide bulb was also a. metre long; on this scale the retort stands of the figure would be 8 ft. high, and the interpolated Bunsen burner about 2 ft. high ! NO. 2221, VOL. 89] is The periodic classification of the elements given on p. 364 shows the elements praseodymium = 140°5 and neodymium=143'6 as members of the nitrogen and oxygen groups respectively. In view of the extraordinary similarity of these two elements such a separation is very undesirable, and there is every reason for preferring Prof. Armstrong’s arrangement, in which the rare earth elements, from lanthanum= 139 to ytterbium=173, form a vertical column in the boron or aluminium group; precedents for such an arrangement already exist in the clusters Fe, Co, Ni; Ru, Rh, ecinancda@s,. line ibite These criticisms deal entirely with matters of detail. Turning to more general considerations, it may be noted that the information given is. modern and accurate, and that reference is made to a considerable number of observations pub- lished during the year 1911, which appears upom the title-page. The style is clear, the book is attractively printed, and the author has un- doubtedly succeeded in his endeavour to introduce something of the spirit of physical chemistry into the routine of descriptive chemistry. (2) The American text-book is in striking con- trast to the serious work of our first author. An endeavour has been made “to bring out the humanistic side of the science, to use as far as possible that material which is laden with intense human interest because of its significance to the race.” In so far as this has led the authors to introduce excellent portraits of Dalton, Lavoisier, Faraday, and Kekulé it is to be commended, although Arrhenius, as shown facing p. 260, would scarcely be recognised by his friends. But they proceed to illustrate chemical energy by a picture of a forest being cleared by dynamite, and an obscure photograph of an automobile, enveloped in dust and steam, travelling at 80 miles an hour; rapid oxidation is illustrated by the burning of San Francisco, and slow oxidation by a picture of a bird nesting in a hollow tree; other illustrations. show a primeval forest, a coal mine, hydraulic gold-mining in California, and the granite rocks of the Sierra Nevada mountains. The book has evidently been written for American readers, and | 1s not likely to come into general use in England. (3) Mr. Soddy’s book on ‘“‘The Chemistry of the Radio-elements ” is the first of a series of “ Mono- graphs on Inorganic and Physical Chemistry,” of which ten numbers are already announced. The idea of the series is excellent, and the monographs should appeal to a wider circle and have an even larger circulation than the biochemical mono- graphs already issued by the publishers. Follow- ing a general description of radio-activity and radio-active constants, the three “ disintegration May 23, 1912] NATURE 293 Le >, : a | | a eee series,” starting from uranium, thorium, and | show that the author has that wider range of know- actinium, are considered, and a note is added in reference to the slight radio-activity of potassium and rubidium. d more influence upon nail, showing the positions. from which the the arts conducing to civilisation and the manufac- | various’ test-piecés ‘used -in the ‘research- were turing industry than any other within- the whole | taken. Shock Test MICRO (Teens) . ee ANNEALED Mune MICRO (Trent) RNneaul 4 niet yes Scicmose’’ TEST S¥. GRavity SCLEROSC™ TesT S¢LEROSc’™ » | RO — Craviny AMALYSIS : MIGRO (Leaeit’) MACRO ; 4 Pic. 3.—Ancient chisel from Sigiriya (5th century a.p.). > pat roy EST SP GRAVITY Fic. 4.—Ancient nail, 13} in. in length, from Sigiriya (sth century a.p.). range of human invention was altogether unques- It is probable that the evidences set forth in this tioned. Sir Robert entirely agreed with Mr. Heath’s | paper offer “a satisfactory explanation as to how the views, and was led to the conclusion that the methods | tools used in the preparation of the great works in of making steel practised in Ceylon probably reached | stone, such as those seen in Egypt, were carried out that island from India at a very early date. | in’ past ages. NO. 2223, vor. 89] 302 NATURE [June 6, 1912 ei UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE. CaMBRIDGE.—The Board of Agricultural announces that an examination will be held for one ‘Surveyors’ Institution Scholarship’? on July 9 to 12. The scholarships are of the value of Sol. per annum, and are open only to students of the Surveyors’ Institution, who have not commenced residence in the University. Names of intending candidates must be sent before June 30 to Mr. A. Goddard, the Surveyors’ Institution, 12 Great George Street, West- minster, S.W., or to Prof. T. B. Wood, School of Agriculture, Cambridge, from whom forms for entry may be obtained. It is proposed to confer the degree of Doctor of Law, honoris causd, upon his Excellency Count Paul Wolff-Metternich zur Gracht, G.C.V.O., German Ambassador to the Court of St. James’s, and the Degree of Doctor of Science, honoris causdé, upon Prof. Howard Marsh, Master of Downing College, and professor of human anatomy in the University. Dr. Donaldson, Master of Magdalene College, has been elected to the office of Vice-Chancellor for the academical year 1912-13. The Special Board for Biology and Geology has reappointed Dr. Shipley, Master of Christ’s College, to be a manager of the Balfour Fund for five years until June 30, 1917. Lonpon.—A special meeting of the Senate was held on May 30 to consider the question of accom- modation for the headquarters of the University. A resolution was adopted welcoming the efforts of Lord Haldane and other friends of university education in London to raise funds towards the present and future needs of the University; and it was decided to appoint a special committee of thirteen members, in addition to the Chancellor, Vice-Chancellor, and Chairman of Convocation, “‘to consider and report on an adequate site for the headquarters of the University and gener- ally on the question of accommodation from the point of view of the University as a whole, with power to communicate with persons and bodies at their discre- tion.” It should be noted that no approval or dis- approval has been officially expressed of any par- ticular site. The University Gazette, dated May 20, reprints the new regulations relating to subsidiary subjects at the B.Sc. hionours examinations, the syllabuses in military science which have been adopted for the intermediate and final pass examinations in arts and science for internal students, and the regulations for the Paul Philip Reitlinger prize, which is of the value of gzol., and is to be awarded annually, alternatively for an essay and for medical research work. The annual reports of the Physiological Laboratory and the Brown Institution are also given, together with the agenda paper for the Congress of the Universities of the Empire. The D.Sc. (economics) degree has been granted to J. F. Unstead, an internal student, for a thesis on wheat cultivation. The principal, Sir Henry Miers, has been nomin- ated as a member of the Teachers Registration Council. New regulations have been approved defining the conditions under which the Oxford senior local ex- amination will be accepted as exempting from the matriculation examination. Honours in the first or second class will be required in and after 1913. Oxrorp.—An acceptable gift has just been offered to the University by Mr. Walter Morrison, of Balliol College; in the shape of the sum of 10,000l., to serve is the nucleus of a pension fund for professors. The NO. 2223, VOL. 89| | Anatomy and Functions of the , have been at work in shaping the landscape. need for such a fund has long been recognised, and it is hoped that, so good a start having been made, it — . | will not be long before an adequate provision exist Studies | F for members of the professorial staff who have earned | their retirement by long service. s On June 3 the honorary degree of D.Sc. was con- ferred on Dr. Franz Boas, professor of anthropology in Columbia University, New York, and Mr. A. P. Maudslay, president of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. Dr. Boas is well known as a scientific explorer in various parts of the Arctic regions and of the North Pacific, and as director of the International School of American Archeology and Ethnology in the city of Mexico. His work on ‘‘The Mind of Primitive Man” is of first-rate interest to anthropologists. Mr. Maudslay has earned the gratitude of all students of prehistoric civilisation by his researches, conducted at great personal risk, among the wonderful monuments of primitive culture in Central America, and to him is largely due the success of the arrangements for the entertainment of the Congress of Americanists in this country. Tue Central News New York correspondent’ re- ports that by the will of the late Prof. Goldwin Smith a sum of 160,000l. is bequeathed to Cornell University. Dr. Janet Lane-Crayron, lecturer in hygiene and physiology at Battersea Polytechnic, has been appointed lecturer in hygiene and physiology at King’s College for Women (Home Science Depart- ment). A course of three lectures on ‘‘ The Comparative Gas Bladder of Fishes”’ will be given at University College, Gower Street, W.C., by Dr. W. N. F. Woodland; on Tues- days, June 11, 18, and 25. The lectures are addressed to advanced students of the University, especially those of zoology, anatomy, and of physio- logy, and to others interested in the subject dealt with. Admission is free, without ticket. Tue Secretary of State for India has appointed a committee to inquire and report as to the facilities available for Indian students for industrial and technological training in this country, with. special reference to the system of State technical scholar- ships established by the Government of India in 1904. The committee is constituted as follows :—Sir Theodore Morison, K.C.I.E. (chairman), and Sir Krishna Gupta, K.C.S.I., members of the Council of India; Mr. J. H. Reynolds, lately principal of the Municipal School of Technology at Manchester; and Prof. W. E. Dalby, professor of civil and mechanical | engineering at the Imperial College of Science and | Technology at South Kensington. C The secretary to the committee is Mr. P. H. Dumbell, of the India Office. In La Géographie for April M. P. Glangeaud out- lines a scheme of no little interest for the geo- graphical education of the public through the medium of “tables d’orientation’’ erected on favourite view- points. The Touring-Club de France, an organisa- tion the name of which most travellers through France have daily cause to bless, has placed on such points indicators directing the visitor to the names of salient natural features visible from where he stands; thereto bare facts, such as the heights of mountains, are added. These M. Glangeaud proposes to amplify with inscriptions of some twenty lines indicating in a manner readily intelligible the natural forces which Such June 6, 1912] an inscription has already been set up on the Banne d’Ordenche, a viewpoint above the valley of the Dordogne; it explains briefly that the Banne itself is a volcanic neck, and indicates its relation to the | volcanic system of the Auvergne generally, most of the members of which are visible from it. The in- scription is stated greatly to interest those who ascend | the Banne. ‘Tables d’orientation”’ are rare in our own country; there is no organisation specially con- cerned to provide them, but if such as exist were equipped with explanations of the scenery on M. Glangeaud’s lines, they would probably become objects of pilgrimage not only for tourists, but for students and school classes. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. Lonpon. Royal Society, May 23.—Sir Archibald Geilsie, K.C.B., president, in the chair.—H. S. Hele-Shaw:: Theory of a new form of the chamber crank chain. The paper commences by showing in what way the mechanism is derived from the ordinary type of crank mechanism, its various phases being indicated diagrammatically. One feature of the mechanism, which is of practical importance, is that the crank is fixed, and so a variable stroke can be obtained by very simple means. The new feature of properties, is the employment of what is called ‘“‘a floating guide ring.”” This device largely reduces the friction of the contrivance when working under high pressures.—Prof. R. A. Sampson: A new treatment of optical aberration. A method is developed by which Gauss’s method of relating original and emergent rays in a coaxial optical system v=Bx+b,) v’=B'x'+-b', Z=yx+c, | sire, |) by means of a transformation, b’=Gb+H8, 8’=Kb+L8, c'=Gc+Hy, y'=Kce+Ly, where GL—HK=z/yn'=N, may be applied so as to include the aberrations of the third order. The method is adequate for the numerical calculation of telescopic objectives, and offers a remarkable economy in the work hitherto necessary.—Sir W. de W. Abney: The extinction of light by an illuminated retina. In this communication the author describes an apparatus adapted for illuminating the retina with known amounts of light, coloured or white, and for extinguishing the sensation of the light in the different colours of the spectrum. Confining himself to the stimulation of the retina by white light only, he shows the movement in the spectrum of the rays requiring the maximum amount of diminution to extinguish their light according as the retina is more or less illuminated.—Dr. W. Wahl: Optical deter- minations at high pressures. Diagram of state of carbon tetrabromide.—The melting point of CBr, is raised 1° by a pressure of 16 kg. cm.? The transi- tion point from monoclinic to regular crystal form is raised 1° by 32 kg. cm.* The melting-point curve and the transition-point curve do not, therefore, inter- sect at high pressures to form a “‘triple point.’ In consequence, the monoclinic form of carbon tetra- bromide cannot be caused to melt at any temperature or pressure whatever. Diagram of .state of a-B- dibrompropionic acid.—Two modifications of the acid are known, a stable one melting at: 64° and an unstable melting at 51°.. The unstable modification is not spontaneously transformed into the stable one so readily as in most other cases of: ‘‘monotropy,” NO. 2223, VOL. 89] the — group. The addition of another solvent to these mechanism, which results in somewhat remarkable | solutions causes a slow disappearance of the lines NATURE Be and as only very small quantities are employed for these optical determinations, it has been possible to determine the melting-point curve of the unstable modification also. During isothermal melting of the unstable modification the pressure may be reduced as much as about r50 kg. cm.* below the true melt- ing-point pressure before melting takes place rapidly. This pressure difference corresponds to a superheat ing of 25°. The melting point of the stable modifi- cation is raised 1° by a pressure of 51-3 kg. cm.? _ The difference between the absolute melting points of the two polymorphic modifications is at any pressure similar to the difference between the absolute melting points at ordinary pressure.—T. R. Merton: The changes. in certain absorption spectra in different solvents. (1) The absorption spectra of uranous chloride in a number of organic solvents have been measured quantitatively, the results indicating that the differences cannot be considered as a shift of the bands, since the entire character and intensity of the absorption varies in different solvents. (2) The apparent gradual shifts observed when one acid radicle is replaced by another can be simply explained by the superposition of absorption curves, and evidence has been found in support of this explana- tion. (3) A’ marked change in the character of the absorption has been found in the presence of free acid, more especially in solvents containing a ketone | without shift, in accordance with the results of Jones and Strong. (4) The influence of pressures up to 750 atmospheres on the absorption spectra of solu- _ tions has -been investigated with negative results.— | The viscosity of carbon dioxide is W. C. Ball: Changes in the absorption spectra of ‘‘didymium ”’ salts. The absorption spectra given by aqueous solutions of ‘‘didymium”’ salts, such as the nitrate, chloride, &c., were observed to be consider- ably altered by sodium hypcsulphate, Na,S,O,, the lines and bands being altered in position, width, and intensity. These alterations were found to be in- dependent of any reducing action of the very strongly reducing hyposulphite, but to be connected with changes in the ionisation of the didymium ; for similar effects on the spectra of the didymium salt of strong acids were produced under conditions likely to diminish such ionisation.—Dr. PP. Phillips: The viscosity of carbon dioxide. In this experiment the method of determining the viscosity is that described before the society by A. O. Rankine in January, 1910. determined for temperatures of 20°, 30°, 32°, 35°, and 40° C., and for a range of pressures from 1 to 120 atmospheres. When the viscosity is plotted against the pressure, the form of the isothermals is very similar to the form of the density-pressure isothermals, but the former cross, whereas the latter do not. When the kinematic viscosity is plotted against ihe pressure, it is noticed that at the saturation pressure the kine- matic viscosity of the gas is the same as that of the liquid. The minimum value of the kinematic vis- cosity being approximately o-co069 at 30°, 32°, and at 35° C., this is taken as the critical value of the kine- matic ‘viscosity, and therefore multiplying it by the critical density, 0-464, the critical value of the co- efficient, of viscosity is found to be 0-000320. When | the. viscosity is plotted against the square of the density it is found that, for a considerable range of density ‘near to the critical point, the viscosity is a linear function of the square of the density. This would seem to show that the viscosity is proportional to the molecular attraction between two adjacent layers of the fluid, that is, to the a/y? term in Van der Waals’s equation. 364 NATURE [JUNE 6, ‘1912 Zoological Society, May 21.—Sir Edmund G. Loder, Bt., vice-president, in the chair.—Major J. Stevenson Hamilton: The local races of Burchell’s zebra. The author pointed out that it was possible to shoot in | one herd individuals presenting the characters of various subspecies as described by systematists. In the Transvaal, for example, he obtained skins exhibit- ing features claimed to be distinctive of such races — as E. burchelli wahlbergi, E. b. transvaalensis, and E. b. chapmanni; and from his experience he ex- | pressed the opinion that these subspecies had been based upon inadequate museum material.—Dr. William Nicoll: Two new trematode larve found encysted in enormous numbers in the mesentery of several striped snakes (Tropidonotus ordinatus sirtalis)—Dr. W. T. Calman: A new genus and species of the crustacean order Branchiura.—G. A. Boulenger : Second contribution to our knowledge of the varieties of the wall-lizard. This paper was a continuation of one published in the society’s Trans- actions in 1905, and dealt chiefly with the variations of Lacerta muralis in south-eastern Europe and south- | western Asia. It also contained a supplement to the first part, thus completing an account of the varieties, of which about thirty were regarded as more or less definable, the author endeavouring to show the in- constancy of the characters adduced by some herpeto- logists in assigning specific rank to a number of these forms, connected by many gradations.—Sir Charles Eliot: The rare British nudibranch Hancockia eudactylota, Gosse. EDINBURGH. Royal Society, May 6.—Sir William Turner, K.C.B., president, in the chair.—Dr. J. G. Gray: Walking and climbing gyrostats and novel illustrations of gyrostatic action; and, in conjunction with George Burnside ; Motor-spun gyrostats and accessories for demonstration of the properties and practical appli- cations of the gyrostat. New models of gyrostats were described, and a number of curious experiments shown in illustration of their behaviour.—G. H. Gulliver : The effect of vibration upon the structure of alloys. The paper gave an account of the microscopic changes produced in certain alloys by the application of a few millions of light blows. The changes were in the direction of an increased size of crystal, and to a less marked degree in the direction of chemical homogeneity, resembling the alterations due to annealing.—H. Levy: The singular solutions of partial differential equations of the first order. May 13.—Dr. Horne, F.R.S., vice-president, in the chair.—Dr. B. N. Peach: Report on rock specimens dredged by the Michael Sars in i910, by H.M.S. Triton in 1882, and by H.M.S. Knight Errant in 1880. The stones, which were obtained from various places in the North Atlantic, were for the most part glaciated. Those which were found in the globi- gerina ooze were probably deposited from floating ice, and came originally from the west of Scotland and the north and west of Ireland. Those found in stony clay were probably deposited by land ice. They probably came from the north of Scotland and from Orkney and Shetland.—Dr. A. A. Lawson; Chromo- some reductions in plants: a study of the changes which occurred in cells which ultimately became pollen cells.—Dr. F. A. Bather: Caradocian Cystidea from Girvan. The specimens were the property of Mrs. Robert Gray. Eight species were described, and. these fell into two limited groups. In both groups there was evidence of a similar gradual modification to accord with the same mode of life. This modification consisted in a change from the erect habit of a typical pelmatozoan attached to the sea floor by its stem to a free-moving habit, accom- NO. 2223, VOL. 89] panied by a superinduced bilateral symmetry. This mode of life appeared suited to a. littoral environ- ment; and the Girvan fossil bed seems to have be n part.of a highway skirting the Atlantic basin, along which forms were slowly migrating in each direction from east to west and from west to east, meeting on the way, and becoming modified as they passed. Paris. Academy of Sciences, May 28.—M. Lippmann in the chair.—Paul Sabatier and M. Murat: The preparation of phenyleyclohexane and dicyclohexyl: the direct hydrogenation of diphenyl. Starting with 1: 1- phenyleyclohexanol, this is converted by means of phenylmagnesium bromide into 1: 1-phenyleyclo- hexene; the latter can be reduced to phenylcyclo- hexane without difficulty by hydrogen in the presence of reduced nickel. Dicyclohexyl is prepared by a similar method starting with 1: 1-cyclohexylcyclo- hexanol, and can also be obtained by the direct re- duction of diphenyl by the Sabatier and Senderens method.—Ch. Gallissot: Photometric and _ colori- metric observations of the new star in the Twins made at the Observatory of Lyons.—The secretary announced the death of Eduard Strasburger, corre- spondant for the section of botany.—M. Luizet: The variations in brilliancy and colour of the new star in the Twins proved at the Observatory. of Lyons. There is a general resemblance between the new star in the Twins and that in the constellation of Perseus; the changes in brilliancy and colour are less regular in the former than in the latter.—Costa Lobo: The kinematographic registration of the eclipse of April 17.. These results tend to show that the eclipse was total at the point of observation in the direction of motion of the moon, but. annular in a perpen- dicular direction. The figures can be explained by assuming a flattening of 12 kilometres on the moon’s diameter.—G. Demetresco: A new variable star. During the examination of a negative (taken by P. Henry in i900) for statistical purposes it was noticed that there was a star of which the three images were unequal. Further negatives of the same region have proved that this star is variable.—M. Rouyer: Surfaces of constant curvature.—Patrick Browne; Some functional equations.—Paul Lévy : Green’s function relative to the cylinder of revolution. —M. Duchéne: Concerning an apparatus, called Tourne-Sol, designed to facilitate the observation of the ground from an aéroplane.—F. Croze: Contribu- tion to the study of the Zeeman phenomenon in the spectra of hydrogen and nitrogen.—L. Riéty: The difference of contact potential of glass and an electrolyte—H. Pélabon: Selenide batteries. The battery is made up consisting of metal, a saturated solution of a salt of this metal, and a bar of an alloy of the metal and selenium. The electromotive forces of such cells were studied for the cases of silver, lead, copper, and tin. The resulting data confirm the con- clusions drawn from a study of the fusibility of the same series of alloys.—A. Blondel; The oscillations of alternators.—H.-Pecheux: An attempt at the deter- mination of some atomic weights. A comparison of the amounts of silver, lead, copper, and zinc deposited electrolytically by the same current.—Albert Colson : The necessity of revising the law of mass action and of homogeneous equilibria.n—Ph. A. Guye, G. Kovacs, and E. Wourtzel: The weight of a normal litre of atmospheric air at Geneva. Slight variations of density from day to day were observed, and corre- sponding with this the proportion of oxygen was also found. to vary, 20:93 and 21-04 per cent. being the limiting values found.—Jacques Duclaux: The mechanism of coagulation. The coagulation of ‘starch. Exposure of June €, mo? | colloidal spiutong is Boidnes by the author as due | to osmotic phenomena.—Jean Bielecki and René Wurmser: The action of the ultra-violet rays on starch to the light from a Cooper Hewitt lamp caused a reduction of the rotatory power. Dextrins, ducing sugars, pentoses, formaldehyde, and some acids were detected in the solution.—Mme. Paul Lemoine: Calcareous alge collected during the Chareot Expedition, 1908-10.—Mme. Phisalix: The natural immunity of the hedgehog towards the poison of Heloderma suspectum. The immunity of the hedgehog against the poison of the lizard is due to the resistance of its cells; it is a cytological immunity. —Ch. Gravier: The Pterobranchs described by the second French Antarctic Expedition, and a parasitic crustacean on one of them.—E. Bataillon: New analytical researches-on the experimental partheno- genesis of amphibians.—A. Trillat and M. Fouassier : Study of the properties of a distillate from a culture of B. proteus upon the vitality of micro-organisms.— L. Lematte: The estimation of mono- and bi-metallic phosphates in the presence of organic compounds of acid nature. Evaluation of the total urinary acidity. —R. Fosse: Syntheses of urea by oxidation of ammonia and the carbohydrates, of glycerol, and of formaldehyde.—Gabriel Bertrand and F. Medigre- ceanu: The presence and the distribution of man- ganese in the organs of animals. With the exception of white of egg of birds, manganese has been found in all the organs_and in. all-the animal products_ex- amined.—J. Deprat : NATURE on 20 solutions of highly purified | re- | The discovery of the Ordovician | with Trinucleus and the Dinantian in North Annan, | and on the general. geology of this region.—E. Rothé: The possible influence of solar radiations on the propagation of Hertzian waves. A study of the intensity of wireless signals during the recent eclipse of the sun.—Albert Turpain: The influence of the eclipse of the sun of April 17, 1912, on the propagation of electric waves.—M. de Montessus de Ballore: The non-existence of isoseistic curves. CaLcutra. Asiatic Society of Bengal, May 1.—Dr. Annandale : Frogs and. snakes from the Abor foot-hills. The collection exhibited forms a very interesting addition to our knowledge of the fauna of the Himalayas, illustrating a district (the eastern extremity of the great range) hitherto almost unknown. Specimens in habits, were obtained, and of these more than a third are new to science, while several (notably | (London : 5 Geers os of at least twenty species of frogs, mostly arboreal | Seo DOC: species of the two peculiar Burmese genera Chirixalus | and Phrynoderma) are of considerable interest from a geographical point of view. No fewer than twenty- three kinds of snakes were obtained, including three apparently new to science, one of which represents a hitherto undescribed genus.—S. W. Kemp: Speci- mens of Peripatus from’ the lower Abor hills. Peri- | patus is a very primitive arthropod which shows relationships with both worms and insects. It had | not previously been found within the limits of the Indian Empire nor, in the eastern hemisphere, in any locality north of the Malaya Peninsula. The specimens from the Abor country show some affinity with those from the latter region, but they evidently represent a species hitherto undescribed.—W. Kirk- patrick : of European Gypsies or Romnichal and colloquial Hindustani. Although the linguistic test is not an infallible test of pedigree, it seems possible to account for the similarity of Romnichal or the language of European Gypsies and colloquial Hindustani by the fact that the Gypsy folk of Europe came originally NO. 2223, VOL. 89| A comparative vocabulary of the language | _ tory for National from India. The Gypsy w Swords given in the vocabu- | lary show in most -cases an obvious identity with Hindustani. The Gypsy terminal or affix Engro or Mengro corresponds to the Hindustani Walléh.— D. N. Mallik: Note on the secular cooling of the earth and a problem in conduction of heat. BOOKS RECEIVED. A Handbook of Nursing. By M. N. Oxford. Sixth edition. Pp. vili+319. (London: Methuen and Co., Ltd.) 3s. 6d. net. Les Nomogrammes de l’Ingénieur. By R. S. | de la Garza. Pp. xii+195+Ixxxv plates. (Paris: Gauthier-Villars.) 12 francs. Tierpsychologisches Praktilkum in Dialogform. By Prof. K. C. Schneider. Pp. iii+719. (Leipzig : Veit & Co.) 16 marks. : : Mémoires Scientifiques: I. Sciences Exactes dans VAntiquité,- 1876-1884. By P. Tannery, J. L.. Hei- berg, and H. G. Zeuthen. Pp.-xix +466. . (Toulouse: . E. Privat ;.Paris: Gauthier-Villars.) 15 francs. Fossilrekonstruktionen. By Dr. F. Kénig. Pp.° 7o+10 plates. (Mtinchen: E. Dultz & Co.) Smithsonian Institution, U.S. National Museum. Report on the Progress and Condition of the U.S. National Museum for the Year ending June 30,-1911.- Pp. . 147. (Washington: » Government - Printing Office.) . Report of the Commissioner of Education for the Year ended June 30,-19rt.. Vol: i. Pp... xviii+675 (Washington : Government Printing Office.) Diary of Birds’ Nests and Eggs. Pp. iii+-22 pp. of ruled paper. (London: Hugh ‘Rees, Ltd.) Concrete Costs. ‘By Dr. F. W. Taylor and. S. E. Thompson. Pp. xxii+709. (New York: J. Wiley and Sons; London: Chapman and Hall, Ltd.) 2t1s. net. . : Chemical Research in its Bearings on National Welfare (incorporating ’a lecture delivered by Prof. Emil Fischer in Berlin, January 11, 1910). Pp. 80. S.P:@.K.))j-1s. 6d. The Dynamics of Particles, and of Rigid, Elastic, and Fluid Bodies: being’ Lectures on Mathematical Physics. By Prof..A.-G. Webster. Second edition. Pp. xii+588.. (Leipzig: B. G. Teubner; New York: London: Williams and Norgate.) 14s. net. Memoirs of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences. Vol. iii. March, 1911: A Study of Chiriquian Antiquities. By Dr. G. G. MacCurdy. Pp. xx+249+xlix. (New Haven, Conn.: Yale Un- versity Press.) Problems in Practical Chemistry for Students. By G. F. Hood. Pp. vi+265. Mills and Boon, Ltd.) 5s University of London. Francis Galton Labor- Eugenics. Eugenics Laboratory :—Treasury of Human Inheritance. By J. Bell. Advanced (London : Memoirs, XVI. Name and Subject Indices to Vol. i. Pp. xiv+575-591. (London: Dulau and (Comers) 3s. net. The Cinematograph and Natural Science. By L | Donaldson. Pp. 88. (London: Ganes, Ltd.) 2s. net. Advanced Calculus. By Prof. E. B. Wilson. Pp. By ix+566. (Boston, New York, Chicago, and London : Ginn and Co.) 20s. net. Elements of the Differential and Integral Calculus. Dr. W. A. Granville. ‘Revised edition with the 3€% NAT? editorial covpeanen ide Prof. P. F. Smith. Pp. xv+ 463. - (Boston, New York, Chicago, and London: Ginn and Co.) tos. 6d. Lectures on the Theory of Functions Variables. By Prof. J. Pierpont. Vol. ii. Pp. xiiit+645. (Boston, New York, Chicago, and London: Ginn and Co.) 20s. net. Hortus Mortolensis Enumeratio Plantarum in Horto Mortolensi Cultarum. Alphabetical Catalogue of Plants Growing in the Garden of the late Sir Thomas Hanbury, K.C.V.O., F.L.S., at La Mortola, Ventimiglia, Italy. By IN Berger. Pp. .xxiv+ 468+vi plates. (London: West, Newman and Co.) 4s. and 5s. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections. Vol. 59, No. 1:—The Natives of Kharga Oasis, Egypt. By Dr. A. Hrdlitka. Pp. vi+118+38 plates. (Wash- ington: Smithsonian Institution.) The Vulgate Version of the Arthurian Romances. Edited from the Manuscripts in the British Museum by H. O. Sommer. Vol. v. Le Livre de Lancelot del lac. Part iii. Pp. 474. (Washington: Carnegie Institution.) Guide to the Manuscript Materials relating to American History in the German State Archives. By Prof. M. D. Learned. Pp. vii+352. (Washington : Carnegie Institution.) A Physical Study of the Firefly. lentz. Pp. 46+plate. (Washington : tution.) Verhandlungen der By W. W. Cob- Carnegie Insti- Schweizerischen Naturfor- schenden Gesellschaft. 94 Jahresversammlung vom 30 Juli bis 2 August 1911 in Solothurn. Band i. Pp. vili+297. Band ii. Pp. viiit+263+164. (Aarau: H. R. Sauerlander & Cie.) 7 frances and 3 francs. Agricultural Education in the Public Schools. By Prof. B. M. Davis. Pp. vii+163. (Chicago: Uni- versity of Chicago Press ; Cambridge: University Press.) 4s. net. Bibliography of the Mineral Wealth and Geology of China. By Chung Yu Wang. Pp. 63. (London : C. Griffin and Co., Ltd.) _3s.. net. Anthropologie Anatomique. Crane-Face-Téte sur le Vivant. By Dr. G. Paul-Boncour. Pp. xix +396. (Paris: O. Doin et Fils.) 5. francs. Commercial Guide to the Forest Economic Pro- ducts of India. By R. S. Pearson. - Pp. ix+155+ xiii. (Calcutta: Superintendent Government Print- ing.) 1s. 6d. IIAARY OF SOCIETIES. THURSDAY, June 6. Rovat Society, at 4.30.—Croonian Lecture: The Process of Excitation in Nerve and Muscle: Keith Lucas. Royat InstituTion, at 3.—On X-Rays and Matter: Prof. C. G. Barkla. InsTITUTION OF MintnG ENGINEERS. at 11 a m.—Address by President : W. E. Garforth.—Why Leave Shaft-pillars? W. H. and B. H. Pickering. —Safety-devices in Connection with Electrical Machinery and Appliances for Coal- -mines: D. Bowen and W. E. French.—A Rope-driven Coal- cutter: W. L. Spence. Taeenn Society, at 8.—The Development of the Cod, Gadus morrhua, Linn. : Prof. A. Mrek.—Lantern-slides of Orchids recently observed in Suseex: E. J. Bedford.—Palzontographical relations of Antarctica; C. Hedley.—Lantern-slides illustrating the Fauna and Flora of the Falkland Islands: R. Vallentin. FRIDAY, June 7. Roya Institution, at 9.—Lord Lister: Sir William Macewen. SATURDAY, June 8. Rovat InsTITUTION, at 3.—The Weather and the Utilities of Forecasts: Willis L. Moore. MONDAY, June 10. Rovyar. Grocrapuicat Society, at 8.30.—The Garden of Eden: Sir William Willcocks, K.C.M.G. NO. 2223, VOL. 89] [June 6, 1912 TUESDAY, June 11. RovaL ANTHROPOLOGICAL INSTITUTE, at 8.15.—Excavations in’ the Coldoun, Ancient Stone Monuments and Description of Human Remains: F. J. Bennett and Dr. A. Keith. WEDNESDAY, June 12. AERONAUTICAL SOCIETY, ut 8.30.—Hydro-aéroplanes : G. Holt Thomas. THURSDAY, June 13. Royal. Society, at 4.30.—Prolable Papers: A Chemically Active Modi- fication of Nitrogen, produced by the Electric Discharge, IV..: Hon. R. J. Strutt, F.R.S$.—(1) On the Series Lines in the Arc Spectrum of aa (2) On the Constitution of the Mercury Green Line A=546r AU and on the Magnetic Resolution of its Satellites by an Echelon Grating: Prof. J. C. McLennan.—(1) On the Convergence of certain Series involving the Fourier Constants of a Function. (2) On Classes of Summable Functions and their Fourier Series : Prof. W. H, Young, F.R.S- —The Number of 8 Particles emitted in the Transformation of Radium : H. G. Y. Moseley.—Portland Experiments on the Flow of Oil: S. D. Carothers.—On a Form of the Solution of Laplace's Equation suitable for Problems relating to two Spheres: GB. Jeffery.—On the Emission Velocities of Photo-Electrons: A. Ll. Hughes. FRIDAY, June 14. Rovat Institution, at 9.—Unknown Parts of South America: A. He Savage Landor. Gro.oaists’ AssociaTIon, at 8.—The Geology of West Mayo and Sire with special reference to the August Long Excursion: Prof. A. J. Cole. Roya ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY, at 5. Puysicat Society, at 8.—Demonstration of a Method of Determining very small Differences of Density: T. H. Blakesley.--The Maximum Sensibility of a Duddell Vibration Galvanometer: Dr. F. H. Haworth.— An Accurate Examination of the Steinmetz Index for Transformer Iron, Stalloy and Cast Iron: F. Stroude. MALAcoLoGcicaL Society, at 8.—On a collection of Molluscs collected by Mr. E. Jacobson in Java: M. M. Schepman.—Description of Thirty- three New Species of Gastropoda from the Persian Gulf, Gulf of Oman, and Arabian Sea: J. Cosmo Melvill.—Note on the™ Generic Name Pectunculus : Wm. H. Dall.—Note on Ianthina species: Tom Iredale.— Egyptian Non-marine Molluscs: Maxwell Smith. CONTENTS. PAGE Technical Chemical Analysis ..... it am The Ancestry of Flowering Plants ....... 342 Physical Text-books . perme ha) SUS, The Testing of Building Stones A hy eh ee ae OurpgBookshelf) |. (heat apo eS Letters to the Editor :— Discovery of Fossils in the Chert and Black Shale | Series at Aberfoyle.-—Dr. Thomas J. Jehu ~ S47: The Protection of Nature in South Bavaria. —Dr. C. Ciprosseus .-: = 347 A Simple Eclipse Experiment _Ww,. G. Royal: Dawson : “ee . 347 Solar Halos on May 17. C50) “Bartrum . mate 348) Earthquake of May 23.—Rev. W. Sidgreaves, Sa 348; ' Anatomy of the Bee’s Sting.—Dr. Percy E. pik mann. . -f aehebtoe CaS) Clouds.and Shadows.—Dr. T.C. Porter, 2) 4am 348 Red Water.—Cyril Crossland... . + ies SRS GOF Zoological Nomenclature. — Prof. Sydney J. Hickson, F.R.S. = 5 eee, The Dundee Meeting of the Britich ‘Association. By Prof. D’Arcy W. Thompson, C.B....... 349 m@hesCeylon Pearl. Fishery) tangs) -) =) i.e 5 WOfeSierne. Sold 6 eC oo GE Our Metonomical Column — The Solar Eclipse of April 17. (Zé/estrated.) . . . 355 Origin of the ‘‘ Earth Light <. ~ . roe © SOS ‘bhewMinor Planet 1orr Mies. 2) lee hO The Royal Observatory, Greenwich ..... 356 Eighteenth International Congress of Americanists. By Dr, A. C. Haddon, F.R.S... .. 2h 357 The Annual Conference of the pecociation of Teachers in Technical Institutions : 1. 358 The Crystallisation of Metals. (Wiustrated.) By DruCecil Hy Desch --. = . 2 4359) Sinhalese Iron and Steel of Aucians Gein Us trated.) By Sir Robert Hadfield, F.R.S.... . 360 University and Educational Intelligence .. . . +. 362 Societies’and) Academies!) Sasa geerae) «i. vals sO BooksmReceivedt “soc ueememrcne) ou” cong OS DianyjofiSocieties . “: ) 4 0) Maem tess) oe oor AY WEEKLY ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL OF: SCIENCE/; ‘To the solid ground Of Nature trusts the mind which builds for aye. "_ WORDSWORTH. No. 2224, VoL. 80] _ Registered BS | a Newspaper a at fie Gaiain Post ‘Post Office.) ] OPTICAL CONVENTION, Science Museum, S. Kensington, June 19-26, For the most up-to-date Optical Lanterns and Apparatus, Tele- scopes, Field Glasses, Sundials, and other Scientific Instruments of British manufacture, see our Exhibit at the above Convention. NEWTON & Co., By Royal Warrant to H.M. the King, 72 WIGMORE STREET, W. STUDY It is the Key to Success in Photography. Who can expect to excel who does not understand how to use the diaphragm, the swing back, the rising front, focussing scale, &c., &e.? All such questions are lucidly and simply explained in “PHOTOGRAPHIC LENSES : A SIMPLE TREATISE.” 350 pages, 44 plates, illustrations, numerous diagrams and cloth bound. R. dep GCK, Ltd fo. SOBs ace, __ THURSDAY, _JUNE ioe 1912 | [PRICE SIXPENCE _ _ {All Rights ‘Reserved. REYNOLDS & BRANSON, Ltd., Manufacturers of Chemical Ae Physical Apparatus. GRAND PRIX AWARD, TURIN, 1911. — ” ELECTROSCOPE. This insulator, remains charged for at least Electroscope, with paraffin a day, and has been used with the greatest satisfaction in many secondary schools for the A customer states that the batch of two last ten years. dozen, obtained two years previously, has in efficient condition during that time. remained (a) Price with attachment for two Wires and top re-) S/- each. movable for cleaning the glasses .. (6) Ditto, with two glass tubes for showing the leak- \ 5/6 each. age caused by a radio-active gas. (ec) Ditto, with transparent scale, lecturer's pattern, 1 for projection of image of Bole leaf and scale by means of a lantern.. : F i 14 COMMERCIAL STREET, LEEDS. 7/6 each. The finest quality and latest improvements are enibodred THE LENS | NEGRETTI & ZAMBRA’S Equatorial f Telescopes. New Illustrated Price List will be sent post free to any part of the world. NEGRETTI & ZAMBRA, Holborn Viaduct, London, E.C. Branches: 45 Cornhill, E.C. \ ‘ 122 Regent St., W. } exlvili NATURE [JuNE 13, 1912 CITY AND GUILDS TECHNICAL COLLEGE, FINSBURY. (LEONARD STREET, CITY ROAD.) For students who are preparing to become engineers or chemists, and for engineering pupils who desire to supplement their practical training by a two years’ course in the principles of engineering science. The instruction is mainly given in the various laboratories. The subjects of the Entrance Examination are Mathematics and English; but the Matriculation of any British University is accepted instead. The Courses in Mechanical and Electrical Engineering cover a period of two years, and those in Chemistry three years. There are arrangements also for three-year courses in Engineer- ing for those who desire. Fees £20 per annum. PROFESSORS : SILvanus P. Tuomeson, D.Sc., Electrical Enginecring F.R.S. (Principal of the O70 P/O STG ees College). Mechanical Engineering {E. G. Coxer, M.A., D.Sce., and Mathematics ...\\ M.Inst.M.E. fRAPHAEL MeELpoLA, D.Sce., Te Walesa ING ECs City and Guilds of London Institute, (Temporary Offices during the re-building of Gresham College), 3 St. Helen’s Place, E.C. Chemistry EAST LONDON COLLEGE. (UNIVERSITY OF LONDON.) Patrron—HIS MAJESTY THE KING. Classics ... F. R. Earp, M.A. English H. Bettoc, M.A. French : Mina PAgQuier. German ... J. Steppat, Ph.D. History eA Tuomas Seccomese, M.A. Mathematics... Tue PRINCIPAL. Physics C. H. Legs, D.Sc., F.R.S. Chemistry J. T. Hewitt, D.Sc., F.R.S. Botany 5 & F. E. Fritscu, D.Sc. Geology .. ec ae Fen W. L. Carrer, M.A. Civil and Mechanical D. A. Low, M.I.M.E J. T. Morris, M.LE E. Engineering sh a0 Electrical Engineering Fees moderate. Company. Special facilities for Post-Graduate and Research Students. Particulars of fees, courses of study, &c., on application to the ReGisTRAR, or to J. L. S. HATTON, M.A., Principal, at the College. Valuable Entrance Scholarships awarded by Drapers UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER. COURSES IN AGRICULTURE. Complete Courses of Instruction in Agriculture are given by the Uni- * versity of Manchester in conjunction with the College of Agriculture and Horticulture of the Cheshire County Council at Holmes Chapel. These Cvcurses include lectures and laboratory work in Chemistry, Physics, and Biology, as well as Special Courses in Agriculture and Estate Management, Agricultural Chemistry, Agricultural Botany, Agricultural Zoology (including Entomology). For particulars and prospectus of these Courses, and of the conditions leading to the Degree of B.Sc. in Agriculture given by the University, and the Diploma in Agriculture given by the College of Agriculture, apply to the Registrar of the University. The AERIAL GRAPHOSCOPE.—Invented by ERIC STUART BRUCE, M.A. Oxon., F.R. Met. Soc. Producing Lantern Picture in space and bold relief without any screen, and weird scientific ghost effects and visions. The most effective instrument dev'sed for showing the effects of persistence of vision to large audiences New table form of this unique instrument now ready, admirably sumed for class demonstration at Schools and Colleges—For particuiars address E. S. Bruce, Esq., 53 Victoria Street, Westminster, S.W. EGYPTIAN GOVERNMENT SCHOOLS. WANTED, in October, for the following posts under the Ministry of Education :— I. KHEDIVIAL TRAINING COLLEGE, CAIRO. MASTER OF METHOD. Salary about £430 per annum (L.Eg. 35 per mensem), rising to about 4554 per annum (L.Eg. 45 per mensem) on pensionable staff. Allow- ance for passage out to Egypt. Candidates must be under 35 years of age, and have taken a Mathe- matical or Science Degree with Honours and a Diploma in Teaching. Experience in Training of Teachers an essential qualification. II. SECONDARY SCHOOLS. (2) ART MASTER. (6) SCIENCE MASTERS (Experimental Physics and Chemistry). These appointments are under contract. L=-ngth of engagement, two years. Salary, £369 per_annum (L.Eg.30 per mensem). Allowance for passag? out to Egypt and for return at close of contract. (). TEACHERS OF ENGLISH. Salary, £295 per annum (L.Eg. 24 per mensem), rising to 6393 per annum (L.Eg. 32 per mensem), on pensionable staff. Allow- ance for passage out to Egypt. Candidates must be from about 24 to 30 years of age, and un- married. Those applying for Art Mastership must hold the Art Master's Certificate, or its equivalent, and must have experience in class teaching in a Secondary School. Other applicants must have taken a University Degree with Honours, and have experience as Teachers. Four lessons daily, on an average, Fridays only excepted, Summer vacation not less than two months. Inquiries tor further information, and applications giving particulars as to age, school, college, class of degree, experience in teaching, should be addres:ed, with copies only of testimonials, not later than June 30, ror2, to J. W. Crowroor, Esq., c/o The Director, the Egyptian Educational Mission in England, 36 Victoria Street, Westminster, London, S.W. Selected candidates will be interviewed in London. UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE. FORESTRY COMMITTEE. The Forestry Committee are prepared to appoint an ADVISER IN FORESTRY, whose duties will commence on October 1, 1912. The appointment will be for three years. The chief duty of the Adviser will be to supply to landowners and others, in a group of counties in the east of England, advice on the management of their woods and planta- tions. He will also be required to study in detail local conditions in all matters pertaining to Forestry. It is essential that the Adviser be well acquainted with the practice and theory of Forestry both at home and abroad. Joy. 4 Se a 5 The salary attached to the post is £300 a year, and as the Adviser will be expected to travel extensively in the district, his travelling expenses will be defrayed by the Forestry Committee. Pa wid Applications, accompanied by copies of testimonials (of which latter not more than three are required), should be sent to The Secretary, School of Agriculture, Cambridge, to arrive not later than July 31, 1912. =e oe, CHESHIRE COUNTY COUNCIL. BOROUGH OF CREWE HIGHER EDUCATION SUB-COMMITTEE. CREWE TECHNICAL SCHOOL. APPOINTMENT OF PRINCIPAL. The Local Education Authority invite applications for the post of PRINCIPAL of the above School. Candidates must have had good Engineering Experience, together with experience in a Technical School. Powers of organisation and the ability to equip Engineering Laboratories are essential. Salary, £300 per annum. Acopy of the Form of Applica- tion (which must be returned before June 25 with particulars of education and experience, and copies of three testimonials of re ent date) may be obtained from the Secretary. H. D. STRUTHERS, Education Office, Crewe. CITY OF WORCESTER. VICTORIA INSTITUTE PUBLIC LIBRARY & MUSEUM. The Library and Museum Committee invite applications for the post of CURATOR of the Natural History Museum, at a salary of £120, rising by increments of £10, if and when approved by the Committee, to a maximum of £150 per annum. Applicants must be experienced in Classifi- cation, and possess a good general knowledge of practical Museum work. The person appointed will be required to give the whole of his time to the duties of his cffice, which will include lectures to school children. Applications stating age, qualifications, and experience, togeth2r with copies of three recent testimonials, must reach me on or before June 17 next. THOS. DUCKWORTH, Secretary. } Worcester Public Library & “ Hastings” Museum, __ May 25, 1912. ren Jun ipplem My aera NATURE ‘se: THURSDAY, JUNE 13, 1912. SCIENTIFIC WORTHIES. XXXVIII.—Dr. AtFrep RussEL WALLACE, DG.,, O.M. Bekes- la a retrospect of British biology during the ‘“ wonderful century ’’ there stand out four men whose names will endure—Lyell, Darwin, Wallace, and Galton. The first three were closely kindred spirits whose work begins and ends a great epoch. Galton marked out his own way along quite an independent line, which will be the more appreciated the more the kinship of his ideas with those of Weismann and Mendel is recognised. Now that Wallace, the sole sur- vivor of the group, has attained the ninetieth year of his age, and the sixty-fourth year of active service and productiveness, we may write of him in the spirit of the lines of Aristophanes : “Honour to the venerable man who, in the de- clining vale of years, continues to learn new subjects and add to his wisdom.”’ The distinction of endurance came to Lyell and Wallace through the readiness of each to grasp an opportunity in a revolution of thought such as can never recur, through a continued line of attack by precisely similar methods of reason- ing over an extremely broad field. When Lyell faltered, Darwin and Wallace went on. As to the closeness of the intellectual sequence between these three men, those who know the original edition of the second volume of ‘‘ The Principles of Geology,” published in 1832, find it the second! biologic classic of the century, on which Darwin, t! rough his higher and much more creative vision, Suilt up his “ Journal of Researches.’’ Lyeli and Darwin may be said to have united in guiding the mind of Wallace, because the young natural- ist, fourteen years the junior of Darwin, took the works of both his seniors with him on his journey to South America, in which his career fairly began. From his observations during twelve years of life in the tropics, he will be remem- | bered not only as one of the independent dis- coverers of the theory of natural selection, but next to Darwin as one of the great naturalists of the century. astounding in these days of specialism. His main lines of thought, although in many in- stances suggested somewhat suddenly, were 1 Lamarck’s *‘‘ Philosophie Zoologique,”’ published in regarded as the first biologic classic of the century. NO. 2224, VOL. 89] 1809, may be His range and originality are | | for the first time for him the zoological windows | developed and presented in a deliberate and masterly way through a series of papers and books. Nature and nurture conspire to form a naturalist. Predisposition, an opportune period, and a happy series of events favoured Alfred Russel Wallace. He was born January 8, 1823, in Usk, Monmouthshire, of remote Scotch and Huguenot and of immediate English ancestry. His school life was uninspiring, and he feels that he owed more of his real education to the culti- vating influence of his home in Hertford. At sixteen we find him as a land surveyor in Bed- fordshire, also making his first observations on plants, and these early and serious studies in botany, continuing for four years, prepared him for the plant wonders of the tropics. At the age of twenty-one he came to London. He after- ward regarded his difficulty in obtaining employ- ment as the first turning point in his career, ‘‘ for otherwise,’’ he writes, ‘‘it seems very unlikely that I should ever have undertaken what at that time seemed rather a wild scheme, a journey to the almost unknown forests of the Amazon in order to observe nature and make a living by collecting.’”’ He also gives us, in his autobio- graphic volumes of 1905, ‘‘My Life, A Record of Events and Opinions,’’ of his state of mind at this time. an interesting sketch ““T do not think that at this formative period I could be said to have shown special superiority in any of the higher mental faculties, but I pos- sessed a strong desire to know the causes of things, a great love of beauty in form and colour, and a considerable but not excessive desire for order and arrangement in whatever I had to do. If I had one distinct mental faculty more promin- ent than another it was the power of correct reasoning from a review of the known facts in any case to the causes or laws which produced them, and also in detecting fallacies in the reason- ing of other persons.’’ The parallel between Wallace’s intellectual tendencies and environment and those of Charles Darwin is extraordinary. They enjoyed a similar current of influence from men, from books, and from nature. Thus the second turning point in | the life of Wallace was his meeting with Henry Walter Bates, through whom he acquired his zest for the wonders of insect-life which opened of nature. It is noteworthy that the greater and most original part of his direct observations of nature were upon the adaptations of insects. Both naturalists fell under the spell of the same Q Co 368 NALURE [JUNE 13, ro12 books, first and foremost those of Lyell, as noted above, then of Humboldt in his ‘‘ Personal Narra- tive’? (1814-18), of Robert Chambers in his ‘“Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation ”’ (1844), of Malthus in his ‘‘ Essay on the Principle of Population ’’’ (1798). It was, however, Dar- win’s own “‘ Journal,’’ published in 1845, and read by Wallace at the age of twenty-three, which determined him to invite Bates to accompany him on his journey to the Amazon and Rio Negro, which filled the four years 1848-52. In this wondrous equatorial expanse, like Darwin, he | was profoundly impressed with the forests, the butterflies, and birds, and with his first meeting with man in an absolute state of nature. Bates, himself a naturalist of high order, was closely observing the mimetic resemblances among insects to animate and inanimate objects and introducing Wallace to a field which was subse- quently made his own. Bates remained several years after Wallace’s departure, and published his classical memoir on mimicry in 1860-61. Wallace’s ‘‘ Narrative of Travels on the Amazon,”’ published in 1853 when he was thirty years of age, does not display the ability of his later writings, and shows that his powers were slowly developing, to reach maturity during his eight years of travel between 1854 and 1862 in the Indo-Malay islands, the Timor Group, Celebes, the Moluccas, and the Papuan Group. It is apparent that his prolonged observations on the natives, the forests, the birds, and mam- mals, and especially on the butterflies and beetles, were gradually storing his mind for one of those discharges of generalisation which comes so un- expectedly out of the vast accumulation of facts. ““The Malay Archipelago’’ of 1869, published seven years after the return, is Wallace’s ““Journal of Researches.’’ Its fine breadth of treatment in anthropology, zoology, botany, and physiography gives it a rank second only to Darwin’s ‘“‘ Journal”? in a class of works re- peatedly enriched by British naturalists from the time of Burchell’s journey in Africa. Wallace’s first trial at the evolution problem was his essay sent to the Annals and Magazine | of Natural History in 1855, entitled ‘‘ On the Law Which has Regulated the Introduction of New Species.’’ This paper suggested the when and where of the occurrence of new forms, but not the how. “It has now been shown,’’ he concludes, “though most briefly and imperfectly, how the NO. 2224, VOL. 89] law that ‘Every species has come into existence coincident both in time and space with a pre- existing closely allied species,’ connects together and renders intelligible a vast number of inde- pendent and hitherto unexplained facts.’’ In February, 1858, during a period of inter- mittent fever at Ternate, the how arose in his mind with the recollection of the ‘‘Essay”’ of Malthus, and there flashed upon him all the pos- sible effects of the struggle for existence. In two days the entire draft was sketched and posted to Darwin, who had been working upon the veri- fication of the same idea for twenty years. The noble episode which followed of the joint publica- tion of the discovery was prophetic of the con- tinued care for truth and carelessness of self, of the friendship, mutual admiration, and coopera- tion between these two high-minded men, which affords a golden example for our own and future ages. Each loved his own creations, yet under- valued his own,work; each accorded enthusiastic praise to the work of the other. This discovery again turned the course of Wallace’s life. In his autobiography he writes :— ““T had, in fact, been bitten with the passion for species and their description, and if neither | Darwin nor myself had hit upon ‘ natural selec- | new ideas swept all this away... . tion,” I might have spent the best years of my life in this comparatively profitless work, but the ‘This\ eae will perhaps enable my readers to understand the intense interest I felt in working out all these strange phenomena, and showing how they could almost all be explained by that law of ‘Natural Selection’ which Darwin had discovered many years before, and which I also had been so fortunate as to hit upon.”’ It is a striking circumstance in the history of biology that Wallace’s rapidly produced sketch of 1858 ‘* On the Tendencies of Varieties to Part Indefinitely from the Original Type’’ not only pursues a line of thought parallel to that of Darwin, except in excluding the analogy of natural with human selection, but embodies the permanent substance of the selection theory as it is to-day after fifty-four years of world-wide research. It may be regarded as his masterpiece. The attempt has been made by De Vries and others to show that Wallace in his ‘‘ Darwinism ”’ of 1889 differed from Darwin on important points, but whatever may be true of this final modi- fication of the theory, a com- parison the Darwin-Wallace sketches of 1858 shows that they both involve the principle very careful of imme ——_— hee JUNE 13, 1912] of discontinuity; in fact, fluctuation in the sense of plus and minus variation was not ‘recog- nised at the time; the notion of variation was that derived directly from field rather than from laboratory notes. The distinctive features of the later develop- ment of the theory in Wallace’s mind were his more implicit faith in it, his insistence on utility or selection value, his rejection of Lamarckism, his dependence on spontaneous variations as supply- ing all the materials for selection. This confidence appears in the following passages from his mili- tant reply in the volume of 1889 to the critics of Darwinism :—‘‘ The right or favourable varia- tions are so frequently present that the unerring power of natural selection never wants materials to work upon. . . . The importance of natural selection as the one invariable and ever-present factor in all organic change and that which can alone have produced the temporary fixity com- bined with the secular modification of species.”’ The principle of discontinuity is less clearly brought out; the selection of fluctuation is favour- ably considered. The laws and causes of varia- tion are, however, assumed rather than taken up as a subject of inquiry. These opinions of 1889 were the summation of twenty-nine years of work. ‘ The colouring of animals as observed in the tropics and the Malayan Islands was the subject in which Wallace made his most extensive and original contributions to Darwinism. Returning from the Archipelago in 1862, he published in 1864 his pioneer paper, “The Malayan Papilionide or Swallow Tailed Butterflies, as illustrative of the Theory of Natural Selection,’’ in which he at once took rank beside Bates and Miller as one of the great contributors to the colour characteristics of animals. We see him step by step developing the ideas of protective resemblance which he had fully discussed with Bates, of alluring and warn- ing colours, and of mimicry, pointing out the prevalence of mimicry in the female rather than in the male. The whole series of phenomena are believed to depend upon the great principle of the utility of every character, upon the need of colour protection by almost all animals, and upon the known fact that no characteristic is so variable as colour, that, therefore, concealment is most easily obtained by colour modification. Protec- tive resemblance in all its manifold forms has ever been dominant in his mind as a greater principle than that of the sexual selection of colour which Darwin favoured. NO. 2224, VOL. 89] NATURE 3°9 In 1867 Wallace advanced his provisional solu- tion of the cause of the gay and even gaudy colours of caterpillars as warnings of distasteful- ness in a manner which delighted Darwin; in 1868 he propounded his explanation of the colours of nesting birds, that when both sexes are con- spicuously coloured, the nest conceals the sitting bird, but when the male is conspicuously coloured and the nest is open to view, the female is plainly coloured and inconspicuous. His theory of recog- nition colours as of importance in enabling the young of birds and mammals to find their parents was set forth in 1878, and he came to regard it as of very “© Tropical great importance. In | Nature ’’ (1878) the whole subject of the colours of animals in relation to natural and sexual selec- | tion is reviewed, and the general principle is brought out that the exquisite beauty and variety of insect colours has not been developed through their own visual perceptions, but mainly and per- haps exclusively through those of the higher animals which prey upon them. This conception of colour origin, rather than that of the general influence of solar light and heat or the special action of any form of environment, leads him to his functional and biological classification of the colours of living organisms into five groups, which forms the foundation of the modern more extensive and critical classification of Poulton. Twelve years later he devoted four chapters of his ‘‘ Darwinism ”’ to the colours of animals and plants, still maintaining the utility, spontaneous variation, and selection theory. The study of geographic distribution of animals also sprang from the inspiration of the Malayan journey and from the suggestiveness of the eleventh and twelfth chapters of ‘‘ The Origin of | Species ’’ which Wallace determined to work out in an exhaustive manner. Following the pre- liminary treatises of Buffon, of Cuvier and Forbes, | and the early regional classification of Sclater, Wallace takes rank as the founder of the science of zoogeography in his two great works, ‘‘ The Geographical Distribution of Animals’’ of 1576, and ‘‘ Island Life’’ of 1881, the latter volume following the first as the result of four years of additional thought and research. His early ob- servations on insular distribution were sketched out in his article of 1860, ‘‘ The Zoological Geo- graphy of the Malayan Archipelago.’’ Here is his discovery of the Bali-Lombok boundary line between the Indian and Australian zoological regions which has since been generally known hy his name. 70 NATURE [JUNE 13, 1912 In these fundamental works Wallace appears as a disciple of Lyell in uniformitarianism, and a follower of Dana as regards the stability and permanence of continental and oceanic areas, for which he advances much original evidence. He taxes his ingenuity to discover every possible means of dispersal of animals and plants other than those which would be afforded by hypo- thetical land connections; he considers every pos- sible cause of extinction other than those which are sudden or cataclysmal. ‘‘ Island Life ’’ is in itself a great contribution, the starting point of all modern discussion of insular faunas and floras. The conservative theory of dispersal is applied in an original way to explain the arctic element in the mountain regions of the tropics, as opposed to the low-temperature theory of tropical lowlands during the Glacial Period; his explanation is founded on known facts as to the dispersal and distribution of plants, and does not require the extreme changes in the climate of tropical low- lands during the Glacial Period on which Darwin founded his interpretation. The causes and in- fluence of the Glacial Epoch are discussed in an exposition of Croll’s theory. In this connection may be mentioned one of Wallace’s original geo- logical contributions, in the “Glacial Erosions of Lake Basins,’’ published in 1893, namely, his theory of glacial erosion as a means of explaining the origin of valley lakes of glaci- ated countries. The natural trend of Wallace’s thought as to the ascent of man is first shown in the three anthropological essays of. 1864, 1869, and 1870, contained in the volume ‘‘ Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection.’”’ This work, pub- lished in 1871, includes all his original essays from 1855 to 1869 on selection, on colour, and human evolution, which foreshadow the later development of his speculative philosophy. In his article of 1864, ‘‘ The Development of Human Races under the Law of Natural Selection,’’ he first pointed out that so soon as man learned to use fire and make tools, to grow food, to domesti- cate animals, to use clothing, and build houses, the action of natural selection was diverted from his body to his mind, and thenceforth his physical form remained stable, while his mental faculties article improved. His subsequent papers, ‘‘ The Elements of Natural Selection as Applied to Man’”’ of 1869, ‘‘On Instinct in Man and Animals ’’ of 1871, mark the gradual divergence of his views from those of Darwin, for in his opinion natural selection is believed to be inade- NO. 2224, VOL. 89] quate to account for several of the physical char- acteristics of man, as well as his speech, his colour sense, his mathematical, musical, and moral at- tributes. Here is found the opinion that a superior intelligence is guiding the development of man in a definite direction and for a definite | purpose, which finds final expression in the largely metaphysical volume of rg11._ It is also prophetic of later thought that we find at the end of the closing pages of ‘‘ The Malay Archipelago ”’ the first statement of the feeling which so many travellers have experienced from a comparison of the natural and so-called civilised condition of man that ‘‘ social evolution from barbarism to civilisation ’’ has not advanced general human welfare. These humanitarian and partly social- istic ideas are developed in a series of recurrent essays between 1882 and 1903, including ‘* The Nationalisation of Land,’’ and ‘‘ Studies Scientific and Social.’’ Our perspective has covered a long, honourable span of sixty-five years into the beginnings of the thinking life of a natural philosopher whose last volume, ‘‘ The World of Life,’’ of the year Ig1I, gives as clear a portrayal of his final opinions as that which his first essay of 1858 affords of his early opinions. We follow the cycle of reflection beginning with adaptation as the great problem, adaptation as fully explained by selection, and closing with adaptation in some of its phases as entirely beyond human powers of interpretation, not only in the evolution of the mind and spiritual nature of man, but in such marvellous manifestations as the scales of butter- flies or the wings of birds. From our own intel- lectual experience we may sympathise with the rebound of maturity from the buoyant confidence of the young man of thirty-five who finds in selec- tion the entire solution of a problem which has vexed the mind and aroused the scientific curiosity of man since the time of Empedocles. We have ourselves experienced a loss of confidence with advancing years, an increasing humility in the face of transformations which become more and more mysterious the more we study them, although we may not join with this master in his appeal to an organising and directing prin- ciple. Younger men than Wallace, both among the zoologists and philosophers, of our own time have given a somewhat similar metaphysical solu- tion of the eternal problem of adaptation, which still baffles and transcends our powers of experi- ment and of reasoning. Henry FartrFiELD OSBORN. June 13, 1912] NATURE 371 PROBLEMS OF MODERN PHYSIOLOGY. By Prof. W. Palladin. Pp. Julius Springer, 1911.) PEANT Pflanzenphysiologie. vi+ 310. (Berlin: Price 8 marks. VERYONE who is interested in the problems _, of plant physiology will accord a welcome to Prof. Palladin’s book, which in a German form represents the sixth Russian edition, and there- | . : fs P peace there | interesting matter, but it is too short, and thus fore may be taken as a matured expression of its author’s point of view. Those who are conversant with Prof. Palladin’s work will naturally expect to find the chemical aspects of the science, or rather certain portions of it, more fully presented than is often the case in works of this dimension, nor will they be disappointed. Nevertheless, the book does not belong to the category of abstruse . manuals; it is eminently readable, and even con- tains several good stories of the great men of the past. One of these is worth relating. Bous- singault, when engaged on investigations on the gaseous exchange of plants, had aroused con- siderable interest amongst his colleagues both on account of the actual results obtained and of the accurate methods of analysis he employed. Sud- denly, however, the readings of the experiments began to give contradictory and unexpected values for the amounts of carbon dioxide present, notwithstanding that the conditions of the experi- ments apparently remained unchanged. Bous- singault and his collaborator were hopelessly at a loss to explain the results obtained, when they happened to meet Regnault, who laughed at their long faces, and asked what was the matter. To their complaints he replied that he had been doubtful whether their means of investigation were really as delicate as they had claimed, and that in order to test them he himself had gone and breathed into their apparatus for several mornings while they were at breakfast ! The book is divided into two parts of very un- equal value. The first, which is the longer, as it is also the better, is devoted to the metabolic processes; the second and shorter part contains a rather brief, but still not uninteresting, sketch of irritability and other “living” questions. In deal- ing with metabolism, the chemico-physical aspect is kept well to the front, though it is a little curious to find, on an earlier page, that emphasis is laid rather on the mysterious, than on the physical, attributes of heredity. Heredity, regarded from the general point of view adopted in this part of the book, is thus somewhat opposed to the attitude generally maintained with regard to other topics. It might, however, perhaps be argued that, from a chemical point of view, heredity NO. 2224, VOL. 89] implies that the course of chemical change in a ' group of really related forms should run along similar lines, as the natural outcome and expres- sion of a fundamentally similar physical structure. We should anticipate resemblances among related organisms if their forms and functional attributes really depend on physical qualities and the serial reactions which are conditioned by them. The book is very suggestive and is really full of the treatment of many of the problems is far too much curtailed. Furthermore, one misses at times an adequate reference to modern work, particu- larly that of British writers. The treatment of photosynthesis and of the ascent of sap may serve to illustrate what is here meant. In the latter connection no mention appears to be made of Dixon and Joly’s work, and this although a fair account of it has already been printed in German. The author’s meaning is sometimes a little obscure, but this is perhaps due to the difficulty of a foreign edition. It is certainly not a legiti- mate inference from Timiriazeff’s well-known experiments to allege that the same rays of light which split up carbon dioxide can be held to be responsible for the formation of starch (p. 32). The latter process depends upon the concentration of the sugar and sundry other factors, but its occurrence, only stands in indirect relation to the source of light. The omission of any reference to the excellent work done at Rothamsted on soil problems is also regrettable, inasmuch as avenues of further work have been thereby opened up which will certainly lead to results of the highest importance in connection with plant nutrition. The discussion of the essentials of fermentation is both useful and stimulating in a field which is being so assiduously cultivated. The successional action of ferments commonly to be observed in certain organisms is attributed to the correspond- ing withdrawal of the inhibiting agency of anti- ferments or ‘“‘anti-kinases.”’ It is, perhaps, becoming difficult for some of us to resist the impression that there must be some underlying and simplifying principle still to be sought in connection with these rapidly multiply- ing ferments. At the present time, however, it is rather the fashion to postulate the existence of a separate and specific ferment to account for almost every different reaction that goes on in the body. But it should not be forgotten that nobody has ever isolated a pure ferment, and one is inclined to inquire whether the evidence for their separate individuality is really conclusive, or whether the reactions from which their existence is inferred may not depend after all on the protean | diversity of structural aggregation and organisa- 1 259 OAS NATURE [June 13, 1912 tion of albuminous substances relatively simple and few in number. \Ve can honestly say that Prof. Palladin has well earned the gratitude of a wide circle of col- leagues by rendering his book more generally accessible than heretofore. Not only the botanist and physiologist, but many others who are in- terested in the working of living organisms will find much that is suggestive in its pages, in which the endeavour is made “‘die komplizierten Lebens- erscheinungen in einfache zu zerlegen und sie schliesslich auf Gesetze der Chemie und der Physik zuriickzufithren.” (eB os PROTOZOOLOGY. Lehrbuch der Protozoenkunde. Eine Darstellung der Naturgeschichte der Protozoen mit beson- derer Beriicksichtigung der parasitischen und pathogenen Formen. By Prof. Doflein. Dritte Auflage. Pp. xii+ 1043. (Jena: Gustav Fischer, 1911.) Price 26 marks (unbound). HE extent to which the Protozoa are ab- sorbing the attention of scientific investiga- tors at the present time cannot be better illus- trated than by the fact that the second and greatly enlarged edition of Prof. Doflein’s treatise on the Protozoa, which appeared towards the end of 1909 (reviewed in Nature, No. 2105, vol. Ixxxiii, March 3, 1910), passed out of print within a year of its publication, and now a third edition of the work is before us. The book has undergone thorough revision in every part, and is increased substantially in size to 1043 pages and 951 figures as against 914 pages and 825 figures in the second edition. In the general part the most noteworthy changes are the discussions of autogamy and of Hartmann’s theory of polyenergid nuclei, and an additional section of eight pages dealing with spontaneous generation, the conception of species, variation and heredity in Protozoa. An error must be pointed out on p. 294, where it is stated that “while Trypanosoma brucei and T. lewisi can be cultivated in dogs side by side, T. brucei disappears and T. lewisi alone reproduces itself when rats are injected with this blood.” It is well known that T. lewisi will not reproduce itself in the blood of the dog in any circumstances; the reference is to certain experiments of Koch, who showed that T. brucei and T. lewisi would live side by side in the blood of the same vat, but that if a dog was injected with the blood of that rat, T. lewisi disappeared and T. brucei alone per- sisted. The author has stated the facts quite correctly in another of his works (“Probleme der Protistenkunde,” i., Jena, 1909, p. NO. 2224, VOL. 89] 33); whence it is evident that the misstatement is merely a clerical error, but nevertheless it is exceedingly misleading as it stands. In the special part of the book the section on spirochetes has been revised, with the addition of new figures after Gross, Margarete (not Mar- garine!) Zuelzer, and others. No mention is made, however, of the developmental facts made known by Leishman in January, 1910, and now confirmed abundantly, namely, the formation of so-called coccoid bodies or spores. Possibly a consideration of these facts might have led the author to recognise that the evidence for the bac- terial affinities of the spirochetes far outweighs any indication of relationship to Protozoa afforded by similarity in reactions to therapeutic agents. The section dealing with the trypanosomes has also undergone many changes, and extensive revisions and additions are made in the account — given of the parasitic amoebe, especially in the description of the dysenteric amceba (Entamoeba histolytica). The illustrations of the book are its great feature, and the new edition contains, like the last, adyance figures from investigations not yet published. Many of the figures of the preceding edition have been cut out; we think the pruning might have been carried further with advantage in some cases. Fig. 219, showing spore-forma- tion in Myxosporidia, is quite out of date, and is in contradiction to other figures in the book. Figs. 363 and 367, illustrating trypanosomes, are scarcely worthy of a place in a modern text-book. The cultural development of Leishmania might have been illustrated better than by Figs. gor and 404. Fig. 707 is very poor, and Fig. 877, a new figure, has not been reproduced successfully. Taken as a whole, however, the value and use- fulness of the book is greatly augmented, and itis well worth the slight increase of price over the former edition. As a treatise on the Protozoa it is a monumental production, with which no other can compare that has appeared since the ‘eighties. E. A. M. MODERN EXPLOSIVES. Historical Papers on Modern Explosives. By George W. MacDonald. With an_ intro- duction by Sir Andrew Noble, Bart., KGB ke R.S: (Rp smexitore2: (London : Whittaker and Co., 1912.) Price 7s. 6d. net. A CCESS to the literature of the early part and A middle of the last century in connection with a subject which has become a great industry. in modern times is possible, as a general rule, only to a limited number of those whose lot it is to JUNE 13, 1912] NATURE Os of conduct and extend that industry, and no such literature can prove of greater interest to those specially concerned with its modern development, or the large number of men of science outside its | particular sphere, than that of explosives. The names of those discoverers and early workers in connection with fulminate of mercury, guncotton, nitroglycerine, &c., are familiar to all, but few probably realise the risks encountered, the difficulties to be overcome, and the patience and perseverance exhibited in overcoming those difficulties. The thorough and exhaustive manner in which Abel and his colleagues investigated the problems of the manufacture, decomposition, and safe storage of guncotton, leading to the publica- tion of that marvellously complete series of memoirs by Abel in 1866-67, has seldom been equalled, and ten of these are given in sufficiently extensive form in the present volume. In view of the now well-recognised catalytic effect which the products of decomposition of guncotton exer- | cise in promoting further decomposition, the ex- periments of Abel in submitting stable guncotton to the action of the fumes from an unstable sample are of particular interest, as are also his experiments of the effect of moisture on the k-ep- ing qualities, especially when the moist material is exposed to the action of sunlight. most fundamental of Abel’s discoveries was that decomposition appeared to be due to foreign matter i the original cellulose, which, on nitro- genising, yielded unstable products. The work of Nobel, again, in connection with nitroglycerine and its application is another ex- ample of perseverance, ingenuity, and inventive genius, but here Mr. MacDonald has been some- what sparing, for only four pages are devoted to | his labours. Of great interest are the early communications of Pelouze and Schénbein relating to their rival claims as the discoverer of guncotton. Pelouze (1838), in extending Braconnot’s work on nitro- starch, which he indicated might be applicable to artillery, also noted that paper, cotton, and linen were nitrated, their new properties being ascribed to xyloidine (nitro-starch) which covered their Schénbein’s first nitration (1845) ap- pears to have been on sugar, but soon after the other nitro-substances of like character, including guncotton, were prepared. Schénbein no sooner realised the possible value of the latter than he instituted trials in pistols, carbines, and cannon. Whilst Pelouze therefore nitrated cotton prior to Schénbein, he undoubtedly thought it the same body as from starch and does not appear to have pursued the matter. Schénbein realised their essentially different character, but it remained for NO. 2224, VOL. 89| surfaces. One of the | | Crum of Glasgow to demonstrate the different | composition of the two bodies, and his original paper (1847) is of great interest. | Mr. MacDonald’s collection of memoirs covers | fully the development of guncotton both in England and on the Continent, and many are the interesting points the reader will find, among them a communication from Berzelius to Schénbein, and the correspondence between the latter and Mr. Hall after the terrible disaster at the Faversham works in July, 1847. From the few points mentioned it will be seen that Mr. MacDonald’s collection of these papers, which first appeared in “Arms and Explosives,” is particularly welcome, and one may hope that similar reprints or condensations of papers of great historical interest may, from time to time, become available to the student of to-day, for they would form an excellent course of post-graduate reading. i; SsSaeBe PROGRESS OF SCIENCE. Fortschritte der naturwissenschaftlichen For- schung. Herausgegeben von Prof. E. Abder- | halden. Dritter Band. Pp. iv+352. Price | 16 marks. Vierter Band. Pp. iii+300. Price | 15 marks. (Berlin and Vienna: Urban and Schwarzenberg, 191r and 1912.) HESE further volumes of a valuable work are quite up to the level of the preceding ones. There is, however, a considerable reduc- tion in the number of the separate essays, and while this enables the writers to deal with their | subjects at greater length, it somewhat narrows the range. In vol. iii., A. Wegener deals with recent investigations in atmospheric physics, in- cluding the stratification of the atmosphere, the isothermal layer, the formation of air-billows, the structure of hail and thunder clouds, and Birkeland and Stérmer’s electronic theory of the | aurora. The article is lavishly illustrated by photographs and diagrams. W. Johansen, of Copenhagen, deals with heredity on the principle of the genotype, i.e. the aggregate of inherited tendencies embodied in the germ. His main thesis is to show that genotypes differ discon- tinuously, and thus recall the discontinui- ties between chemical species. Dr. Gustav Eichhorn, of Ziirich, has an essay on the present position of wireless telegraphy and telephony. The system chiefly dealt with is the Telefunken system. As regards telephony, we find an in- teresting account of the comparative merits of Duddell, Poulsen, and Goldschmidt’s recently invented high-frequency generator. There is a lengthy article on directive forces in | plant geography by M. Rikli, of Ztirich. He goes 374 NATURE [JUNE 13, 1912 soil, micro-organisms, range, and idiosyncrasy. Although the author describes plant geography as a young science, the great catalogue of references to literature appended to his article gives one quite a different impression. Prof. H. MKlaatsch, Breslau, gives the first of a series of articles on the genesis and acquisition of human characteris- tics, dealing in the first instance with the develop- ment of the human hand. He answers the ques- tion as to why the ape did not evolve into a man by saying: Because he lost his thumb. In vol. iv. we find Prof. London, of St. Peters- burg, discoursing on the development of operative method in the study of digestion and resorption. The treatment is of great practical interest, but the article is illustrated in a manner provocative of fierce attacks from anti-vivisectionist quarters. Dr. H. Zickendraht, Bale, treats of experimental aerodynamics, with interesting sidelights on voluntary and automatic stabilisation. F. Zschokke, Bale, deals with the zoobiological significance of the Ice Age, pointing out how the fauna characteristic of low temperatures must have been gradually restricted as the ice receded from Europe, and that the isolated survivors in special districts cannot have got into their refuges by recent migration, having been caught in a mesh of higher temperatures and high-temperature organisms. K. Heilbronner’s article on aphasia exhibits at once the theoretical limitations and the great practical attainments of specialists dealing with aphasia, alexia, agraphia, and apraxia. He denies that a special area of the brain can be called the “speech area.” Dr. W. Pauli’s essay on the colloid changes of state of albuminous bodies is a summary of recent work on substances of steadily increasing import- ance. The volume is concluded by an admirable and timely contribution by Dr. G. Eichhorn on automatic telephony, in which it is explained how, by a suitable subdivision and decentralisation of exchanges, it is possible to set up an automatic system for some 100,000 subscribers, which offers advantages both in trustworthiness and economy of time. OUR BOOKSHELF. Spices. By Henry N. Ridley, C.M.G., F.R.S. Pp. ix+449. (London: Macmillan and Co., Lid-; xor2)))) Pricerssaiod.. net. Iv is difficult to realise now the important position which spices occupied in the Middle Ages, when | the great commercial cities of central Europe owed no small part of their wealth to commerce in these products, and the desire to share in this lucrative trade led the Portuguese to seek a sea-route to India. In this volume Mr. Ridley does not neg- NO. 2224, VOL. 89| fully into the effects of heat, moisture, light, wind, | lect this peculiarly interesting part of his subject, but gives, in each of the series of monographs of which his book is composed, a short account of the commercial history of the spice dealt with. In the technical portion of each monograph the mode of treatment adopted is to give a descrip- tion of the plant and of its varieties in cultivation, followed by an account of the soil and climate suited to it, the modes of cultivation, the pests and diseases which attack it, and the methods of pre- paring the spice for export. Lastly, an account is given of the industry as carried on in the chief producing countries, with notes on the uses of the spice locally and in Europe. The statistics of trade given are in most cases not very recent. It may also be suggested that it would have been worth while to state that clove-leaves yield a valu- able essential oil, which has been exported in small quantity from Seychelles. The chemistry of spices has been adequately dealt with elsewhere, and Mr. Ridley properly refers very briefly to the nature of the volatile oils and other constituents to which spices owe their aromatic or pungent properties. These notes on the chemistry of the spices are, however, occa- sionally so compressed as to be somewhat mis- leading to the inexpert. A book of this kind must appeal mainly to planters in the tropics, and Mr. Ridley’s extensive experience of the needs of this class of readers has enabled him to produce a volume which is a valu- able addition to the rather scanty literature of tropical agriculture. Thy) Abad Catalogue of the Noctuidae in the Collection of the British Museum. By Sir George F. Hamp- son, Bart. Pp. xvii+68g9. (Catalogue of the Lepidoptera Phalenz in the British Museum. Volume xi.) Accompanied by a volume of plates (clxxiv—cxci). (London: Printed by order of the Trustees. Sold by Longmans and Co., B. Quaritch, Dulau and Co., Ltd., and at the British Museum (Natural History), 1912.) Price: text, 20s.; plates, 17s. 6d. In the fourth volume of the present work the Noctuide were commenced, and fifteen sub- families were defined. Four of these have now been monographed, and vol. xi., which has just appeared, includes four more: the Euteliane, with 12 genera and 175 species; the Stictopterine, with ro genera and 112 species; the Sarrothripina, with 58 genera and 330 species; and the Acontiane, with 70 genera and 324 species. In the series of species of Noctuide, the numbers in vol. xi. extend from 6198 to 7127. ‘The four subfamilies are modifications of the great Quadrifid section of the Noctuide, and are almost confined to the tropical and warmer temperate regions, few genera and species extending to the colder zones, and none to the arctic and alpine zones.” We have no special remarks to make on the present volume, except that it appears to be fully up to the standard of former ones. In addition to the plates, there are 275 figures in the text, and at the end of the volume we find some “addenda and corrigenda.”’ June 13, 1912] NATURE 375 Ancient Types of Man. By Prof. A. Keith. Pp. xix+ 151. and Bros., 1911.) Price 2s. 6d. net. In this little book Prof. Keith gives a most in- | (London and New York: Harper | teresting account of the known fossil remains | of man, and enlivens his pages by numerous allu- sions to the circumstances in which the various discoveries were made. He begins by referring to the skeletons of comparatively recent date, which differ in no essential respects from those of existing men; and he then gradually works backwards through the Neanderthal type until he reaches the primitive Pithecanthropus. His descriptions are not only interesting, but are also important as being based in many cases on per- sonal observation; and they are illustrated by a series of original drawings, in which overlapping outlines and tints are ingeniously used to facilitate comparisons. The limits of space necessarily tend to a some- what dogmatic style, especially when referring to the geological age of the different specimens; and we miss the scientific caution so conspicuous in the pioneer writings of Lyell and Boyd Dawkins, of which Prof. Keith curiously makes no mention. It is clear that the human frame in its present form is of immense antiquity, but it is far from certain that it arose at a period so remote as a casual reader might infer from Prof. Keith’s well- written story. ING Sh Wile University of London. Francis Galton Labora- tory for National Eugenics. Eugenics Labora- tory Memoirs, xv., “Treasury of Human Inheritance.” Parts vii. and viti., Section xva., “ Dwarfism.” By Dr. H. Rischbieth and Amy Barrington. Pp. xi+355-573+plates li—Iviii, O-Z, AA-WW. (London: Ltd, z912:) Price 15s. net. Parts vii. and viii. of “The Treasury of Human Inheritance” consist of a monograph on dwarfism by Dr. H._ Rischbieth Amy Barrington. Failure to reach a normal stature may be due to Achondroplasia, Ateleiosis, to lesions of the thyroid gland, or to rickets. Achondroplasic dwarfs have a trunk of approxi- mately normal size and very short limbs, while in the ateleiotic the proportions are almost normal, the condition being one of arrested or retarded development. Heredity plays a part in the causa- tion of both these conditions, though the actual transmission of the defect is uncommon for the following reasons. Achondroplasia is much more common in women than in men, and in achondro- plasic women the malformation of the pelvis renders normal childbirth impossible. Delivery of a living child must be by Cesarean section, and most of the children are either born dead or die soon after birth. In the ateleiotic, the sexual organs are rarely normally developed, so that sterility is the usual condition; exceptions, how- in this volume shows the birth of an ateleiotic son to a father of a similar character and an achondroplasic mother. The grandfather was probably also ateleiotic. NO. 2224, VOL. 89| | imagines. LETTERS TO THE EDITOR. [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of Nature. No notice is taken of anonymous communications. | The Distastefulness of Danaida (Anosia) plexippus. REFERRING to Mr. A. M. Banta’s letters on the above subject (NATURE, December 21, 1911, and May 9, 1912), it seems strange that a writer who professes to prove “ positively that our [viz N. American] birds do not eat butterflies to an appreciable extent ” should make no reference to the one memoir in which all the available evidence on the subject up to 1909 has been collected together— Birds as a Factor in the Production of Mimetic Resemblances among Butterflies”’ (Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1909, pp. 329-83). Mr. Banta writes very dogmatically, although he has made no attempt, or at least no successful attempt, to consult the literature of the subject of which he professes to treat. In Mr. Guy A. K. Marshall’s paper above referred to, records of the attacks of birds upon butter- flies in the Nearctic region are to be found on pp. 373-9, although it is right to point out that the numerous definite statements of one observer, Gentry, _ have been severely criticised since the appearance of | Mr. Marshall’s paper, and apparently in consequence of the publicity they attained in that paper. Omitting these, there remains a considerable body of positive evidence, from which I will only quote two examples. I choose the first (p. 379) because’ it bears so obviously upon Mr. R. I. Pocock’s results, and indicates that experiments upon birds in confine- ment are not so untrustworthy as Mr. A. M. Banta The late Mr. C. V. Riley recorded that “Mr. Otto Lugger, of Chicago, while on the U.S. Lake Survey, once saw a bird dart after an archippus | (=plexippus) butterfly, seize it, and immediately drop Dulau and Co., | and Miss | | successful attempts to close upon the insect. it without devouring the body” (‘Third Missouri Report,” 1871, p. 169, note). The second observation (p. 377) bears on Mr. Banta’s assumption that birds could quite easily catch butterflies if they so desired. Prof. C. B. Davenport, of Cold Spring Harbor, states that :— ‘““On Center Island, in the town of Oyster Bay [U.S.A.], in August, 1902, I saw a_ king-bird (Tyrannus tyrannus) chase a Colias. I stood still and watched it for nearly a minute. It seemed to have great difficulty in getting the insect, and I could hear the beaks snap in the air in their un- The | persistence of the bird and the difficulty of the opera- tion of catching the butterfly impressed me very much at the time.” It is certainly true that a complete and perfect series of observations upon the preferences of a single individual has only very rarely been made upon birds in the wild state. One such happy chance occurred on January 12 last to Mr. S. A. Neave, travelling entomologist in East Africa of the Entomological Research Committee of the Colonial Office, and he gave an account of it at the meeting of the Entomo- logical Society on May 1. Mr. Neave watched, from a distance of three or four yards, a wagtail (probably Motacilla capensis) catching and eating butterflies ever, do occur, and one of the pedigrees recorded | settled on the damp sand in the bed of a forest stream at Gabunga’s, about seven miles north-west of Entebbe. In twenty-five minutes the bird ate eighteen Lyczenide (‘‘blues”) and one Terias (a yellow black-margined Pierine). It also seized, but immediately rejected, an Acreea (A. pelasgius), which 376 NATURE [June 13. Tore was afterwards picked up by Mr. Neave and found to have lost one hind wing. This specimen will be preserved in the Hope Department of the Oxford University Museum. The bird ate four or five Lycenide after it had rejected the Acreea. It also missed many specimens. All the butterflies were swallowed whole. The observations were still being continued when the bird was unfortunately disturbed by a party of natives. The injury seen to have been inflicted on the Acreea is of special interest, because such mutilation is not uncommonly found in Lepidoptera with warn- ing colours. Thus on April 2 Mr. W. A. Lam- born, residing in the Lagos district of West Africa, found and sent to me a conspicuous Geometrid moth, Pitthea famula, from which both the wings on the left side had been shorn. Disabling injuries of this description are, in my experience, rarely seen in species with procryptic colouring, but are character- istic of those with warning colours. The facts suggest the reasonable inference that a disabled pro- cryptic species is devoured, and not rejected. Injuries that do not disable—chips out of a single wing or symmetrical notches out of both sides, injuries which leave the insect with undiminished powers of flight— are commonly found in butterflies with all kinds of patterns. The amount of this indirect evidence is even now large, and it could be obtained in almost any quantity if naturalists made a point of seeking for it, and did not discard the poorer specimens. I will refer to one more example only, and that because the species is mentioned by Mr. Banta. In 1897 I captured near Chicago a very fresh specimen of Limenitis (Basilarchia) archippus with a large piece torn out of one hind-wing, an injury that may reasonably be explained as the result of an attaclk. I do not agree with Mr. Banta’s inference that ‘‘to make a good case for mimicry in the sense in which that term is ordinarily used, the mimic Basilarchia archippus should be tested and found palatable” (NaturE, December 21, 1911, p- 243), and that we should expect birds ‘scarcely, if at all, [to] molest these two forms,” viz. the model and its mimic (NatuRE, May 9, 1912, p. 242). In the first place, the mimicry is probably Miillerian and not Batesian, for the mimic belongs to the genus Limenitis (s.1.), containing species which are themselves models for mimicry, and allied to the still more widely mimicked South American genus Adelpha. Secondly, it is not supposed, on any theory of mimicry, that the enemies instinctively know the qualities indicated by warning colours. This knowledge is believed to be gained by each individual enemy as the outcome of its own experience. Furthermore, it is probable that in times of special scarcity the dangers from the attacks of certain enemies would be increased by the presence of warning colours. It should be noticed that Mr. Banta’s criticism of | mimicry applies equally to protective resemblance. If his facts and ‘arguments be sound, the rock- or bark- like underside of a North American butterfly is as useless to its possessor as is, according to Mr. Banta, the resemblance of the mimic to its Danaine model. It is necessary to make a few remarks upon the negative evidence afforded by the examination of stomachs. Conclusions in harmony with those of Mr. Banta have been reached by Mr. G. L. Bates, who has found no traces of butterflies in the stomachs of insect-eating birds of the South Cameroon (Ibis, ser. g, vol. v., No. 20, October, 1911, pp. 630-1). In this case I know that Mr. Bates’s inferences are con- sidered erroneous by Mr. C. F. M’ Swynnerton, who has for some years been making a special study of the relationship between birds and butterflies at Chirinda, in south-east Rhodesia. It would not be NO. 2224, VOL. 89] right to anticipate the results which Mr. Swynnerton, in a truly scientific spirit, desires to establish on as solid a foundation as possible; but, as the question has been raised and dogmatic assertions have been made, I feel sure he will not object to the following brief statement, prepared in consultation with Mr. Guy Marshall :— (1) The results of Mr. Swynnerton’s earlier investi- gations, up to the end of 1908, were in accordance with those of Mr. Bates, and might well have justified the conclusions reached by him and by Mr. Banta. (2) From the time when, three and a half years ago, Mr. Swynnerton first saw his way into the details of the question and the methods by which to investigate it, he has obtained the records of nearly 800 attacks made by thirty-five species of birds, belonging to thirty genera and eighteen families, upon seventy-nine species of butterflies, belonging to nine families or subfamilies. (3) Mr. Swynnerton is thus led to conclude, in opposition to Mr. Banta, that the negative evidence believed to be supplied by the examination of stomachs should not be too implicitly relied upon. The negative evidence itself, he considers, may be accounted for in various ways :— (a) The treatment of butterfly prey by birds. Some swallow the insect whole, but usually after masti- cating or beating it; some remove inconvenient por- tions by “‘worrying”’ like a dog or beating against perch or ground; some grasp the prey in one foot and tear off the rejected portions with the bill, eating the rest piecemeal. Except when the wings are swallowed the probability that butterflies will be recog- nised in the stomach-contents is extremely remote. (b) Insectivorous birds get rid of the chitin of their prey partly in a finely divided form in the excreta, partly in pellets ejected from time to time by the mouth. Mr. Swynnerton believes that he has noted the ejection of pellets by every purely insectivorous bird kept in captivity. The wings of butterflies that were swallowed whole appeared, for the most part, both in pellets and excreta, as minute fragments that could not be easily recognised except with the micro- scope. After a large meal of butterflies, the pellet cast up by a captive bird would often consist of fine débris, quite unrecognisable except after a thorough and minute examination. : (c) Other groups of insects, viz. the Diptera, Orthoptera, Coleoptera, and Hymenoptera, are each of them many times as numerous in individuals as the diurnal Lepidoptera, and we should therefore expect butterflies to be proportionately far less commonly found in the stomachs of insectivorous birds. Finally, Mr. Swynnerton has found that a recently captured adult bird shows by its behaviour that it possesses a very fair knowiedge of the main types of pattern and the relative edibility of the local butter- flies. That this knowledge is the outcome of in- dividual experience is proved by the fact that it is not possessed by a bird removed from the nest when young. Epwarp B. Povutrton. Oxford University Museum, June 3. The Weather of 1911 and the Ultra-violet Radiations of the Sun. In connection with an extremely interesting dis- cussion recently carried on in the correspondence columns of Nature I ventured to direct attention (NaturE, December 14, 1911) to the unusual diminu- tion of the ultra-violet radiation from the sun as a possible cause of the abnormal weather of the summer June 13, 1912] of git. Houlae phenomenon of this summer than to direct the attention of meteorologists to a new point of view. In so far I succeeded, for a series of letters in NATURE devoted attention to this point. The fullest treat- ment was contained in a letter from Mr. L. G. Schultz in the issue of March 14. I should like to reply briefly to this letter, which, owing to university holidays, I have only lately seen. According to my views, his interesting observation, that for both the middle and end of the year 1911 the state of the weather in South America was diametric- ally opposite to that in Europe (extremely dry summer in the north with rainy winter in the south, and extremely dry summer in the south with rainy winter in the north) does not contradict my attempt at ex- planation, but rather proves its correctness. With normal ultra-violet radiation from the sun, i.e. with normal production of condensation nuclei, the water vapour formed in the north or south hemi- | sphere will condense again on the same hemisphere if the necessary conditions are brought about by cool- ing and alterations of pressure. With abnormally small production of nuclei rain will probably not cease | all over the earth, as Mr. Schultz seems to conclude, for the evaporated water must come down somewhere | or other, but the occurrence of condensation will be rendered more difficult. Consequently it is possible that the water evaporated on the summer half of the earth will first find the required preliminary condi- tions for condensation on the colder winter half, and so come down there. In other words, if the abnormal weather of 1911 was conditioned by the decrease of ultra-violet radia- tion from the sun, then the abnormal dryness on the summer hemisphere had to be accompanied by abnormal rainfall on the winter hemisphere. This is exactly what Mr. Schultz has shown beyond doubt occurred not only for the period of the northern summer, but also for the period of the southern summer. Accordingly, the period of abnormally low ultra-violet radiation of the sun extended over the | whole of the year torr. Cart RAMSAUER. Radiologisches Institut, Heidelberg, May 30. Alleged Ultra-violet Rays from Filament Lamps. In the note referring to the proposed electric light- ing in the House of Commons by metal filament lamps, in Nature of June 6 (p. 352), it is stated that “The present proposal is to use metallic filament lamps enclosed in holophane globes behind amber- coloured glass to cut off completely all ultra-violet rays.’ Investigations made in America and in Ger- many show that the ultra-violet rays from such lamps are insignificant, and are far less than in daylight giving the same illumination, and probably less than with some kinds of incandescent gas mantles. Both physicists and electrical engineers would be interested to learn if there is any foundation for the allegation that metal filament lamps emit any appre- ciable ultra-violet rays or any rays which are injurious to eyesight. A. P. TRrorter. June 8, 1912. Earthquake of May 23. REFERRING to the second paragraph of Fr. Sid- greaves’s letter (NaTURE, June 6), I think that in the reading of seismograms it is often very difficult to My intention was less to explain the par- | NATURE 377 of the epicentre by means of the time elapsing between the arrival of the first and of the second phase. On May 23, by this method, both horizontal | booms here gave the origin at 73.8° (8200 km., determine which is the first long wave from a distant | earthquake. ful enough to give a definite impetus to the seismo- graph at the inception of each of the two preliminary In the case of shocks which are power- | roughly), which would not be far from Burmah. F. Epwarp Norris. Woodbridge Hill, Guildford, June 8. SOLAR HALOS AND MOCK SUNS. Gj eeee have been recently many observations of optical phenomena in the atmosphere which can usually be identified with the halos of 22° and 46° radius or with the allied and com- plementary arcs and mock suns. A brief descrip- tion of the principal phenomena which can be attributed to reflection and refraction of the sun- light by ice-crystals may therefore be of interest. Full accounts of such phenomena and of the theoretical explanation of their production are given in the classical memoir on halos by Bravais, in the third volume of Mascart’s “Optics ” and in the third part of Pernter’s ‘Meteorological Optics.” Ice-crystals are mainly hexagonal, and may be divided into two main classes, plates or stars with short axes and needles or prisms with long axes. The resulting optical prisms have angles of 60° or go° for the most part. The 22° halo is formed | by light which has passed through those prisms of 60°, the right cross secticns of which pass through the sun. The prisms must be in the position in which the rays to the sun and to the observer make equal angles with the faces, and this is possible, for yellow light, only for prisms on a cone of 21° 50’ angular radius. The 46° halo is produced in a similar way by prisms of 90°. If there is a preponderance of crystals floating with faces vertical, the reflection of light from these faces will give rise to a horizontal circle of light passing through the sun; and at points on this circle where the light is reinforced by re- fracted light, there will be unusual brilliance or mock suns. Hence the name mock sun ring. Two of the mock suns are formed by light re- fracted through prisms of 60°. They are at 22° from the sun when it is on the horizon, and their distance increases with the altitude of the sun. The mock suns produced by prisms of 90° are similarly at 46° or more from the sun, according te its altitude. The arcs of contact or tangent-arcs of the 22° halo are produced by refraction through prisms of 60° floating with their axes horizontal. If the sun’s altitude is less than 29°, the upper and lower arcs are distinct, but for greater altitudes they are joined to form the elliptic halo circum- scribing the ordinary 22° halo. The arcs of contact of the 46° halo are formed, according to Galle and Pernter, by refraction through crystals with vertical axes oscillating about the equilibrium position; according to Bravais and Mascart by simple refraction through crystals with one face horizontal. In the former ease the arc is not part of a circle, but always phases, it would seem easier to determine the distance | touches the 46° halo; in the latter it forms part of NO. 2224, VOL. 89] 378 NATURE [JUNE 13, 1912 a circle around the zenith, and touches the halo only for solar altitudes of about 20°. The sun pillar, a column of light extending as much as 20° above the sun, is formed by reflec- tion at a horizontal face of a crystal, either simple reflection at a lower face or total internal reflection at an upper. The phenomena produced by refraction coloured; those due to reflection only white. Mr. Haskett Smith (Nature, May 30) appears to have observed the 46° and the 22° halos and the upper arc of contact of the 22° halo; the Rev. R. J. Roberts (The Times, June 1) appears to have seen the horizontal mock sun ring with the mock suns associated with the 22° halo. Dr. W. G. Smith sends a description of an observation at Armagh between 6 and 7 p.m. on May 26 of the halo of 22°, and apparently of the upper arc of contact of the 46° halo. Between noon and I p.m. on the same day, at Comlongon Castle, Dumfries, Mr. Whellens observed the 22° halo and a lateral tangent are of the 46° halo. Mr. David Smart observed at 6.45 p.m. on June 4, near Hove, three separate brightly- coloured patches, the sun being at the time hidden by cloud. The order of the colours and the approximate distances which he gives indicate that the patches were probably parts of the halo of 22°. Mr. Bartrum asks in Narure of June 6 if the needles would float vertically and the plates with their axes horizontal. Neither position would be stable. The needies would tend to _ set themselves horizontally and the plates with their axes vertical. The optical effects would, however, remain unaitered, the plates producing certain of the phenomena attributed to the needles and vice versa. Both Pernter and Mascart appear to have assumed that the crystals would take the direction for which the resistance to their motion was a minimum, and that the needles would be vertical and the plates with axes horizontal. E. G. are are CANADIAN MINERAL RESOURCES.} Re continued progress of the mineral industry in Canada is shown by the Annual Report and Statistics by Mr. John McLeish. Mineral statistics for the whole of the Dominion were first compiled in 1886, and the annual value of the production between then and 1909 has increased ninefold. The minerals raised in Canada in 1909 were worth more than 6,300,000 dollars above those of the previous year. The most important increase was in the structural materials and clays, in which the rise was from _ 11,339,000 to 1 Annual Report of the Division of Mineral Resources and Statistics on the Mineral Production of Canada during the Calendar Year 1909. By J. McLeish. Pp. 291. (Canada: Department of Mines, Ottawa, 1911.) _ Magnetic Concentration Experiments with Tron Ores of the Bristol Mines in Quebec; Iron Ores of the Bathurst Mines, New Brunswick s;A Copper Nickel Ore from Nairn, Ontario. By G. C. Mackenzie. figs. (Canada: Department of Mines, Ottawa, 1910.) Bulletin No. 5. | Report of Analyses of Ores, Non-metallic Minerzls, Fuels, &c., made in the Chemical Laboratories during the Years 1906, 1907, 1908. Pp. 126+2 plates. By F. G. Wait. (Canada: Department of Mines, Ottawa, 1900.) Report on the Molybdenum Ores of Canada. By T. L. Walker. Pp. 64+14 plates+1o figs. (Canada: Department of Mines, Ottawa, rgr1.) NO. 2224, VOL. 89| | ieteLese. 16,533,000 dollars. The yield of the metallic products increased in value about 2,500,000 dollars, but there was a fall in the total for the non-metallic minerals of a million dollars, The arrangement of mineral products into metallic and non-metallic is unsatisfactory owing to the ambiguity in the term “metal,” and the variations in its meaning introduce uncertainty into the comparison between the returns of dif- ferent countries. The Canadian report differs from general practice by including arsenic and chromite among the non-metals ; magnesite, pyrites, and the minerals of which aluminium and the alkalies are the chief constituents are regarded as non- metallic. The most striking development of the Canadian mineral industry during the year is the great in- crease of silver due to the mining field of Cobalt. It yields go per cent. of the total silver production of Canada, and about one-tenth of that of the world. The output both cf gold and copper has declined since 1908, and there has been a fall of nearly 400,000 short tons in the output of coal and of more than 100,000 barrels of petroleum. The rapid expansion of settlement in Canada has led to the great increase in the demands for build- ing materials, which have contributed the largest rise to the iineral products of the year. Canada is poor in iron ores of present com- mercial value, but has large supplies of low-grade ores, and is therefore especially interested in the problem of their oncentration. Mr. G. C. Mac- kenzie’s Bulletin -ecords the results of a series of experiments on magnetic concentration, a pro- cess which appears particularly suitable for iron ores. The many countries which have large deposits of banded ironstones will watch the progress of the Canadian investigations with in- Mr. Mackenzie has experimented with three ores. The first was a low-grade magnetite from the Bristol Mines in Quebec; the magnetite is mixed with ielspar, quartz, hornblende, and calcite, and is associated with much pyrites. This ore was found to be easily concentrated magnetic- ally, and 7o per cent. of the sulphur was eliminated. By the use of a wet method oo per cent. of sulphur was removed, and the phosphorus reduced to a trace. The concentrated ore, as in all these cases, would have to be briquetted before smelting. The second ore tested was a siliceous ironstone from the Bathurst Mine of New Brunswick, and represents a widespread type. The iron occurs in minute particles of magnetite and hematite. The results showed that a satisfactory magnetic con- centration by the dry process is impracticable; a wet method, however, gave a somewhat more encouraging result. The third series of experiments was on the separation of the copper and nickel in the ore from Nairn, Ontario. The experiments in this case were incomplete, and the separation unsatis- Pp ete | factory. Mr, F. G. Wait’s report consists of the analyses made in the years 1906-8 in the chemical labora- tories, and contains many interesting contributions to the geology and economic mineralogy of JUNE 13, 1912] Canada. The report includes’ twenty-seven analyses of igneous rocks collected by Dr. R. A. Daly during the work of the International Bound- ary Commission in 1902-5. Some of these analyses show that rocks rich in alkali extend far westward through the mountains of western Canada toward the Pacific province, where such rocks are not expected. The most numerous analyses are of lignites and iron ores. An appen- dix by Mr. H. A. Leverin describes the commer- cial methods of analyses of oil! shales. Dr. T. L. Walker contributes an interesting report on the molybdenum ores of Canada, in | which he describes their distribution and geologi- cal conditions. Dr. Walker personally examined most of the chief molybdenum deposits in Canada. They usually occur in Archean rocks near the border of intrusive masses of granite. Some of the chief occurrences of molybdenite are in pegma- tite veins traversing gneisses, slates, and quartz- ites. Some of these pegmatites are so poor in felspar that they become practically veins of quartz; and, as is usual with such veins, they are very poor in metallic constituents. Molybdenite also occurs along joint planes in NATURE 379 Apart from the work of his earlier years on the gymnosperms and the problems therewith con- nected, it is in the field of cytology, and in-a lesser degree in anatomy also, that his claim to en- during fame will be everywhere recognised. In the seventh decade ot the last century Stras- burger began publishing those remarkable series of investigations which have rendered his Histolo- gische Beitrage indispensable to the cytoiugist and anatomist, and will ever stand out as landmarks in the history of the science. Considering the | time at which they were written, the papers on the nucleus and the cell are really wonderful pro- ductions. They ushered in a new epoch, and in- troduced certainty and clearness where nebulosity and chaos had previously reigned. In reading his work and comparing it with that of his contem- poraries in the early ‘seventies, one seems to pass in one step from medizevalism into modern science. Much brilliant work had, of course, already been accomplished by others, but it was largely due to Strasburger that cytology emerged so rapidly from | the mists of speculation and developed into a granite, and it is then usually associated with | fluor-spar, and fine scales of it impregnate the granite along the joints. Some important deposits have been found along the contact between granite or pegmatite with crystalline limestone. The reaction between these rocks has produced a band | of pyroxenite containing pyrite, pyrrhotite, and molybdenite. In most of the ores the molybdenum is so scat- tered that its concentration is necessary. Dr. Walker says that none of the processes hitherto employed are very satisfactory. The larger part of the report describes the chief known Canadian molybdenum occurrences. It includes a list of twelve, which are regarded as the most promising; but the author is very cautious in expressing his opinion as to their value. His conclusion (p. 57) that ‘some of these are more promising than others” is a very safe hypothesis. Jew Ge: PROF. EDUARD STRASBURGER. HE science of botany has sustained an irre- parable loss through the death, on May 109, of Prof. Eduard Strasburger. It is especially sad that this melancholy event should have occurred at a time when it had been arranged by his many friends to celebrate his approaching seventieth birthday. A Festschrift was in course of prepara- tion, toward which contributions had been promised by botanists in all parts of the world. It has fallen to few men to have achieved so much, and to have taken so active a share in the many and diverse branches of the science to which Strasburger devoted his life. There is scarcely any comprehensive modern botanical memoir concerned with cytology, anatomy, embryology, and even certain aspects of plant physiology, which does not contain references to Strasburger’s contribu- tions to the subject. NO. 2224, VOL. 89| science founded on demonstrable facts, which the more recent work has shown to be, in the main, of great and far-reaching importance, Naturally his earlier work did not escape the need of revision here and there, but having regard to the means at his disposal, and to the relatively primitive character of the tech- nique at that time available, it is little short of _ marvellous that his genius should have proved to have been so little at fault. The reason for this | is to be sought partly in the strength of the highly trained intellect which he focussed on every prob- lem that interested him, and partly in the untiring industry with which he pursued his extensive in- vestigations. He was not satisfied with elucidat- ing, as far as might be, the course of events in this or that single instance, but he checked his | observations and inferences by researches extend- | him. ing over a wide choice of objects. In reading any of his more important memoirs, one cannot fail to realise the effectiveness with which Stras- burger drew on his immense store of first-hand knowledge in attacking the problems confronting The meticulous accuracy which marks the description of his observations is continually illu- minated by that indefinable but very real quality of greatness which enabled him so well to grasp essentials, and to separate them from relatively unimportant masses of new facts. It is true that in his later years perhaps this very quality became magnified almost into a fault. Where he thought he saw clearly, he was apt, as he used | himself to say, to attach great weight to aspects of a problem that coincided with theoretical anti- cipation, but even in this he bore no more re- semblance to the inferior minds who often endeavour to adopt a similar attitude than does a great artist of the impressionist school to the man who cannot draw, but can only daub and smudge. Strasburger has sometimes been reproached for the rapidity with which he occasionally changed his attitude towards an interpretation of results. 380 NATURE [JUNE 13, 1902 In reality, however, there is but little foundation for such a reproach. A correct observation is one thing; the interpretation of it is another. Inter- pretation must almost necessarily change as new facts become known, and a mere clinging to exploded theories affords no claim to distinction. But no one has ever accused Strasburger of care- lessness in observation. His scientific memoirs are repositories of facts many of which as yet cannot be fully utilised. He, no less than others, strove to fit the facts into their place, but unlike many people, he was always ready to reconsider the grouping. Amongst his many contributions to our know- ledge of important problems of wide biological importance, special allusion may be perhaps made to a paper that appeared in the Biologisches Cen- tralblatt about twelve years ago, in which he traced the effect of Ustilago violacea in causing the normally latent stamens in Lychnis dioica to develop within the female flower. In this paper are also detailed many experiments on the possi- bility of influencing the numerical ratio of the sexes in dicecious plants. Limitations of space, however, quite forbid any attempt to do justice here to Strasburger’s scientific work. That will be more appropriately dealt with in another place. It is rather of the man and of his personality that one would speak, even though briefly. He was possessed of a singular charm of manner, which also makes itself felt in many of his writings. In controversy he was always a courteous opponent, and set in this respect an example which is unfortunately not always fol- lowed. He attracted to his laboratory students from all parts of the world, and many who have studied at Bonn will recall the respectful affection in which the Geheimrath, as he was generally spoken of, was held. A country walk with him was a delight not easily forgotten; he would talk deeply and lucidly on many subjects—the philosophy of science and of politics, of art and of literature— and there was always abundant food for reflection in what he said. In his later years Prof. Strasburger was an occasional visitor to this country, where he was always sure of a warm welcome from a wide circle of scientific confréres. He was a foreign member of the Royal and the Linnean Societies. His loss will be felt as a very real and a very personal one by those who were privileged to count him as a friend. Jeobe Ee NOTES. We are asked to say that Lady Hooker will be grateful if any of her friends who possess letters written by her late husband, Sir Joseph Hooker, will lend them to her for the purposes of a biography | | Orange Free State, and Natal). which Messrs. Smith, Elder and Co. will publish. The letters, which should be forwarded to Lady Hooker at The Camp, Sunningdale, will be carefully returned, Ir is officially announced that Captain H. G,. Lyons, F.R.S., has been appointed assistant director of the Science Museum, South Kensington. D. Srenguist, Frejgatan 69, Stockholm, Sweden, asks us to say that he will be glad to receive papers or unpublished observations of terrestrial magnetism and electricity, meteorological phenomena, and optical effects such as halos, luminous night-clouds, aurora, &c., for the following dates:—r1go8, June 30 to July 1; 1909, September 25; 1910, May 19. Tue Albert medal of the Royal Society of Arts for the current year has been awarded by the council, with the approval of the president, H.R.H. the Duke of Connaught, to the Right Hon. Lord Strathcona and Mount Royal, G.C.M.G., F.R.S., for his services in improving the railway communications, develop- ing the resources, and promoting the commerce and industry of Canada and other parts of the British Empire. Tue death is reported of Dr. W. McMichael Wood- worth, assistant in the Harvard Museum of Com- parative Zoology. He had been a member of the teaching staff of Harvard for more than twenty years. His researches were devoted chiefly to the study of worms. Dr. Woodworth was a close friend of the late Prof. Alexander Agassiz, whom he had accom- panied on several of his explorations in Pacific islands. In the course of his address at the annual general meeting of the Linnean Society of New South Wales on March 27, the president, Mr. W. W. Froggart, reported that the fellowships endowment capital has increased to 40,000]. In response to the invitation of the council of the society for applications for two fellowships for the period 1912-13, Mr. E. F. Hall- | mann and Mr. A. B. Walkom have been appointed. Mr. Hallmann has selected zoology as his branch of study, and will devote his attention particularly to the further elucidation of the characters of the Monaxonellid sponges. Mr. Walkom has_ been appointed in geology, and will proceed to a detailed study of the stratigraphical relations of the Permo- Carboniferous areas of Australia and Tasmania, with special reference to the paleogeography of that | period. A circucar letter from Mr. R. T. A. Innes informs us that the Transvaal Observatory at Johannesburg is now renamed ‘“‘The Union Observatory,” and its activities will be mainly of an astronomical nature, but the first-order meteorological observations will be continued, and the observatory will also collect seismological data for the Union. The Natal Observatory at Durban has been closed, and the Cape Meteorological Commission dissolved. On April 1 a new Department of Meteorology was formed in Pretoria, which will embrace the meteorology of the four provinces of the Union (Cape Colony, Transvaal, In future, com- munications relating to meteorological affairs should be addressed to the Chief Meteorologist, Department of Irrigation, P.O. Box 390, Pretoria, Union of South \ June 13, 1912] NATURE 381 Africa, and for astronomical affairs to the Astro- nomer, Union Observatory, Johannesburg, Union of South Africa. Pror, P. Lenarp, professor of physics at the University of Heidelberg, celebrated his fiftieth birthday on June 7, the event being marked by great rejoicings among his present and past students. Prof. Lenard is best known by his fundamental re- he was elected Nobel laureate in 1905; but he has done a great amount of work of the first importance on other subjects, having, in particular, elucidated | the various actions of ultra-violet light and the many phenomena of phosphorescence. His publications on the former have been recently augmented by a series of papers describing experiments carried out in collaboration with Dr. Ramsauer, in which the photo- electric action on gases and the chemical effects of the light were clearly distinguished, and attributed to definite groups of wave-lengths. The work on phosphorescence, begun in conjunction with Klatt, and since developed in great detail by Lenard and his students, has greatly added to our knowledge of the mechanism of emission of light by the atom. The new institute of physics now being constructed for Lenard at Heidelberg is rapidly nearing completion, and will put at his disposal greatly increased con- veniences of laboratory equipment. A Reuter message from New York reports that a steamer arrived at Seward (Alaska) on Sunday covered with voleanic dust from an eruption at Katmai, in the Aleutian Islands. It is stated by those on board that a steady stream of voleanic frag- ments and ash followed a terrific explosion, spread- ing over the countryside. The sun was obscured. Although the vessel was seventy miles distant, at four ‘o'clock: on Thursday afternoon complete darkness set in and ash fell in a thick layer on the decks. It is estimated that volcanic ash covers three hundred square miles of fertile country. According to a tele- gram from Seattle (Washington State) the volcanic disturbance is rendering wireless telegraphic com- munication with Kadiak, Rospberry, and Afognac, three of the most important islands of south-western Alaska, impossible. Sirk Wittiam Witicocks lectured before the Royal Geographical Society on June 10 on ** The Garden of Eden and its Restoration,” a title which will be easily understood as referring to the great work which he has been planning at the request of the Turkish Government—the regulation of the lower Euphrates | and Tigris and the use of their waters to restore the former fertility of the territories through which they flow, the now desolate seat of some of the oldest known civilisations. He explained the difficulties of raging floods with which the ancient engineers had to contend, contrasting them with the regular and comparatively gentle rise of the Nile, and remarking that Egypt, where everything was made easy, * pro- duced no world ideas.” He placed the original home of the inhabitants of Sumer and Akkad in Arabia, close at hand. He described his discovery of a de- NO. 2224, VOL. 89] | monoplane, time, 2h. 26m. 39s. | on a 70-h.p. Gnome Blériot monoplane, was the first pression in the desert, containing Euphrates shells, just as the limits of the ancient lake Moeris are marked by Nile shells. He designed the Habbania escape to carry the overflow of the Euphrates into this depression. He also detailed schemes for the more difficult regulation of the Tigris, which the ancient engineers never completely effected, and showed that the delta of the two rivers, once the works were com- searches on the kathode rays, in recognition of which | pleted would be a richer agricultural region than Egypt or the Sudan, adding, among other proofs, comparative analyses of the soils in the three areas. Tue flight round London, the so-called “ Aérial Derby,” of eighty-one miles for a gold cup presented by The Daily Mail, and cash prizes of 250l., 1ool., and sol., given by Mr. Harold Barlow, took place without serious mishap on June 8. The starting and finishing points were the London Aérodrome at Hen- don, and the course lay over Kempton Park, Esher, Purley, Purfleet, Epping, and High Barnet. Although fifteen machines had been entered, only seven went to the starting line, and only five com- pleted the course. The official results were given as follows:—i1st, G. Hamel (and passenger, Miss Trehawke Davies), 70-h.p. Gnome Blériot monoplane, time th. 38m. 46s.; 2nd, W. B. R. Moorhouse, 50-h.p. Gnome Radley-Moorhouse monoplane, time. 2h. om. 22s.; 3rd, J. Valentine, 50-h.p. Gnome Bristol T. O. M. Sopwith, to return, but was disqualified for having turned a considerable distance inside the Purley mark, having missed his course; P. Verrier, carrying a passenger on his 7o-h.p. Renault M. Farman biplane, got lost in the clouds over Esher, and did not complete the ~ course; S. V. Sippe (50-h.p. Gnome Hanriot mono- plane) also missed his way; and M. Guillaux (45-h.p. Anzani Caudron monoplane) was robbed of the first prize by running out of petrol, and being compelled to descend only four miles from the finish. The out- standing features of the race were the awakening interest of the general public, who turned out in vast numbers all along the route, the extraordinary speed of a comparatively low-powered monoplane (the Caudron), showing very great efficiency in design; the fact that not a single British motor competed, the fact that the successful pilots steered more by the course indicated by the crowd of spectators than by maps and compass; and, finally, the urgent necessity for more delicate and precise instruments for aérial navigation. Methods for instantly determining the speed over land, the speed of the wind, and the amount of drift on an aéroplane have long been desired by the aviator, and until they are forthcoming | it is impossible to reduce aérial navigation to an exact science. Tue President of the Local Government Board has authorised the following special researches to be paid for out of the annual grant voted by Parliament in aid of scientific investigations concerning the causes and processes of disease :—(1) Further investigations (a) as to the distribution of tubercle bacilli in children having died between the ages of two and ten years, and the special characteristics of such bacilli; and (b) 382 NATURE [JUNE 13, 1912 in collaboration with the general register office, on the incidence of different forms of tuberculosis in different parts of the country, according to age, sex, occupation, and other conditions. (2) A continuation of a research into the causes of premature arterial degeneration in man by Dr. F. W. Andrewes, of St. Bartholomew’s Hospital. (3) A joint investigation into the virus of Poliomyelitis, by Drs. F. W. Andrewes and H. M. Gordon, of St. Bartholomew’s Hospital. (4) A continuation of an investigation into the micro-organisms known as non-lactose fermenters occurring in the alimentary canal of infants, by Dr. C. J. Lewis, of Birmingham University, Dr. D. M. Alexander, of Liverpool University, and Dr. Graham- Smith, of Cambridge University. (5) A continuation of the investigation by Prof. Nuttall, of Cambridge University, on fleas and on the range of flight of the domestic and allied flies. In the twelfth Bulletin of the Bankfield Museum, Halifax, Messrs. H. P. Kendall and H. Ling Roth, the honorary curator, publish a catalogue of an interesting exhibition, now open, of prehistoric imple- ments collected in the neighbourhood of the city. They are found under a layer of peat, associated with remains of the Bronze age. But the implements of that metal hitherto brought to light are small and fragmentary, and it is thus obvious that the age of stone overlapped that of bronze. The period assigned to these specimens is about 500 B.c. arrow-heads are fine examples of secondary chipping. Of special interest are the so-called ‘‘ pygmy" flints, found in considerable numbers. Mr. Ling Roth dis- misses the theory that these were fixed together in | a handle and used like the implement found by Dr. Livingstone among the Makalolo for the destruction of the inner tissue of hides. While admitting that some of them may have been used for the purpose of tattooing, he urges that their great numbers show that this cannot have been their only object. Many uses may be conjectured for these curious imple- | ments, but no single explanation suggested accounts for their special forms. yet Tue proprietors of The Bioscope have promoted some educational kinematograph demonstrations which are given at Cinema House, 225 Oxford Street. That on medical subjects (June 5) included ameceboid movements of leucocytes, trypanosomes and_spiro- chztes in the blood, examination of the stomach under X-rays, and the life-history of the mosquito. The movements of the spirochaetes and trypanosomes were vividly portrayed, and the study of the mosquito outlined in a few minutes the life of the insect. The movements of the larvz and the effects of petroleum as a culicide were shown, and the final scene, the emergence of the perfect insect’ from the demonstrated the capabilities of the kinematograph for reproducing biological phenomena. A copy has been received of the report to the trusteeS of the Indian Museum on zoological and | anthropological work undertaken during the Abor expedition of 1911-12, written by Mr. S. W. Kemp, the senior assistant superintendent of the museum. NO. 2224, VOL. 89] Some of the | pupa, | | | tion Reference has already been made in these columns (June 6, p. 365), in our report of the meeting of May 1 | last of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, to two papers upon specimens collected during the expedition, and other papers will no doubt be presented to the same society shortly. The report just received gives a brief account of what was accomplished by Mr. Kemp as zoologist and anthropologist to the expedition, and by his assistant, Mr. R. Hodgart, the zoological col- lector in the Indian Museum. A SATISFACTORY year’s work and progress are re- corded in the report of the Zoological Society of Philadelphia for ror1, the receipts from admissions having shown a considerable increase over those of Igto, despite an unfavourable winter and an un- usually large number of wet Sundays in the summer. Attention is directed to the increasing cost and diffi- culty of obtaining living specimens of representative wild animals, due, it is surmised, in great part to diminished supply, protection of faunas, and restric- tions on importations of livestock of all kinds. Further experiments in outdoor life for monkeys and carnivores were successfully instituted. In the concluding portion of the report of Prof. H. F. Osborn’s Harvey lecture, published in the May number of The American Naturalist, it is argued that the occurrence of discontinuity in heredity in three widely sundered families of mammals is not to be regarded as evidence of discontinuity of origin. If discontinuities in origin do exist, they must be so minute as to be indistinguishable from those fluctua- tions round a mean which appear to accompany every stage in the evolution and ontogeny of unit characters. The principle of predetermination, of which the author finds evidence, is in direct opposi- to the views of Bateson, de Vries, and Johannsen, and there seems to be ‘‘an unknown law operating in the genesis of many new characters and entirely distinct from any form of indirect law which would spring out of the selection of the lawful from the lawless.” In the course of the above-quoted Harvey lecture, Prof. Osborn records some very interesting compari- sons between the skulls and cheek-teeth of horses, mules, and asses. The tendency of these is to con- firm the view that the mule is generally only a partial blend of the characteristics of its parents, most of its features inclining to one or the other type. In skull- characters mules assimilate in the main to horses (which are a polyphyletic type), whereas in the pattern of their cheek-teeth, as well as in external features and disposition, they are more like the monophyletic ass, thus showing that the ass-like characters are displayed by epiblastic structures. Several of the horse-like features recorded by the author as occurring in the mule are, it may be observed, much less apparent in the wild Mongolian tarpan than in domesticated horses, thus suggesting that they are derived from an Arab source. In the Bulletin of the St. Petersburg Botanical Garden (xii., 1), Dr. V. Arcichovskij describes various objects—some well known, others new— JuNE 13, 1912] NATURE 383 which are suitable for the study of the anatomy of plants with the naked eye. Teachers of botany know that a good deal of ‘‘histology’’ can be done without the aid of the microscope if suitable material be selected, as, for instance, the stems of cucumber, marrow, balsam, or begonia, in which the cells and vessels are readily seen. The author gives measurements of the large parenchyma cells in the stems of these and other plants, but the largest sizes are apparently attained in the leaves of various succu- lents, such as Echeveria, Kleinia, Crassula, and Aloe. The nucleus can be seen with a lens magnifying ten diameters, or even with the naked eye, in the cells of the arbutus fruit; the protoplasmic streaming in the elongated cells of the stonewort Nitella is readily observed in the same way. The leaves of various conifers and succulents show the distribution of the stomata well without microscopic aid, especi- ally after the waxy ‘bloom”’ has been removed. Tue last number of the Bollettino of the Italian Seismological Society (vol. xv., No. 12) is devoted to notices of the earthquakes recorded in Italy towards the close of 1908. The interest of these notices naturally centres in the Messina earthquake of December 28. The present number contains a sum- mary of all the instrumental records, the personal observations, which are very numerous, being re- | served for one of the special Annali to be issued shortly by the Meteorological and Gcodynamic Office of Rome. As a rule, the instrumentai records in all parts of the country are incomplete, seismo- graphs having been thrown out of action by the violence of the shock, or the writing-pens swung off the drums or caught by some other part of the apparatus. For so strong an earthquake, the re- corded after-shocks are few in number, but this, it is suggested, may be due to the fact that they were practically confined to the most strongly shaken regions, and therefore escaped registration owing to the want of observers. Tue ‘‘New Method of Weather Forecasting,’’ pub- lished by M. G. Guilbert (Paris, 1909), has again been brought to the special notice of meteorologists by the publication of a critical study of the question by Heer P. H. Gallé in the Mededeelingen of the Royal Netherlands’ Meteorological Institute (No. 12, i912). Guilbert’s rules depend upon three principal ideas :—(1) normal wind; (2) region of least resist- ance; and (3) convergent (or divergent) winds. Our readers will find a very lucid statement of the method by one of our leading meteorologists in Nature, vol. Ixxxii., p. 271 (1910). It is there explained, e.g., that, after a careful scrutiny of the daily weather charts, Guilbert found that if the wind force is in excess of the normal for the gradient, a surge of high pressure in the direction of the gradient may be expected, and vice versd, and that any wind which has a component directed away from a centre of low pressure marks a region of low resistance to its advance. Heer Gallé applied these principles to the prediction of the chief meteorological elements for various districts, and has given the results for each case. The general conclusion arrived at is that NO. 2224, VOL. 89| while the method in question may not be expected to revolutionise the meteorological service, it may pro- mote the progress of weather prediction and, especi- ally, may lead to an improvement of storm warn- ings. AN important article on ‘Modern Uses of the Metal Aluminium,” by Dr. R. Seligman, appears in the April issue of Science Progress. The sudden demand for the metal in 1005 was due to the re- quirements of the motor-car industry; but as addi- tional supplies were not forthcoming sufficiently quickly, the industry turned to the use of thin steel sheets and frames of special steels, which were often found actually to be lighter than aluminium parts of equal strength. The increase of output from gooo tons in 1905 to 34,000 tons in 1910 resulted in a fall in price to about one-half, and brought back a certain amount of the earlier demand for aluminium in motor-car work. But other uses were required to consume the enlarged supply, and in this country a very important outlet has resulted from the discovery | of methods whereby, with the help of a special flux, sheets of aluminium may be fused together without the use of any extraneous solder. Vessels made in this way are of special value for chemical industries, and most of all in those involved in the manipulation of food materials. The metal is not only entirely non-poisonous, but resists corrosion in a way that is in many respects remarkable, and has the further advantage that it imparts no coloration to the materials in contact with it. In the brewing indus- try, fermenting tanks up to 30,000 gallons have been constructed, and pressure vessels for fermenting up to 45 lb. per square inch have been made of 1800 gallons’ capacity; the metal has here the special advantage that it can easily be kept clean from bacteria, and is as innocuous to yeast as it is to the human stomach. In studying the hydrolysis of salicin by emulsin, MM. Bourquelot and Bridel have been able to show that the action goes on in strong alcoholic solutions, but that the hydrolysing action stops when about a half of the salicin has been acted upon. It seemed possible that this might be a reversible reaction, and in the Comptes rendus for May 20 they describe an attempt to synthesise salicin from saligenin and glucose by the action of emulsin in alcoholic solu- tion. The change was followed by measuring the changes in the rotatory power of the solution, and after twenty-four days the optical properties of the liquid were exactly those which would be expected for the equilibrium with 55 per cent. of salicin. But in spite of this coincidence the glucoside formed was found, after extraction and purification, to be different from salicin. This shows that conclusions previously drawn as to the reversible action of emulsin are unsound. An exhaust-gas calorimeter for internal-combustion engines, in use at Glasgow University, is described by Messrs. Nicholson and Morley in Engineering for May 31. The principle of the apparatus lies in the transfer of heat from the exhaust gases into a water 384 NALORE PJUNE' 13, done jacket surrounding the exhaust pipe. To ensure rapid cooling, the exhaust gases are led through Serve tubes. The water jacket is formed by the space between the Serve tube and an external tube of slightly greater diameter; the annular space is kept small in order to obtain a high velocity of flow in the circulating water. Thermometers are inserted in suitably packed pockets. The whole apparatus is exceedingly simple and inexpensive to construct, being built up of standard pipe fittings, and should prove a useful addition to the testing appliances of an engineering laboratory or of a works’ test plate; the otherwise troublesome operation of determining the heat wasted in the exhaust gases may be easily performed by its use. We learn from The Engineer for June 7 that rapid progress is being made with the leviathan dock at Liverpool, and that it is hoped to complete the work in the summer of 1913. This dock is 1020 ft. long —nearly 140 ft. longer than the Olympic—and has an entrance 120 ft. wide. The structure of the dock is to be such that it will be available when required as a graving dock for overhauling and repairing the largest steamers likely to be met with for some years. The entrance will be provided with a sliding caisson having a clapping face on each side, so as to main- tain the water in the dock or exclude it therefrom according to the duty required. The caisson is 134 ft. in width. The dock walls are 60 ft. high, and are practically complete. For emptying the dock, five sets of centrifugal pumps with Diesel engines will be installed. These will be capable of emptying the contents of the dock, amounting to about seven million cubic feet of water, in two and a half hours. SEVERAL new editions of scientific works have been received recently. These include a second edition of Prof. A. G. Webster’s ‘‘The Dynamics of Particles and of Rigid, Elastic, and Fluid Bodies,”’ published by Mr. B. G. Teubner, of Leipzig, and Messrs. Williams and Norgate, in London, at the price of 14s. net. This edition is substantially identical with the first, except that a few errors have been corrected. —A second edition of Prof. E. C. C. Baly’s ‘ Spectro- scopy’ has been issued by Messrs. Longmans, Green and Co., at the price of 12s. 6d. In it Prof. Baly has given a résumé of the salient points of the more modern work, and has provided useful lists of refer- ° ences.—Messrs. Hazell, Watson and Viney, Ltd., have issued a ninth edition of ‘‘The Dictionary of Photo- graphy,’ by Mr. E. J. Wall, which has been edited by Mr. F. J. Mortimer. The book has been com- pletely revised and brought up to date, and nearly a hundred pages of new matter have been added. The price of the new edition is 7s. 6d. net.—A sixth edition of Miss M. N. Oxford’s ‘‘ Handbook of Nursing ”’ has been published by Messrs. Methuen and Co., Ltd., at the price of 3s. 6d. net. This work has been entirely revised, and in the work of revision the author has had considerable expert assistance.—From ’ the same publishers we have received a copy of the ninth edition of Sir Oliver Lodge’s ‘‘Man and the Universe,” which can now be obtained at ts. net. NO. 2224, VOL. 89] ! OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. Nova Geminorum No. 2.—The more salient features of two series of spectrograms taken at the Pulkowa Observatory (March 15-18 and March 25 and 26) are described by Dr. Tikhoff in No. 2, vol. v., of the Mitteilungen of that observatory. The scale was small, 6°3 mm. from H8 to He, but the negatives clearly disclose the extraordinary changes which took place in the spectrum of the nova. By employing different plates and filters, Dr. Tikhoff secured nega- tives giving the whole spectrum from Ha to Hy, and he states that on March 15 the characteristic feature was a series of intense absorption lines, both broad and narrow, the bright lines being but little brighter than the intense continuous spectrum. He classifies the spectrum as lying between types F and G. On March 16 the continuous spectrum generally had diminished considerably in brightness, except in the ultra-violet, where it was brighter and extended to about A3600; the absorption bands of hydrogen were scarcely visible on this date, although H and K were very strong and the bright bands of hydrogen very intense. The striking features on March 25 were the reappearance of the absorption bands and the strong continuous spectrum. During the two periods of observation two analogous series of changes occurred in the spectrum, such as might be produced, Dr. Tikhoff imagines, by the shattering of successive absorbing envelopes by fresh outbreaks of incandescent gases from the central mass. Prof. Belopolsky, in the same Mitteilungen, gives, in great detail, the measures of the structure of the various H, Ca, He, and N (?) lines, from which he deduces the radial velocities and possible physical conditions of the emitting masses. THe Minor Pranet 1911 MT.—From a note in The Observatory (No. 449, p. 243) we learn that the elements for the orbit of the exceedingly interesting asteroid 1911 MT., calculated by Messrs Haynes and Pitman, are, as shown by the observations, fairly accurate. The planet has a period of about 2°6 years, while its perihelion distance is about the same, 1°15, as that of Eros, but the eccentricity of the orbit is nearly twice as great. The next opposition will take place in March, 1913, but the planet’s magnitude will then be 17 or 18; most of the oppositions take place when the planet is near aphelion, and are therefore unfavourable for observation. According to amended elements published by Prof. Franz, in No. 4575 of the Astronomische Nachrichten, the orbit is like that of Eros, but the planet approaches even nearer the earth than does the famous object dis- covered by de Witt. THE SPECTRUM OF P CyGni.—Discovered by Janson in 1600 and observed as a third-magnitude star, by Cassini, for a short period in 1655, the star P Cygni has for more than 230 years remained at nearly constant magnitude, 50, and its spectrum still re- quires adequate explanation. Prof. Frost, dealing with it in a paper published in No. 4, vol. xxxv., of The Astrophystcal Journal, offers some interesting points for consideration. Among other things he finds that in recent years the spectrum has remained practically constant, that the apparently large displacements of the dark com- panions to the bright lines are spurious, being pro- duced. by the obscuration of their less refrangible portions by the bright lines, and that there is a difference of 70 kms. between the radial velocities of the dark- and bright-line systems. The lines of H, He, O, and N are represented both as emission and absorption, while Ca and Si present dark lines only; ——— JUNE 13, 1912] NATURE 385 there are numerous bright and dark lines as yet unidentified. The spectrum somewhat resembles those of nove in the early stages, but the lines are narrower, and the enhanced lines, such a prominent feature in what has been called the ‘‘typical’’ nova spectrum, are comparatively few. From the dark silicon lines Prof. Frost finds a practically constant radial velocity of —82 kms., which is, however, not shared by the narrow, dark calcium line at K. Mr. Merrill has found bright companions to the silicon lines on spectrograms taken at the Lick Observatory, so that Prof. Frost’s value of —82 kms. may prove to be too large. If hydrogen and helium radiations behave under pressure like those of metallic vapours, the observed displacements would indicate a pressure of something like 200 atmospheres in the emitting mass, with normal pressures in the absorbing layers. SECONDARY OSCILLATIONS IN RaDIAL-VELOCITY Curves.—In quite a number of cases the velocity curves derived from the spectroscopic examination of binary systems have shown a secondary oscillation suggesting a departure of the orbit from the true elliptical form, such as might be caused by the presence of a third body, but some doubt has always remained as to the objective reality of such departures. In an attempt to settle this question, Dr. Schlesinger studied the spectrograms of 30 H Urse Majoris, especially taken on fine-grained plates; this star has provided a typical example of the secondary oscillation. He found that the sharp K line did not exhibit this peculiarity, and concludes that the secondary oscillation is only apparent. Possibly the inherent difficulty of measuring the broader hydrogen lines introduces a systematic error which has been insufficiently reckoned for when apportioning the weights to the various measures (Publications of the Allegheny Observatory, Nos. 15 and 16, vol. ii.). CONGRESS OF UNIVERSITIES OF THE EMPIRE. ifs is surprising to learn that the Empire boasts, at the present moment, fifty-four seats of higher education entitled by Charter or by Act of a Colonial Legislature to the style of university. Advisedly we write, at the present moment. Last summer Queens- land and Hong Kong added two to the list; the Uni- versity of Western Australia came into being on January 1; those of Calgary and British Columbia are still younger. It is the age of universities. When the Victorian Universities of Manchester, Birmingham, Liverpool, and Leeds made their appearance they were viewed with considerable mis- giving from Oxford and Cambridge. The older universities feared lest they should suffer severely from the competition. The number of their students and their efficiency have increased as rapidly as their rivals’. British universities, whether at home or overseas, have developed in every case along natural lines. None has been planted in a community by the State or by a wealthy benefactor, fully equipped and staffed. Each has commenced its embryonic life as a college— the beginnings of the ancient universities can be but dimly discerned—and has passed through a larval stage as a university college before it received its degree-giving powers. In its adult form it has adapted itself with remarkable ingenuity to its par- ticular environment. As compared with those of the Continent and of America, British universities are characterised by their idiosyncrasies. Very justly, they are extremely jealous of State interference with its inevitable tendency towards uniformity of pattern. NO. 2224, VOL. 89] However undesirable If this capacity of adaptation be the genius of our universities, if each must work out its own constitu- tion, define its aims, devise methods proper to its sphere of work, ‘“‘ Why,” it may be asked, “summon the universities in parliament?’’ This question may - be answered, if on no higher ground, by assuming that the discussions of their delegates will make for economy of time and labour. Underlying their diversities, there is much that is common to all seats of learning. Conference and comparison of experi- ence will clear the mind of many misapprehensions, and, focussing attention upon matters of immediate importance, will reveal the way in which difficulties have been or may be dealt with. Every teacher who takes an active share in academic life groans under the intolerable burden of ‘‘university business.” Time and thought which might be devoted to re- search are absorbed on a lavish scale in the drudgery of keeping the university machine up to date, mend- ing and modifying, not driving it. If a man-hour be taken as the unit, fifty units of intellectual energy wasted daily is a moderate estimate for one of the larger universities. It may be predicted that during the four days’ session of the congress some progress will be made towards settling policies which would take a longer time to formulate if considered by each university as a problem peculiar to itself. There are many forms of academic activity which, for their effective promotion, demand cooperation. For some the discovery of a common path is needed; others require that the several universities agree to diverge. The ever-present question of a satisfactory test of fitness for admission is an illustration of the former class of problems. At what stage of training should a lad be allowed to follow special studies? How are we to ascertain whether the gymnastic of the school has rendered his mind sufficiently strong and agile? When may he cross the frontier which separates school from university? The congress will endeavour to delimit the adjoining provinces, and incidentally to introduce a scientific boundary line— to agree upon a parallel which may be crossed at any point. Schoolmasters will be very grateful if it simplifies their task, reducing in some degree the complexity of the arrangements necessary for the teaching of their higher forms. Their work is con- fused at present by the bewildering variety of entrance tests for the different universities, the pro- fessions, and the public services. As an illustration of the subjects of the second category proposed for discussion, we may cite “specialisation among universities.” It is impossible, nowadays, to make adequate provision for advanced work in all subjects at any single institution. Some tendency to specialise is the characteristic mark of every vigorous university. Uniform distribution of effort is proof of mediocrity. It is unmistakable evidence of the absence of any teacher whose fame attracts students, whose learning fits him to be leader of a School. Universities which have teachers of renown concentrate, almost unconsciously, upon the branches of study which they represent. Local surroundings also point the way to specialisation. It is eminently desirable that universities should foster the sciences upon which depend the industries of the districts which they serve. Specialisation at once raises a further question. It is in the interests of scholarship that a senior student should find his way made easy to a university of high repute in the sub- ject of his choice. Every inducement should be held out to him to seek a famous School. Free trade in students ought to be a governing principle of the Empire. Yet many artificial barriers still remain. le it may be that undergraduate 386 life should be interrupted during its earlier years, there is an urgent demand on the part of students for greater facilities of migration. In this brief article we can but give examples of the kind of sub- jects put down for discussion, but those to which we have referred will suffice to illustrate the thought which has guided the committee in their selection. All the items on the agenda paper are such as will lead to decisions which may issue in practical results. A congress of this magnitude could not be organised without long and laborious preparation. Two years have elapsed since the Colonies were first consulted. Preliminary conferences were held in Canada and in Australia last summer, and in Delhi just before the Durbar. The subjects proposed for discussion by the several universities of the United Kingdom and of the Empire overseas were con- sidered by the committee early in the autumn. The paper of agenda was drawn up in November. All the universities have sent in returns of information regarding their regulations aud customs so far as these are relevant to the subjects to be discussed. aeeskers will be in no uncertainty as to matters of act. The importance attached to the congress is indi- cated by the names of those who have promised to take part in it. There are absolutely no gaps in the list. All the Chancellors and Lord Rectors of the home universities are members of the general London committee. The executive committee con- sists of the Vice-Chancellors. The chairmen of its several sessions will be: Lord Rosebery, Chancellor of London and Glasgow; Lord Curzon, Chancellor of Oxford; Lord Rayleigh, Chancellor of Cambridge; Lord Strathcona, Chancellor of McGill and Aberdeen ; Mr. Arthur Balfour, Chancellor of Edinburgh; Lord Haldane, Chancellor of Bristol. We shall take the opportunity of giving the names of invited speakers and readers of papers at a later date. Delegates will be received in the Marble Hall of the University of London by H.R.H. Prince Arthur of Connaught, president of the general London committee, on Tuesday, July 2. In addition to the delegates and representative members nominated by the various universities, associate members, whose names are approved by the committee, will be admitted on payment of a fee of tos. 6d. They will receive the report, and will be invited to certain entertainments offered to the members of the congress, but will not be entitled to take part in its discussions. Further information can be obtained from the secretary, Dr. Alex Hill, at the Congress Office, University of London. THE NATIONAL PHYSICAL LABORATORY.1 OL. VIII. of the Collected Researches of the National Physical Laboratory maintains the high standard we have learnt to expect in the publications issuing from our national scientific consultants. It is almost impossible to omit mentioning any one of the thirteen memoirs which the volume contains without feeling that an iniustice has been done to a research of great interést. In the standards department Dr. Kaye has con- structed a standard meter of silica which by its low coefficient of expansion seems specially adapted for such a purpose. Advantage has been taken of the setting up of the Blythswood dividing engine in the laboratory to secure photographs of the various parts, and these add materially to the interest of the 1 “Collected Researches of the National Physical Laboratory.’ Vol. viii. Pp. iv-+251. (s912.) NO. 2224, VOL. 89] NATURE [JUNE 13, 1912 description of the instrument contributed by Mr. Scoble. Every spectroscopist will join with Dr. Glaze- brook in the hope that at no very distant date Lord Blythswood’s engine will be turning out diffraction gratings free from periodic error. The research on the alloys of aluminium and zinc carried out by Dr. Rosenhain and Mr. Archbutt under the auspices of the Alloys Committee of the Institu- tion of Mechanical Engineers proves that these alloys are much more complex than has been previously supposed. Mr. Batson’s work on the mechanical properties of hard-drawn copper and bronze wires for the Engineering Standards Committee shows that the uniformity obtained in modern manufacture is such that tests on specimens a few inches long agree with those on lengths of 50 ft. Dr. Stanton breaks new ground in his measure- ments of the shearing stress in the flow of air through pipes with speeds which render the motion turbulent or eddying, and the frictional resistance at the surface proportional to the square of the velocity. At the request of the Wiring Rules Committee of the Institution of Electrical Engineers, Messrs. Melsom and Booth have investigated the rise in temperature of electric cables of different sizes and types when transmitting current. They find that the currents allowed by the 1907 wiring rules of the institution give rises of temperature of much less than 20° F. for cables under 0-05 square in. in section and more than 30° F. for 1 square in. cables. According to the tests made by Messrs. Paterson and Kinnes on instruments sent on long railway and road journeys, watt hour meters of the induction type can be relied on to remain constant to within 0-5 per cent. The report by Messrs. Campbell, Booth and Dye on the results of tests of five samples of magnetic sheet iron and steel made in the first place at the laboratory, then at the Reichsanstalt at Charlottenburg and at the Bureau of Standards at Washington, and then again at the laboratory, shows that the methods now in use at the various laboratories give results which are in close agreement. The methods and apparatus used in testing the flash points of petroleums have received a thorough investigation at the hands of Dr. Harker and Mr. Higgins, who conclude that the temperature which determines the flash is not that of the bulk of the oil as indicated by the thermometer, but that of the oil and vapour interface which is not measured. It is hoped that the further work on the subject in contemplation will lead to a marked increase in the value of flash-point determinations. The report on the equipment of the Froude national tank by the superintendent, Mr. Baker, shows that it is now in order, and that preliminary runs have been made. One cannot close the volume without realising how important the work carried out at the laboratory must be for the future of many of our industries. It seems now almost incredible that those industries were without such a national institution until the beginning of the present century. C. H. Lees: THE ETIOLOGY OF KALA-AZAR. N March 27 of this year Captain W. S. Patton, I.M.S., gave a university lecture at the Senate House, Madras, on his investigations into the etiology of kala-azar. His Excellency Lord Car- michael, Chancellor of the University, presided, and there was a large audience of fellows and graduates. Captain Patton first directed attention to the deadly nature of kala-azar, and pointed out’ that little at present was known regarding the extent of the disease either in Madras or in the Presidency. He June 13, 1912] NATURE 387 referred to the brilliant discovery of the parasite by Sir Wm. Leishman, R.A.M.C., and of the discovery of the flagellate stage by Major Rogers, I.M.S. It was at this stage of our knowledge of the parasite that, the lecturer said, he began his experimental work in 1905, and a detailed description was then given of how this problem was attacked, and the results which have followed this work during the | last seven years. There were two main theories as to how the parasite leaves man’s body in order to undergo its extracorporeal flagellate stage. Sir Patrick Manson had suggested that the parasite was discharged from ulcerated surfaces, either cutaneous or intestinal, and that it was then ingested by some foul-feeding fly. Against this hypothesis, however, was the fact that the parasite would not flagellate in any medium containing bacteria. Two years ago the lecturer had fed a large number of bred house- flies (Musca nebulo) on fresh splenic juice, and had found that the parasite disappeared from _ the alimentary tract of the fly in a few hours; it was difficult, then, to understand how the parasite could be transmitted in this way. The other hypothesis, first advanced by Major Rogers, and later by Major Christophers, was that the parasite was ingested by some _ blood-sucking insect. In order, however, for this to take place it was necessary for the parasite to be present in the circulating blood of an infected person. Colonel Donovan, I.M.S., Major Christophers, I.M.S., and the lecturer had no difficulty in finding the parasite in the circulating blood of practically every case of kala-azar. The lecturer also pointed out in 1907 that in certain stages of the disease, namely, severe dysenteric attacks, the parasite could be found in large numbers in a drop of finger blood. Captain Patton then went on to describe how he fed Pedi- culus capitis, P. vestimenti, Culex fatigans, Neo- cellia stephensi, Stegomyia sugens, and Ornithodorus Savignyi on cases of kala-azar in the peripheral blood of which there was a large number of parasites, but was unable to observe any developmental changes undergone by the parasite in these insects. He next described his feeding experiments with the Indian bed-bug Cimex rotundatus, and pointed out that he was able to trace the parasite from its un- changed state in a leucocyte in the stomach of the bug up to the formation of the mature flagellate stage. In twelve bugs which had only fed once on a patient, and which were all dissected by the fifth day, he was able to confirm these earlier observa- tions. As he was then unaware of the probable final stages in the development of the parasite, the bugs were not kept long enough. The failure to obtain a massive infection with the bug when fed on a case in the peripheral blood of which there were immense numbers of parasites was extremely disappointing, and it was felt that there was some factor in connection with the development of the parasite in the bug which had yet to be discovered. Assuming that kala-azar is an insect-borne disease, it is a remarkable fact that it has scarcely, if at all, spread outside Madras. In order to explain this curious epidemiological truth, Captain Patton came to the conclusion that, in addition to the small number of parasites which are found in the peri- pheral blood in the majority of cases, there was some natural obstacle which came in the way of the para- site completing its life-history in the bug. Further work on kala-azar was then abandoned, and the study of insect flagellates of the genus Herpetomonas taken up. As a result of these studies, Captain Patton was able to show not only how several insects containing these flagellates became infected, but also NO. 2224, VOL. 89] | patience. pointed out that they had three phases in their life- histories—pre-flagellate, flagellate, and _ post-flagel- late—and that in the majority of instances insects become infected by ingesting the post-flagellate stage. He then gave a detailed description of the life-history of Herpetomonas muscae-domesticae and H. culicis. As a result of this work he came to the conclusion that the parasite of kala-azar, in order to be trans- mitted to man, must pass back to its post-flagellate stage. He directed attention to the fact that almost every blood-sucking insect was infected with these natural flagellates, and that in order to investigate the kala-azar problem it is imperative for the observer to have first-hand knowledge of these insectan forms. Further, by studying H. culicis, he found that blood | had an injurious effect on the flagellate stage of the parasite, and this has led to the remarkable dis- covery that if a bug contains the flagellate stage of the parasite of kala-azar, this stage is destroyed within twelve hours when the bug again feeds, either on man or on a monkey. He further found that if the bug, which contains flagellate stages, is not fed again, the parasites by the eighth, ninth, and tenth days pass on to their post-flagellate stage, and finally round up in the stomach of the bug by the twelfth day. His previous failures to find a massive infec- tion in the bug or to observe the rounding up of the parasite were obviously due to the bugs having been repeatedly fed, and not being kept long enough after their last feed. This observation is of extreme importance, because if we are to attempt to try and infect a susceptible animal by means of the bug, it would be futile to feed infected bugs on the animal before the post- flagellate stage had been formed. Captain Patton believes that the destruction of the flagellate stage of the parasite by fresh blood is the natural obstacle referred to above. It would at present appear that the bug only becomes infected when it feeds on a case in the peripheral blood of which there are a large number of parasites, and it can only become infective if the interval noted above is obtained for the parasite to complete its development. Captain Patton then gave a short description of his recent work on Oriental sore in Cambay, and stated that he had only succeeded in obtaining the development of the parasite in the bed-bug. He believed that his failures to transmit this parasite to man by the bite of the bug were due to the fact that the bugs used in the experiments were re- peatedly fed, and that an interval for the parasite to complete its development was not allowed. He was at present carrying out further transmission experi- ments with the parasite of Oriental sore, and he hoped, in the light of his recent discoveries, to trans- mit this parasite by the bite of the bed-bug. He fully realised that the conclusive proof that the bed-bug is the transmitter of the parasite of kala- azar was still wanting. Unfortunately, at present it is impossible to infect any known animal with this parasite; he would therefore ask those who would be ready to criticise his worl to exercise still further >. The investigation of the problem of the method of transmission of the parasite of kala-azar bristles with difficulties, but he believed that a dis- tinct advance in the right direction had now been made. He was at the present time repeating all his experiments with blood-sucking insects by feeding them once on a case of kala-azar in the peripheral blood: of which there were large numbers of para- sites, so that all the different kinds of insects utilised would certainly ingest many parasites. He hoped in this way conclusively to prove that the parasite will only develop in the bed-bug. He had in this wap 388 already utilised Conorhinus rubrofasciatus, and had found that the parasite, after being ingested by this bug, degenerated. Further, an exhaustive attempt was being made to find whether kala-azar existed in dogs in Madras, and a long series of experiments by inoculating dogs and many other animals would be carried out at the first opportunity in order to find a susceptible animal. Captain Patton then shortly referred to the human and canine forms of kala-azar which occurred along the Mediterranean littoral. He very much doubted whether the human form was of canine origin, and that the dog-flea or human flea transmitted the parasite. The flagellates found in human and dog-fleas in Italy and elsewhere were unquestionably natural flagel- lates of the fleas, for he had found identical Herpeto- monads in the dog-fleas in Madras. He had studied these parasites, and knew that the flea became infected in its larval stage, so that no precautions had been taken by other observers to exclude these parasites. He was aware that one observer claims to have transmitted the parasite of canine kala- azar by the dog-flea, but these experiments were lacking in precision, and certainly required con- firmation. Even though it may eventually be found that the parasite was transmitted by the dog-flea, there was no proof whatever that the human para- site would be transmitted by the human fléa. He also doubted whether the recent observations of the development of the human parasite in mosquitoes were accurate, for the two mosquitoes which were utilised, namely, Anopheles maculipennis and Stegomyia fasciata, were known to be infected in Europe with natural flagellates. In conclusion, Captain Patton believed that the parasite of kala-azar had once been a natural flagel- late of the bed-bug, and that as this insect had altered its habits from being a plant-feeder to a_blood- sucker, the life-history of the parasite had been so modified that the post-flagellate stage had become transferred to the host of the bug, in whom it had become the pre-flagellate stage. In support of this view there was the fact that human blood was at the present day unsuitable for the flagellate stage of the parasite in the bug. MHe shortly referred to Cono- rhinus rubrofasciatus, which was at the present day becoming sanguivorous, like its ally, C. megistus, which is now entirely a blood-sucking insect. C. rubrofasciatus in Madras was known to be in- fected with a species of Crithidia, and it seemed probable that the life-history of the parasite may in course of time be so modified that it will become transferred to the host of this bug. UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE. CaMBRIDGE.—The Public Orator, Sir John Sandys, spoke as follows on June 6 in presenting Major Leonard Darwin for the degree of Doctor of Science honoris causa :— Salutamus patris illustris filium, fratrum insignium fratrem dignissimum, Societatis illius perquam idoneum praesidem, quae populum totum in_ illis omnibus rebus educandum curat quae nomine noyo evyevuka nuncupantur. Salutamus Regiae Societatis Geographicae praesidem emeritum, qui a Societate illa nominatus studiorum geographicorum concilio nostro. iam dudum_ profuit. Olim in exercitu Britannico scientiae machinalis peritissimus, etiam itineribus longinquis scientiarum causa interfuit, et planetam Venerem praesertim solis orbem_ trans- euntem, primum abhinc annos duodequadraginta, deinde abhinc annos triginta, patria procul observavit. Senatui Britannico per triennium adscriptus, diuque NO. 2224, VOL. 89] NATURE [Jose 13 ,) nome scientiae oeconomicae deditus, et libero de commercio et municipiorum de commercio luculenter disputavit ; idem, velut iudex aequus, illorum sententiam expo- suit, qui non unius tantum metalli sed auri atque argenti e valore monetae mensuram petendam putant. Quot gentium leges monetales subtiliter examinavit; quot orbis terrarum in partibus impigre peregrinatus est; quot scientiarum provincias inter se diversas feliciter peragravit ! Duco ad vos virum ingenio perquam versatili praeditum, virum et suo et fratrum suorum Canta- brigiensium nomine nobis acceptissimum, Leonardum Darwin. The General Board of Studies have reappointed A. Henry, of Gonville and Caius College, as reader in forestry; Dr. Myers as lecturer in experi- mental psychology; Dr. Nicholson as lecturer in Persian; W. H. R. Rivers, of St. John’s College, as lecturer in physiology of the senses; and R. P. Gregory, of St. John’s College, as lecturer in botany. Approved by the General Board of Studies for the degree of doctor of science, Francis Hugh Adam Marshall, of Christ’s College. The General Board of Studies have appointed G. Udny Yule as University lecturer in statistics for five years from October 1, 1gt2, until September 30, 1917, and this appointment has been confirmed by the Special Board for Economics and Politics. The electors to the Sandars readership in bibliography, palzography, &c., have appointed Dr. Greg, librarian of Trinity College, to be Sandars reader for the year 1913. The Forestry Committee are prepared to appoint an adviser in forestry, whose duties will commence on October 1, 1912. The appointment will be for three years. The chief duty of the adviser will be to supply to land- owners and others, in a group of counties in the east of England, advice on the management of their woods and plantations. He will also be required to study in detail lccal conditions in all matters pertain- ing to forestry. Applications should be sent to the secretary of the Forestry Committee, School of Agri- culture, Cambridge, to arrive not later than July 31, 1912. Oxrorp.—A decree will be proposed in Convocation on June 18, authorising the Vice-Chancellor to apply, on behalf of the University, to the Board of Agricul- ture and Fisheries for a grant of 3001. a year for the expenses of agricultural research relating to the soils of Oxfordshire and parts of the adjacent counties, to be conducted in the School of Rural Economy under the direction of the Sibthorpian professor (Prof. W. Somerville). On the same day a decree will be sub- mitted to Congregation, authorising the curators of the University chest to receive a sum of gool., which has been offered by the Development Commissioners through the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, to be applied under the direction of the Committee of Rural Economy in aid of investigation into the economics of agriculture; and to provide from the resources of the University a sum of 300l. a year for each of the three years from October 1, 1913, for the same purpose, if the Development Commissioners shall in each of the same years, according to their offer, make to the University a grant of not less than 6ool. towards the same object. Prof. Karl Pearson, F.R.S., having declined it, the Weldon Memorial Prize for 1912 has been awarded by the electors to Dr.. David Heron. Lonpon.—Mr. W. J. Dakin, assistant lecturer and demonstrator in zoology in the University of Liver- pool, has been appointed senior assistant in the department of zoology and comparative anatomy at University College. OE a a Parmer ah a) JuNE 13, 1912] NATORE 389 Tue former students of Prof. O. Henrici, F.R.S., who, as already announced in these columns, recently retired from the chair of mathematics at the City | and Guilds Engineering College after twenty-seven years’ service, have had engraved in his honour a medal to be awarded annually for proficiency in mathe- matics. The first copy of the medal struck has been presented to Prof. Henrici himself. Tue Department of Agriculture and Technical In- | struction for Ireland has issued its programme for technical schools and science and art schools and classes for the coming session of 1912-13. An ex- planatory circular included in the pamphlet makes it clear that the regulations at present in force will continue with certain slight alterations. An outline syllabus of domestic economy which has been added will be of service to teachers as indicating what may be considered matters of fundamental importance in the early teaching of ‘‘home” science. Many of the changes incorporated in the new programme are purely of an administrative character. ! Tue late Sir Julius Wernher bequeathed séveral | legacies for the purposes of higher education. These include 250,000]. to the Treasurer of the Union of South Africa, as a gift to such Union for the purpose of assisting in building, and, if sufficient, partly en- dowing, a university at Groote Schuur, near Cape Town, provided that the constitution of the said university is approved in writing by Sir Leander Starr Jameson, Bart., and Sir Lionel Phillips, Bart. ; 100,000l. to the Imperial College of Science and Tech- nology, South Kensington, to be used at the dis- cretion of the governing body for the purposes of the said college, together with two-twelfth parts of his residuary estate, but not exceeding 50,0001. Tre Commemoration Day proceedings of Living- stone College were held on June 5. In his statement, the principal, Dr. C. F. Harford, said at the start of the college, nineteen years ago, there was a need for a course for missionaries in medicine and surgery, in order that they might be able to preserve their own health and minister to the needs of the natives. The college was called after Dr. Livingstone, and with the near approach in 1913 of the centenary of his birth it is hoped that the college will take a step forward, and a Livingstone Centenary Fund is being inaugurated for this purpose. This fund will be devoted to:—(1) The paying off of the mortgage of 35001. on the property; (2) the carrying out of certain important improvements in the college premises; (3) the raising of an endowment; and for this at least 10,0001. will be needed. Full particulars can be obtained from the principal at the college, Leyton, E. THE commencement address delivered by President B. I. Wheeler, president of the University of Cali- fornia, has been reprinted in pamphlet form from the University of California Chronicle (vol. xi., No. 3). From a copy which has reached us we find that Presi- dent Wheeler attempted to answer the question, “What may the community fairly expect of a college graduate?”’ From his answer to the inquiry, the following obiter dicta will prove of interest :—‘‘ The world may fairly expect the college graduate to know something. It will be willing, however, to excuse him from the persistent assertion thereof.’’ ‘‘One of the chief advantages . . . which an educated man ought to have over other men should be that he knows what he does not know.” “Specialisation of the right sort in the right men gives range and per- spective.” President Wheeler insists rightly that it is a pity so few students have yet come to appreciate the value of being able to express what they know in intelligible and effective language, both written and spoken. ‘‘ Knowledge,” he says, “without language NO. 2224, VOL. 89] is gold coin withdrawn from circulation and placed in a safe-deposit box.” Tue annual report of the school medical officer for Exeter, Mr. P. H. Stirk, for the year 1911 has been received. The impression made by an examination of the records collected in it is that a well-considered scheme is providing the information necessary to arrange for modifications of the conditions of school life which will result in improved health and physique for the children. The head teachers and attendance officers are cooperating heartily, and already many | improvements have been noticed. During the year 3817 children were medicaliy examined out of 7380 on the register. Of this number, 2666 were routine examinations, 612 were special cases at the inspec- tion clinic, and 520 were re-examinations of defective children. In some schools well over 90 per cent. of the parents were present at the examination, and the average throughout the city was 75 per cent., numbers which show that the parents understand and appreciate the efforts made for their children. Moreover, 83 per cent. of the children have received the treatment suggested, and, as shown by the medical officer’s subsequent examination, this proved of a satisfactory nature. In submitting for the first time the Education Estimates for England and Wales, which amount to 144 millions, Mr. Pease, the Minister of Education, gave, in the House of Commons on June 6, an admir- able résumé of the work of the Board of Education during the past year. In his speech he referred to every branch of our national education, and it is ' possible here to make reference oniy to one or two points of outstanding importance. Speaking of the abolition of the examinations in the elementary stages of science, which have been conducted by the Board for many years, Mr. Pease said it is hoped by the present policy to arouse increased interest among the employers of the country and to get them to do more for their employees by forming committees to work with the local education authorities to establish technical classes connected with engineering, build- ing, and textile industries, and to assist the work by holding examinations locally for themselves, the certificates awarded being in suitable circumstances endorsed by the Board of Education. Dealing with university work, the President explained the method of allocating the various Treasury grants, and spoke of the need for greater private munificence. THERE was considerable discussion at the meetings of the General Medical Council last week as to the present condition of English secondary education. Sir Clifford Allbutt described it as chaotic, and the | president, Sir Donald MacAlister, agreed with the description, and urged that the Government should establish something like a leaving certificate, such as exists in Scotland. An amendment to refer back certain recommendations made by the Education Committee relative to a higher standard for the preliminary examinations of the profession was lost. Another amendment to the effect ‘‘That no further additions be made to the list of secondary schools approved by the council as recognised teaching insti- tutions until the council has had the experience of some years regarding the effect of the recognitions already granted,’’ was also lost. It was decided that a secondary school applying for recognition as a place of study in chemistry, physics, or biology be required to state (1) that it is a public foundation ; (2) the sub- jects in which it desires approval; (3) the name of the licensing body by which it has been recognised as a place of study and the subjects in which it has been recognised; and (4) the date of the last inspec- tion for that purpose. 39° NATURE THE announcements in the issue of Science for May 18 last show that there is no falling off in the United States in the interest in higher education, which expresses itself by liberal gifts for the develop- ment of universities and colleges. Our contemporary states that by the will of Mr. C. H. Pratt, the Massa- chusetts Institute of Technology receives a large bequest to endow a Pratt school of naval architecture and marine engineering. The income of the estate is to accumulate until the sum of 125,000]. has been reached, though it may be used at the expiration of twenty-one years. The Governor has signed the Bill passed by the Massachusetts Legislature appropriating 10,0001, annually for five years to the Worcester Poly- technic Institute. The grant is to be extended for an additional five years if in the meantime the institute obtains 70,0001. An anonymous benefactor has given 20,0001. to Hamilton College for the erection of a new library building. Columbia University has re- ceived from Mr. and Mrs. W. R. Peters a gift of 10,0001. to establish a fund for engineering research in memory of their son. A second gift of 5oool. to Brown University from Mr. John D. Rockefeller, jun., is announced. The endowment has now reached 163,000l. toward the desired 200,000l. Appropriation Bills for the College of Agriculture, Cornell Uni- versity, to the amount of 181,o00l., of which 158,oool. is immediately available, were passed by the New York Legislature at its recent session. The Veterinary College received an appropriation of 21,000l., bringing the total up to 202,400l. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. Lonpon. Royal Society, June 6.—Sir Archibald Geikie, K.C.B., president, in the chair.—Dr. Keith Lucas: The process of excitation in nerve and muscle: the Croonian lecture. Attention has lately been directed to the slow progress made by physiologists in under- standing the physico-chemical nature of the nervous impulse. In the present lecture an attempt is made to examine one aspect of the experimental knowledge which must precede the formulation of any hypo- thesis of this nature. The first problem is to analyse by experiment the relation between each of the phenomena observed in an excited nerve or muscle and that central disturbance which constitutes the nervous impulse. This analysis determines what phenomena must be taken into account in any hypo- thesis of the nervous impulse. By the recognition of the local excitatory process there is opened a fresh possible line of advance in the direction of deter- mining what the nature of the propagated disturbance may be. The former constitutes the condition which initiates the latter, and a knowledge of the physico- chemical nature of the local change may therefore form an important step towards formulating an hypo- thesis of the nature of the disturbance which is the basis of propagation. The hypothesis of Nernst, that the local excitatory process is a concentration of ions at a membrane impermeable to those ions, is examined critically. Some objections already brought against it prove unfounded. The genuine difficulties of the hypothesis are in themselves of service in suggesting experimental work which is needed for the complete verification of any such hypothesis.—Dr. H. L. Duke: Antelope as a reservoir for Trypanosoma gambiense. —Dr. H. L. Duke: Observations on fowls and ducks in Uganda with relation to T. gallinarum and T. gambiense.—Sir D. Bruce, Major D. Harvey, Major A. E. Hamerton, Dr. J. B. Davey, and Lady Bruce: The morphology of the trypanosome causing disease in man in Nyasaland.—Prof J. C. Fields: Theory of the algebraic functions. NO. 2224, VOL. 89] [JUNE 13, 1912 Paris. Academy of Sciences, June 3.—M. Lippmann in the chair.—G, Bigourdan: The advantages of the reflec- tion meridian circle and the question of small planets. The advantages of the reflection meridian circle have been pointed out by Prof. H. H. Turner. The author confirms this, with special reference to the observa- tion of the minor planets.—Armand Gautier and Paul Clausmann: The detection and estimation of very small quantities of fluorine in minerals, in waters, and in living tissues. A description of the method of concentrating quantities of fluorine of the order of 1 milligram from large quan- tities of water or organic matter without loss. The object of the work is to be able to follow the introduction of fluorine into the animal economy by food materials and to determine its localisation in each organ.—L. Mangin and N. Patouillard; Atichia, a group of the lower Ascomy- cetes.—J. Violle: Results of measurements effected during the eclipse of April 17. Details of the varia- tions in atmospheric temperature and humidity, and of the solar radiation.—C,. E. Guillaume ; The specific heat of water from the experiments of Regnault. Taking a specific heat at 60° C. of o’9994, the mean of the data of Barnes, Callendar, and Dieterici, the values for temperatures up to 200° C. are recalculated from the data of Regnault. Up to 120° C. the re- calculated values are in good agreement with the determinations of Dieterici.—M. Flajolet: The recep- tion of the radio-telegraphic signals from the Eiffel Tower at the Observatory of Lyons during the eclipse of the sun of April 17. If any variations in the intensity of the signals were due to the eclipse they were very small and of the same order as the changes of the zero.—Emile Borel: Series of annlytical functions and quasi-analytical functions.--Alfred Rosenblatt : Some inequalities in the thec-y of alge- braic surfaces.—Gustave Dumas: The singulavities of surfaces.—M. Arnaud: A new formula for barometric levelling.—Ch. Fabry and H. Buisson: The mass of the particles which emit the two spectra of hydrogen. The method is based on the observation of the limit- ing order of interference; it was found that the mass of the particles emitting the second spectrum of hydrogen is equal to the atomic mass oi hydrogen. Hence the lines of the second spectrum are not due to an association of several atoms, but to corpuscles identical with the atom or diflering from it very slightly. A study of the first spectrum, the distribu- tion of which follows Balmer’s law, leads to a similar conclusion.—Jean Danysz: The deceleration under- gone by the 8-rays when traversing matter. The slowing down of the rays observed for various metals is of the same order as those recently given by Whiddington for the kathode rays. Applying the theory of J. J. Thomson to these data as a rough approximation the number of electrons contained in an atom is of the same order of magnitude as the atomic weight.—F. Dienert and A. Guillerd : The appli- cation of physico-chemical methods to the estimation of the constituents of natural waters.—E. Chablay : Contribution to the study of the metallic glycol- alcoholates.—F. Bodroux and F. Taboury: The bromination of cyclohexanone and of cyclohexanol.— André Meyer: Dibromophenylisoxazolone and __ its derivatives.—F. Bodroux and F. Taboury: The bromination of some hydroaromatic compounds.—A. Mailhe: The nitro-derivatives of diphenylene.—J. B. Senderens: The use of carbonates in the catalytic preparation of ketones. The conversion of fatty acids into ketones by means of heated calcium or barium carbonates is not a_ true catalytic reaction.—V. Hasenfratz: Trimethyldiapoharmine, a new _ base JuNE 13, 1912] NATURE 391 arising from the application of the Hofmann reaction to apoharmine.—H. Jacob de Cordemoy : The structure of two Melastomaceze with tuberised roots from the east of Madagascar.—Maurice Mangin: Contribution to the study of the disease of the pine supposed to have been caused by Rhizina inflata—M. Lecercle : Heat of the gases of respiration.—J. E. Abelous and E. Bardier: The mechanism of anaphylaxy. The immediate production of the anaphylactic shock with- out preliminary injection of antigen.—Raoul Bayeux : The anoxhemia of high altitudes and its treatment by hypodermic oxygenation. — N. A. _ Barbieri: Anatomical study on the aretinian of the optic nerve in vertebrates—A. Magnan: The growth of ducks submitted to four different methods of feeding.—E. Vasticar: The structure of Deiters’s cell.—G. Rebiére : The properties and chemical composition of electrical colloidal silver precipitated from its solutions by electrolytes. Colloidal silver prepared electrically in pure water and precipitated by electrolytes is a mixture of silver and silver oxide in variable propor- tions.—C. Gerber: The hydrolysis of starch paste by hydrogen peroxide alone or in presence of the plant or animal amylases.—J. Giraud: The geology of the south of Madagascar.—A. Delage: The traces of the great quadrupeds in the lower Permian of Hérault.— J. Deprat: Two new genera of Fusulinidz of eastern Asia, interesting from the phylogenic point of view. —Ph. Glangeaud: Hydrographic changes produced by the voleanoes of the Puys chain. New SoutH WALES. Linnean Society, March 27.—Mr. W. W. Froggatt, president, in the chair.—The President delivered the annual address, which was devoted largely to a con- | sideration of the advances made in the study of insect- life from an economic point of view, including a summary of what the various nations are attempting to do in the way of protecting man and his belongings from the drawbacks resulting from the wholesale dis- turbance. of the conditions under which insect-faunas formerly locally attained something like equilibrium for each country, and what national efforts have now become necessary in order to cope with the depreda- tions of insects which have been unintentionally intro- duced, and flourish amazingly under new conditions, or of indigenous insects which assert themselves in a menacing manner under modified natural conditions. —Dr. H. L. Kesteven: The constitution of the gastro- pod protoconch : its value as a taxonomic feature, and the significance of some of its forms.—E. W. Ferguson: Revision of the amycterides. Part ii., Talaurinus. April 24.—Mr. W. W. Froggatt, president, in the chair.—J. M. Petrie: The chemistry of Doryphora sassafras, Endl. The D. sassafras tree is endemic to East Australia. Its bark contains 1-35 per cent. of _an essential oil, besides fixed oils, aromatic resins, tannin (1-38 per cent.), sugars, calcium oxalate, and 0-63 per cent. of an alkaloid. The essential oil is also found in the leaves (4-3 per cent.) and fruit (4 per cent.). The alkaloid is an amor- phous, grey powder, darkening when exposed to light and air. It is highly electric, and possesses a bitter taste, and alkaline reaction. It is concluded that the alkaloid is a new one, and the name “ dory- phorine” is proposed for it—A. H. S. Lucas: Sup- plementary list of the marine alge of Australia. By an oversight, the red alge of the. subfamily Dasyez were omitted from the list of Australian Floridez published in the Proceedings for 1909 (p. 9). This omission has been rectified, and the list amplified—P. Cameron: A collection of parasitic Hymenoptera (chiefly bred) from New South Wales, NO. 2224, VOL. 89] collected by Mr. W. W. Froggatt, with descriptions of new genera and species. Part iii. Four genera and thirty-seven species, referable to six families, are described as new.—P. Cameron: Description of two new species of Ichneumonidze from the island of Ard. A species of Suvalta and one of Erythromorpha are described as new.—Dr. J. M. Petrie: Hydrocyanic acid in plants. Part i. Its distribution in the Australian flora. The paper consists of a list of about 300 native plants, representing sixty-five natural orders. These plants were tested for the presence of cyanogenetic glucosides and of emulsin- like ferments. The table shows thirty-six plants giving positive results, in which hydrocyanic acid is liberated by a natural ferment in the plant. It includes also seven exotic plants, in which the presence of hydrocyanic acid is recorded for the first time. Hydrocyanic acid is now held to play an important part in the metabolism of those plants in which its compounds occur. BOOKS RECEIVED. Smithsonian Institution. Bureau of Amer‘can Ethnology. Bulletin 47 :—A Dictionary of the Biloxi and Ofo Languages. By J. O. Dorsey and J. R. | Swanton. Pp. v+340. (Washington: Government | Printing Office.) et Vibrations. Etude générale des mouvements vibratoires. By A. Boutaric. Pp. 403. (Paris: O. Doin & Fils.) 5 francs. Handworterbuch der Naturwissenschaften. Edited by E. Korschelt and others. Zehnte und elfte Lief. (Jena: G. Fischer.) 2.50 marks each. Das Buch der Natur. By Dr. F. Schoedler. Dreiundzwanzigste Auflage. Dritter Teil. Astro- nomie und Physik. Zweite Abteilung. Physik. By Prof. H. Béttger. Erster Band. Mechanik, Warme- lehre, Akustik. Pp. xiii+983. (Braunschweig: F. Vieweg & Sohn.) 15 marks. Man in the Old Stone Age. By Rev. G. W. Bancks. Pp. 26. (London: Unwin Bros., Ltd.) 1s. A Hand-list of British Birds. With an Account of the Distribution of each Species in the British Isles Oscillations and Abroad. By E. Hartert and others. Pp. xii+ 237. (London: Witherby and Co.) 7s. 6d. net. Ordnance Survey. Professional Papers—New Series, No. 1. An Account of the Measurement of a Geodetic Base Line at Lossiemouth, in 1909, together with a Discussion on the Theory of Measurement by Metal Tapes and Wires in Catenary. Pp. 39. (London : H.M.S.O.; Wyman and Sons, Ltd.) 2s. Fancy Mice. Their Varieties and Management as Pets or for Show. By C. J. Davies. Pp. iv+84. (London: L. Upcott Gill.) 1s. net. The Story of “Eight Deer” in Codex Colombino. By J. C. Clark. Pp. 33+10 coloured plates in text. (London: Taylor and Francis.) 21s. net. Oil-finding: an Introduction to the Geological Study of Petroleum. By E. H. C. Craig. Pp. x+ 195. (London: E. Arnold.) $s. 6d. net. Exercises in Chemical Calculation. By Dr. H. F. Coward and W. H. Perkins. Pp. v+152. (London : E. Arnold.) 2s. 6d. net. A History of British Mammals. By G. E. H. Barrett-Hamilton. Part xi. (London: Gurney and Jackson.) 2s. 6d. net. The House-fly—Disease Carrier. By Dr. L. O. Howard. Pp. xix+312. (London: J. Murray.) 6s. net. Further Researches into Induced Cell-reproduction and Cancer. By H. C. Ross, J. W. Cropper, and By He Ross. | Vol: ii. Pp. “15> s(Condonk ey: Murray.) 3s. 6d. net. 392 The Oxford Country. Its Attractions and Associa- tions described by Several Authors. Collected and arranged by R. T. Giinther. Pp. xvi+319. (London: Ale Murray.) 7s. 6d. net. Science of the sea. An Elementary Handbook of Practical Oceanography for Travellers, Sailors, and Yachtsmen. Edited by Dr. G. H. Fowler. Pp. Xviiit+452. (London: J. Murray.) 6s. net. Department of Applied Statistics, University College, University of London. Drapers’ Company Research Memoirs. Biometric Series. VII1.—Mathe- matical Contributions to the Theory of Evolution, XVIII. On a Novel Method of Regarding the Association of Two Variates classed solely in Alter- nate Categories. By K. Pearson. Pp. 29+2 plates. (London: Dulau and Co., Ltd.) 4s. net. Problems in Physical Chemistry, with Practical Applications. By Dr. E. B. R. Prideaux. Pp. ix+ 311. (London: Constable and Co., Ltd.) 7s. 6d. net. Laboratory Test Cards. By J. Don and H. Jamie- son. First Year—Measurement and Matter; Second Year—Heat; Third Year—Chemistry. Eighteen Cards and two sets of Answers to each year. (London: W. B. Clive.) Allgemeine Biologie. Is. net each. By Prof. O. Hertwig. Vierte Auflage. Pp. xviii+787. (Jena:.G. Fischer.) 19.50 marks. North Sea Fisheries Investigation Committee. Fourth Report (Southern Area) on Fishery and Hydrographical Investigations in the North Sea and Adjacent Waters, 1909. Pp. ix+497+8 charts. (London: H.M.S.O.; Wyman and Sons, Ltd.; and others.) 13s. DIARY OF SOCIETIES. THURSDAY, June 13. Roya Society, at 4.30.—An Expansion Apparatus for making Visible the Tracks of Ionizing Particles in Gases, and some Results obtained by its Use: C. T. R. Wilson.—A Chemically Active Modification of Nitrogen, produced by the Electric Discharge, 1V.: Hon. R. J. Strutt.—(r) On the Series Lines in the Arc Spectrum of Mercury. (2) On the Constitu- tion of the Mercury Green Line A=s461 AU and on the Magnetic Resolution of its Satellites by an Echelon Grating: Prof. J. C. McLennan.—(1) On the Convergence of certain Series involving the Fourier Constants of a Function. (2) On Classes of Summable Functions and their Fourier Serjes : Prof. W. H. Young.—The Number of 8 Particles emitted in the Transformation of Radium: H. G. Y. Moseley.—Portland Experiments on the Flow of Oilin Pipes: S. D. Carothers.—On a Form of the Solution of Laplace’s Equation suitable for Problems relating to two Spheres: G. B. Jeffery.—On the Emission Velocities of Photo- Electrons: A. L]. Hughes. FRIDAY, June 14. Rovat INSTITUTION, at 9.—Unknown§Parts of South America: Savage Landor. Geotocists’ AssociaTION, at 8.—The Geology of West Beye and Sligo, with special reference to the August Long Excursion : Prof. G. A. J. Cole. Royat AsTronomicat Society, at 5.—On Librating Blanetal and ona New Family of Periodic Orbits: Sir G. H. Darwin.—The Sidereal System, revised in 1912 : “axwell Hall.—Observation of the Spectrum of Nova Geminorum: L. Becker.—Micrometrical Measures of Double Stars: Rev. T. E. R. Phillips. —Probable Papers : Note on the Spectrum of Nova Geminorum, April 24, 1912: Rev. A. L. Cortie.—Further Observations of the New Star in Gemini: A. A. Rambaut.—Occultation Results, January-April, rg12: M. E. J. Gheury. Puysicat Society, at 8,—Demonstration of a Method of Determining very small Differences of Density: T. H. Blakesley.--The Maximum Sensibility of a Duddell Vibration Galyanometer: Dr. F. H. Haworth. — An Accurate Examination of the Steinmetz Index for Transformer Iron, Stalloy and Cast Iron: F. Stroude. MALACOLOGICAL Society, at 8.—On a collection of Molluscs collected by Mr. E. Jacobson in Java: M. M. Schepman.—Description of Thirty- three New Species of Gastropoda from the Persian Gulf, Gulf of Oman, and Arabian Sea: J. Cosmo Melvill.—Note on the Generic Name Pectunculus ; Wm. H. Dall.—Note on Ianthina species : Tom Tredale.— Egyptian Non-marine Molluscs: Maxwell Smith. A, H MONDAY, June 17. Victor1a INSTITUTE, at 4.30.,—Annual Address : K.C.LE. Society oF CHEmIcAL InDusTRY, at 8.—The Production and Polymerisa- tion of Isoprene and its Homologues : W. H. Perkin.—A Hand: Photo- meter : W. J. Dibdin.—The Oxidation of the Drying Oils: J. Newton Friend and W. J. Davison. NO. 2224, VOL. 89] Sir Andrew. Wingate, NATURE [JUNE 13, Ig12 TUESDAY, JuNE 18. Rovat Statistica Society, at 5.—The Measurement of Employment —-an Experiment: A. L. Bowley. MINERALOGICAL Society, at 5-30-—The Tsomorphism of the Acid Tar- trates and Vartar-emetics of Potassium, Rubidium and Casium: T. WV. Barker.—On Topaz and Beryl from the Granite of Lundy Island: W. F, P. McLintock and T. C. F. Hall.—On the Rathite Group: R. H. Solly, On the Minerals of the Nakhla Meteorite: Dr. G. T. Prior.—Note on the Occurrence of Cassiterite and Striiverite in Perak: J. B. Scrivenor. WEDNESDAY, June 19. Gero.ocicat Sociery, at 8.—The Discovery of a Fossil-bearing Horizon in the Permian Rocks of Hamstead Quarries, near Birmingham: W. H. Hardaker.—On the Geology and Palzontolozy of the Warwickshire Coalfield ;: R. D. Vernon. Rovat METEOROLOGICAL SOCIETY, at 4.30.—The Adoption of a Climato- logical Day: Walter W. Bryant.—A Three-year Period in Rainfall: Arthur Pearse Jenkin. Royat MicroscoricaL Society, at 8.—Notes on Pollen: The Rt. Hon. Tord Avebury.—Demonstrations of a method of obtaining Frozen Sections after Embedding in Gelatin: Dr. J. F. Gaskell.—On somesNew Astrorhizidz and their Structure : Heron-Allen and A. Earland. THURSDAY, JUNE 2c. Roya Society, at 4.30. volable Papers: An Investigation into the Life-history of Cladot/ dichotoma (Cohn): Dr. D. Ellis.—The Relation of Secretory and Capillary Pressure. I. The Salivary Secretion = Leonard Hill and M. Flack.—The Origin and Destiny of Cholesterol in the Animal Organism. Part IX. On the Cholesterol Content of the ‘Vissues other than Liver of Rabbits under Various Diets and during Inanition : G. W. Ellis and J. A. Gardner.—A Note on the Protozoa from Sick Soils, with some Account of the Life-cycle of a Flagellate Monad = C. H. Martin.—Furtker Observations on the Variability of Streptococci in Relation to Certain Fermentation ‘lests, together with some considera- tions bearing upon its possible meaning : E. W. A. Walker.—The Chemical Action on Glucose of a Variety of B. coli communis (Escherich) obtained by cultivation in presence of a Chloroacetate (Preliminary notice): A. Harden and W. J. Penfold.—The Action of Enzymes on Hexosephosphate: V. |. Harding.—The Oxydases of Cytisus Adami; Prof. F. W. Keeble and Dr. E. F. Armstrong. » CONTENTS. PAGE Scientific Worthies. XXXVIII.—Dr. Alfred Russel Wallace, D.C.L., O.M., F.R.S. (l7th : Portrait.) By Prof, Henry Fairfield Osborn . . . 367 Problems of Modern Plant Physiology. By J. B. F. 371 Protozoology. By E,. A.M... . payed. to) Foley 1 RMI es Modern Explosives. By J. S. Ss. B. sige) «| apacncol CaN Progress of, ‘Science’. 2 Ok, 1 af lens ee Boulder Clay in Essex.—Rev. Dr. A. Irving 399 Campaign against Rats.—Walter Hutton. . . . . 399 The Progress of Radiotelegraphy. By Dr. J. Erskine-Murray . .°. \S0meenenr <) =) acs nie Fabre and the Insect World. © (J//ustvated.) . . . . 401 Production of Synthetic Rubbewa. © =. 2). ameeaae The Transmission of Sleeping Sickness 402 Notes . ‘ove Gp 403 Our Astronomical Column :— Constitution of the Milky Way . 407 Mibensolan Eclipse .of Atprili7aeeeemenicnns) lose 407 Magnitudes of Nova Geminorum No.2 .. . . 408 Designations of Newly-discovered Variable Stars 408 Some Recent Workin Paleontology. ByG. A.J.C. 408 The Isle of Wight Bee Disease 410 The Kinematograph in Science Teaching 410 Icebergs and their Location in Navigation. (J///us- trated.) By Prof. Howard T. Barnes, F.R.S.... qr University and Educational Intelligence .... 414 Societiessand Academies | -jeucmuedse. ©. |.) en emeyulS Books#Received.".. . .- sy SeNNeonacets) 2 Diaryzomsacreties . . . . j seems 3 We aE cs . 418 Forthcoming Congresses 418 A WEEKLY JEELUSTRATED JOURNAL: OF SCIENCE. “To the solid ground The “iNSTANTA” INDUCTION COIL The most Scientifically Designed and Efficient Coil in the World. Sole Makers: NEWTON & WRIGHT, LTD. (Late Electrical Department of Newton & Co.), 72 WIGMORE STREET, LONDON, W. WRITE FOR ILLUSTRATED CATALOGUE. THE HANDLE 2 LONDON MODEL. This is a new model, in which the limb is made so as to form a convenient handle for lifting the microscope. Otherwise it is similar to the ordinary London model. No. 1325. Stand, incase, £3 56 No. 1329. Stand, inease, with spiral focussing substage .. 4 OO No. 364A, Eye- =a piece ... a 5 Oo, No. 801. rds S Object Glass 12 0 No. 803. 4th Object Glass 110 O Fuct PARTICULARS OF R. & J. BECK, 68 Cornhill, E.C. [PRICE SIXPENCE i [All Rights Reserved. REYNOLDS & BRANSON, Ltd. (GRAND PRIX, TURIN, 1911.) q SPECIAL APPARATUS for Consterdine & Andrews’ “PRACTICAL ARITHMETIC.” Set ‘‘A,” 120 models, R&B 5 0 Set ‘‘ B,” 75 models, £0 16 6 : (Descriptive List on Application.) Special Apparatus for Mackenzie and Forster’s Theoretical & Practical Mechanics & Physics. Detailed Catalogue on Application. CATALOGUES POST FREE. Scientific Apparatus and Chemicals. Apparatus for Teaching Mechanics, Machine and Building Construction. Optical Lanterns. Photographic Apparatus. | 14 COMMERCIAL STREET, LEEDS. The patent Anemo-Biagraph records the Velocity of the wind. The patent £20 0 0 Wind Direction Recorder registers the Direction of the wind. £17 10 0 And the Combined Apparatus re- cords the Velocity and Direction simultaneously upon one _ chart. £35 0 0 Pamphlets describing above, and list of Meteorological Instruments free on request, NEGRETTI & ZAMBRA, Holborn Viaduct, London, E.C. Branches: 45 Cornhill, E.C.; 122 Regent St., W. elxvill NATURE CITY AND GUILDS TECHNICAL COLLEGE, FINSBURY. (LEONARD STREET, CITY ROAD.) For students who are preparing to become engineers or chemists, and for engineering pupils who desire to supplement their practical training by a two years’ course in the principles of engineering science. The instruction is mainly given in the various laboratories. The subjects of the Entrance Examination are Mathematics and English; but the Matriculation of any British University is accepted instead. The Courses in Mechanical and Electrical Engineering cover a period of two years, and those in Chemistry three years. There are arrangements also for three-year courses in Engineer- ing for those who desire. Fees £20 per annum. PROFESSORS : , - ._ _(SILVANUS P. THompson, D.Sc. Electrical Engineering | : z and Physics... vel Cait). TESaINGS ss Mechanical Engineering{E. G. Coker, M.A., D.Sc., and Mathematics -\ M.Inst.M.E. Chemistry fRAPHAEL MeELpoLa, D.Sc., ‘TLRs ae City and Guilds of London Institute, (Temporary Offices during the re-building of Gresham College), 3 St. Helen’s Place, E.C. EAST LONDON COLLEGE. (UNIVERSITY OF LONDON.) Patron—HIS MAJESTY THE KING. Classics ... F. R. Earp, M.A. English H. Betroc, M.A. French : Mina Paguikr. German ... J. Sterpat, Ph.D History... THomas SEccomBeE, M.A, Mathematics... Tue PRINCIPAL. Physics oo Ae, faa a Gs RES, (DiSc: hee: Chemistry ant Re ron TE Mdeple Wind. D.Sc, baReos Botany ... a0 we F. E. Frirscu, D.Sc. Gaataey. Pa eee W. L. Carrer, M.A. ivil an echanical Eneinisennewn D. A. Low, M.I.M.E Electrical Engineering «. J. T. Morris, M.I.E E. Fees moderate. Valuable Entrance Scholarships awarded by Drapers Company. Special facilities for Post-Graduate and Research Students. Particulars of fees, courses of study, &c., on application to the REGISTRAR, or to J. L. S. HATTON, M.A., Principal, at the College. UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER. FACULTY OF MEDICINE. 4 DenTAL, Pusric HEALTH AND PHARMACEUTICAL DEPARTMENTS. The WINTER SESSION will commence on TUESDAY, OCTO- BER 1. The courses given at the University, the Royal Infirmary, and other allied Hospitals, which contain over rooo beds, provide full instruc- tion for the Degree and Wiploma examinations in Medicine and Dentistry, and for the Diplomas in Public Health and Pharmacy. ‘here are Halls of Residence both for Men and Women Students. In addition to Two Entrance Medical Scholarships, each of the value of £100, there are other Entrance Scholarships tenable in the Medical School. Prospectuses giving full information as to courses of study, fees, etc., will be forwarded on application to the Registrar. MEpiIcat, MISS M. S. GRATTON, Nat. Sci. Tripos, Girton College, Cambridge, gives PRIVATE TUITION in General Subjects and Science (including Botany, Nature Study, & Mathematics). Preparation for Exams. Special care with backward or delicate pupils.— | 12; Lupus Street, S.W. 1912 HEF LEGE, EB, M: Asa) Sc: ollege, Cambridge.) THEOkK © 0:2 = ] ‘ =) STEADY TEMPERATURE ae Nm & = it Zs — < 20MINS, 40 6u BO 100 TIME Fic. 7.—Relation between ionisation current and time for two new carbon electrodes, The temperature one hot, the other water-cooled. No potential was applied. was rising for the first fifty minutes, and was afterwards steady. “negative’’ current (in the usual direction); the intensity of the latter dropped, and then showed a progressive increase with temperature. On taking down the apparatus we found that the brass tube was coated over most of its length with a thick and coherent deposit of carbon, which had _ evidently crossed over from the hot electrode. Towards one end the deposit was rarer and whitish—presumably silica. We associate the maximum negative current of Fig. 6 with the passage of silicon and other impuri- ties, which are volatilised at about 2000° C. out of the carbon electrode. On a second heating neither positive rays nor a negative maximum was detected, but the ionisation current increased steadily with temperature. The transference of carbon from the hot electrode to the cold may possibly prove to be an explanation, not only of the contamination phenomena which gave rise to these experiments, but also of the comparatively large accompanying currents. Fig. 7 illustrates the results obtained when steps NO. 2229, VOL. 89] had been taken to increase the difference of tempera- ture between the hot and cold electrodes. The carbon was new, and the negative maximum again appears. Afterwards the furnace temperature was steadied, and the ionisation current also kept steady in consequence. It will be noticed that we were now dealing with currents amounting to large fractions of an ampere, and the experiments may fairly be regarded as pro- viding a novel means of generating electricity. Their direct bearing on the problems of the electric arc and the carbon filament lamp is obvious, and we are continuing the research with the view of elucidating the many underlying phenomena. UNIVERSITY EDUCATION IN GERMANY.} aps development of the German _ universities during the last hundred years has undeniably raised them in the eyes of the scientific world, but at the same time it has given rise to practical difficul- ties which are more and more felt, and, here and there, much deplored. | German professors , regard scientific research rather than teach- ing as their distinguishing task, or at least their teaching mostly takes the shape of initiation into the methods of research. Their lecturing has thus assumed such an abstract character that the student coming from a higher school in the proud possession of a ‘‘certificate of maturity’’ usually finds the transition to the new atmosphere of thought very hard, and commonly wastes more than one term merely in finding a foot- ing. At the other end, the step from the university into a profession is the reverse of easy; the medical faculty, with its clinical hospitals and similar arrangements, is really the only one which offers a direct training for the future. A more adequate view of the matter seems, however, to be spreading. In the meantime a year’s practical training, com- plementary to the studies and examinations, has been added to the medical course, and a similar provision has been made for evan- gelical theology. In the university itself the importance of mental intercourse between the professors and their students is more m0 Widely recognised, due to the further development of the university seminaries; even those professors and ‘“‘privatdocents ” who do not conduct official seminaries usually hold so-called ‘‘exercises” in addition to their lectures. The throng of students is great on all such occasions; they themselves feel strongly how much less they gain in mental culture from mere listening to lectures. Nevertheless the in- stitution must be regarded as in some respects very incomplete. In many subjects the seminary deals only with strictly scientific questions (from which the themes for dissertations are frequently drawn), whereas more practical discussions are equally desirable. Besides this the number of those admitted is usually rather small, and indeed not unwisely so, because it is only then that a lively debate becomes possible; a too numerous membership easily tends to make the indi- viduals embarrassed and silent. In most cases, too, only those students are admitted who have already been several terms in the university, whereas it is precisely the freshman who is most in need of help. 1 Abridged from an article by Prof. Wilhelm Miinch, professor of pedagogy in the University of Berlin, in the Report of the U.S. Commissioner of Fduecation for the year ended June 30, rgr1, vol. i., just received from Washington. JuLy 18, 1912] NATURE 519 The whole system is, in fact, capable of much de- velopment; for younger lecturers and for older and proved students, a field of useful labour is here opened. The absence of all unifying personal guidance of the student’s course of study is not infrequently felt to be a weakness in German university life, yet few people wish for definite or printed curricula, even if these should be only for the sake of suggestion. Full “academic freedom"’ proves, as a matter of fact, a benefit only to students of much intelligence and firm character. It is, in fact, only the more distinguished who rise; the ordinary individuals fall back. Some now declare that the lecture system has lived its day and that a method in which dialogue should pre- dominate ought to take its place; others—and such a conspicuous thinker as the late Friedrich Paulsen was among their number—regard the lecture system as the most effective, to be surpassed and replaced by no other. On the whole it is not strange that the demand should at intervals have arisen for a special ** academic pedagogy”’ as a new science. In an age when all questions of pre-university education are carefully con- sidered and measures taken in accordance, indifference ought not to prevail toward the succeeding years and their educational claims. The academic chair also claims its principles and regulations. There should be no shrinking from a discussion of the problem, for the psychology of the student period deserves an ex- haustive observation which it has not yet received. If it was already hard enough for the freshman to gain a footing in the new mental atmosphere, to understand the abstract language, and to follow the closer line of thought; and if it was at the same time not exactly easy for the professor to find the right way of fascinating the cleverer spirits without repell- ing the weaker, the difficulty has become still greater for both parties, because pupils have been admitted to the university, not only from the classical schools (humanistischen Gymnasien), but also indiscriminately from the various schools which have a nine years’ curriculum. Now, it had never been intended that the modern and mixed schools should regard themselves thence- forward chiefly as preliminary stages to the univer- sity. It was expected that only those few pupils from them who felt a special call to higher scientific studies would take advantage of the new privilege, while the majority would devote themselves as before to more everyday ends. It is, however, undeniable that a much greater percentage of the students in these more prac- tical institutions is streaming into the university than is desirable; and, what is worse, they enter, not for the sake of working in those subjects for which they had been chiefly trained (which were already free to them in the university), but in almost all other sub- jects as well, with the exception perhaps of theology. The allurement of the new liberty has clearly taken effect here, but just as clearly also the idea of social distinction which accompanies the academic calling. For in Germany, particular industrial districts ex- cepted, university men are still regarded socially as an upper class, to which, in the eyes of the public, only the nobility, the official class, and perhaps the most distinguished artists are superior. Convincing statistics of the result of the university work of students from modern schools in comparison with that of students from classical schools are at present not attainable. Great importance is not laid on figures and average results; the examinations, which must, after all, be the chief means of informa- tion, are affected by many different factors which cannot be weighed and measured, the addiction of the examiners to the method in which they themselves NO. 2229, vor. 89] were schooled being possibly one of them. On the whole, however, judging from a number of personal opinions, the results certainly do not seem to denote a triumph for the modern schools. From the classical schools, also, it is true, the number of those is not small whose mental capacity does not mark them for scientific study; and on the other side there are always to be found among the students from the modern schools individuals of conspicuous talent and the highest aspirations who do creditable work in each subject. The increase in the number of foreigners at the German universities steadily continues, but has re- cently had to be checked. Too many individuals of doubtful education, and frequently also leading very questionable lives, forced themselves in, particularly from the eastern European countries, and took up the space and the best seats at the practical exercises, crowding aside the German students. Visitors from America or England will scarcely be likely to find the recent measures of restriction an obstacle; their pre- vious education is often excellent. It is, of course, the natural and desirable thing that only those students of a nation should be sent abroad who have distinguished themselves above the average. The dark sides of the German university system above mentioned apply but little to such; the lectures of the most distinguished vrofessors are precisely what they have come for, and the arrangement of their studies can be confidently left to themselves. As is only natural, the various branches of learning differentiate themselves more and more from one another, and thus, through the splitting up of depart- ments already existing and through the extension of study over quite new fields, new chairs become needed. Of greater interest for foreign readers are perhaps the movements which are going on in the German student world. To put it briefly, the students’ clubs (Corps, Landsmannschaften, &c.) of the older form are losing ground to those which are founded on newer principles. The essential basis of the older corporations was, and is, the firm formation of a powerful community for the cultivation of boldness and courage, steadfast friendship, social and light- hearted enjoyment of youth; in practice, however, this is combined with considerable love of fighting and drinking, preservation of outworn ceremonies, and thoughtless pursuit of pleasure. Many of these bodies have at present but few members. At the same time the spirit which inspired them is by no means dead, and in certain universities, chiefly smaller ones, their characteristic way of life remains to this day. More prosperous, however, are the scientific societies, the athletic organisations, and those based on national, ethical, or Christian principles. And it is in keeping with the spirit of the time as well as with the academic tradition that the societies of similar aims at the various universities bind themselves together into united bodies. i a [An addendum to the article shows the distribution of students among the German universities, and from it are taken the numbers given below for the year IgIo-1I :— Universities IQIO-It Universities 1g10-11 Berlin 0686 Kiel 1439 Ronn 3846 Konigsberg 1387 Breslau 2454 Leipzig 49c¢0 Erlangen ... ie} 8 Marburg 1981 Freiburg. ... 2246 Munich 6905 Giessen 1243 Miinster 2047 Gottingen ... 2233 Rostock... os 816 Greifswald 048 Strassburg .. ... 2067 Halle 2661 Tiibingen ... 1883 Heidelberg 2008 Wiirzburg ... 1425 Jena 1637 54,823 NATURE [JuLy 18, 1912 During this year 26,123 students of the total number took the philosophical faculty, which, in addition to mathematics and. natural sciences, also includes philosophy, philology, and history.] UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE. BrrMInGHAM.—Prof. Malins, on resigning the pro- fessorship of midwifery, which position he has held since 1894, has presented the sum of roool. to the University, ‘‘ with a profound sense of the many im- portant advantages it [the University] offers to the advancement of knowledge, and the great capabilities it opens to the future in the highest interests of intellectual and material progress in our midst.”’ CaMBRIDGE.—The degree of doctor of science honoris caus@ is to be conferred to-morrow upon the follow- ing :—Prof. E. B. Frost, director of the Yerkes Ob- servatory; the Marchese Emanuele Paterno di Sessa, professor of chemistry in the University of Rome; Prof. Pavlov, St. Petersburg University; Prof. Picard, University of Paris; Geheimer Regierungsrat Rubens, University of Berlin; and Dr. Warming, formerly professor of botany at Copenhagen. LiverPooL.—Prof. J. M. Beattie, at present pro- fessor of pathology and dean of the medical faculty in the University of Sheffield, has been appointed to the professorship of bacteriology. He has also been ap- pointed bacteriologist for Liverpool. Dr. J. Reynolds Green, F.R.S., has been appointed to the Hartley lectureship in vegetable physiology, and Dr. C. Rundle to the assistant lectureship in infectious diseases. The following elections have also taken place :—Mr. H. C. W. Nuttall to the Holt fellowship in pathology ; Messrs. R. Kennon and R. Gee to the Holt fellowship in physiology; Messrs. J. H. Rawlinson and T. Thomas to the fellowship in anatomy; and Mr. A. A. Rees to a fellowship in surgical pathology. Lonpon.—At the meeting of the Senate on July 10, the following appointments were made to professor- ships with funds provided by the new grant from the London County Council:—Dr. J. mencing with the March number. In the Bulletin of the Imperial Society of Naturalists of Moscow for the year 1911, pp. 93 to 158, Dr. E. Leyst compares the diurnal inequalities of barometric pressure in years of sun-spot maximum and minimum at Pavlovsk, Batavia, Irkutsk, Pots- dam, and Greenwich. At Pavlovsk and Batavia he uses data from nine years of many and nine years of few sun-spots between 1877 and 1906. For the other stations fewer years’ data are employed. A difference appears between the diurnal inequalities for both summer and winter in years of many and few sun-spots, which Dr. Leyst considers sufficiently definite to be accepted as a physical fact. Fourier | harmonic analysis indicates that the difference at Pavlovsk between years of many and few sun-spots is mainly in the twenty-four-hour term. The summer data for Greenwich differ markedly in their indica- tions from, those at Pavlovsk and Potsdam, but Dr. Leyst is disposed to ascribe this to exceptional con- ditions at Greenwich, possibly its maritime position. If one takes the diurnal inequalities given for the individual months of the year at Pavlovsk, one finds that in five months of the twelve the range was greater in the sun-spot minimum years, though both summer and winter half-years show the maximum range in years of sun-spot maximum. In December, as Dr. Leyst himself remarks, the excess of range in the sun-spot minimum years was _ exceedingly prominent. Considering the differences between January and December at Pavlovsk, and between summer at Potsdam and Greenwich, evidence seems | desirable that the phenomena are really representative of normal average conditions. In Symons’s Meteorological Magazine for July Dr. Mill, in discussing ‘‘The Rainfall of June,” directs AuGusT 1, 1912] NATURE 50 na | attention to the regular publication of tables contain- ing systematic information regarding the rainfall for | the preceding month. The stations in question are so uniformly distributed that the mean of the values gives a fair approximation to the general rainfall over the British Isles. Out of fifty-five stations quoted all except two had falls exceeding the average, at eighteen more than twice the average fell, and at Cardiff the fall was nearly three times the average. Dealing with the percentage of the average generally, England and Wales had 186, Scotland 156, Ireland 193, and the British Isles as a whole 180 per cent. An interesting article on the weather of the same month, by Mr. F. J. Brodie, shows that with the exception of one short fine spell in the south-east the weather was of a continuously broken character, and that thunderstorms were unusually frequent. ‘‘ The generally unsettled character of the weather was duc to the almost constant extension over these islands of large cyclonic systems from the Atlantic.’’ In many instances the centres of the disturbances passed directly across the United Kingdom. THE researches on fluorescence and phosphorescence which have been carried out at Cornell University during the last ten years by Profs. Nichols and Merritt and their pupils are summarised in a memoir entitled ‘Studies in Luminescence,’’ which forms publication 152 of the Carnegie Institution. With the | help of the spectrophotometer the distribution of in- tensities throughout the emission bands and the variation of the absorption with wave- length have been determined under as_ wide a range of conditions as possible, in order to provide a test of the validity of each of the theories of fluorescence and phosphorescence which have been proposed. After a careful examination of the experi- mental facts thus accumulated, the authors arrive at the conclusion that the theory most in keeping with | them is the one first advanced by Prof. Wiedemann in 1889, and modified and extended by Wiedemann and Schmidt six years later. According to this theory | some chemical or physical change (probably dissocia- | tion) takes place in a luminescent body during excita- | tion, and the return of the substance to its normal | condition, which may last for some time or be over in an instant, is accompanied by emission of light. In the June number of the Transactions of the Chemical Society Dr. T. M. Lowry describes some interesting observations on the production of nitrogen | peroxide on passing air through an ozoniser and elec- | trical spark-gaps, either in parallel or in series, in | accordance with the process devised in 1903 by Leetham for the production of a bleaching gas suit- able for the treatment of flour. It is shown that, whereas in air which has been subjected either to the action of the ozoniser alone, or to the spark-gaps only, no trace of nitrogen peroxide can be detected by means of the absorption spectrum, in the Leetham gas, which has been submitted to both forms of dis- charge, the concentration of the peroxide is as high as 1/4000. Not only is this concentration attained by | passing ozonised air through the spark-gaps, but, | NO. 2231, VoL. 89] | contrary to what had been anticipated, the same result first and then through the ozoniser. | owing to oxidation to nitric anhydride, N.O,. is obtained by passing the air through the spark-gaps This novel function of the ozoniser is the more remarkable because ready-made nitrogen peroxide is completely bleached on passing it through the machine, probably A similar concentration of the peroxide is also obtained on passing the two air currents in parallel and subse- quently mixing the gases. The conclusion is drawn that the sparking of air gives rise to ‘‘atomised”’ nitrogen (N,—2N) which is capable of combining directly with ozone. It is, however, to be noted that this ‘‘atomised”’ nitrogen behaves somewhat differ- ently from the “chemically active’ variety of nitrogen obtained recently by Prof. Strutt under somewhat different conditions, which does not appear to combine with ozone to form oxides of nitrogen. JournaL vii. of the British Fire Prevention Com- mittee (published at 42s. net) contains the results of fifty-eight tests on the fire-resistance of doors and shutters. The results are presented in the form of four tabulated summaries, and included are illustra- tions from photographs of some of the tests. The reports state bare facts and occurrences, and are not to be read as expressions of opinion, criticisms, or comparisons. The information given is certain to be of great value to all engaged in the design or con- struction of buildings. Thus we extract the following particulars from the table of tests for ‘‘ temporary protection." A solid-framed teak door, 17 in. thick, 6 ft. high, and 2 ft. 5 in. wide, failed at twenty-four minutes by flame showing between the bottom edge of the door and the sill. After forty-nine minutes flame showed between the edge of the frame and the stile of the door above and below the lower bolt. | After fifty-four minutes, smoke issued through joints of the panels and centre rail. After sixty minutes the flames burst through all joints, and the door collapsed five minutes afterwards. The maximum temperature was 1975° Fahr. Engineering for July 19 contains an_ illustrated | account of a new type of ship for the transport of submersible boats, designed by Messrs. Schneider and Co., Creusot. The hull of the Kanguroo has a central portion built in the shape of an ordinary type of floating dock, and carries the submersible boat. |The aft part of the ship contains all the engines, boilers, the men’s quarters, &c. The forward part | contains a tunnel or covered canal, forming an exten- | sion of the dock portion, and is closed by a movable stem; this part also acts as a levelling caisson to put the ship on an even keel. A series of sluice-valves and drain pumps serve to vary at will the draught of the vessel when shipping or unshipping, the draught being so regulated as to allow the sub- mersible to float through the tunnel. When the sub- mersible is in the compartment amidships, it is shored up, the movable stem is replaced, and the water is pumped out of the dock, which then forms a dry dock of the usual type. The first submersible boat to be transported in the Kanguroo was the Ferre, built by 566 NATURE [AuGUST I, 1912’ Messrs. Schneider for the Peruvian Government. The Ferre was shipped in the Kanguroo in Toulon Har- bour on June 28 last, and is now on her way to Callao. Mr. Henry FROWDE will shortly publish as a per- manent memorial of the recent celebration of the 250th anniversary of the Royal Society a volume of collotype facsimiles of the signatures of the founders, patrons, and fellows of the society recorded in its first journal- book and the charter-book from 1660 to the present time. The work will contain a preface by Sir Archi- bald Geilie, the president. The same publisher has just issued the third edition, revised and rearranged, of ‘The Record of the Royal aces of London.” OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. ASTRONOMICAL OCCURRENCES FOR AUGUST : August 2. 8h. om. Jupiter stationary. 7. 4h. 58m. Saturn in conjunction with the Moon (Saturn 6° o! S.). 10. I4h. 39m. Neptune in 9 conjunction with the Moon (Neptune Geez! 13. oh. 31m. Venus in conjunction with the Moon (Venus 2° 13! S.). 5, 3h. 54m. Mercury in conjunction with the Moon (Mercury So gull (SE) 14. 3h. 50m. Mars in conjunction with the Moon (Mars 1° 32! S.). 20. th. 1om. Jupiter in conjunction with the Moon (Jupiter 4° 44! N.). 21. 22h. om. Mercury in inferior conjunction with the Sun. 24. oh. 50m. Uranus in conjunction with the Moon (Uranus 4° 26! N.). 26. 23h. om. Saturn at quadrature to the Sun. 30. oh. om. Jupiter at quadrature to the Sun. ,, 19h. om. Mercury stationary. OBSERVATIONS OF NEw Stars.—A paper, full of im- portant observations and suggestions, is published by Prof. Barnard in No. 8, vol. Ixxii., of the Monthly Notices, in which he discusses his observations of Nova Lacerte, Nova Geminorum (No. 2) and some other stars. After dealing with the position and brightness of Nova Lacertz, he describes the focal peculiarities pre- sented by the star, at different epochs, in the field of the 4o-in. refractor. At first, January, 1911, there was a normal image at the normal stellar focus, but 9 mm. beyond that there was also a well-defined crimson image produced by the very strong hydrogen, Ha, radiation. This crimson image was short-lived, and had certainly disappeared by April 9, probably earlier. Then the focus of the nova became longer, finally corresponding to that of a nebula. The stage where there existed the abnormal crimson image was also observed in Nova Geminorum (No. 2) on March 22 of this year, the difference of focus between the normal and abnormal images being 9.3 mm. Prof. Barnard suggests that it should be possible to discover nove during this stage by sweeping for them, as one does for comets, the criterion being the focal peculiarity produced by the excessive brightness of Ha. He also suggests that, with the 4o-in. telescope, there are probably hundreds of past novee which might now be recognised by their presenting the second condition of longer focus and ill-defined appearance; examples of this class are Nova Cygni (1876), Nova Aurigze (1891), and Nova Sagittarii (1898). Prof. Barnard also presents some results of focal NO. 2231, VOL. 89] measures of several stars of different types, in which the normal image presented no peculiarities, although in several cases, e.g. P Cygni, he found abnormal images at some distance from the ordinary focus. Discussing the theories concerning nove, he inclines to the one in which the outburst of the star is supposed to be produced by physical forces inherent in a single body. THE SpEecrroscopic DETERMINATION OF AQUEOUS VAPOUR IN THE ATMOSPHERE.—The determination of the amount of water vapour existing in the earth’s atmosphere between the observer and observed body is a matter which enters into several important astro- nomical problems, and therefore the paper by Mr. F. E. Fowle in No. 3, vol. xxxv., of The Astrophysical Journal, is of considerable importance astronomically. Mr. Fowle passed the radiations from a Nernst lamp through long columns of air, of which the quan- tity of aqueous-vapour content and the physical condi- tions were strictly recorded, and then, with a spectro- bolometer, found the absorption produced by this aqueous vapour in the region of the two bands at Ari3 # and A1‘47x. In the laboratory experiments it was not feasible to work beyond an amount of aqueous vapour corresponding to a depth of 05 cm. of pre- cipitable water, but by incorporating the results of bolographs secured for high and low sun at Mount Wilson the curves are carried well beyond any amount of aqueous vapour likely to be met with in practice. In subsequent papers Mr. Fowle proposes to give applications of his method. Personat Errors 1x TRANSIT OBSERVATIONS.—In his address, as retiring president, to the Royal Society of South Africa, Mr. S. S. Hough gave some most interesting particulars concerning the progressive elimination of personal error from the transit observa- tions made at the Cape Observatory. After describing the eye-and-ear and the chronographic methods, Mr. Hough stated that the differences between two experi- enced observers not uncommonly amounted to o’25s., a varying quantity fatal to the researches calling for great accuracy. Then the Repsold hand-driven travelling-wire apparatus was adapted, and when six observers used this regularly, in 1908-9, the personal discordances were very greatly reduced, so that the extreme discordance, for all the observers, was only o'o6s. On the Repsold method being used, in 1911, with the mechanically-driven web, this extreme dis- cordance, for seven observers, was further reduced to less than o'02s. THE BRITISH MEDICAL ASSOCIATION gpk eightieth annual meeting of the British Medi- cal Association was held in Liverpool on July 19 to 27. The first four days were devoted to the representative meeting, at which the representatives of the branches and divisions of the United Kingdom and the Colonies discussed various matters affecting the association, the most important being the question whether the association should make further repre- sentations to the Government in respect of the dis- favour with which the Insurance Act is regarded by members of the association. After prolonged discus- sion, in the course of which the ill opinion of the Act entertained by the medical profession was freely ex- pressed, it was decided by 181 votes to 21 to break off negotiations with the Government. In most cases the representatives had already been instructed as to their vote by meetings of the local divisions, at which reso- lutions directed against further conferences with the Government had been passed unanimously or by large majorities. It may here be observed that the medical AUGUST I, 1912] NATURE 567 profession, which is often regarded as very conserva- tive, is efficiently organised for medico-political action upon trade-union lines. The representative meeting has no executive functions, but its resolutions, con- firmed in general meeting, are binding upon the coun- cil, which is elected by a postal vote upon a propor- tional representative basis. The association has about 25,000 members, the number of medical men in the United Kingdom being about 33,000. The provision of sanatorium benefit met with less unfavourable consideration, the working conditions of this portion of the Act being in part determined by those of existing institutions, and being therefore less unacceptable to the members; nevertheless, the opinion was freely expressed that the advantages to consump- tives anticipated by the lay Press would prove to be largely illusory. The scientific business of the association, which did not commence until July 24, extended over three days, during which period, however, only the mornings were occupied with sectional meetings. The time of the sectional meetings was largely occupied with discus- sions on subjects of interest, the number of papers read being somewhat small. The difficulties attending medical research work were abundantly illustrated, as was also the important part played by the Univer- sity of Liverpool in the advancement of medical know- ledge, particularly in the domain of physiology, patho- logy, and tropical medicine. To give an adequate idea of the character and extent of recent scientific advances in medicine, as exhibited in the proceedings of the sections, is impos- sible within the limits of the present article, but by way of illustration brief reference may be made to the work of two of the sections. In the Section of Physiology, Prof. Benjamin Moore, F.R.S. (Liverpool), contributed a paper dealing with the importance of substances present in minute amount in food, the value of which cannot be estimated by the amount of heat energy which they contain and can yield to the body on oxidation. This was first observed in respect of inorganic salts, which were at one time regarded as inert constituents, or even as protein impurities, but are now known to be im- portant activators to the functions of the organic con- stituents, without which these become inert. In the hormones, or internal secretions of the body, organic substances are found which, in minute amounts, stimu- late and activate in a very specific way definite tissues and cause changes in nutrition out of all proportion to their mass. From recent researches it would appear to be a general rule, especially seen in man, that some form of stimulus is almost essential, and that, if abstinence or restriction is practised in one form, some other form must be substituted. The various cereal foods which appear so simple in nature also contain basic bodies in minute quantities which exert a powerful stimulant action upon the nervous tissues, and in their complete withdrawal certain well- marked results appear which are intimately connected with diseases of nutrition. These substances appear to be formed in the peripheral layers and are removed in certain methods of preparing the cereals. The effect of removal upon a diet of cereals is exhibited by beri- beri in man and by the now well-known rapidly fatal illness, characterised by muscular paralysis and in- coordination, first shown by Eijkman to be readily producible in pigeons. In both cases the addition of the defective substance is speedily followed by re- covery. One of the active substances concerned in the case of rice has been isolated by Casimir Funk (Lon- don), and has been shown to be of relatively simple chemical constitution. Considerable interest was exhibited in the Section NO. 2231, VOL. 89] of Tropical Medicine, where a series of papers, illus- trating incidentally the small beginnings of exact knowledge, were contributed by Stephens and Fantham (Liverpool), Kleine (South Africa), Mesnil (Paris), Kinghorn and Yorke (Rhodesia), and Wolbach and Bruger (Boston), dealing with’sleeping sickness, which at the present time, as is well known, seriously menaces the future of colonial development in tropical Africa. Another series of researches, also cosmopoli- tan in character, by Duval (New Orleans), Bayon (London), Marchoux (Paris), Dean (Aberdeen), and Minett (Demerara), dealt with the organisms which have been isolated from leprous lesions, the relation of which to human leprosy and to rat leprosy is now receiving the attention of scientific investigators. Considerable diversity of opinion, in respect of the significance of experimental investigations, was observ- able, due in part to the limitations of research. An excellent exhibition of scientific apparatus and of synthetic products was provided, the interest of which was considerably augmented by the scientific know- ledge possessed by many of the exhibitors. PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE PRAIRIES AND NORTH-EASTERN AUSTRALIA. agEe much-debated problem why the prairies of the United States are treeless is, according to an article by Mr. B. Shimek in the Bulletin of the State University of Iowa, new series, No. 35, essentially one for the botanist, since, despite variation in surface-conditions, there is comparative uniformity in the flora throughout the area. Summarising the available evidence, the author concludes that exposure to evaporation, as determined by temperature, wind, and topography, is the primary factor in the develop- ment of the treeless condition, and that the flora persists in the exposed areas because of its xerophytic character: On the other hand, rainfall and drainage, although important as determining the amount of moisture in air and soil, are only a secondary factor, as they may be equal in the forested and treeless areas; while the nature of the soil and the geological formation affect the matter only so far as they induce conservation of water. Prairie-fires* were an effect rather than a cause, and when they did act in the latter sense were but local, while seed-dispersal, although accounting for the growth of plants, will not explain the origin and presence of the flora as a whole. Finally, such agencies as the bison and the action of the sea do not enter into the problem at all. Passing from the prairies of the Wild West to the coast districts of north-eastern Australia, reference may be made to a remarkably interesting article on the physiography of that area communicated to the Sitzungsberichte der kgl. bohm. Ges. der Wissen- ‘schaften for 1911, art. 32, by Dr. J. V. Danes, who recently spent several months in the country. As is well known, this part of Australia is remarkable on account of the fact that the great ‘‘ Divide’’ is on the rim, instead of in the heart, of the continent, where it is formed by the uniform littoral wall of an old peneplane inclining slightly to the west, and abruptly falling to the eastern coast; and likewise for the sudden flexures in the river-valleys, and_ their abnormal slope, accompanied by waterfalls, as they approach the sea. ‘ Another feature is the presence of shallow lakes in an undulating area, which have been regarded by other observers as indicative of the recent formation of a new ‘divide, being, in fact, “cut-offs"’ from the head-waters of the original rivers. While admitting 2 former great extension of the 565 NATURE [AuGusr I, 1912 Australian continent—as exemplified by the theory of a peneplane extending from New Guinea to Tasmania —Dr. Danes cannot bring himself to accept, at all events in their entirety, the views of previous observers with regard to the establishment of present conditions. To put the matter briefly, he considers that the peneplane of eastern Australia was divided into a number of basins devoid of outlet and occupied by shallow lakes, which tended to dry up during pro- longed drought, such lakes being, therefore, of in- dependent origin, and not ‘“‘cut-offs.’’ Climatic con- ditions were then much more favourable to the development of an abundant flora and fauna, which will explain the occurrence of the great extinct mar- supials in the Pleistocene beds of Darling Downs. Desiccation of the area led to the death of the old fauna and flora. In this respect he is in accord with Dr. A. C. Gregory, who wrote that ‘there is no trace either in the Darling Downs or any other part of Queensland of any violent convulsion of nature which would be adequate to cause the total destruction of the dipro- todon and co-occupants of the country, and it seems most probable that their extinction resulted from a gradual change of climate and more effectual drain- age of the watercourses—aided, perhaps, by some slight changes in level.” R. Ee SOME ENGLISH PUBLICATIONS ON AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE. OF the numerous agricultural periodicals and journals published in Great Britain none is more important than the Journal of the Royal Agri- cultural Society, which comes out annually, and gives some account of advances that have been made in the practice or the science of agriculture during recent times. The current issue is the seventy-second volume, publication having been continuous ever since 1840; although smaller in bulk than some of the old volumes, it well maintains the high standard set by Mr. Mackenzie when he took over the editorship some four years ago. The opening article, by Prof. T. B. Wood, gives an able summary of our present knowledge of the composition and food value of bread. Probably no single product possesses greater interest to the agri- culturist than wheat, even though in many cases it has fallen to the level of a by-product, and has ceased to be the staple of the farm. The advances in milling technique have led to considerable alterations in the relative values of the different wheats; formerly a white wheat possessed chief value because it gave the whitest flour, while now a red wheat is equally useful. Recently the hard wheats of great strength have come into favour, because of their capacity for making a large loaf; these wheats are more economic- ally produced in continental areas—Canada, the United States, &c.—than here. In general, however, flour is. made from a mixture of wheats carefully graded to secure certain definite characters. This blended flour does not show the deficiencies in protein, &c.. that an unblended flour would show in com- parison with the whole grain, so that a usual argu- ment in favour of brown bread loses much of its force. This paper is followed by one on the milling of wheat, by Mr. A. E. Humphries. Of the other papers, one on green crops, by Prof. Malden, is of more than technical interest, and shows that the ordinary agriculturist does not utilise as fully as he might certain plants that would be very useful to him. An interestin® investigation on ropy milk has been published by Mr. J. Golding in the Journal. of the Board of Agriculture (No. 12). This is a disease of NO. VoL. 89] 2oem. ' by Mr. G. H. Garrad. mill brought about by bacteria, and causing the mill to take on a rope-like form when poured from a jug, or to draw out into long threads, sometimes a yard in length, when taken up in a spoon. Several bacteria are known that can effect this change, and one of them, the Bacillus lactis viscosus of Adametz, was investigated in some detail. The possibility of growing tobacco in England is being investigated at the Wye Agricultural College It is proposed to grow the crop for the sake of its nicotine, which forms an | admirable insecticide, but is at present very costly for | GRANTS the grower. Messrs. Garrad and Edwardes-Ker con- clude that extraction of the nicotine from the leaf is not necessary, satisfactory washes being obtained when the leaves are simply macerated in water. Permission to grow tobacco for this purpose could not be obtained unless the leaves could be denatured so thoroughly as to be unsmokable. The authors are at present at work endeavouring to find some method of doing this. FOR SCIENTIFIC PURPOSES FROM THE DEVELOPMENT FUND. MEMORANDUM showing advances from the Development Fund, sanctioned by the Lords Commissioners of his Majesty’s Treasury, to or through the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, up to March 31, 1912, has recently been published as a Parliamentary Paper [Cd. 6252{ (price 1}d.). The subjoined extracts show the amounts and purposes of the grants. 4 (1) ImpRoveMENT oF Licur Horse BREEDING. In 1910 the Board applied for an advance from the Development Fund in respect of a scheme for the improvement of light horse breeding, and in January of the following year the Treasury, on the recommendation of the Development Commissioners, sanctioned an advance of 39,8001. to be expended generally on the lines of the scheme proposed by the Board. A further grant of a sum not exceeding 12501. was also sanctioned to meet the expenses of administra- tion. In August, 1911, the Treasury, on the recom- mendation of the Development Commissioners, sanctioned an advance of an additional sum not ex- ceeding 10,0001. for allocation before March 31, 1912, to enable county committees to purchase brood mares in time for the breeding season of 1912, the original grant of 10,000]. having been allocated early in the financial year 1911-12 for the purposes of the breed- ing season of rgII. The Treasury, on of the the recommendation | Development Commissioners, has sanctioned an ad- | year vance of 40,0001. or such part thereof as may be required in respect of the scheme, in the financial 1912-13. (2) AGricuLTURAL RESEARCH. (i.) Interim Advances. The Board made an application for an advance of | 50,0001. per annum from the Development Fund for the organisation of a system to aid and develop agri- culture by promoting scientific research and experi- ment, and for the provision of technical aid and advice to agriculturists. The Treasury, on the recom- mendation. of the Development Commissioners, has sanctioned an interim advance of such part of a sum of 97061. as might be required in the financial year IgtI-12 for the purpose of making the following grants :— AvGUST I, I912] NATURE 569 4oool, for research work. 5ool. for (1) biochemical investigations on cheese ; (2) investigations on Teart land. 210l. for investigations of Cambridge University Bristol University Yorkshire Council for Agricultural Educa- atmospheric impurities. tion (Leeds Univer- sity) University College, 2501. for general work on Reading (1) microflora of cheese ; (2) cereal selection. South-Eastern Agricul- 350l. for (1) investiga- tural College, Wye tions on tobacco; (2) mycological depart- ment; (3) entomo- logical department; (4) investigations on hop resins 1561. for botanical survey of Aberystwyth: and subsidiary inquiries. 1gol. for research on wart disease and finger-and- toe. 13901. for investigations in University College of Wales, Aberystwyth Harper Adams Agricul- tural College Royal Veterinary Col- lege respect of vaccination against tuberculosis and other investigations. The Incorporated So- 2000l. for research work. ciety for extending the Rothamsted Ex- periments The British Dairy In- 60l. for investigation into stitute, Reading the manufacture of cheese from heated mills. Woburn Experimental 6001. for experimental Station work. The Treasury, on the recommendation of the | Development Commissioners, has sanctioned a further | interim advance to the Board of a sum not exceeding | gsol., or such part thereof as might be required in the financial year 1911-12, for the purpose of making the following grants : — (1) 2001. to the Economic Ornithological Committee of the British Association, to enable it to continue and extend its work of investigating the feeding habits of British birds. It was made a condition of this grant that the Board should, out of its own vote, make a grant to the committee of a sum of sol. in the year 1911-12. (2) sool. to the Imperial College of Science and | (i) Dairy investigation ... Technology towards the current expenses of the De- | partment of Plant Physiology. (3) Such sum as may be necessary, but not in any ease to exceed sol., to the Yorkshire Council for Agricultural Education, to defray expenses connected with Mr. T. H. Taylor’s investigations into the swede midge. (4) 2001. to the Midland Agricultural and Dairy College for research into the discoloration of Stilton cheese. (ii.) General Scheme. The Treasury has informed the Board that it had received the final recommendations of the De- velopment Commissioners on the Board’s application for the advance of 50,0001. per annum referred to above, and that it had sanctioned the following scheme :— (1) Grants to Colleges in Aid of the Extension of Advisory and Local Investigation Work.—An annual advance to the Board of a sum not exceeding 12,000l. for apportionment between twelve colleges so situated as to cover the whole country. NO. 2231, VOL. 89] | (2) Research Scholarships.—An advance to the Board of a sum of 16,500/. for the provision of 36 scholarships of the value of 150l. each. per annum, tenable for the period of three years; 12 to be given in IgII, 12 in 1912, and 12 in 1913. The advance will include fees of selection, and will, it is expected, be spread over the five years Ig11-12 to 1915-16 in- clusive. (3) Grants to Institutions in Aid of Scientific Re- | search and Experiment.—An annual advance to the Board of a sum not exceeding 30,0001. to provide for the carrying out of work on the following eleven subjects at the institutions specified in each case :— (a) Plant physiology Imperial College of Science and Technology. A special department of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Cambridge University and the John Innes Institu- tion. The main centre will be at the National Fruit and Cider Institute at Long Ashton (in connection with the Bristol Univer- sity), and there should be two or three sub- (b) Plant pathology, my- cological side (c) Plant Breeding (d) Fruit Growing sidiary stations situated in the chief fruit-growing districts. (e) Plant nutrition and Rothamsted Experimental soil problems Station. Cambridge University and another Institute to be settled later. Two institutes to be settled later. In the meantime the Com- missioners agreed to a grant of qool. for work on the breeding of small animals. The Royal Veterinary Col- lege and the Board’s Veterinary Laboratory. The University College, Reading, or another suit- able institution. To be divided possibly be- tween two universities, one being given economic entomology and the other general zoology, especi- ally helmintology. Oxford University. (f) Animal nutrition (g) Animal breeding (h) Animal pathology (j) Agricultural zoology... (k) Economics of agri- culture The Commissioners stated that they would be pre- pared to consider applications for a grant of 50 per cent. of the capital expenditure required for the estab- lishment of some of the institutions, leaving the other ‘so per cent. to be raised by the institution or locality concerned, unless there were very special circum- stances to justify a larger grant from the Deyvelop- ment Fund. (4) Special Investigations and Researches.—An annual advance to the Board of a sum not exceeding 30001. to be allocated for the assistance of particular investigations and researches not otherwise provided for. Provision for 1911-12.—The Treasury, on the re- commendation of the Development Commissioners, sanctioned an advance to the Board of a sum _ not exceeding 3000!. to meet the expenses involved in 570 NATURE [AUGUST I, 1912 such parts of the scheme as could be started before March 31, 1912. Provision for 1912~13.—The following sums have been provided in the Board’s Estimates for 1912-13 :-— Part expenses of administration, in- 4 S cluded in subhead A, salaries, wages, and allowances 55 Other expenses of the scheme, in- cluded in subhead G :— Grants to colleges in aid of the extension of advisory and. local investigation work Research scholarships (including expenses of selection) . Grants to institutions in ‘aid of scientific research and experi- ment 5 oat) Special investigations searches (gool. not repayable from the Development Fund) Inquiries, experiments, &c., by or on behalf of the Board (not re- payable from the Development Fund) one nate Ce Assistance on questions of economic zoology (not repayable from the Development Fund) ... 140 9,000 2,800 bas «+. 20,000 and _re- 3,900 36,300 Total provision in 1912-13 for agricultural research 36,440 Deduct— Annual provision already made under the Board’s vote in respect of agricultural research and not repayable from the Development Fund (see above) 1,500 Amount repayable from the Develop- ment Fund and included in sub- head S—appropriations in aid (3) Farm Institutes. The Treasury, on the recommendation of Development Commissioners, has sanctioned an ad- vance to the Board of a sum of 80,o000l., or such part thereof as might be required in the period ending on March 31, 1913, subject to the following conditions among others :— (a) That only such farm institutes are established and maintained as the Board may consider necessary, having regard to the possibility and advantages of combining counties for the purpose; (b) That not more than 75 per cent. of the capital cost of provision of an institute be defrayed from the Development Fund; (c) That the Development Fund bear only such part of the annual cost of maintenance of a farm institute or school (including the instruction and educational facilities provided by county councils at, or in connec- tion with, it) as may be required to make up to 50 per cent. the proportion borne by central funds, after taking account of any Parliamentary grants which may be forthcoming. The Development Commissioners also expressed their willingness to recommend further annual ad- vances from the Development Fund in aid of the scheme up to a total limit of 325,o0o0l. for the period ending on March 31, 1916. The sum provided in respect of the scheme in the Board’s Estimates for 1912-13 (subheads L and S) is 10,0001. only, as arrangements for carrying out the scheme were not sufficiently advanced to admit of a definitive estimate being made of te sum required for the purpose in 1912-13. NO. 2231, VOL. 89] 434,940 the (4) DEVELOPMENT OF FORESTRY. The Board made an application to the Treasury for grants amounting to 95,0001. for the development of forestry in England and Wales, to be expended during the period from October 1, 1911, to March 31, 1914. Correspondence with respect to this application is proceeding between the board and the Development Commissioners, but in the meantime the under-men- tioned grants have been sanctioned by the Treasury. (a) Advisory Work.—An advance of a sum not ex- ceeding 2500l. per annum for a period of three years, to meet salaries and travelling allowances, at five centres to be selected for advisory work. Two of these centres (Oxford and Cambridge) to be equipped for higher education in forestry, and the remaining three centres (Bangor, Newcastle, and Cirencester) for forestry education of a lower grade. (b) Research.—An advance of a sum of 1oool. per annum for two years, to enable Oxford and Cam- bridge to provide in each case for the salary and expenses of a research officer: and an advance of 2ool. per annum for two years for research work outside these two universities, provided that such re- search is carried out at Bangor, Cirencester, or New- castle. The advances under this head to be conditional on the work being confined to investigations into the diseases of indigenous trees and the structure of indigenous timber, and of such exotics as have been proved or may be shown to be of commercial import- ance to the United Kingdom. (c) Minor Forestry Experiments.—An advance of 1oool. per annum for the preparation and upkeep of sample plots on condition that the Board arrange for the selection of the plots for the local manage- ment of the experiments through the staff of the forestry centres where these plots are situated. (d) Administration.—An advance to the Board of such a sum as the Treasury may sanction, but not to exceed 281o0l., for the period from October 1, 1911, to the end of the financial year 1913-14. Provision for 1912-13.—The following sums have been provided in the Board’s Estimates for 1912-13 :— Grants for education (not repayable from the Development Fund) 1000 Advisory work : 2500 Research “04 ah Bo aor 1200 Minor forestry experiments BS: soc) obs TOOO Total provision (subhead H) in 1912-13 for development of forestry ... faa) 65700) Deduct— Annual provision already made under the Board’s Vote in respect of forestry and not repayable from the Development Fund (see above) é 1000 Amount repayable from the Development Fund and included in subhead por ame in aid : Bn . £4700 (5) Ree curcen RAL GaeeieN. The Treasury, on the recommendation of the Development Commissioners, sanctioned an interim advance of 3000l., or such part thereof as might be required in 1o11-12 as a grant to the Board to be held by it in trust for the Agricultural Organisa- tion Society. (6) Fishery DEVELOPMENT. The Treasury, on the recommendation of the Development Commissioners, has sanctioned the fol- lowing interim advances to the Board, or such por- tions thereof as might be required before March 31, AUGUST I, I9I2] NATURE Sa 1913, in respect of a scheme for the development of the fisheries of England and Wales :— (1) A sum not exceeding 6o0l. for work in connec- tion with lobster fisheries; (2) A sum not exceeding 350ol. in aid of the Board’s general research work ; (3) A sum not exceeding 1590l. for the purpose of making the following grants or such portions thereof as might be required before March 31, 1913, to the institutions named, viz. :— (a) 1240l. to the Lancashire and Western Local Fisheries Committee. (b) 300l. to the Marine Biological Association in aid of their research work. (c) sol. to the Eastern Local Fisheries Committee in aid of their experiments in connection with the marking of crabs and lobsters. British Beekeepers’ Association. The Treasury, on the recommendation of the Development Commissioners, has sanctioned a grant to the British Beekeepers’ Association of a sum not exceeding 8501. as follows :— (1) A sum of 3501. for an experimental apiary in some central situation, to be fitted with all modern appliances and to be used for demonstration purposes and in connection with the training and examination of lecturers. (2) A sum equal to the income of the association for the current year, but in no case to exceed sool., for general organisation—including the training and examination of lecturers, the promotion of county associations, and the organisation of pioneer lectures and demonstrations. THE STATE UNIVERSITIES OF FRANCE.1 AMONG the signs of progress to be noted is the increase in the number of students. As shown by the table, this increase has been marked during the decade 1go1-10, excepting in the case of one or two of the universities. At these smaller centres a process of scholastic specialisation has been going on which promises to give them distinctive place in the general system. Distribution of Students in the State Universities of France. Number of students. Universities. 1901 1910 Paris F 12,289 17,602 Aix- Marseille 950 1,236 Besancon... 252 242 Bordeaux .. 2,119 2,552 Caen 646 826 Clermont... 299 275 Dijon... 699 992 Grenoble... 566 1,156 Lille 1,110 1,779 Lyons... 2,428 2,922 Montpellier 1,610 1,965 Nancy 1,627 1,899 Poitiers 821 1,299 Rennes 1,139 2,029 Toulouse ... ms wi cos g 23040 2,828 Schools of medicine and phar- macy not included in the uni- versities 7% sh meg -., (7) Algiers (university schools) item. * 1,442 29,901 41,044 In the decade covered by the table the total number of students rose from 29,901 to 41,044, an increase of 1 Abridged from a chapter on Educational Movements in Western Europe, by Anna T. Smith, in the report of the U.S. Commissioner of Education for the year ended June 39, rgrr. 2 Included in the universities in 1910. NO. 2231, VoL. 89] 37 per cent. For the University of Paris alone the increase was above the average, amounting to 43 per cent.; for the provincial universities, taken together, the increase was 33 per cent. The contingent of foreign students has contributed in a marked degree to this advance; in 1900 they numbered 1770; in 1910 5241, a gain of 1966 per cent. during the decade. These numbers pertain to the winter sessions; in the summer sessions the number of foreigners is always greater; for instance, in 1910, it was 5800, or 559 more than in the winter session of the same year. The numbers quoted relate solely to regularly inscribed students. No account is taken of students attending public lectures at the Collége de France, the Muséum, or the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers. This proof of the extending reputation of the universities affords just gratification to the French authorities, who dwell also upon the evidence that it affects nearly every country. Russia has the largest representation in the student body, and the German Empire, exclusive of Alsace-Lorraine, stands second in this respect. The universities of France, like those of Germany, are highly specialised institutions in which students are prepared for professional or official careers. General education is the province of the lycées and colleges which prepare students for the bachelor’s degree, a prerequisite for matriculation at the universities. Hence the distribution of students by faculties serves as an index to the changing currents of intellectual life and of university demands in France. Distribution of Students among the Different Faculties of the State Universities of France. Number of students in Faculties State universities. Jan. 15, Jan. 15, Igor Tg10 Law 5 10,152 16,915 Medicine... 8,627 9,721 Sciences ... 3,910 6,287 Letters ae 33723 6,363 Pharmacy ee 33347 1,758 Protestant theology 142 _ 29,901 41,044 From the distribution of the students among the different faculties, as shown in the table, it is seen that law attracts nearly 40 per cent. of the entire number, and, further, that the faculty of letters has gained upon the faculty of sciences, which at the beginning of the decade had the larger registration. This increasing attendance upon the faculty of letters is due in great measure to the changing requirements of the teaching force of the secondary schools, which | is recruited chiefly from the two faculties considered. Among other causes for the gain in letters is the preference of foreign students. The number of foreigners in the faculties of science rose in the decade from 278 to 1208, an increase of 334 per cent.; in letters from 215 to 1708, an increase of 694 per cent. The increased attendance upon the faculties of letters and science is due in part to the system of bourses (scholarship funds) adopted by the Govern- ment in the early days of the Republic, with the pur- pose of assuring a sufficient number of candidates for the teaching service of secondary schools. At that time the faculties were purely examining juries and few candidates were forthcoming for the licence (diploma required for regular scholarships) or for the agrégation (examination for special professors). In order to induce young men of promise, but of limited means, to enter the service, Government bourses were created to be awarded upon competitive examination. The number of candidates admitted to this provision each year is, however, strictly limited, and at present the boursiers form a very small propor- NATURE [AuGuUST i. 1912 tion of the entire number of students in the two facul- ties named. By the reorganisation of secondary studies (decree of May 31, 1902) a road is opened for primary schools to the scientific faculties through the assimilation of the modern course in the lycées to that of the higher primaries. ‘This arrangement was made both in the interests of the teaching service of primary schools and also as a means of enabling. ambitious youths among the industrial classes to prepare themselves for more effective service int the practical affairs of life. In the reports of the financial status of the several universities the receipts are classified as the ordinary and the extraordinary income. The former comprises the revenues from property and the interest of invested funds, the fees for matriculation, lecture fees, library and laboratory fees, the receipts from university pub- lications, the State appropriations for current expen- ditures, appropriations by the departments and cities, and all other sources of a permanent character. The extraordinary income includes gifts and legacies, loans, appropriations for building or other special purposes, and all other funds intended to meet temporary demands. Each faculty comprised within a university has its own separate budget. The salaries of ail professors are paid from the State appropriations, estimates for the same being annually submitted to the Chamber of Deputies by the Minister of Public Instruction. The university may, however, make arrangements for additional service to be paid for out of its own resources. In giving up to the universities the receipts from fees, which were formerly turned over to the State Treasury, it was decided that they must be applied wholly to objects of immediate advantage to the students, such as the equipment of laboratories, libraries, new buildings, &c. Apart from these specific limitations, the universities have free disposal of their resources, It appears that the combined incomes of the fifteen universities in France, excluding Algiers, in 1906 aggregated 530,000l., of which amount Paris received 273,000l., or a little more than half the total. In 1909 the amount was 448,oool., of which Paris received less than half, namely 189,o00l. Partial statements for intervening years indicate that the decline in the in- comes, total and particular, in 1909, as compared with 1906, is due to fluctuations in the amounts received from gifts, legacies, &c., or what are termed extra- ordinary sources, rather than to a falling off in the receipts from ordinary sources. The latter include fees and State and local appropriations, which, as a rule, increase from year to year. From official state- ments for the years intervening between 1906 and 1909, it appears that Paris reached its maximum in- come in 1908, namely 313,000l. UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE. Lonpon.—Mr. H. Maxwell Lefroy nas been ap- pointed professor of entomology at the Imperial Col- lege of Science and Technology. Tue following appointments have been made at Bedford College for Women :—Assistant lecturer in mathematics, Dr. H. B. Heywood; assistant in mathe- matics, Miss M. Long. University COLLEGE GUILD OF GRADUATES.—The following are among the officers appointed for 1912-13 :—Master, Dr. T. Gregory Foster; Engineer- ing. Warden, Mr. E. S. Andrews; Medical Warden, Mr. R. Johnson; Science Warden, Miss E. .N. Thomas. NO. 2231, VOL. 89| | Pror. A. V. Dicey has retired, after a tenure of office of thirteen years, from the principalship of the Working Men’s College, London, and is succeeded by Sits Gueb>) Jecas. East Lonpon CorreGe.—Dr. J. Robinson, of the University of Sheffield, has been appointed senior lecturer in the physics department, and Mr. J. Salis- bury, Quain student at University College, lecturer in the botanical department. University Co.iLece.—Mr. E. Kilburn Scott has been reappointed lecturer in electrical design, and Mr. A. H. Barker has been reappointed lecturer in heating and ventilating engineering. Mr. Lloyd-Evans has been appointed demonstrator in the department of mechanical engineering. Mr. F. J. Bridgman has been appointed assistant in the department of zoology and comparative anatomy. Miss K. V. Ryley has been appointed to the Benington memorial studentship. in anthropometry and craniology. A valuable collec- tion of British Lepidoptera, made by the late Mr. J. A. Finzi, has been presented by Mrs. and Miss Finzi to the zoological museum. Tue foundation-stones of the new Gresham College were laid on July 24. The ceremony was followed by a luncheon in the Mercers’ Hall, at which Sir Archi- bald Geikie, P.R.S., spoke. He stated that he saw no reason why the new college should not become a higher centre for literary and scientific cultivation for the City of London than heretofore, and all for the glory of God and to the memory of Sir Thomas Gresham. Tue following appointments have been made at the London (Royal Free Hospital) School of Medicine for Women :—Dr. F. Wood-Jones, demonstrator in anatomy, St. Thomas’s Hospital Medical School, to be lecturer and head of the department of anatomy ; in succession to Mr. F. G, Parsons, who has resigned ; Mr. J. A. Gardner to be lecturer in organic chemistry and head of the department of chemistry, in succes- sion to Miss C. Evans; Miss Widdows to be lecturer in organic chemistry; Miss M. D. Waller to be demon- strator in physics. SHEFFIELD.—Mr. H. Nield has been appointed demonstrator in anatomy, and Dr. E. F. Finch and Mr. P. A. Reckless honorary demonstrators in the same subject. Ir is announced in Science that the sum of 50,000l. has been bequeathed to Yale University, without any restrictions, by Mr. C. D. Borden, of New York. We are informed that the establishment of the new university in Western Australia is progressing satis- factorily, and the Senate is open to receive applications for the filling of eight professorial chairs. Parliament has voted an annual minimum endowment of 13,500!. towards the administration and needs of the univer- sity, and the chair of agriculture has been fully en- dowed by the newly appointed Chancellor, Sir W. Hackett. Mr. H. Gunn, who carried out similar work in South Africa with success, has been appointed organiser of the university, and is now actively engaged in making preparations for the inauguration of the institution early next year. Tue London County Council has decided to increase its annual grant to the Imperial College of Science and Technology from S8oool. to 13,000l., for the quin- quennial period September 1, 1912, to August 31, 1917- The report of the Higher Education Sub-committee, in which the recommendation now adopted was made, points out that the Treasury has decided to allow to the governing body of the Imperial College additional grants of soool. in respect of each of the sessions AUGUST I, 1912] . 2 ! 1g10-11 and 1911-12, and of 10,000l. (making 30,0001. in all) in the session 1912-13. The Treasury has agreed further that the annual grant in aid of the college shall be fixed at 30,000l, for a period of five years from August 1, 1912, to July 31, 1917. The Board of Educa- tion has received an assurance on behalf of the govern- ing body of the Imperial College that the additional grant of 10,0001. commencing from August 1 next will, with their other resources, enable them to carry on the educational work on which they are now engaged, and also. the educational work which they are com- mitted to undertake in the new buildings now in course of erection, until the close of the session end- ing July 31, 1917, and the Board further understands that the governing body are prepared to abide by the condition that they shall strictly regulate their expen- diture by their assured income, and that they will not during the period named commit themselves to any fresh work which might involve a demand for further State assistance. Tue London County Council has issued a pamphlet setting out the arrangements made for the session 1912-13 in connection with the various lectures and classes established by the Council for the further education of teachers. These lectures, which are free, upon payment of a registration fee of 1s., to all teachers actually engaged in teaching in the County of London irrespective of the institutions in which they are employed, offer a wide choice of subjects and are designed to appeal to the many and varied interests of the teaching profession. The lectures will be of great value to teachers who desire to specialise in some one branch of knowledge or to improve their general culture. Every conceivable subject likely to appeal to teachers seems to have been thought of by the organisers, and lecturers of high repute have been secured. Some of the arrangements made in the case of science may be mentioned. Three courses of three lectures each, under the direction of the Zoological Society, will be given in the Zoological Gardens at Regent’s Park. Prof. Hewlett will lecture on, bac- teriology and microbiology; Prof. F. E. Fritsch on modern methods of teaching nature-study; Prof. Dendy on nature-studies from animal life; and Prof. H. Kenwood on school hygiene for teachers. In mathematies, again, Prof. M. J. M. Hill will lecture on the theory of proportion, and Dr. T. P. Nunn on the teaching of the calculus and on the arithmetic of citizenship and finance. An interesting development in connection with the classes for next session is that whereby members of the staff of the L.C.C. training colleges are giving courses of lectures and demonstra- tions in various centres in London. This plan should assist to coordinate the theory of the lecture-room and the actual practice of the class-room. SOCIETIES. AND .ACADEMIES. LONDON. Geological Society, June 19.—Dr. Aubrey Strahan, F.R-.S., president, in the chair.—R. D. Vernon: The geology and palzontology of the Warwickshire coal- field. The main objects are to determine the true age of the so-called ‘Permian’ rocks of Warwickshire, and their stratigraphical relationship to the underlying Carboniferous rocks and to the overlying deposits of Triassic age. The Carboniferous rocks are subdivided into groups, and the age of the subdivisions is deter- mined from a study of the fossil flora. On. strati- graphical and paleontological evidence it is shown that a large area of rocks previously mapped as Per- mian is really Carboniferous. | The Carboniferous rocks are subdivided into groups which, on palo- NATURE } | discovered belong apparently 573 ing three horizons of the Westphalian Series: the Upper Coal Measures, the Transition Measures, and the Middle Coal Measures; the Lower Coal Measures are found to be absent. ‘The fossil flora is described in detail, and a brief account is given of the fresh- water and marine faunas of the Middle Coal Measures. The Carboniferous rocks of Warwickshire are cor- related with those of the other coalfields of the Mid- land province, and it can thus be demonstrated that there is a marked southerly attenuation and overlap of each of the subdivisions of the Carboniferous system.—W. H. Hardaker: The discovery of a fossil- bearing horizon in the Permian rocks of Hamstead, near Birmingham. Some quarries in the Permian rocks in the neighbourhood of Hamstead, near Birm- ingham, have afforded an interesting series of fossils. These consist chiefly of the impressions of plants, and of the footprints of amphibia assignable to several species. The quarries occur in the broad band of strata which is coloured upon the Geological Survey map as Permian, and fringes the eastern side of the South Staffordshire coalfield. The group (and sub- groups) in which the fossils occur are described and illustrated in detail, and show that the group as a whole belongs in its lower part to the Midland Middle Permian (or Calcareous Conglomerate and Sandstone) division of Mr. Wickham King, and in its upper part to his Upper Permian (or Breccia and Sandstone) division. Most of the plants and animal footprints to recognisable forms which have been long known to occur in the Rothlie- gende (or typical Lower Permian) of Germany, and they have little or no resemblance to those of the un- disputed Upper Carboniferous of any known area; and the conclusion is drawn that these fossil-bearing Ham- stead strata must in future be regarded as of Rothlie- gende or true Lower Permian age. Paris. Academy of Sciences, July 16. M. A. Gautier in the chair.—Ch. Moureu and A. Lepape: Some _ natural gases rich in helium. Three springs at Santenay evolve gases richer in helium than those previously investigated. Of these, the © Lithium” spring pro- | duces a gas containing 10°16 per cent., by volume, corresponding to a total annual yield of 5182 litres of helium, and the ‘‘Carnot”’ spring a gas containing 9°97 per cent., with an annual yield of 17,845 litres. A spring at Néris (Allier), though its gases are poorer in helium, yields annually nearly 34,000 litres of this element. If the helium from the ** Carnot” spring has been evolved entirely from radio-active bodies, and if it has been evolved at the rate at which it was formed, this would necessitate the pre- sence of g1 tons of radium, or of 500,000,000 tons of pitchblende, &c. If, however, it is, so to speak, fossil helium, its presence would mean the disintegration of about 2 tons of thorianite, or of 167 tons of pitch- blende —Emile Borel: The indeterminate nature of | analytical functions in the region of a singular essen- tial point.—Jules Andrade: The measurement of fric- tion. —A. Guillet and M. Aubert: A spark electrometer. A. Leduc: The densities of some gases and vapours.— Daniel Berthelot and Henry Gaudechon: Radiations producing the photosynthesis of complex compounds, the polymerisation of certain gases, and the decom- position of acetone. Radiations from a quartz- mercury vapour lamp produce formamide from a mix- ture of carbon monoxide and ammonia, but sunlight does not act similarly; decomposition of the form- amide can also be brought about by the radiations from the mercury lamp, and more slowly by sunlight. Cyanogen is polymerised by sunlight, and more rapidly by the lamp radiations; acetylene is poly- botanical evidence, are proved to belong to the follow- | merised by the lamp, not by sunlight. Acetone is not NO. 2231, VOL. 89] 574 NATURE [AucusT 1, 1912 affected by the solar radiations, but those from the ] Committee. lamp split it up rapidly into carbon monoxide and ethane. Aqueous solutions of acetone also yield acetic acid and methane.—M. Markétos: The an- hydrous nitrates of uranyl and of zinc. These can be prepared by heating the hydrated nitrates carefully in an atmosphere of nitric acid vapour.—Pierre Joli- bois: Grignard’s reaction.—H. Cousin and H. Hérissey: The oxidation of parathymol. Dehydro- diparathymol. When parathymol is oxidised either by ferric chloride, or by air in presence of the oxydase of fungi, two molecules lose hydrogen and unite to form dehydro-parathymol, of which the properties are described.—P. Lemoult ; Diphenylethylene derivatives ; preparation of two cyclohexylidene bases. The bases in question are produced by the action of the com- pound of cyclohexyl bromide and magnesium on Michler’s ketone, and on its tetraethyl homologue.— Georges Abt: Salt stains on skins and hides.. These stains, which detract seriously from the value of the materials, are caused by the presence of calcium sulphate in the salt liquors used in pickling.—A. Duifour: JIsomorphism of the irido- and _ rhodio- chlorides of the alkali metals. A crystallographic comparison of the potassium, rubidium, czsium, ammonium, and dimethylammonium salts derived from H,IrCl, and H,RhCI,.—Louis Matruchot : The culture of Lepiota procera.—Romuald Minkiewicz : The nature of the chromotropism of the Nemertea. Red light exerts a specific action on these animals.— M. Wedensky: Prolonged excitation of sensory nerves and its effect on the central nervous system. —Robert Lévy: The mechanism of the haemolysis caused by arachnolysin. Arachnolysin is probably not a direct hemolytic toxin, but rather a complex system, like many other venoms.—Henry Cardot and Henri Laugier : The mechanism of the inversion of the polar law of Pfluger.—L. Camus: Passive immunisation.— Charles Nicolle, L. Blaisot, and A. Cuénod: The sus- ceptibility of the Magot (Macacus inuus) to trachoma. Filtrability of the virus. Infective power of the tears. The chimpanzee is readily infected with trachoma, the course of the disease being very similar to that in man. Owing, however, to the rarity of these animals, the authors investigated several of the lower apes with regard to their susceptibility to the disease, and found that Macacus inuus was easily infected. The virus was still potent after filtration. Infection may be conveyed by the tears.—Pierre Delbet and Pierre Cartier: Hzemarthrosis of the knee. The bacillus of tubercle was found to be present in many of the cases investigated.—E. Kayser: The influence of uranium salts on alcoholic ferments. Very small amounts of these salts act as stimulants to the fer- ments, larger quantities as poisons. Yeast slowly acquires a tolerance to the action of uranium.— Gabriel Bertrand and H. Agulhon: The presence of boron as a normal constituent of animal tissues. In exceedingly small amounts, boron was found to be present in most of the tissues of the five animals examined—guinea-pig, rabbit, sheep, cow, and horse. The dried muscles of the rabbit contained about one part in two million. BOOKS RECEIVED. Henri Poincaré. Biographie, Analytique des Ecrits. By E. Edition: 7 Pps m1) a(Barisk: francs. La Péche au Bord de la Mer. Je- AvePerreau) Sep) siren (eatiss: Fils.) 4 francs. The Fire Resistance of Doors and Shutters: being Tabulated Results of Fire Tests Conducted by the NO. VOL. 89] Bibliographie Lebon. Seconde Gauthier-Villars.) 7 By L. Jouenne and J. B. Bailliére et Lo stato) 223 Compiled by E. O. Sachs and E. Mars- land. (Journal of the British Fire Prevention Com- mittee. No. vii., 1912.) Pp. 11+2 plates+tables. (London: British Fire Prevention Committee.) 42s. net. Outdoor Philosophy: the Meditations of a Natural- ist. By S. D. Kirkham. Pp. xii+214. (New York and Benda: G. P. Putnam’s Sons.) 5s. net. A Handbook on the Gas Engine. By H. Haeder. Translated by W. M. Huskisson. Pp. xii+317. (London: C. Lockwood and Son.) 18s. net. The Extra Pharmacopceia of Martindale and West- cott. Fifteenth Edition. Revised by Dr. W. A. Mar- tindale and W. W. Westcott. Vol i., pp. xxxi+1114. Vol. ii., pp. viiit+370. (London: H. K. Lewis.) Vol. i., 145. net; vol. il., 7s. net. A Guide for the Study of Animals. By W. Whitney, F. €. Lucas, H. B. Shinn, and M. E. Smallwood. Pp. ix+197. (Boston, New York, Chicago, and Lon- don: D. C. Heath and Co.) 2s. Their Winged Destiny: being a Tale of Two Planets. By D. W. Horner. Pp. vi+240. (London: Simpkin and Co., Ltd.) 2s. net. Das Relativitatsprinzip: eine Einfithrung in die Theorie. By A. Brill. Pp. iv+29. (Leipzig and Ber- lin: B. G. Teubner.) 1.20 marks. The Story of our Trees, in Twenty-four Lessons. By M. M. Gregson. Pp. xii+160. (Cambridge Uni- versity Press.) 2s. 6d. The Record of the Royal Society of London. Third Edition. Pp. viiit483. (London: H, Frowde.) 1535. net. Lehrbuch der Physik. By Prof. E. Riecke. Fiinfte Auflage. Erster Band. Pp. xvi+600. Zweiter Band. Pp. xii+775. (Leipzig: Veit and Co.) 26 marks. Die Assimilationstatigkeit bei | Schmetterlings- Puppen. By Prof. G. von Linden. Pp. (Leipzig : Veit and Co.) 4.50 marks, Physik in graphischen Darstellungen. bach. Pp. x+213 plates+28. B. G. Teubner.) 9 marks, 164+iii Taf. By F: Auer- (Leipzig and Berlin: CONTENTS. PAGE Mechanical and Chemical Engineering. ..... 549 Kainozoic Stratigraphy. ByJ.W.G. ...... 551 Analytical Chemistry. ... . ree a 2 Our Bookshelf ; esa cay day col - | Around this | is universally but unequally distributed. | Sparse settlement of fringed with low islands, where through islands and | broken coast. the great rivers of central Europe find their outlet to the sea. Along the shores of Jutland, low, level stretches of sand confront us, until, crossing | the Skagerack, we are again of a sudden in presence of rock and precipice. Then onwards along the many hundred miles of Norwegian coast we have more or less similar scenery of cliff and mountain, often glacier-topped, and the broken barrier of islands, behind which the deep fjords are sheltered from the Atlantic billows. long the fishing population In the old sandy bay, where coast-line days almost every sheltered creek or the boats could be drawn up in winter, received its fishermen, and their number, if in part regulated by the nature of the coast, was still more governed by the racial characteristics of the | people: for. some breeds of men are fishermen born, and some are not; and some -races, such as the 594 NATURE [AucustT 8, 1912 Cornishmen, the Dutchmen, and the Norsemen, were long pre-eminent, and the Dutch the greatest of all. In the days of Queen Elizabeth, before ever a herring was caught by our own people, the Dutch sent to our coasts a yearly herring-fleet of 3000 sail. It was Dutch colonists, under William of Orange, who first taught Englishmen to trawl at Brixham; and to that Brixham fishery, and the direct influence and_ par- ticipation of the men who conducted it, all our modern trawling industry harks back. And again, in Scot- land, our prosperous east coast fishery, far different from the struggling efforts of the western Celt, owes its origin to those Dutch and Frisian settlers who (as history and tradition tell us) came over under Mary Queen of Scots and her son, and who still retain no small trace of their origin in speech and custom and costume. These good people present a problem to the administrator, when (as oftentimes) they cling not only to their old ways, but, resisting all economic tendencies to concentration, cleave to the ancient homes of their forefathers, and make heroic efforts, and demand the like heroism on the part of his Majesty’s Treasury, to fit their multitudinous petty havens to the needs of an enlarged and altered industry. It is different with the great centres of the modern trawl-fishery, the site of which is determined by deep- water harbours, by proximity to a great capital, or by convenient railway facilities. These conditions greatly limit the number of trawling centres, of which Grimsby and Hull, Aberdeen and Granton, Ostende and Ymuiden, Geestemunde and Cuxhaven, are the chief. Proximity to the fishing-grounds matters less to these distant voyagers than to the herring-fisher. With him, ports contiguous to the successive seasonal fishing-grounds are a prime necessity, and railway facilities are of minor importance; for the fish must be cured in haste—and may be exported at leisure, generally (because most cheaply) by sea. And so it is that all down our east coast the herring ports are numerous, and are often remote from the greater centres of population. The North Sea is a very shallow sea. We can sail from here to Hamburg, save for one little bit, in water under 20 fathoms deep, and from here to the north of Denmark in water that never exceeds 30 fathoms. Suppose the bottom of the North Sea to be raised up by successive stages—raise it by 10 fathoms, or 12 paces (just the breadth of this street from wall to wall), and immediately the islands of the Frisian shore are linked together in an even coast line, while a belt ten miles broad or more is added to the Danish coast; a multitude of low islands spring up off the Belgian and East Anglian coasts, and a greater island rises up in the Dogger Bank, where even now in heavy storms the waves break upon the sunken land. Let the North Sea rise but 20 fathoms, and from Flamborough Head eastward dry land fills the southern North Sea, save for a shallow inlet, parallel with our coast, that has been scoured out a little deeper than the rest by the tidal inflow from the Channel; the Dogger Bank is now a great low island some 150 miles long. Let our upheaval proceed some 10 fathoms more, or 30 fathoms in all, and now from the Yorkshire coast straight across to the most northerly point. of Denmark the new shore line appears; and all to the south of it, an area of some 70,000 sauare miles, is now dry land, save for a few small lakes, chief among which are the celebrated Silver Pits, where nowadays the soles congregate. Once more let the bottom of the North Sea rise up so fathoms, or 300 ft. (not yet near the height of St. Paul’s), and the new coast line now runs round the Orkney Islands, and then from somewhere about Peterhead through the Skagerack to Sweden, with ! NO. 2232, VOL. 89] one conspicuous dip or bend, that under the condi- tions we have imagined would form a sort of new Zuyder Zee. Northward, far beyond the 50-fathom line, and away to the north of Shetland, the com- paratively shallow bottom of the North Sea slopes downwards to the north, until we reach the 100- fathom line a little to the north of Shetland. But some sixty miles from the Norwegian coast this 100- fathom line bends southward, until it, like our other contour lines, enters the Skagerack. The deep groove that surrounds the Norwegian coast, and cuts off from it the comparatively shallow plateau of the North Sea, isa geographical feature of great importance, the mean- ing and history of which have not yet been fully told. The 100-fathom line is succeeded to the northward at no great distance by the 200-fathom line, and beyond this the depths increase rapidly, for we are now at the edge of the continental shelf, and the old abyss of ocean is but a stone’s throw away. Elevate, then, in imagina- tion, the bottom of the North Sea by, say 150 or 200 fathoms (rather less or rather more than the length of Albemarle Street), and all the North Sea to beyond the Shetlands and all the British Islands and the British seas become part of the Continent; all that remains of the North Sea is a large lake, immensely deep, that occupies the greater part of the present Skagerack, and continues the chain of great deep cold lakes, with their ancient faunas, still showing traces of their origin from the sea, that are so con- spicuous a feature of the geography of Sweden. Of all these physical features the greatest is that which is represented, or approximately represented, by the roo-fathom line. The geographer traces it along all the western coasts of the Old World, from the north of Norway to southern Africa. It encircles our own islands, it broadens here and there, it is the edge of our continental area, and beyond it the Con- tinent plunges into the abyss of ocean. The geologist sees in it, in all probability, the actual coast line of early Tertiary times after the great changes that had raised part of the bed of the cretaceous ocean into dry land: the coast line of an age when broad plains or chalky downs stretched over the North Sea. And now that subse- quent and successive changes, in which again subsidence and upheaval have alternated, and the great ice sheet has scraped and scooped the North Sea and filled its bed to unknown depths with its drift and clay, now over the shallow slopes and levels that the 1oo-fathom line bounds, the fisherman finds his place and calling. Here and there in the world, as, for instance, off the coast of Portugal, are isolated deep- sea fisheries; here and there the adventurous trawler, or halibut-fisher, plies his craft on the deeper slopes of the continental shelf to 200 fathoms, or a little more; but, broadly speaking, the 1oo-fathom line bounds and limits the ordinary operations of the fisherman. Where that continental shelf narrows, the fisherman’s field is narrowed; where it widens out, he finds an ampler range; and in the region of the White Sea and the Murman coast, the whole of our North Sea area, in a belt round our western coasts, a broad girdle round France, a narrow one_ off Portugal and Spain, here and there in Africa, as off Morocco and down in Greyhound Bay—in all of these regions the continental shelf or plateau extends its rich and productive bed a long way from the land, and vet but a little way into the territorv of Ocean. What I have called the gateways of the North Sea are not merely highways of commerce, they are the doors by which Ocean itself enters into the narrow seas, bringing with it its quickening influence on life, and its regulating and ameliorating effects on climate; and there have been times when. one or another, or all, of these gates were closed. It is to the opening —s AvucustT 8, 1912] or shutting of these gates, and of others leading to more southern seas, that the geologist ascribes much of the successive changes of climate and of fauna during Tertiary times. The topography of the North Sea, as well as of our land, bears its fragmentary records of these old times. The Dogger Bank is perhaps but a great moraine, and over it (when the great ice-cap had passed away) roamed the rhinoceros, the reindeer, and the mammoth. The deep groove off Norway was probably in part a channel whereby the river system of eastern Europe ran seaward, in part an eddy, where the Scandinavian glaciers gripped and scooped their hardest, and, first of all, probably a great crumple in the earth’s crust. In the Moray Firth a deep channel, more than a hundred fathoms deep, exists; it is the course by which an older and greater Spey ran tributary into an older and greater Rhine. Apart from the great tidal waves that roll in twice a day from the ocean round by our northern and southern gates, the great dominating movement of our seas lies in the Atlantic current, or system of currents, that we commonly call the Gulf Stream. The Gulf Stream itself is a river in the ocean (as Maury called it); but partly as a river, and in part as a great, wide, slow-drifting flood, the warm waters of the bosom of the Atlantic creep ever northward and eastward to bathe our shores, and to soften the climate of sea and land in northern Norway and distant Spitz- bergen. A little branch of the current enters in by the southern gate, a somewhat greater eddies round the north of Scotland, and under these two impulses (aided by local differences in the density of the waters of the North Sea basin) a circling current flows down our eastern coasts, across to Denmark, and in part out again along the Norwegian shore. The direct influence of this system of currents on the life of fishes is immense, for by its means their floating eggs and young are dispersed and disseminated broad- cast. In the south those of the plaice and sole are carried over to their nursery grounds on the flat Danish shore; and in like manner the eggs and fry of the cod are drifted from the western coasts round the north of Scotland into the North Sea, and in part out again to the Sea of Norway. Simply and clearly we may see by our chart the distribution of temperature in the North Atlantic, due, on one hand, to the Gulf Stream current, and on the other to the opposing currents from the pole, that bend westward in their southerly course and cool the Newfoundland Banks and the shores of the Eastern States, while a minor offshoot from the direc- tion of Iceland, submerged beneath the warm Atlantic waters, approaches or invades our own seas. We see, | in passing, the close-pressed isotherms on the New- foundland Banks, where the two waters meet, and we may note, by the way, that it seems to be a fact that fish tend to accumulate just at such meeting places of different waters. But looking broadly at our own temperature phenomena the most striking points are: our western coast bathed by the warm current, the eastern remote from its influence; again, the rapid change of temperature from the favoured regions of southern Ireland and south-western England as we | go farther north; and, lastly, the uniformity of tem- perature over the wide region that sweeps round | from the North Sea by wav of Iceland all round the North Atlantic to Newfoundland again. The difference of temperature between our western or southern coasts and the eastern is in close relation with the great contrast between the fish of the two | regions. Broadly speaking, to the former belong southern fishes, while fishes the home and distribution of which are in the north characterise the latter. There cannot be a more striking contrast than that | NO. 2232, voL. 89] NATURE 595 between one of our fish markets and a market of Lisbon, Genoa, or Marseilles. The cod and the haddock, and nearly all their allies (save the hake) are absent from the latter; flat fish are few, and the great order of the spiny-finned fishes, the bream and the sea perch, the mullet, the gurnard, and a multi- tude of others, mostly alien to our markets and strange to our eyes, form the staple commodity. A difference, similar in kind though less in degree, exists between our western fisheries and those of the North Sea. The pilchard, the chief Clupeoid of the Atlantic coasts, finds its appropriate temperature on the Cornish coast, and rarely penetrates the colder waters to the east. The hake, which takes the place of the cod along the Atlantic seaboard, comes round indeed into the North Sea with the Gulf Stream eddy, but in meagre quantities. The bream, which both fresh and salted is an important food of the poor on the west of Ireland, is not in the North Sea an article of commerce. The trawlers that seek the coasts of the Spanish Peninsula and of Morocco find in these warm waters a fishery totally unlike that of the North Sea; while, on the other hand, our tem- perature curves make it plain and easy for us to understand how the North Sea has common attributes with regions so far off as the White Sea itself, with Iceland and Newfoundland and the Eastern States, and how our staple fishes, such as the cod, the had- dock, the plaice and halibut, and the herring itself, find their extensive distribution in all these remote, but not dissimilar seas. Lastly, ere we leave this matter of temperature, let me point out to you that the ocean not only acts in this part of the world as a warming influence, but also here and everywhere has a great steadying influence upon the temperatures. In another chart I show, not the mean temperatures, but the range of tem- perature, the difference between the summer heat of the sea and its winter cold. A little way west of Ireland the annual range of temperature is but 4°, and in Shetland it is but 6°; but the further we go into the narrow seas the more violent is the seasonal fluctuation, the greater is its range, until down in the German bight you have a range of at least 12° or 14° C., or 30° to 35° F. The water there is far colder in winter than in other parts of our sea. But there comes a great compensatory warmth in summer, which again has its influence in favouring this region as a nursery for young fish. The problem of salinity, the distribution of the amount of salt in the sea, is a laborious one to in- vestigate, but, so far as the North Sea goes, its main results are easy to understand. Some of you will see at a glance from this chart of Isohalines, how beautifully simple the arrangement is, and how perfectly it is in accord with the distribution of the three gateways of the sea, the two inlets of salt water, and the great Baltic source of fresh. But the further study of the salinity of the North Sea is very com- plicated indeed, for the mean condition which my chart represents is subject to change, and the changes are partly regular or periodic, and partly irregular and obscure. There is a constant battle, as it were, between the quantities of fresh water, on one hand, that the Baltic sends in, and the rivers bring down (for the former source especially tends to be dried up when the inland sea is frozen in winter time), and the varying supply of salt water from the ocean, for even the great ocean currents have their annual pulse, their ebb and flow. In the summer time over great | part of the North Sea, water of low salinity spreads from the Baltic, and such changes as_ this have, we have every reason to believe, their close and intimate bearing on the migrations of the herring. Lastly, together with these physical phenomena of 590 salinity, temperature,-and current, we study the dis- tribution of plankton,. as it is called nowadays, the floating life of the sea. On his great voyage across the ocean, Darwin himself spoke of it as a weary waste of waters. It was but a few years afterward that Johannes Muller and others showed that every gallon of the waters over which we sail is a teeming world of microscopic life. A thousand varied forms people the surface waters. Some have their home around the shores, while others are denizens of the great ocean currents, and these coming more or less periodically within our reach, mark and render visible the currents to which they belong. These organisms are animal and vegetable, and among them the myriad tiny green alge play their part in the economy of nature, renewing in the sunlight the oxygen of the sea, as the green herbage restores the balance of oxygen on land. Some few fishes, but fishes of great importance, feed all their lives upon plankton organ- isms, and their distribution is accordingly closely correlated with the abundance of these. The herring feeds, as many of the great whales do, on the teem- ing shoals of small crustacea that are especially char- acteristic of northern seas; the pilchard, which at times feeds on the same diet, is said to come to the Cornish coasts at the season when minute vegetable organisms reach their greatest abundance. But in early life all fishes whatsoever live on these floating microscopic organisms, on diatom and peridinian and copepod, while these same organisms are again the nutriment, direct or indirect, of the miultitudinous worms and shellfish and crustacea on which the older fishes are in turn nourished. There is another and more difficult chapter still of the same story, relating to those yet smaller organisms, the bacteria, by the subtle alchemy of which the nitrogenous contents of the water are controlled, and which lay the first foundations of the ladder by which the inorganic elements pass into the fabric of living things. And lastly, among the elements of the plankton must be reckoned the egg and earliest stages of the vast majority of our food fishes. For it is an elementary and cardinal fact that, with the single important exception of the herring, everv food fish of our seas lays eggs, tiny, globular, and transparent, which float in the surface waters of the sea. The eggs of the herring, on the other hand (as Walker showed in 1803, and as Goodsir and Allman re-discovered), are laid in sticky masses attached to weeds and zoophytes at the bottom. Here they are devoured in quantities by the haddock and other fish, and here they may at times be disturbed by the operations of the trawler, while the eggs of all the other food fishes float safely and undisturbed above. But it is high time to pass to the fisheries of the nations bordering on the North Sea, and to consider their scale and magnitude in the briefest possible review. Wherever there is sea-coast there are fishermen, and accordingly all the North Sea nations participate in the fishery; but the extent to which the fishery is pursued, its actual produce, and its importance relatively to the other sources of each country’s wealth —all these things differ greatly. Taking the last year (1908) for which statistics are easily available, Great Britain and the other five North Sea Powers bring to land some two million tons of fish a year; and _ of this great quantity Britain has for her share more than 60 per cent., Norway has 25 per cent., and the other four nations share among them 15 per cent. of the whole. Of the grand total catch of Great Britain no less than 84 per cent. is landed on the east coast of England and Scotland. The composition of the catch is very different in NO. 2232, VOL. 89] NATURE [AucustT 8, 1912 different countries... 1 show you a diagram to illus- trate. how overwhelming is Norway’s catch of cod; and another to illustrate the absence of plaice from the fisheries of that country, the small importance of this fish in Scotland, its greater importance in. Eng- land, and its especial and peculiar predominance in Denmark. When we deduct our three staple fishes— herring, cod, and haddock—there remains less than Io per cent. of the Scottish catch, a fifth of that of Holland, a third of that of England, about half of that of Denmark, two-thirds of that of Belgium. When we translate the above catches into money- value, we find that six nations earn from their fisheries closely upon twenty millions a year (or say, 50,0001. a day), of which Britain takes 11,000,000l., or actually about 62 per cent.; and that first return is probably trebled, or nearly so, by the indirect earnings and profits of the trade. The several shares are not alike in regard to quantity and value; for instance, Nor- way, with about a quarter of the total catch, has but an eighth of the total money-value, for her cod and herring are relatively cheap; while Denmark takes more than 4 per cent. in money in return for a little more than 2 per cent. in quantity, for her plaice and eels are costly fish. But without pressing statistics further, it is plain that the small or even petty shares which certain countries earn from the fisheries are far from being less vital to them than is our greater share to us. It was common for our older writers of two centuries ago to attribute the wealth of Holland wholly, or almost wholly, to the herring-fishery. ‘‘It is almost wholly from the Herring-fishery,” says one, ‘‘ that they have raised a country labouring under the disadvan- tage of intemperate air, excessive Expense in main- taining their Dykes, and want of almost all those Necessaries in which we so greatly abound, to that Plenty, Wealth, and Power they at present enjoy.” And when Charles V. made his pilgrimage to the tomb of the man who, long generations before, had invented pickled herrings, he manifested a similar belief. If no nation be nowadays so exclusively de- pendent on this or any other single industry, yet we may easily realise that, wealth and population con- sidered, the two millions that Norway earns, or the three-quarters of a million that Denmark earns, from her fisheries, are, more even than in our case, of indispensable and immeasurable importance to the support and well-being of the people. When we come to consider the quantities of fish that come from the North Sea, we find that England, in spite of the distant voyages that some of her trawlers make, and in spite of the considerable fisheries of her western and southern coasts, still takes two-thirds of her whole fish supply from that great fishing ground, the North Sea. Scotland takes an even greater part, more than four-fifths of the whole, and Holland, whose herring fishers go as far as Shetland, does not go beyond, and takes practically the whole of her fish from the North Sea area. Ger- many, on the other hand, takes only half her supply from the North Sea, the rest coming from the Baltic, and in part from her Iceland and other deep-sea trawlers. Denmark, again, gets the bulk of her supply from her Baltic coasts; and Norway, whose greatest fisheries lie far north upon her Atlantic shores, takes only one-fifth of her total catch from the North Sea. Numberless methods are employed for the capture of fish, numberless modifications of bait and trap, of net and line; but for our purposes we may speak particularly of three only, the methods of the fine- fisher, the fisher of nets, and the trawl fisherman. In each one of these methods great changes have taken place within recent memory, changes that have i I tal am ae im Aucust 8, 1912] NATURE Sey revolutionised the industry and brought far-reaching | Then we have another and greater sort, or set of races, consequences to the lives and prosperity of the fisher- | that breed in summer and autumn, and these the men. Eighty years ago there was not a single first-class fishing-boat, not a single fishing-boat more than 30 ft. long, in Scotland. Thirty years ago there were more than 5000 such, and our Board in its first Report said, even then, that there had been a revolution in the industry. But another and a greater revolution had yet to follow, for trawling was then in its in- fancy, and steam had scarce begun to oust the sailing- boat. We have now in England some 1300 steam trawlers, in Scotland about 300, and about 400 more in the rest of northern Europe. Besides this, we have in Scotland about 1100 steam fishing-boats other than trawlers—mostly herring-drifters, the value of which is about 24 millions of money; England has between 500 and 600 of these, and the rest of northern Europe at the last statistics about 150. Steam and ice and railway facilities have done, in the last generation, for the fisheries what steam had done for the spindle and the loom: to the immense advantage of the people at large, and with the in- evitable accompaniment of loss to some. But in the case of the fisheries, the loss and hardship have been tempered and attenuated by the fact that the great herring industry has, in great measure, escaped the tendency to concentration, both in regard to locality and in regard to capitalisation. Even the large steam- drifters, costing more than 2oo00l. a-piece, are, to a very large extent, the property of the fishermen themselves. The fishermen remain free men; they are independent, industrious, and prosperous; and, speaking at least for Scotland, though there are fewer fishermen than there were forty years agg, IT think there can be no doubt that their prosperity as a class was never greater than it is now. Let me say a word about the herring fishery. The herring constitutes more than two-thirds of the total quantity of fish landed in Scotland, and considerably more than half the value of the whole; and in Holland the numbers are all but identical. In England, on the other hand, it represents less than one-third of the entire quantity, and about one-eighth of the total value. If we deduct trawled fish, and deal only with the produce of the less capitalised industry, the in- dustry of the men of net and line, then the com- parison becomes still more striking; for we find that in Scotland 87 per cent. of the catch of such fisher- men, and 83 per cent. of its value, are contributed by the herring alone. It is, and always has been, the mainstay of our fisherfolk. There are many ways of catching herring. In the shallows of the Baltic Sea they capture them with fixed nets, forming great complicated traps. In Nor- way, in America, and to some extent on our west coast, thev encircle them with a seine, after the manner of the pilchard fishery. But the great North Sea fishery is by means of the drift net, roped and buoyed, which forms a vertical wall, miles long, against which the shoal swims, and the fish are caught fast by the gills. Two hundred million square yards of netting are used in our Scotch herring fishery. The net is only a narrow strip, but make it into a single square, and it would more than cover London. The herring is a northern fish, but it is one of the most widely distributed of fishes. It surrounds the North Atlantic, and even extends into the Pacific, where it forms one of the chief fisheries of Japan. But even in our own area the herring are not all alike, but fall into several well-marked varieties, or separate races. We have, for instance, the winter- herring, that breeds close inshore in early spring, loving water that is but little salt; and in the North Sea we have several races of such herring 2¢ this. NO. 2232, voL. 89] fishermen follow throughout the year. They begin in spring or early summer to fish in the Hebrides a great herring the home of which is in the Atlantic; a month or so later the fleets are in Shetland, first on the west and afterwards on the east coast; in the height of summer and early autumn the Scotch east coast fishery is at its height, and by taking the average of many years we can precisely mark the successive dates, following each other week by week, or day by day, when the fishery culminates at successive points more and more to the southward along the coast. By October the fishery of the north-east coast is over, and the fleets are gathered at Lowestoft and Yar- mouth, but here the herring that they capture is of another and a smaller race; and in the winter-time yet another, but lesser fishery, occurs in the Channel, I show you a few pictures of the busy times of the herring fishery. The great bulk of the produce of the herring goes abroad, most of it by Konigsberg and Danzig and Stettin, to those Eastern provinces by the Oder and the Vistula, where even in Strabo’s time dwelt the tribe of the Ichthyophagi. But our own food-supply comes mainly from those fishes which, unlike the herring, dwell at the bottom of the. sea, and are caught, not by net, but by trawl and line. Of such fish the trawler brings in everywhere nowadays the bulk of the supply. In Scotland, owing to the growth of steam-lining, he accounts for but 75 per cent. of the whole, but in England the trawler yields us 93 per cent. of these so-called ‘‘ demersal ”’ fish, such as the cod and the haddock, the plaice, turbot, and sole: of the last, indeed, he gives us every one. Hence the great modern concentration of this industry in a few great harbours and markets, such as Grimsby and Aber- deen. I show you a diagram of the percentage of all such fish (all fish other than herring) monopolised by Aberdeen alone, which, thirty years ago an un- important fishing station, now provides us with about 7o per cent. of the whole Scottish supply. The English trawling industry, far as it extends, is still busiest and most intense in the region of the Dogger Bank, where every square mile yields more than five tons of fish in a year. But this is by no means the richest part of the North Sea, for, measured by the daily catch of a trawler, the quantities steadily increase as we go northward; the kinds, however, are different, and it is the cheaper and coarser fish that swell the northern catch. But I can speak no more on this subject; I can only show you a few pictures to illustrate the great market of Aberdeen, where 400 tons of fish or more are laid out every morning of the year, a market, however, which Grimsby still surpasses in magnitude. And, by the way, we had an average of 650 tons in Aberdeen every morning of last week. I have spoken, ever so briefly, of the North Sea as it appears to the topographer and the physicist, and of the fisheries as the economist and statistician deal with them, but I have said even less of the special studies of the biologist. He has to deal with and investigate, for instance, all the questions apper- taining to the food of fishes, to their rate of growth (by means of the rings upon their scales, the concen- tric zones of their ear-bones, and in other and more indirect ways); by marking living fish he studies their migrations and their diverse rates of growth on different grounds; and he inquires into the question of their local races and varieties, and all the complex problems connected with their multiplication and their distribution. In the end we come back to the ultimate problem of all, the most practical and urgent of problems, the 598 NATURE [Aucust 8, 1912 statistical question, whether the fish in our seas are being diminished in number by the operations of man. A. whole lecture would scarce be enough for me to explain to you the difficulties of this problem, the methods by which it is attacked, and the preliminary conclusions which we may more or less confidently affirm. Let me say this in a word, that there is no one answer to the question, but that we must separ- ately set and answer it for each species of fish, and even for this or that particular ground. More than a hundred years ago, when our fisheries were trivial, the haddock deserted our coasts, and became, for the time being, a rare fish. Again, in 1866, long before steam-trawling began, Huxley’s Commission reported that the haddock was the only fish of which it might perhaps be said or shown that its numbers had suffered diminution. In Great Britain alone, we take 100,000 tons of haddock a year from the North Sea, and, in spite of fluctuations, I cannot find that its numbers perceptibly or significantly diminish. The cod shows no signs of recent diminution, and has even been increasing in the north. It is otherwise with the plaice, the diminution of which was already made clear to the Committee of 1893. All authorities are agreed that this fish shows serious diminution; and only next month our International Council meets at Copenhagen to take in hand, after long investigation, this important and burning question. The plaice is of small comparative importance to us in Scotland, for, as I have already shown you, our plaice are few; but even in Scotland our statistics tell us that the diminution of this fish, and especially of the large plaice, has been great and rapid. Many important questions I have had to leave un- touched in this hurried sketch, but on one of these I must yet say a word, I mean the case of the small fisherman. We have seen in many ways that the industry as a whole tends towards concentration, to the use of larger boats, to the need of greater har- bours; tends, in the case of line and trawl! fishing, to gravitate towards the great centres of population and the great highways of traffic. And we have seen that an overwhelming proportion of the gain goes to those who work the fisheries on this larger scale, and that from their labours comes an overwhelming proportion of the supply. But there are still some 6000 small fishing-boats in England and Sooo in Scot- land, and (though it is impossible to obtain exact figures) I think that about one-seventh or one-eighth of the 35,000 fishermen in Scotland, and a somewhat larger proportion of those in England, still live, as their fathers lived, by a petty industry, an industry closely akin to that by which thousands of men in Norway and Denmark live. With us they are the men who have been left behind, sometimes from lack of energy, often through poverty or the remoteness of their habitations, by the tide that has carried so many of their fellows to wider efforts and to compara- tive wealth. They are the fishers of crab, and shrimp, and lobster, the hand-line fishers of plaice and had- dock and codling, the men who take, now and then, a day at the lines, a night at the herring, the dwellers in the antiquated harbours and in the tiny creeks of outlying coast and distant island. The kindliest of Scotch proverbs tells us that ‘tit takes all sorts to mak’ a world,’’ and these men have their claim upon us and their right to live. It is not too much to say that nowadays every fishery department in the king- dom is making these men’s case the subject of its anxious and peculiar care. It is partly for biological reasons, connected with the preservation of the general supply of fish, but it is in great part for these men’s sake, and for the line- fishers in general, in order that they may have a stretch of waters of their own, that we close against NO. 2232, VoL. 89] the trawlers the territorial and more than the terri- torial zone. When we close to trawling the waters of a shallow and sandy coast or bay, we are, on one hand, encouraging the lesser fishermen of the coast, and, on the other hand, we are trying to protect the young fish, flat-fish especially, whose nature it is to congregate on such grounds. In some ways I think that the fishing industry, and the trawling industry in particular, may justly and rightly, and for the general good, have to submit in the future to greater restrictions than in the past— restrictions especially aimed, for the benefit of the industry itself, at lessening the waste of the younger fish. But, as Huxley said years ago, ‘‘ Every legis- lative restriction means the creation of a new offence; means that a simple man of the people, earning a scanty livelihood by hard toil, shall be liable to fine and imprisonment for doing that which he and his fathers before him had, up to that time, been free to do!’’ Science, practical policy, and the interests of class and of constituency do not always tell the same story. And if responsibility be great upon the legis- lator, it is scarcely less upon the scientific inquirer, who, without pressing his side of the case too far, nor thinking that his opinion is all in all, must yet play a considerable part in reporting upon the merits of all fishery legislation, and in advising as to what had best be done, what it were better to leave undone, in the best light of his judgment, and with regard to the best interests of all. UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE. Lonpon.—The following scheme of inter-collegiate advanced work in physiology has been approved for the Honours B.Sc. Examination :—First Term, October-December, 1912 :—Guy’s Hospital : ‘‘ Respira- tory Exchange,”’ by M. S. Pembrey; *‘ The Chemistry of Blood,’ by E. L. Kellaway and J. H. Ryffel. Second Term, January-March, 1913 :—University College: ‘Activity of Enzymes and Physiological Chemistry pertaining thereto,’ by Prof. Wm. Bayliss, F.R.S., and R. H. A. Plimmer. St. Bartholomew’s Hospital: ‘‘Central Nervous System of Electro- cardiography,’”’ by J. S. Edkins, C. M. H. Howell, or E. P. Cumberbatch. Third Term, May-July, 1913 :—King’s College: ‘t Physiological Chemistry of Nervous and Muscular Tissues,’ by Prof. W. D. Halliburton, F.R.S., and O. Rosenheim. Bedford College: “Advanced Physiological Histology,” by J. S. Edkins and Miss M. Tweedy. Internal students of the University are free to attend all the courses. Mr. A. H. Cheatle has been appointed to represent the University at the ninth International Otological Congress, which is to be held at Harvard University on August 12-17, and Sir G. Newman and Dr. Janet Lane-Claypon will be present in a similar capacity at the fifteenth International Congress of Hygiene and Demography at Washington on September 23-28. An exceptional renewal for a third year of the science research scholarship held by Mr. E. N. da C. Andrade has been made by the 1851 Exhibition Com- missioners, the scholarship held by Mr. H. T. Clarke has been renewed for a second year, and one has been awarded to Mr. H. T. Page for the ensuing year. The Department of Technology of the City and Guilds of London Institute has issued its programme for the session 1912-13, containing regulations for the registration, conduct, and inspection of classes, the examination of candidates in technological sub- jects, and for the award of teachers’ certificates in manual training and domestic subjects. The altera- AucustT 8, 1912| NATURE 599 tions are not numerous, and chiefly concern the scope of certain of the schedules of work in technological subjects. We notice that by arrangement with the Postmaster-General, the institute will. next year hold a special examination in magnetism and electricity for members of the Post Office staff, in connection with its examinations in telegraphy and telephony. The institute has been approved also by the Home Secretary for the purpose of granting certificates under the Order of February last prescribing the qualifications of surveyors for the purposes of the Coal Mines Act, 1911. Oxrorp.—The following members of Convocation have been appointed members of the new Board of Finance recently constituted by special legislation at the University, in pursuance of the scheme presented by the Chancellor, Lord Curzon of Kedleston, in 1908, and accepted by Council, Congregation, and Convo- cation :—The Right Hon. Sir George H. Murray, the Hon. Sidney Peel, Mr. F. W. Pember, the Dean of Christ Church (Dr. Strong), Mr. G. E. Baker, Mr. F. C. Miles, the Right Hon. F. Huth Jackson, Mr. H. T. Gerrans, and Mr. E. Armstrong. The first three gentlemen were nominated by. the Chancellor, the next three were elected by Convocation, and the last three were nominated by Council. Mr. J. Gotpinc has been appointed research chemist in dairying at University College, Reading. As stated in our issue of July 11, Dr. S. J. M. Auld has been appointed professor of agricultural chemistry at the same institution. A Summer School of Geography is to be held in Yorkshire in August of next year. The school is being promoted by the Universities of Durham, Leeds, and Sheffield, in cooperation with the County ‘and Borough Education Committees of Yorkshire. Mr. A. A: Bowman, lecturer in logic at Glasgow University, has been appointed professor of philosophy in the University of Princeton, New Jersey, in suc- cession to Prof. J. G. Hibben, lately appointed presi- dent of the same University. Tue sum of 10,0001. has been given to the Chan- cellor of the Exchequer by a Welsh gentleman whose name has not transpired, for the furtherance of higher education in Wales. Of this amount the National Museum, Cardiff, is to receive 3000l., the University | College of Wales, Cardiff, 2o0o0l., and the National Library, Aberystwyth, 5oool. New science laboratories at Cranleigh School, Surrey (the gift of Sir C. Chadwyck-Healey), were recently opened by Sir William Ramsay, K.C.B., F.R.S., who, in the course of his remarks, said that the effect of the laboratories would be to make it clear to them all that chemical discoveries were not at an end. It was not well, however, for the scholars to confine themselves to one subject only. They should strive to be as good as possible in many things, though they might excel only in one. We are informed that as a result of the efforts which have been made during the past two years a sum of 32,0001. is now available for the provision of new buildings for the Hartley University College, Southampton, and towards increasing its endowment. The larger portion of this sum has been promised by private individuals, but recently 2500l. has been promised by the Hampshire County Council, and so0o0l. by the Southampton Borough Council. In addition to this the Southampton Borough Council has voted an additional rd. rate for the college. The erection of the first block of new buildings, to provide accommodation for the arts departments of the col- lege, can now be begun. A site has been obtained NO. 2232, vou. 8q] { on high ground, not far from the Southamp- ton Common, and it is confidently anticipated that the transference of the college to its mew quarters will result not only in a large increase in the number of students, but also in a greatly enhanced interest on the part of residents in the southern counties in the question of the maintenance of a centre of university education in Southampton. SOCIETIES. AND ACADEMIES. Paris. Academy of Sciences, July 22.—M. Lippmann in the chair.—M. Bassot: The preparation of a map of western Morocco on the scale of 1/200,000. Details are given of the measurement of the base and tri- angulation carried out up to the present. The work will be continued in October.—A. Miintz and H. Gaudechon: The degradation of phosphatic manures in the soil. From the experiments described it is shown that phosphatic manure should be given annually. Larger amounts than those required for one year are degraded to a non-assimilable form.— Paul Sabatier and Alph. Mailhe: The catalytic pre- paration of the phenolic and diphenylenic oxides. Mixed oxides. The method is based on the catalytic action of thorium oxide at 380° to 450° C., and examples are given of the ethers prepared in this way. —M. Amann: Observation of the solar eclipse of April 16 and 17, 1912, at the Observatory of Aosta, Italy.— L. Ancel: The photometry of the solar eclipse of April 17, 1912, with the aid of selenium and a recording galvanometer. The curve obtained during the eclipse is reproduced.—Louis Dunoyer: The disruptive dis- charge through pure sodium vapour.—P. Nogués: A new kinematograph. The instrument described can take 180 images per second, and has been applied to the examination of certain movements in running, jumping, and flight—A. de Gramont: The ultimate lines and great sensibility of chromium, manganese, iron, nickel, and cobalt—Félix Bidet : Equilibrium of the system ammonia gas and ethylenediamine chlor- hydrate.—J. Larguier des Bancels: The solubility of coloured resinates submitted to the action of light.— A. Guasco : The detection of small proportions of carbon monoxide in air.—V. Hasenfratz: The hydrogenated derivatives of apoharmine.—G. Vavon: The catalytic hydrogenation of the ketones. An account of the pro- ducts obtained from various ketones when acted upon by hydrogen in presence of platinum black. The course of the reaction depends upon the liquid in which the ketone is dissolved.—Edouard Bauer: The action of sodium amide upon 1 : 4-dibenzoylbutane.— F. Jadin and A. Astruc: The presence of arsenic in some parasitic plants and their hosts. Parasitic plants, like those growing directly on the soil, con- tain normally a small proportion of arsenic. There is no apparent connection between the proportions of arsenic present in the parasite and its host.—E. Chuard and R. Mellet: Variations in the proportion of nicotine in various organs of the tobacco plant in the course of growth——M. Gard: The possibility and fre- quency of autofertilisation in the cultivated vine.—J. Tournois: The influence of light on the flowering of the Japanese hop and of hemp.—E. C. Teodoresco : The assimilation of nitrogen and phosphorus by the lower algze.—I. Pouget and D. Chouchak : The law of the minimum. A discussion of a recent note by M. Mazé on the relations between a plant and its nutri- tive medium.—J. Giaja: The ablation of the pancreas in Haliaetus albicilla—Pierre Girard: The electric charge of the red corpuscles of the blood. Measure- ments of the velocities of the red corpuscles in an electric field in isotonic solutions of saccharose, com- mon salt, and serum.—Jean Camus: The toxicity of 600 mineral salts in the cephalo-rachidian fluid.—N. A. Barbieri: The non-existence of free or combined lecithines in yolk of egg and in biological structures. —Mme. and M. Victor Henri: Variation of the abiotic power of the ultra-violet rays with the wave-length. The abiotic power of the ultra-violet rays increases as the wave-length diminishes. There is no indication of a maximum.—Maurice Holderer: The mechanism of the arrest of diastases by filtration.—Em. Bourque- lot and Marc Bridel : The reversibility of fermentations. The influence of the dilution of ethyl alcohol on the synthetic action of emulsin in this medium.—M. Keehler : The Echinoderms of the Charcot expedition. —J. L. Dantan: The working of the genital gland in Ostrea edulis and Gryphaea angulata. The protec- tion of natural oyster beds.—E. Boullanger and M. Dugardin : The mechanism of the fertilising action of sulphur.—Ed. Dujardin-Beaumetz and E. Mosny: The evolution of the plague in the marmot during hiberna- tion.—J. Wallot: The comparative absorption of the chemical and heat radiations of the sun between Mt. Blanc and Chamonix. New SoutH WaALEs. Linnean Society, May 29.—Mr. W. W. Froggatt, president, in the chair.—Dr. R. Greig-Smith ; Contri- butions to our knowledge of soil-fertility. No. 5. The action of fat-solvents upon sewage-sick soils. Experi- ments are brought forward to show that the action of the volatile disinfectants upon sewage-sick soils is to segregate or translate the fatty material which, in the soil under examination, constituted 19 per cent. of the volatile and organic matter. The lower layers of treated soil gave greater bacterial growths than the upper, into which the fatty substances had been car- ried by the evaporating solvent. When the soil was heated at 62° C. to kill off phagocytic protozoa, sub- sequent treatment with chloroform caused a _ very much increased growth of bacteria.—J. H. Maiden and E. Betche : Notes from the Botanic Gardens, Sydney. No. 17.—C. Hedley: Some land-shells collected in Queensland by Mr. Sidney W. Jackson. Primarily in quest of ornithological material and information on behalf of Mr. H. ibe White, of Belltrees, Scone, Mr. Jackson visited the coastal districts of Quee “Sern! from Brisbane to Cairns in 1908. A large collection of land-shells was also gathered, a portion of which is treated of in this paper, including nineteen species, of which eleven and two varieties are described as new.—C. Hedley and A. F. Basset Hull: The Poly- placophora of Lord Howe and Norfolk Islands. Nine species referable to the five genera, Chiton (3), Isch- nochiton (1), Ornithochiton (1), Acanthochites (2), and Lepidopleurus (2), are described as new, of which four are peculiar to Lord Howe Island, three to Nor- folk Island, and two are common to both localities. None of them extend either to the mainland of Aus- tralia or to New Zealand, although two species are very closely allied to mainland species. BOOKS RECEIVED. Aus dem Luftmeer. By M. Sassenfeld. Pp. iv+ 183. (Leipzig and Berlin: B. G. Teubner.) 3 marks. Einfthrung in die Biologie. By Prof. K. Kraepelin. Dritte Auflage. Pp. viiit+356. (Leipzig and Berlin: B. G. Teubner.) 4.80 marks. English History Illustrated from Original Sources, 1066-1216. By N. L. Frazer... Pp. xvi+234. (Lon- don: A. and C. Black.) 2s. 6d. The Task of Social Hygiene. By H. Ellis. Pp. XV+414. net. Studien. an intracellularen Symbionten. I., Die intracellularen Symbionten der Hemipteren. By Dr. NO. 2232, VOL. 89] (London: Constable and Co., Ltd.) 8s. 6d. NATURE [AucustT 8, 1912 P. Buchner... Pp. iv+,116- Pale: » (Jena: 1G; Fischer.) 18 marks. The Formation of the Alphabet. By Prof. W. M Flinders Petrie. Pp. iv+20+ix plates. (London ; Macmillan and Co., Ltd., and B. Quaritch.) 5s. net. Les Alpes de Provence. By G. Tardieu. Pp. iv+ 310. (Paris: Masson et Cie.) 4.50 francs. The Grouse in Health and Disease. Edited by A. S. Leslie, assisted by A. E. Shipley. Popular Edition of the Report of the Committee of Inquiry on Grouse Disease. Pp. xx+472+ plates. (London : Smith, Elder and Co.) 12s. 6d. net, Libya Italica. Terreni ed. Acque, Vita e Colture della Nuova Colonia. By P. V. de Regny. Pp. xv+ 214. (Milano: U. Hoepli.) 7.50 lire. Le Zebre. By Dr. A. Griffini. Pp. xxviiit+298+41 plates. (Milano: U. Hoepli.) 4 lire. Festschrift W. Nernst zu seinem Fiinfundzwan- zigjahrigen Doktorjubilaum Gewidmet von _ seinen Schiilern. Pp. vi+487. (Halle a.d.S.: W. Knapp.) 21.60 marks. Problems in Eugenics. the First International Eugenics Congress, the University of London, July 24-30, xix+490. (London: Eugenics Education 8s. 6d. net. An Introduction to the Chart of the Elements. Second Edition. Pp. 43+chart. (London: The Metallic Compositions Co.) 35. 6d. FORTHCOMING CONGRESSES. AuGuUST 22-28.—(i) International Congress of Mathematicians, and ‘(jii) International Commission on Mathematical Teaching. Bresidenee Prof. Klein. Treasurer: Sir J. Larmor, F.R:S., St. John’s College, Cambridge. SEPTEMBER (first week) —International Congress of Anthropology and Prehistoric Archeology. Geneva. SEPTEMBER 4-1 1.—British Association. Schafer, F.R.S. London, W. SEPTEMBER 4-13.—International Congress of Applied Chemistry. ington, D.C. President: Dr. W. H. Nichols. Secretary : 25 Broad Street, New York City, U.S.A. SEPTEMBER 8-11.—Société Helvétique des Sciences Naturelles. Papers Communicated to held at TOL. bps Society.) Dunder. President : Prof. E. A. Assistant Secretary : O. J. R. Howarth, Burlington House, Wash- Dr. B. G. Hesse, Altdorf. President: Dr. P. B. Huber. Secretaries: Prof. J. Briilisauer (Germany and M. P. Morand Mev er (French), Altdorf. SEPTEMBER 23-28.—International Congress on Hygiene and Dene Washington. Bppeiiente Dr. H. P. Walcott Secretary-General : Dr. ys Fulton, Army Medical Museum, W; SINS: IDG: CONTENTS. PAGE Recent Medical Books . , . Hetero toe 61775; Biological Problems She oes enc, Smee Recent Books on Chemistry . 3 2 os Se Te Differential Geometry. ies G. B. M. oar Bete, Sy) Our Bookshelf Ls a rPenatemetisc ren - hs1) | Letters to the Editor :— | August Meteor-showers.—John R. Henry . : 581 A Flower Sanctuary. —Right. Hon, Sir Herbert Maxwell, Bart., F.R.S. . . 581 Contrast Colours in the Use of Zone- -plates. —_W. B. Crofura. o. 581 Lord Mersey’s Report on the Loss of the ‘ Titanic” 581 The Discovery of Human Remains at Cuzco, Peru 584 The late Mr. A. O. Hume, C.B. la Sea net i Notesiare sn. “ ot ot oy a A | Our Astronomical Column: — The Spectrum of Nova Geminorum No.2... . . 589 Ob-ervations of Jupiter. fe fete) The Three-prism oat ctrograph at Mount Wilson aoc iets) The Institution of Mechanical Engineers . . 589 The Recent Congress of the Royal Sanitary In- stitute at York . 590 | Joint Meeting of Learned and Technical Societies } in Cornwall . 591 The Meteorological Office and its ‘Observatories. (Lilustrated.) . . 5 591 The North Sea and its Fisheries. By Prof. D’ Arey W. Thompson, C.B. 593 University and Educational Intelligence ae eS OO SocietiestandvA\cademics)) ya ner mene ie) eS OO Books Received ae out ch cro oc CME coc CS: ( -Hortheomme ‘Congresses: 4 7) aeeeenen. cnn GGG! A WEEKLY’ ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. “To the solid ground Of Nature trusts the mind which builds for rT EEN OEE No. 2233) Vot. 89] _. THURSDAY, oe ‘1s, 1912 aT SIXPENCE _ __ Registered asa 1 Newspaper at the General Post Office.) . [All Rights Reserved. REYNOLDS & BRANSON, Ltd., MANUFACTURERS of CHEMICAL and PHYSICAL APPARATUS Awards (in 1911) for Scientific Apparatus:— Gold Medal, Allahabad. Grand Prix, Turin. GOODMAN'S PATENT PLANIMETER. VITASCOPE An entirely novel Instrument In case complete. for examining and observing Garden Stand, i= J} living insects in the garden or Se eerie eae eee PATENTED the house under high magnifi- purposes, inleathercase .. 43 oO 57 10 AND cation without disturbing them GOODMAN’S PATENT AVERAGING INSTRUMENT. REGISTERED. or removing them from their . * natural surroundings, The magnification can be varied from ° Descriptive Pamphlet Post Free. 12 to 60 diameters. SOLE MAKERS— NEWTON & CO., 72 WIGMORE ST., LONDON W. Averaging I Instrument (Goodman 's), for Indicator ee late Establi-hed over 200 years. _ Telegrams: ‘* Newrobar, London.” | Descriptive Circular post free on application. | 4 COMMERCIAL STREET, LEEDS. THE RAINBOW CUP Student Equatorial BOYS'S PATENT. | Telescope with 3-inch object glass, and circles 4 inches diameter divided on brass, the hour circle reading to 1 minute,.the MAGICAL ASTOUNDING | declination to 5 minutes. Complete in pie case, with 3 eye » pieces. P COLOUR EFFECTS R Vii, ai List of Telescopes Yee on request. NEGRETII & ZAMBRA, Holborn Viaduct, London, E.C. Branches: A_NEW INSTRUMENT for studying the colours of thin films. Produces the most beautiful colour forms and colour changes imaginable. Price 2Ss., including two bottles of special soap solution and full instructions. JOHN J. GRIFFIN & SONS, Ltd. Kemble St., KINGSWAY, LONDON, W.C. 45 Cornhill, E.C 122 Regent St., W. CCXXXVII1 NATURE [AUGUST 15, 1912 IMPERIAL COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, SOUTH KENSINGTON, LONDON, S.W. Including as integral parts : THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF SCIENCE, THE ROYAL SCHOOL OF MINES, THE CITY AND GUILDS (ENGINEERING) COLLEGE, Visiror: HIS MAJESTY THE KING. CuatrmMan: The Most Hon the MARQUESS of CREWE, K.G. Courses of instruction and opportunities for ADVANCED STUDY AND RESEARCH are provided in the following branches of Science, viz.:— ROYAL COLLEGE OF SCIENCE. MATHEMATICS AND MECHANICS (Professor PERRY, F.R.S.). PHYSICS (Professor CALLENDAR, F.R.S., Professor the Hon. R. J. STRUTT. F.R-.S.), CHEMISTRY, including Chemical Technology (Professor BRERETON BAKER, F.R:S ). ZL AND REFRACTORY MATERIALS (Professor BONE, BOTANY (Professor FARMER, F.R.S.). PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AND PATHOLOGY (Professor BLACKMAN). TECHNOLOGY OF WOODS AND FIBRES (Professor GROOM). ZOOLOGY (Professor SEDGWICK, F.R.S., Professor MACBRIDE). ENTOMOLOGY (Professor. MAXWELL LEFROY). GEOLOGY (Professor WATTS, F.R.S.). ROYAL SCHOOL OF MINES. MINING (Professor FRECHEVILLE). METALLURGY (Professor CARLYLt). CITY AND GUILDS (ENGINEERING) COLLEGE. Courses of instruction are given in : (i) CIVIL AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, conducted by or under the supervision of Professor W. E. DALBY, M.A., B.Sc., M.Inst.C.E., M.I.M.E., Dean of the College. (2) ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING, conducted by or under the supervision of Professor T. MATHER, F.R.S. They fall mainly under one of the following heads :— (a) DIPLOMA COURSES for the Associateship of the City and Guilds Institute in Civil and Mechanical Engineering and in Electrical Engineer- ing. For admission to these courses candidates are required to pass the entrance or matriculation examination of the College held in September (application to be made not later than the first Monday), or to have passed the matriculation of the University of London in certain subjects. The courses of study cover a period of three years. Fees 438 per session, pavable in advance. (4) SPECIAL OR PARTIAL COURSES for a limited number of students whose knowledge and experience enable them to engage in Re- search work or to omit part of the regular Diploma courses. 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WEEKES, M_Inst.C.E., Consulting Engineer; Mr. OSCAR FABER, B.Sc, A.M.Inst.C.E., Chief Engineer to Messrs. Trollope and Colls, Builders and Contractors, London. III. Design and Construction of Electrical Machinery, under the general supervision of Professor MATHER, F.R.S. Lectures and Drawing-office instruction will be given by Mr. W. E. ROBSON, M.1I.E.E., and lectures will be given by Mr. MILES WALKER, M.A., M.I.E.E., of the British Westinghouse Electrical Manufacturing Co. Prospectus and all Particulars sent free on application. SESSION OPENS 30th SEPTEMBER, 1912. EAST LONDON COLLEGE. (UNIVERSITY OF LONDON.) Classics ... F. R. Earp, M.A. English H. Betroc, M.A. French Mina Paguikr. Germarn ... J. Steppat, Ph.D. History : F. Cranke, M.A. Mathematics.. THe PRINCIPAL. Physics “ce 533 om C. H. Less, D:Sc., F.R.S. Chemistry Set Be eee wae. de. Hewitt, MAS, (h.R-S, Botany “0 es F. E. Fritscu, D.Sc. Geology .. W. L. Carrer, M.A. Civil and Mechanical Engineering i D. A. 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K. CHANDLER, D.Sc., and W. Rusuton, A.R.C.S., D-I.C. ; Geology—*A. J. Masten, F.G.S., F.L.S. 5 Human Physiology—E. L- Kennaway, M.A., M.D.; Zoology—*J. T. CunNINGHAM, M.A.; Engineering—*W. CamrseLtt Houston, B.Sc., A.M.L.C.E.; *V. C. Davies, B.Sc., and H. AvuGuTiE; Electrical Engineering—*A. J. Makower, M.A., *B. H. Morpny and U. A. Oscuwa.p, B.A “Recognised Teacher of the University of London. Prospectus from the SECRETARY, post free, 4d. ; at the Office, 1d. Telephone : 899 Western. SIDNEY SKINNER, M.A., Principal. CITY OF LONDON COLLEGE. ACTING IN CONJUNCTION WITH THE LONDON CHAMBER OF COMMERCE. WHITE ST., and ROPEMAKER ST., MOORFIELDS, E.C. (Near Moorgate and Liverpool Street Stations). PRINCIPAL: SIDNEY HUMPHRIES, B.A., LL.B. (Cantab.) Michaelmas term begins Monday, September 30th. EVENING CLASSES in SCIENCE. Well-equipped LABORATORIES for Practical Work in CHEMISTRY, BOTANY, GEOLOGY. Special Courses for Conjoint Board, Pharmaceutical and other examin- ations. 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APPC IN" TMENTS REGISTER.—A Register of Fellows and Associates of the Institute of Chen.istry who are seeking appointments is kept at the Offices of the Institute. Applications for the services of professional chemists should be forwarded to the Registrar, stating the reyuirements. NATURE 6o0r THURSDAY, AUGUST 15, 1912. CANCER PROBLEMS. (1) The Cause of Cancer. Being part iii. of “Protozoa and Disease.” By J. Jackson Clarke. Pp. xi+112+Vviii plates. (London: Bailliére, Tindall and Cox, 1912.) Price 7s. 6d. net. (2) Preventable Cancer. By Rollo Russell. Pp. vii+168. (London: Longmans, Green and Co., 1912.) Price 4s. 6d. net. (3) Further Researches into Induced Cell-Repro- duction and Cancer. Vol. ii. Consisting of papers by H. C. Ross, J. W. Cropper, and E. H. Ross. (The John Howard McFadden Researches.) Pp. 125+ix plates. (London: John Murray, 1912.) Price 3s. 6d. net. (4) The Local Incidence of Cancer. By Charles E. Green. Pp. 36; illustrated. (Edinburgh and London: W. Green and Sons, 1912.) Price ts. net. T is impossible at the present time to state | definitely that cancer cannot be due to a specific micro-organism, but the general arguments against this view are so strong that it is difficult for anyone making such a claim to obtain a patient hearing. Some forms of malignant growth neces- sitate the supposition, if a specific parasite be the true cause, that the parasite should pick out remote, different, and minute groups of cells, leaving adjacent and apparently unprotected groups untouched. The embryo escapes infection from maternal malignant disease of the uterus, and the mother is not infected, though the foetus con- tained in her body may develop the disease and be born with it in an advanced condition. There are many other and perhaps more cogent argu- ments the enumeration of which cannot be included in the space of a short review. (1) Dr. J. Jackson Clarke’s book is a further plea for his protozoan parasite of cancer. His enthusiastic belief in his parasite has apparently caused him to overlook the difficulties in the way of accepting his view. Certain well-known facts connected with malignant growths are quite in- compatible with Dr. Clarke’s parasite. Of course, it is more than probable that several different parasites are indirectly the cause of cancer. The spirochete of syphilis as an example is sufficient. But this is quite a different thing from a specific microorganism for cancer. Advocates of the parasitic theory who have a thorough knowledge of the class of organisms among which they place their parasite may be said to be practically non- NO. 2233, VOL. 89] existent. Dr. Clarke can scarcely be placed among those who have any particular knowledge of protozoa, for he treats the existence of Haeckel’s monera as being a generally accepted fact, and bases arguments upon them which are of funda- mental importance to his theory. (2) Mr. Rollo Russell, attacking the cancer problem from the statistical point of view, comes to the conclusion that the disease is largely due to feod and drink taken at a high temperature, and to the free use of wine, beer, spirits, flesh, coffee, tea, and tobacco. The use of statistics may be very misleading, and Mr. Russell has made the mistake of comparing statistics which are in no way comparable. There is also much that sug- gests that Mr. Russell’s facts are in other respects not sufficiently comprehensive or accurate to justify his conclusions. For instance, it is important to his theory that the lower animals should suffer less than man from cancer. He puts forward much evidence in support of this view, some of it consisting of actual figures; the rest is merely the expression of opinions. Mr. Russell concludes that cancer is very rare or absent in wild mammals, comparatively common in domesticated mammals, and far more common in civilised He has omitted mice, which animals for some. years past have been under observation, almost in millions in various laboratories, with the result that cancer has been proved to be nearly as common among mice as among civilised Perhaps if other animals were kept in as large numbers and under as careful observation, it would be proved that the frequency of cancer did not vary in the manner suggested by the particular figures and opinions collected by Mr. Russell. Again, Mr. Russell says that the stomach is the commonest site of cancer in man, the liver being next. This is not so. Primary cancer of the liver, which is evidently implied, is very rare. There are probably several causes of cancer. Diet may be among them, but Mr. Russell has not proved this. (3) The previous publications by Mr. H. C. Ross and his collaborators relating to “Induced Cell Reproduction and Cancer” have already been noticed in these pages. The present excursion into the unknown inspires no more confidence than those which preceded it. The accuracy of the observations now described depends upon the accuracy of those described before, and they in turn depend upon the accuracy of an equation in which degrees of temperature, minutes of time, cubic centimetres of solutions are added It is difficult after such a beginning to B B man. men. and together. €02 NATURE [AUGUST 15, 1912 take these observations seriously, particularly as | they necessitate the abandonment of every generally accepted belief with regard to mitosis. Surely Flemming, Boveri, Strasburger, and a hundred others were competent observers, and with regard to the fundamental facts connected with mitosis, and disputed by Mr. Ross, all are agreed ! The further descriptions of cell phenomena given | in the present volume only serve to make clearer the obvious necessity of at least an elementary knowledge of a subject before undertaking original research therein. Various cytological terms are used in a manner which suggests that-the authors are unfamiliar with the structures these terms were invented to specify. With regard to their statement that what they call Altmann’s granules go to form the chromosomes, no better advice could be given than that they should study the already voluminous and rapidly growing litera- ture relating to chondriosomes, to which the chief contributors are perhaps Benda, Meves, Duesberg, Prenant, Fauré-Frémiet, and G. Arnold. (4) Mr. Green beiieves that “the lie of the ground seems to have a mysterious influence on the Jocal incidence of cancer,” and that this “can only be explained by its relation to the elimination and removal of products of coal combustion from the houses or from their neighbourhood.” He claims, perfectly correctly, that houses built in hollows or on the sides of hills are most likely to suffer from smoky chimneys, and hence that people inhabiting such houses are most subject to the action of the products of coal combustion. He produces statistics and other evidence professing to show that cancer is most prevalent in towns situated in hoilows and on steep or hilly sites. That various superficial forms, such as chimney sweep’s and Kangri cancer, may be caused by some local irritant not unconnected with the com- bustion of coal or some other substance is prob- able, but it is difficult to connect internal cancers with coal. Again, Mr. Green’s classification of towns is not altogether in accordance with fact. Glasgow has one of the lowest death-rates from cancer. Mr. Green places it among the towns occupying a flat site, as his theory, of course, demands. A considerable portion of Glasgow is probably as hilly as any town in the United King- dom, and the hills are of that steep nature most likely to produce smoky chimneys. The Royal Cancer Hospital, itself in the middle of the town, is surrounded by inclines so steep that it is practi- cally unapproachable by wheeled vehicles except in one direction. Ca ES We A 0. 2233, VOL. 89] | (4) Examples in Arithmetic. SCHOOL MATHEMATICS. (1) Geometry for Schools. Vols. i.-iv. By W. G, Borchardt and the Rev. A. D. Perrott. (Cam- bridge Mathematical Series.) Pp. xiv + 325 + xiv. (London: G. Bell and Sons, Ltd., 1912.) Price 3s. 6d. (2) Algebra for Beginners. By C. Godfrey, M.V.O., and A. W. Siddons. Pp! xi+272: (Cambridge University Press, 1912.) Price 2s. 6d. (3) A School Algebra. Parts ii and ii. By H. S. Hall. With answers. Pp. x+301-550+ xxxix—lix. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1912.) Price 2s. 6d. Part ii. Taken from “A School Arithmetic.” By H. S. Hall and F. H. Stevens. Pp. v+117—281+xxiii-— xxxix. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1912.) Price 2s. (5) The Calculus for Beginners. By W. M. Baker. (Cambridge Mathematical Series.) Pp. viii+ 166. (London: G. Bell and Sons, Ltd., 1912.) Price BS. UR mathematical reformers are to-day fairly well agreed on the teaching of school mathematics; their opinions may be found in the various reports of the Mathematical Association and in the Report on the Geometry Syllabus by the American ‘“‘ National Committee of Fifteen.” It is an interesting study to consider how far writers of text-books adopt these opinions, why they deviate from them, and what an author who holds these reforming opinions may do to advance them. It is, for instance, remarkable with what unani- mity the early introduction of solid geometry is recommended—only less remarkable than the rarity -with which one finds that recommendation carried out. Messrs. Borchardt and Perrott (1) make a noble effort, and give, in the first six pages, a valuable little explanation of a number of three- dimensional terms; but the remainder of the 325 pages now before us appear to be restricted to two dimensions. And we have noticed a similar falling off in other authors. What is the explana- tion? The truth is that three-dimensional work is difficult and little suited to the capacity of the beginner. Little is possible at an early stage beyond the occasional discussion of a problem in which the data are in three dimensions, but the reasoning in reality two-dimensional. The book on algebra by Messrs. Godfrey and Siddons (2) leaves us wondering. To avoid mis- apprehension, we say at once that it is a good book, undoubtedly good, for these authors could not write anything but good. But for the work aie AvuGUST 15, 1912] NATURE 603 of leaders of thought it is curiously old in form. ! in the terminology and in the pupil’s ignorance of They give rules for the treatment of signs on the removal of brackets, which we cannot imagine either of them using in actual teaching ; we imagine them constantly carrying the boys back to the meaning of the expression under consideration, until the boys have absorbed the rule without ever putting it into words. And the quantity of manipulation: there are tons and tons, enough to wear down the teeth of the most omnivorous boy. All this manipulation cannot be intended for the boy of mathematical ability; he will acquire all necessary manipulative skill on a tenth of it. It cannot be intended for the non-specialist; he does not need such manipulative skill, and if he does acquire it he has no time left for the more human mathematical studies to which he ought to push on. We are forced to conclude that the book is cast in this form to meet the demand of the market. We have no blame for suiting the book to the demand; on the contrary, we sympathise. Better to publish this book, which is the best on the market though weak in some ways, than an ideal book which no one would use. What we do suggest is that our leaders of thought should write books which meet the demand, and at the same time mark portions of the book for omission when- ever circumstances allow it, in order to wean the teacher and examiner from useless studies. In Mr. Hall’s “School Algebra” (3) we find the same excess of manipulative exercises as in God- frey and Siddons. On the other hand, we hail with delight his plan of using infinite series with- out proof of their validity. A clear consciousness of the concepts of mathematics is the first desideratum; abstruse proofs are for the few. A little more telescoping of the customary mathe- matical course and the non-specialist will be able in his school career to attain-to the ideas of the calculus. One desirable piece of telescoping is the omission from the compulsory course of permutations and combinations. They provide, of course, good mental gymnastic. As regards progress in know- ledge, they lead up to the binomial theorem; so that they cease to be necessary in a course which assumes the validity of that theorem. At the same time, their discussion gives rise to many elegant theorems, and it is therefore well to leave them available for the leisure hour of the boy who fancies them. Messrs. Hall and Stevens’ ‘Examples in Arith- metic” (4) includes the treatment of stocks and shares. No doubt examination requirements necessitate their inclusion, but we should be glad to see their omission recommended for schools the circumstances of which allow it. NO. 2233, VOL. 89| The difficulties lie the transactions involved; there are no arithmetical difficulties. Again, continued fractions, which at an earlier time provided the only means of obtain- ing approximations to complicated quantities such as surds, are now superseded by decimals, and might with advantage disappear from books on arithmetic. The pruning away of unnecessary excrescences from the school course makes possible the inclu- sion of the infinitesimal calculus, which is more and more coming to be recognised as a regular school subject, and we welcome Mr. Baker’s little book (5) as helping towards that desirable con- summation. Mr. Baker no doubt caters for the boy who will need the calculus as part of his technical equipment in later life, and for that boy he rightly provides logical proofs of all theorems. In course of time the non-specialist boy will study the calculus in place of stocks and shares, permutations and combinations, and such things; and this boy should have a book on the lines suggested by Mr. Newbold in his little paper on “ Higher Mathe- maties for the Classical Sixth Form,” in which the ideas of the subject are evolved from the discussion of interesting everyday problems. THEORETICAL AND APPLIED PHYSICS. (1) Heat and the Principles of Thermodynamics. By Dr. Charles H. Draper. New and revised edition. Pp. xv+428. (London: Blackie and Son, Ltd., 1911.) Price 5s. net. (2) Laboratory Problems in Physics. To accompany Crew and Jones’s “Elements of Physics.” By F. T. Jones and Prof. R. R. Tatnall. Pp. ix+ 81. (New York: The Macmillan Company ; London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1912.) Price 2s. 6d. (3) Outlines of Applied Optics. By P. G. Nutting. (Blakiston’s Science Series.) Pp. ix+234. (Philadelphia: P. Blakiston’s Son and Co., 1912.) Price 2 dollars net. (4) Elements of Hydrostatics. With numerous examples. For the use of schools and colleges. By George W. Parker. Pp. vili+ 150. (Lon- don: Longmans, Green and Co., 1912.) Price 2s. 6d. (5) Junior Heat. By Dr. John Satterly. Pp. viii+ 184. (London: W. B. Clive, University Tutorial Press, Ltd., 1912.) Price 2s. (1) T is refreshing to find, occasionally, an elementary text-book in which the author has been bold enough to depart from the stereo- typed mode of treatment and introduce new features. Such is the case with the second edition of Dr. Draper’s book. The author’s intention, as expressed in the preface, of revising the book 60} NATURE [AUGUST 15, 1912 in the light cf new methods of investigation, has been very successfully carried out in the first part, which deals with the experimental side of heat. While the fundamental treatment of the subject has not been neglected, special attention has also been directed to comparatively recent work. The chapters on the various methods of measuring temperature and that on the liquefaction of gases are both excellent, and will greatly add to the usefulness of the text-book. The second part is devoted to the consideration of the principles of thermodynamics, which, for the most part, are expressed clearly and in a simple manner. Several important applications of the principles are shown, and a large number of numerical examples, both in this and the first part of the book, are given. There is, however, a rather serious misstatement in connection with the meaning of the second law. After stating this law in the form due to Clausius, viz. “It is impossible for a self-acting machine, unassisted by any external agency, to convey heat from a colder to a warmer body,” the author at a later stage makes the statement, ‘It must be remembered that this law applies only to engines working in reversible cycles and to reversible cyclic processes.” This undoubtedly suggests that a self-acting engine performing an_ irreversible cycle may convey heat up temperature. In fact, all actual self-acting engines do perform irre- versible cycles of operations, and surely they are not to be regarded as cases of violation of the second law. What is probably meant by the above unfortunate statement is that cyclic pro- cesses only must be considered. With regard to the scope of the book, the standard is about that required for pass degree examinations, and the elementary use of the calculus has very properly been adopted. (2) In writing this book the authors have added another to the already numerous works of this Ikind. respects it 1s similar to others previously reviewed in these pages. Instructions for the performance of a large number of experi- ments in the various sections of physics are given, each description being accompanied by a few In many questions bearing on the experiment. Some of the questions seem rather unnecessary. In the experiment on the simple pendulum, for instance, the student is supposed to have discovered that T varies as 4/1, and is then asked if T varies as Z : F ie which is quite obviously contradictory to NS ; his previous discovery. I nu } iy T= Orr / \ fon o provided 7 and 1 are known. the spectrum are unsatisfactory. NO. Ra3 Again, he is told that , and is asked if g can be computed The experiments on The student is supposed to be able to distinguish between con- tinuous and line spectra, using a slit } in. wide and no lens system. (3) This book is quite an unusual one, and deals with a most interesting subject. It is primarily designed for those who contemplate taking up work in the varied fields of lens design, illuminating engineering, colorimetry, photo- graphy, radiometry, pyrometry, etc. A training in theoretical optics is assumed, and only those possessing this will thoroughly appreciate the book in all its detail. A great deal of information is compressed into a small volume, and the sudden- ness with which the subjects change on this account is vather embarrassing to the reader. This is particularly the case with the introduction, where a general description of the results of investigations in light is crowded into twenty-five pages. Nevertheless the book is a considerable step forward, and may be regarded as a sort of forerunner to a more pretentious treatise, which the author hopes will presently be produced. (4) This is a class-book upen the same lines as the author’s “Elements of Mechanics.” It treats in quite an elementary fashion of the fundamental principles of the statics of liquids and gases. Applications to the determinations of specific gravities are given, and various forms of apparatus depending on the principles are described. Numerous examples, taken from university examination papers, are appended to the chapters. (5) This book is also quite elementary in charac- ter, and includes all that is required for the Junior Local Examinations. The author claims to dis- courage the use of mathematical formule, yet they appear to occur quite as frequently in this book as in others of the same type. It is true, however, that many numerical examples of the application of the formule are given. FOOD AND HYGIENE. (1) The Science of Hygiene. A Text-book of Laboratory Practice for Public Health Students. By Walter C. C. Pakes. New edition, revised by Dr. A. T. Nankivell. Pp. xi+ 164. (London: Methuen and Co., Ltd., 1912.) Price 5s. net. (2) Text-book of Hygiene for Teachers. By Dr. R. A. Lyster. Pp. viiit+ 496. (London: W. B. Clive, University Tutorial Press, Ltd., 1912.) Price 4s. 6d. (3) Experimental Domestic Science. Jones. (Heinemann’s 1X + 235. By R. Henry Science Manuals.) Pp. (London: W. Heinemann, 1912.) Price 2s. 6d. (1) HIS book consists of the chemical and microscopical sections of the 1900 edition, revised and extended. It is intended for AvuGUST 15, 1912] NATURE 605 public health students, and deals with the analysis of water, foods, beverages, soil, air, and disinfec- tants, with chapters on microscopy and meat inspection. The directions are clear and concise, and adapted for the examination for the diploma. The reactions are shortly explained, and examples of calculation given. Several errors in the 1900 edition appear again, e.g. iron alum is given as (NH,),Fe(SO,),6H,O. ‘On page 63 NO, should be N,Os, and on page 134 a drawing of manilla hemp (Musa textilis) is given under a description of ordinary hemp (Cannabis sativa). necessary for the detection of boracie acid in milk, and that the addition of potassium permanganate in the Kjeldahl process is neither necessary nor advisable. omissions of some modern processes, the book may be recommended as a useful laboratory com- panion for public health students. (2) This book is divided into three parts, “The School,” “The Scholar,” and ‘“‘ The Medical Super- vision of School Life.” in a practical, common-sense manner on a physiological basis. There are chapters on elementary physiology, so that readers without previous physiological training may appreciate the reasons for the hygienic conditions demanded. The important subject of ventilation is well treated, the standard demanded high, but not impossible. In the chapter on foods and digestion it is a relief to note that food-testing has not been included, as is so often done in books on hygiene with unsatisfactory results. In this chapter, how- ever, fats are wrongly described as hydrocarbons, and ptyalin is said to convert starch into grape sugar instead of malt sugar. The book is read- able, and may be recommended to teachers and others as a practical and useful text-book. (3) Almost the first of its kind, this book deals mainly with experimental work in foodstuffs, and is intended for use in domestic science schools. The aim is admirable, and much of the book is excellent, but in attempting simplicity experiments are described and results stated that will tend to perpetuate just the types of error and inaccuracy that are already too prevalent. On page 20 the author appears satisfied with results that vary from 12 per cent. to per cent. The conclusion 25 arrived at from another experiment is that cream | has the same specific gravity as water. It is difficult to say how far we are justified in sim- plifying experiments at a sacrifice of accuracy and truth, especially for those who are not in a posi- tion to examine the results critically. A number of errors occur, e.g. the boiling of milk several times is described as pasteurisation. NO. 2233, voL. 89| One might mention that ashing is not | We are told that the tannin of coffee precipitates gelatine, and that potassium palmitate and stearate are soft soaps. In a book written for students | who have little or no training in science, accuracy | and caution in interpreting results are most impor- tant. However, the book contains many good suggestions for this kind of work. OUR BOOKSHELF. The Effects of Errors in Surveying. By Henry Briggs. Pp. xi+179. (London: Charles Griffin and Co., Ltd!, 1912.) Price 5s. net. (Griffin’s Scientific Text-books.) Tue author of this volume directs attention to | the inadequate treatment of errors in surveying as compared with astronomical, physical, or chemical Pp > y > | research, and offers the present work as a discus- In spite of a few such errors and | sion of the subject from the special point of view of the surveyor. His contention is perfectly valid, and the cause of this neglect may be traced to the very small amount of instruction in the highest | grades of surveying which is given in this country. It deals with the subjects | selected for use in the book as being simpler and The analysis of error forms an _ introductory chapter, and in it the average error has been more convenient, though we are inclined to doubt whether the advantage of the mean error in giving greater weight to the large errors in a series is advisedly abandoned. The best shape of triangles, the propagation of errors in traversing, with especial reference to mining surveys, and in triangulation, occupy most of the volume. The book is clearly written, and will lead to an improvement in the work of surveyors if it brings home to them the desirability, as well as the economical advantage, of systematically de- termining the errors of the methods which they adopt, as well as of the observations which they make. An equally desirable result would be the incorporation in all manuals of surveying of a con- sideration of the errors to be anticipated in all surveying operations, both in the simpler kinds and in the more advanced; for this should be as normal a feature of such works in this country as it is on the Continent. This same mathematical de- | termination of errors should also find a regular _ place in the compilation of maps and plans as a control upon the empirical methods which are too exclusively employed at the present time. He iGs 1: Der Mythus von der Sintflut. Von Georg Gerland. Pp. vitz24. (Bonn: A. Marcus und E. Weber’s Verlag, 1912.) Price 3 marks. In this little work Prof. Georg Gerland has published an interesting study, on comparative lines, of the different deluge-myths which occur in the traditions of many races all the world over. | He first gives an outline of the various forms under which the legend is encountered, arranging his material on a geographical basis. As is natural, he begins the series. with the “Western-Asiatic- Semitic’ accounts, analysing the Biblical narra- tives and indicating the extent of their depend- 606 NATURE [Aucusr 15, 1912 ence on the Babylonian versions. He then turns to Africa and shows how not only the ancient Egyptians but also various modern races in that continent possess traditions of a similar charac- ter. In subsequent sections he continues his survey of beliefs for which evidence has been forthcoming in Australia, Melanesia and Polynesia, the Malay States, the peoples of Central and East Asia, North and South America, and the Indo- Germanic races. And he points out the remark- able recurrence of the story or myth of a sudden and destructive deluge. This nearly universal tradition he would not explain as a single original legend which has spread over the whole world, any more than he would trace it to an actual flood or deluge. The explanation he puts forward is that the deluge story in its numerous variations is a mythological presentment of celestial pheno- mena, reflecting the clouding over of the bright heavens by heavy rain-clouds, the differing details of the various forms of the legend being projected in accordance with the universal laws of anthropo- morphic symbolism. It is the fashion at present in Germany to explain most mythologies by an astral system of interpretation, and Prof. Gerland’s conclusions will be welcomed by adherents of the astral school. The weakness of all such theories is that the astrological myth is a product, not of primitive races, but of peoples that have at- tained a comparatively cultured and reflective stage of thought; and to explain a primitive myth by astrological theory is really to put the cart before the horse. But Prof. Gerland states his case in a remarkably able and persuasive manner, and the book embodies a valuable survey over an extremely wide range of study. MS Wie VS TED AREL RSS) eli Ommele Ean) Di Oe [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of Nature. No notice is taken of anonymous communications.] The Effects of Friction in a Vacuum on Thorium Oxide. For two years past I have been experimenting on the action of sand, powdered beryl, and other substances within vacuum tubes of soft, fairly conducting soda glass, and I have obtained interesting results respect- ing the outflow of electrons when the tubes are insu- lated by sulphur blocks and worked on a rocker. The electrodes and a belt of tinfoil on the outside are connected by thin wires to three electroscopes with graduated scales, and the potentials at various stages of the experiments are found to fall gradually, in the case of sand, from a height symbolised by readings of 60° or more down to zero after some thousands of rockings, and this without any visible effect on the glass. The electrons are swept away and the tubes become absolutely dead. The passage of a current from an induction coil through them accelerates the sweeping process, and rest, even for a year, does not revive their action. The case is essentially different from that of mer- cury in quartz. The nature of the glass renders each tube a form of closed conductor. It contains no insu- lated charge, but develops electricity within. itself, shows flashes in the dark, and maintains an outflow for many hours. NO. 2233, VOL. 89] Recently, however, 1 have tried the substitution of pitchblende, thorium oxide, black oxide of uranium, and other metallic oxides for sand, testing signs, re- cording results, and earthing the electroscopes at the end of each ioo reversals. As the total amount of activity is a principal point, I have added together, for the purposes of the curves, the readings of the two electrodes irrespective of sign; but I deal with signs in noting the behaviour of the substances. As control experiments, I made fresh tubes (like the others, 47 cm. long and 12 cm. internal diameter) containing barium peroxide and manganese dioxide. The former, after momentary action, ceased to show any effect whatever; the latter, acting very much like sand, reached a maximum of 40° (one electrode giving +28°, the other —12°), and then, falling away rather sharply, became absolutely dead after 5200 reversals. The uranium oxide (U,O,) acted very feebly, only reaching a maximum of +7°; but it continued during 3000 reversals to indicate that the inside of the tube was positively charged. The thorium behaved very remarkably. Rising during the first 100 rockings only to +10°, the read- ings grew gradually higher. During the first 2500 reversals one electrode had shown a minute negative charge, the other a fast-growing positive charge; but at that point the whole interior became positive, and so remained, the readings going up to +40°. The So 60 : 4o + E i » F HHT 0 + + rt MEET Cer ah Te Teversals curve, drawn from readings taken on cessation of rocking, does not convey a due impression of the vigour of the action, or of its promise to continue unabated for an indefinite time; but we see in it a rise from inertness to strong electrification, and while we must, perhaps, look for a substratum of glass action, we know from sand and manganese and from barium peroxide that this either weakens and ceases altogether or does not occur at all. The thorium oxide is, of course, far from being a simple combina- tion of thorium and oxygen. Radio-thorium, thorium X, and an emanation would alone complicate its action, and the constant movement in the tube would diminish the suppression of the positively charged a particles by the upper layers of the oxide, but the total of these effects is small. The sum of the radio-active powers of the thorium when at rest is so very limited that it is hard for one who has witnessed its vigorous action in a tube, and the strong positive charge developed, to keep from believing that friction in a vacuum has done that which no chemical process can effect. This impression of a mechanically-produced increase of radio-activity was much strengthened by the be- haviour of pitchblende in very fine powder. From the first moment the action was vigorous, and after a few hundred rockings the whole interior of the tube be- came negative and so remained. The readings rose quickly to a level much above the thorium figures, and then, after about 4000 reversals, made a_ yet greater upward start, which was maintained with an AvuGuST 15, 1912| obvious promise of continuance, until I was compelled to stop work. This curve also gives a poor impression of the great strength of the action. The f-rays seem to have had the upper hand in the case of pitchblende, just as the a particles had in that of thorium. As an amateur | do not feel able to take the matter beyond this point. Accurate laboratory methods with the help of qualified assistants might give important results. RicHarp How Lerr. Park House, Walton-on-Thames, August 1. Aged Sea Anemones. In 1904 Dr. J. R. Ashworth and I published in the Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh (vol. XXV., p. I) observations on aged individuals of Sagartia troglodytes then and still in the possession of Miss Jessie Nelson in Edinburgh. After eight years these anemones are still in excellent health, having been in captivity for considerably more than half a century. In one respect I fear that we did them an injustice, namely in attributing cannibalism to them, the error being probably due to the observation of the birth of young from a parent the tentacles of which were not fully expanded. Recently I chanced to notice a young Sagartia attached to a small piece of seaweed floating free in the aquarium. A slight agitation of the water was sufficient to bring the young anemone in contact with the tentacles of one of the patriarchs of its own species. They immediately closed round it and a small part of the disk became emarginate. The greater part, however, was not sensibly affected, and the mouth remained closed. In less than two minutes the folded-in tentacles uncurled and the young anemone was thrust away with some force. It then came in contact with the tentacles of a second old Sagartia, and exactly the same thing occurred. Neither the young one nor the tentacles that had held it were apparently affected in any way. Immediately after the first old Sagartia had released the young one, I dropped on its tentacles, in the region which had temporarily been affected by contact with the latter, the body of a small isopod. The isopod was seized in exactly the same manner that the young anemone had been seized, but the movements soon spread to other tentacles, the mouth gaped open, and the isopod was swallowed. In other individuals of the same species I have noticed that small masses of food, such as this little isopod, remain apparently un- observed if dropped gently on to the disk within the tentacles without touching them, but that if the | tentacles are then touched and in the movements that ensue come in contact with the food lying neglected on the disk, its presence is apparently realised and it is swallowed. N. ANNANDALE. 1 Marchhall Crescent, Edinburgh, July 30. On the Nature of Stromatoporoids. In a letter to Nature (July 18, p. 502) I stated that the Palaeozoic Monticuliporas were siliceous sponges with a supplementary calcareous skeleton. An examination of the Stromatoporoids—classed in the standard text-books (Zittel, Geilkie, Steinmann) under Hydrozoa and Polyzoa—has led me to the con- clusion that these fossils also are siliceous sponges. For I have found, both in the Hydractinioid and Milleporoid groups of Stromatoporoids, — siliceous spicules of a kind related to, but not identical with, those of Merlia and Monticulipora. Frequently it is difficult to find the spicules, and it is not surprising that they have hitherto escaped observation. They are mostly microscleres of the sigma type, and re- quire a magnification of about tooo diameters to see clearly. Some care is necessary not to mistake edges of flakes of calcite for spicules. i NO. 2233, vor. 89] NATURE ‘ | deaf ears. 607 The ‘‘Caunopora”’ tubes, at least those which I have examined in several typical Stromatoporoids, are not corals, as generally supposed, but tubes of a Chzetopod worm. The supposed tabulze are merely an expression of the segmentation of the Annelid. In some instances the worm is fairly well preserved, and the acicula abundant. To return to Monticulipora, I find that some typical species of Favosites, Chaetetes, and Rhaphidopora are siliceous sponges with supplementary calcareous skeletons of the Monticulipora type. R. Kirkpatrick. British Museum (Natural History). The Earthquake in Turkey on August 9. Tue recent earthquake, reported as felt in Con- stantinople, and as very destructive near the Sea of Marmora, has left its mark on the photographic traces of our unifilar and bifilar magnetographs, but not on the vertical force balance; and, contrary to expectation, the disturbance is more pronounced on the unifilar than on the bifilar curve. The Milne seismograph failed to record the time of the maxi- mum disturbance otherwise than that it occurred either between 1.44 and 1.45 or between 1.47 and 1.50 a.m. on August 9, during which intervals the oscillations of the boom overstepped the recording limits. The time as registered on the magnetograms is 1.45 a.m., and this, as the true time of greatest earth oscillation, would lead us to expect an origin nearer to us than the Sea of Marmora. W. SIDGREAVES. Stonyhurst College Observatory, Blackburn. A Flower Sanctuary. I am afraid that Sir Herbert Maxwell’s suggestion that the plants of Cheddar pink offered for sale had been raised from seed cannot be accepted. The Thalictrum referred to is Thalictrum minus, which is still abundant in the Gorge. As regards the Welsh poppy, it is good to know that this beautiful plant has increased its range; but, if by evil chance some dealer should exterminate it at Cheddar, visitors who love to see it growing there would derive small comfort from the knowledge that it continued to flourish in many other places. I hope that the appeal to ‘‘proclaim’’ these Cheddar plants will not fall on Frank H. PERRYCOSTE. Higher Shute Cottage, Polperro, Cornwall, August Io. Striated Flints from the Chalky Boulder Clay. For some time past I have been examining flints from the Chalky Boulder Clay of Suffolk, and have been struck by the almost entire absence of striz upon them. When striz are present to any noticeable degree they are generally developed on the comparatively soft cortex of the flints, while where the stones have been broken and the hard interior exposed the scratches are not to be seen. This appears to me to point to the conclusion that the glacial action which is held to have been the cause of the Boulder Clay and the striations on the flints could not have been of a very intense order, and there- fore very different from that obtaining at some period prior to the deposition of the Suffolk Red Crag, the stones found at, the base of this deposit often exhibit- ing the most definite and deep striz all over their flaked surfaces. Also I find in the Chalky Boulder Clay stones which show a small ‘‘island”’ of striated cortex left in the centre of a flaked surface, and this flaked surface is 608 NATURE [AuGuUST 15, 1912 sometimes not only unscratched, but patinated or weathered. The patination is of the kind which is now to be | seen on flints on the present land surface, and is | generally, and I think rightly, supposed to have been caused by the slow action of various solvents present on that surface. Thus it appears probable that these stones from the Boulder Clay were first scratched, then broken, and left lying on a land surface sufficiently long to be patinated, and finally incorporated with the clay, It is also apparent that if marked striations on flints are a sign of intense glaciation, then those found at the base of the Red Crag must have been at some period subjected to a much greater degree of ice-action than was present when the Boulder Clay was being formed, J. Rem Moir. 12 St. Edmund’s Road, Ipswich, July 30. On the Sign of the Newtonian Potential. t Pror. Lamp, in the second edition of his ‘‘ Hydro- dynamics,’’ made a change in the sign of the velocity- potential. Would it not be an advantage to change the sign of the Newtonian or gravitational potential also? If this were done, the relation connecting field and potential (F=—dv/ds) would be true for gravitation as well as for electricity, and potential would always be potential energy divided by mass (or charge). , Of course, there would be the disadvantage that the analytical definition yn would have to be altered to ee which would conflict with the corresponding Se Poisson’s expression for the electrical potential. equation would also have to suffer a change of sign. However, it might be worth while to bring the physical definitions into agreement even at the cost of these analytical inconveniences. At present it Sometimes happens that students are confronted with two irreconcilable definitions, one from the mathe- matical, the other from the physical, lecturer. The result is that they are never sure whether a plus or minus is to be used in any given case. H. Piacero. University College, Nottingham, August 1, A Point in Geological Nomenclature. In his review of Prof. Haug’s ‘ Traité de Géologie”’ (II.) in Narure of August-1,-J. W. G. asks the ques- tion :. ‘Should it .[the ‘ Quaternary ’?]. not be Quar- tary?’’ He will perhaps be, glad to be reminded, of the fact that, so long ago as 1887, Prof. Hermann Credner, of Leipzig, used the term das Quartdr (in linguistic consonance with das Tertiary) in the 6th edition of. his well-known and invaluable text-bools, and has retained it in the roth edition (1906), brealsing it up-into (a) Dilwvium (=Pleistocene) and (b) Allu- vium, a most convenient division. A. IRVING. Bishop’s Stortford, August 3. A Reversible Photochemical Reaction. In the preparation of some tungsten compounds I obtained a by-product which is reduced on exposure to sunlight, the reduction being marked by a change of colour and being accelerated by reducing agents. In the dark, in contact with the atmosphere, the is brought about instantaneously by oxidising agents. Will readers of Nature who are acquainted with reactions of a similar type kindly inform me of pub- lications on the subject? M. Rrinp1. Grey University College, Bloemfontein, July 8. NO. 2233, VOL. 89] | detailed | NATURE AND MAN IN AUSTRALIA} ROF. BALDWIN SPENCER and Mr. Gillen are honoured by all ethnologists as the authors of two notable books on the tribes of Central Australia which afforded us more information about the peoples they visited than had previously been given con- cerning any other Australian tribes, and at the same time gave rise to more discussion than has befallen any other records of savage men. Their last book is, from one point of view, a supplement to their earlier works, and from another it may be regarded as an independent record of a more general and popular character. “Across Australia” is not, like its forerunners, a monographic study of certain tribes, but, as its name implies, is a running commentary, so to speak, of a transverse section through the con- tinent explained by two keen and experienced naturalists, one of whom has spent many years in the heart of the continent. and had wandered hither and thither. The present account, therefore, is not the description of a single expedition, but combines the experiences of several journeyings, except so far as the most northerly third of their route is concerned. aha The broad geographical features of Central Australia are clearly explained; the authors evi- dently incline to the view that a general desicca- tion, which dates from the Pleistocene period, is still taking place. The desert and poor steppe con- ditions and their bionomics are well described and illustrated; Fig. 19, with the mesas in the back- ground, might very well be a photograph of a typical scene in New Mexico, except that the scattered clumps of vegetation are not sage brush. The characteristic plants of the several geographi- cal areas are described, and attention is directed to a change of flora or fauna during the passage from south to north. The keynote of the greater part of Australia is drought, and our authors give abundant evidence to show how all living things have to accommo- date themselves to variable periods of greater or less desiccation alternated by copious rains and even floods, which subside and disappear with great rapidity. The inexorable necessity is laid upon plants and animals to take the utmost advan- tage of the very transient humid conditions, and to protect themselves as best they may against drought. The aquatic animals especially have adapted themselves to these variable conditions : very remarkable in this respect are several species of frogs belonging to three genera, which fill them- selves, more particularly their bladder, with water till they become spherical, then burrow a foot or so in the mud, and thus tide over a year or eighteen months of drought. ‘‘The water is quite pure and fresh, and the natives take advantage of t ji | this supply when they cannot otherwise secure original colour is gradually restored. The same effect | ” any. Water-beetles, snails, and other aquatic animals also zstivate, and their young have to mature quickly in order to take advantage of the a4 “ Across Australia." By Prof. Baldwin Spencer, C.M.G., F.R and Fr J. Gillen. Vol. 1. Pp xv+254+plates. Wol. 1. Pp. xviiit25s5—sts +plates4-maps. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1912.) Price 21s. net. “Ss AUGUST 15, 1912] The temporary “which wet spell, otherwise they perish. pools swarm with small crustaceans, some are closely allied to one another have red blood and others have not. For example, the various NATURE €09 Those who are interested in the doings of natives will find first-hand accounts of the tribes met in the south-to-north traverse, the matrilineal Urabunna, the patrilineal Arunta, Kaitish, Unmatjera, Warramunga, Tjingilli, . t—Ceremony of Alkira-Kiuma, Arunta tribe. From “‘ Across Australia.” species of Limnadopsis and Limnetis are quite colourless, whilst their close allies, Estheria lutravia and E. packardi, have red blood. Whether it be connected with this fact or not, it is interesting to notice that the Estherias ‘Lhrowing the novice up into the air. Umbaia, and Binbinga, and the Anula and Mara coastal tribes of the Gulf of Carpentaria, whose social organisa- tion is somewhat different from that | of the preceding tribes. The accounts | of the sociology, customs, ceremonies, and beliefs of these tribes are sufficient to give the reader a very good idea of the effect of geographical control over a people, the stage of culture arrived at by an isolated savage com- munity, and the local variations that eccur. From these points of view it forms an admirable introduction to the study of the Australian natives, but of these the authors’ previous books have already treated with greater detail. Every serious student of ethnology is acquainted with these books, and hence will find nothing new to him with regard to his special studies, but at the same time -he should read the book so as to gain a more coherent conception of the conditions of existence in the central | band of Australia, and to pick up scattered in- formation concerning the utilisation of the plants and animals by the aborigines. The volumes are extremely well illustrated; all the figures and seem to be able to live longer than the colourless forms. . Speaking generally, the smaller the animal is, the more abundantly you find it.” Among other Australian anomalies is the finding of a true crab in the dry steppe lands of Central Australia. “It is apparently the same form, Thelphusa transversa, which has been recorded from Cape York in the north-east of Australia, and _ its presence in the centre of the continent points back to a time when there was a great inland sea. The crab has evidently been left behind, and has adapted itself, not only to fresh-water life, but to conditions which would, at first sight, appear almost fatal to crab life.” In arid parts of Mexico and Colorado the honey ant stores up honey in its body so that the abdomen becomes spherical; so does the Melo- phorus inflatus of Central Australia ; our authors discovered two species (M. cowlei and M. midas) in which the abdomen is not so_ swollen: “evidently these two are not so fully specialised in this respect.” There are many other notes on the habits of animals which should not be over- looked by zoologists. NO, Fic 2.—Performance of a sacred ceremony of the sun totem, Arunta tribe. From ‘ Across Australia.” plates, except a few chiefly giving views of scenery, have, however, been previously published. | The book is written in an interesting manner, and deserves a large sale. A. C. Happon. 610 NATURE [AuGuUST 15, 1912 THE SECOND INTERNATIONAL GRESS OF ENTOMOLOGY. HE idea of an International Congress of Entomology originated at Tring, and it was on the initiative of Dr. Karl Jordan, curator of the Hon. Walter Rothschild’s Zoological Museum, that a small number of entomologists, representing France, Belgium, Germany, and the United Kingdom, met at Burlington House during the spring of 1909 to consider details. At this meeting, which was presided over by the then president of the Entomological Society of Lon- don (Dr. F. A. Dixey, F.R.S.), it was arranged that the first congress should take place at Brussels, in August, 1910. The congress at Brussels proved to be very successful, and, before separating, its members decided that the second international congress should be held at Oxford in 1912, under the presidency of Prof. Poulton, F.R.S., Hope Professor of Zoology in the University. The congress at Oxford has just terminated after a week which has been marked by papers and discussions of high value and interest, and the social side of which has only been marred by the extremely unfavourable conditions of weather. The attendance was larger than at Brussels, and included representative entomo- logists from France, Germany, Austria, Belgium, Spain, Turkey, Switzerland, the Netherlands, Hungary, Luxembourg, Sweden, Egypt, Chile, the United States, the Sandwich Islands, Canada, Borneo, and British East Africa, besides a large number from Great Britain and Ireland. The gathering was thus thoroughly representative, and, not only by the worldwide area from which its constituents were drawn, but also by the varied nature of the communications presented to it, the congress may claim to have rendered universal service over the whole field of ento- mology. The formal proceedings of the congress opened on August 5 with an address of welcome by the president, Prof. Poulton. He pointed out the special advantages of Oxford as a meeting-ground for entomologists of all nations, alluding to the scientific traditions and historical interest attach- ing to the University and to those colleges (Mer- ton, New College, and Wadham) which were affording special hospitality to the members of the congress. After giving a brief sketch of the history of the Hope Department and Professor- ship, and paying a graceful tribute to the in- dustry and learning of his predecessor in the Hope Chair, the late Prof. Westwood, he ex- hibited and explained an extensive series of bred and captured specimens of the wonderful African Papilio, P. dardanus, tracing its geographical modifications across the continent from east to west and from north to south, and illustrating the gradual development of mimicry by the female, the polymorphism of the same sex, and the proportions of the different mimicking forms resulting from the eggs laid by a single parent. NO. 2233, VOL. 89] CON- After the president’s address much interest was _ aroused by the Hon. N. C. Rothschild’s paper on ‘‘Nature Reserves.” The principle of the formation of such reserves, where the native flora and fauna may be allowed to flourish undis- turbed, scarcely needs advocacy before any assembly of naturalists; but the congress was much gratified to hear from Mr. Rothschild that a society for the promotion of reserves was in course of formation, and would shortly issue its prospectus. This gives promise of effective prac- tical measures. The remainder of August 5, and the greater part of the four succeeding days, were devoted to meetings both general and sectional, the latter dealing with such subjects as economic and pathological entomology; insect systematics and distribution; evolution, bionomics, and mimicry; nomenclature ; morphology and anatomy. : In the first of these much attention was given to a paper by Sir Daniel Morris on behalf of W. A. Ballou on “Some Entomological Prob- lems in the West Indies.” The importance from the economic point of view of an accurate know- ledge of the life-history of insect pests was clearly shown, and a hopeful account was given of the control of some of these pests by the introduc- tion of their natural enemies. In view of present conditions, the question of the devastation of crops by insect agency is to some extent a prob- lem of international politics. This point was well brought out in a paper by Mr. A. G. L. Rogers, a delegate from the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries. Mr. Rogers showed that in some cases of well-meant interference, more harm than good had resulted; international trade had _ been checked, while the pest which it was desired to exclude had broken the barrier. More system- atic study of the conditions was necessary, and the proposal of an international commission to be formed in connection with the International Agricultural Institute at Rome was approved by the congress. Valuable contributions to the sub- ject were made by Profs. Jablonowski (Buda- pest), F. V. Theobald (Wye), S. A: Forbes (Nebraska), and others. The thorny subject of nomenclature gave rise to some animated discussion. An eloquent appeal was made by the veteran French entomologist, Charles Oberthiir, in favour of the accompany- ing of every description of a new species by a figure. “Pas de bonne figure a l’appui d’une description, pas de nom _ valable,” was the aphorism by which he announced his communica- fion. A formidable attack on the position was delivered by Mr. L. B. Prout; and, in spite of the respect which M. Oberthiir’s great authority and persuasive speech commanded, it was evident that his proposal was regarded by the majority as impracticable. Dr. Horn, of Berlin, appeared as an advocate of the strict application of the law of priority, and further contributions were offered by Captain Kerremans (Brussels) and Dr. E. Olivier (Moulins). The outcome of the whole of these sectional proceedings on nomenclature Siri te ee 4 t Ul —-. —- § AUGUST 15, 1912] NATURE was the adoption at a general meeting of the congress of a_ resolution appointing an inter- national committee of entomologists to collect the opinions of national committees, and to bring themselves into relation with the existing inter- national committee on zoological nomenclature. The subject of bionomics called forth some interesting communications. Among these were Prof. Poulton’s demonstration of the remarkable mimetic phenomena exhibited by the forest butter- flies of Uganda; and Dr. R. C. L. Perkins’s series of colour groups in Hawaian wasps, showing the influence of a well-protected intruder upon the superficial aspect of members of the native fauna. The Rev. K. St. A. Rogers contributed an inter- esting paper on mimicry in an East African Lyceenid; Messrs. Donisthorpe and Crawley gave a good account of the founding of colonies by | ants; and Prof. W. M. Wheeler, of Harvard, criticised in a convincing manner the symbiotic interpretation of the association of leaf-cutting | ants with acacia trees in Central America. An ingenious explanation of the mimetic poly- morphism of Papilio polytes, founded on the breed- ing experiments of Mr. J. C. Fryer, was brought forward by Prof. R. C. Punnett, F.R.S., and evidence of the capture of butterflies by insecti- vorous birds formed the subject of a communica- tion from Mr. C. F. Swynnerton, laid before the section by Prof. Poulton. Some excellent photo- graphs from nature of butterflies in their resting attitudes were shown by Mr. A. H. Hamm, of the Hope Department. Space will not allow of more than a _ bare mention of the sectional proceedings in the sections of morphology, systematics, and dis- tribution, but among many papers of high interest may be specially enumerated those of Prof. H. J. Kolbe (Berlin) on the zoogeographical elements of continents; Prof. G. H. Carpenter (Dublin) on the Maxillule in beetle larve; Dr. G. Horvath (Budapest), Padre L. Navas (Barcelona), and Dr. F. A. Dixey (Oxford) on features in the wings of insects; of Dr. T. A. Chapman (Reigate) on regeneration in L. dispar; of Baron K. von Rosen (Munich) on fossil Termites; of Dr. (Labes) on geographical distribution and varia- tion in certain insects; of Dr. P. Calvert (Phila- delphia) on the Odonata ; and of Mr. R. S. Bagnall (Oxford) on the T hysanoptera. Among the papers read before general meet- ings were two of exceptional interest. One of these, by Dr. Adalbert Seitz, of Darmstadt, em- bodied the results of some experiments on insect vision, giving much evidence of the large part played by the sense of sight in the mutual recog- nition between the sexes. The other, by Prof. V. L. Kellogg, of Stanford University, U.S.A., brought forward some striking facts as to the distribution of the species of Mallophaga, many of these, according to the author, having become associated with their present hosts before the differentiation of the latter into separate species. Among other noteworthy communications made in general meetings of the entire congress were NO. 2233, VOL. 89] P. Speiser | Crt papers by Rey. G. W heeler (Leadon) and Mr. G. T. Bethune-Baker (Birmingham) on nomen- clature; by Prof. J. H. Comstock (Ithaca, U.S.A.) on the silk of spiders; Prof. J. Van Bemmelen (Gréningen) on the development of the butterfly wing; Mr. J. W. Taylor on distribution; Mr. L. Doncaster (Cambridge) on sex-limited inheritance ; Dr. Handlirsch (Vienna) on distribution; and Mr. S. A. Neave on his travels in East and Central Africa. An exhibition of Acrine butterflies was speci- ally arranged by Mr. H. Eltringham, to whose exertions as one of the local secretaries the success of the congress is largely due; and of Pierine butterflies by Dr. F. A. Dixey. The members of the congress were hospitably entertained on August 7 at Nuneham by the Rt. Hon. L. V. Harcourt, M.P., Secretary of State for the Colonies, and by John’s College at Bagley Wood. On August 9 they met, to the number of nearly 150, at a banquet in the hall of Wad- ham College; and on August 10 they were re- ceived by the Hon. W. Rothschild, F.R.S., at Tring, spending there a most enjoyable and profit- able day. The next congress will be held at Vienna in 1915, under the presidency of Prof. Anton Handlirsch. ARTIFICIAL DAYLIGHT. NUMBER of researches has recently been made on the imitation of daylight by arti- ficial means. There are many industries, such as dyeing, carpet manufacture, coloured silk, &c., to which an artificial illuminant which resembled normal daylight exactly would be very serviceable. In some cases, where very fine discrimination be- tween delicate shades of colour is necessary, the work is practically brought to a standstill as soon as artificial light has to be used. In the same way a standard artificial daylight would be of consider- able value to florists, drapers, &c., and might en- able artists to work in the evening with the same facility as by day. Practically all the present illuminants differ con- siderably from daylight in colour, usually having an excess of red and a deficiency in blue. Mr. T. E. Ritchie, in a recent paper before the Ilumina- ting Engineering Society in London,! contended that the inverted arc gave the closest approxima- tion, being apparently preferable to ordinary direct are lighting. The reason for this seems to lie in the fact that reflection from a diffusing white ceil- ing tends to suppress the excess of blue-violet. In the United States the Moore vapour tube, in which carbon dioxide is subjected to a high fanoce electric discharge, is said to give a white light almost identical with daylight, and, indeed, to be more constant than climatic variations allow day- light to be. The carbon dioxide Moore tube seems to have been largely used in silk mills and else- where in the United States, but it requires an alternating current and a special form of in- l [Uuminating Engineer (London), February, :912. wOlZ NATURE [AuGUST 15, 1912 stallation, and does not appear yet to have been very much used over here. In order to be really valuable, the resemblance to daylight should be very exact. Various special screens have been used with enclosed arc lamps as ‘daylight lamps,” but the difficulties in secur- ing a permanent and trustworthy screen are con- siderable. One method consists in selecting and superimposing suitable blue and green glasses, but it is generally recognised that to imitate the spectrum of natural light with precision a gelatine screen must be included. A method that has recently been described by R. B. Hussey,” in the United States, is to mount the coloured glasses side by side and to place underneath a diffusing glass screen, which serves to mix the components into an approximate white light. A similar de- vice has been used by C. H. Sharp and P. S. Millar in an emergency in order to secure an ap- proximate result at a florists’ exhibition.” Ives and Luckiesh have concentrated their efforts on the in- vention of a form of screen which can be applied with a tungsten incandescent lamp, and thus con- veniently used on an ordinary lighting circuit. They found it necessary to use both cobalt blue and signal green glasses and a special gelatine filter, and appear to have obtained very successful results. The most recent achievement in this directon 1s that of Dr. Kenneth Mees, described before a meeting of the Illuminating Engineering Society in London this year. By a combination of gelatines, involving the use of a newly discovered blue dye, he states that a very perfect resemblance to day- light is secured, and that the results are remark- ably permanent. The absorption of light is natur- ally considerable (amounting to about 85 per cent.), but for the special work for which this lamp is intended such a loss in efficiency is not of very great consequence in comparison with the advan- tage of being able to extend the hours of work after daylight has ceased. It is not suggested that lamps of this kind would come into general use as a substitute for artificial illuminants of the ordinary kind. Indeed, the im- pression is that people rather prefer the more golden hue of artificial light in the evening. This hue has become mentally associated with comfort, and possibly it serves to carry out the sequence of tone from daylight to the warmer tones of sunset. The idea is rather to use these artificial daylight units for special purposes. For example, it would doubt- less be of value in a drapers’ establishment to have a small recess illuminated in this way, so that customers, in choosing materials, would be able to compare their colours under this light with their appearance by the ordinary artificial illumin- | ants. There is one question that has an important bearing on these problems, namely, the difficulty in decidine on a standard white light. The re- searches of Dr. Nichols at Cornell University have shown that the spectrum of daylight varies con- siderably with different climatic conditions and at different altitudes. In a town especially, where 2 Trane, Amer. Ilum. Engin. Soc , February, rgr2. NO. 2233, VOL. 89] jl | ‘ | Petersburg ; periodical fogs give the transmitted light a more ruddy character, this is so. But in the country it appears that throughout the greater part of the day the quality of light from a white sky does not vary very greatly, and delicate colour-work would usually be done under these conditions. THE DUNDEE MEETING OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION. see following is a list of the American, colonial and foreign guests who up to the present date have accepted invitations to attend the forthcoming meeting of the British Association at Dundee. It will be seen that the number is unusually large, and indicates a gathering of scientific men from abroad far beyond anything that has taken place at recent meetings of the Association. Prof Aganassief, St. Petersburg; Prof. Allardice, Leland Stanford; Prof. Frank Allen, Winnipeg; Prof. Raoul Anthony, Paris; Prof. Leon Asher, Bern; Dr. Baglioni, Rome; Prof. Ch. Barrois, Lille; Dr. Becker, Brussels; Prof. J. J. Borgmann, St. Peters- burg; Prof. Dr. Botazzi, Naples; Dr. Burgli, Bern; Prof. Burton-Opitz, New York; Prot. Irvine Cameron, Toronto; Prof. D. H. Campbell, Cali- fornia; Prof. C. Chilton, Christchurch, New Zealand; Prof. Archibald Clark, Winnipeg; Prof. Franz Doflein, Freiburg; Dr. J. Drugmann, Brussels; Prof. Fano, Florence; Dr. G. W. Fields, Boston, Mass.; Prof. J. C. Fields, Toronto; Miss Alice Fletcher, Cam- bridge, Mass.; Prof. Dr.-Max v. Frey, Wurzburg; Dr. A. Gérardin, Nancy; Prof. A. Gerschun, St. Prof. E, Gley, Paris; Dr. Gotham, Dr. Gottlieb, Heidelberg; M. Yves Guyot, Paris; Prof. F. Haber, Karlsruhe; Dr. W. 4H. .Hale, New York; Prof. Hamburger, Groningen; Prof. Paul Hanus, Cambridge, Mass. ; Prof. Emil Haug, Paris; Mr. C. Hedley, Sydney; Prof. Paul Heger, Brussels; Prof. S. E. Henschen, Stockholm; Prof. Dr. A. F. Holleman, Amsterdam; Mr. Hans Holzwarth, Mannheim; Prof. Hubrecht, Utrecht; Prof. Ida Hyde, Kansas; Prof. Ch. Julin, Liége; Prof. H. Jungersen, Copenhagen; Prof. H. Kayser, Bonn; Prof. F. Keibel, Freiburg; Prof. A. E. Kennelly, Cambridge, Mass.; Prof. Dr. A. Kossel, Heidelberg; Prof. Kélpin-Ravn, Copenhagen ; Dr. Kramp, Copenhagen; Prof. Kronecker, Bern; Prof. Berlin; Prof. Kuliabko, Tomsk; Prof. F. Lindemann, Munich; Prof. Lindmann, Stockholm; Dr. Otto Lipman, Berlin; Prof. Dr. Loewi, Graz; Dr. F. Lohnis, Leipzig; Prof. Maurice Lugeon, Lausanne; Prof. A. -B> Macallum, F.R-S.; Toronto; Prof. JayjzeR= Macleod, Cleveland, Ghio; Prof. J. C. McLennan, Toronto; Prof. F. Mall, Baltimore; Prof. Gustav Mann, New Orleans; Prof. S. J. Meltzer, New York; Dr. Hans Meyer, Vienna; Prof. R. A. Millikan, U.S.A.; Prof. E. C. Moore, Yale; Mr. T. Mortensen, Copenhagen; Baron F. Nopsca, Hungary; Dr. C. H. Ostenfeld, Copenhagen; M. Paul Otlet, Brussels; Prof. @yen, Christiania; Dr. Ove Paulsen, Copen- hagen; Prof. C. A. Pekelharing, Utrecht; Dr. C. G. J. Petersen, Copenhagen; Prof. Maurice Philippson, Brussels; Prof. B. Osgood Pierce, Harvard: Prof. F. H. Pike, New York; Dr. A: Pitter, Bonn; Dr. Redeke, Helder; Dr. Reusch, Christiania; Prof. L. Rhiimbler, Hann-Miinden; Dr. Sahli, Bern; Prof. J. Schmidt, Copenhagen; Prof. J. W. Spencer, Washington;: Dr. von Sustschinsky, Munich; Dr. Emil Tietze, Vienna; Dr. Th. Tschernyschew, St. Petersburg; Prof. Max Verworn, Bonn; Prof. Swale Vincent, Winnipeg; a AUGUST 15, I912] NATURE Mie Prof. Jules Walsch, Poitiers; and Prof. Worcester, Mass. The University of St. Andrews will confer, on September 6, the honorary degree of LL.D. on the following guests of the association :—Prof. Charles -Barrois, professor of geology in the University of Lille, the doyen of French geologists, and author of many well-known publications on the igneous and metamorphic rocks of Brittany; Prof. Fano, professor of physiology in the University of Florence, and editor of the Archivio di Fisiologia; Prof. E. Gley, professor of physiology in the Collége de France, and one of the editors of the Journal de Physiologie et de Pathologie générale; M. Yves Guyot, of Paris, the well-known writer on political and economic science, editor of the Journal des Economistes; Prof. H. J.. Hamburger, professor of physiology in the University of Gréningen, dis- tinguished for his researches on osmotic phenomena in relation to physiology, and for his- studies of chemotaxis, phagocytosis, and absorption; Prof. Paul Heger, emeritus professor of physiology in the University of Brussels; Prof. Charles Julin, professor of zoology in the University of Liége, who is’ especi- ally known for his many important investigations into the anatomy and embryology of the Ascidians; Prof. H. Jungersen, professor of zoology in the University of Copenhagen, and director of the Museum of Zoology, a leading authority on the comparative anatomy and classification of fishes; Prof. H. Kayser, professor of physics in the Uni- versity of Bonn, the eminent authority on spectro- scopy; Prof. A. Kossel, professor of physiology in the University of Heidelberg, and editor of the ‘Handbuch der Physiologischen Chemie’; Prof. Franz Keibel, professor of comparative embryology in the University of Freiburg; Prof. F. Lindemann, of Munich, the distinguished mathematician and philosopher; Prof. S. J. Meltzer, professor of physio- logy and pharmacology in the Rockefeller Institute, New York, and president of the American Physio- logical Society; Prof. Hans Meyer, professor of pharmacology in the University of Vienna, well known for his many writings on experimental pharmacology, and especially on the theory of narcosis; Dr. C. G. J. Petersen, of Copenhagen, a leading authority in all matters connected with the economic treatment and scientific study of fishery questions; Prof. Max Verworn, of Bonn, editor of the ‘“Handbuch fiir Allgemeine Physiologie,’’ and cele- brated for his very numerous writings, both experi- mental and philosophical, on physiological and psychological subjects. Webster, NOTES. WE regret to have to record the death of Prof. Forel, which, according to a Reuter message, took place at Morges on August 7, at seventy-one years of age. WE regret to notice the announcement of the death, at the age of fifty-nine years, of M. Lucien Lévy, president of the Mathematical Society of France in rgIft. Tue death is announced, at the age of ecighty-three years, of Dr. T. L. Rogers, who, in 1883, was_presi- dent of the psychological section of the meeting at Liverpool of the British Medical Association, and also was one of the promoters of the work of organising the London School of Tropical Medicine. We notice with regret the announcement of the death, on August 7, in Tenerife, of Mr. R. H. M. NO. 2233, VoL. 89] Bosanquet, F.R.S., at seventy-one years of age. Mr. Bosanquet was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1890 for his work in various departments of physics—chiefly acoustics, light, and magnetism. Ar the annual meeting of the German Geological Society, held at Greifswald on August 8, a Palzonto- logical Society was founded. The organ of the new society, the Palaeontologische Zeitschrift, will be pub- lished by the house of Gebriider Borntraeger, Berlin. WE learn from the Revue Scientifique that the late M. Osmond, the metallurgist, whose death was an- nounced recently (see Nature, July 4), bequeathed 4oo0ol. to the Société de Secours des Amis der Sciences and 4oool. to the Société d’Encouragement pour |’in- dustrie nationale. An exhibition (which will remain open for twelve months) of appliances, fittings, materials, and products relating to sanatoria, tuberculosis dispensaries, and the treatment of tuberculosis will be opened on August 26 at the offices of the Society of Medical Officers of Health, 1 Upper. Montague Street, Russell Square, W.C. A Birt for the control of messages by wireless telegraphy has been passed by the United States House of Representatives, and is now to go to the President. The measure prescribes heavy penalties for interference with messages on the high seas, gives the Government control over inter-State wire- less communication, and authorises the President to commandeer wireless stations in time of war. A Reuter message from Constantinople states that an earthquake shock, lasting at least ten seconds, was felt there at 3.35 a.m. on August 9, The earthquake appears to have been more severely felt on the southern shores of the Sea of Marmora than in Con- stantinople. The centre of the disturbance seems to have been the region of the Dardanelles. It is re- ported that there is scarcely a building at Gallipoli or Tchanak which is undamaged, and that many people have been killed or injured. Tue Departmental Committee on Boats and Davits appointed by the President of the Board of Trade to report as to the most efficient method of stowing, launching, and propelling ships’ boats, will be glad if inventors and others who desire to submit inven- tions or schemes for their consideration will do so by October 1, 1912. Tue seventy-third exhibition of the Royal Cornwall Polytechnic Society will be held at the Polytechnic Hall, Falmouth, Cornwall, on August 27-31 inclusive. Medals and prizes are offered in various departments, including fine arts, photography, mechanics, elec- trical appliances, ornamental art, natural history, mineralogy and chemistry, &c. Entries may be sent up to August 20. All communications should be addressed to Mr. E. W. Newton, secretary of the society, Camborne, Cornwall. By the death, on July 16, of Alfred Fouillée, in his seventy-fifth year, a psychologist of much originality and independence of judgment passed o14 NATURE [AuGUST 15, 1912 from us. Subsequent psychological investigation has been influenced in no small measure by the point of view which Fouillée worked out in his principal work, published in 1893, ‘‘La Psychologie des idées- forces’’—the view, namely, that mental evolution proceeds by the interplay of ultimate or primordial idées-forces. An idée-force, as he conceived it, was a process at once sensory, emotional, and appetitive ; the force inherent in all states of consciousness had, so he maintained, its essential ground in the in- separable union of discernment, which was the source of intelligence, and preference, which was the source of will. He emphasised the intimate connection of sensation with motor and appetitive factors, and used this principle as a key to some of the leading prob- lems of psychology. His treatment of feeling-tone, of memory and its relation to conation and move- ment, of the perception of time, and of the growth of volition, is particularly penetrative and suggestive. Fouillée applied the conception of idées-forces to the philosophy of history and of law, and to the solution of ethical and sociological questions; and also made it the basis of a metaphysical monism, according to which mechanical movements are regarded as_in- separable from ideas. In part ii., vol. i., of The Journal of Roman Studies Prof. F. Haverfield contributes a valuable paper on Roman London. He remarks on Sir L. Gomme’s recent work, ‘‘The Making of London,’’ that “although it appears under the authority of a Uni- versity Press,” he is unable to accept many statements contained in it, such as the reference to various Celtic dwellings, to the territorium and pomerium of Roman London, and the derivation of the name Londinium. He thus sums up his conclusions regarding an original Celtic city :—'‘ Either there was no pre-Roman Lon- don, or it was a small and undeveloped settlement, which may have been on the south bank of the Thames." Again, he dismisses the suggestion made by other writers that the Roman roads did not enter London and leave it again, but ran across to the south of it. The life of London, he believes, began very quickly after the Roman conquest; its first phase was an wumwalled town situated in the eastern part of what we now call the City, and by a.p. 61 it had become important. But we know little of it, the plan of its streets, or its public buildings. It doubtless fell with other Roman cities in some unrecorded attack in the early fifth century, and lay waste for a hundred years or more. The Eugenics Review is issued quarterly by the Eugenics Education Society; it contains a record of their proceedings and a general guide to their pub- lications and to events which might be of interest to students of the subject. Among the contents of the July number is much that would appeal to a wider public. We would direct special attention to Mr. Cyril Burt’s paper on the inheritance of mental char- acters. Mr. Burt’s training has been that of physio- logist and experimental psychologist, and, approach- ing the subject in the latter capacity, he has furnished from his own researches evidence which escapes some of the objections made to that previously brought for- NO. voL. 89| OD 2° “£99? ward. Among the objections referred to are these : that native ability has been judged either by measur- ing faculties which depend, at any rate partly, and according to some schools, wholly, on education, or by considering professional success which is due largely to family influence and opportunity; thus the resemblance between the performances of different members of a family may be due to causes other than heredity. The experimental psychologist has devised tests of qualities which ‘‘do not depend to an appreciable degree on acquired skill and know- ledge,’ and has thus measured mental capacity directly and not by estimating mental contents. The evidence of heredity obtained by these means is not as yet very complete; it is presented by the author in the paper under review in a frank and unassuming manner, and considered in conjunction with the results obtained previously by statistical methods or by reason- ing from known mental characters of different races. WE have received from Mr. B. G. Teubner, of Leipzig, the first part of the Zentralblatt fiir Zoologie, allgemeine und experimentelle Biologie, published by his firm. This periodical is an amalgamation of the Zoologisches Zentralblatt and the Zentralblatt fiir allgemeine und experimentelle Biologie. It contains classified reviews and abstracts of current biological and zoological literature, and will doubtless prove almost indispensable to working zoologists and bio- logists. The multiplication of biological journals has been so rapid of late years that we cannot but wel- come a diminution in their number by such an amal- gamation as this. Mr. H. W. Kew has favoured us with a copy of a paper from the Zoological Society’s Proceedings of the current year on the pairing of false-scorpions of the subgenera Chelifer and Chernes.. In both the male is destitute of an intromittent organ, and fer- tilisation is eftected by the two sexes facing one another in walking posture, when the male grasps with one or both hands (according to the subgenus) the corre- sponding organs or organ of the female. The male next extrudes a spermatophore, which stands erect or obliquely on the surface supporting the creatures, and then retires backwards while the female advances until the spermatophore comes below her genital aperture, into which it is immediately received. AccorDING to the first part of vol. xii. of The Museums Journal, the Museums Association is in a flourishing condition, both as regards finance and membership. Discounting certain extraordinary ex- penditure, the balance-sheet shows a surplus, while the list of members has increased by six during the past year. In a lecture reported in the same issue, Dr. W. E. Hoyle gives some useful hints on museums, from the point of view of both the curator and the visitor. He specially insists on the limitation of scope in the exhibits, and of the prime importance of illus- trating local subjects, particularly the history and rise of culture. To vol. ii., pt. 4, of the Journal of the East Africa and Uganda Natural History Society Mr. R. J. Cun- inghame contributes an account of Mr. Le Petit’s AUGUST 15, I912] NATURE 615 ‘experiences of the ‘‘water-elephant”’ of the Congo lakes derived from the explorer himself. Although many naturalists regard the ‘“‘water-elephant’’ as nothing more than the dwarf Congo elephant, Mr. Cuninghame accepts the view that it represents an altogether distinct type. A very similar account was received from Mr. Le Petit about a year ago by he writer of the present note, who, in consequence of a communication from Paris, did not consider it desir- able that it should be published. In the same issue Mr. G. Williams records that a few years ago he saw at early dawn on the Uasingishu a large and appar- ently unknown animal which he compares to a bear— a comparison borne out by the Nandi, who assert that they are well acquainted with the creature, for which they have a.name. Mr. Williams, who is confident that it is neither an ant-bear nor a baboon, adds that the animal has recently been seen again, and that he has heard of one which was burnt in a hut by natives, and of the skin of a second in the Kabras district, although he did not succeed in seeing it. Mr. Cuunc Yu Wanc, of Wuchow, author of the work on antimony in Griffin’s Metallurgical Series, has drawn up a “ Bibliography of the Mineral Wealth and Geology of China” (C. Griffin and Co., Ltd., Ig12, price 3s. net.) The references are divided under the headings of coal, iron, gold and silver, minerals in general, mining and metallurgy in general, geology, petrology, and palzontology; hence the work will be useful to geologists, as well as to those intent on developing the resources of the Chinese Empire. On p. 32, the author remarks that the best book on the mineral wealth of China is one of which he gives the name in Chinese characters, published, with an atlas, in 1907. Perhaps we may look forward to a translation at no distant date. Tue current Annual Report of the Board of Scientific Advice for India, recently received, contains an account of the investigational work done by the various scien- tific departments during the year 1910-11, and also the programme mapped out for 1911-12. The depart- ments concerned are those of applied chemistry, astro- nomy, botany, forestry, geodesy, geology, veterinary science, and zoology. One of the chief investigations now being carried on is in reference to the improve- ment of the cotton crop; to this a large amount of attention is being devoted by the agricultural staff. Simple selection is not considered likely to be of much service in obtaining the required type of plant, but practical results are expected from hybridisation. The methods adopted, and the ideas underlying the work, are of more than local interest; an account of them has been published in The Journal of Genetics, and an abstract in the Proceedings of the Royal Society. Among other researches in progress may be men- tioned one upon the production of new wheats of high quality, which are giving very promising results; also one having for its object the improvement of the saltpetre industry by modifying the refining processes. The report shows that much solid, useful work is being accomplished. In a paper published in 1911 at Helsingfors, entitled “Tid vattnen i Ostersjon och Finska Viken,” with a NO. 2233, VOL. 89] | and short German summary, Mr. Rolf Witting discusses the tides of the Baltic Sea and of the Gulf of Finland. The tides of these seas are small, and have but little importance for sailors, so that the interest of this paper is purely scientific. Mr. Witting used Sir George Darwin’s apparatus for making the tidal re- ductions, and he gives the tidal constants for Kron- stadt, Helsingfors, Reval, Hangé, Landsort, Libau, Karlskrona, Ratan, Draghallan, Bjorn, and Ytter- grund. He also makes use of Dr. Crone’s reductions for eight Danish ports, and others by Dr. Schweydar for eight German ones. This considerable amount of material is ably discussed by the author. Perhaps the most remarkable result is that while at the Danish end the semi-diurnal tides are predominant, in the Baltic the tide becomes almost purely diurnal. He explains this by showing that the Baltic ports are near nodes of the semi-diurnal oscillation of the sea. The author also discusses seiches, according to the principles of Chrystal, and finds a period for the longitudinal seiche of about eighteen hours. The transversal seiches differ much at various transverse sections, having periods which lie between three and seven hours. The paper appears to be thorough and scientific, and is thus a valuable monograph on the subject. Owine to the large amount of cartilage in which they are embedded, it is practically impossible to exhibit the true relations to one another of the bones of the cetacean carpus in macerated skeletons. Some months ago, when a shoal of black-fish was stranded at Mount’s Bay, the paddles of a specimen were procured for the Natural History Museum, and, by dissecting away the integuments and muscles from one side of each, moulds were obtained of the bones and cartilages, from which plaster casts were after- wards taken. These casts, coloured to nature, are now éxhibited in the Whale Room. During the pre- sent summer a taxidermist from the museum was despatched to the Shetlands for the purpose of obtain- ing flippers of the larger fin-whales; these have been treated in the same manner, the cast of one of the specimens being already completed and _ coloured. This new mode of exhibiting the structure of the paddle cannot be surpassed. 4 WE have received a copy of a report by Mr. Merritt Cary on a biological survey of Colorado, forming No. 33 of ‘‘The North American Fauna,” which was published in August, 1911. An excellent coloured map exhibits the complex life-zones, which show that Colorado, like other areas with varied climatic and physiographical conditions, possesses a correspondingly large and varied fauna and flora. The main features brought out by the survey are: first, the division of the State into three topographic regions, namely the eastern plains, the central system of the Rocky Moun- tains, and the rugged area of alternating plateaus and valleys on the western slope; and, secondly, the subdivision of each of these regions by diverse physical climatic conditions into small and irregular faunal and floral areas. Lists of some of the char- acteristic animals and plants of the various zones are given, as well as a complete list of the mammals of the country. ; E16 N pe” [AUGUST 15, I912 Tue Weekly Weather Report issued by the Meteoro- logical Office, which contains a summary of the tem- perature, rainfall, and duration of bright sunshine for the several districts of the United Kingdom, shows that the mean temperature for the first eight weeks of summer is generally slightly in excess of the average. The rainfall is also in excess of the normal, the greatest excess being 4°31 in. in the south of Ireland and 364 in. in the north-east of England, whilst the north of Scotland is the only district with a deficiency. The duration of bright sunshine for the first two months of summer is everywhere deficient, and in the north-eastern districts the deficiency is very large. Tue Greenwich observations for July give the mean temperature 65°, the mean day readings being 75°, and abe. mean night readings 55°. This is rather more than 1° in excess of the average, the minima being slightly more in excess of the average than the maxima. The maxima, or day temperatures, ranged from _go° on July 12 to 58° on July 19, and the night minima from 63° to 48°. There were ten days during the month with the shade temperature above 80°, whilst in the corresponding month last year there were nineteen days above 80°. There were three days with the thermometer in the sun’s rays at 150°, and in July last year there were eight days above 150°. Rain fell on eleven days, yielding 125 in., which is rather more than one-half the average amount; the heaviest fall in twenty-four hours was 0°30 in. on July 2. The sun was shining for 164 hours, which is 72 hours fewer than the average, and is less than one-half of the duration of sunshine in July last year. Dr. W. E. Britran contributes to The Popular Science Monthly for July an article on the house-fly and certain other insects which spread diseases. Such insects may be divided into two classes: mechanical carriers, including the house-fly, and essential hosts, such as the mosquito. Rats and fleas are also con- sidered, and the author describes the remedial measures required for checking both types of pests. Tue July number of The Co-Partnership Journal of the South Metropolitan Gas Company contains an illustration of the upper surface of the reflector of a street gas lamp which is completely filled by no fewer than four nests of titmice, each with two or more eggs. The structure forcibly recalls a collector’s cabinet of nests, and the occurrence is probably altogether un- precedented. Tue June number of Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity contains five tables of mag- netic declinations, determined by the Carnegie at several hundred positions in the Atlantic during her voyages from New York to Porto Rico, Para, Rio, Buenos Ayres, and Cape Town, in 1910-11. The cor- rections to the declinations as recorded in the British, German, and United States charts of the Atlantic are also given, and it eet) be noted that these corrections generally exceed 0°5°, and often exceed 2° Dr. J. R. ASHWORTH announces, appears in The Electrician for August 2, that he finds the constant P of Frélich’s equation for the magnetisa- NO. 2233, VOL. 89] in a letter which tion of iron is inversely proportional to the absolute temperature up to 700° C. If H is the magnetising field and I the fraction the magnetisation produced is of the maximum magnetisation, Frolich’s equation runs H=PI/(1—I), and is only intended to apply to cases in which hysteresis is suppressed. As P is the value of the magnetising field at which the magnetisa- tion reaches half its maximum value, Dr. Ashworth’s result is more conveniently expressed by the statement that the field for half the maximum magnetisation is inversely as the absolute temperature of the specimen. Pror. P. C. Ray has added to his success in pre- paring ammonium nitrite in tangible form a further accomplishment in determining the vapour density of this very fugitive salt. The salt was vaporised in a Hofmann tube at temperatures ranging from 66° to 100°, and had an average density of 33-5 as compared with the value 32 ‘calculated for the NH,NO,. During the heating a large part of the salt was decomposed according to the equations NH,NO,—N,+2H,0 and 3NH,NO,—-NH,NO,+2N0O +2NH,+H,0, but this effect was measured and allowed for. The experiments are described in full in the July issue of the Chemical Society’s Journal. The Builder for August 9 contains an article deal- ing with the recent celluloid fire at Moor Lane, E.C., the inquiry into which has now been finished. The following are some .of the suggestions made for handling celluloid, which ought to rank second only to absolutely explosive materials and petrol. Storage of the material in bulk should not be permitted in work-rooms; new buildings for stores or workshops should be of fire-resisting materials; the timber parts of old buildings should be plastered; celluloid would be best dealt with in buildings remote trom towns; ample gangways should be arranged in workshops; and waste and cuttings of celluloid should be cleared away frequently from the floor, Our contemporary deprecates any panic legislation, but would like to see the duty of examining and pronouncing upon plans of such factories in London placed in the hands of men possessing wide general experience of build- ing and surveying matters, as well as having know- ledge of fire and its behaviour under varying con- ditions. OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. PHOTOGRAPHIC OBSERVATIONS OF COMET I9II¢ (Brooks).—Ten excellent photographs of comet 1911¢ are reproduced, and, with many others, described by Prof. Barnard in No. 1, vol. xxxvi of the Astrophysical Journal. Prof. Barnard directs attention to the lack of details and variation in the tail of this comet up till about the middle of Gctober, 1911; although it was a fairly bright object visually, it was very weak photo- graphically, being essentially different from More- house’s comet in this respect. But later the comet became exceedingly active, and Prof, Barnard’s photo- graphs show some most interesting changes in the structure of the tail, which, on his smaller-scale plates, extends to a distance of 17°. A remarkable reduction in the size of the head on the comet’s approach to Ve se UC AvuGuUST 15, 1912] NATURE 617 perihelion was also shown, the actual diameters on September 18 and October 28 respectively being 1,200,000 kms. and 510,000 kms. A similar increase in the breadth of the ‘neck’? between the head and the tail was also conspicuous. On the former date the head was 54’ in diameter, while the neck was only 6’, but as the comet approached the sun this disparity | disappeared, the increased rush of matter from the head, consequent upon the greatly increased light- pressure, probably accounting for the phenomenon. OBSERVATIONS OF JupIrER.—The observations of Jupiter made, during the present opposition, at the Juvisy Observatory are described and illustrated by M. Quénisset in the August number of L’Astronomie. Among other remarkable changes taken place since last year, it is noted that the great northern equatorial band is much feebler, more irregular, and less definite than in 1910 and 1911, while the north temperate band is, at present, much darker and broader than before ; it also appears to be nearer the North Pole. The acceleration of the Great Red Spot has been so marked that in the middle of July it passed the central meri- dian th. 4om. before the zero meridian of system ii. The observations indicate a displacement of 22° per annum, equivalent to 25,500 kms. on the planet’s surface, or about twice the earth’s diameter. Another important feature, the south tropical spot, is darker and more defined than last year, but is not so ex- tended. As it passes the central meridian an hour after the zero meridian of system ii., it is unlikely that the interesting conjunction of these two great spots will be observable during the present opposition. Observations made during June at the French Astronomical Society’s observatory show that the southern disturbance has, since June, 1911, preserved its speed of 7° per month, but later observations indi- cate an acceleration which will make the new speed 15° per month. A New SvupPLEMENT TO THE ASTRONOMISCHE NACH- RICHTEN.—A supplement, No. 1 of the Literarisches Beiblatt su den Astronomischen Nachrichten, July, 1912, Band 192, appears with No. 4593 of the journal. Its object is to notice briefly numerous papers appear- ing in other current astronomical journals, to publish. short notices of new astronomical books, and, in general, to keep its readers aw courant with what is taking place in astronomical science. . The output of new knowledge in astronomy is now so enormous that it has been found impossible to deal with these refer- ences and notices in the parent journal. Tue VariaTION oF LatirupE.—In the latitude varia- tion carefully observed at the International Latitude stations during the past twelve years, there is a term, the Kimura term, as yet unexplained. This is dis- cussed by Dr. F. E. Ross in No. 4593 of the Astro- nomische Nachrichten, and it is suggested that the effect represented by the term is a physical one caused by a progressive change of the zenith point through- out the night at a rate varying with the season. The matter is undoubtedly a very complicated one, in which a secular refraction starting at sundown and depending upon the progressive approach of the mean equivalent isobaric surfaces to the ground is concerned. Dr. Ross suggests the installation of two special lati- tude stations on the equator, 180° apart and at high altitudes (e.g., Quito and near the west coast of Sumatra) for the further elucidation of the matter. Tue Orsits or Comets.—Commenting on a sugges- tion made by Prof. Kobold that the orbits of all the hyperbolic comets, if properly corrected for the per- turbations of the known planets, would be found to be parabolic, Prof. W. Pickering points out that the hyperbolic orbits appear to be fairly sharply differen- NO. 2233, VOL. 89] tiated from the parabolic by the fact that their aphelia tend to collect near one great circle of the sphere, while those of the parabolic collect near another great circle, which intersects the first at an angle of 74°. Thus 73 per cent. of the hyperbolic orbits lie within a zone comprising only 34 per cent. of the total area of the sphere, while 68 per cent. of the well-deter- mined parabolic orbits, 31 in all, lie within the other of the two zones. The inclination of the ‘ hyper- bolic’? zone to the ecliptic is 860°, and the longitude of its node is 934° (Astronomische Nachrichten, No. 4593): THE MINERAL RESOURCES AND DEVELOPMENTS IN THE UNITED STATES.} Pee mineral industry of the United States reached its greatest prosperity in the year 1907. In the following year it shared the depression which affected American trade; but in 1909 there was a rapid recovery, and the statistics of the mineral production give im- pressive testimony to American wealth and resources. The output of coal was 460,000,000 short tons, which is 37°53 per cent. of the total for the world; the British output is second in size, and is a quarter of the total. The supremacy of the United States in copper production is still more marked, its yield being more than 58 per cent. of the total, and in spite of the commercial panic the output for 1g08 and 1909 showed a steady increase above that of 1907. In spite of the low price ot copper, a still larger yield is expected for 1911, when some large low-grade mines in Arizona began their contributions to the supply. The two volumes on the mineral resources are crowded with figures which indicate that the reserves of the essential minerals are increasing even more than the demands upon them, as lower grade materials can be used and fresh stores are discovered. Thus the yield from the alluvial gold deposits of California is increasing, owing to the use of dredges, which recovered gold worth 7,382,950 dollars in 1909, in com- parison with values of 5,065,437 dollars and 6,536,189 dollars in 1907 and 1908 respectively. The deep gold mines of California also increased their output, and Nevada has raised its gold yield by 60 per cent. Even in regard to the two minerals which are probably the most readily exhausted, natural gas and oil, the yields show continued increase. The annual value of the natural gas produced in the United States rose from 215,000 dollars in 1882 to more than twenty-two million dollars in 1888; it then fell year by year to thirteen millions in 1896; but ever since it has shown a steady rise to its record of 63,206,941 dollars in 1909. Pennsylvania, with 9,313 wells, is still the State pro- ducing the largest quantity of natural gas; the greatest increase in 1909 was in Ohio; only a few States with small or insignificant outputs, such .as Missouri and Colorado, have been less productive. The statistics of oil production show that California is now the most prolific oil State, and has a yield nearly twice as great as the maximum of Penn- sylvania. The most important of the American metallic ores 1 “Mineral Resources of the United States. Calendar Year 1909.” Parti., “Metals.” Pp. 617+1 plate. Part ii., ‘‘ Non-metals.” Pp. o42. (Wash- ington, Department of the Interior, U S. Geological Survey, r9rr.) Bulletin No. 451, ‘‘ Reconnaissance of the Ore Deposits in Northern Yuma County, Arizona.” ‘By Howland Bancroft. Pp. 130+8 plates. Bulletin No. 454, ‘‘ Coal Oil and Gas of the Foxturg Quadrangle; Penn- Seu By Eugene Wesley Shaw and Malcolm J. Munn, | Pp. 85+-10 plates. Bulletin No. 455, “ Copper Deposits of the Appalachian States.” By Walter Harvey Weed. Pp. 166+5 plates. Bulletin No. 456, “Oil and Gas Fields of the Carnegie Quadrangle, Pennsylvania.” By Malcolm J..Munn. Pp. g2+5 plates. Bulletin No. 480, ‘‘ Mineral Resources of Alaska. Report on Progress of Investigations in r910."’ By Alfred H. Brooks and others. Pp. 333+ 13 plates. (Washington, rorr.) 5 618 NATURE [AUGUST 15, 1912 are those of iron, and the Lake Superior region is still the mainstay of the American industry. The Mesabi district has now the largest output of the five mining fields near Lake Superior, and yields 543 per cent. of the total for the United States. The five new bulletins on American economic geology deal with problems as varied as the subject is vast. Mr. Munn brings forward fresh evidence in support of his views on the inapplicability of the anti- clinal theory of subterranean oil storage to the Penn- sylvanian oil fields. His memoir on the Foxburg and Carnegie districts shows that the folds are not the main agency in determining the distribution of the oil. Thus near Carnegie the oil sands, which are really sandstones, occur in many levels in the Devonian and Carboniferous systems; the beds are gently folded, and if the oil collected along the folds the successive oil sands should be most productive along the same lines; but their chief supplies come from different localities. The anticlinal theory is still less tenable for the Foxburg district, as the oil-bearing beds are there nearly horizontal. The oil occurs in pools, the distribution of which is shown on a most interesting map. Mr. Munn attributes the collection of the oil in these patches to the pressure of descending water, which slowly percolates through the less permeable beds; it thus forces the oil downward, and then later- ally into the most porous beds, where the movement of water due to capillary attraction is least powerful. Mr. Weed has. compiled a valuable survey of the copper ores of the Atlantic coast States. Students of copper ores will read with interest his account of the famous copper mines of Ducktown, and also his con- vincing arguments that the ores in the Triassic sand- stones were derived from the associated basic lavas and sills known as the New Jersey ‘traps.’ The bulletin on Alaska (No. 480) includes fifteen reports by various authors on the coal, water supply, and ore deposits. The most generally interesting report is a general summary by Mr. Brooks of the results of thirteen years’ surveys of the Alaskan metalliferous lodes. The mineral output of Alaska is still: increasing, though there has been a set-back to the development of the coalfields, the yield of which has fallen to half, to the great detriment of commer- cial progress in the territory. The Alaskan railways are paying for imported coal from three to four times the price for which they should obtain better local material. The closing of most of the coal mines appears to be due to the legislation forced on the western mining States by the anxious eastern States, owing to the agitation for the conservation of natural resources. Closing the mines is certainly the most effective method of conserving the mineral reserves of a country, though it may be equally effective in secur- ing their ultimate waste. J. W. G. THE NUTRITION OF FARM ANIMALS. ee spite of the enormous importance of the live-stock industry in Great Britain, very little work has been done on the nutrition of farm animals, nor have physiologists drawn upon the accumulated knowledge of practical feeders to anything like the extent war- ranted by the interest of the subject. This last fault will, it is hoped, be remedied at the forthcoming meeting of the British Association, when physiologists and practical feeders will both attend at the Agri- cultural Section for a discussion on the problems in- volved. With the extension of the Agricultural School at Cambridge we may hope also for a considerable increase in our knowledge of animal nutrition. For some time past nutrition studies have been going on at the Wisconsin Experiment Station, the NO. 2233, VOL. 89| results of which are published in the research bulletins of that institution. Messrs. Hart, McCollum, Steen- bock, and Humphrey have recently (Bull. No. 17) issued an account of experiments carried on for four years with heifers, showing that rations possess im- portant physiological values not measurable by present chemical methods. Animals fed on rations chemically alike (i.e. containing equal amounts of fat, protein, &c.), but derived from different sources, behaved very differently. This result has already been obtained elsewhere, but the further conclusions of the authors are rather remarkable. Maize was the best nutrient, oats came next, and wheat last. When a mixture of all three was used, the animals responded less vigor- ously than to the maize or oat rations alone, but better than to the wheat ration. Certain other effects were noted also; the urine of the wheat-fed animals was acid to litmus, that of the others was neutral or alkaline. It is difficult to account for these observa- tions if further experiment shows them to be well founded; on other grounds it might have been expected that the mixture would have given the best result. In another paper (Bull. No. 21), McCollum and Steenbock show that rather different results are ob- tained with the pig. Wheat, oats, and maize did not show such wide differences in chemical value as were expected from the chemical differences in the proteins. It is known, however, that the pig has a remarkable power of effecting the most unexpected changes during the course of its metabolism, transforming into pork an astonishing variety of substances. Marked in- creases in body protein were obtained when casein was fed as the only protein; zein, however, failed to increase the body protein, although the animal utilised nitrogen from this source for repair of the losses due to tissue metabolism. ‘The authors conclude that the repair processes are of different character from the processes of growth, and do not involve the destruction and re-synthesis of an entire protein molecule. Recent issues of the Journal of the Board of Agri- culture have contained a series of papers by Dr. Crowther, which summarise admirably our present knowledge of the scientific and economic principles involved in animal feeding. It is clearly shown that no one set of considerations determines the value of a particular ration, and in the present state of our knowledge the recommendations of the man of science can only be taken as the starting point from which to begin feeding trials. Even the best methods of calculating rations are shown to be only roughly approximate. RECENT WEATHER. NE of the many interesting vagaries of the recent weather, with its midday temperatures from 20° to 30° lower than for the corresponding period last year, has been the persistently higher temperatures over Scandinavia than in other parts of western Europe. Averaging the maximum _ shade readings at several representative stations reporting to the Meteorological Office, this abnormal result is shown to have prevailed, so far, throughout August. For the first twelve days of the month the average maximum temperature at Haparanda, at the head of the Gulf of Bothnia, only just outside the Arctic Circle, is 76°8°. The mean for the same period at Nice is 791°; but Lisbon is only 73°7°, or lower than Haparanda by 31°. At Bodé, within the Arctic Circle, the mean of the highest day readings was 670°. At Biarritz the mean of the maxima was only 69°8°, Paris 676°, Brussels 67°5°, London 64’5°, Jersey 633°, Liverpool 60°3°. The difference is even more intensified taking the mean of the maxima, or eS OEE AUGUST 15, 1912] NATURE 619 day readings, for the week ending August 12. Haparanda is now found to have by far the highest mean, being 8o0'0°; the next highest is Nice with 77°6°, followed by 758° at Lisbon, 73'5° at Bodo, 680° at Biarritz, 66°3° at Paris, 656° at Brussels, 633° in London, 62°9” at Jersey, and 60'0° at Liver- pool, the latter being for the whole week 20° lower than Haparanda. The most marked difference prob- ably occurred on August 10, when at Haparanda the maximum temperature was 86° and at Bodé 70°, whilst at Nice it was only 75°, Lisbon 73°, no other representative station having a temperature as high as 70°, and at Jersey and in London the highest mid- day reading was 63°, and at Liverpool 59°. The summary of the weather for the first ten weeks of the summer, issued by the Meteorological Office, shows an excess of rain over the entire kingdom, except in the north of Scotland, where the deficiency only amounts to 01 in. The excess is greatest in the south-west of England, where it amounts to 5°26 in., the aggregate measurement being 31135 in. In the ‘south of Ireland the excess is 5°01 in., and in the Channel Islands, the north-east of England, and in the Midland counties it exceeds 4 in. The number of rainy days is also generally largely in excess of the average. The duration of bright sunshine so far this summer is everywhere largely deficient, especi- ally in the eastern districts; in the east of Scotland the duration of sunshine is only normal. ADVANCE OF THE SOUTH-WEST MON- SOON OF i912 OVER INDIA. N an interesting article in The Popular Science Monthly (vol. Ixxviii.) on “The Meteorology of the Future,’’ Prof. Cleveland Abbe stated that: ‘‘In India the prediction of great droughts has long been held to be one of the most important questions that can be attacked by the weather bureau of that coun- try, and eminent men have worked upon it for twenty years past.’ The failure of the monsoon rains and the consequent failure of crops will cause famine over very extensive districts, while a timely and suc- cessful forecast, or ‘‘inference,’’ of the probable rain- fall during -the season in question (June to early October) may effect an immense saving to the Govern- ment. The Director-General of Observatories, in a *“Memorandum on the meteorological conditions pre- vailing before the advance of the south-west mon- soon,’ dated June 8, again points out that the mon- soon rainfall is affected by previous conditions over various parts of the earth, and he has elsewhere explained that there is a relation of an inverse char- acter between barometric pressure in South America and in the Indian Ocean, the barometer being usually higher than the average in one region when lower in the other, and abundant monsoon rainfall is, as a rule, preceded by high pressure in South America and low pressure in the Indian Ocean. The memorandum contains a list of recent data which appear to be of importance, and of the infer- ences drawn therefrom. It is admitted that there is a large uncertainty in the present methods of fore- casting, and that it is only when the indications are strongly marked that reliance can be placed on them. In the present year such _ conditions do not obtain, but a careful consideration of the various features has nevertheless led to the fol- lowing conclusions being drawn :—(1) It appears likely that monsoon rainfall, which is already overdue on the Konkan coast (Bombay) will be materially later than usual in establishing itself over the country. NO. 2233, VOL. 89| ‘ one-half of the _ (2) The rainfall of the first half of the period is likely to be less abundant and less steady than usual, par- ticularly in north-west India. (3) There appears to be no reason for anticipating that the total monsoon rainfall of India as a whole will be in large excess or large defect. (4) An unusual amount of irregularity in the distribution of rainfall appears likely. PREHISTORIC TIME MEASUREMENT IN BRITAIN. HE current volume of Transactions of the North Staffordshire Field Club contains a paper by Dr. McAldowie on prehistoric time measurement. It is based on two years’ astronomical study of megalithic monuments which have beén uncovered in long bar- rows in Staffordshire and Gloucestershire. It treats first of the orientation of these to sunset at the equi- noxes and solstices, and at the early part of November and February, and of May and August, the former being the astronomical, the latter the religious, or agricultural, year of prehistoric times. The chief object of the communication, however, is to direct Fic. 1. —Twelve o'clock in November and February marked on the south- east end ot the leauing ston=. attention to the shadows cast by these stones on these various dates. At the south-east corner of the chamber in the Bridestones, in North Staffordshire, which is oriented to sunrise at the equinoxes, the shadow of a tall up- right strikes the edge of a recumbent stone at its base when the sun is on the meridian at the summer solstice. At Notgrove, on the Cotteswolds, there is a similar arrangement of megaliths in the middle of a long barrow, the chamber being oriented to the November sunrise. The meridional shadows strike the south and the north edges of the dial stone respectively at the equinoxes and the beginning of November. The chief portion of the paper deals with a dolmen situated in a long barrow at Camp, near the author’s residence, where he had spent many days at all seasons of the year. This dolmen is composed of a north, a south, an east, and a west stone, all firmly embedded in the solid rock, and occupying a some- what quadrilateral space. A leaning-stone crosses near the middle of this space in a diagonal manner, forming, by its union with the east stone, a sacred ‘““creep-way.”’ The dolmen marks the solstices and 620 NATURE. [AUGUST 15, 1912 equinoxes at sunrise, noon, and sunset, but the most | interesting feature is the fact that solar hours for two degrees west longitude are indicated by shadows touching various prominent points or edges of the stones at the beginning of November and February, and at the winter solstice and the equinoxes. The remains of the barrow prevent the sun’s rays from striking on the dolmen when the sun is low on the eastern Fic. 2.—Twelve o'clock at the equinoxes maiked on the south-east corner ofthe north stone. or western sky, but the author has been able to obtain photographic records of the shadows of twenty-two out of twenty-seven possible hours of sunshine at the dates mentioned. The south stone acts only as a style, the north stone only as a dial, while the east and diagonal stones fulfil both purposes. The prob- ability is that the megaliths were sacred gnomon Fic. 3.—One o'clock in November and February marked on the south end of the east stone. stones worshipped by certain of the ruling races of prehistoric times, and used as a means of registering the passing time chronicled by the sun. The dolmen, therefore, appears to have been a sacred instrument constructed to show mean solar hours, horae equi- noctiales (used by the ancients for astronomical pur- poses), at certain critical periods of the year. It must, moreover, have been in use before the barrow was NO. 2233, VOL. 89] erected. The author has also found solar hours indi- cated by shadows on the uncovered stones in the long barrows at Notgrove and Belas Knap, although he has not been able to obtain a regular series owing to their imperfect condition. Perhaps, ages after time- measuring dolmens had been in use, some change of cult was introduced into this country, either by the pre-barrow race themselves, or, more probably, by alien invaders, and certain of those ancient temple observatories used as foundations for barrows. The practice of taking over sacred places and temples was a universal one amongst ancient races. SIR. WILLIAM HERSCHEL URING the last twenty years there has been a great revival of statistical investigations as to the distribution and motions of the so-called fixed stars. .Kapteyn of Groningen is the leader of those who are renewing the attempt to obtain in this way some idea as to the construction of the universe. Earlier astronomers had, of course, done something in this direction, but the work of William Herschel so far transcends that of all others that it would be fair to describe him as the originator of this class of investigation. It may be of interest to mention that a complete edition of his works is now in course of publication, under the direction of a joint com- mittee of the Royal and Astronomical Societies. The interest of Herschel’s writings, and the simple charm of his style—written, it is to be remembered, in a language which was not his from birth—have led me on to read about the man as well as about his scientific work. Throughout his life’s work his name is inseparable from that of his sister Caroline, and I hope it may prove of interest to you to hear of what they were, as well as of what they did. They were born at Hanover, he in 1738, she in 1750, the children of a bandsman of the Hanoverian Guards. At the age of fifteen Herschel was already a member of the Guards’ band. In 1757 the regiment, which had been in England for about a year, -served in Germany during the Seven Years’ War, and William seems to have suffered from the hard- ships of the campaign. | His parents, seeing that he had not the strength for a soldier’s life, determined to remove him from the regi- ment. The removal may be described more bluntly as desertion, for we learn that when he had passed the last sentinel at Herren- hausen, he took off his uniform, and_ his luggage was secretly sent after him to Ham- burg. At any rate, fortunately for science, he escaped, and in 1757 or 1758 made his way to England. ; It would perhaps be impossible to follow him throughout his wanderings, but we know that he was at one time instructor of the band of the Durham Militia, and afterwards that he gained his living as a musician in Leeds, Hali- fax, Pontefract, and Doncaster. In 1764 he even ventured back to Hanover for a short time, and thus saw his favourite sister again. During her early years Caroline seems to have been practically the household drudge or general servant, and whatever she learnt was by stealth or in the scanty intervals snatched from her household duties, for her mother thoroughly disapproved of education for a girl. When we reflect on the difficulties under which both brother and sister laboured, and then consider how much they were able to accomplish, we might 1 A discourse delivered at the Royal Institution on April 26 by Sir George H. Darwin, K.C.B., F.R.S. ——— AUGUST I5, 1912| be tempted to underrate the value of educational advantages. Concerning education, Bishop Creigh- ton once said in my hearing, ‘‘It is surprising how little harm we do notwithstanding all the pains we talke.’’ Paraphrasing the remark, although spoiling the epigram, I would say, “It is surprising how little harm the lack of opportunity does to a great genius.” In 1766 William took a position as organist at Bath, then at the height of fashion. The orchestra at the Pump Rooms and at the theatre at Bath was then one of the best in the kingdom, and Elizabeth Linley, daughter of the director of the orchestra, was the prima donna of the concerts. When in 1771 she became engaged to Charles Sheridan, Herschel thought that the expected vacancy would make an opening for his sister at Bath, and suggested that she should join him. And, in fact, after a time such a vacancy did occur, for Elizabeth Linley, after flirting with Charles Sheridan, jilted him, and eloped with and married the celebrated Richard Brinsley Sheridan. Caroline was very anxious to accede to her brother’s suggestion, but the rest of the family would not for a time hear of it. At length, however, in 1772, Herschel came to Hanover and carried off his sister with the mother’s reluctant consent. Even from boy- hood his intense love of astronomy had been manifest, and it is interesting to note that in passing through London on their way from Harwich to Bath, when they went out to see the town, the only sights which attracted their attention were the opticians’ shops. On Mr. Linley’s retirement from the orchestra at Bath, Herschel became the director and the leading music-master in the town, and he thus obtained an established position. Although Caroline sang a little in public, her aspiration to become the prima donna of Bath was not fulfilled. But she was kept busy enough at first in the cares of housekeeping, with endless wrangling with a succession of incompetent slaveys, and then she gradually became more and more her brother’s astronomical assistant. In the midst of Herschel’s busy musical life he devoted every spare moment to astronomy, and when his negotiations for the purchase of a small reflecting telescope failed—and they were all small in those days —-he set to work to make mirrors for himself. One room in the house was kept tidy for pupils, and the rest of the house, including the bedrooms, was a litter of lathes and polishing apparatus. He made reflecting telescopes not only for his own use, but also for sale, for the purpose of providing funds to enable him to continue his researches. His in- dustry must have been superhuman, for later in his life he records that he had made more than 400 mirrors for Newtonian telescopes, besides others of the Gregorian type. These mirrors ranged in diameter from a few inches to 4 ft., in the case of the great 4o-ft. telescope. I should say that mirrors are not specified by the diameter of the reflecting surface, but by the focal length. Thus, whatever may be the diameter of the reflecting surface, a 2o0-ft. telescope means that the mirror is approximately portion of: a sphere of 4o ft. in radius, and this will give a focal length of 20 ft. You must, in fact, double the focal length of a telescope to find the radius of the sphere of which it forms a small part. In order to learn anything of the making of re- flectors it is necessary to go to original memoirs * on the subject, and even of them there are not many. I feel, therefore, that I shall not be speaking on a topic known to many of the audience if I make a digression on a singularly fascinating art. Mirrors 2 Sir Howard Grubb’s lecture at the R.I. in 1887 is one of these, vol. xi., p. 413. Lord Rosse’s papers are amongst the most important. NO. 2233, VOL. 89| NATURE 621 are now made of glass with a reflecting surface of chemically deposited silver; formerly they were made of speculum metal, an alloy of copper and tin. Of whatever substance the mirror is made the process of working it to the required form is much the same. The most complete account of the process of which | know is contained in a paper by Prof. G. W. Ritchey in vol. xxxiv. (1904) of the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge. He there gives a full description of the great reflector of the Yerkes Observatory. The process only differs from that employed by Herschel in that he worked by hand, whereas machinery is now required. to manipulate the heavy weight of the tools. The Yerkes mirror is formed of a glass disk 5 ft. in diameter, and it weighs a ton; the grinding tools are also very heavy. ; I must pass over the preliminary operations whereby the rough disk of St. Gobain glass was reduced to a true cylindrical form, smooth on both faces and round at the edge. Nor will I describe the grinding of a shallow depression on one of the faces by means of a leaden tool and coarse emery powder. It will be well to begin by an account of the manu- facture of the tools wherewith the finer grinding and polishing is effected, and then I shall pass on to a short description of the way they are used. Two blocks of iron are cast with the desired radius of curvature, the one being concave and the. other convex. The castings are then turned so that the concavity and convexity fit together as nearly as may be. For the large mirror these blocks are a little more than 2 ft. 6 in. in diameter, but for small ones they are made of the same diameter as the mirror to be ground. The two are then ground together for a long time with emery powder and water until every part of one surface fits truly to every part of the other. They must then both be portions of a sphere of the same radius, because the sphere is the only surface in which a universal fit is possible. The concave iron is very precious, because it furnishes the standard for regrinding the convex grinding tools when they have become worn by use. In order to make a plane mirror, three surfaces are ground two and two, for if A fits B and C, and B fits C all over each surface they must all be true planes. However, I shall only speak of the figuring of concave mirrors. The roughly hollowed glass disk is now laid on several layers of Brussels carpet centrally on a mas- sive horizontal turn-table. The convex iron tool just described is suspended by a universal joint from a lever, and it is counterpoised so that only a-portion of the weight of the tool will rest on the glass when it-is in use. A complicated system of cranks and levers is so arranged that the tool can be driven by machinery to describe loops or curves of any arbitrarily chosen size over: the glass, and as these loops are described by the tool the turn-table turns round slowly. In this way every part of the tool is brought into contact with every part of the glass disk in a. sys- tematic way.- When working near the edge a large part of the tool projects beyond the edge of the glass. Emery powder and water are supplied in a way I need not describe, and the tool is lowered gently on to the glass. The motive power is then applied, and the grinding is continued for many hours until the preliminary rough depression has been hollowed to nearly the desired shape—namely, that of the standard concave iron. For finer grinding a change of procedure is now adopted, and very finely powdered emery is used. Another convex tool is formed, by grinding with the standard concavity; the working face of the tool. is, however, now cut up into small squares by a criss- 622 NATURE [AUGUST 15, 1912 cross of narrow and shallow channels. Such channels | for a minute or two; if a hill is suspected, he washes are found to be necessary in order to secure an even distribution of the emery and water all over the sur- face. The grooved tool is now used for many hours, and the surface is tested at frequent intervals with a spherometer. The work ceases when it is no longer possible to detect errors of curvature in this way. The next stage is polishing. The thickness of the layer of glass worn off in polishing is to be estimated in ten-thousandths of an inch, and can scarcely be detected even with the finest spherometer. For polish- ing the iron tool is discarded and the work is carried on by hand. As lightness is essential, the tool is built up by a stiff lattice-work of wood with a con- tinuous wooden working face. It is obvious that however carefully the face may be turned it cannot be made sufficiently true, and the requisite accuracy is obtained by means of the plastic properties of rosin or pitch. A number of squares of rosin about a quarter of an inch thick and an _ inch square are made, and these are glued in rows on the convex face of the wooden tool, with a narrow space intervening between each rosin square and its neighbours. The tool is then warmed slightly so as to soften the rosin a little, and it is then pressed lightly on to the glass disk. By means of this ‘“‘ warm- pressing’ a nearly perfect fit is attained. Each of the rosin squares is then painted with hot melted wax. This is done because wax is harder than rosin and affords a better working face. Finally, when the tool is quite cold, the surface of the glass is painted all over with very finely powdered rouge and water, and the tool is placed gently on the glass with some additional weight resting on it. It is left thus for several hours, but is moved slightly every ten minutes to ensure an even distribution of the rouge and water. By means of this ‘‘cold-pressing ”’ a perfect fit is secured of the wax-coated rosin squares with the glass face. Cold-pressing has to be repeated every day before the work begins. The polishing is now carried on in much the same way as the grinding, but by hand instead of by machine power. The turn-table can be made to tilt so as to bring the glass to stand vertically, instead of horizontally, and the disk is frequently tilted up so as to submit the surface to optical tests. These latter tests are far more searching than those with a spherometer, and enable the observer to detect an error in the radius of curvature of portion of the reflector of a hundredth of an inch. To correct such an error it will be necessary to remove a layer of glass of the REGISTRAR, or to Particulars CITY AND GUILDS TECHNICAL COLLECE, FINSBURY. (LEONARD STREET, CITY ROAD.) For students who are preparing to become engineers or chemists, and for engineering pupils who desire to supplement their practical training by a two years’ course in the principles of engineering science. The instruction is mainly given in the various laboratories. The subjects of the Entrance Examination are Mathematics and English ; but the Matriculation of any British University is accepted instead. The Courses in Mechanical and Electrical Engineering cover a period of two years, and those in Chemistry three years. There are arrangements also for three-year courses in Engineer- ing for those who desire. Fees £20 per annum. PROFESSORS : - oe ; {Sttvanus P. THompson, D.Sc., Electrical Engineeriig } WaRSS: rine and Physics Ses (ene oe Mechanical Fngineering {E. G. Coker, M.A., D.Sc., and Mathemati .\ M.Inst.M.E. Chemistry fRarPHAEL MeELpora, D.Sc., al City and Guilds of London Institute, IONS LC (Temporary Offices during the re-building of Gresham College), 3 St. Helen’s Place, E.C. iHE TECHNICAL, COLLEGE: SUNDERLAND. The College provides a complete four years’ Course of Instruction for Engineering and Electrical Engineering apprentices during the six winter months, October r to March 31. Apprentices can return to the works of the firms to which they are apprenticed during the six summer months. Students can obtain the College Diploma, and, if they so desire, the Degree in Engineering of the University of London. Intending students should have spent one or two years’ full time in the Shops and have attended classes in Practical Mathematics, Mechanics, and Machine Drawing before entering the College Course. Write to V. A. Munbe tra, M.A., Principal, for the Apprentice-Student- ship Pamphlet and Prospectus. Entrance Examination on September 6 and 7. Tuition Fee, £10 per session. CITY OF LONDON COLLEGE. ACTING IN CONJUNCTION WITH THE LONDON CHAMBER OF COMMERCE. WHITE ST.,and ROPEMAKER ST., MOORFIELDS, E.C, (Near Moorgate and Liverpool Street Stations). PRINCIPAL: SIDNEY HUMPHRIES, B.A., LL.B. (Cantab.) Michaelmas term begins Monday, September 30th. EVENING CLASSES in SCIENCE. Well-equipped LABORATORIES for Practical Work in CHEMISTRY, BOTANY, GEOLOGY. Special Courses for Conjoint Board, Pharmaceutical and other examin- ations. Classes are also held in all Commercial Subjects, in Languages, and Literature. Art Studio. All Classes are open to both sexes. DAY SCHOOL OF COMMERCE, Preparation fora COMMERCIAL or BUSINESS career. Prospectuses, and all other information, gratis on application. J. L. S. HATTON, M.A., Principal, at the College. DAVID SAVAGE, Secretary. THURSDAY, AUGUST 22, 1912. NATURAL HISTORY AND TRAVEL. (1) The Horse and its Relatives. By R. Lydekker, F.R.S. Pp. xii+286. (London: George Allen and €o., Ltd., 1912.) Price ros. 6d. net. (2) Das Tierreich. Im Auftrage der Preuss. Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin. |Herausgegeben von F. E. Schulze. 28 Lieferung. Hymenoptera. Apide I[.; Megachiline. Bearbeitet von Dr. H. Friese. Pp. xxvi+440. Price 32 marks. 30 Lieferung. Hymenoptera. Ichneumonidea: — Evaniidae. Bearbeitet von Prof. J. J. Kieffer. Pp. xix+ KGnig1. 431. Price 31 marks. 32 Lieferung. Tunicata. Salpae I.: Desmomyaria. Bearbeitet von Dr. J..E. W. Ihle.. Pp. xi+67. Price 6 marks. (Berlin: R. Friedlander & Sohn, rg1r and 1912.) (3) dus Indiens Dschungeln. Erlebnisse und Forschungen von Oscar Kauffmann. Vol. i. Pp. v+192+plates + map. Vol. ii. Pp. 192—352+plates+map. Leipzig: MKlinkhardt and Biermann, 1911.) Price 20 marks two vols. (4) Zoology. By Prof. J. Graham Kerr, F.R.S. (Dent’s Scientific Primers.) Pp. vii+99. (Lon- don: J. M. Dent and Sons, Ltd., n.d.) Price Is. net. (5) A Catalogue of the Vertebrate Fauna of Dum- friesshire. By Hugh S. Gladstone. Pp. xiv+ 80+ map. (Dumfries: J. Maxwell and Son, 1912.) (6) A Revision of the Ichnewmonidae. Based on the Collection in the British Museum (Natural History). With descriptions of New Genera and Species. Part i. Tribes Ophionides and Metopiides. By Claude Morley. Pp. xi+88+ map. (London: Printed by order of the Trustees of the British Museum, and sold by Longmans and Co., B. Quaritch, Dulau and Co., Ltd., and at the British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell Road, S.W., 1912.) Price 4s. (1) O many years have elapsed since the J) publication of the late Sir William Flower’s little work on the horse that the public will welcome Mr. Lydekker’s new book on’ the same subject. There is no other animal which has within the past few years attracted more attention and been the subject of more study, and Mr. Lydekker’s book, being not only a- popular but a scientifically accurate account of the natural history of the more important representatives of the horse family, ought to fulfil its author’s expectation that it will appeal to a large circle of readers. Only the natural aspect of the subject is dealt with, such side issues as the legendary history of the horse, horse-sacrifice, the acquisition and development of the arts of riding and driving, NO. 2234, VoL. 89| NATURE | aoe , and the training and management of horses, being left untouched. Two interesting conclusions of the author are that the much-discussed ‘chestnuts ” of the legs of the Equide are decadent glandular structures, and that the wild Mongolian horse may safely be regarded as the ancestor of many of the domesticated European breeds, though probably not of the Arab. We have not space to follow the author further, but commend his book to the student of a fascinating subject. It is well printed, easy to read, free from misprints (note, however, “haunted ” for “hunted” on p. 73), and very use- fully illustrated by twenty-four plates and eleven text figures. (2) The two parts of “Das Tierreich”’ devoted to sections of the Hymenoptera and one to the Tunicata are admittedly for the use of specialists and of little interest to the general public. In No. 28 Dr. H. Friese treats of the Apidz, the whole volume being devoted to the sub-family Megachiline. No. 30 is from the pen of Prof. J. J. Kieffer, and deals with a single family of Hymenopterous insects, the Evaniide. In No. 32 Dr. J. E. W. Ihle treats of the Desmomyaria, a section of the Tunicates. The plan of all three is similar, and the work equally well done, so that they may fitly receive a similar commendation. (3) In two volumes of, in all, 352 pages, Herr Oscar Kauffmann treats of his experiences during a decade spent in India, including Kashmir, Cochin, and Burmah. The volumes are richly illustrated with a number of excellent photographs. But the fact that they are written in the German language is likely to militate against their popu- larity in Britain, while the absence of an index must act as a strong deterrent to the serious | student who approaches them with a desire for information. (4) In 99 pages, including the index, Prof. Graham Kerr has managed to give a very clear account of the science of zoology. His method is to take three types, Amoeba, Hydra, and the Earthworm, and, after devoting a chapter to each, he passes to consider briefly the main groups of animals, from Protozoa to Vertebrates, the “Fact of Evolution ” and the ‘‘ Method of Evolution,” to each of which headings he devotes a further chap- ter, concluding with the mechanism of “ Heredity and Variation.” The articles on the three types are clear and concise, and in each of them the author contrives to introduce his readers to certain conceptions or attributes of animals. Amoeba, for instance, suggests the conception of the cell and | of metabolism; the Hydra symbiosis and para- sitism. There are thirteen diagrams and figures, a large proportion of which are used in illustrating the account of the earthworm. Cac 628 NATURE (5) Mr. Gladstone has produced one of the best local faunas that we have seen, although it seems almost a pity that, in order to save space, the Latin technical names are omitted from the index, as are, for the same reason, almost all references to authorities. Another peculiarity of the index is that it includes local and Gaelic names which are not given in the body of the work. Thus the entry, ‘‘Briskie (Chaffinch), 20,” represents the only appearance of the former word. It ais interesting to find that, contrary to the predictions of objectors, writers of local faunas have not been slow to adopt the most recent advances in nomen- clature. Thus Mr. Gladstone’s list of Dumfries- shire birds includes several sub-species, whilst amongst his mammals are found many of the most newly unearthed genera (such as Nyctalus for the Noctule), for which we are indebted to the laws of priority. He has not, however, ventured into sub-species of mammals, and, indeed, it is difficult to see how a local writer can do so until an authoritative text-book has been issued. It is most useful to find the mammals extinct within prehistoric or historic times included, such as the urus, elk, reindeer, wolf, and brown bear; but by a curious mistake the wild boar is sandwiched between the mountain hare and rabbit. Space does not permit allusions to the amphibia, fishes, and reptiles. (6) Mr. Claude Morley’s small volume on two tribes of Ichneumonide is the first of a series, for which, as we are informed by Dr. Harmer, we are indebted to Mr. Morley’s having undertaken to bring a very large accumulation of unsorted specimens at the British Museum into order, these, as it appears, not having been arranged since Frederick Smith left them in 1860. The two tribes included in the “Revision” have been selected on account of considerations of an entirely practical nature, and not because their close association is indicated by a study of their respective sys- tematic positions. It is not surprising to find that the author brings forward a somewhat large proportion of apparently new species, with a few additional genera, on the possession of all the types of which the national collections may be congratulated. Many of these have long been awaiting description, Mr. H. W. Bate’s rich South American collection made during 1848-1859 affording a particular instance. The book includes one coloured plate by Mr. Rupert Stanton of a British example of the widespread Ophion luteus. The descriptions and notes on geographical dis- tribution appear to have been very carefully drawn up, and the author states that he has been able to consult practically all the literature. The volume will be most valuable to students. NO. 2234, VOL. 89] [AuGuUST 22, 1912 CONCERNING HEAT. (1) Heat Engines. By H. A. Garratt. Pp. xii+ 332. (London: Edward Arnold, n.d.) Price 6s (2) Modern Destructor Practice. By W. F. Good- rich. Pp. xvi+278. (London: C. Griffin and Comelid’, 1912.) Manicesns seamen, (3) Barker on Heating: the Theory and Practice of Heating and Ventilation. By A. H. Barker. Pp. xvi+64o+Ixxvi. (London: J. F. Phillips and Son, Ltd., 1912.) Price 25s. net. (1) N this volume Mr. Garratt follows along the paths trodden by most writers of elementary text-books on heat engines, but with considerable discrimination and judgment, which has resulted in a very concise and readable work for the technical student. The difficulties of pre- senting even elementary thermodynamics to students imperfectly equipped with mathematics are well known to every teacher, and various expedients have to be devised to bridge the gaps left by mathematical shortcomings. The author skips from one equation to another when the con- necting link involves a knowledge of the calculus, as, for instance, when deriving the work done by a gas expanding adiabatically. Such omissions are quite justifiable, for the earnest student can make good the hiatus either concurrently or after- wards. : With some exceptions of this kind, the thermo- dynamic part of the book is very straightforward, and especially the method of dealing with that fugitive quantity “entropy,” in which the author steers clear of the hopeless redundancy and mys- ticism which various writers bring to bear with the worthy object of making things clear. Probably there is no part of the subject of thermo- dynamics which is at the same time the object of so much pedagogic endeavour and resists the attacks so well. We are glad to find a well- written chapter on the mechanism of reciprocating engines, for a thorough understanding of the fundamental principles-of slide valves and motions is the best equipment for the mechanical engineer. The steam turbine is given a chapter to itself, in which the various forms of turbine combining different degrees of the “reaction ” and “impulse ” types are described with their mechanical details. The introduction to the theory of the steam turbine through that of the water turbine is not happy, and the student of steam turbines will find “cc | it convenient to forget Bernouilli’s equation when dealing with an expanding gas. Though the author alludes to the difference, the analogy is so far from complete that it would be better to treat the steam turbine as arising directly from the flow of an expanding gas. The author is well up to AUGUST 22, date in his chapter devoted to the internal com- bustion engine, for he describes that latest, most ingenious, and economical pump due to Mr. Humphrey. This volume should prove very wel- come to engineering students. The illustrations are excellent, and numerical exercises with their answers bear upon the principles discussed in each chapter. (2) Many of those who have not given attention to the subject are still under one of two false impressions concerning destructors and the dis- posal of city waste. Either it is supposed that a destructor has no other utility than getting rid | of the leavings of our streets and houses, or else that the calorific value of refuse is so low that to make electricity out of it would be impossible, or, in fact, to use the heat generated for any other useful purpose. The book before us will tend to dispel such impressions, and the reader will be grateful to Mr. Goodrich for putting together much information concerning the construction, working, and economy of destructors in Great Britain, the Continent, and America. It will be gratifying to English engineers to learn that the author is “able to place on record the proved superiority of the British destructor in many coun- tries.” He shows how, one by one, city authorities are abandoning the methods of land and sea dumping, and are adopting some kind of incinera- tion as the best means for disposing of waste. In connection with sewage works, it has been found that, unless the lift is very high, the refuse burnt in a destructor will maintain steam for pump- ing, and Epsom is cited as a case in point where not only is the sewage of the town dealt with, but that of several large institutions of the London County Council. The tables of costs in connection with electricity works are especially instructive as showing what may be done towards reducing the coal bill by burning refuse. It would perhaps have been better if the analysis of refuse from American cities had been compared with that from English cities, and some deductions drawn therefrom. The descriptions of actual destructors, which occupy the greater part of the volume, show what strides have been made in recent years. (3) This bulky volume on heating and ventila- tion should possess some interest to others than those connected with the heating and ventilating trades, but it is so loaded down with empirical formule that it requires a nice discrimination on the part of the reader to separate the chaff from the wheat. It might, indeed, be regarded as a treatise on the physics of the subject, though much of the subject-matter, especially the elementary matter at the beginning, might safely be omitted. It is generally superficial, though the author may NO. 2234, VOL. 89] NATURE iy 629 be excused from this charge on the ground that he has to crowd in such a mass of material. A work of this description should prove advan- tageous, as so much of our heating and ventilation is done in a haphazard and unscientific manner. PSYCHOLOGY IN BUSINESS. Increasing Human Efficiency in Business. At Con-’ tribution to the Psychology of Business. By Prof. W. D. Scott. Pp. v+339. (New York: The Macmillan Company; London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1911.) Price 5s. 6d. net. HIS work is a genuine attempt to develop the application of reasoned methods to the organisation of the human element in industry and commerce. The opening chapter, on “The Possibility of Increasing Human Efficiency,” sets out with the proposition that the output of work, whether of brain or muscles, by the average indi- vidual is very far below the maximum possible; that in most cases the individual would gain in health and happiness if his efficiency were judi- ciously developed, and that the general gain to the community through this development would be correspondingly great. In the concluding para- graph of this chapter the author says: ‘In the succeeding chapters will be described specific methods, many of which are employed by indivi- dual firms, but which could be used by other busi- ness men, to ensure their own efficiency and that of their employees. The experiences of many suc- cessful houses will be linked to the laws of psycho- logy to point to the way that will bring about greater results from men.” In the eight chapters which follow, “Imitation,” ‘ Competition,” “Loyalty,” “Concentration,” “Wages,’’ ‘* Pleasure,” ‘‘The Love of the Game,” and “Relaxation ’’ are treated of as means of in- creasing human efficiency. The final chapters deal with “The Rate of Improvement of Eiticiency,” “Practice plus Theory,” “Judgment Formation,” and “ Habit Formation.” The author makes no attempt to define the sense in- which he uses the term efliciency. For the most part it appears that he is considering efficiency from the point of view of the business organiser or from that of the type of manufac- turer ‘““whose razors may be made to shave, but certainly must be made to sell.” But that other criteria of efficiency are not absent from the author’s mind is evident from the outset, for in the first chapter the illustrations of efficiency are often culled from regions of human activity very far removed from commerce and industry. For example, on p. 13 the walk of Mr. Weston, aged zo years, from New York to San Francisco, at 630 NATURE |AUGUST 22, 1912 an average rate of fifty miles a day, is described, while on p. 22 there is a quotation from Charles Darwin, in which he gives a very modest estimate of his own intellectual powers and endowments. Commenting on this estimate the author says :— “This is presumably an honest statement of fact, and, in addition, it should be remembered that Darwin was always physically weak, that for forty years he was practically an invalid and able to work for only about three hours per day. In these hours he was able to accomplish more, however, than other men of apparently superior ability who were able to work long hours daily for many years. Darwin made the most of his ability and increased his efficiency to its maximum.” The honesty of the author’s appreciation of Charles Darwin is transparent, but its intellectual discrimination is not quite so clear. To experienced leaders, whether in commerce or industry, there may not be much that is new in the ideas which are developed by the author, but there is much that is shrewd and stimulating. As a professor and teacher he has no doubt found that his methods male a useful appeal to the students with whom he has to deal. It will be interesting to see how far these methods will appeal to British teachers and students, and it is to be hoped that this work will be read by many of these. ‘ OUR BOOKSHELF. The Teaching of Physics for Purposes of General Education. By Prof. C. Riborg Mann. Pp. xxv +304. (New York: The Macmillan Com- pany; London: Macmillan & Co., Ltd., 1912.) 5s. 6d. net. Tuts book may be described as a skilful com- pilation of quotations. The first four chapters, which are well written and interesting, trace the rise of the teaching of physics in American high schools to its present unsatisfactory condition, when, if we may trust the author, “all teachers are constantly amazed at the inability of the pupils to apply their pure physics even to the physical problems of their daily life, to say nothing of their inability to think scientifically on any problems outside of physics.” It is maintained, probably correctly, that the more descriptive and objective introductory teach- ing prescribed thirty years ago was better suited to the purposes of a general education than the methods of premature generalisation into which it seems to have drifted in American schools. The second part of the book is an irrelevant and almost grotesque attempt to distort history to suit a mistaken and misleading view of the influence of Greek thought on physical science, and is not worth serious attention. In the third part, under ‘Hints at Practical Applications,” we find Prof. Mann deprecating NO. 2234, VOL. 89| i) . the use of test-questions that call for an accurate knowledge of the use of scientific terms and definitions, and advocating instead what he calls “vital problems ’”’ such as “Why are there door- knobs on doors?” “Why has no one ever found the pot of gold that lies buried at the end of the rainbow ? ”—‘‘ When you come down stairs, do you get back the work done going up? How?” We can scarcely imagine worse advice. A. M. W. The Beyond that is Within, and Other Addresses. By Prof. Emile Boutroux. Translated by Jonathan Nieid. Pp. xvi+138. (London: Duckworth and Co., 1912.) Price 3s. 6d. net. In the first address, which supplies a title for the book, the author discusses the general question of psychical research “proof,” and admirably makes clear that no fact, however strange, can prove the existence of a veritable Beyond; though he admits that there is evidence which seems to imply ‘‘a life beyond this life.” By “a veritable Beyond” he means a state which has no analogies with our present existence. On the whole he is inclined to rely on intuition—the feeling of the “Inner Beyond ”—which the modern doctrine of the subliminal self has again made respectable and reasonable. ‘‘ The subliminal self may put us in communication, not only with beings like or inferior to ourselves, but with superior exist- ENCES once - | In the next address, “Morality and Religion,” M. Boutroux looks forward to a reconciliation of these combatants. Morality is practical, but Religion supplies the impetus from the feeling- side, and both are necessary. The last is a short address on the relation of philosophy to the sciences. The author pleads for a philosophy which shall reason on knowledge and on life, without laying down any closed system in the way of science. A Guide to the Dissection of the Dog. By Dr. O. C. Bradley. Pp. vili+241. (London: Long- mans, Green and Co., 1912.) Price 10s. 6d. net. CrepiT is due both to the author and the pub- lishers of this work for having removed a serious obstacle to the proper study of the anatomy of the dog. Hitherto in this country veterinary students and others who wished to dissect the dog could find no better guide than the somewhat meagre descriptions contained in the systematic text-books on veterinary anatomy, mainly devoted to the anatomy of the horse. In this respect German students have been more favourably placed since the publication in 1891 of Ellenberger’s systematic treatise on the anatomy of the dog, but even that work, excellent as it is, is of little value as a dissection guide. One cannot pay Dr. Bradley's work a higher compliment than to say that it forms a worthy companion to the text-book of Ellenberger. The order in which the different parts of the body are dealt with appears to be con- venient, and the text is concise and clear. The illustrations, sixty-nine in number, are good, ' although many of them are semi-diagrammatic. AUGUST 22, I912] NATURE Oi By G. E. Brown and (London: Henry Green- Price rs. net. Photographic Copyright. A. Mackie. Pp. 89. wood and Co., 1912.) Acts of Parliament are not always intelligible to even the legal mind, and the ordinary person, whose pmwvileges and duties are therein defined, is often much troubled to know what the law really is. Therefore, everyone who makes or has to do with photographs is much indebted to the authors for clearly stating how the matter of copyright stands. They first give on a small page the short- est possible statement of the new Copyright Act, pointing out those parts wherein the new Act differs from the one that preceded it. They then take up just those points upon which anyone read- ing the Act would like a little more information, and make them clear, often quoting judicial decisions where the interpretation of the Act would otherwise be doubtful. The volume closes with a tabular statement of the copyright laws of other countries, the text of the 1911 Act, the 1862 Act so far as it is not repealed, an excellent index, and a list of the most important copyright cases that have been decided in the Courts. LETTERS TO THE EDITOR. {The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of Nature. No notice ts taken of anonymous communications.] Artificial Daylight. May I supplement the interesting article on the above subject which appeared in Nature of August 15 by a short note on some work carried out about twelve years ago by Mr. Arthur Dufton and myself? The work had for its primary object the removal of the great difficulty experienced by dyers and other workers in colour, under the extremely variable con- ditions of illumination which naturally prevail. These | conditions are such that during the winter months a few hours only per day are available for the accurate matching of colours, and even in the most favour- able circumstances the colour-quality of daylight is continually varying. A standard light, which would render dyers and others independent of atmospheric conditions, was therefore much needed, and _ the *Dalite "’ lamp. which was the ultimate outcome of our work, solved the problem in such a satisfactory way that many hundreds are in use in dye-houses, colour-printing works, schools of art, drapery estab- lishments, &c., both in this country and abroad. For accurate colour work it is, of course, not necessarily sufficient to have available a ‘‘ white” light. In addition to being devoid of colour, the light must obviously contain all the vibrations of the visible spectrum in properly balanced proportions. The correction of a single radiant which does not yield a complete and continuous spectrum is impossible. Our work, therefore, consisted in the examination of all available illuminants, the selection of the most suitable, and the elimination from the selected light of those rays whicn were found to be present in excess. NO. 2234, VoL. 89] Some account of the work has been given in papers | read before the British Association (Bradford meeting, 1900), the Society of Chemical and the Society of Dyers and Colourists. We found that an are lamp of the enclosed type, burning pure carbons, gave the nearest approximation to the light favoured by colourists, i.e. that diffused from a cloudy north sky. An enclosed arc lamp yields light from two sources—the glowing carbons Industry, | and the are itself—and by adjusting the length of arc, diameter of carbons, &c., and thoroughly mixing by diffusion the light from these, we arrived at our raw" light. This was found to contain an excess of red and violet rays, and a long investigation was then under- taken to find the best means of cutting out this excess. Reflection of the light from white or tinted surfaces was a practical failure on account of the enormous loss in intensity, and eventually direct absorption by suitably tinted screens was adopted. The whole range of coal-tar green and blue colouring matters were examined in the form of dyed gelatine films, and the curious fact emerged that with one exception—naphthol green—all were fairly transparent to red light, and therefore unsuitable for the purpose of absorbing the red, though the absorption of the excess of violet presented no difficulties. With a suitably adjusted lamp, a solution of sul- phate of copper was found to give the necessary | absorption in the red, and after numberless expensive failures, a suitable blue copper glass was produced. In its final form the ‘‘Dalite’’? lamp consists of a carefully adjusted enclosed arc lamp surmounted by a lantern fitted with white diffusion and blue absorption glasses. Provision is not usually made for the absorp- tion of the excess of violet since this is not found to interfere with the accurate matching of hues,’ but by the introduction of a third glass this is readily provided for. The Moore light referred to by your contributor, in which the gas in a partially evacuated CO, tube is rendered incandescent by an alternating current, emits light containing an excess of green rays, which renders it inaccurate for many hues, e.g. pale pinks and blues, but otherwise it is a most suitable illu- minant for colour work. Watter M. GARDNER. Technical College, Bradford, August 16. Experimental Illustration of the Reversal of Bright Line Spectra. Tue following way of showing the reversal of the bright line spectrum of metals may be of some interest to lecturers. I have not, so far, seen the method described. Having scraped a hollow in the lower carbon of an are lantern (which should be non-automatic), fuse a little iron wire (for example) in the flame, keeping the carbons as far apart as possible. If the usual | spectroscopic arrangement is placed in front of the lantern a bright line spectrum of course appears on the screen or in the field of the telescope. Now by the hand adjustment reduce the distance between the carbons until the point of the upper carbon is practically within the crater. Suddenly the bright lines on the screen “reverse,’’ becoming bright once more as the poles are again separated. The production of reversal is evidently due to an envelope of relatively cool gases round a small arc, the envelope consisting of the outside layers of the gases in the original and much larger arc. 1 The reasons for this have been thoroughly werked ou’, but are imma- terial to the present purpose. 632 We have found direct-vision spectroscope is projection. When salts are placed in the crater the effect is just as striking as with iron, but naturally more transitory. Ix. P. Harrison. Physical Laboratory, Presidency College, Calcutta, July 18. in this laboratory that most satisfactory a large for Strepsiptera in India. IN a notice on Dr. W. W. Fowler’s recent volume on Coleoptera (Fauna of British India Series), the reviewer makes a statement (vide Narurr, May 16, 1912, p- 267) to the effect that ‘“‘the abnormal Coleo- ptera, Strepsiptera or Stylopidz, - are not yet proved to be Indian.” If, as I gather from the context, by ‘‘Indian”’ is meant “represented in the Indian region,” this statement is incorrect. So long ago as 1858 Westwood described Myrmecolax nietneri, obtained from a species of ant in Ceylon. W. Dwight Pierce refers to this record in his ‘‘ Monographic Revision of the Insects comprising the Order Strep- siptera’’ (Smithsonian Institution, Bulletin 66, p. 88, 1909), and in the same author’s ‘‘ Notes on Insects of the Order Strepsiptera’’ (Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., vol. xl., p. 490, 1911) he refers to the same species an insect that I captured at light in the Yatiyantota district of Ceylon. In the same paper (p. 505) he describes a new species—Pentazoe peradeniyae—bred by me from the Homopteron—Thompsoniella arcuata —at Peradeniya. Another species, as yet undetermined, is a common parasite of the allied Jassid—Tettigoniella spectra. Again, in his useful work, “Indian Insect Life,” Lefroy records the occurrence of a species of Xenos in the bodies of the wasp Polistes hebraews in India. I think that these references are sufficient to prove the existence of Strepsiptera in the Indian region. E. ERNEST GREEN, Entomologist to the Ceylon Government. Royal Botanic Gardens, Peradeniva, Ceylon, July 5. In reference to Mr. Green’s letter, I should per- haps have verified the statement to which he takes exception, but will now merely quote a passage from Dr. Fowler’s work concerning the Strepsiptera :— “They have been found in Europe, North America, Brazil, Africa, and Mauritius, and stylopized bees have been observed in Tasmania and other countries; most probably they are represented in the Indian region.” Tue Reviewer. The Occultation of a Star by Jupiter. Ix reference to the occultation of the star # Ophiuchi by the planet Jupiter on September 15, I should like to direct attention to the possibility that one or other of the satellites may make a close approach to the star, so that it would be worth while to observe the planet for several hours before and after the occultation itself. Satellite I. will be nearest to the star about 6 p.m. on that date, at which time Jupiter will be favourably situated for observation in Europe and Africa. The second satellite will be in conjunction with the star about 6 a.m. on September 16, and satellite III. about midnight on September 15. The latter is in transit on the evening of that day, and emerges from the disc shortly after the com- NO. 2234, VoL. 89] NATURE [AUGUST 22, 1912 mencement of the occultation. The conjunction of this satellite with the star will therefore be visible in America. Satellite IV. is at this time well to the east of the planet, and its nearest approach to the star, which takes place in the early afternoon of September 15, may therefore be witnessed in India and China. It is unfortunate that the occultation of this fairly bright star (mag. 4°5) will not be visible in this country. The star disappears behind the planet be- tween gh. 20m. and gh. 30m., the time varying slightly in different localities owing to the effect of parallax. Reappearance takes place between toh. 45m. and 11h. om. ARTHUR BURNET. 52 Prospect Terrace, Hunslet Moor, Leeds. August 15. Boulder Clay in Essex. WitH your kind permission I should like to supple- ment the letter which you were good enough to print in Nature for June 20; 1912. (1) To the geological formations recognised in the erratics must now be added varieties of Millstone-grit (rather frequent), Marl-slate (as seen at the base of the Magnesian Limestone in Notts), and a highly weathered, roughly cleaved slate, reminding one of the Swithland quarries (Charnwood). A slab of Mill- stone-grit (32 in. x 28 in.x8 in.) is the largest erratic observed. A very coarse-grained Oolite (unfossil- iferous) has also turned up. (2) Two miles south of Harlow the limit of the Boulder Clay is reached, and we come upon the London Clay, with frequent Septaria. first underlying the ‘‘till,’ and from that point south- wards nothing but London Clay is met with. (3) Several fragments of crystalline rock have now been found, but these have not yet been accurately determined or identified as to their original home. (4) Mindful of recent speculations as to the anti- quity of the Hominid in relation to the great Chalky Boulder Clay of southern England, a keen but futile search has been made for anything of the nature of a human artefact. A. IRVING, Bishop’s Stortford, August 17. The Prairie Wolf and Antarctic Dog. In my book on the distribution and origin of life in America, I stated that an intimate relationship existed between the prairie wolf of North America and the Falkland Island wolf. The reviewer of my .book, however, remarks (Nature, July 25) that this is a complete fallacy. Might I ask whether your reviewer would be good enough to mention the grounds on which he bases his assertion ? R. F. ScHarrr. National Museum of freland, Kildare Street, Dublin, August 2 My reason for speaking as I did about the alleged relationship between the prairie wolf and the Antarctie dog was to prevent the mistake being passed any further into zoological literature, and my assertion that the two species are not closely allied was based partly upon some external features, but mainly upon the characters of the skulls, which show clearly that C. antarcticus must be affiliated with some of the Neotropical Canidae, and C. latrans with the wolves and jackals of the northern hemisphere. I will justify this opinion more fully elsewhere. Rae. This occurs at~ a ae, Si 7° IOI2 | THE PLAC REPRODUCTION 1ND ES OF THE FRESH-WATER (ANGUILLA VULGARIS). MONG the apodal fishes of the British Museum 4 described by Kaup in 1856 was a parent, tape-like fish of about 8 cm. in SPAW NING- BEL trans- length, similar to the uppermost specimen in Fig. 1 here Larvz of the eel lus rostris) and tk slightly enlarged.—Johs. Schmid re produc ed. This received the name Leptoreskiuvu brevirostris, and came from the Stra’+3 of Messina, ally the only place in Europe from which Without knowing: it, «6 cm.) larve of Anguilla vulgaris, of the coasts. (2) The elver fishing, such as we know in the rivers of West Europe, is in the Mediterranean only carried on in the western basin (West Italy), not further to the east. Just as in North Europe this indicates that the elvers decrease in quantity from west to east, and in the same way we may compare the scarcity or absence of eels in the Black Sea region with the similar condition in the inner Baltic or northernmost Norway. (3) A very extensive investigation has given the result that the North European, South European, and NO. 2234, VOL. 89| ;. 2.—Distribution of the freshwater eels (Anguilla) and of their larvz in the Atlantic regions, Occurrence of Anguilla vulgaris shown by horizontal, of @ Younger (3}-6 cm.) and @ older larve of Anguilla rostrata recorded. The unbroken jines indicate the temperature at 1000 m. depth.—Johs. Schmidt (1909 and rg12). Slope, and that they must be in the Northern Atlantic. Confirmation of this conclusion has been obtained from two differ- ent sides. On a cruise over the | Atlantic in 1910 with the Michael Sars, Dr. Hjort has taken twenty-one eel larve south of the Azores, the majority of which were 1, a few even 2 cm. | smaller than the smallest I had found west of Europe in 1905-6. This was a most important dis- covery. Further, surface collections made by Danish vessels crossing the Atlantic, both fifty years ago and recently, have yielded a large mate- rial of these young larva. Our captures are shown on the chart, Fig. 2, from which it will be seen that larvae of the genus Anguilla occur across the 636 NATURE [AuGusT 22, 1912 whole of the North Atlantic between ca. 25> and ca. 45° N.L. Of these the specimens from west of ca. 20° W. were the smallest in size, namely, 34-6 cm. To make quite certain of the forms we were dealing with, it has been necessary to examine thousands of eels, not only from the continents, but also from all the Atlantic islands where the eel occurs (Iceland, Faeroes, Madeira, Canaries, Azores, Bermudas, and the West Indies). The result is also shown on Fig. 2. There are only two species of eel in the North Atlantic region, an é€astern (A. vulgaris), which has its western limit at the Azores, and a western (A. rostrata). A further result has been that the stocks are prac- tically unmixed, each being restricted to its own region. On counting the vertebrae (myomeres) in our larve from the Atlantic, we were now able to prove that only the larvee taken west of the Ber- mudas belonged to A. rostrata, whilst larve of A. vulgaris were found in large quantities as far Q west as 53° W.L.—though, as mentioned, the | Pere] gh, western limit of the adult is at the Azores, ca. 30° W. The larvee may even occur further west. The question is, now, whether we can prove that the smaller larve (34-6 cm.) from the central part of the Atlantic are the product of the main stock of 4. vulgaris, which lives on the European con- tinent. It might be thought, for example, that the larvae found near the Azores come from the stock living on those islands; but, fortunately, we have now obtained from the Gulf Stream south of Newfoundiand, 53° W., such a large number of half-grown larve that the quantity alone seems to exclude the possibility that they can spring from the inconsiderable stocks on the Azores or other Atlantic islands. The distance from Europe of the place in the Gulf Stream where they were found, | is ca. 2000 miles, but there can be no doubt that | they traverse this distance with the currents, for we have found the intermediate stages on the way, and another species, Synaphobranchus pinnatus, whose full-grown larve are found in quantities west of Europe in company with those of the eel, has the same‘distribution. We see from the Chart and Table how the larve of A. vulgaris are distributed in a very charac- teristic manner according to age or size, over the whole of an enormous area, by comparison with which the distances in the Mediterranean seem small. We have not yet attained to the full solu- tion of the exceedingly difficult eel problem, but the | steady progress of the last twenty vears is full | of promise for the future. We cannot say exactly where the eel spawns, though the Sargasso Sea is perhaps a principal spawning region, but con- tinued collections and investigation of the currents will assuredly lead to the discovery of the eggs DD~ and earliest larve, perhaps not in deep water, as | Grassi imagined, but nearer to the surface. There is even perhaps reason to believe that the eel spawns in the intermediate layers and not on the bottom. Altogether, the whole story of the eel and its spawning has come to read almost like a romance, wherein reality has far exceeded the dreams of phantasy. Jous. ScHMIptT. NO. 2234, vor. 89] THE FIFTH INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF MATHEMATICIANS. “THE International Congress of Mathematicians, which meets in Cambridge on August 22, is the fifth of a series inaugurated at Zurich in 1897 and continued in Paris, 1900, Heidelberg, 1904, and Rome, 1908. The inviting body is the Cam- bridge Philosophical Society, and the project of receiving the fifth Congress at Cambridge has been well supported, not only by Cambridge men, resident and non-resident, but also by others, in Oxford and in the country generally, who are interested in the progress of mathematics. The congress is organised in four sections, devoted respectively to analysis, geometry, applied mathematics, and philosophical, historical, and didactical questions. The Section of Applied Mathematics is divided into two departments, one dealing with mathematical physics and astronomy, and the other with economics and statistics. Each section appoints its own chairman from day to day, the chairman for the first day being chosen by an international committee from among those persons who, in the preparation for the congress, have been charged with the duty of collecting papers for the sections. The sections also appoint their own secretaries. The work of preparation has been in the hands of an organising committee, presided over by Sir George Darwin, and having as treasurer Sir Joseph Larmor, and as secretaries Prof. E. W. Hobson, of Cambridge, and Prof. A. E. H. Love, of Oxford: Owing to the great interest which is now taken in the study of improved methods of teaching, the department dealing with didactical questions has attracted to the congress many adherents interested in questions concerning the teaching of mathe- matics. Associated with this department is an international commission appointed at Rome four years ago to collect information in regard to the methods pursued in various countries, and to study the directions and effects of recent changes. In Great Britain the work of collecting this informa- tion has been done by an advisory committee of the Board of Education, and the information has been incorporated in a series of reports issued by the Board and now collected in two large volumes. These are intended for presentation to the con- gress, and similar reports have been compiled with the same view in Germany and the other coun- tries. In addition to the sectional meetings of the congress, there will be plenary sessions, at which lectures will be delivered, as follows :—‘‘ Boundary problems in one dimension,” by Prof. M. Bécher, of Harvard; “Définition et domaine d’existence des fonctions monogénes uniformes,”’ by Prof. E. Borel, of Paris; “ Periodicity in the solar system,” by Prof. E. W. Brown, of Yale; “Il significato della critica dei principii nello sviluppo delle matematiche,” by Prof. F. Enriques, of Bologna; “The principles of instrumental seismology,” by Prince B. Galitzin, of St. Petersburg; ‘‘ Geléste und ungeléste Probleme aus der Theorie der Primzahlverteilung und der Riemannschen Zeta- AvGUST 22, I912| NATURE 637 a funktion,” by Prof. E. Landau, of Géttingen; | “The dynamics of radiation,” by Sir J. Larmor ; “The place of mathematics in engineering prac- tice,’ by Sir W. H. White. The formal opening meeting is to take place this morning, and the formal concluding meeting on the evening of August 27. Besides the lectures and sectional meetings there will be many opportunities for social intercourse afforded by evening receptions, afternoon parties, and excursions. On the evening of Wednesday, August 21, the members of the congress were received in the Combination Room and Hall of St. John’s College by Sir George Darwin, President of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, and Mr. R. F. Scott, Vice-Chancellor of the University. On the evening of Friday, August 23, they will be received at the Fitzwilliam Museum by Lord Rayleigh, the Chancellor of the University. On Sunday afternoon, August 25, the organising com- mittee will receive the members in the gardens of Christ’s College, and in the evening an organ recital will be given in King’s College Chapel; also on Monday evening, August 26, there will be a reception in Trinity College by the master and fellows. Facilities will be given for visits to the works of the Cambridge Scientific Instru- ment-making Company, visitors to which will be entertained by Mrs. Horace Darwin, and to the University Observatory, visitors to which will be entertained by Mrs. Newall. An excursion has been organised to Ely on the Monday afternoon, and for the day after the concluding meeting visits are arranged to Oxford and Hatfield. A com- mittee of ladies, under the presidency of Lady | Darwin, has issued a very complete and varied programme of visits to objects of interest in Cam- bridge for those ladies who accompany members of the congress and may not wish to attend the sectional meetings. : A large concourse is expected, more than 600 persons having already joined or indicated their intention of joining. There are large representa- tions from practically all the countries of Europe, the United States, the British Dominions beyond the seas, Japan, Mexico, and various States of South America. The assembly will thus be truly cosmopolitan, and it is to be hoped that it may prove not less fruitful than the previous assem- blies in other countries. ILLUSTRATIONS OF BRITISH BIRDS. ics — first part of Mr. Stonham’s beautiful work on British Birds + was noticed in these pages on its appearance, and the book has now been com- pleted in twenty parts, forming five handsome volumes printed on pure rag paper, which is not liable to decay or to become discoloured. The beautiful drawings, remarkable for their softness and delicacy, go a long way, at all events, to justify the publishers’ claim in the prospectus of the work that they are far superior to anything 1 “Phe Birds of the British Islands." By Charles Stonham, C.M.G. With illustrations by Lilian M. Medland. In 20 parts. (London: Grant Richards, Ltd., Carlton Street, rgo6-rgrr). Price 7s. 6d. net each part. NO. 2234, VOL. 89] of the kind yet produced in this country. Asa rule, the adult male only of each species is figured, but when the sexes differ in any appreciable degree separate drawings are given. Further, there are additional plates of those nestlings and young birds (as, for example, some waders and gulls) the appearance and plumage of which call for especial illustration, and some winter plumages are given. | The same plan is followed in regard to any par- ticular points of plumage, such as the outspread | wing or tail, which the ordinary drawing does not | show. Black and white illustration naturally lends itself with most success to those species which _have sharply contrasted colours, but it is only in | the case of some of those birds which have a large | amount of bright chestnut or rufous in their plumage that we have noticed a failure to represent the colour effect adequately. For instance, the | knot in summer (PI. 253) is surely much too light- coloured, and gives little indication of the deep reddish chestnut underparts. The same may be | said of the bar-tailed godwit in summer dress. Representing the partridge with the crown of its head of a plain pale colour may have been due possibly to some similar cause. One might, of course, criticise in some other cases minor items from the point of view of the scientific ornithologist, | but on the whole there is nothing but high praise for the drawings, and they will entirely satisfy those to whom the work will mainly appeal, viz. the lover of birds, to whom, as to the author him- | self, they have long afforded so much pleasure and | recreation. ' It would be invidious to point to any plates especially remarkable for their beauty, but all bird-lovers, according to their individual taste, will surely, as we have done, find some which will be to them a joy for ever. But there are some of especial interest and value. Among these may be | mentioned that of five ruffs in their varied liveries, and the remarkable attitudes assumed by them when on the “hill,” and the downy nestling of the bar-tailed godwit, drawn from the specimen obtained by Mr. Popham on the Yenesei. More- over, visitors to the Zoological Gardens in London in 1907 will be deeply grateful to the artist for preserving the pretty and interesting scene of the | avocet nestling her young one in her own peculiar manner. Though the letterpress is necessarily largely a compilation, the author has had very considerable experience as a field observer, and his personal observations will be read with great interest, not | the less because the personal experiences of one field ornithologist so often differ a little from those of another; we cannot have too many of these _ original remarks, for herein lies much of the charm of the study. Here, for instance—to refer to one little thing only—we find that the clutch of eggs of the corn and yellow buntings is said to number from four to six; yet other observers (whose expe- rience was perhaps gained in a different part of | the country) we know would put the usual number at three or four only. The descriptions of the 638 NATURE | AUGUST 22, 1912 plumage, although short, have been carefully drawn up and are clearly expressed, but it is not correct to say that in young greater spotted woodpeckers the ‘entire head is crimson,” though the entire crown of the head is so. Pos- sibly it was a slip of the pen that produced Royston’s instead of Royston crow. An important feature of the book is the biblio- graphy—a list of books relating to British birds, brought down to 1900. This valuable piece of work has been compiled by Mr. W. H. Mullens for the use of those who may desire to gain some general knowledge of the work which has been done in British ornithology in the past. The final parts contain a full addenda and corrigenda to the account of rare and accidental visitors given at the end of each family, bringing the records up to date; a glossary of synonyms and _ provincial names of British birds, scientific and English indices, a short preface to the final volume, and the list of subscribers. DR Ele Os) ONE Spain ie.35 = ()% Thursday, August 15, Mr. Humphrey Owen Jones, F.R.S., with his wife and a guide, met with a tragic death in an accident on the Alps, in the neighbourhood of Courmayeur, where Mr. and Mrs. Jones were spending part of their honeymoon. They were ascending the western face of the Mont Rouge de Peuteret, and were struck by a falling rock, which had become dis- lodged. They fell about a thousand feet to the Fresnay Glacier. It was in an attempt to make the first ascent of a peak in the same range, the Aiguille Blanche de Peuteret, that Prof. F. M. Balfour was killed in 1882. Mr. Jones was born on February 20, 1878, and was educated at the University College, Aberyst- wyth, and at Clare College, Cambridge. He was one of the first graduates in science of the University of Wales. He graduated at Cam- bridge in 1900, obtaining the rare distinction of a “star” in chemistry in part ii. of the natural science tripos. He was admitted to the D.Sc. of the University of London in 1904. In 1902 he was appointed Jacksonian Demonstrator, a post which he held to the present time, and subsequently he became a fellow and lecturer of Clare College, Cambridge. In the present year, at the early age of thirty-four, he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society. Mr. Jones was a man of remarkable energy and a born teacher. A peculiar quickness of per- ception enabled him immediately to understand and meet the difficulties of students. His lectures and his laboratory teaching, both to under- graduates and to postgraduates, were a feature of the university chemical laboratory. He was greatly interested in estimating the abilities and particular facilities of students. This character- istic made him an excellent examiner, an office which he was frequently called upon to fill, both in his own university and elsewhere. His original investigations and contributions to knowledge NO. 2234, VOL. 89] were numerous and many-sided. As early as 1904 he was recognised as an authority on the stereo- chemistry of nitrogen, on which subject he wrote a detailed critical report for the British Associa- tion, and subsequently the chapter in the annual reports of the Chemical Society. With Sir James Dewar, he investigated metallic carbonyls, and discovered carbon monosulphide. More recently he had been engaged on researches on thio- oxalates, and on the intricate problem of the con- stitution of aldol bases. Mr. Jones also took a very active part in affairs not. purely professional. He was a _ co-opted member of the Cambridge Appointments Board, where his power of discriminating between candi- dates was of particular value, and, with others, he directed the building of the recent extension to the chemical laboratory at ‘Cambridge. His appointment to the Royal Commission to report on the use of oil fuel in the Navy, which is just announced, would have given scope to his ability in practical problems. It is perhaps as a mountaineer that Mr. Jones will be best known to a wide circle of friends. Finding out almost accidentally, during a visit to North Wales seven years ago, his exceptional facilities as a rock climber, he set himself to learn, with characteristic energy and directness, the highest practice of the art from the best exponents. He rapidly acquired a minute knowledge of the Italian side of Mont Blanc, and was the originator of several new routes. Soon becoming recog- nised as a skilful cragsman and experienced moun- taineer, he was elected a member of the Alpine Club in 1909, and was a member of the committee of the Climbers’ Club. He married, on August 1, Muriel Gwendolen Edwards, the second daughter of the Rev. William Edwards, of Bangor, a member of the Edwards family to which the Bishop of St. Asaph and the late Dean of Bangor belong. Mrs. Jones was also a chemist; she was a member of Newnham College, Cambridge, and was the first woman to be elected a fellow of the University of Wales. Ke J.P: PROE. (hi. VARRORIE IE: M FRANCOIS ALPHONSE FOREL, of IVI. Morges, honorary professor of the Uni- versity of Lausanne, who died on August 7 at seventy-one years of age, was born at Morges, on the shores of Lake Geneva, and devoted his life to the study of the lake, fostered in his studies by his father, Président Fran¢ois Forel, of Morges. ““Pour nous, ses riverains,” he writes, ‘le Léman est le roi des lacs; nous l’aimons avec enthousi- asme, avec passion”’; and from 1868 onwards there flowed from his pen memoir after memoir dealing with “le Léman” in all its varying aspects. There is no department of limnology that he did not enrich by his researches, and he may fairly be considered the founder and chief exponent of the scientific study of lakes. Forel’s activity as an author was great. In ee AUGUST 22, ee ATOR 639 the Bibliogeteny of limnograpien published in the | Scottish Lake Survey Reports, about four pages are taken up by references to his work, and his output is more than double that of any other writer. His work was always marked with a clearness of thought and insight, while a love of his subject glowed in every page. Forel’s monograph on “le Léman,” which appeared in three volumes from 1892 to 1904, is a model for all limnologists to follow in whatever branch of their science they are concerned, be it as physicist, chemist, zoologist, botanist, archzo- logist, historian, or economist, while his small “Handbuch der Seenkunde” (1900), which is an admirable introduction to the study of lakes, shows that, in spite of the minuteness of his study of Lake Geneva, he maintained a clear idea of the fundamental points of his subject. The late Prof. Chrystal called Forel “the Faraday of seiches,” and while he ranged over so many sciences, his chief claim to be remem- bered is that he was the first to explain the nature of seiches or the oscillatory movements which occur in all lakes. He first of all established, by means of portable limnographs, the fact that when the water was rising in level at one end of the lake, it was usually falling at the other, and only two years later, in 1875, he published his theory that the seiches were really standing waves. Considering the data at his disposal, the formula- tion of his theory was a brilliant piece of work. He himself was content that his reputation should rest on this. He narrates how, in 1875, as he sat for hours motionless at the side of the lake at Romanshorn, watching one of his instruments, he was accosted by a schoolmaster, to whom he endeavoured to explain his theories, but only at the end to be met with the question, so often asked, “Zu was niitzt das?” Forel adds with pride :— Il est vrai que j’ai consacré a ces recherches bien des heures, bien des journées, bien des années de ma | 2 , : | ments on the disinfection of ships, and these reports vie. Mais j’avoue que, dans mon for intérieur, je ne me suis jamais senti humilié d’avoir dépensé autant de cette denrée précieuse entre toutes, le temps qui s’écoule et ne revient pas, 4 un théme sans utilité immédiate et pratique. Quand nous aurons trouvé une confirmation de quelques données de la théorie pure par l’observation directe d’oscillations qui mettent en mouvement de balancement aussi bien la masse énorme des 89 milliards de métres du Léman, que les quelques litres d’eau de nos auges d’expéri- mentation, n’aurons-nous pas 1a une _ vérification précieuse. . . . Mon cher inconnu de Romanshorn, a ta question: ‘‘Wozu niitzt es?” je réponds: ‘Es niitzt doch etwas.” When the investigations of the Scottish Lake Survey extended his theory to temperature seiches, no one was more interested in the results than Forel, and he endeavoured to make observations himself to corroborate the Scottish work, but the attempt brought back some trouble in his hands which had caused him to give up actual observa- tional work twenty years earlier. In 1910 Forel was elected an honorary fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and when | attending NO. 2234, VOL. 89] | gress at Manchester last year, he delivered an address at Edinburgh on refractions at the surface of a lake, mirages, and Fata morgana. He was unable, owing to ill-health, to accept a former _ invitation to this country, and it is a satisfaction | | heavens, the International Seismological Con- | included in 206 plates. to his friends here, who were attracted as much by his charming amiable manner and his great courtesy as by his work, that he should have made that visit before the end came. NOTES. WE regret to announce the death, on August 15, of Dr. John Wade from injuries received in a motor- cycling accident on July 28. Dr. Wade, who was only forty-eight years of age, was lecturer on chemistry at the Guy’s Hospital Medical School, and in that post he was very successful, both in his teaching and organising capacities. He had only recently occupied the new chemical laboratories in that school, the design of which had given him much pleasure. Dr. Wade possessed an original and energetic personality, which found expression in his lectures, his text-book on organic chemistry, and his contributions to the Transactions of the Chemical Society. As a graduate and member of Senate of the University of London Dr. Wade held strong views on the necessity for an external side to the university, and maintained his convictions with great ability and energy. In the field of pure chemistry his most important work was | on the constitution of the metallic cyanides, the forma- and studies in fractional distillation under varying pressures. In connection with the latter, he showed, in 1905, that the physiological differences known to exist between chloroform prepared from acetone and from ethyl alcohol were accompanied by chemical differences, ethyl chloride being absent in the former and present in the latter. In applied chemistry he carried out, at the request of the Local Government Board (partly in collaboration with Dr. Haldane and partly alone), a lengthy series of experi- tion of esters, form the basis of the current practice of port authori- ties in Great Britain and elsewhere. He was engaged at the time of his death upon another investigation for the Local Government Board upon the products of combustion of coal gas in rooms. Mr. JOHN FRANKLIN-ADamMsS, whose death on August 13 Wwe greatly regret to record, was an enthusiastic worker for astronomical science. He began photo- graphic delineation of the Milky Way about 1898, at Machrihanish, Argyllshire, and this developed into the more ambitious scheme of charting the whole heavens, northern and southern. His celebrated Photographic Chart of the Heavens was commenced (with a 1o-in. Cooke lens) at the Cape of Good Hope in 1903, for the southern stars; and completed, for the northern stars, at Mervel Hill, Surrey, between 1904 and 1909. It was found necessary to give an exposure of 2h. 20m. in this climate, to equal 2h. in the clear skies of South Africa. Each plate was in. square, and covered 15°x15°, the entire down to stars of 15th magnitude, being Owing to great improvements 15 640 NATURE [AUGUST 22, 1912 in plate manufacture, it was decided to repeat the southern stars. This was done in 1910 at Johannes- burg, the instrument being afterwards presented to the Transvaal Government Observatory. Besides this, there was another equatorial, carrying an 8-in. Wray O.G., and a 6in. Cooke triplet, with which some fine solar pictures were taken. In his earlier vears Mr. Franklin-Adams had taken part in several eclipse expeditions, and secured some good corona photographs. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1897. Owing to protracted illness, he felt unable to carry out his intention of publishing his chart plates, and these were trans- ferred to Greenwich Observatory in July, 1911. Tue death is reported, in his seventy-fifth year, of Prof. Eugene Lamb Richards, professor emeritus of mathematics at Yale. His whole academic career had been spent at that university. Having graduated there in 1860, he was appointed a tutor in 1868, ana was promoted to an assistant professorship in 1871, and to a full professorship in 1891. He resigned his chair in 1906. His best-known books were his ** Plane and Spherical Trigonometry’ and his ‘‘ Elementary Navi- gation and Nautical Astronomy.” Tue twenty-third annual general meeting of the members of the Institution of Mining Engineers will be held at Birmingham, on Wednesday, September 11, in the Lecture Theatre of the University of Birmingham, Edmund Street, Birmingham. The members will be welcomed to the city by the Lord Mayor of Birmingham (Alderman W. H. Bowater). A reception of the members and their lady friends by the Lord Mayor of Birmingham and Mrs. Bowater will be held at the Council House, Birmingham, on the evening of Wednesday, September 11. In May of last year the Home Office announced a competition for a prize of 1oo0ol. for the best electric lamp suitable for miners. The prize money was pro- vided by a colliery owner, and the competition was open to persons of any nationality, conditions being laid down that the lamp must be safe, efficient, con- venient, and durable, as well as economical in first cost and in use. The first prize has now been awarded to the C.E.A.G. lamp sent in by Mr. F. Farber, Beur- hausstrasse 3, Dortmund, Germany, who will receive 6o0ol.; and sums of 5ol. each have been apportioned to eight other competitors, whose lamps were found by the judges to ‘‘ possess considerable merits.” Tue Geologists’ Association has made arrange- ments for a long excursion to the east coast of Scot- land from September 12 to September 19. The directors on this occasion will be Mr. G. Barrow, Dr. R. Campbell, and Dr. G. Hickling. The excursion secretary is Miss G. M. Bauer, 16 Selborne Road, Handsworth Wood, Birmingham. Members of the British Association, which meets at Dundee on Sep- tember 4-11, are invited to take part in the excursion. The programme issued gives particulars of special railway and boat arrangements for travelling from London to Aberdeen, which will be the headquarters of the party. During the excursion an opportunity will be given of seeing the interesting coast section near Aberdeen. NO. 2234, VOL. 89] Towarps the end of July the crater of Etna showed signs of renewed activity. On July 30 a column of vapour, with ashes and lapilli, rose from the new mouth formed on the north-east side of the central crater on May 28, 1911. This was followed by another outburst on August 3 at 6 p.m., and by a still more pronounced eruption on the following day. At 10.46 a.m. on August 4 a great column of vapour rose from the same vent to a height of 10 km., and then drifted off to the south-east, covering the south- east flank of the volcano with ashes as far as Canizzaro. Shortly before this, from July 28 to 31, increased activity also prevailed in Stromboli, where there were strong shocks, loud rumbling noises, and considerable eruptions of vapour and incandescent material. THE summary of the weather for the week ending August 17 issued by the Meteorological Office shows that the temperature was again below the mean over the entire kingdom. The greatest deficiency was 6'0° in the south-east of England, while it was almost equally as large in several other districts, amounting to 57° in the Midland counties, 5°4° in the south-west of England, 50° in the Channel Islands, and 4°7° in the east of England. The north-east of England was the only district in which the thermo- meter rose to 70°, the highest temperature in the south-east of England being 66°. In the correspond- ing week last year the thermometer registered 91° at Greenwich, and it rose to 90° or above in all the English districts. The rainfall varied considerably in different parts of the kingdom, and it was below the average in several districts; as much as 2’2 in. fell at Jersey on August 12, and rr in. at Plymouth and Salcombe on August 17. The bright sunshine was again much below the average. In most districts the mean daily duration was Jess than 2} hours, and in the Midland counties, the south-east of England, and in the north and east of Scotland it was less than 2 hours. The mean temperature of the sea is in some districts as much as 6° colder than last year. In The National Geographic Magazine for February, Miss E. R. Scidmore, under the title of “Adam’s Second Eden,” supplies a valuable account of Ceylon, illustrated with perhaps the finest collec- tion of photographs of the people, monuments, scenery, and productions which has ever been brought together. This is followed by an elaborate account of the pearl industry, prepared by Mr. H. M. Smith, United States Deputy Commissioner of Fisheries. The great bulk of the pearls, he states, is the result of the entry of animal parasites which normally pass a part of their life-cycle within the oyster. The minute spherical larvae of various marine worms, par- ticularly cestodes, enter the shell and become more or less embedded in the soft tissues. As a result of the irritation thus caused, the oyster forms a protec- tive epithelial sac round the intruder, and when the latter dies its mass is gradually converted into carbonate of lime, pearly nacre is secreted by the contiguous epithelium, and the growth of the pearly mass proceeds with the growth of the shell, which is formed in the same way. ——————— a ee AUGUST 22, I912| NATURE 641 Mr. W. Burton contributes to the Journal of the Royal Society of Arts for May a paper on ancient Egyptian ceramics, which supplies a new theory of the formation of this class of ware. Too much atten- tion, he believes, has been devoted to the ordinary unglazed pottery prepared for domestic use, which differs in no degree from the common domestic pottery. The case, however, of the ancient glazed ware dating from early dynastic or pre-dynastic times, with its brilliant turquoise colours of green or blue, is quite different. From an analysis of the material, he arrives at the startling conclusion that it corre- sponds roughly with the analyses of many ordinary sandstone and quartzite rocks. He dismisses the sup- position that the glazed objects could be made by mixing a small amount of clay with a large per- centage of sand. These blue or green glazes first appear on objects carved from actual stones, and he suggests that the ancient Egyptians used some natural sandstone from which they carved these glazed vessels. He supports this novel theory by the reproduction of photographs of slices from vessels and rocks tested by the well-known methods of microscopic examination with polarised light, &c. Sir C. Read, who presided, had some hesitation in accepting what he termed ‘‘a thoroughly revolu- tionary theory,’’ such as that advanced by Mr. Burton, and suggested the necessity for further tests, particularly of medizeval Persian ware. © To the third part of The Austral Avian Record, the editor, Mr. G. M. Mathews, contributes a note on the colouring of the neck of the Australian casso- wary, and also descriptions of various new subspecies of Australian birds. No. 2 of vol. xlviii. of the Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences is devoted to an appreciative biography, by Prof. H. P. Walcott, of Alexander Agassiz, in which special attention is directed to his pioneer work in oceanography and to his labours in connection with the Agassiz Museum. In order to save them from the torment of flies, a writer in the July number of The Animals’ Friend suggests that when horses are ‘“‘summered"’ in pastures they should be turned out only at night, and kept in their stables during the daytime, or at any | rate during the hottest hours. Tue New York Zoological Society’s Bulletin for July contains an illustrated account, by Major Schomburgh, of the living specimens of the pigmy West African hippopotamus, to which reference was recently made inourcolumns. The author confirms previous accounts as to the great difference in habits between the pigmy | species and its giant cousin, the former frequenting | the depths of the forests or the bush on the margin of small streams, and not resorting to the rivers and lakes. Tue latest addition to the list of birds observed in the British Islands is the Terelk sandpiper (Terekia cinerea), of which four examples were killed Romney Marsh, Kent, last May, as recorded in Witherby’s British Birds for August. The species breeds in north-eastern Europe and northern Siberia from western Finland to the Kolyma Valley, and NO. 2234, VOL. 89] in normally passes through eastern Europe and Asia on migration to winter in Australia, Malaya, and other parts of Asia, or north-eastern, and even southern, Africa. Mr. J. H. Orton gives an account (Journ. Marine Biol. Assoc., vol. ix., No. 3, June, 1912) of the natural history and mode of feeding of the ‘‘slipper limpet" (Crepidula fornicata), which was introduced into this country, along with American oysters, about 1880, and has spread rapidly, especially in certain areas, e.g. on the Essex coast, where it is over-running the oyster-beds. As it takes the same food—microscopic organisms, chiefly diatoms—as oysters, it seriously depletes the food-supply of the latter. Each Crepidula is at first male, but later becomes female, and pro- duces in its later life at least 13,000 eggs per year, which are carefully protected beneath the shell of the parent until they are hatched. The larve are free-swimming for about a fortnight, during which period they may be borne, by currents, to consider- able distances. Mr. G. E. BULLEN contributes to the Journal of the Marine Biological Association (June, 1912) notes on the feeding habits of mackerel in the English Channel, and points out that the fish possesses a capability for selective feeding which may be ex- tended to comparatively minute organisms, when these are present in sufficient numbers. This faculty causes the fish to seek in greatest numbers water supporting the most suitable type of food. The extent of inshore migration, and consequently a profitable or unprofitable fishery, is therefore dependent largely on the planktonic condition of the coastal waters. Mr. G. H. Drew describes several cases of new growths in fish; for instance, fibro-sarcomata in skate and plaice, and an endothelioma of an eel, which was similar in the structure, growth, and arrangement of its cells to the endotheliomata occurring in man. In the Clare Island Survey, part 16 (Proc. Royal Irish Acad., vol. xxxi.), Mr. W. West deals with the fresh-water algze and the marine diatoms. The dis- trict is extremely rich in alge; of fresh-water alow there have been collected 769 species, 230 varieties, and 40 forms, and of marine diatoms 118 species, 24 varieties, and 6 forms. The recent investigation has resulted in extending the known distribution of a large number of species, in adding 157 species to the number already known for Ireland, 19 species to those known for the British Isles, and in the dis- covery of 6 new species, 27 new varieties, and 7 new forms. One of the most remarkable results was the discovery of an interesting species of blue-green alge, Eucapsis alpina; this monotypic genus was previously known only from one locality in Colorado, and affords a striking instance of extension of range. Some interesting associations of alga are enumerated, the most notable feature of which is the fact that ‘‘the lists of species vary considerably, though obtained from similar pools with similar surrounding in- fluences.”’ Dr. Marre C. Stopes has published a remarkably interesting paper (Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., Series B, vol. cciii.) on petrifactions of the earliest European 642 WAT Cis [AUGUST 22, 1912 Angiosperms, in which she describes and figures three new species of fossil Angiosperms, founded on specimens of petrified wood from the English Lower Greensand. The author shows commendable caution in giving these specimens non-committal generic names, as well as in her admirable discussion of the possible affinities of each genus. The histology of these beautifully preserved specimens suggests comparison with a number of recent genera of Dicotyledons, but only in one case is the resemblance really close—the fossil Woburnia porosa agrees closely with the wood of some members of the recent family Diptero- carpaceze. However, the important fact established by Dr. Stopes is the existence of Angiosperms in England at a period (Aptian) when they were sup- posed not to exist in northern Europe, the three genera she describes being, moreover, the oldest Angiosperms of which the anatomy is preserved. This important paper is of special interest, since, as the author justly remarks, ‘‘except the origin of Man himself there are probably no problems in palzeonto- logy of greater interest and importance, and of which less is known, than those which centre round the origin of Angiosperms, and the early history of that group.” Tue half-yearly reviews of mining operations in South Australia, Nos. 14 and 15, describe the mineral developments of that State during the year igit. They report the retirement of Mr. H. Y. L. Brown from the post of Government geologist, which he has held for more than thirty years. Mr. Brown’s journeys in Central Australia during that time have not been equalled in extent by those of any other Australian traveller. Mr. Brown’s intimate know- ledge of the country will remain at its disposal, as he has accepted the post of honorary consulting geologist for the State. Mr. L. K. Ward, late of the Mines Department of Tasmania, has been appointed as Mr. Brown’s successor, and Mr. R. L. Jack, son of Dr. Logan Jack, as senior assistant. The mining opera- tions during the past year include the further development of the Radium Hill mines and the rais- ing of a considerable quantity of ore, from which the radium is to be extracted at new works at Bairnsdale, in Victoria. Other radio-active deposits have been found near Mount Painter, and five tons of the ore have been sent to Europe for examination. An addi- tional boring has been made in the Leigh Creel coal- field; it passed through the whole of the coal-bearing deposits, and reached bed rock at a depth of 1079 ft. Mr. Brown reports the progress of the attempt to drain an area known as the ‘‘Dismal Swamp ”’ by boring holes through the floor of the swamp into the porous beds beneath; and though the bores that have been put down are small, and it has been found diffi- cult to keep them clear of sand, Mr. Brown is of the opinion that the progress made shows that the swamps may be reclaimed by this ingenious application of percolation wells. Tue twentieth volume of the German oversea meteorological observations has been. issued by the Deutsche Seewarte, with the aid of the Imperial Colonial Office. This useful publication (for the vear NO, 2234, VOL. 89] 1910) is divided into three parts :—(1) Monthly and yearly means of observations made at certain hours at stations maintained by the Seewarte in various parts of the world, but not necessarily in countries or localities under the control of Germany. (2) Actual observations and means at certain hours from selected stations, with five-day and ten-day means at all stations in the colony of Togo. At these stations the wet-bulb thermometers are provided with an Assmann aspirator. (3) Similar observations and means, with additional data, for stations in German and one in Portuguese East Africa. Summaries of observations under (2) and (3) are also prepared for publication in the colonial Mitteilungen aus den deutschen Schutzs- gebieten, From the Annuwairio of the Messina Observatory for 1909 we are glad to learn that meteorological observations were recommenced on March 1 of that year. Since the most disastrous earthquake of December 28, 1908, the conditions under which the work has been carried on have been, and are still, very difficult. Owing to the general ruin, everything had to be done again, and access to the instrumental rooms could only be obtained after removal of large masses of débris which choked the passages leading to them. Some of the instruments and the books were eventually removed to vaults which had escaped injury, but after a time they had to be transferred to an adjacent building, owing to the injurious effects of dampness. A classified list of earthquake shocks is given for the whole year; these number no fewer than 1083. Shocks have continued down to the pre- sent time, but with decreasing intensity and frequency. In the Atti dei Lincet, xxi. (1), 10, Dr. Giovanni Giorgi discusses the conditions under which, in a finite field, the limit of an integral of a function, taken between fixed limits, is equal to the integral of the limit of the function, when the parameter of the function becomes infinite. A BACTERIAL disease has been found to infect the leaves of the well-known Aster chinensis of our gar- dens, and a short description of this disease is given by Dr. G. L. Pavarino in the Atti det Lincet, xxi. (1), , 8. The infection appears at first in the form of small spots on the underside of the leaves, and these spread rapidly, causing the leaves to wither and dry up. From the diseased leaves, the author has succeeded in making cultures in the usual media, and has thus isolated a micro-organism which he now describes as a new species under the name of Bacillus asteracearum. In the Miilley Breslau Festschrift for 1912 Dr. H. Reissner contributes a paper on stresses in spherical shells, with special reference to domes and similar structures loaded symmetrically or unsymmetrically. Several cases are considered, namely that of a dome in which the potential energy of bending is negligible compared with that of stretching, that in which the resistance to bending is important and the edges are free, and that in which the edges of the dome are fixed. These are all applications of well-known analytical formule, but the cases in question do not appear hitherto to have received much attention. es 84) AUGUST 22, 1912] NATURE 643 Two. patterns of conveniently mounted lenses have been put on the market by the Third Hand Patents, Ltd., of 361 and 363, City Road, London, E.C. Each consists of a lens mounted on a clip for clasping the left thumb, and so leaving the hands free to mani- pulate specimens under examination. Lenses of almost any power required in a simple magnifier can be pro- vided. A high-power lens with German silver fittings and universal joint costs 6s., and a low-power lens with imitation tortoiseshell rim may be purchased for 2s. These simple microscopes may be recommended to teachers of nature-study for the use of their pupils when examining natural objects. Tue Journal de Physique for July contains an article by MM. Reboul and Grégoire de Bollemont on the distintegration of metals at high temperatures, in which a theory of the process is suggested which seems to cover the known facts satisfactorily. Their own experiments were made in an electric furnace which could be heated to 1200° C. A thin sheet of copper or silver in the form of a cross was attached to a sheet of platinum, the two sheets being parallel and about a millimetre apart. Without opening the furnace, the two could be moved from the cold to the hot part of the furnace, remain there a known time, and be again brought to the cold part. If certain conditions were satisfied, on subsequent examination the platinum sheet was found to have on it a thin film of copper or silver in the form of a cross. The authors ascribe the effect to the direct projection of metallic particles from one sheet to the other, owing to the explosion of minute pockets of occluded gases in the copper or silver sheets near their surfaces. They have already suggested an explanation of the emission of positive charges of electricity by heated metals based on the same theory. CoMMENTING on the Charlestown curve derailment which occurred on June 21, The Engineer for August 16 finds itself unable to agree with Colonel Druitt’s con- clusion that radial tank engines are unsuitable, and quotes the case of the Lancashire and Yorkshire Rail- way; which has at present 330 of these locomotives in service. The reputation of these locomotives is that they are extremely easy on the road, and consequently on themselves, the flanges of the wheels keeping wonderfully. round after running thousands of miles. Our contemporary has no hesitation in accepting Colonel Druitt’s recommendations as to speed restric- tions, also regarding the difficulty which drivers ex- perience in judging speeds when running on good roads and down steep gradients. The use of speed recorders is suggested in the report, and to this no objection can possibly be taken. Seeing the very extensive use made of such instruments on the Con- tinental railways, it is somewhat surprising that these are not more employed in this country. Tue last of a series of articles descriptive of the Fried. Krupp establishments at Essen appears in Engineering for August 16. It is of special interest to note the admirable equipment for works tests. Each department has its own “private ”’ testing plant in order to enable the engineers and metallurgists in charge to ascertain at any moment, for their own private guidance, the way in which the various pro- NO. 2234, VOL. 89] | equal in any part of the world. cesses are being carried out. Our contemporary states that the chemical and physical laboratory has not its This is a five-storey building covering an area of 39,000 sq. ft. The chemical laboratories are most completely equipped for the analysis of steel, other metals and alloys, ores, gases, water and so forth, for testing oils, gunpowders, and all products made and used throughout the estab- lishments. The physical research department is admir- ably equipped for metallographical research work and all classes of physical tests. A number of rooms on the lower floor are set apart for manufacturing all the different glass bottles, tubes, and connections used in the chemical laboratory for analytical purposes, the plant containing the necessary compressed-air piping and the glass-annealing stoves. A very useful little handbook for students who wish to use the reading-room at the British Museum has been written by Mr. R. A. Peddie, and published by Messrs. Grafton and Co., 69 Great Russell Street, London, at the price of 1s. net. The book gives full | information as to the conditions of admission to the reading-room, the various catalogues, and so on. OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. Cotour PHoToOGRAPHY OF THE Moon.—Another of Prof. Wood’s interesting papers on the photography of the lunar surface, using different selected portions of the spectrum, appears in No. 1, vol. xxxvi., of The Astrophysical Journal. With a nickel-coated mirror of 16 in. aperture, prepared as described in his previous paper, Prof. Wood secured three photographs, one using the visual region of the spectrum, one the violet, and the third the ultra-violet, and on these the different features of the lunar surface show very marked differences of brightness. For example, a patch just above the crater Aristarchus is as bright as the surrounding surface when the ‘‘visual”’ region is employed, comes out rather darker on the ‘violet’? image, and is quite dark when photographed in the “ultra-violet” light. On the other hand, many of the maria come out relatively darker in the violet picture, and appear to be differentiated inter se by this selective process. Prof. Wood makes the interesting suggestion that, could pictures be taken over a greater range of different wave-lengths, it would become possible to take up the subject of lunar petrography. For example, a series of experiments led him to the con- clusion that the dark patch near Aristarchus is covered | by a form of sulphur or some sulphur compound. If it were possible to extend the range of the photo- graphs to, say, 8x, where the silicates begin to show anomalies in reflecting power, one might be able to map out, petrographically, the lunar surface. A three-colour lantern slide, made by Mr. Ives from the three negatives, showed the general surface of the moon to be olive-green, but certain spots came out with an orange tone, while others were decidedly purple. The spot near Aristarchus appeared of a deep-blue colour, as was to be expected. The subject is obviously one of great importance and capable of considerable extension in celestial photography, and Prof. Wood’s detailed description of his numerous experiments, colour-filters, and photo- graphs will be found of immense assistance by others who may take up the work. Moreover, he offers to render any help he can and to lend his silvered plates of uviol glass, which he uses as screens, to any observatory ready to use them. 644 NATURE [AUGUST 22, 1912 EPHEMERIDES FOR HotmeEs’s Comer.—Dr. Zwiers | New Zealand has no existence. They accept the continues his ephemerides for Holmes’s comet in | Oamaru beds as of early Oligocene age. No. 4594 of the Astronomische Nachrichten. The comet is still too far south (declination —41° 42!) to be observed in these latitudes, and its computed brightness progressively decreases until the end of the year, where the ephemeris now given concludes. OBSERVATIONS OF Mercury.—During the latter part of March a number of observations of Mercury were made at the observatory of the Astronomical Society of France, by MM. Camus, Danjon, Prud’homme, and Rougier, and are recorded in the August number of L’Astronomie. On six nights the planet was seen by the naked eye, and always appeared brighter than Mars, which was nearer the zenith; it was also less ruddy than Mars. Telescopic observations revealed certain markings, of which the two principal ones were recorded by different observers, working quite independently, in corresponding positions. The markings are said to be of the same order as those on Mars, when observed under the best conditions and with a sufficiently good instrument, and the regular observation of Mercury is to be carried out at the society’s observatory. The colour of the planet, observed telescopically, was seen to be as white as, and very similar to, that of the moon. Hatiey’s Comet.—The astrophysical observations of Halley’s comet made at the Catania Observatory are brought together by Prof. Ricco in No. 7, vol 1. (2nd series), of the Memorie della Societa degli Spettro- scopisti Italiani. Visual observations revealed changes in the structure of the head, while the photographs taken showed that important modifications occurred in the coma and the tail. The spectroscopic observations, both visual and photographic, showed that substances emitting certain radiations were distinctly stronger in some parts of the comet than in others, a typical example being the restriction of the ‘‘cyanogen” band at A388 to the head. On several of the direct photographs, some of which are reproduced to accompany the paper, the tail extends for some 30° from the head. THE NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE. Wee Transactions of the New Zealand Institute, the federation of scientific societies of New Zealand, for 1910 include fifty-seven papers, dealing with chemistry, physics, botany, geology, zoology, anthropology, and mathematics. The majority of the papers are contributions to the natural science of New Zealand and the adjacent regions. One of the most important papers in the volume is the account of the physiography and plant ecology of the Mt. Arrowsmith district, one of the highest areas in the Southern Alps, by Messrs. Speight, Cockayne, and Laing. Dr. Cockayne gives a most interesting account of the flora of the district, and holds that if the ice had as great an extension as is believed by some New Zealand geologists, the present distribu- tion of the plants is inexplicable. Mr. Speight refers to the well-shown facetting of the valley spurs by the glaciers; he attributes the corries to glacial action, and many mountain passes to their enlarge- ment. Prof. Marshall, Dr. Speight, and Mr. Cotton have collaborated in a statement as to the correlation of the younger rocks of New Zealand, which confirms the view that the supposed Cretaceo-Tertiary fauna of 1 Transactions and Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute, r9gro. Vol. xliii. (New Issue). Pp. vit680+128. KWellington: John Mackay, Government Printer ; London: W. Weslev & Son, 1911.) NO. 2234, VOL. 89] Mr. Chap- man’s report on this question was apparently issued too late for consideration. The artesian wells of Canterbury are described in a valuable paper by Mr. Speight. The water flows from inter-stratified sands and clays. Some of the wells are more than 500 ft. deep. Owing to the great irregularity of these deposits, the wells vary greatly in yield and character. There is no doubt that the water is of meteoric origin, for the discharge falls off during dry weather and immediately recovers after rain. According to Mr. Speight, much of the water is derived from percolation from the rivers on the Canterbury Plains. Interesting tidal wells occur along the coast, and their water is salt. Mr. Speight refers to a tidal well in Japan in which the oscillation is due to the varying load of the tidal water on the rocks above the water-bearing layer—an interesting case of flow due to rock pressure. " Some of this artesian water when fresh from the wells has a fatal effect on young trout. Dr. Coleridge Farr and Mr. D. B. Macleod attribute this effect either to a deficiency of oxygen or to a radio-active emanation. Mr. R. H. Worth describes a series of rocks col- lected in South Victoria Land by Mr. T. V. Hodgson. The results agree with those of Dr. Prior. Mr. Hodgson adds an interesting note on the glacial problems of South Victoria Land, and throws doubt on the supposed great recession of the glaciers. He thinks that the normal variations between different seasons are sufficient to account for the known varia- tions in the Antarctic ice fronts, if aided by occasional earthquakes, an agency which has been previously invoked to explain some changes in Arctic glaciers. Dr. Henderson has an interesting paper on the physiography of the West Nelson district, and directs attention to the dominant influence of the earth move- ments and rift valleys in that area. He also describes the coalfields of the same district, and accepts the view that, excluding cannel coal, all coals have been formed from vegetable matter of initially similar com- position—a conclusion not so widely accepted as formerly. Oil occurs in association with these coals, but the author does not expect it to prove of economic importance. Among the contributions to New Zealand zoology are descriptions by Mr. E. Meyrick of thirty-six new species of Lepidoptera and a classification of the New Zealand Tortrices, a revision by Prof. Chilton of the New Zealand Stomatopods, which are a few wide- spread species, and a memoir by Major Broun on beetles from the Chatham Islands. The last author founds twenty-seven new species and two new genera, records thirtv-four species which also live in New Zealand, and remarks that the fauna has no special relation to that of the sub-Antarctic region. A LOST TRIBE AMONG THE ESKIMO. (pee Canadian correspondent of The Times reports (August 13) that Prof. James Mavor, of the University of Toronto, has received a letter from Mr. Vilhjalmur Stefansson, one of the leaders of the Anglo-American expedition to the Arctic seas, in which he claims to have discovered a long-lost European tribe in far-northern Canada. In south-western Vic- toria Land thev met a race strikingly non-Eskimo in type, and looking like North Europeans. The most distinctive group is that of the Haneragmiut, opposite Cape Bixlev, and in Herschel Island they found an Eskimo tribe consisting of white half-bloods, but none with fair hair or blue eyes. Unfortunately, owing to AvuGusT 22, 1912] NATURE 645 well-known superstitious reasons, it was found impos- sible to procure specimens of the head and beard hair of the Haneragmiut. We must, therefore, await the return of the expedition to examine any photographs or other anthropological material which they may have collected. Writing from Shingle Point, Arctic Ocean (approxi- mate lat. 69° N., long. 137° W.), Mr. Stefansson gives some interesting notes on the marriage rites, wife-lending, communism in the matter of food, and treatment of the sick by magical songs, dances, and sleight-of-hand tricks. Many of these people have attained a fairly high culture, using clocks, watches, magazine rifles, and American stoves. Until further information is forthcoming it is im- possible to discuss the supposed European strain among these people. As in the Vinland Saga, there is good evidence of early Norse communications with Greenland. Mr. Stefansson discards the theory that the European strain may have come from survivors of the Franklin expedition, some of whom are be- lieved to have survived among the Eskimo in Victoria Land. He seems to connect it with the so-called “lost colonies" from Denmark or Norway. But so many expeditions have failed to trace any survivals of them that for the present it will be wise to suspend judg- ment in the matter. LANCASHIRE SEA-FISHERIES. a= twentieth report (for 1911) on the Lancashire Sea-Fisheries Laboratory at the University of Liverpool and the hatchery at Piel provides ample evidence of the continuance of their sound scientific work. As in previous years, classes for fishermen have been held at Piel. Altogether fifty-seven fisher- men attended the four classes, and received instruction in marine biology. ‘Two of the classes were restricted to deep-sea trawl fishermen, who were preparing for the Board of Trade examination for certificates as second hands or skippers of fishing vessels. The men received each morning a lesson in marine biology suitable for deep-sea fishermen, and each afternoon a lesson in navigation and seamanship. These well- planned and efficiently taught classes stimulate the interest of the fishermen-students, and enable them to appreciate the problems associated with the develop- ment of fisheries, and to realise the value of the regu- lations which have been put in force for the benefit of fishermen and the fishing industry. Mr. Johnstone reports on measurements of plaice and on a number of interesting diseases of fishes, especially noteworthy being several forms of malignant erowths—melanotic sarcomata in skate, a fibro-sar- coma in a cod, and a lympho-sarcoma in a flounder. Mr. Riddell and Dr. D. M. Alexander contribute a note on an ulcerative disease which has occurred in the plaice in the spawning ponds at Port Erin. The disease is apparently a septicaemia, probably connected with one of three bacilli which the authors describe. Prof. Herdman gives a summary of the work of the last twenty years on shellfish, and their con- tamination by means of sewage. He directs attention to recent experiments which have shown that a very considerable degree of cleansing—the loss of about 93 per cent. of the coli organisms—occurs when badly polluted mussels are relaid for four days in unpolluted water. A recommendation was made to apply this method of cleansing to mussels taken in the estuary of the Conway, but was met with such uncompromis- ing hostility from the fishermen concerned that the project had to be abandoned. Unless regulation of the mussel fishery in this estuary is established, it is probable that the industry will still further decline, as NO. 2234, VOL. 89| { | the mussels are under grave suspicion. In view oi the increasing pollution of the estuary, the mussels may become a dangerous source of epidemic disease. An account, by Mr. Johnstone, follows, on the examination of the mussel-beds in the estuary of the Wyre, in which the pollution does not appear to reach a dangerous amount. Prof. Herdman gives details of a further series of studies, by himself and Mr. Scott, on the plankton around the south end of the Isle of Man. He con- cludes that, although there is a natural sequence in the distribution of the plankton throughout the year, and a certain constancy in the maxima and minima for particular groups, and even species, the sequence is liable to disturbance, and the maxima are affected, both in time and in amount, by surrounding condi- tions; hence the variations which have been recorded from year to year. Continued work on the plankton of the west coast of Scotland supports the suggestion, put forward in last year’s report, that the most prob- able explanation of the presence of huge masses of © diatoms in the Scottish seas in summer (when the plankton at Port Erin is composed almost entirely of animal organisms, especially copepods) is that the phytoplankton remains longer and passes off more slowly as one goes further north. Appended to the report is a useful memoir (115 pp., with eight plates) on the whellx, by Dr. W. J. Daixin. SIR WILLIAM HERSCHEL? HE only general test of the relative nearness or farness of the stars is their brightness, because the faint stars must, on the average, be more distant than the bright ones. Herschel proposed to pene- trate into space by means of a celestial census of the distribution and of the brightness of the stars. With this object he carried out four complete reviews of the heavens, so far as they may be seen from our latitude, passing successively to the fainter and fainter objects by means of the increased size of his telescope. He divided the heavens into sweeps 2° 15! of breadth in declination, and each zone was examined throughout by the process which he called star-gaug- ing. His census was made with the 20-ft. reflector, with which instrument the field of view was about one- quarter of the size of the full moon. It needs more than 300,000 of such fields of view to cover the whole of the hemisphere of space, and Herschel surveyed the whole northern hemisphere, and as much of the southern one as he could. Von Magellan in a letter to Bode describes the method of observation as follows : ‘“‘ He has his 20-ft. Newtonian telescope in the open air. . . . It is moved by an assistant who stands below it... near the instrument is a clock ... in the room near it sits Herschel’s sister, and she has Flamsteed’s Atlas open before her. As he gives her the word, she writes down the declination and right ascension. . . . In this way Herschel examines the whole sky. . - he is sure that after four or five years (from 1788) he will have passed in review every object above our horizon. . Each sweep covers 2° 15! in declination, and he lets each star pass at least three times through the field of the telescope, so that it is impossible that anything can escape him. . . . Herschel observes the whole night through... for some years he has observed . . . every hour when the weather is clear, and this always in the open air.” Herschel points out that by this survey he was not only looking into the most distant space, but also into the remotest past, for the light of many of the stars 1 A discourse delivered at the Royal Institution on April 26 by Sir George H. Darwin, K.C.B., F.R.S. Continued from p. 623. 646 NATURE [ AUGUST. 22, 1912 must have started on its journey towards us thousands or even millions of years ago. The celestial museum therefore exhibits to us the remotest past alongside with the present, and we have in this way the means of reconstructing to some extent the processes of evolution in the heavens. In photography the modern astronomer possesses an enormous advantage, but Herschel laid the foundation of this branch of astro- nomy without it. The most conspicuous and the most wonderful object in the heavens is the Milky Way. It runs all round the skies in a great band, with a conspicuous rent in it forming a streamer which runs through many degrees. To the naked eye it shines with a milky light, but Herschel was able to show that it consists of countless stars in which there lie embedded many fleecy nebula. There is good reason to believe that the Milky Way on the whole consists of stars which are younger than those in the other parts of space, for the stars in it are whiter and hotter, and the nebula are mostly fleecy clouds. On the other hand, the-spiral and planetary nebule are more fre- quent away from the Milky Way, and these are presumably older than the cloudy and _flocculent nebula. The shape of the Milky Way seems to resemble a huge millstone or disk of stars, and since it forms a complete circuit in the heavens the sun must lie somewhere towards its middle. It is probable that we look much further out into space along this tract than elsewhere, although it happens that by far the nearest of all the stars—namely, « Centauri— hes in the line of the Milky Way. — _ This great congregation of stars is far from uniform in density, for there are places in it where there are but few stars or none at all. Caroline Herschel, writing to Sir John Herschel at- the Cape of Good Hope, in 1833, mentions that her brother, when examining the constellation of the Scorpion (which lies at best low down on our horizon), had exclaimed, “after a long awful silence, ‘ Hier ist wahrhaftig ein Loch im Himmel.’”. And her nephew, as he said, rummaged Scorpio with the telescope and found many blank spaces without the smallest star. ; It will explain some of the deductions which Herschel drew from his star-gauges, and will at the same time furnish a good example of his style, if I read a passage from a paper of his written in 1789.7 He points out that the sun is merely a star, and, referring to the stars, he continues thus :— “These suns, every one of which is probably as of much consequence to a system of planets, satellites, and comets as our own sun, are now to be considered, in their turn, as the minute parts of a proportionally greater whole. I need not repeat that by my analysis 1t appears that the heavens consist of regions where Suns are gathered into separate systems, and that the catalogues I have given comprehend a list of such systems; but may we not hope that our knowledge will not stop short at the bare enumeration of phenomena capable of giving us so much instruction 2 Why should we be less inquisitive than the natural philosopher, who sometimes, even from an incon- siderable number of specimens of a plant, or an animal, is enabled to present us with the history of its rise, progress, and decav? Let us then compare together, and class some of these numerous sidereal groups, that we may trace the operations of natural causes so far as we can perceive their agency. The most simple form. in which we can view a sidereal system, is that of being globular. This also, very favourably to our design, is that which has presented itself most freauently, and of which I have given the greatest collection. 2 Phil. Trans., vol. Ixxix., p. 212. NO. 2234, VOL. 89] “But, first of all, it will be necessary to explain what is our idea of a cluster of stars, and by what means we have obtained it. For an instance I shall take the phenomenon which presents itself in many clusters. It is that of a number of lucid spots, of equal lustre, scattered over a circular space, in such a manner as to appear gradually more compressed towards the middle, and which compression, in the clusters to which I allude, is generally carried so far, as, by imperceptible degrees, to end in a luminous centre of an irresolvable blaze of light. ‘To solve this appearance it may be conjectured that stars of any given very unequal magnitudes may easily be so arranged, in scattered, much extended, irregular rows, as to produce the above described picture; or, that stars, scattered about almost promiscuously within the frustum of a given cone, may be assigned of such properly diversified magnitudes as also to form the same picture. But who, that is acquainted with the doctrine of chances, can seriously maintain such im- probable conjectures ¢" Later in the same paper he continues :— “Since then almost all the nebulz and clusters of stars I have seen, the number of which is not less than three and twenty hundred, are more condensed and brighter in the middle; and since, from every form, it is now equally apparent that the central accumulation or brightness must be the result of central powers, we may venture to affirm that this theory is no longer an unfounded hypothesis, but is fully established on grounds which cannot be over- turned. “Let us endeavour to make some use of this im- portant view of the constructing cause, which can thus model sidereal systems. Perhaps, by placing before us the very extensive and varied collection of clusters and nebulae furnished by my catalogues, we may be able to trace the progress of its operation in the great laboratory of the universe. “Tf these clusters and nebulz were all of the same shape, and had the same gradual condensation, we should make but little progress in this inquiry; but as we find so great a variety in their appearances, we shall be much sooner at a loss how to account for such various phenomena, than be in want of materials upon which to exercise our inquisitive endeavours. “Let us, then, continue to turn our view to the power which is moulding the different assortments of stars into spherical clusters. Any force, that acts uninterruptedly, must produce effects proportional to the time of its action. Now, as it has been shown that the spherical figure of a cluster of stars is owing to central powers, it follows that those clusters which, ceteris paribus, are the most complete in this figure, must have been the longest exposed to the action of these causes. This will admit of various points of view. Suppose, for instance, that 5000 stars had been once in a certain scattered situation, and that other 5000 equal stars had been in the same situation, then that of the two clusters which had been longest exposed to the action of the modelling power, we suppose would be most condensed, and more advanced to the maturity of its figure. An obvious consequence that may be drawn from this consideration is that we are enabled to judge of the relative age, maturity, or climax of a sidereal system, from the disposition of its component parts; and, making the degrees of brightness in nebulz stand for the different accumula- tion of stars in clusters, the same conclusions will extend to them all. But we are not to conclude from what has been said that every spherical cluster is of an eaual standing in regard to absolute duration, AUGUST 22, 1912] since one that is composed of a thousand stars only must certainly arrive to the perfection of its form sooner than another which takes in a range of a million. Youth and age are comparative expressions ; and an oak of a certain age may be called very young, while a contemporary shrub is already on the verge of its decay. The method of judging with some assur- ance of the condition of any sidereal system may perhaps not improperly be drawn from the standard laid down earlier; so that, for instance, a cluster or nebula which is very gradually more compressed and bright towards the middle may be in the perfection of its growth, when another which approaches to the condition pointed out by a more equal compression, such as the nebulz I have called Planetary seem to present us with, may be looked upon as very aged, and drawing on towards a period of change, or disso- lution. This has been before surmised, when in a former paper I considered the uncommon degree of compression that must prevail in a nebula to give it a planetary aspect; but the argument, which is now drawn from the powers that have collected the formerly scattered stars to the form we find they have assumed, must greatly corroborate that sentiment. “This method of viewing the heavens seems to throw them into a new kind of light. They now are seen to resemble a luxuriant garden, which contains the greatest variety of productions, in different flourishing beds; and one advantage we may at least reap from it is, that we can, as it were, extend the range of our experience to an immense duration. For, to continue the simile I have borrowed from the vegetable kingdom, is it not almost the same thing, whether we live successively to witness the germina- tion, blooming, foliage, fecundity, fading, withering, and corruption of a plant, or whether a vast number of specimens, selected from every stage through which the plant passes in the course of its existence, be brought at once to our view?” I now turn to another line of discovery of which I cannot show any pictures, but which, to me at any rate, is more interesting. Until 1838—that is to say, until sixteen years after Herschel’s death—no one had succeeded in determining the distance of a single fixed star, but in that year Henderson and Bessel almost simultaneously attained success in the cases of the two stars 2 Centauri and 61 Cygni. The attempts at this measurement had already been numerous, and Herschel amongst others had failed, but his failure was a glorious one, for he made incidentally a dis- covery of another kind and of at least equal interest. The earth moves round the sun at a distance of 93 million miles, so that in six months we shift our position by 186 million miles. stars of which one is relatively near to and the other far from the sun, but so situated as to appear to us very close together, the near one ought to shift its position relatively to the distant one in the course of each six months. The amount of this change of position, called by astronomers annual parallax, should furnish the distance of the nearer of the pair, provided that the other is very far off. This idea is as old as the time of Galileo, but no one had been able to make successful use of it. As I have already said, the only general test of the distance of a star is its brightness, and therefore Herschel chose pairs of stars of very different bril- liancy. He thought, at least at first, that it was mere chance which brought the stars so near to one another, and there are undoubtedly such pairs now known as “optically double stars.” But Herschel’s mode of attack was bound to fail if the seemingly neighbouring stars were really so, and were linked together “by their mutual gravitation. Already as early as 1707 Michel had suggested the existence of NO. 2234, VOL. 89] If, then, there are two | NATURE 647 such true double stars, but it was Herschel who proved their existence. His first catalogues of double stars, published in 1782, contained 203 cases of such doublets, and he already suspected a community in their motions explicable only by their real association ; but by 1802 he had become certain. In many cases the two components of a binary pair were found to be moving in nearly the same direction and at the same speed, but superposed on this motion of the system as a whole there was an orbital motion of one star round the other. Herschel even lived long enough to see some of his pairs of stars perform half a revolution about one another. After his death Savary took the matter one stage further, and showed that the revolution was governed by the laws of gravity, and thereby confirmed the truth of Herschel’s belief. Thus the failure to measure the distance of stars led to the proof that gravity reigns amongst the stars as in the solar system. Arago thought that of all Herschel’s discoveries this was the one that had the greatest future, and his prophecy has proved singularly correct. Every year adds to the number of double stars the orbits of which are now accurately determinable. These systems are found to be very unlike our own solar system, for the component stars are, in many cases, far larger than the sun, and revolve about one another in periods which, in various cases, may be either many years or only a few hours. The spectroscope has, moreover, added enormously to our knowledge, for the speed of approach or reces- sion of a star from the sun can now be determined as so many kilometres per second. Thus that com- ponent of the motion of a star which was concealed from Herschel is now known with the greater cer- tainty. Moreover, being ignorant of the distance of the stars, he could only express the transverse com- ponent of motion in seconds of arc. A wonderful corollary also results from the use of the spectroscope, namely the existence of many stars kkxnown as “‘spectroscopic binaries.’ As seen even with the most powerful telescope such a star is a single point of light, but if the spectral lines are duplicated we know that the source of light is double, and that one component is approaching us and the other receding from us. In this way the orbits and relative masses of these visually inseparable stars are determinable. The number of known double stars, including both visual and spectroscopic ones, is already large, and Campbell, of Lick Observatory, has ex- pressed his opinion that one star in six is double. Some of them revolve so near to one another and in such a plane that they partially eclipse one another as they revolve, and thus produce a winking light like that of a lighthouse. It would seem that we can now even tell something of the shapes of a pair of stars visually inseparable from one another. But I must not go further into this subject, and will only repeat Arago’s saying, that this discovery of Her- schel’s has ‘“‘le plus d’avenir.”’ It is a figure of speech to refer to the stars as fixed, for a large number of them possess a measur- able amount of ‘“‘ proper motion” relatively to their neighbours. The existence of double stars was dis- covered by the observation of their movements, and thus the study of proper motions is linked to the subject of which I have just been speaking. Some few proper motions had been observed by earlier astronomers, but when Herschel took up the subject proper motion had not been accurately measured in anv case. If a man is walking through a wood the trees in front of him seem to be opening out before him, whilst those behind seem to be closing together. In the 048 NATURE [AUGUST 22, 1912 same way if our sun is moving relatively to the centre of gravity of all the stars, the stars must on the average seem to move away from the point towards which the sun is travelling, whilst they must close in towards the antipodes. These two points are called the apex and antapex of the sun’s path. Now Herschel concluded that there was something systematic in the proper motions of the stars, and that there was a point in the constellation of Hercules from which the stars were on an average receding, and that similarly they were closing in towards the antipodal point. ‘The first of these is the sun’s apex and the second the antapex. ‘These conclusions were drawn from the motions of comparatively few stars, but the result has been confirmed subsequently from a large number. Moreover, we have now learned by means of the spectroscope that we are travelling towards Hercules at the rate of about sixteen miles a second. During these last few years this grand discovery of Herschel’s has gained a great extension at the hands of Kapteyn and of many others, and it has been proved that other systematic motions of the stars are discoverable. The time at my disposal will not permit me to pursue this subject further, but I may say that it now appears that if we could view the universe from the centre of gravity of the stars of the Milky Way, we should see a current of stars coming from a definite direction of space and penetrating our system. What a vista of discoveries do these ideas open up to the astronomer! Some centuries hence the sun’s apex may have shifted, and we may perhaps learn that the solar system is describing the arc of some colossal orbit. The drift or current of stars may also have begun to change its direction, and our descend- ants may have begun to make guesses as to its future course and as to its meaning. But whatever develop- ments the future may have in store, we should never forget that the foundation of these grand conceptions of the universe was laid by Herschel. Holden ends his ‘‘ Life of Herschel”? with words which may also serve as a fitting end to my lecture: ‘‘As a practical astronomer he remains without an equal. In pro- found philosophy he has few superiors. By a kindly chance he can be claimed as the citizen of no one country. In very truth his is one of the few names which belong to all the world.” RECENT ADVANCES IN AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE—THE FERTILITY OF THE SOIL. ROM an ordinary common-sense point of view the fertility of the soil is best defined as that property for which a man pays rent—the property which causes some land to let for 2/. or 31. an acre, whereas the adjoining land may be dear enough at tos. With the causes of this fertility I do not propose to deal at any great length this evening more than to indicate that it is the outcome of a very complex series of factors, among which we can enumerate the actual supply of plant food in the soil, its mechanical texture as con- ditioning the movements of water, and the particular micro-fauna and flora inhabiting the soil, for upon these lower organisms depends the facility with which the material contained in the soil will become available for the nutrition of the plant. For the purpose of the present argument it will be sufficient to fix our atten- tion upon the amount of nitrogen in the soil as the main factor determining fertility, because, in the first place, nitrogen is one of the necessary and most ex- pensive elements in the nutrition of the plant, and, 1 A discourse delivered at the Royal Institution on Friday, May 24, by A. D. Hall, F.R.S. NO. 2234, VOL. 89] secondly, because its amount in the soil is subject to both gains and losses from causes which are more or less under the control of the farmer. The other essen- tial elements which the plant has to draw from the soil—for example, phosphoric acid and potash—are only subject to slight losses by solution in the drainage water, and cannot be added to except deliberately by the action of the farmer; but in the case of nitrogen we have, in addition to the small stock of combined nitrogen in the soil, the vast store of free gaseous nitrogen with which both soil and plant are in con- tact. We may take it as settled nowadays that the plant itself can make no use of nitrogen gas, but must draw combined nitrogen in one of its simpler forms, such as nitrates or ammonia, from the soil. Among the bacteria of the soil, however, there are two great groups, one of which is capable of breaking up compounds of nitrogen and setting free the element as gas, whereas the other can take free gaseous nitrogen from the atmosphere and bring it into a combined form. Which of these two groups will be more active depends upon the conditions prevailing in the soil, and goes far to determine both its current fertility and the length of time during which it will be capable of bearing crops. The question of the duration of the fertility of the land under continual cropping has excited much atten- tion of late, chiefly because the United States has begun to take alarm about the reduced production of some of its most fertile lands, as, for instance, the old prairie lands of the middle West—a reduced produc- tion which, amongst other causes, has helped to set in motion a stream of migrants from the United States to the newer lands of the Canadian North-West. In the development of agriculture three distinct stages may be observed, In the first place, we may have a process of pure exploitation of the initial resources of the soil, when the farmer is to all intents and purposes mining in its fertility. This is the process which, in the main, has been going on in America, and, indeed, in all the newer countries which have been opened up to agriculture during the last two centuries. Not all virgin soils are rich, and the system of cropping alternately with wheat or maize which prevails over so much of North America has reduced great areas of the land in the eastern States to such a poverty-stricken condition that it has been allowed to go derelict. In the great plains, however, where the first settler found four or five feet of blacl: soil, containing nearly half per cent. of nitrogen, the land has kept up its productivity almost unimpaired for nearly a century. If we suppose the black soil only extended to a depth of three feet, and contained three-tenths per cent. of nitrogen, both limited esti- mates, there would still be 30,000 Ib. of nitrogen per acre—that is to say, nitrogen enough for five hundred crops larger than the American farmer has been accustomed to win from that land—and yet in less than a century such soils are beginning to show signs of exhaustion. The farming of the kind just de- scribed is destructive; but in the older lands of the west of Europe, which have been under cultivation for something like a century, a conservative system has been devised which is capable of keeping up the productive power of the soil, though not, perhaps, to a very high pitch. Perhaps the best example of this may be seen in the Norfolk four-course rotation prior to the introduction of artificial fertilisers. In this svstem a turnip crop, which was either consumed on the ground or converted into manure, and so returned to the soil, was followed by barley in which clover was sown, and the clover, which also got back to the soil, was followed by wheat. The farming covenants prevented the sale of anything more than barley and wheat grain, and the meat that was produced by the AUGUST 22, 1912| NATURE 649 consumption of the turnips and hay. Thus but a small proportion of the nitrogen taken out of the soil by the crop left the farm; the rest was returned and used over again, although considerable losses of gaseous nitrogen occurred during the making of the | dung. Both losses, however, were more than replaced | by the nitrogen which the clover crop gathered from the atmosphere during its growth. At any rate, we find that under such a conservative system of farming the productivity of the land remained pretty constant at about a level of twenty bushels to the acre from the time of Queen Elizabeth down to the beginning of the nineteenth century. This conservative farming about 1840 began to give place to the third stage in the development—intensive farming, rendered possible by the discovery of artificial fertilisers and the cheap freights which brought foreign fertility in the shape of cheap feeding stuffs to the soil of this country. By these means the average production of the land of | the British Isles has been .raised from the twenty- bushce! level to something over thirty bushels, and the most intensive farmers reach an average level at least 25 per cent. higher. In their case the soil has be- come practically a manufacturing medium transform- ing the nitrogen and other fertilising materials added to it into crops, giving nothing to those crops from its original stock, and indeed up to a certain point gain- ing rather than losing fertility with each year’s culti- vation. The inner history of these three stages in agriculture may be followed by a consideration of certain experimental plots at Rothamsted. We may begin with the experimental wheatfield which is now EXPERIMENTS ON WHEAT, BROADBALK FIELD, ROTHAMSTED. Average Produce of Grain, first 8 years (1844-51) and the successive 10-year periods 1852-1911. | Averages over ' j Plot Manure 8 10 | 10 | zo | ro | xo | 10 60 years,| years,| years.| years, years,! years, years,| years 1844- | 1852- | 1862- | 1872- 1882—| 1892- | tg02- | 1852 185x | 1861 | 1871 | 188 |} 1897 | tgor | rgtr | 1911 = Bush.| Bush | Bush.| Bush. Bush. | Bush. Bush.| Bush. Farmyard 4 5 5 5 : { acnyant 28'0 wala 28°7 ) 382 | 392 | 35°r | 35°5 3 Unmanured 17-2 15°99 | 14°5 | 10°4 | 126 | 12°35 10°9 12°8 | | carrying its sixty-ninth successive crop of wheat. One of the plots has been without manure throughout the whole of that period. The production, which fell steadily for the first ten years, has since that time remained so constant that the slow falling off which we still believe to be taking place is disguised by the fluctuations due to season. The average yield is about twelve bushels to the acre, almost exactly the average yield of the wheat lands of the whole world. Unfor- tunately samples of soil were not taken at the very outset, but if we begin with the earliest analyses that were available in 1865 and draw up a balance-sheet for the nitrogen, we shall find that the removal in the crop is almost exactly balanced by the small amount that comes down in the rain and the decrease that has taken place in the amount of nitrogen in the soil. not brought into account; some is washed away by drainage water every year, and a further small un- | As these must work estimated amount gets removed as weeds. losses do not appear in the balance-sheet we conclude that some recuperative action is at keeping up the stock, though the process is not suffi- cient wholly to make up for the removals in the crop. The results of this plot show two principles at work NO. 2234, VoL. 89] There are, however, other losses of nitrogen | the tendency of the Jand under an unchanging system of farming to reach a position of equilibrium when the only variations in the crop are those brought about by seasons; and, secondly, that regeneration of the nitrogen stock in the soil is possible by natural causes alone. We may now turn to one of the other plots which receives an excess of farmyard manure each year, the manure supplying about 200 Ib. of nitrogen per acre, whereas the crop only takes away about 50_ Ib. Naturally the land in this case increased in fertility, but after twenty or thirty years another position of BroappaLtK WuHeEat FIELD. Nitrogen in Soil, lb. per acre. Added | Removed | In soil, In soil, Ra ee eos on Unaccounted 1865 1904 : ai for 39 years | manure rain crop Plot 3.—Unmanured. : — | ——— 2850 2290 | — 560 ao || ay || eile) | —110 Plot 2.—Farmyard Manure. _ ; | 4470 4970 | +500 7800 | 150 | 1990 | —5460 equilibrium was attained at a level of about 36 bushels per acre, after which, despite the continued additions of manure, the crop again did not vary except as the result of exceptionally favourable seasons. If we now consider a similar balance-sheet for this plot, we find that the additions of nitrogen are balanced neither by the removals in the crop nor by the accumulation of nitrogen in the soil; indeed half of the nitrogen applied is unaccounted for. The soil has been getting no richer for the last twenty or thirty years, and the greater part of the nitrogen is wasted, doubtless be- cause bacterial action sets the nitrogen free as gas. Here, then, we see another principle illustrated, that in very rich land the wasteful agencies are so speeded up as to prevent any continued accumulation of fer- tility out of the unused residues of the manures put on. Higher fertility means a higher level of waste, and this explains the rapidity with which the very rich virgin soils lose their fertility when they are put under arable cultivation. In this Rothamsted plot, the soil of which still contains less nitrogen than the less rich virgin soils of the prairies, three times as much nitrogen are wasted every year as is converted into crop, and the same or an even greater rate of wastage must attend the conversion of the rich virgin soils into land growing a succession of cereal crops. We may now turn to another plot on the same field to illustrate the recuperative actions of which I have spoken. This is a part of the field that has been running wild since 1881, when the wheat it carried was not harvested but allowed to seed itself. A very few years sufficed to eliminate the wheat, which was unable to maintain itself against the competition of _ the weeds, and the land now carries a miscellaneous vegetation consisting mostly of grass. A soil sample was taken at starting, and when compared with another sample taken twenty-three years later showed that in the interval the land had gained nitrogen at the enormous rate of 92 Ib. per acre per annum. Making every allowance for possible errors in sampling and analysis, the accumulation of nitrogen is in marked contrast to its steady depletion in the equally unmanured arable land alongside. Now, the differ- ence between the two plots lies in the fact that on 650 NATURE [AUGUST 22, 1912 the land running wild the vegetation is never re- moved, but allowed to die down naturally. Hence not only is the nitrogen taken out by the crop BrOaDBALK Fietp, RorHamstTep. Land allowed to run wild. Nitrogen in Soil, lb. per acre. In soil to 27 in. | | Added Gain in = | by | soil per 1881 7904 | rain | annum Broadbalk 5910 8110 | go 92 returned to the soil, but also a large stock of car- bonaceous mattér assimilated from the atmosphere, and this carbonaceous matter furnishes a bacterium present in the soil, Azotobacter chroococcum, with the source of energy which will enable it to fix atmospheric nitrogen. Azotobacter is equally present in the soil of the unmanured wheat plot; but, as there the crop is removed and only a little root and stubble left behind, there is but little carbonaceous matter for the Azotobacter to work upon, and a correspond- ingly small fixation of nitrogen, sufficient only, as we have seen, to repair the casual losses by drainage and weeding. This plot gives us a clue to the source of the vast accumulations of nitrogen in the old prairie soils. Vegetation alone, however long continued, cannot increase the stock of nitrogen in the soil; there is only a circulation of the initial stock removed by the plants and then put back when the plant dies in situ. But if the conditions are also favourable to the development of Azotobacter, this organism derives from the carbonaceous part of the plant residues the energy it requires for the fixation of nitrogen, and a steady addition to the original stock goes on. We have found Azotobacter present in all these rich black soils, from both South and North America, the Russian Steppes, and similar virgin land in all parts of the world, and again we also find an abundance of lime, one of the other necessary factors for the growth of Azotobacter. Virgin soils are not necessarily rich; there are miserably poor ones, though they have equally carried some sort of vegetation for hundreds, indeed thousands, of years. They have remained poor because some of the other factors upon which depend the development of Azotobacter are lacking. With this far-reaching conclusion in sight, we have naturally tried at Rothamsted whether we could not bring about a similar heaping up of nitrogen in the soil by simply adding to it a carbohydrate containing no nitrogen, such as starch or sugar. In pots, the ex- periment is perfectly successful, and accordingly we HoosFigtp Bartey. Effects of Sugar (or Starch) on the Amount of Produce. Plot 4 O. Complete Minerals. Total produce of barley = Sugar (or starch) Year applied ~ Without sugar With sugar Ib. lb. 1906 Spring 2485 2 1907 * 6 3578 3249 1908 y< 1820 1404 1999 ” 2563 | 2261 1910 Autumn 2082 2502 tori » 1244 1915 2 Very small crop, not weighed. ® Starch applied instead of sugar in 1907. NO. 2234, VOL. 89] selected one of the plots in the barley field which was in a very nitrogen-starved condition, because it had been manured for fifty years only with mineral fer- tilisers containing no nitrogen, and treated half the plot with sugar at the rate of a ton to the acre, the other treatment of the two halves of the plot being alike. To our surprise, the half receiving sugar gave a miserable crop, much below the non-sugar half, for four years in succession, and a_ bacteriological examination of the soil showed that Azotobacter had - not increased in response to the sugar, but that the number of merely putrefactive organisms had gone up greatly. These facts led Dr..Hutchinson to surmise that we had been putting on the sugar at the wrong time of year, in early spring or winter, some time before the barley was sown, when the soil is cold. Now Azotobacter is comparatively inactive at low temperatures, and the sugar was probably being wholly taken by the Streptothrix, &c., which are less affected by cold. As these organisms must also obtain nitrogen, they were robbing the barley of the small stock available in the soil, and so bringing about the observed reduction of crop. A change was accord- ingly made in the time of application of the sugar, which was put on as soon as the barley had been harvested, when the soil still retained its summer heat, and the change was immediately followed by an increase in the succeeding barley crops, as com- pared with the non-sugar plots, that was as marked as the deficiency had been previously. This illustrates the many pitfalls which attend investigations in agri- cultural science. Under laboratory conditions one can define the issue sharply, but as soon as the experi- ments are extended to the open ground and living plant, so many extraneous and unsuspected factors come into play that what is popularly called a conflict | between theory and practice often becomes apparent. We may now take a more complex example from the Rothamsted plots to illustrate what I have called the conservative systems of farming. One of the fields is farmed on a four-course rotation of turnips, NITROGEN PER CENT. IN SOIL OF AGDELL FIELD, ROTHAMSTED. The Plots receive Mineral Manures, but no Nitrogen. Fallow Clover Roots Roots Roots Roots carted off, returned, carted off, returned, 13/14 | 0/10 15/16 1/12 ——— ae a 1867 | 01224 | o'1240 0°1327 0'1380 1874 O'1147 0°1238 O'1241 O'1321 1883 O'r161 01228 071329 0°1383 1g09 | O1I59 O'1195 0°1347 0'1498 1852-1903 Wheat, average | 31°2 bush.| 32°2 32°2 35'1 Clover 5 — | 4I'o cwt. 47°7 Swedes ,, I5I Ocwt. 268°0 160°0 1870 Barley | 22°1 bush. 28°7 24°5 34°55 barley, clover, wheat, but over half the field the clover is replaced by a year’s bare fallow. Further, if we confine our attention to the one plot which never gets any nitrogen, but only mineral fertilisers, it is again divided at right angles into plots from which the turnip crop is wholly removed, and others on which it is returned, as so often occurs in practice when the turnips are eaten off in situ by sheep. The above table shows the average yield on these AucusT 22, 1912| NATURE 651 plots and also the changes in the nitrogen content of the soil at different dates. There are two possible recuperative actions to make up for the crops removed—the Azotobacter working upon the carbonaceous matter returned in the turnip crop, and the growth of the clover, for that crop, as we know, gathers nitrogen from the atmosphere by means of the organisms living in the nodules upon its roots. When neither clover is grown nor are the roots put back the soil is slowly losing nitrogen; when either occurs singly a fair production is maintained without loss of soil nitrogen; when both take place during the rotation the average removals from the soil become as high as thirty-five bushels per acre of wheat, thirty-four of barley, and more than two tons of clover hay, yet the soil is, if anything, gaining rather than losing in fertility, though no extraneous nitrogen is being introduced. Thus we see that we can maintain indefinitely a production of more than four quarters per acre of wheat, and their equivalent in other crops, by natural agencies alone without recourse to external supplies of nitrogen, provided we repair the small annual losses of phosphoric acid and potash, which, of course, cannot be regenerated from the atmosphere. But such a level of production, though equal to the average of the British Isles, is below that which a modern intensive farmer must attain, and the lesson that we have to bear in mind is that at a higher level, say that of five quarters of wheat, the wasteful actions of which we have spoken are increased out of all proportion. Hence we have to add as manurial nitrogen not merely the difference between that con- tained in the extra quarter of wheat, but four to five times that amount to repair the waste, and so on to an even greater extent if we still further raise the fertility and the production. The essential wastefulness of highly intensive agri- culture such as must be forced upon the race as the new countries fill up is a serious question, but the prospect of reducing the waste is not entirely hope- less. The losses, as we have seen, are due to bacteria, which attack the nitrogen compounds with liberation of nitrogen gas, the particular bacteria doing this being most active in soils rich in organic matter, until at Rothamsted we only recover in the wheat crop about one-quarter of the nitrogen applied in the heavy dressing of farmyard manure. The problem before us is to bring the soil bacteria under control, and we already begin to see in various ways that such control is not impossible. For example, the researches of Drs. Russell and Hutchinson at Rothamsted have already proved that in one simple way we can so rearrange the microfauna and flora of the soil as to obtain a much higher duty from the reserves of nitrogen therein contained. It is too long a story to enter upon now. I can only briefly say that by putting the soil through various processes of partial sterilisation, such as heat- ing or treatment with antiseptics, like chloroform or toluene, we can eliminate certain organisms which keep in check the useful bacteria in the soil—i.e. the bacteria which break down the nitrogen compounds to the state of ammonia, a form assimilable by plants. Heating the soil to the temperature of boiling water for two hours will double its productivity, and such a process has been found to be commercially profitable in the case of greenhouse soils. The market growers of cucumbers and tomatoes make up an exceptionally rich soil of virgin loam and stable manure, but in a few years such soil, while still enormously rich on analysis, becomes incapable of growing a_ profitable crop. The partial sterilisation processes of which I have been speaking restore and even enhance its NO. 2234, VoL. 89] fertility by eliminating the injurious organisms, and we learn from the detailed results that after such treatment a much larger percentage of the soil- nitrogen is recoverable in the crop than normally prevails in untreated soil. At present the processes have not been extended to the open field, but progress is being made in that direction, and gives some promise of a method by which ultimately the unseen fauna and flora of the soil will be domesticated, the useful races encouraged, and the noxious repressed, just as the larger flora and fauna have been reduced to our service since the days when primitive man first turned from hunting to agriculture. UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE. A seguest of the late Mr. J. E. Taylor of 20,0001. to the Victoria University, Manchester, has now become payable by the recent death of his widow. Ir is announced in The Morning Post thatthe foundation stone of the Agricultural College for Devon- shire will be laid in October, probably by Mr. Runciman, President of the Board of Agriculture. The college is being provided as the result of a bequest by the late Mr. Charles Seale Hayne, M.P. for Mid Devon, who left nearly 100,000l. for the pur- pose. Of this 20,000l. will be spent on the buildings, and the balance will form a fund for administrative purposes. The site is the Howton estate, covering more than two hundred acres, near Newton Abbot. Tue Extension Section of the Manchester Micro- scopical Society will continue its useful activities during the coming session. We have received from the honorary secretary, Mr. R. Howarth, 90 George Street, Cheetham Hill, Manchester, the list of avail- able lectures, for which the section is willing to make arrangements in and about Manchester. There are sixty-eight subjects to choose from, and nearly all the lectures are illustrated by means of the lantern. It will be remembered that the work of lecturing and demonstrating is entirely voluntary and gratuitous on the part of the members. The purpose of the section is to bring scientific knowledge, in a popular form, before societies unable to pay large fees to profes- sional lecturers. The cost of these lectures as a rule is limited to the out-of-pocket expenses of the lec- turers, which in most cases do not exceed a few shillings. Secretaries of societies desirous of includ- ing nature-study lectures in their programmes should communicate with Mr. Howarth. On July 4 last, Mr. James Bryce, British Ambas- sador at Washington, visited the University of Sydney, where he was presented with an address, which was read by the Chancellor, Sir Normand MacLaurin. In replying, Mr. Bryce delivered an eloquent address, which was printed in The Sydney Morning Herald. Dealing with questions which are at present engaging the attention of university authorities throughout the Empire, Mr. Bryce remarked :—‘‘ How are the claims | of theoretical science and applied science to be recon- ciled? How are the claims of languages, and geology, history, philosophy, and economics to be reconciled with the claims of physical science, and particularly the claims of applied science? At this moment science seems to have had all its own way. The development of scientific discovery has been such —so great and numerous have the applications of science to industry and commerce been, so far-reach- ing and potent in their results—that we have come to think of science as if it were the main object of human knowledge, and ought to take that primary place in 652 the scheme of human education formerly taken by languages and philosophy. I shall not—it would be presumptuous on my part to attempt to do so—say anything to disparage the claims of science. It is essential, not only to industry and commerce and progress of every material kind, but also indispensable as part of education itself, opening up to us the whole dealings of nature and God’s dealings with men through nature, which it is essential that an educated man should possess. But any scheme of education is narrow and imperfect which does not reserve an important place for the human subject. A knowledge of men, their nature and literature, their history, their institutions, social and political, and their economic life—a knowledge of men and everything about men is at least as vital and essential to us as a knowledge of nature.” : SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. Paris. Academy of Sciences, August 12.—M. A. Gautier in the ‘chair.—Lucien Godeaux: Rational transforma- tions between two surfaces of genus one.—R. Boulouch: The properties of quasi-aplanatic surfaces in systems of spherical diopters.—Georges Baume and P. Pamfil: The fusibility curves of volatile systems. Mechanism of the formation of ethers. In studying the melting points of the system propionic acid, hydrochloric acid, and methyl alcohol, a clear maxi- mum was obtained when these three substances were present in the proportion of one molecule of each. This combination constitutes the first step in the formation of methyl propionate.—G. Timoféef: The tempering and annealing of zinc. A reproduction of eight microphotographs showing the changes induced by tempering and the subsequent annealing of pure zinc.—B. Longo: Ficus carica in Italy.—P. Mazé, Ruot, and Lemoigne : Researches on chlorosis in plants induced by calcium carbonate. Calcium carbonate appears to cause chlorosis in plants by rendering the iron salts insoluble-—Em. Bourquelot and M. Bridel: New syntheses of glucosides of alcohols by the aid of emulsin. 8-Butylglucoside, f-isobutylglucoside, and 8-allylglucoside. BOOKS RECEIVED. Modern Road Construction. | By Francis Wood. Pp. xi+137. (London: C. Griffin and Co., Ltd.) 4s. 6d. net. The Technology of Iron Enamelling and Tinning : being Collected Papers by Julius Griinwald. Trans- lated from the German by Dr. H. H. Hodgson. Pp. viiit+139. (London: C. Griffin and Co., Ltd.) 6s. net. Festschrift zur XLIII. allgemeinen Versammlung der Deutschen Anthropologischen — Gesellschaft. Weimar, 4 bis 8 August 1912. Erstes Heft, Die Steinzeitliche Technik und ihre Beziehungen zur Gegenwart. By Dr. L. Pfeiffer. Pp. vii+3a0. 13 marks. Zweites Heft, Das Aussterben diluvialer Saugetiere und die Jagd des diluvialen Menschen. By Dr. W. Soergel. Pp: v+81+3 plates. 5 marks. Drittes Heft, Der Derfflinger Hiigel bei Kalbsrieth (Grossherzogtum Sachsen). By Armin Méller. Pp. ili+764+4 plates. 5.40 ‘marks. (Jena: Gustav Fischer.) Das Problem der Vererbung ‘‘erworbener Eigen- schaften.”” By Richard Semon. Pp. viii+203. (Leip- zig: W. Engelmann.) 3.20 marks. Relative Bestimmungen der Intensitat der Schwer- kraft auf fiinfundvierzig Stationen von Elsass und Lothringen. Bearbeitet von E. Becker. Pp. vi+1s0+ map. (Karlsruhe: G. Braunschen.) Structural and Field Geology. By Prof. J. NO. 2234, VOL. 89] Geikie. NATURE | The Fifth International Congress of Mathematicians [AUGUST 22, 1912 Third Edition, Revised. Pp. xxiv+452+plates_ (Edinburgh : Oliver and Boyd; London: Gurney and Jackson.) 12s. 6d. net. : The Method of Archimedes, recently discovered by Heiberg. A Supplement to ‘“‘The Works of Archi- medes, 1897.’’ Edited by Sir Thomas L. Heath. Pp. 51. (Cambridge: University Press.) 2s. 6d. net. Das Problem der Funktionen des Nervensystems. By S. Baglioni. Pp. 50. (Jena: Gustay Fischer.) 1 mark. ; Contribution 4 |’Etude des Courbes Convexes Fernicés et de certaines Courbes qui s’y rattachent-. By Dr. C. Jordan and Dr. R. Fiedler. Pp. iii+73. (Paris: A. Hermann & Fils.) 3 frances. The Collected Mathematical Papers of James Joseph Sylvester, F.R.S. Vol. iv. (1882-1897). Pp. xxxvii+ 756. (Cambridge: University Press.) 18s. net. Per-acids and their Salts. By Dr. T. Slater Price. Pp. 123. (London: Longmans, Green and Co.) net. (Monographs on Inorganic and _ Physical Chemistry.) 3S: Junior Magnetism and Electricity. By Dr. R. H: Jude and-Dr. J. Satterly. Pp. vii+288. (London: WeBaClive.) 2s. 6d. Education: a First Book. By Prof. E. L. Thorn- dike. Pp. ix+292. (New York: The Macmillan Co. ; London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd.) 6s. net. The Teaching of Mathematics in Secondary Schools. By A. Schultze. Pp. xxi+370. (New York: The Macmillan Co.; London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd.) 5s. 6d. net. : College Zoology. By Prof. -R. W. Hegner. Pp. xxv+733. (New York: The Macmillan Co.; Lon- don: Macmillan and Co., Ltd.) 11s. net. Electric Lighting and Miscellaneous Applications of Electricity. By W. S. Franklin. Pp. viii+299. (New York: The Macmillan Co. ; London : Macmillan and Co., Ltd.) tos. 6d. net. - CONTENTS. PAGE Natural History and Travel ... . 627 Concerning Heat . See 628 Psychology-in’ Businessies 4) eee eee 629 GursBookshelf . . 2... .:)-s:c nee Co. lc, eee 630 Letters to the Editor:— _ Artificial Daylight.—Prof. Walter M. Gardner. . 63: Experimental Illustration of the Reversal of Bright Line Spectra.—Prof, E. P. Harrison 7 ORE Strepsiptera in India.—E. Ernest Green; The Reviewer :. 2 ae é : . 632 The Occultation of a Star by Jupiter.—Arthur Burnet. . es. 6S Se pS a, CEE Boulder Clay in Essex.--Rev. Dr. A. Irving. . . 632 The Prairie Wolf and Antarctic Dog.—Dr. R. F. Scharff; R. I. P. MS icc AS Se ee The Reproduction and Spawning-places of the Fresh-water Eel (Anguilla vulearis). (Zliustrated.) By Dr. Johs. Schmidt . 633 636 Illustrations of British Birds A ces 637 DrvHaOwjones, BORIS) (By hea Ol 638 Prof kieAs, Fiore]... :.. ae 638 Notes ae PE Gc oUt, CMOS oS 639 Our Astronomical Column :— Colour Photography of the Moon . 643 Ephemerides for Hlmes’s Comet. . . 644 @bsenvations'of Mercury) ee ienememeuen tele eee 644 Halley’s Comet ae. « « O4g | The New Zealand Institute co 3) SRDS Sie! 82/5. A Lost Tribe Among the Eskimo ....... 644 Lancashire Sea-Fisheries Pe ic enoetie so cer & Sir William Herschel. By Sir George H. Darwin, RE COBB RIS. . : . . ae : . ‘Dahon HOMIE Recent Advances in Agricultural Science—The Fertility of the Soil) By A. D Hall, F.R.S. 648 University and Educational Intelligence ..... 651 Societies and Academies Smetie 652 Books Received 652 A WEEKLY ILLUSTRATED “To the soli Of Nature trusts the mind which builds for aye. a OF SCIENCE. ground ””__WoORDSWORTH. No. 2235, VoL. 89] THURSDAY, Registered 3 asa a Newspaper at the General Post Office. J] The “INSTANTA” INDUCTION COIL The most Scientifically Designed and Efficient Coil in the World. Sole Makers: NEWTON & WRIGHT, LTD. (Late Electrical Department of Newton & Co.), 72 WIGMORE STREET, LONDON, W WRITE FOR ILLUSTRATED CATALOGUE. THE RAINBOW CUP C. V. BOYS'S PATENT. MAGICAL COLOUR ASTOUNDING | EFFECTS A_NEW_ INSTRUMENT for studying the colours of thin films. Produces the most beautiful colour forms and colour changes imaginable. Price 2Ss., including two bottles of special soap solution and full instructions. SOLE MAKERS: JOHN J. GRIFFIN & SONS, Ltd. AUGUST 20, | 14 Commercial Street, Kemble St., KINGSWAY, LONDON, wW.C. _ [Price SIXPENCE _ [All Rights Reserved. IQi2 “REYNOLDS & BRANSON, LTD. MAGNALIUM BALANCES. The beam, standard, and pans of these balances are made of magnalium, which is lighter and cleaner than brass, and not as readily affected by fumes and gases. The knife- edges and planes are of agate. Too gms. 250 gms. 500 gms. Sensitive to— I mg. 2 mg. 5 mg. | = S. d. s d. Se | Solid beam . 24 6 26 O 310 | Open ,, ‘ 25 6 27 6 32 0 **Rystos’ palace Case (Regd. No. 532952), with sliding door which folds back and rests upon the top of the balance case, obviating the necessity for catches or balance weights. Mahogany, 8/6, 10/6, 14/6 each. ANALYTICAL BALANCES WITH MAGNALIUM BEAMS. Price List on Application. Leeds. Student Equatorial Telescope with 3-inch object glass, and circles 4 inches dia- meter divided on brass, the hour: circle reading to 1 minute, the declination to 5 minutes. Complete in pine case, with 3 eyepieces. Price £25. Illustrated List of Telescopes Jree on request, NEGRETTI e ZAMBRA, Holborn Viaduct, London, E.C. Branches : E.C. Ww, 45 Cornhill, 22 Regent St., celvill [AUGUST 29, 1912 BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. BURLINGTON HOUSE, LONDON, W. DUNDEE MEETING, SEPTEMBER 4-11, 109712. Tue JourNaAL, Presipents’ AppREssEs, and cther Printed Papers issued by the Association during the Annual Meeting will be forwarded daily by post to Members and others unable to attend, on application and prepay ment of 2s. 6d. to the Chief Clerk of the As-ociation, H. C. Steward- son, Albert Institute, Dundee, on or before the first day of the Meeting. O. J. R. HOWARTH, Assistant Secretary. SESSION OPENS 30th SEPTEMBER, 1912. EAST LONDON COLLEGE. (UNIVERSITY OF LONDON.) Classics .. F. R. Earp, M.A. English H. Bettoc, M.A. French Mina Pagulkr. German ... J. Sreppat, Ph.D. History... an F. Crarke, M.A. Mathematics... . THe PRINCIPAL. Physics 7G. HH. wekES; (DSc), ERIS Chemistry *J. T. Hewitt, M.A., F.R.S. Botany a F. E. Fritrscu, D.Sc. Geology. = Sec ase oan W. L. Carver, M.A. Civil an Mechanical = Engineering ..._ ... D. A. Low, M.I.M.E Electrical Engineering .. J. T. Morris, M.I.E.E. *~ University Professors. Fees ten guineas per annum. 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Evening Courses in all Departments, Commencing September 23, 1912. Mathematics—*J. Lister, A.R.C.S.; Physics—*S. *L. Lownps, B.Sc , Ph.D., SKINNER, M.A., F. W. Jorvan, B.Sc. ; Chemistry—*J. B. Coreman, A.R.C.S., *J. C. Crocker, M.A.. D.Sc., and *F. H. Lowe, M Sc.; Botany—*H. B. Lacey, S. E. CHANDLER, D.Sc., and W. Rusuton, A.R.C.S., D.1.C. ; Geology—*A. J. Masten, F.G.S., F.L.S.; Human Physiology—E. L. Kennaway, M.A., M.D.; Zoology—*J. T. CunnINGHAM, M.A.; Engineering—*W. Camrsett Houston, B.Sc., A.M.I.C.E.; *V. C. Davies, B-Sc., and H. AuGutTie; Electrical Engineering—~A. J. Makower, M.A., *B. H. Morruy and U. A. Oscuwa cp, B.A. Recognised Teacher of the University of London. Prospectus from the SECRETARY, post free, 4. ; at the Office, 1a. Telephone : 899 Western. SIDNEY SKINNER, M.A., Principal. CITY OF LONDON COLLEGE. ACTING IN CONJUNCTION WITH THE LONDON CHAMBER OF COMMERCE. WHITE ST., and ROPEMAKER ST., MOORFIELDS, E.C. (Near Moorgate and Liverpool Street Stations). PRINCIPAL: SIDNEY HUMPIHIRIES, B.A., I.L.B. (Cantab.) Michaelmas term begins Monday, September 30th. EVENING CLASSES in SCIENCE. Well-equipped LABORATORIES for Practical Work in CHEMISTRY, BOTANY, GEOLOGY. Special Courses for Conjoint Board, Pharmaceutical and other examin- ations. Classes are also held in all Commercial Subjects, in Languages, and Literature. Art Studio. All Classes are open to both sexes. DAY SCHOOL OF COMMERCE. Preparation fora COMMERCIAL or BUSINESS career. Prospectuses, and all other information, gratis on application. DAVID SAVAGE, Secretary. UNIVERSITY OF BRISTOL. CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT. ALFRED CappreR Pass PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY :— FRANCIS FRANCIS, D.Sc. Victoria, Ph.D. Erlangen, F.1.C. The NEW CHEMICAL WING was recently built and equipped at a cost of about £35,000. Special provision is made for advanced work and investigations in Physical Chemistry, Agricultural Chemistry, Bio- Chemistry, Bacteriological Chemistry, Hygienic Chemistry, and Electro- Metallurgy. Currents are available of voltages from 500 downwards and of amperage up to 20-0. Training received in other Institutions, and Degrees of any approved University are counted towards the period of study required for al Bristo Degrees. Prospectuses of the FACULTIES of ARIS, SCIENCE MEDICINE and ENGINEERING, and further particulars may be obtained on application. JAMES RAFTER, Registrar. NATURE 653 THURSDAY, AUGUST 29, 1912. AN INTRODUCTION TO ARISTOTELIAN SCIENCE. Aristotle’s Researches in Natural Science. By Drs Te B. Eones. Pp. vii-274. (London: West, Newman and Co., 1912.) Price 6s. net. HIS is a very interesting book, and we commend it heartily to the readers of Nature. Even had we at hand, what we have not as yet, a series of translations of all Aristotle’s works on natural and physical science, it would be no easy task for the student to lay hold of the great mass of scattered facts therein contained, to deal with the many repetitions and the not infre- quent contradictions, and to set in order in his mind the range of ancient science as represented by Aristotle. This is the task that Dr. Lones has undertaken, and he has brought to bear upon it a great deal of learning and much patience and editorial skill. After some introductory chapters on Aristotle’s general method and on the consecutive order of his books, Dr. Lones proceeds to deal with Aris- totle’s conception of the Cosmos, and with his account of celestial, atmospheric, and terrestrial phenomena. This account is based chiefly upon the “Meteorology,” a book of very great interest, of which we have an old but admirable edition from the hands of that learned astronomer Ideler. From Dr. Lones’s brief epitome, we may learn much of Aristotle’s curious knowledge regarding such subjects as the rainbow, and comets, and mock suns, and periodic winds, and earthquakes and volcanoes, and all the varied-lore of ancient physical geography. The somewhat obscure treatise commonly called the “Physics” is next treated, and here we are introduced to Aristotle’s conception of phlogistic, and to the various phenomena of heat and sound, of light and colour. The rest, and the greater portion, of the book deals with the inexhaustible subject of Aristotle’s “Natural History.” We begin with a discussion of life itself, of that “vital principle,” or vvyy, with which philosophers more ancient than Aristotle had dealt, and the. varying aspects of which in plants, animals, and man Aristotle de- scribes with admirable insight and brevity. And so through the study of tissues and organs and the functions of organs, through the physiology of | locomotion and generation and of development, the book leads us easily and clearly on to an account of Aristotle’s classification of animals, and to his descriptions of the structure and habits of all manner of invertebrates and vertebrates, or, as he called them, creatures lacking or provided with blood. NO. 2235, VOL. 89| | Lones does the same thing now. Let us glance for a moment at one chapter only, that in which Dr. Lones deals with the fishes of Aristotle. Here, beginning with the Selachia or cartilaginous fishes, we hear what Aristotle has to tell us about skates and sharks of various kinds, and how he confused, on account of its carti- laginous skeleton, the Batrachos, or fishing-frog, with these Selachians, or, as we now call them, the Elasmobranch fishes. We find an account of the torpedo and its numbing power, of the angel- fish with its rough skin and viviparous habit, of the sting-ray and its spiny tail, and of the smooth dog-fish and the placental nourishment of its viviparous young, which Johannes Miller re- described in a classical memoir. Passing to the bony fishes, we read what Aristotle has to say of the Scarus, or parrot-fish, with its great teeth, and browsing or so-called ruminating habits; of the breeding habits and curious spawn of the perch; of the pipe-fish, and how-its eggs are carried in the brood-pouch of the male; of the hermaphrodite Serranoid fishes ; of the “ Glanis ” or Silurus, from which account Gesner conjectured, and Agassiz proved, that Aristotle was acquainted with a second species of that genus, inhabiting the rivers of Greece, and unknown to later naturalists. until Agassiz rediscovered it. In one point only in this interesting chapter does Dr. Lones seem to me to have fallen into error, and the point interests me the more because I fell into the same error myself. Aristotle men- tions a certain nest-building fish under the name of Phycis—the only sea-fish, “so they say,” that makes a nest and rears its young therein. Blindly following Cuvier and Olivi and other writers, I identified this fish as one of the gobies, when I was writing my translation of Aristotle’s “ Natural History.” My book was scarcely out when, in a learned paper on the fishes of Ovid, a German scholar adopted the same identification, and Dr. But we are all of us wrong, as that most learned ichthyologist, Dr. >) Theodore Gill, soon pointed out to me. The nest- ‘building fishes which Aristotle speaks of are undoubtedly wrasses. The breeding habits of some of these are still unknown to naturalists, though they may perhaps be well known to Medi- terranean fishermen; but in some cases, as in the little Ctenilabrus, the nest, as described by M. Gerbe, is now familiarly known, and its whole story tallies with Aristotle's description. One day last summer, on the pier at Yarmouth in the Isle of Wight, I met a fisherman who had just caught some of these little wrasses to use for bait, and I found that the whole story of their nesting habits was familiar to him. The identification of Phycis, by the way, is DD 654 NATURE [AuGUST 29, 1912 notably helped by a fragment of Speusippus, Plato’s pupil and successor. This philosopher wrote a treatise wept “Opotwv, which most scholars, I fancy, take to have been a discussion of broad likenesses and unlikenesses, in other words, an account of the principles of the classification of animals. From the few fragments that remain, I believe, on the other hand, that the book simply dealt with isolated cases of unex- plained resemblance between creatures obviously and essentially different; it was, in fact, a fore- shadowing of our discussions on mimetism. In it Speusippus mentions that the Phycis resembled Perca and Channa, and these we know to have been Serranoid fish, probably S. scriba and S. cabrilla. The statement is not inappropriate to the wrasse, but is altogether inapplicable to the goby. After this parenthesis, we must now take leave of Dr. Lones’s book. In bringing what Aristotle has written into something of the shape and order of a modern text-book and into modern verbiage, we cannot but lose much of the charm of the original, the archaic method of description and the personal element of Aristotle’s style; but, on the other hand, we have a practical gain. If we want an easy and a pleasant glimpse into Aris- totelian science, we have it here; and the com- pilation has been done with due care and adequate learning, and in the earnest spirit of a scholar. D’Arcy W. THompson. RECENT, BOTANICAL PUBLICATIONS. (1) A Textbook of Botany for Colleges and Univer- sities. By Members of the Botanical Staff of the University of Chicago—Drs. J. M. Coulter, €: IR. Barnessvand! Hi. (G) Cowles.. Vol: “iis, “Ecology.” Pp. x+485-964+a-q. (New York: American Book Co., n.d.) (2) Sub-alpine Plants: or Flowers of the Swiss Woods and Meadows. By H. Stuart Thompson. Pp. xv +325, and 33 coloured plates. (London: George Routledge and Sons, Ltd.; New York: E: P. Dutton’ and 1Go., 1912.) Price 7s: Gd: net. (3) Botany: Chapters on the Study of Plants. By G. S. Boulger. Pp. viii+119;_ illustrated. (Halifax: Milner and Co., n.d.) Price 1s. net. (Twentieth Century Science Series.) (4) Allgemeine Botanik. By Prof. A. Nathan- sohn. Pp. viiit471. (Leipzig: Quelle and Meyer, 1912.) Price 10 marks. (1) HE second volume of the Chicago text- book of botany, which deals with ecology, is a very clear exposition of plant-structures in NO. 2235, VOL. 89| | relation to their environment. It is a wide subject _of which to treat, and one is immediately struck with the way in which the authors have managed to deal with it in the comparatively limited space of 480 pages, including numerous illustrations. That this treatment has been eminently successful is due to a directness of expression combined with _a simplicity of presentation. The chapters are concise but lucid, and the arrangement of the subject-matter is very good. The general physiological ideas of the authors are placed before the student very clearly. The conception of the green plant as a manufacturer of its own food from raw materials is maintained in this volume as in vol. i., and the important point of view that this manufacture must not be confused with ‘‘ assimilation ’’ is one with which most biologists will have much sympathy. It leads at once to the same general conception of assimilation in all living organisms, and empha- sises the fact that whereas both plants and animals are consumers of organic substances, only plants are producers of that organic substance from raw materials. As a general principle it is an excel- lent conception of nutrition which is applicable to all living organisms, and the authors are to be congratulated on the boldness with which it is set forth. Emphasis is again laid upon the view that transpiration, if not a necessary evil, is ‘the greatest danger to which plants are exposed, and the harm that it entails certainly far exceeds any incidental good.’’ Careful consideration cannot but admit the logic of this view, which is so dif- ferent from what is usually taught in this country and from what is set forth in the “‘ Bonn Text- book.” The statements (on p. 593) that ‘‘ Batracho- spermum, when grown in weak light, develops only the embryonic or juvenile stage, known as the separate genus Chantransia,’’ and that in Stichococcus ‘‘ high concentration induces the development of filaments of elongated cells, once referred to the genus Rhaphidium,’’ are rather misleading in the light of modern knowledge of the algz concerned. In the section of chapter v. dealing with “repro- ductive behaviour in the seedless plants” pp. 803-824), mention might with advantage have been made of the evolutionary series of the Volvo- cacee. The issue of the second volume of this work completes much the most important botanical text- book of recent years. It is a work of an exceed- | ingly high order of merit, and can be recommended without the slightest hesitation to all English- speaking students of botany. ‘ ~ AUGUST 29, 1912] NATURE 65 on ae (2) In the volume on ‘‘ sub-alpine ’’ plants, the author gives short descriptions and the distribu- tion of about 850 species of flowering plants which occur in the woods and meadows of the Swiss valleys. Both the descriptions and the notes con- cerning the habitats of the plants are good. There are 168 illustrations on thirty-three coloured plates. Some of these drawings are good, but many of them are rather too small to be of much aid in identification. The introductory part of the book consists of six chapters containing much information with regard to the habitats, the col- lection, and the preservation of alpine plants. There are also some very useful hints on the culti- | vation of alpines, an interesting account of some of the alpine gardens recently established in Switzerland, and a comparison of the Swiss and British floras. The book will be found very useful to all those visitors to the Alps who are interested in field botany. (3) Mr. Boulger’s small volume on botany, which forms one of the twentieth-century science series, is an elementary primer which the young student will find helpful in many ways. The chapters on the ‘‘ Beginnings of Botany ’’ and “* Botanists’ Methods ”’ are sure to hold his atten- tion, and others of the twelve chapters into which the book is divided will also prove stimulating. It is a pity that in the chapter on “‘ Primitive Plants’’ the green type selected should have been ‘‘ Protococcus,’’ particularly as the author writes under that name a combined account of Pleurococcus and the volvocine genus Spherella, a mistake which is largely due to the extraordinary statements regarding Protococcus which are found in nearly all botanical text-books. The author should also be reminded that Engler’s arrangement is by no means the latest classifica- tion for all groups of plants. (4) The text-book of general botany by Dr. Nathansohn will be very useful to the student who wishes to go just beyond the more elementary parts of the subject. It is divided into two main sections, the first dealing with the vegetative life of plants, and the second with reproduction. The general treatment is good, and one of the best features of the book is the way in which the physiological aspect of the subject is kept con- stantly before the reader. There are numerous illustrations, for the most part very good, but one would like to have seen more _ original figures. One or two of the photographic plates are excellent. A number of errors in the spelling of plant-names occur, but on the whole the book | | geometry. ' each of which contains material for three terms’ is well written, and will meet with the approval of most students. NO. 2235, VOL. 89] SCHOOL MATHEMATICS. (1) Macmillan’s Reform Arithmetic. By P. Wilkin- son and F. W. Cook. Book i., pp. 48; 3d. Book ij., pp. 48; 3d. Book iii., pp. 48; 3d. Book iv., pp. 48; 3d. Book v., pp. 64; 4d. Book vi., pp. 64; 4d. Teacher’s Books i.—iv., gd. each; Book v., 1s. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1911.) (2) Analytical Mechanics. Comprising the Kinetics and Statics of Solids and Fluids. By Prof. E. H. Barton. Pp. xx+535. (London: Long- mans, Green and Co., 1911.) ‘Price ros. 6d. net. (3) Elementary Trigonometry. By F. T. Swan- wick. Pp. xv+243. (Cambridge: University Press, 1911.) Price 4s. (4) Geometry for Schools. By W. G. Borchardt and the Rev. A. D. Perrott. Vol. 1. : Stages I. and II. Pp.-viii+52+#iii. Price 1s. Vol. ii.: Stage III. (Section i.). Pp. vili+53-162+iv. Price 1s. 6d. (London: G. Bell and Sons, Ltd., IgIt.) (5) The Elements of Plane and Spherical Trigono- metry. By J. G. Hun and C. R. MaclInnes. Pp. viit+205. (New York: The Macmillan Co. ; London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1911.) Price 6s. net. (6) An Elementary Treatise on Cross-ratio Geome- try. With historical notes. By the Rev. J. J. Milne. Pp. xxiii+288. (Cambridge: Univer-. sity Press, 1911.) Price 6s. (7) Junior Mathematics. Being a Course of Geometry and Algebra for Beginners. By D. B. Mair. Pp. viiit+200. (Oxford: The Clarendon | Press; QUE) e2Ss (8) Plane Trigonometry. (Strictly according to the Syllabus prescribed by the Indian Universi- ties.) By Prof. L. K. Ghosh. Pp. vili+271. (Calcutta: G. N. Halder, 1911.) Rs.1/8. (9) Poliedri, Curve e Superficie secondo i metodi della Geometria Descrittiva. By Prof. Gino Loria. Pp. xv+235. Milano: Ulrico Hoepli, i912.) Price 3 lire. (10) Elementary Graphic Statics. By Dr. W. J. Crawford. Pp. viiit+131. (London: Charles Griffin and Co., Ltd., 1911.) Price 2s. 6d. net. (11) A Treatise on Hydromechanics. By Dr. W. H. Besant, F.R.S., and A. S. Ramsey. Part i., Hydrostatics. Seventh edition. Pp. vi+275. (London: G. Bell and, Sons, Ltd., ro1t.) Price 7s. 6d. net. (1) HE authors of this work include, and in our opinion rightly, under the heading of arithmetic, the elements of algebra and practical The course is arranged in six parts,. 656 NATURE [AuGUST 29, 1912 worl, There is very little explanatory text in the pupil’s edition, which consists of a series of care- fully graduated sets of examples; but the volume designed for the teacher contains not only the answers and additional oral exercises, but also illustrations of the methods recommended for use and a large number of useful hints and cautions, the full value of which will be realised only by those who are acquainted with the varied difficul- ties of the beginner. The teaching of elementary arithmetic is a harder task than many people admit, and requires more skill and care than is often recognised. Success can be achieved only by a careful formulation of the scheme of work and of the methods to be employed. In this, the teacher’s edition should be most useful. It is thoroughly sound and trustworthy, and full of excellent suggestions. (2) The contents of this volume are best ex- plained by enumerating the headings of the six parts into which it is divided. These are (1) Intro- duction; (2) Kinematics; (3) Kinetics; (4) Statics; (5) Hydromechanics ; (6) Elasticity. It is assumed that the reader possesses an elementary knowledge of the methods of the calculus, and is not entirely unacquainted with the ideas of mechanics; the more elementary parts of the subject are therefore treated in outline, and are intended mainly for revision or reference. The section on kinematics opens with a discus- sion of the properties of vector quantities. This is followed by chapters on rectilinear motion, which includes the case of variable acceleration, motion in a curve subject to a central acceleration, analy- sis of plane rotations, motion in space with fixed and moving axes, consideration of different forms of linkages, and a brief but lucid account of the theory of strains. The treatment of kinetics is prefaced by a valuable and most interesting account, mainly historical, of the physical con- ceptions upon which the theory is based. The discussion of the motion of rigid bodies in this section and of the theory of attraction and general conditions of equilibrium in the next follows the customary lines. Only forty pages are devoted to hydrostatics and hydrokinetics, and about twenty pages to elasticity. There is an admirable collec- tion of miscellaneous examples at the end of the book. (3) This book is intended for use with beginners; but either thesauthor is not in sympathy with the recent changes in connection with the teaching of elementary trigonometry, or else he is writing for students who take up the subject at a late stage in their course. Now that it has become the custom for boys in the middle divisions of public schools to start trigonometry at a time when formerly they NO. 2235, VOL. 89] would have still been occupied with complicated arithmetical problems and algebraic manipulation, it is both necessary and instructive to lay great emphasis on the numerical aspect. Identity work and applications to the geometry of the triangle are unsuited to the purpose which this change in the curriculum serves. The present volume opens with a chapter on contracted arithmetic; the second chapter defines the trigonometric ratios, and gives rather more than thirty identities as examples on the fundamental formule; this is followed by the ratios of special angles and the solution of equa- tions; numerical applications to the right-angled triangle are consequently postponed to the fourth chapter, and even here the examples are far from adequate. Part i. closes with chapters on logarithms and the solution of oblique triangles. The subjects dealt with in the second part are circular measure, ratios of obtuse angles, addition formule, and applfcations to the triangle. The concluding part deals with the general angle, methods of proof by projection, and properties of the triangle and quadrilateral. The author has the gift of writing simply and clearly, and the printing is well up to the high standard of the Cambridge University Press. (4) The authors have followed the suggestions made in the Board of Education’s circular on the teaching of geometry. The fundamental concepts and theorems of geometry are illustrated by ex- perimental methods, and a varied collection of numerical exercises is supplied. | Formal proofs are reserved for the second volume, which contains the substance of Euclid I. 1-34. In our opinion, the value of this method of exposition is seriously affected if riders of a simple character are excluded {rom the preliminary stage. If the student is restricted to numerical work, he will be slow to appreciate and assimilate the elementary proper- ties of geometry. The disadvantage of opening with a formal course lies in the inherent difficulties of the proofs of the early theorems. But if the results of these are assumed, a very numerous set of applications can be made. (5) This volume contains in rather less than a hundred pages a brief account of the elements of plane and spherical trigonometry. It is written for the student who requires only a practical know- ledge of the methods of the subject. No attempt is made to give analytical dexterity, and all dis- cussion of geometrical applications is omitted. But great care is taken to impress on the reader the supreme importance of methodical arrange- ment of numerical work. Tables of logarithms and the trigonometric functions occupy the second half of the book. It is both curious and regret- table that spherical trigonometry is included in rata ee , | | AUGUST 29, 1912| very few school courses. The educational value of solid geometry is gradually becoming recog- nised, and it is not improbable that this change of attitude may affect the teaching of trigonometry. (6) This is a book which should prove of deep interest to all students of geometry. The author has been able, by confining himself to the methods of cross-ratio, to attain a thoroughness of treat- ment which has been impossible for previous writers, who have combined the theory of cross-ratio with other methods of projective geometry. There is much in this volume that is original, and numerous references are given to other works. One of the most valuable features is the insertion of copious historical notes. The author has made a special study of ancient geometry, and all who are interested in the development of the subject will value highly the results of his researches. 5 The book falls into two parts: the first deals with pencils and ranges of the first order, and contains a comprehensive account of the theory of homography and involution, special attention being directed to the practicability of construc- tions; the second gives a selection of the applica- tions to the conic, in particular the theory of ranges of the second order and conics having double contact. There are, in addition, appendices, one of which gives Pappus’s account of the Porisms of Euclid, and the other a proof of Pascal’s theorem by the methods of Euclid and Apollonius. The treatment goes considerably beyond the requirements of the ordinary scholarship candidate, so that pressure of work will probably not admit of its being read at school. But we hope that it will find a place in the course of reading at the university, for it is essentially a scholarly treatise. (7) This volume contains an introductory treat- two ment of algebra and geometry, the latter pre- | dominating. The chief feature of the book is the admirable nature of the examples. There greater variety of form and freshness of character than we have seen in any other text-book of this kind. The intrinsic difficulties are few, the pupil being required to show common sense and self- reliance rather than technical skill. Probably the better plan would be to use it in conjunction with other text-books rather than by itself. We hope it will become widely known. (8) This is a text-book of the old-fashioned type. There is little numerical work, the general angle is introduced at an early stage, the formule for ig a sums and products and for multiple angles pre- cede the solution of triangles, and there is no NO. 2235, VOL. 89| NATURE ! 657 simple work on heights and distances. The quality of the paper used is distinctly poor- (9) This volume presents in a fairly compact form a course of solid geometry, mainly practical | and descriptive; but some analytical work is also included. No claim is made to any originality in treatment. The book is divided into three parts: the first contains a discussion of the solid angle formed by three planes, the representation in plan and elevation of the regular solids in simple posi- tions and problems on sections; the second deals with plane and tortuous curves with special refer- ence to the helix; and the last with surfaces of revolution, cylinders, and ruled surfaces, the method of index notation being fully explained. Owing to the small size of the page, some of the figures are printed across the binding, but in other respects they are very clear. There are no exer- cises. (10) We cannot praise too highly this small volume; it is both simple and comprehensive. The subject of graphical statics is of real educa- tional value. To regard it as suitable only for engineering students is an error which is now generally recognised. The mathematical specialist and the boy who is devoting time to the subject for the sake of a general education will alike profit by a course of this character. But neither of them needs that developed technique which the engineer or architect must acquire. One hour a week for a single term for the specialist, and about twice as much for the amateur, is sufficient to cover the range of this book. The boy who needs it for professional purposes will, however, have to devote three or four terms to it. The text is clearly put and illustrated by a number of excellent diagrams. There is a_ first-rate collection of examples. (11) Dr. Besant’s treatise on Hydrostatics, which was published about forty years ago, is so well known that any comment upon it is super- fluous. It has now reached its seventh edition ; but the alterations and additions that have been made are comparatively few. In appearance it is now rather more attractive, owing to the use of a larger page and wider spacing. Among the additions may be noted a treatment of stability of equilibrium by the principle of energy, which occupies nine pages, the use of Weéierstrass’s / notation in some of the capillarity results which involve elliptic integrals, and a more comprehen- sive account of the equilibrium of revolving liquids. The collection of examples has also been improved by the introduction of a large number of problems taken from recent university examina- tion papers. 658 NATURE [AUGUST 29, I912 OUR BOOKSHELF. Handbook and Guide to Dundee and District. Prepared for the Members of the “ British ’ Association for the Advancement of Science,” on the occasion of their visit to Dundee, under the direction of the Local Publications Com- mittee. Section i. Edited by A. W. Paton. Section ii. Edited by Dr. A. H. Millar: | Pp. xiv +683. (Dundee: Printed by David Winter and Son.) AmonG the various publications obtained by members and associates at the meetings of the British Association one of the most valuable is always the handbook which serves as a history of the place in which the annual assembly is held and a guide to matters of interest in the district. The “Handbook and Guide to Dundee and District,” which has been prepared for the meeting to be opened on September 4, is one of the best arranged and most comprehensive we have had in recent years, The first section, which has been edited by Mr. A. W. Paton, the con- vener of committee, includes a history of Dundee, a forecast of its future, an account of its social service and city problems, its public services, its industrial and commercial life, and its importance as an educational centre. The second section, edited by Dr. A. H. Millar, includes seven scien- tific contributions dealing with the geology, the flora, ornithology, and so on, of Dundee and district; biographies of some distinguished men of science born in Forfarshire, and interesting in- formation as to local architecture, ancient trades and incorporations of the district ; and Dundee art, music and drama. The biographical articles are of particular inter- est. Sir Archibald Geikie writes on Lyell and Forfarshire geology, Sir David Prain on Robert Brown and other botanists, Dr. Millar on James Bowman Lindsay, whose experimental researches in electricity were a generation in advance of his time; and there are many other biographies of scientific celebrities in whom Dundee has pride. The volume runs to 683 pages, and in addition to a large number of illustrations and diagrams in the text, it includes a coloured botanical survey map of Fife and Forfarshire, a coloured geological map of Dundee and district, and a general plan of the docks and river wharves of Dundee. The Testing of Wood Pulp: a Practical Handbook for the Pulp and Paper Trades. By Sindall and Bacon. Pp. 148. (London: Marchant Singer and Co., 47 St. Mary Axe, 1912.) Tuis is a practical handbook dealing with secondary features of value of papermakers’ staple raw materials. The home production of the wood pulps representing only a small fraction of the consumption, there is necessarily a large trade with foreign products, chiefly Scandinavian, German, and American, involving close control on both sides. The primary factor of value is “cellulose quality ”—a somewhat elusive and com- plex term, and largely dependent upon empirical NO. 2235, VOL. 89] judgment; next in order, but of inverse import- ance, is the incidental moisture which for obvious reasons requires exact adjustment. The authors devote the first and larger section of their handbook to practical methods of esti- mating moisture in commercial deliveries. The important element in this operation is the sampling. This requires the expert. The authors are particularly qualified by long experience, forti- fied by full inquiry into the scientific basis of the operation of reducing, say, 100 tons to a repre- sentative 100 grammes to be actually subjected to the quantitative drying in the laboratory, and the volume reflects both qualifications. Details of manipulation are adequately set forth, and the mathematics of the several schemes of drawing average samples are analytically enunciated. The second section deals with the laboratory control of the bleaching of pulps. This is a ques- tion of bleach consumption and standard of colour in relation to that of cost. Here, again, it is a question of a plus-minus margin of value, and those few shillings per ton which in this highly competitive industry can by no means be left to “chance.” This little work is a useful contribution to the education of technologists, and the information of all business men who handle wood pulp as merchants or as manufacturers. : Fhe Grouse in Health and in Disease. Being the Popular Edition of the Report of the Committee of Inquiry on Grouse Disease. Edited by A. S. Leslie. Assisted by A. E. Shipley, F.R.S. Pp. xx+472+plates. (London: Smith, Elder and Co., 1912.) Price 12s. 6d. net. Tue limited number of copies in the original edition of this work rendered it practically certain that a new one would soon be called for; in issuing this in a condensed and more popular form, at a much lower price, the publisher and editor have been well advised, for it will now be within the reach of head-gamekeepers and other persons to whom it ought to be of special interest. The editor and his staff of experts are, moreover, to be congratulated on the fact that no material alteration has had to be made (so far as can be gathered from the preface) in respect to the cause and diagnosis of the disease, thereby demonstrat- ing the admirable and thorough manner in which the original investigation was conducted. In the present edition much of the purely technical part of the original report has been omitted, only such pathological conclusions as are essential to a right understanding of the subject being retained. Most of the original plates had been cleaned from the stones, but the loss of these is compensated by the reproduction from the Zoo- logical Society’s Proceedings of a series of coloured plates illustrating the seasonal and other variations in the grouse’s plumage. The wide circulation which this edition can scarcely fail to attain may lead to additional information on the subject. Revie AuGusT 29, 1912| LEETERS TO THE VEDITOR. {The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of Natures. No notice is taken of anonymous communications.] Butterfly Migration in Relation to Mimicry. Tue last paragraph in Prof. Poulton’s letter in Nature of June 13, referring to Mr. Swynnerton’s experience that adult birds possess “a very fair know- ledge of the main types of pattern and relative edibility of the local butterflies," reminds me of the only occasion on which I have seen a_ butterfly attacked by a bird during five years’ observation in this district. While walking in the observatory compound my attention was attracted by a Lycznid butterfly of an unfamiliar species, probably a migrant from a much lower elevation (the observatory is situated in the Palni Hills at an altitude of 7700 ft. above sea-level). I was watching the mazy flight of the insect in the | expectation that it would settle, when I noticed a shrike sitting on a post near by, also observing it attentively. He evidently had a fair knowledge of the local butterflies, and considered this to be some- thing new and worth eating, for he suddenly jumped from his perch and very cleverly caught the butterfly on the wing, a surprising feat for a bird having a rather clumsy build and heavy flight. Apparently he swallowed the insect entire, for I could discover no wings at the spot afterwards. The general immunity of butterflies and day-flying moths from attack by insectivorous birds is as strik- ingly evident here as it is in England or America, and seems a serious difficulty in the way of accepting the Batesian theory of mimicry. Not only do the birds of this district pay no attention to the common butterflies, but the latter seem to despise the former. I have even seen a small bird frequenting the bracken of the uplands chased for a considerable distance by the vigorous and somewhat aggressive Argynnis castetsi! In contrast with this immunity I have found that nocturnal moths, if forced to take long flights during the daytime, are very liable to attack, and in these circumstances stand a very poor chance indeed of reaching a haven of refuge. The watchful birds seem ever on the alert to snap up strangers. It would seem, then, that unfamiliar lepidoptera are much more liable to attack than the common everyday kinds. May it not be that the real danger to a species occurs during migrations, and that mimetic resemblances may afford a real protection during such flights? In entering a new district a mimetic species would be immune from attack if the birds were familiar with the model, even if the latter were not unpalatable, while, on the other hand, un- palatable species migrating would be liable to attack if unfamiliar to the local birds. In this district annual migrations occur across the Palnis during October and November of a consider- able number of species from the plains, including the following mimics and models :—Hypolimnas bolina, H. misippus, Euploea core, Danais plexippus, D. septentrionis, D. limniace, Papilio polytes, P. hector. In these mivrations it is noticeable that the mimetic species, H. bolina and H. misippus, are very liable to have torn wings, suggesting attack by birds, and it appears that the models as well as mimics are also sometimes attacked. An instance has been recorded by H. Leslie Andrewes (Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, xx.. 850), who found evidence of systematic onslaught by King crows (Dicrurus) on NO. 2235, vor. 89] NATURE 659 Danaids and Euploeas, also H. bolina 2 and Catop- silia crocale. This was near Ootacamund in the Nil- giris in October. All the species mentioned by him are migrants from the plains, and I believe do not normally inhabit the Nilgiri plateau, although com- monly seen at that particular season. There is a significant absence in the list of the very abundant and indigenous D. nilgiriensis, which would be well | known to the local birds. P. hector (the model of one form of P. polytes 2) appears to be specially liable to attack when migrat- ing across the Palnis, if one may assume that wings on the ground are good evidence of attack by birds. This liability to attack of migrants passing over the Palnis or Nilgiris appears, however, not of much significance when large areas are considered. A mimic such as H. misippus Q possesses, so to speak, a passport over the whole of the plains of India, Persia, Arabia, &c., owing to its close resemblance to the very abundant and widely distributed plains butterfly D. chrysippus. The facility thus afforded for dispersal would surely be an important factor in the life of the race. J. EvEerRsHED. Kodaikanal Observatory, South India, July 9. Parallel Mutations in Oenothera biennis. In a culture of a particular strain of O. biennis, L., a series of forms has been observed which constitute a parallel series to the well-known mutants from O. Lamarckiana, Ser. O. biennis, unlike O. Lamarckiana, has small flowers and a short style, rendering the flowers rather strictly self-pollinating. The particular race in question I received from the Madrid Botanical Garden. It has typical O. biennis flowers, as mentioned above, but the foliage closely resembles that of O. Lamarckiana. These plants were grown, to the number of 131 this year, at the John Innes Horticultural Institution, Merton, in connection with my other Oenothera cultures, which number in all more than 10,000 individuals. While in the majority of the plants in this culture the foliage resembles O. Lamarckiana or O. rubri- nervis, several have leaves corresponding to the mutants, there being six laevifolia, one lata, and pos- sibly one gigas. With larger cultures probably other mutant types will also be found. The peculiar characters of the lata foliage are even correlated with sterility of the anthers, as in the lata from O. Lamarckiana, though the flower otherwise is that of O. biennis. Though the foliage characters of these O. biennis forms are not identical with those of the Lamarckiana mutants, yet they differ from each other in correspond- ing ways, and thus form a parallel series. The interesting question as to the origin of this strain of O. biennis cannot be answered at the present time. Even if they originated through crossing (as seems probable), their flowers are now self-pollinating, so that each individual, with occasional exceptions, must represent a ‘‘pure line.”” The most probable assumption is that, as in the case of O. Lamarckiana, the aberrant forms all originated from one type having Lamarckiana-like foliage. Of the mutant types in this culture, the O. biennis lata at least has evidently talken its origin directly from one of the other types, since it produces no pollen. It has probably arisen through such irregularities in the distribution of chromosomes during the meiotic processes as I have described for the O. Lamarckiana series of forms, and the presumption is that some of the other mutant types have had a similar origin. This is in harmony with my hypothesis that the mutation phenomena in O. Lamarckiana are not due merely to hybrid splitting, 660 NAL OIE [AucuST 29, 1912 but are an indirect result of the germinal instability occasioned by crossing in the ancestry. It is to be hoped that further study of this new series of forms, with particular regard to the manner of origin of the mutant types, together with crossing experiments with the O. Lamarckiana series, will throw further light upon the nature of the mutation processes in Oenothera. R. R. Gates. 14 Well Walk, Hampstead, N.W. William Herschel and his ‘‘ Desertion.’’ In the valuable discourse on Sir William Herschel delivered at the Royal Institution on April 26 by Sir George Darwin, the well-known story of the desertion of the young bandsman from the Hanoverian Guards has been alluded to (NaTuRE, August 15, p. 620). A week or two after the delivery of this discourse the “Scientific Papers of Sir William Herschel” were pub- lished by the Royal Society and the Royal Astronomical Society, and in the introduction to that work there is given a detailed account of how Herschel left the army, written by himself and corroborated by the still exist- ing official discharge, signed by the colonel of the Guards in 1762. As many readers of NATURE may not come across that work, it may be of use to give a summary of the facts here. After the battle of Hastenbeck (July, 1757) young Herschel (eighteen years of age) left the army and went home to Hanover, on the suggestion of his father. But on his arrival there he found that as a non- combatant he was liable to be pressed into the army at any moment. He therefore at once (or very soon) returned to his regiment, putting on his uniform again (not taking it off, as stated) when he had passed the sentries at Herrenhausen. He remained with the army till the following September, when he finally left it, as his father pointed out to him that there could be no objection to his doing so, since he had not taken the oath when he joined the band as a boy of fourteen. He then went straight to Hamburg without going home first, and proceeded to England, where he had spent five or six months in the previous year and where he wished to settle. In March, 1762, he ob- tained a formal discharge, which is now printed in my above-mentioned introductory memoir. The story, originally published by: Airy on the authority of the Duke of Sussex, that George III. in 1782 handed Herschel a formal ‘‘ pardon,” must therefore have been due to some misunderstanding or other. L. E. Dreyer. Armagh Observatory, August 23. The Disintegration of Metals at High Temperatures. DurinG experiments on the disintegration of metals, particularly those which are not supposed to combine directly with oxygen, such as certain metals of the platinum group, I have found the disintegration to be due to the direct formation of an oxide. The loss of weight of a hot platinum wire, for instance, is zero in nitrogen, in hydrogen, and in a vacuum. By means of an expansion apparatus, all metals tried are found to give nuclei when oxygen is present, but not when it is absent, either in other gases or in a vacuum. The occluded gases come off in a vacuum in molecular aggregations, but there is no evidence that they bring particles of the metal with them. The loss of weight cannot be due to volatilisation, as it diminishes with diminution of pressure of surrounding oxygen. By weighing experiments, the weight of oxygen absorbed and of platinum lost correspond to the forma- tion of a hitherto unknown oxide of. platinum. This oxide is. deposited upon the walls of the containing NO. 2235, VOL. 89] vessel as a black powder; on being heated it turns to the metal, producing a platinum mirror. Micro- scopic examination does not reveal any evidence of crystals, either in the black powder or in the mirror. If, however, a piece of glass having such a deposit, and having been heated in different places, is boiled in aqua regia, the parts where the metallic mirror has been formed by heating become clear very quickly, whilst the black powder, where it has not been heated, remains unaffected. J. H. T. Roperts. University of Liverpool, August 20. September Meteor-showers. Tue following meteor-showers become due during the month of September :— Epoch September 4, 19h. 30m. (G.M.T.), nineteenth order of magnitude. Principal maximum, September 4, 6h. 10m. ; secondary maxima, September 3, 7h. 4om., and September 4, 18h. Epoch September 7, 3h. 30m., approximately first order of magnitude. Principal maxima, September 6, 2h. 15m., and September 7, 21th. 5m.; secondary maxima, September 7, 12h. 30m., and September 8, 20h. 4om. Epoch September”7, 2h., approximately first order of magnitude. Principal maximum, September 6, — 6h. 30m.; secondary maxima, September 5, 11h. 20m., and September 6, 23h. 55m. Epoch September 9, 15h. 30m., approximately seventeenth order of magnitude. Principal maximum, September 7, 22h. 50m.; secondary maximum, Sep- tember 9, 13h. Epoch September 9, 14h., sixteenth order of magni- tude. Principal maximum, September 8, toh. 15m. ; secondary maximum, September 8, 2h. 35m. Epoch September 12, 2oh., thirty-fifth order of magnitude. Principal maxima, September 9, 18h. 25m., and September 11, t4h. 30m. Epoch September 8, 17h. 30m., approximately seventeenth order of magnitude. Principal maxima, September 9, 22h. 45m., and September 11, 18h. 45m. ; secondary maximum, September 9, 8h. 34m. Epoch September 16, 8h., sixteenth order of magni- tude. Principal maxima, September 13, 1oh. 30m., and September 15, 6h. 35m.; secondary maximum, September 15, 14h. 30m. ; Epoch September 14, 22h. 30m., eleventh order of — magnitude. Principal maximum, September 13, 22h. 25m.; secondary maxima, September 12, 12h. 50m., September 13, 18h. 30m., and September 14, — 8h. 50m. & Epoch September 16, gh. 30m., twelfth order of magnitude. Principal maximum, September 14, — 16h. 50m.; secondary maximum, September 16, 4h. 55m. Epoch September 15, 4h. 30m., tenth order of magnitude. Principal maximum, September 14, 20h. 45m.; secondary maximum, September 13, oh. 40m. Epoch September 14, 15h., eleventh order of magni- tude. Principal maxima, September 15, 18h. 25m., and September 17, 14h. 25m.; secondary maximum, September 17, 2h. 35m. Epoch September 19, 2th. 30m., approximately seventh order of magnitude. Principal maximum, September 21, 2h. 35m.; secondary maxima, Septem- ber 20, 8h. 45m., and September 21, 6h. 30m. Epoch September 21, 9h. 30m., third order of magnitude. Principal maximum, September 22h. 35m.; secondary maxima, September 23, 2h. 30m., and September 24, 22h. 25m. Epoch September 25, 15h. 30m., fourteenth order of magnitude. Principal maximum, September 23, 22, AUGUST 29, 1912] NATURE 661 2oh. 50m. ; secondary maxima, September 24, oh. 45m., and September 25, gh. 50m. Epoch September 27, 8h., seventeenth order of magnitude. Principal maximum, September 26, 7h. 30m. ; secondary maxima, September 25, 20h. 4om., and September 26, 18h. 25m. Epoch September 28, 15h. 20m., sixth order of magnitude. Principal maximum, September 27, 5h. 45m.; secondary maxima, September 28, 3h. 3om., and roh. 30m. There is a considerable amount of meteoric activity in September, the first maximum of importance occurring on September 4, 6h. 1om. The principal maxima that become due on September 6, especially the first of them, and the principal maximum that falls on September 7, 2th. 5m., are of very high intensity. The principal maxima also are interesting that occur on September 13, toh. 30m., and on the three days September 21-23. Joun R. Henry. August 26. A Flower Sanctuary. Some of the correspondence in your columns on the subject of the flora of the Cheddar Cliffs seems to assume that the Somerset County Council has a power to “proclaim” the flowers in question, that is, to protect them from being gathered, and that it has not exercised this power. I should be much indebted to any of your correspondents who can show me what power the council possesses to pro- tect particular flowers, or how a bye-law can be framed for this purpose with any chance of its being valid. I think it will be found that, without further legislation, County Councils are powerless to afford the protection desired. Epw. Fry. Failand House, Failand, nr. Bristol. A Point in Geological Nomenclature. Wir reference to Mr. A. Irving’s communication under this heading in Nature of August 15 (p. 608), the term Quartdér, as German equivalent of our ** Quaternary’ or ‘‘ Post-tertiary,” is by no means a speciality of Prof. Credner, but the designation generally accepted by all German geologists since Naumann. F. von Hochstetter (Vienna) used Quartér long before Credner, and it appears in the “ Flétzforma- tionslehre,”’ written in 1856 by B. von Cotta, who suc- ceeded Naumann in 1842 at the Mining Academy of Freiberg. F. Gir7man. 16 Glebe Road, West Bridgford, Nottingham, August 17. BOATS AND LIFE-SAVING APPLIANCES ON SHIPS. A T the time when the Titanic was lost the stand- ing Advisory Committee appointed by the Board of Trade under the provisions of Merchant Shipping Acts was engaged in the reconsideration of the regulations for boats and_ life-saving appliances. A report had been presented by the committee recommending an extension of the pre- viously existing scale for boats, so as to include the largest passenger steamers; and in the course of the inquiry by Lord Mersey and his colleagues an investigation was made of the causes of an apparently long delay on the part of the Marin Department of the Board of Trade in dealing with that report. Satisfactory explanations were forth- coming; but, in view of the great calamity that NO. 2235, VOL. 89| ' j had occurred, it was obvious that the committee must reconsider the whole subject. That action was ordered by Mr. Buxton, and the committee received special instructions, its opinion being re- quested in regard to existing statutory regulations for boats and life-saving appliances on ships generally, and suggestions being invited in regard to ‘““means calculated to diminish the risk or to mitigate the effects of accidents to vessels at Sanu Obviously a wide field of inquiry was laid open by these instructions; and in order to deal with this task efficiently the committee decided to co- opt additional members. A number of eminent men—shipowners, shipbuilders and_ professional officers of the great registration societies—were invited to join. Captain Watt, formerly com- modore of the Cunard Line, was also co-opted, as his experience in command of trans-Atlantic passenger steamers had been altogether exceptional and had only recently been terminated as captain of the great steamship Lusitania. The original committee had been both strong and representative, so that the final report—now published as a Blue- book (Cd. 6353, 1912)—represents the views of men of great experience in the construction, com- mand, navigation and ownership of shipping. Since the report appeared, criticisms have been bestowed upon the constitution of the committee, which has been thought to have been biassed in favour of the shipowners of the United Kingdom. A certain confusion of thought underlies such criticism. The committee was intended to be representative of all classes interested in, and having special experience of, shipping. Its functions are purely advisory; the Board of Trade reserves the right of dealing with all recommend- ations made by the committee, and the framing of all regulations; and in this manner, as experience has shown, the public interests have been well safeguarded. Moreover, a perusal of the report and of the Minority Reports and Reservations— of which there are five—furnishes no real ground for the criticisms to which allusion has been made. Apart from its expressions of opinion and its recommendations for future practice, the report is of great value as a summary of facts. Five sub-committees were appointed, and their reports form parts of the main report. The first of these sub-committees dealt with types of boats; the second with wireless telegraphy; the third with steamship routes; the fourth with vessels em- ployed to carry passengers in the home trade; the fifth with statistical information. This last sub- committee consisted solely of the chairman (Sir Norman Hill) and the secretary (Mr. Matthew); and the report really embodies returns (relating to the subjects treated) for which the Board of Trade is primarily responsible, although the comments thereon are probably the work of the chairman— a gentleman whose opinions on shipping questions are entitled to respect. It is impossible in this brief notice even to enumerate the contents of the fifth report; all that can be said here is that the ' extraordinary degree of safety for life and property 662 NATURE [AuGuUST 29, 1912 at sea which has been attained dwring the last ten years is demonstrated, and the altogether ex- ceptional character of the circumstances which attended the loss of the Titanic is made clear. The main recommendations of the report may be summarised. Tirst, it is recognised that “the stability and seaworthy qualities of the vessel it- self” must be regarded as of primary importance. This includes the question of watertight sub- division, now under investigation by a special com- mittee. Second, as regards boats and life-saving appliances it is recommended that accommodation should be provided for the total number of persons which each foreign-going passenger steamship is licensed to carry. This has not been done hitherto in the largest passenger steamships, but the report shows that the rules hitherto in existence for such ships were sufficient to provide boats carried under davits for all persons in 343 out of 521 such ships which were examined, and that out of the 178 ships for which these rules did not require sufficient boats under davits for all persons carried no fewer than forty-nine ships actually carried sufficient boats, their equipment going beyond legal require- ments. For passenger steamers in the home trade—ply- ing in estuaries and rivers, cross-channel and coast- ing services, etc.—the recommendation made is that the boats, life-rafts and buoyant apparatus taken together should aggregate accommodation for not less than 50 per cent. of the passengers and crew. ‘The conditions under which these vessels work obviously render it probable that, in most cases, external help would soon be available in case of accident, and the sub-committee says that there is “a consensus of opinion that in these smaller vessels any considerable increase in the number of boats is not practicable and would be a source of danger rather than an element of safety.” While the force of this argument is undoubted, it is proper to add that the considera- tions urged therein make it imperative that the officials of the Board of Trade in granting passen- ger certificates and fixing the maximum numbers to be carried should also have regard thereto. One must be impressed afresh in reading this report with the fact that even when the provision of boats and life-saving appliances is ample, there are comparatively few cases in which these can be fully utilised in case of serious accident. In the case of the Titanic the boat accommodation which existed was not fully utilised, although the boats were safely lowered and a calm prevailed. Modern ocean-going steamers carry their boats at great heights above water, and with any rolling motion of the vessel it is dangerous, if not im- possible, to lower the boats. In very moderate weather it may be done, but even then occupies much time. This matter has been referred to another departmental committee, the labours of which are just beginning. When the reports have been presented from the Committee on Boat Lowering Appliances and from the Bulkhead Committee, the President of the Board of Trade and his staff in the Marine Depart- 10. 2235, VOL. 89| ment will have much further material for con- sideration, in addition to the great mass of facts. and opinions contained in the report now before us. One is disposed to ask: What will he do with it? Captain Hampson, a member of the Advisory Committee, in a lengthy reservation, which is severely dealt with by the chairman in a separate note, strongly urges the appointment of “a commission or committee composed of members independent in every way of the shipping interest, but at which various representatives of the different sections of shipping — should be invited to submit their views.” Such a course appears to be most undesirable; it would amount to an abandonment of the investigations by competent committees already set on foot. The materials on which future regulations ought to be based will be ample when existing committees have finished their labours, and the responsibility for these regulations must be accepted by the President of the Board of Trade. This general statement of the case_applies not only to the points mentioned above, but to other important matters, including manning of British ships, boat drills, wireless telegraphy, the use of searchlights, rules. for navigation, and others which cannot be men- tioned. In one direction the Advisory Committee appears to have undertaken a gratuitous task, as it has investigated the advance made in the speed of ocean-going steamships in order to demonstrate that the general increase has been small and that even now ships exceeding twenty knots are few in number. The really important question is not what maximum sea speed a ship can maintain, but what is an “undue speed” likely to lead to: accidents in special circumstances. The committee itself recognises this distinction and one of its most valuable recommendations is that pro- posing to extend the present regulations and to prescribe to those in charge of ships the necessity for proceeding at moderate speed “‘at night in the known vicinity of ice.” Anything less than this, after the loss of the Titanic, would be contrary to: public feeling and to common sense. FORESTS AND RAINFALL, SIR W. SCHLICH, URORGS:, Protessonmot Forestry at Oxford, writing in the new edition of the “Encyclopedia Britannica,” defines. a forest as ‘“‘an area which is for the most part set aside for the production of timber and other forest produce, or which is expected to exercise certain climatic effects, or to protect the locality against injurious influences.” One of the most important of the climatic effects ascribed by some to forests is the increased amount of precipitation, not only in the forest areas themselves, but also: in the country surrounding them, produced by the influence of the forests upon the moisture-laden air which passes over them. Owing to the relatively small area of our forests and the rarity of serious floods or prolonged AUGUST 29, I9I =| Sought the question 4 the influence of ae upon rainfall has not received much attention in this country, but on the Continent,—in France, Germany, and Austria especially,—in America, and, more recently, in India, the arguments for and against the existence of any influence have been put forward at great length, and sometimes with much energy. The literature on the subject is somewhat bewildering, not only on account of its extent, but also because of the surprising divergence of views entertained by different authorities. Most European and some American writers are in favour of the accuracy of the supposed forest influence, while other American authorities maintain that the effect is entirely fictitious; that the instrumental records which have been adduced in support of it are affected by errors brought about by differences of exposure in the forest and in the open, and that, if there is a connection between forests and climate, it is the latter which controls the growth of the former, the former having no appreciable effect on the climate. On one side the problem has been attacked by the historical method; that is, the state of a forest and the amount of rainfall in its vicinity are com- pared together over as long a period as possible. On account of the lack of trustworthy records of rainfall for the long periods required, the fall is usually estimated from accounts of the condition of some stream or river in the neighbourhood. As an example of this method may be cited the case of the river Loire, which in former times afforded communication by water between Nantes and the central provinces of France. In 1551 the Marquis of Northampton went from Orleans to Nantes, with his suite, in “five large, many-cabined boats,” whereas navigation is now impossible above Saumur, the distance of which from Nantes is less than half that of Orleans. This change is ascribed to the deforestation carried on extensively in the surrounding country in the seventeenth century, and the consequent diminution in the volume of water in the Loire due to diminished rainfall. It is here tacitly assumed that the general climate over Western Europe has remained unaltered throughout the period, and that any change in the climatic conditions is due to local forest influence, secular changes of climate being entirely overlooked. The strongest arguments in favour of the sup- posed influence are based upon observations at so-called “parallel’’ stations; i.e. meteorological stations are established within a forest area and in the open country round the forest, respectively, and a long series of simultaneous observations are made at all the stations. In nearly all localities where such observations have been carried out, appreciable difference exists between the rainfall measured inside the forest and that measured out- side, the forest station having an excess of pre- cipitation over the “parallel” station. A remark- able example is that of Lintzel, in Hanover. In 1882 the rainfall at this station was considerably less than at most neighbouring stations. Young NO. 2235, VOL. 89] NATURE an | | fore _ effect of forests on rainfall. 663 trees were planted round the station in 1877, ana as they grew up the rainfall at Lintzel gradually increased in comparison with its neighbours, until in 1890 it was generally in excess where i in 1882 it had been in defect. The objection urged against the historical method does not apply to this kind of reasoning, which appears conclusive on the face of it. In a series of recent papers in the \Meteorologische Zeitschrift, J. Schubert has shown that a forest station in West Prussia and Posen has from 2 to 10 per cent., and in Silesia from 2 to 6 per cent. more rainfall than a parallel station in the open country. From this it is argued that inasmuch as a forest increases the rainfall over its Own area, it may be expected to produce some effect of the same kind in the surrounding districts, because the wind would carry forward the rain- bearing clouds formed by the forest influence. The value of observations derived from parallel stations has, however, been strongly criticised by some American meteorologists. Prof. Cleveland Abbe has urged that the results are vitiated on account of the fact that a rain gauge exposed in a forest clearing is not subjected to winds as strong as those which pass over a gauge at a parallel station in the open country; and that, in conse- quence, the forest gauge may be expected to record more rain, although the real fall may be identical at the two places. As a result of his investiga- tions, Abbe is of opinion that there is no appre- ciable difference in the rainfall outside and inside a forest. Schubert was aware of the force of this contention, and definite allowance was made for difference of exposure in the results quoted above. His margin is, however, so small, and the correc- tion allowed on account of exposure differences is so uncertain, that his final result cannot be regarded as furnishing a conclusive solution of the problem. In a report on the “Influence of Forests on Climate and on Floods,” Prof. Willis L. Moore, Chief of the United States Weather Bureau, brings forward some considerations against the supposed One piece of evidence shows how climate affects the extent of a forest | area, and suggests that the influence, if any, is from climate to forest, and not conversely. Mr. E. Huntington, travelling in Chinese Turkestan, stated that “poplar forests, which once extended for scores of miles, now form wastes of branchless dead trunks, like ‘gaunt grey skeletons, and beds of dead reeds cover hundreds of square miles. It has often been asserted that the destruction of forests has been the cause of the diminution of rainfall. In the Lop basin the opposite appears to be the case; the supply of water has diminished, and therefore the forests have died.” The physical explanation for the increased rain- fall which is put forward is that the evidence is undisputed that air temperature is less and per- centage humidity is greater over a forest than over the neighbourhood. In favourable circum- stances, condensation of water vapour may there- be set up over a forest, and once the condensation has started, it may continue auto- matically, owing to the large amount of latent heat oe4 NATURE [AUGUST 29, 1912 liber Aiea in the process of condensation, which will tend to set up convection currents. Prof. J. von Hann’s opinion on the subject, in the latest edition of his “Handbuch der Klimatologie” is that the question cannot be definitely answered at present, but that the effect, if any, should be greater in the tropics than in higher latitudes. Dr. G. T. Walker, of the Meteorological Office, Simla, is of a similar opinion. He states that if forests have any in- fluence at all on the rainfall, it is probably not ee | in India than 5 per cent. Rac: AND THE ELECTRIC THEORY OF MiETG ETT N Sir John W. F. Herschel’s classical article on light (dated 1827) in the “ Encyclopedia Metropolitana ” of 1830, p. 439, there is a vague reference to a theory of light then recently pro- pounded by Oersted, in which he sought to explain the nature of light-waves as a succession of minute electric sparks. Desiring to follow up this refer- ence, the writer of this notice consulted, but fruit- lessly, all the writings of Oersted within his reach. Thereupon he applied for information to Prof. Absalon Larsen, of Copenhagen, who, after con- sultation with Prof. Christiansen, kindly directed the writer to sources not available in London, and furnished the extracts now given from Oersted’s writings, The theory of light suggested by Oersted was first advanced in a remarkable book, written in the German language, and published in Berlin in 1812, under the title, “ Ansicht der chemischen Naturgesetze,’ von H. C. Oersted. The theory of light occupies only a small part of this book (298 pages in all), which is of a much wider scope. Oersted proposes to refer all chemical phenomena to fundamental agents (forces), hoping thus to initiate a development of theoretical chemistry analogous to the development which the intro- duction of simple laws had brought about in mechanics. A quotation from his own introduc- tion, pages 7-9, will state the position :— It will not be without use here at the outset to review the whole road to be travelled. We intend to make the beginning of our investigation with a demonstration and arrangement of all bodies accord- ing to their chemical nature. Then we will set forth some considerations about the ordinary chemical actions known to us, and will show from them that all chemical changes referred to two widely extended forces of Nature. We will at the same time demonstrate that these forces are able to act not only by direct, but also by indirect, contact; that consequently they can be con- ducted. This will lead us to those chemical circuit- actions which have already been known to us for a long time in Galvanism. And, lastly, this will bring us on to demonstrate chemical forces in their free activity, and so at the same time to make evident their identity with electrical forces. Here, then, we shall reverse the course of our investigation, and directing our attention to electrical forces, seek to discover how these also can be related to the chemical form of action. And besides we then be- come aware that the electric forces, like the chemical NO. 2235, VOL. 89| OERSTED hitherto investigated can be | we shall | | heat and ones, are two, and that they at the same time are opposed; that both are of general application, and that, from the state of relative rest in which they exist in bodies, they can pass over into activity when aroused by external forces... . / After we have in this way set forth the broad connection of chemical and electrical actions, in these two opposite direc- tions, we shall, relying on an investigation into the nature of conduction, try to show under what con- ditions the two forces produce Heat, and under what’ conditions they produce Light. We shall thereby re- gard these great phenomena in a far more intimate connection with the rest of nature than were possible according to the ordinary view. Starting from the nature of electric conduction, Oersted then attempts to show the conditions under which the two opposing agencies produce light respectively. His ideas about conduction he develops on pages 138, 139 :— If, therefore, one of the electric forces is pro- pagated through space, this occurs in the following way: that it attracts the opposing force in the nearest zone, binds it, and itself in turn suffers a diminution from it, in ¢onsequence of which the next zone receives actually the overplus of the same force as it spreads, but itself excites a new zone of the opposing force, so as again to react, and so forth. One may express all this by saying that Electricity is propagated by wave-motion (die Electricitét verbreitet sich undulatorisch). As to the conditions under which the conduction of electricity produces heat, Oersted writes on pp. 164-165 :— We have seen that Conduction consists in a dis- turbance running through all points of the body and in a restitution of equilibrium. So long as the Con- duction is complete, the restitution will always be brought about by the mutual attraction of the force evoked out of equilibrium. But when by reason of a forced conduction a greater quantity of force pene- trates the body than the latter is able spontaneously to conduct away, then at once the interiorly-disturbed equilibrium cannot be restored again by the body’s own forces. ... This condition, in which equi- librium is disturbed at every point of the body, but in such wise that no recognisable separation of the forces is attained, gives us the phenomenon of Jeli 6-08 To distinguish it from other theories of heat, the mechanical, which regards heat as a vibration of material particles, and the chemical, which assumes a particular substance (caloric), Oersted calls his own the dynamical theory. As regards light, Oersted first shows that heat may be transformed into light, and vice versa, and he therefore considers heat and light as pro- duced by the same two agencies. The difference is that, as stated above, for the production of heat no real separation of the two agencies is needed, whereas for the production of light the tension of the opposite forces or agencies must reach its maximum value and produce a discharge. The following passages are from p. 222 :— . sO We must content ourselves with knowing that Light will be produced if the tension of opposi- tion of ‘the internal forces has attained its maximum | and passes over into equalisation. | : 'AucusT 29, 1912 | NATURE 665 He then continues :— The propagation of Light occurs, as we have already seen, by dynamical undulations, for so we call the uninterrupted alternation of the opposing forces. This view stands between the Undulatory theory which Huygens and Euler taught and the Emanation theory of the Newtonian school, almost in the same way as the dynamical theory of Heat between the mechanical and electrical theories. Schelling, in his Weltseele, has recognised the possi- | F | work on the subject. bility of such a view. Besides these extracts from the ‘Ansicht der chemischen Naturgesetze,” Oersted ex- pounded his theory of light in a_ particular communication which he made to the Royal Danish Society of Science, and of which an abstract is printed in its Proceedings for the year 1815-16, pp. 12-15. One sentence will suffice as a summary of this abstract :— According to the theory which has been set forth here, one may fairly well consider a ray of Light as a succession of immensely small electric sparks which might be called the elements of Light. It is evident that, with all his ingenious in- sight, Oersted was far from having formulated an electric theory of light in terms which would admit of verification. His perception that electric forces were called into play in the displacements of the luminiferous waves was obscured by the view which he held of conduction; for, surely, the condition of the quasi-elastic actions called forth in the propagation of light should have been that the forces or agencies at work must not attain so great a value as to produce a discharge, as we now understand it. Indeed, in the existing state of knowledge, when as yet the quasi- elasticity of dielectrics was unknown, the founda- | tion facts for an electric theory were not avail- able. The remarkable fact is that in the paucity of available facts his speculations took him so far as they did along the road of progress. Sirvanus P. THompPson. SCIENCE AND RESERVATIONS.! Aten a district interesting to geologist and : naturalist alike is handed over to a body of scientific investigators, the result in these days of intensive research is likely to be important. Dr. Conwentz, the indefatigable pioneer of nature- protection, has edited a volume of 700 pages, which gives the results of such a study in the case of the Plagefenn at Chorin, in Prussia, a dis- trict of marshes, lakes, islands, and wooded country. Of course, there are gaps in the mass of knowledge accumulated during several years, in the fauna and lower flora, for instance. But the whole work is a remarkable study in classifica- tion and generalisation. The relations of water and earth, for which the historical records of the district are very useful, have seldom been studied so minutely, especially in 1 “ Beitriige zur Naturdenkmalpflege.” Herausgegeben von H. Conwentz. Dritter Bznd—*‘Das Plagefenn bei Chorin.” Ergebnisse der Durch- forschung eines Naturschutzgebietes der preussischen Forstverwaltung, By H. Conwentz, F. Dahl, R. Kolkwitz, H. Schroeder, J. Stoller and E. Ulrich. Pp. xvi+688. (Berlin: Gebriider Borntraeger, 1912). Price 18.75 marks NO. 2235, VOL. 89] Dies reference to the lower vegetation. | Schroeder describes the diluvial, and Dr. J. Stoller the alluvial, structure. On their foundations, Dr. E. Ulrich bases his botanical study. This, and the monograph on the fauna, are fine studies. As contributions to ecology they are of great value. Many readers should be able to obtain a better idea of the intricacies of plant communities from such a monograph as Dr. Ulrich’s than from a general The sociology of plants and animals, as conditioned and initiated by geological and meteorological forces, has still ali the fascina- tion of a young science. Excellent diagrams and maps illustrate the social processes, so well marked in this district, which Dr. Ulrich praises as a , model of biological complexity and natural beauty. Professor Kolkwitz’s essay on the plankton is placed at the end of the volume, but should be read with Dr. Ulrich’s contribution. The account of the fauna could not have been in better hands than in those of Prof. F. Dahl. His general introduction on metheds of research and his conclusions on the relations between animal and plant communities are fresh and important. The analytical lists are carefully executed; that of the fauna extends to more than 200 pages. The index is a good one. The keynote of the whole study, and the point of departure and of arrival alike, is the coast-line of a fresh-water lake; and there are few more interesting sites for the study of organic life. Our own country, it may be observed, has an abun- dance of similar districts, more or less useless to the agriculturist, but of enormous value for scientific research. A. E. CRAWLEY. NOTES. ARRANGEMENTS have been made for the inclusion of two organised discussions in the proceedings of | Section H (Anthropology) during the forthcoming | meeting of the British Association at Dundee. On Friday, September 6, a discussion on the ethnological aspects of Scottish folklore will be opened by Mr. W. Crooke, president of the Folklore Society, and papers will be contributed by Mr. E. S. Hartland, Mr. W. J. Brodie-Innes, and Canon J. A. McCulloch. On Monday, September 9, the president of the section, Prof. G. Elliot Smith, F.R.S., will read a paper on the distribution of megalithic monuments, in which | he will develop the theories as to the racial affinities of their builders which he has recently put forward. In the discussion which will follow, Prof. Ridgeway, Prof. J. L. Myres, Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins, Dr. T. Ashby, and others have promised to speak. THE summary of the weather issued by the Meteoro- logical Office for the week ending August 24 shows that the general conditions were again extremely un- settled over the United Kingdom as a whole, but in some localities in Scotland, Ireland, and the north-east of England rain is said to have been less common than elsewhere. The deficiency of temperature ex- ceeded 3° in most districts, and the south-west of England was the only district where the highest day 666 NATURE [AUGUST 29, 1912 temperature touched 70°. The radiation temperature on the grass fell below the freezing point at several places in different parts of Great Britain. The rain- fall was above the average in all districts except in the west of Scotland, and in the south-west of England the measurement was as much as three times the average. Bright sunshine was everywhere very deficient. In the south-west of England the mean daily duration was less than two hours, and in the south-east of England, where there was more sun- shine, the duration was little more than three hours. The summary of the weather for the current week will show very similar conditions to prevail, with a greater excess of rainfall over nearly the entire king- dom. The rainfall of 6 inches in less than twelve hours at Norwich on August 26 is one of the heaviest falls which have occurred in so short a time in England. In Australian papers which have just come to hand we regret to see the announcement of the death of Mr. Francis James Gillen. Anthropology has thus lost a conscientious and devoted worker, whose world- wide reputation has been well earned in a fast-vanish- ing field of investigation, which, unfortunately, attracts far too few men of Mr. Gillen’s type. It is now forty-five years since he entered the public service of South Australia, and his official work caused him to become virtually exiled to the heart of the Australian continent; but he devoted his spare time to the study of the aboriginal people amongst whom he lived, and it is no exaggeration to say that he acquired a much more intimate knowledge of the customs and beliefs of the most backward race of mankind now in existence than all other investigators had been able to collect; and this wealth of accurate information was put to the best use when Mr. Gillen collaborated with Prof. Baldwin Spencer, F.R.S., of Melbourne, and produced a series of the most discussed volumes that have ever been contributed to ethnological literature. The opportunities for such investigations as Mr. Gillen carried on are abundant, but with the rapid intrusion of European customs into every corner of the world they will soon be gone for ever. It is thus with especial gratitude that all students of mankind will always regard the labours of such men as the late Mr. Gillen, who have seized the opportunities presented by their daily occupations and rescued for posterity an accurate knowledge of the fast vanishing customs and beliefs of primitive peoples. Dr. Jean Mascarr, of the Paris Observatory, has been appointed director of the Lyons Observatory in succession to M. André. Ir is announced in the Revue Scientifique that M. E. Solvay has given 4ool. to the Institute of Physical Chemistry of the Berlin University to assist the re- searches on which Prof. Nernst is engaged. The gift will be renewed for three years. Tue collection of foreign Lepidoptera bequeathed by the late Mr. H. T. Adams, of Enfield, has been received at the Natural History Branch of the British | Museum. to comprise about 150,000 specimens. It is contained in 68 cabinets, and is stated The estimated Tue death is announced in Science of Prof. E. L. Richards, emeritus professor of mathematics of Yale University, aged seventy-four years; and of Dr. M. H. Richardson, Moseley professor of surgery at Harvard University, aged sixty-one years. Mr. Cuarrtes Ebr, who was surgeon and naturalist to H.M.S. Assistance, which took part in one of the expeditions in search of Sir John Franklin’s party in the Arctic region, has just died in his ninetieth year. Tue death is announced, in his eighty-first year, of Mr. Alexander Dean, senior lecturer on horticulture to the Surrey County Council, and a well-known authority on horticultural matters. Mr. Dean received the Victorian Medal for Horticulture. He was a fre- quent contributor to periodicals dealing with garden- ing subjects, and the author of a useful little book on vegetable culture. Tue death is announced of Prof. John Craig, one of the leading American horticulturists. He was born in 1864 in the province of Quebec, but received his education at the Iowa State College. He returned to Canada in 1890 to become horticulturist at the Dominion experiment station at Ottawa: In 1899 he once more crossed the border to take up an appoint- ment as professor of horticulture and forestry at the Iowa State College. Since 1903 he had held the chair of horticulture at Cornell University. He was the editor of The National Nurseryman, and the author of a text-book: of practical agriculture. WE notice with regret the death, on August 25, in his sixtieth year, of Dr. Andrew Wilson, lecturer on physiology and health to the George Combe Trust and Gilchrist Trust lecturer. In 1876 Dr. Wilson was appointed lecturer on zoology and comparative anatomy at the Edinburgh Medical School; and he was at one time editor of Health. But Dr. Wilson was best known as a popular lecturer and writer on scientific subjects, in which capacity he did very useful work in making clear and interesting to general readers and the ordinary public the results of research in various departments of natural science specially. He was the author of a large number of popular books on scientific subjects. WE regret to see the announcement of the death on August 26, at sixty-one years of age, of Mr. Clinton Thomas Dent, vice-president of the Royal College of | Surgeons, honorary member of the Philadelphia Patho- logical Society, and late Hunterian professor and member of the Court of Examiners of the Royal Col- lege of Surgeons. Mr. Dent was the author of a number of surgical works, and was famous as an AJpine climber, and also for a series of explorations in the Caucasus. He was secretary of the Alpine Club from 1878 to 1880, vice-president in 1884, and presi- dent from 1886 to 1889. He took a large part in editing the mountaineering volume of the Badminton Library, and was also the author of a volume entitled “Above the Snow Line,” published in 1885. WE notice with regret the announcement of the death, at eighty-six years of age, of Mr. A. Brothers, of Manchester, one of the oldest photographers value of the collection is between 40,0001. and 45,oo0l. | in England, and the author of several important NO. 2235, VOL. 89| AvucusT 29, 1912] NATURE 667 works upon photography. Mr. Brothers was the inventor of the use of magnesium ribbon for flash- light photography, and he obtained some of the earliest photographs of the solar corona. Several hundred photographs were taken during the American eclipse of August 7, 1869, and one of them was reproduced in the first number of Nature, but it shows only the chromosphere and prominences. During the eclipse on December 12 of the following year excellent photo- graphs of the solar corona were taken by Mr. Brothers at Syracuse, and also by American observers in Spain. A woodcut reproduction of one of Mr. Brothers’s pic- tures appeared in Nature of February 23, 1871, and some points of interest were indicated by him in an article in that number and in the issue of March 9, 1871. The photographs were of great scientific value in connection with the then much-discussed question as to the nature of the corona. Dr. T. B. MecCuintic, of the American Public Hos- pital and Marine Hospital service, has died at the early age of thirty-seven, the victim of his own devo- tion to the cause of public health. For the last two years he had been investigating ‘‘ Rocky Mountain spotted fever’? in Montana, a disease most prevalent in the Bitter Root Valley. Dr. McClintic’s campaign against the epidemic had prevented the development of any case in the valley this year until he was him- self stricken. He had done much notable work in his previous career. He served on the relief ship after the San Francisco earthquake, assisted in administer- ing the plague quarantine in the Philippines, and, in conjunction with Dr. Anderson, of the hygienic labora- tory, set the standard for antiseptics in the United States. The New York Evening Post, in a leading article, says that Dr. McClintic’s name ‘‘ will be added to the illustrious roll of men who have cheerfully faced dangers more appalling than those of battle, and have yielded up their lives in the effort to save the lives cf others.” WE regret to have to record the death of the Rev. Robert Ashington Bullen, who passed away suddenly on August 16, aged sixty-two. He was an enthusiastic naturalist, a Fellow of the Linnean, Geological, and Zoological Societies, and an active member of council of the Palaontographical and Malacological Societies. He was a generous supporter of scientific research, especially in geology, and either inspired or himself made numerous contributions to knowledge. He was closely associated with the late Sir Joseph Prestwich at the time when he was preparing his classic paper on the supposed worked flints from the plateau gravels of Kent; and Mr. Bullen himself subsequently pub- lished many descriptions and illustrations of “‘ eoliths ”’ both from Kent and other districts. He explored a prehistoric cemetery at Harlyn Bay, Cornwall, and described his results in a small work, of which the first edition appeared in 1901, the third edition quite lately. He visited the Bermuda Islands, of which he contributed a useful geological description to The Geological Magazine in 1911; and at the time of his death he was occupied with the study of material which he had collected from superficial deposits in the Canary Islands. NO. 2235, VOL. 89] We also note with regret the death of Captain Arthur William Stiffe, who had been for many years a familiar figure at the meetings of the Geological and Royal Geographical Societies. Capt. Stiffe was born in 1831, and during service in the Indian navy from 1849 to 1862 was chiefly occupied with hydro- graphic surveys of the Persian Gulf and the Mekran coast. In 1873 he read to the Geological Society an account of the mud craters and geological structure of the Mekran coast, from which he was one of the first to collect the now well-known fossiliferous nodules of Upper Tertiary age. As already announced, the autumn meeting of the Iron and Steel Institute will be held at Leeds on September 30—October 4. The provisional list of papers expected to be submitted includes the following subjects :—The solubility of cementite in hardenite and the solubility or diffusion of hardenite in ferrite ; gases evolved on heating steel to its melting point in a vacuum; allotropy in general and that of iron in particular; the thermal-magnetic transformation of 25 per cent. nickel steel; a mew method of revealing segregation in steel ingots; magnetic properties of manganese and nickel steels; the manufacture of open-hearth steel; the growth of cast irons after repeated heatings; and the iron ores and mineral resources of Chile. In the August number of Man, Mr. D. Wright describes the ceremonies at the burial of a chief in Rhodesia. When he dies during the winter months, the body will not be buried until after the first rains fall, and meanwhile it remains in the hut in which the chief died, where it is laid on a platform in charge of the friends, who sweep the floor and keep the walls of the hut smeared with clay to prevent the escape of the spirit. A fire is kept burning in the hut, and when decomposition sets in there is a feast, and offer- ings are made to the spirit. When the first rains fall an ox is slain, and the skin is removed with the hoofs and head complete. The corpse is then sewed up in the hide, a grave is dug in an ant-hill, and the body is placed in it with the pots which were in the hut. The grave is covered and plastered over, a hole being left for the exit of the spirit. This spirit is then believed to take the form of a lion cub, which re- mains near the grave, and is fed by other lions which are the depositaries of the souls of former paramount chiefs. Tue Journal of the Royal Statistical Society for July contains an interesting paper by Mr. A. L. Bowley on the measurement of employment. Mr. Bowley points out the limitations of the present Board of Trade index-number for unemployment, and gives the result of an experiment in forming a fresh index- number which takes into account all the information of every kind bearing on the volume of employment published by the Board. In the same issue there is a note by Sir J. A. Baines summarising the census returns, either provisional or final, which have now been received from nearly all the units of the British Empire. The total population is rather more than 419,000,000. 668 NATURE [AuGUST 29, 1912 Tue Royal Statistical Society has just published a report of its special committee which was appointed to inquire into the system adopted in different countries for the registration of births (including stillbirths) and deaths with reference to infantile mortality. The information collected is both extensive and abundant, and the practices of various nations in reference to this question appear to be almost as numerous as the nations themselves. There is even difference of opinion with regard to the exact meaning of the word “stillbirth.” It is not, however, possible for us to summarise all these details, and those of our readers interested in statistical methods in general, and the question of infantile mortality in particular, should procure the report. The main conclusion arrived at by the committee is that stillbirths should be tabulated separately. If this is done, the present basis of cal- culation for mortality in infants will be altered and the tables will be thus rendered much more satis- factory and trustworthy. In the Victorian Naturalist, vol. xxix., p. 43, Mr. J. Mahony records the occurrence of remains of the Tasmanian devil on the sandhills near Warrnambool, Victoria, in association with bones and teeth of man and other mammals. The occurrence of Sarcophilus ursinus on the Australian mainland at a very recent epoch is thus conclusively proved. To the August number of The American Naturalist Mr. H. W. Fowler contributes an illustrated article on some features of the ornamentation in fresh- water fishes, as exemplified by the development of tubercles on the head, or head and back, of males of the families Cyprinide (minnows) and Catostomatide (suckers) during the breeding season. These tubercles may develop in young fishes, provided they are sexually mature, as well as in adults, but in other instances adult fishes may breed without the tubercles appearing. AccorpInG to an illustrated guide-book by Mr. T. Sheppard, Hull has established in the Pickering Park an exhibition devoted to the whaling trade formerly carried on from that port, as well as to matters con- nected with sea-fisheries and shipping in general. It is stated that the first whaler from Hull appears to have left that port for Arctic whaling in 1598, or only four years later than the first English vessel which sailed to hunt the Greenland whale. About the middle of the nineteenth century the industry began to wane; and the famous Hull whaler Truelove, which in her time had taken about 500 whales, made her last whaling voyage in 1868. The building in which the exhibition is contained is the gift of Mr. C. Pickering. Tue current number of the Archiv fiir Zellforschung (Bd. 8, Heft 4) contains a very interesting memoir by Dr. Henri Hoven dealing with the structure and function of glandular cells. of ‘“chondriosomes,”’ filamentous bodies which occur in the cytoplasm and exhibit characteristic staining reactions. The author considers that these bodies are identical with the chondriosomes described by Meves in embryonic cells. The latter are believed NO. 2235, VOL. 89| the The paper treats especially | to be essentially formative bodies, at the expense ot which myofibrilla, neurofibrilla, and other cell struc- tures are differentiated. In glandular cells they are the active agents in the formation of the secretion, being, in some cases at any rate, actually broken up into the secretion granules. It seems probable that they have the power of multiplying by division. The author concludes that the bodies described by various observers as existing in glandular cells, under the terms vegeta- tive filaments, basal filaments, ergastoplasm, ergas- tidions, and chondriosomes, are all one and the same thing. AmoncG the publications we have recently received through the courtesy of the director of Kew Gardens, mention may be made of appendix ii. and appendix iii. to the Kew Bulletin for 1912; the former contains a list of additions to the library at Kew during the year 1911, and the latter a list of new garden plants introduced last year. Of greater general interest is the new edition, just published, of the popular six- penny Official Guide to the Royal Botanic Gardens, containing above a hundred pages of descriptive matter, interesting and plainly worded so as to be of value to the general public as well as to botanical students, with a small but admirably clear key-plan of the gardens. Mr. A. G. Tanstey, of Cambridge University, has contributed to The Gardeners’ Chronicle (Nos. 1336-8) an account of the vegetation of the forests of Provence, with seven excellent photographic illustrations. In his series of three articles, forming one of the most interesting of the purely botanical papers which have appeared recently in this journal, the author points out that. within a space of about thirty miles all transitions may be traced between the typical Mediter- ranean coast vegetation and that of the high Alps. Since the underlying rock is almost everywhere lime- stone, the main factors differentiating the vegetation are climatic, and correspond with a decrease of tem- perature and an increase of moisture in passing from the low hills of the coast to the high mountains of the Maritime and Provengal Alps. The influence of aspect upon the vegetation is very striking, the cooler and moister northern slopes frequently bearing quite a different flora from that of the sunny southern slopes. The author distinguishes and describes four main forest zones: (i) the Mediterranean types of Pinus halepensis and P. maritima, with Quercus suber locally; (ii) a belt in which Quercus pubescens, a deciduous oalx allied to Q. sessiliflora, is dominant; (iii) a belt of Scots pine extending into the subalpine region; (iv) forest composed of Picea excelsa and larch which form the uppermost belt, at least on northern slopes. The zonation is exceedingly well marked on the whole, though the four zones are, of course, much influenced by aspect, and there is a good deal of mingling in the transitional zones. closely WE have recently received the Meteorological Report of the Survey Department of Egypt for the year 1909. Although somewhat belated, owing presumably to the careful discussion of so large an amount of data, a few general remarks will probably be of interest. The report is divided into two parts, as before: (1) AuGuST 29, 1912] NATURE 669 observations made at Helwan, the first order station of Egypt. The size of this part has been considerably reduced by the omission of observations for every hour and the publication of the results in a more summarised form. This part also includes an im- portant paper by Mr. H. E. Hurst on the reduction of the observations of terrestrial magnetism. (2) Climatological tables, including rainfall and river gauge observations. The chief features of the year were the heavy rainfall in April and October, and the high Nile flood, which began early and was about 15 per cent. above the normal; the rainfall was, how- ever, deficient in Egypt generally. With regard to relative humidities, it is found that the values in the Sudan computed from Jelinek’s tables (Leipzig, 1903) not uncommonly fall below 10 or even 5 per cent. As it seems improbable that the surface air is ever so dry as this, the validity of the tables in extreme conditions is under consideration. A first order station for the Sudan is in course of formation at the Gordon College, Khartoum. In a publication of the Egyptian Survey Department entitled ‘‘ Magnetic Observations made during 1911 at the Khedivial Observatory, Helwan,’ particulars are given of the mean monthly and annual values of the magnetic elements at Helwan during 1911, and of the diurnal variations in declination and in hori- zontal and vertical intensity for each month and the year. Days of incomplete record and those of dis- turbance character ‘‘2,”’ on the international scale, are omitted, the days actually utilised being 330 for declination, 317 for horizontal, and 291 for vertical in- tensity. Particulars are given of eight disturbances— occupying parts of thirteen days—in which the range of the horizontal intensity exceeded o’001 C.G.S. The largest ranges observed were o’00188 in horizontal intensity, o°’00044 in vertical intensity, and ry’ in declination. We have received from the publishers (Messrs. A. Hermann et Fils) an interesting tract by MM. C. Jordan and R. Fiedler on convex closed curves, and others connected with them. The topic was suggested by questions of probability, and we are occasionally reminded of the work of Crofton, one of the great authorities in this field. But probability is not actually treated here; the main part consists of tangential polar formula and discussion of derived curves such as pedals, parallel curves, &c. On p. 34 there is an interesting figure such as is often produced in a street by one wheel of a cart which has twice turned round. Each turn generally involves a slight backing, and then the trace of the inner wheel contains two adjacent cusps and an ordinary node. Various examples due to Euler, Kepler, Newton, &Xc., are given as illustrations. A merHop of detecting the presence of polarised light in the light from a sky obscured by thick clouds is described by Mr. A. E. Oxley in the July number of the Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society. It depends on the use of a Babinet com- pensator, with its principal direction set at 45° to that of the observing Nicol, and of a special rhomb in NO. 2235, VOL. 89] front of the compensator which allows part of the incident light to pass without change while it intro- duces a phase difference of 7/2 into the remainder of the beam. When the edges of this rhomb are parallel | to the principal direction of the Nicol, bands are seen in the field of view even when the amount of polarised light present is too small to produce colours in a selenite plate, and the apparatus also allows the mean plane of polarisation of the incident light to be ascertained. In the June number of the Bulletin de la Société d’Encouragement pour l’Industrie nationale, M. A. Verneuil describes a form of muffle or crucible furnace suitable for laboratory work up to a temperature of 1600° C. If a crucible is to be heated, it is sur- rounded by a cylindrical block of refractory material which rests on a brick pillar and is provided with a lid which leaves openings for the escape of the burnt gas. The gas is introduced into the space between the crucible and its surrounding cylinder by a passage which is tangential to the inner surface of the cylinder at the point of entry. By this means the jet of gas ' and compressed air is given a spiral form and a higher temperature is attained, while the durability of the furnace is increased. The idea of the spiral flame seems worthy of general adoption in furnace design. OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. ASTRONOMICAL OCCURRENCES FOR SEPTEMBER : SEPTEMBER 3. 13h. 57m. Saturn in conjunction with the Moon (Saturn 6° 20’ S.). th. 22m. Neptune in conjunction with the Moon (Neptune 5° 43’ S.). », 16h. om. Mercury at greatest elonga- tion W. of the Sun (17° 58’). 8. 20h. 59m. Venus in conjunction with Mars (Venus 0° 30! N.). g. th. om. Mercury in conjunction with a Leonis (Mercury 0° 5/ N.). » 7h. 15m. Mercury in conjunction with the Moon (Mercury 3° 18’ S.). ~ rr. 21th. 43m. Mars in conjunction with the Moon (Mars 0° 4’ N.). 12. th. 1m. Venus in conjunction with the Moon (Venus 0° 41’ N.). 16. 3h. om. Saturn stationary. » 13h. 33m. Jupiter in conjunction with the Moon (Jupiter 4° 54’ N.). 20. 15h. 13m. Uranus in conjunction with the Moon (Uranus 4° 34’ N.). 22. 22h. gm. Sun enters Sign of Libra. Equinox. 25. 23h. 45m. Moon eclipsed, invisible at Greenwich. 30. gh. 22m. Saturn in conjunction with the Moon (Saturn 6° 20’ S.). Tue Varrapitity ofr Poraris.—The confirmation of the variability of the pole star, by the selenium photo- meter method, is announced by Mr. Joel Stebbins in No. 4596 of the Astronomische Nachrichten. He ob- served the star for light-changes in 1904 with a polarising photometer, but difficulties prevented a definite conclusion being arrjved at for so small a variation as o'1l0o mag. Again in 1910 he attempted to find the variability with the selenium photometer, but meeting with difficulty in the selection of a suitable comparison star, postponed the research. 670 NATURE [AuGUST 29, 1912 In the meantime, Dr. Hertzsprung announced a variation of about 0°15 mag., determined from photo- graphs; so Mr. Stebbins again took up the observa- tion of Polaris, using 8 Ursz Minoris as the com- parison star. This is some 17° away, and, as the correction for differential absorption becomes too great if the altitudes are not nearly the same, the time of observation was unusually restricted. However, Mr. Stebbins secured measures on seventeen nights be- tween March 4, 1911, and April 8, 1912, and from these he finds a variation of o’078 mag., thus fully confirming Hertzsprung’s result, for the two light- curves are practically in the same phase. The differ- ence in amplitude is probably explained by the fact that Hertzsprung employed the actinic rays, whereas the selenium photometer utilises those on the red side of the visual region, and variables of this type (Cepheid) usually show greater variations photo- graphically than they do visually. A photographic comparison made at Harvard last year by Mr. King showed a variation of about oro mag. The comparison star, 8 Ursz Minoris, used by Mr. Stebbins, has been described as a variable, but the results give no indication of change while it was under observation during this research. Tue Sovar Eciipse oF ApriL 17.—Tlwo interesting papers dealing with the solar eclipse of April last are published as abstracts from the Astronomische Nachrichten by Prof. Schorr and Dr. Graff. In the former, Prof. Schorr describes the observa- tions made at the Hamburg Observatory, and repro- duces a number of the excellent photographs taken by the various instruments. In the latter, Dr. Graff describes in detail the profile of the moon’s limb at the time of mid-eclipse. He tabulates the elevations and depressions for every 2° of the limb, and then shows them, exaggerated ten times, on a drawing. They are also shown and named on a set of altitude curves covering the entire limb. The important part played by the lunar profile during this eclipse gives an added interest and importance to these deductions. y GEMINORUM A SPECTROSCOPIC Binary OF EXCEP- TIONALLY Lone PEeriop.—From observations made at the Ottawa Observatory, combined with earlier ob- servations made at other observatories, Mr. Harper has deduced elements for the orbit of the spectroscopic binary y Geminorum. The period comes out at about 2175 days (nearly six years), so that the star is unique among binaries discovered spectroscopically in having so long a period. Betelgeuse, a star of a very much later type, possibly has a similar period, but defini- tive elements have not yet been derived for its orbit. The spectrum of y Geminorum is of the Sirian type, and the periods for other spectroscopic binaries of this type range from a fraction of a day up to too days, so that the star may be looked upon as bridging the gulf between the periods of the longest spectroscopic and the shortest visual binary. (The Journal of the R.A.S. Canada, vol. vi., No. 3.) Tue HampurGc OpseRvATORY.—With the reports for 1gto0 and ig1t of the work done at the Hamburg Observatory, Prof. Schorr issues a most interesting brochure containing photographs of the new buildings and instruments at Bergedorf, where the work of the observatory is now carried on. Among the instru- ments now erected is a large refractor, a 73-in. meridian circle, and a reflector of 4o in. aperture and ro ft. focal length; but, according to the 1911 report, the objective of the refractor is still un- mounted. The reports show that observations of comets and planets, the time-service for various ports, and a new reduction of the Hamburg star catalogue are occupying the attention of the staff. NO. 2235, VOL. 89| | published in rog11. REGIONAL GEOLOGY IN EUROPE. J. SEDERHOLM’S summary of the prequater- * nary rocks of Fennoscandia, with its admirable coloured geological map of Norway, Sweden, and Finland, is now issued in French as Bulletin 24 of the Commission géologique de Finlande. Under the director’s active guidance, six further bulletins were V. Tanner has drawn a number of interesting conclusions from his discovery of brachiopods, resembling Kutorgina or Acrotreta, in | dyke-like masses of sandstone filling cracks in granite in the Aland Islands, at the entry to the Gulf of Finland (Bull. 25, p. 10). These fossils are probably of Lower Cambrian age, and the cracks were opened, | perhaps through earthquake action, in a surface of pre-Cambrian rocks which had been already worn down to a peneplane. It is urged that the present Fennoscandian peneplane, which includes the surface of the islands, represents only a small further degra- dation of that which was formed towards the close of pre-Cambrian times. Bulletins 27 to 30 are extracted from the Atlas of Finland, published in 1910, and form an illustrated summary of the surface-forms and geology of the country, drawn up by the director. No. 27, ‘* Esquisse | hypsométrique de la Finlande,” includes a new con- ' toured map in colours, which shows how large a part of the country lies below 300 metres. The con- tours, though the scale of the map is 1 : 2,000,000, even bring out some of the eskers, such as the fine ridge of Kangasala on the road from Tavastehus to Tammerfors. A geological map on the same scale accompanies No. 28, on ‘‘Les roches préquaternaires de la Finlande,” and the extent to which the country is covered by glacial deposits is shown by that in No. 29, on ‘‘Les dépéts quaternaires.’”’ Here the eskers, and the huge terminal moraines from Hangé to Joensuu, some 600 kilometres in length, stand out prominently in red, and show the form of the great ice-lobe and the course of its subglacial waters at the epoch when stagnation set in. In common with many Scandinavian geologists, Sederholm pictures the eskers , as formed in the late glacial sea as the ice shrank back, the south-eastern end of each being thus older than that towards the Gulf of Bothnia. The sandy marginal moraines, running across the course of the ice-movement, are described as ‘‘oses marginales.”’ The words ‘‘ose’’ and ‘‘oses”” have been adopted for the more difficult ds and asar in Fennoscandian litera- ture, whether written in French or English (p. 6). Bulletin 30 takes a still wider field, and deals with “La géologie quaternaire et la géomorphologie de la Fennoscandia.”” The coloured maps show the exten- sion of the Scandinavian ice-sheets, the isobases in- dicated by the present positions of raised beaches, and the lines of fracture traceable in the prequaternary relief. The block-structure of so much of the Fenno- scandian surface, and notably of the Finnish low- land, is referred to fracturing and faulting during the Alpine epoch of unrest. The scarps along the sides of fjords or rivers are held to be more often due to earth-movement than to ordinary erosion, though eroding agents have, of course, acted along the lines of weakness thus produced. As we write, we recall a granite cliff on the farm of Eskola by the Kyminjoki, and Wilhelm Ramsay’s exposition of it as we sat upon the grass above the river. The gift of these excellent summaries to geologists is a further reminder of the hospitality of Fennoscandian lands. Visitors to Norway will profit by the description of | the Bergen district by C. F. Kolderup and H. W. Monckton, written in connection with the excursion of the Geologists’ Association in 1911 (Proc. Geol. Aucust 29, 1912] NATURE 671 Assoc., vol. xxii., 1912, p. 1). Some of the glaciers the Little Carpathians, where it works its way along illustrated recently in Nature (vol. Ixxxviii., p. 460) are excellently figured here. Dr. Kolderup (p. 22), in dealing with the crystalline rocks, is faced with the same difficulty that arises in Scotland and in Ireland, where certain granites may be of post-Silurian age, or may be Archean masses pressed up and rearranged during the Caledonian movements. The part contain- ing these reports may be bought for 3s., and includes a full bibliography. At the same date, Dr. Hans Reusch has contributed to Naturen an account of the Devonian beds of the Bergen coast (1912, p. 103). N. O. Holst (Sveriges geol. Undersékning, Arsbok, 1910, No. 9, price 1 kr.) states the evidence for a pre- glacial flood, ‘‘Alnarps-floden,” along Sweden, which he compares with that which pro- duced, as he believes, the Cromer Forest-bed in the delta of the Rhine. The publications of the Geologische Reichsanstalt of Vienna continue to throw light on an empire of infinite variety. Short notes and criticisms often appear in the Verhandlungen, dealing with other publications on Austria-Hungary, while original con- tributions, like those of G. B. Trener on Adamello (1910, p. 91), add to our knowledge of regions that seemed at one time beyond reach of controversy. Especial interest attaches to the spread of geological surveying, under von Kerner and others, in the coast-lands of Istria and Dalmatia (see 1911, p. 111), while the attack upon areas once held to be Archean, and the acceptance of contact-metamorphism upon a regional scale, give a new attraction to the rolling uplands of Bohemia. K. Hinterlechner (1910, p. 337) thus assigns a Lower Silurian age to a, group of crystalline schists with graphite between Caslav and the Moravian border. The Lakes of Lunz, in a fami- liar region of Upper Austria, have furnished a detailed study : lacustrine sedimentation (G. Gétzinger, 1911, P- 173)- The work published in the Jahrbuch of the same Toula describes (1909, pp. 673-760) a late Tertiary molluscan fauna from Gatun on the Panama Canal. W. von Lozinski continues his studies of the Quater- nary glacial deposits of Galicia with a description of the léss north of the Carpathians (1910, p. 133). The great plateau of detrital material cut into by the Vistula is well illustrated in plate vii. F. F. Hahn of Munich has undertaken a detailed examination of the mountainous region round the Sonntagshorn on the frontier south of Traunstein (1910, pp. 311 and 637). Radiolarian beds occur in the Middle Lias and in the Upper Jurassic of this area. Franz Kretschmer (1911, p. 172) concludes, from an elaborate study, that the “‘metamorphe Diorit- und Gabbromassiv”’ of the Zoptau area in Moravia is connected with the Her- cynian movements. The schists surrounding the great laccolite are believed to be Algonkian, Silurian, and Devonian, and these new conclusions bring the basic intrusive mass of Z6ptau, with its contact-aureole, into line with what is now known of the Erzgebirge gneiss and the granulites of Saxony. The Hercynian folding in Central Europe seems to have been accompanied by features of intrusion and metamorphism that recall those of the Caledonian folding in the British Isles. | The intrusive gneisses of the Otztal, described by Guido, Hradil (1911, p. 181), have presumably a still later origin. P. S. Richarz, writing of the ‘‘Umgebung von south-west | the planes of foliation in the schist-mantle. He re- gards such conclusions as somewhat new (p. 331), though they have been held in France for thirty years. References are rare, however, throughout the Jahrbuch of the Reichsanstalt to papers published outside Ger- man-speaking lands. We welcome (1911, p. 229) a further paper by Baron Nopesa on Albania, although he scarcely con- siders the foreigner when he writes so many sentences more than a hundred words in length. He brings together the results of his work on the vilayet of Skutari between 1905 and 1909, and he regards the state of the country as now unsuited to scientific work. His warm words of gratitude to the moun- taineers who were ready to lay down their lives for him (p. 280) show that his dangers did not originate with the regular—or irregular—inhabitants. The thrust of the Alpine movements here came from the north-north-east. Radiolarian deposits occur on a Jurassic horizon, but they do not seem to be asso- ciated with the ‘‘green rocks,’ serpentine, gabbro, and diorite, which appear about the same level in another part of the area. The photographs of the bare rocky highlands have a geographical interest of their own. F. Kossmat (1911, p. 339) reports on the geology of the mercury mining region of Idria, and suggests (p. 383) that the ores were originally im- ported during Triassic eruptions, and were brought into their present position by thermal waters under the influence of the Alpine movements. Wiktor KuZzniar writes in German on the folding of the Flysch on the north side of the Tatra (Bull. Internat. Acad. Sci. de Cracovie, 1910, ser. A, p. 38)- The Eocene Magura Sandstone in the upper part of | the Flysch is regarded as part of a sheet thrust over the Tatra and over the earlier Flysch from the south, probably by post-Miocene movements. The base of the Eocene is now shown to have been laid down on ht on p ' an eroded surface of Triassic rocks (p. 40), and the institute occasionally extends far afield, as when Franz | Mesozoic and older strata of the Tatra at that time | had much the same structure as they have now. Aspang (Niederésterreich) ” (1911, p. 285), enters the | field as an opponent of the view that dynamic meta- morphism has much to do with the origin of crystal- line schists. He shows how composite gneisses were The details of Mrs. M. M. Ogilvie-Gordon’s paper on the thrust-masses in the western district of the Dolomites (Trans. Edin. Geol. Soc., vol. ix., IgIo, special part, price 7s.) cannot be fully discussed here. The work has involved the observation of very many miles of boundary, and the author concludes, as is well Ikxnown from her other work, in favour of the isolation of the dolomite masses from their original surround- ings by faults and thrust-planes. The contrast be- tween their wall-like fronts and the bedded strata on their flanks is thus explained, without a resort to the theory of coral-reefs rising contemporaneously amid normal marine deposits. The thrust-plane over which the Schlern Dolomite is held to have moved is well photographed in plates ii., viii., and ix. The illus- trations throughout are of a high order, and the boldly coloured sections recall those of the quarto publica- tions of the early days of geological controversy. A comparison of the map of the Langkofl area (pl. xiii.) with that by Mojsisovics will show the extent to which slicing of the country has been invoked to account for the startling pre-eminence of the dolomite-masses in the scenery. Additional results published by the author in the Verhandlungen der k.k. geol. Reichs- anstalt for 1910 were referred to in Nature, vol. Ixxxv., p- 280. G. Steinmann (Mitteil. der geol. Gesell., Vienna, 1910, p- 285) urges that the central gneiss of the Tauern area is pre-Permian, and that the ‘‘ Hochstegenkalk ” and other sediments associated with the gneiss are of later date, their metamorphism being due to the formed in his area on the margin of the granite of | overfolding on them of the recumbent sheets of later NO. 2235, VOL. 89| 672 NATURE [AUGUST 29, 1912 times. He suggests (p. 297) that an aplite ‘‘dyke”’ recorded by Becke in the Hochstegenkallk in reality results from a mechanical rearrangement of the older gneiss among the limestones. Jan Nowak, of Lemberg, in a German paper, de- scribes the structure of the limestone Alps of Salz- burg and the Salzkammergut (Bull. Internat. Acad. Sci. de Cracovie, 1911, ser. A, p. 57), tracing the re- cumbent overfolds, and pointing out that in the eastern Alps faulting has played a greater part in cutting these asunder than it has in the more plastic masses of the west. Fascicule iv. of vol. xxxvi. of the Mémoires de la Société de Physique de Genéve (December, 1910, price 15 francs) is occupied with L. W. Collet’s paper on “Les hautes Alpes calcaires entre Arve et Rhéne."' The author’s personal observations extend over eight years. Numerous sections of folded strata are given, among which that of the Dents du Midi (p. 451) is con- spicuous. The author believes (p. 577) that vegetation covered the karst-like surface of the Désert de Platé after glacial times, and that the organic acids originated the etching of the surface. The phototypes by Sadag, of Geneva, surpass almost anything that we have seen in the way of geological illustration. The panorama of the district on pl. 17, with its geological clue below, offers a superb study for the class-room. The lands near the Rhine are not so largely visited by British geologists as they deserve. The neighbour- hood of Trier (Tréves) is fully described in the Sits- ungsberichte vom naturhistorischen Verein der preuss- ischen Rheinlande, 1910, section D, pp. 1-108. L. van Werveke makes several contributions; that on the oolitic iron-ores of Middle Jurassic age (p. 50), which have so wide a distribution, has considerable petrographic importance. A bibliography of similar rocks is given, but no mention is made of the Cleve- land ores of England, where the substitution of iron for calcium is obvious, or of the pisolitic ores with “greenalite’’ in North America. Van Werveke be- lieves that the ‘‘ Minette” ores of north-eastern France and western Germany were laid down in the sea, and result from the oxidation of iron salts washed from the pyritous Posidonia-beds, over which the Jurassic strata were unconformably deposited. The condi- tions also favoured the formation of glauconite. In the Verhandlungen of the same society for 1909 (1910, p. 165), C. Mordziol places the Brown Coal Series of the Lower Rhine area on the horizon of the Lower Miocene strata of Mainz. In the next volume (1911, p. 237) he discusses the limits of the Upper Oligocene and Lower Miocene in the Mainz basin, with which his work is so closely identified. G. Fliegel (ibid., p. 327) considers the effect of ice-lobes from the northern continental glacier in producing modifications, both in materials and in ultimate form, of the terraced drift of the Rhine valley. The Cotteswold Naturalists’ Field Club remains true to geological research. In the Proceedings, vol. XVii., 1911, p. 195, L. Richardson describes the Chip- ping Norton district, where the Inferior Oolite covers | much of a very hilly country. J. W. Gray (p. 257) considers the glacial epoch in the north and mid Cotteswolds, and regards much of the ‘drift’ as | imported before that epoch by Cainozoic streams that have been beheaded by the development of the Severn tributaries. Like many workers in central and southern England, he remains sceptical as to the invasion of that part of the country by glacier-ice. W. Hewitt, in his address to the Liverpool Geo- logical Society (Proc., vol. xi., 1911, p. 88), reviews the theories of the origin of the Triassic beds in Eng- land, and C. B. Travis and H. W. Greenwood indicate (p. 138), after an elaborate mineralogical research, a NO. 2235, VOL. 89] source for the north-western beds different from that which supplied the Trias of the south-west and the Midlands. E. E. L. Dixon and A. Vaughan apply zonal prin- ciples to the Avonian (Lower Carboniferous) succes- sion in Gower, Glamorganshire (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., Lond., vol. Ixvii., 1911, p. 477). Interesting arguments are adduced (pp. 522 and 525) for regard- ing the ‘‘Lower Culm” radiolarian beds as formed in a lagoon phase, near the mouths of rivers, and not in a deep sea. The absence of lime salts and the presence of silica seem to have been more potent in- fluences than depth. Turning to the south of Europe, part iti. of the Jahrbuch der k.k. Reichsanstalt for 1910 is occupied by a paper by C. Renz on the stratigraphy of the Mesozoic and Palzozoic rocks of Greece, on which the author has worked since 1903. This memoir of 215 pages and its successors promise to be a text-book of the geology of the country from the JTonian to the fZgean isles, a region at one time supposed to be covered only by Cretaceous and Cainozoic strata. We now become acquainted with deposits as old as the | Devonian. Rudolf Hoernes has published a paper on _ the “ Bildung des Bosporus und der Dardanellen”’ (Sitz- ungsber. k. Akad. Wissen., Vienna, Bd. cxviii., p. 693), in which full credit is given to T. English’s paper in the Quarterly Journal ef the Geological Society of London for 1904. The author places the break-up of the AEgean plateau in the Upper Pliocene, when a river from the north-east was cutting a cafon along the line of the present Bosporus and Dardanelles. The further depression of the region, and the entry of the sea into the channel, occurred in early Pleisto- cene times (p. 756). Hoernes opposes the view of English that the Bosporus was originally cut by a | river running eastward (see English’s paper, p. 261). Federico Sacco has written a useful account of “L’Appennino settentrionale e centrale” (Cosmos, ser. 2, vol. xili., 1911, p. 145), in which he summarises the geological features and connects them with the | settlements and occupations of the people, especially in regard to agriculture. D. P. W. Stuart-Menteath, in ‘“‘El Darwinismo en los Pirineos’’ (Boletin Soc. Aragonesa de Ciencias naturales, vol. ix., p. 197), continues to attribute the | spread of new views on Spanish stratigraphy to the pernicious influence of evolutionary doctrines. | Gi Auciane THE LIFE-HISTORY OF THE HOOK- WORM.1 pets somewhat ponderous volume is the continua- tion of a monograph of which the first volume was published in Cairo in 1905. Like its predecessor, it will be found of great value for the reference library of all helminthologists. Agchylostoma duodenale and Necator americanus, | the latter originally thought to be an indigenous | American species of hook-worm, but now believed to have been imported into the United States from Africa | by negro slaves, are both parasites peculiar to man, with the exception of anthropoid apes; the near zoo- logical relationship between the hosts is of great ‘in- terest. The horse, though often accused, is now known not to be a host, and this is also true of dogs, in spite of the fact that the author has succeeded in Records of the School of Medicine. | 1 Ministry of Education, Egypt. Vol. iv., ‘‘The Anatomy and Life-history of 1 r | Edited by the Director. Agchylostoma duodenale. Dub.’ A Monograph, by Dr. A. Looss. Part 1i., | **The Development in the Free State.” Pp. viii +163-613-+-plates xi-xix. | (Cairo: National Printing Department, torr.) Pm | NATURE 673 AucusT 29, 1912| causing larvae of the human Agchylostoma to live for | convenient or more accurate methods of effecting a time in puppies. He has set himself the task of writing a life-history of Agchylostoma duodenale from a scientific point of view, and traces the development of the parasite out- side the body, while he also conceives it to be his duty to censure many previous authors for their errors. He finds that nematodes may be kept unchanged for years in undiluted glycerine, and that their eggs and larvee can be best preserved by using hot alcohol. In order to prevent the decomposition of faeces used as a culture medium, he recommends the addition of an equal part of powdered animal charcoal, for this mixture prevents harmful effects to the eggs and larvee. He disagrees with other observers who state that the mature embryo breaks the eggshell by knocking against it with its head and tail, for he finds that the shell bursts of itself, and in so doing throws out the embryo passively. The faces of natives of warm climates present a more favourable medium for the development of larvz than the excreta of those who live entirely on meat or on vegetables. Oxygen, a constant temperature which may, however, be as low as 50° F., or as high as 105° F., and moderate mois- ture are the factors necessary for the development of young larve, while the proper element for mature larvee is water, which they eagerly enter as soon as they can, and in water they can live for months be- cause they no longer require any food. Prof. Looss ’ finds that sunlight alone does not act injuriously upon the eggs, provided the temperature is not also raised. While studying the migratory instincts of larvee in his laboratory in Cairo, the author, by a not unhappy accident, found himself infected by a drop of culture . fluid containing some hundreds of lively larvae, which fell upon his hand. Experiments patiently conducted on himself, on volunteers, and on young puppies eventually solved the mystery of how mature larve enter the skin, either by the hair foliicies or by the horizontal fissures between the scales of the epidermis, and how they then migrate to the duodenum of the host. The time which elapses between infection by the mouth and the earliest date when eggs are found in the victim’s faeces is thirty days, whereas in infection by the skin it varies from forty-five to seventy-four days. His great discovery of infection by the skin has of late years been amply confirmed by many observers. Among the most important we may men- tion Schaudinn, Lambinet of Belgium, and in America, Claude Smith, Stiles and Ashford and King. Passages on which the author desires to lay emphasis appear, as in German literature, in large spaced print. The plates from Prof Looss’s masterly drawings have been faithfully reproduced in Frankfurt, and add considerably to the value of the book THE MICROSCOPIC DETERMINATION OF MINERALS. HE identification of a mineral fragment by means of the microscope, to be beyond doubt, must be based upon some quantitative test, such as a measurement of the refractive indices, or, in the case of doubly refractive substances, the amount of double refraction and the relation of the extinction directions to the crystalline form, or, in that of biaxial substances, a measurement of the angle between the optic axes. Recent years have witnessed great progress in the discovery of more 1 *The Methods of Petrographic-microscopic Res-arch, their Relative Accuracy and Range of Application.” By Fred. Eugene Wright. Pp. 204+ 1 plates+118 figs. (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Institution of Wash- ington, rorr.) NO. 2235, vot. 8al | considerably, as such measurements, and almost equal progress in the design of the instruments and accessory apparatus. So rapid has been the advance that it has outpaced the text-books. Petrologists and all who may have occasion to identify minerals from chance fragments will therefore feel grateful to Dr. F. E. Wright tor the admirable treatise in which he describes in detail and discusses with critical acumen the various methods and devices available. Dr. Wright is him- self responsible for no mean share in the progress that has been made, and it is an excellent feature of the volume that he is in a position to write of almost every method or piece of apparatus from first-hand experience in the Geophysical Laboratory; the pages, in fact, teem with those practical hints and sugges- tions which prove so useful to the worker. The scope of the work is satisfactorily complete. A lengthy introduction includes an adequate dis- cussion of the principles of microscopic vision so far as they apply to the particular case of the petrological instrument; the various aberrations and their correc- tions are explained, and descriptions are given of some recent instruments. It is pleasant to find that full credit is given to Mr. A. B. Dick for his inven- tion of the system of simultaneous rotation of the polarising and analysing Nicols which has been adopted in all the best forms of petrological micro- scope; Continental writers have overlooked his in- contestable claims to priority. Dr. Wright prefers an adaptation of Mr. Dick’s first suggestion, viz. a vertical bar rigidly attached to the circles carrying the Nicols, instead of the system of gear-wheels in general use, fearing that the backlash in the latter might introduce appreciable error in delicate work. The first chapter deals with the physical characters which do not entail measurement, such as colour, crystal habit, dispersion of the optic axes, &c. The fact that there is still no recognised standard for gauging colour is dwelt upon, and a description is given of the Ives calorimeter, which consists of three filters rotated by means of an electromotor, the depth of each tint being varied at will by means of movable shutters. Mention might have been made of the Lovibond tintometer, which is based on the same fundamental principle, and, though not so accurate, is a much simpler piece of apparatus. The difficulty of describing a tint is one that affects us all in our everyday affairs, and it would be an inestimable boon if precision could be given to the colour terms in popular use. In the second chapter we pass to the measurement of refractive indices. Thanks to Prof. Becke’s discovery of the phenomenon known as the bright-line effect, it is possible to obtain a value which with care may be as accurate as two units in the third place of decimals; Dr. Wright adds the useful warning that the phenomenon may be masked if the dispe-sion of the mineral and the liquid differ not infrequently happens. The announcement of the discovery of a new, highly re- fractive liquid, ranging from 1-790 to -1-960, will arouse great interest; it is a mixture of methylene iodide, antimony iodide, arsenic sulphide, antimony sulphide, and sulphur, but complete details are promised in a paper yet to be published. In the third chapter the determination of double refraction by means of wedges, various forms of which are described, is discussed, and it is pointed out that the most serious source of error lies in the measurement of the thickness,of the fragment under observation. In the fourth chapter the methods of determining extinction angles are discussed with a wealth of mathematical detail, which is of great help in understanding the phenomena presented. Atten- 674 NATURE [AucusT 29, 1912 tion is directed to the simple, but not generally known, method of slightly revolving the upper Nicol when in or near the position of extinction. The last chapter, on the optic axial angle, is in many ways the most interesting. It is now possible to obtain determinations in cases that would have been abandoned as hopeless a few years ago. When both axes emerge in the field of view the angle is usually measured by means of a linear scale in the eyepiece; Dr. Wright points out that, owing to the distortion introduced in the interference figure by the lens system the Mallard constant does not usually hold, and it is safer to calibrate the scale. Prof. Becke, with characteristic ingenuity, has recently shown that by mapping the brush in various posi- tions a remarkably accurate value of the optic axial angle is possible, even when only one ‘“‘eye”’ is visible; the method is fully explained and illustrated. For such work Dr. Wright uses a double micrometer eyepiece, but admits that a cross-ruled scale in the eyepiece is equally effective, a device that has been in use some years. Dr. Wright recommends for graphical work the little known Postel projection, in which the eye is situated at such a distance from the sphere that the distortion in polar directions is reduced to a minimum, and in tangential directions does not exceed the ratio of 7/2; the awkwardness of the shapes of the great and small circles, however, militates against its use. Prof. Fedorow’s universal stage, the invention of which placed an invaluable weapon in the hands of petrologists, and enables them to measure the angle between the optic axes and determine their positions with respect to the section, even when no ‘‘eye”’ is visible, is also fully discussed. At the close of the chapter Dr. Wright very carefully considers the accuracy of which the several methods are capable. Some novel diagrams will be found on the plates at the end of the book; neither of the diagrams repre- senting the equation sini=nsinr is, however, as simple as the graph devised by Mr. Hutchinson, in which the sines of the angles are taken as co- ordinates. An excellent index greatly adds to the value of the volume. SMITHSONIAN EXPEDITIONS. pe Smithsonian Institution has just issued a pamphlet describing, in part, the expeditions which it has organised or participated in during the field seasons of 1910-11, covering a wide variety of investigations conducted both in the United States and abroad. During the past two years the institution has been represented in eighteen different exploration and field parties. The scope of these activities has been world-wide, but more recently especial attention has been directed to Africa and the Panama Canal Zone. Unfortunately, as the regular resources of the institution are not sufficient to carry on extensive field explorations, it is often compelled to confine its efforts to investigations of limited scope, but of such a nature as to bear directly on the progress of science. In this connection it has been fortunate in securing the cooperation of a number of public-spirited citizens and scientific institutions, as well as several branches of the United States Government. The Smithsonian African Expedition had scarcely returned from the field when the institution received invitations to participate in two others, organised to explore the same general region. The first was Mr. Paul J. Rainey’s hunting trip to British East Africa and southern Abyssinia, where Mr. Rainey especially arranged to hunt lions with a paclx of American fox- NO. 2235, VOL. 89| hounds. The natural history collections that might be secured were offered to the Smithsonian Institu- tion, provided an expert field naturalist be sent to accompany him and prepare such of the game collected as was desired for exhibition or scientific study. Mr. Edmund Heller, who had accompanied the Smithsonian African Expedition in such a capacity, was selected, and departed with Mr. Rainey in February, 1911. The collection made has been estimated to contain some 4700 skins of mammals, together with many birds, reptiles, &c., and supple- ments the present African collection to a great extent. Nearly all of the material is from localities not covered by the earlier expeditions, and some of it comes from points never before visited by naturalists. The other natural history expedition was that of Mr. Childs Frick, of New York, whose object was to secure a collection of animals from the territory lying to the north of the regions visited by the earlier Smithsonian expedition and that of Mr. Rainey, covering at the same time certain parts of Abyssinia, northern British East Africa, and the country lying about Lake Rudolf. As naturalist of this party, Dr. Edgar A. Mearns, of the Smithsonian African Ex- pedition, was chosen. A portion of the collection of birds is to be donated to the Smithsonian Institution by Mr. Frick, and already several hundred specimens have been received. During the summer of 1911, Mr. Charles G. Abbot, director of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observa- tory, and Prof. F. P. Brackett, of Pomona College, California, made a series of observations on the radia- tion of the sun at Bassour, a small town about sixty miles south-west of Algiers, and secured a large amount of data for comparison with simultaneous observations taken by Mr. L. B. Aldrich at the Smithsonian observatory station on Mt. Wilson, California. An expedition to South America, for the purpose of studying the material relating to the antiquity of man in that region, was conducted by Dr. Ales Hrdlicka, curator of physical anthropology, United States National Museum, and Mr. Bailey Willis, of the U.S. Geological Survey. The éxpedition collected many interesting geological, paleontological, and anthropo- logical specimens, which have been turned over to the National Museum for identification and descrip- tion, but the evidence gathered does not seem to sustain a large part of the claims regarding the antiquity of man in that region, which had been previously asserted by various authors. While in this part of the continent, Dr. Hrdlicka also visited the ruins of the city and temples of Pachacamac, Peru, where he made personal re- searches and studies in archzology and ethnology. His complete report on the antiquity of man in South America is made in Bulletin 52 of the Bureau of American Ethnology, now in press. In t910 the institution organised a_ biological survey of the Panama Canal Zone, with the coopera- tion of the Departments of State, Agriculture, Com- merce and Labour, and War. At first it was intended to confine the collections to the Canal Zone proper, but as the natural and floral areas extended to the north and south of this region, it was decided to carry the work into the Republic of Panama, a step which met with the hearty approval of that Republic. The worl: accomplished during the season of 1t910 and tg1r related to vertebrate animals, land and fresh- water molluscs, and plants, including flowering plants, grasses, and ferns. . Another expedition in which the institution co- operated was that organised by the United States Bureau of Fisheries and the American Museum of AuGusT 29, 1912] NATURE 675 Natural History, and consisted of an exploration of the west coast of Mexico. In this connection, the fisheries steamer Albatross was used. Dr. J. N. Rose and Dr. Paul Bartsch represented the National Museum, collecting, respectively, the plants and molluscs from the portions of the coast visited. It was through this expedition that the National Zoo- logical Park secured two yearlings of the elephant seal, a very remarkable and interesting animal, which for many years had been supposed to be extinct. Mr. A. C. Bent, with a small party of ornitho- logists, made an excursion to the Aleutian Islands in search of further information for incorporation in a work on the life-histories of North American birds, which he is compiling for the institution. The members of this party were accorded many facilities by the Revenue Cutter Service of the Treasury De- partment, and particularly by the officers of the cutter Tahoma. Good series of land birds were obtained from nearly all the islands of the Aleutian chain, and many valuable facts concerning the distribution and habits of the land and water birds were recorded. Mention is made of the field work in Cambrian geology and palzontology in British Columbia, con- tinued by Dr. Charles D. Walcott, secretary of the institution, and his assistant, Mr. L. D. Burling. A remarkable collection of fossils was taken, and will be described in a future publication of the institution. This publication on explorations consists of fifty- one pages of text, together with many illustrations from original photographs taken at the scenes of the investigations, and forms publication No. 2087 of the Smithsoniar Miscellaneous Collections. SECONDARY AND TECHNICAL EDUCA- TION IN ENGLAND. HE annual volume of Statistics of Public Educa- tion in England and Wales, prepared by the Board of Education, is a valuable record of the posi- tion and progress of the various branches of elemen- tary, secondary and technical education receiving State aid or recognition, so far as these may be judged by numerical values. Part i. of the volume of Educational Statistics for 1910-1911, which has just been published as a Blue-book (Cd. 6338, price 2s. 6d.), contains more than five hundred pages of tables and other statistical information relating to education in England and Wales. From this mass of material we have ab- | stracted a few facts as to the position of English secondary schools, technical institutions, evening classes, and so on, in receipt of State grants. Secondary Schools. A secondary school, in the sense in which the term is used in the Board’s regulations, must offer to each of its pupils a progressive course of instruction (with the requisite organisation, curriculum, teaching staff, and equipment) in the subjects necessary to a good general education, upon lines suitable for pupils of an age-range at least as wide as from twelve to sixteen or seventeen. The provision, if any, made for pupils below the age of twelve must be similarly suitable, and in proper relation to the work done in the main portion of the school. The regulations also require that an adequate proportion of the pupils must remain at least four years in the school, and that an adequate proportion must also remain up to and beyond the age of sixteen; but these requirements may be reduced to three years and the age of fifteen respectively in the case of rural areas and’ small towns, where such a | course appears to the Board to be advantageous in view of local circumstances. The great public schools are not connected with the Board under these regula- | left school. NO. 2235, VOL. 89] tions, but with this exception most of the secondary schools in England are included in the subjoined table :— Numbers of Schools and Pupils. Number of schools : ea te 862 Number of full time pupils under 12 years ofage ... aa 25 . 36,989 12 and under 16 years of age .. -» Y6,053 16 * 18 5 *) LL555 18 years of age and above 1,007 145,009 It will be seen from this table that more than go per cent. of the pupils in our State-aided secondary schools are under sixteen years of age, and one-quarter of the pupils are under twelve years of age In other words, a large part of the work of these secondary schools is of an elementary grade educationally, and not secondary in the sense of being a continuation of primary education. Of the total number of pupils in the secondary schools, 60 per cent. are from public | elementary schools, and 35 per cent. receive free educa- tion. When only Council schools are considered, it appears that nearly three-quarters of the pupils are | from public elementary schools and 4o per cent. pay no fees. Any bright boy or girl can proceed from the elemen- | tary school to the secondary school by the liberal provision of ‘free places,’ and they can often obtain maintenance grants in addition. There are now very few really promising children of working-class parents who fail to secure places in our secondary schools if they wish to do so. In many districts it is difficult to find among the pupils presented from elementary schools a sufficient number to justify their admission to secondary schools under the clause which provides for 25 per cent. free places for pupils from elementary schools, without having a low educational standard. In fact, free secondary education practically exists at present for every capable child of the elementary school class who desires to take advantage of it. The children enter as free-placers or by payment of low fees; but as most of them leave before they are fifteen years of age, they had better have remained in the elementary schools. Free secondary education may be accepted as a general principle, but the privi- lege should be accompanied by the responsibility of remaining at school until a full course has been completed, whether maintenance grants are provided from public funds or not. A rough indication of the attainments of pupils as measured by success in certain examinations is given in a table which appears for the first time in the present volume of statistics. The examinations selected are the preliminary examination for the teacher’s certificate, university senior locals, uni- versity matriculation, university senior school examination, university higher locals, and _ other examinations of like standard. The results of the inquiry are here summarised :— Attainments of Pupils leaving Secondary Schools. Number of pupils of 14 years of age and above who left during the year a 38,672 Boys Girls Combined 216 1 716 78°84, 82°84 Passed one of the above examinations 14°06 Did not pass ,, “A 3 85°94 In the table from which these numbers have been extracted we have for the first time a means of esti- mating the standard reached b¥ pupils leaving our State secondary schools. It appears that more than four-fifths of the pupils had not passed an examination of senior local or matriculation standard when they This is probably explained by the fact 676 NATURE [AucuST 29, 1912 that about 50 per cent. of the pupils were under sixteen years of age at leaving, and therefore not qualified to enter for a matriculation examination even if capable of passing it. But whatever the explanation, it must be confessed that, both as regards leaving age and attainment, our State secondary schools do not as a whole represent educational work of an advanced type. The normal end of a secondary school course ought to be a leaving certificate which would be a passport into any profession or university, whereas at present relatively few reach that standard. In connection with the table of examinations passed by pupils, it is of interest to give an extract from another table, in which an endeavour is made to show what happened to pupils after leaving secondary schools in recept of State grants :— Further Education or Occupation of Full-time Pupils who left during the School Year. Proceeded to universities at ad 2°0 a5 other schools or institutions 15°3 Teaching ... te a ots 13°2 Professional, commercial, or clerical 31°6 Industrial or manual Sch 205 560 soe OST Agricultural or rural sis G66 2°8 Home or unclassified occupation 20'4 The table shows only what was the destination or occupation of the pupil when leaving school, and it thus may bear little or no relation to the career ulti- mately selected. But even when this is borne in mind, it is evident from the table that most of the pupils who leave secondary schools prefer to enter clerical rather than industrial occupations. [wo per cent. pro- ceeded to universities, and 7 per cent. to technical schools and institutions, medical schools, training colleges for secondary school teachers, and like places providing special training for professions, trades, or commercial occupations. Technical Institutions. A technical institution, within the meaning of the regulations of the Board, is an institution giving an organised course of instruction in day classes, includ- ing advanced instruction in science, or in science and in art, and provided with a staff and equipment ade- quate for the purpose. Provision must be made in such institutions for at least a two years’ systematic course in science, or in science and in art, either alone, or in conjunction with subjects of general commercial, manual, or technological instruction. Except that for the present students may be admitted between the ages of fifteen and sixteen, no student may be admitted to the course unless he has passed through at least a three years’ course of instruction in a school recognised under the regulations of the Board for secondary schools, or is over sixteen years of age and is qualified from his general education to profit by a course of advanced instruction. About 1o per cent. of the students are admitted without fees. Students in Technical Insitutions. Institutions recognised... 06 a6 36 Students who attended full-time courses 2478 Students who attended at any time during the year :— (i) Age at date of first registration for the Session :— 15 and under 16 years of age 147 16 Fs 18 oa 725 18 A 21 5p 1314 21 years of age and over $38 (ii) Sex :-— Boys and men 304 ada ee : 2916 Girls and women ood POS: NO. 2235, VOL. 89| Students returned as admitted :— (i) On account of passing a university matri- culation (or equivalent) examination 812 (ii) On account of passing an examination recognised by the institution as a test of ability to profit by the courses... --. I08I (iii) Without passing any such examinatio TeSteee 2p as 652 The institutions represented in the above table include almost all those in which day students are taking connected courses of science and technology in England. There are thus about 2500 such students, one-third of whom had passed on entrance an examina- tion of university matriculation standard. Day Technical Classes. Grants are payable under the Board’s regulations to schools and classes which are, as a rule, for students younger than those in the technical institutions. Under this category there are included, however, some classes of a standard equal to that required in a technical institution, but with courses not of sufficient duration to be eligible for grants as technical institu- tions. Day technical classes vary in their aims, some being preparatory to trades, such as enginering, others providing instruction of a domestic type, others again being for blind or deaf students. The classes are held in technical schools and colleges, and may be classified as (1) commercial day schools; (2) trade preparatory schools ; (3) special trade schools ; (4) domestic economy schools for girls; (5) training schools for domestic economy teachers; (6) detailed classes. About 40 per cent. of the pupils are admitted without payment of fees. Students in Day Technical Classes. Institutions in which day technical classes were recognised ... 500 ore B02 seh | ETI) Students who attended at any time during the year :— (i) Age at date of first registration for the session :— 12 and under 15 years of age 4433 15 op 18 aS 3151 18 a 21 ee LIL, 21 years of age and over... 2628 (ii) Sex :— Boys and men 6162 Girls and women 5167 The worl of day technical classes consists in the main of preliminary training for apprentices or other specialised preparation for industrial, commercial, agri- cultural, or domestic life, and is equally suitable for students who have received their previous education either at public elementary or at secondary schools. It is distinct from the higher training given in the day classes of technical institutions. Evening and Similar Schools and Classes. The defining feature of these schools and classes is that they are intended to maintain educational facili- ties for those already engaged in some occupation which takes up the greater part of their time. The usual time of meeting is therefore in the evening, or on Saturday afternoons; but where the conditions of employment, or other circumstances, render a different time more convenient, classes meeting. in the day- time may be recognised under the same category, and may receive the same grants as classes meeting in the \ 5 evening. The classes vary very widely in character and scope, for they range from the small and un- ambitious continuation classes of a rural school to the highly specialised work done in the best equipped of the technical colleges. About 30 per cent. of the pupils receive free instruction. AucusT 29, 1912] NATURE 677 Students in Evening Schools. Recognised schools or centres in Th 73422 Students who attended any time during the year :— (i) Age at date of first registration for the session :— Under 12 years of age 735 12 and under 15 years of age 151,330 15 ” 1d » 214,569 1d A 21 * 118,082 21 years of age and over 222,943 (ii) Sex :— Boys and men 414,417 Girls and women 293,542 Total... 708,259 In this large number of evening students, nearly one-third of whom are twenty-one years of age or above, and most of whom attend the classes after a day’s labour in workshop or office, we have a volunteer army from which many captains of industry and leaders of thought have been selected. It is true that some of the instruction given in these evening schools and classes is not far removed from that of continuation schools, but there is much of a higher standard, and in the combination of practical experi- ence in the works during the day with theoretical knowledge gained at night we have a means of technical education which has proved successful in the | past, and from which more may be expected in the future. Io Joke (Ci UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE. Dr. Arruur J. Kenpa, instructor in preventive medicine and hygiene at the Harvard Medical School, has been appointed to the chair of bacteriology at Northwestern University, Evanston, Ill. This ap- pointment will give him the oversight of the researches in the problem of tuberculosis which have recently been endowed by Mr. James A. Patten at a cost of 50,000l. Tue Calendar of the Royal Technical College, Glasgow, for the one hundred and seventeenth session, 1912-1913, has just been received. It contains much information as to the courses of work prescribed for candidates for the college diploma, as well as other details. We notice that the governors contemplate the extension and modification of the diploma courses in mechanical, electrical, and civil engineering, mining, and naval architecture. The whole building of the college extends over seven acres of floor space, and forms the largest structure in Great Britain devoted to education. With its equipment it has cost about 400,000l. In the Calendar of the Edinburgh and East of Scot- land College of Agriculture for 1912-1913, which has just been issued, full particulars are given of the | various courses that may be taken at the Central Institution in the departments of agriculture, horti- culture, and forestry. The new arrangements in forestry will come into operation next session, and in this subject a new class will be commenced, the syllabus of which has been laid down with a view to meet the needs of those who desire a general know- ledge of forestry from the practical point of view. It is intended that this side will be specially emphasised by work in the forest garden. The calendar contains full details of the large amount of extension work carried on in the counties of the college area. The numerous lecturers and instructresses engaged in this department take to the doors of the rural population teaching in many subjects bearing on country life. NO. 2235, VOL. 89] Tue Board of Agriculture and Fisheries has awarded the following research scholarships in agricultural | science :—A. W. Ashby, Oxford (economics of agri- _ culture); W. Buddin, Cambridge (plant nutrition and | tural zoology) ; | physiology). | capacity. A. E. Cameron, Aberdeen (agricul- F. Cook, London (animal nutrition) ; A. Cunningham, Edinburgh (bacteriology); J. David- son, Liverpool (agricultural zoology); F. C. Minett, London (animal pathology); P. A. Murphy, Dublin (plant pathology); M. S. Pease, Cambridge (genetics) ; W. W. P. Pittom, Cambridge (animal nutrition) ; J. A. Prescott, Manchester (plant nutrition and soil problems); F. Summers, London and Liverpool (plant The scholarships, which are of the annual value of 15ol., and are tenable for three years, have been established in connection with the scheme for the promotion of scientific research in agriculture, for the purposes of which the Treasury has sanctioned a grant to the Board from the Development Fund, and thev are designed to provide for the training of promis- ing students under suitable supervision with a view to enable them to contribute to the development of agri- soil problems) ; | cultural science. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. Paris. Academy of Sciences, August 19.—M. Bassot in the chair.—A. Lacroix: The gem-bearing pegmatites of Madagascar. These pegmatites fall into two groups: potassium pegmatites and sodium and lithium pegma- tites. The first contains beryls, and also rare minerals containing titanium, niobium, tantalum, uranium (radio-active), cerium, and yttrium; the latter is charac- terised by numerous lithium minerals, tourmalines of various colours, beryls, red triphane (lunzite), and also minerals containing boron and _ fluorine.—Richard Birkeland: The trajectory of an electrified particle in a magnetic field—L. Wertenstein: The absorption of radio-active projections and the ionisation which they pro- duce.—S. Ratner ; The mobilities of the radio-active atom- ions in gases. A study of the mobilities of the atoms of radium B, projected by radium A, Rutherford’s method of the alternating field being employed in the measure- ments.—Jean Bielecki and Victor Henri; The quantita- tive study of the absorption of the ultra-violet rays by alcohols, acids, esters, aldehydes, and ketones of the fatty series. The photometry of the spectrograms has been utilised as the basis of a quantitative study of the absorption in the ultra-violet. The absorption increases as the molecule becomes more complex. The acid group (CO-OH) possesses a very great absorptive Other groups possess specific absorption characteristics.—M. Portevin: The effect of tempering upon the electrical resistance of bronzes and brasses.— Georges Baume and F. Louis Perrot: The atomic weight of chlorine. Gaseous hydrochloric acid was | allowed to come in contact with liquid ammonia, and the weight of gas necessary to form neutral ammonium chloride determined. Taking N=14’009, the results lead to Cl=35'465, practically identical with the inter- national value 35°460.—E. C. Teodoresco ; The presence of a nuclease in Alge. Care Town. Royal Society of South Africa, July 17.—J. Medley Wood: Addendum to revised list of the flora of Natal. —J. Hewitt and Hon. P. A. Methuen: Descriptions of some new Batrachia and Lacertilia from South Africa. —Miss L. Currlé: Notes on Nantaqualand Bushmen. The account is taken from a gentleman whose early life afforded him ample facilities for obtaining a clear insight into the characteristics of Cape Colony Bush- men. Their wandering life is noted, also their mode 678 of existence; the K’mé, by means of which they pro- cure white ants; their dress and adornments. Nothing comes amiss to them, eating hyzna, jackal, reptiles, and worms, Huts they never build, making only a frail shelter of grass and twigs. The poison they use for their arrows consists of snake poison, and also of that of the large spiders reputed to be very venomous, mixed with the milky juice of a Euphorbia growing in the Langebergen. They practise witchcraft to remove illness, this being done in a very simple manner by the old women. They acknowledge no chief or leader, and are not polygamous, but they have no marriage ceremonies. They are extremely revengeful, killing even their own relations if necessary. They believe in resurrection, and bury the dead in a sitting position, so as to enable them to get up easily and walk to a certain place where there is plenty of wild honey and locusts. Those who have been quarrelsome and have behaved badly towards their friends during their life- time would get common flies to eat as a punishment. The Bushmen believe that jackals, wild cats, &c., were formerly human beings transformed by witchcraft as punishment for evil doing.—Dr. J. R. Sutton: The physical significance of the mean diurnal curve of tem- perature. This paper discusses briefly the question whether hourly average temperatures have any great scientific value. The author comes to the conclusion that it is not unlikely that the mean diurnal curve of temperature is, for Kimberley, made up of at least three superimposed curves of the same period, which curves are proper, perhaps, to various outstanding types of weather.—Dr. J. R. Sutton: A note on the earthquakes of the South-African Table-land. Occasional shocks of earthquake are felt in South Africa. Four have occurred of sufficient intensity to be plainly felt since the observatory at Kenilworth (Kimberley) was estab- lished. The author directs attention to the fluctuations of barometric pressure which were in progress at the time of these shocks. BOOKS RECEIVED. Kausale und konditionale Weltanschauung. By Max Verworn. Pp. ii+46. (Jena: Gustav Fischer.) I mark. Das Tierreich. Edited by F. E. Schulze. 31 Lieferung, Crustacea, Ostracoda. By G. W. Muller. Pp. xxxiii+434. (Berlin: R. Friedlander & Sohn.) 32 marks. Notes on Foundry Practice. By J. J. Morgan. Pp. viii+ro8. (London: C. Griffin and Co., Ltd.) 2s. 6a. net. A Text-book of Rand Metallurgical Practice. By | R. Stokes, J. E. Thomas, and others. Vol. ii. Pp. xxii+438. (London: C. Griffin and Co., Ltd.) ars. net. Campagne Arctique de 1907. By le Duc d’Orléans. Crustagés Malacostracés. By Dr. L. Stappers. Pp. Vi+152+xii+xiit+vii plates+ii maps. Bryozoaires. By O. Nordgaard. Pp. iiit43+map. Coelentérés du Fond. By Dr. H.. Broch.. Pp. ii+-29+map: | Annélides Polychétes. By Prof. F. Fauvel. Pp. iii+ 45+iv+i plate+i map. (Brussels: C. Bulens.) Black’s Sentinel Reader. Book iv. By Prof. E. E. Speight. Pp. x+210. Book v. By Prof. E. E. Speight. Pp. xii+239. (London: A. and C. Black.) Is. 6d. each. The Treatment of Tuberculosis by means of the Immune Substances (I.K.) Therapy. By W. H. Fearis. Pp. xx+206. (London: John Murray.) 6s. net. Naturwissenschaftliche Studien am Toten Meer und im Jordantal. By Prof. M. Blanckenhorn. Pp. viit+478. Berlin: R. Friedlander & Sohn.) 25 marks. A O. 2235, VOL. 89| NATURE [AuGuUST 29, 1912 A Manual Flora of Egypt. Voli. Pp. xii+672. Vol. ii. R. Friedlander & Sohn.) Axiom and Principles of the Science of Organisa- tion. By M. Bruce-Williams. Second edition. Pp. 21+plates. (London: Association of Standardised Knowledge, Ltd.) 7s. 6d. a The Strategy of Nature. By M._ Bruce-Williams. Pp. 60. (London: Association of Standardised Know- ledge, Ltd.) 2s. 6d. Die Feigenbaume Italiens und ihre Beziehungen zu einander. By Dr. R. Ravasini. Pp. 174+6. (Bern: M. Drechsel.) 11 marks. Solar Physics Committee. Report of the Solar Eclipse Expedition to Vavau, Tonga Island, April 29, 1911. (Eastern date.) By Dr. W. J. S. Lockyer. Under the direction of Sir Norman Lockyer. Pp. iv+ 82+10 plates. (London: H.M. Stationery Office.) 6s. The Evolution of Ethers and Ether Phenomena. By A. Dilks. Pp. 50. (Bridgwater: Coombs and Dilks.) 2s. 6d. net. Fifth Scientific Report on the Investigations of the Imperial Cancer Research Fund. By Dr. E. F. Bash- ford. Pp. vi+o4. (London: Taylor and Francis.) By Dr. R. Muschler. Pp. 673-1312. 9(Berlini: Ss Jahrbuch der Naturwissenschaften, 1911-1912. Edited by Dr. J. Plaszmann. Pp. xvi+452. (Frei- burg and London: B. Herder.) 7s. 6d. _ Dactylography, or the Study of Finger-prints. By H. Faulds. Pp. 127. (Halifax: Milner and Co.) Sea Het. Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedi- tion to Torres Straits. Vol. iv. Arts and Crafts- Pp. xxiv+393+40 plates. (Cambridge: University Press.) 255. net. CONTENTS. PAGE An Introduction to Aristotelian Science. By Prof.’ D’Arcy W. Thompson, C.B. Picci GyOnCe ch an.c. 0 653 | Recent Botanical Publications 654 School Mathematics 655. Our Bookshelf 658. Letters to the Editor :— Butterfly Migration in Relation to Mimicry. — J. Evershed ORE 2.) oe Eee Parallel Mutations in Oenothera biennis.—R. R.Gates 659 William Herschel and his ‘*‘ Desertion.” — Dr, Jinls. (E. Dreyer)?> ei eee ee aee 660 The Disintegration of Metals at High Temperatures. —Dr. J. H. T. Roberts Tb, eee EE September Meteor-showers.—John R. Henry . . 660 A Flower Sanctuary.—Right Hon. Sir Edw. Fry, GC. B.,,F.R:S. | 0 eee ea A Point in Geological Nomenclature.—F Gillman . 661 Boats and Life-saving Appliances on Ships 661 Forests and Rainfall, By/R’1@ 2) 2) 2 eeeoe Oersted and the Electric Theory of Light. By Prof. Silvanus P. Thompson; ihiRoSin nein ao) en eo Science and Reservations. By A. E. Crawley. . . 665 Notes ee err ah eek oo! Our Astronomical Column ;— Astronomical Occurrences for September . 669. The Variability of Polaris ee 669 The Solar Eclipse of April 17) 2s see O yy Geminorum a Spectroscopic Binary of Exceptionally Long Period - cee ee 670 The Hamburg Observatory. . ... . ~ 670 Regional Geologyin Europe. By G. A. J.C. 670 The Life-history of the Hook-worm 672 The Microscopic Determinationof Minerals... . 673 Smithsonian Expeditions . ove cee Le Gre: Secondary and Technical Education in England. BypReranIG: : . . 2 «2 eee Hic; ate SOUS University and Educational Intelligence 677 Societies and Academies 677 Books Received 678 Supplement to “ Nature,” May 2, 1912. SUBEBLEEBMENT TO.“ NATURE.” HUMAN GEOGRAPHY. The Clarendon Geography. Vol. i. Part i., “Principles of Geography.’’ Part ii., ‘‘ The British wisies.” Part iti. ""SBurope.” By F. D. MHerbertson. Pp. viiit+379. (The Oxford Geographies.) (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1912.) Price 3s. A Geography of the World. By B. C. Wallis. Pp. xvi+372. (Macmillan’s Practical Modern Geographies.) (London: Macmillan and Co., Exdsamqmie)| Price 35. 6d. Buckinghamshire. By Dr. A. Pp. xli+222+maps. (Cambridge County Geographies.) (Cambridge: University Press, tgtI-12.) Price 1s. 6d. Northamptonshire. By M. W. Brown. Pp. xii+ 215+maps. (Cambridge County Geographies.) (Cambridge: University Press, 1911-12.) Price ts. 6d. Midlothian. By Alex. McCallum. Pp. x+208+ maps. (Cambridge County Geographies.) (Cambridge : University Press, 1911-12.) Price 1s. 6d. HESE five books are pre-eminently up-to- date geographies. Each may be taken to present with vivid force the dictum which Mr. Wallis emphasises in his preface, ‘‘ Geography deals with the co-existence at the present time of the many forces which tend to shape human effort.’ Each, therefore, is to be commended, for each strikes the right note in latter-day geo- graphy, the human note. Summarising their respective schemes of con- tents, it may be said that the two general geo- graphies work more or less on the same plan, viz., an introductory part of general principles (earth-movements, climate, physiography in the Herbertson, and the same with a stronger ten- dency towards ‘‘ commercial ’’ geography in the Wallis), followed by parts dealing with regional geography, in which the principles already laid down are shown in practical application. The three county geographies include within their scope a good deal of history, as a glance at their contents-index shows: ‘‘County History and Antiquities,’”” ‘‘ Architecture,” ‘‘A Roll of Honour ’’ supplement the more orthodox headings of physical geography, natural history, industries, and communications. Classifying, therefore, the objective of the writers, we should say, without prejudice, that Mrs. Herbertson and Mr. Wallis have written emphatically for the class-room, and Messrs. Brown, Davies, and McCallum for the school library. In the former case geography NO. 2218, VOL. 89] Morley Davies. | out question rightly ; is presented on the make-it-yourself principle, i.e., the true principle of all good teaching where the class does the work, and the master, or mistress, supplies the guidance; in the latter, facts are presented to the reader certainly in a logical order and an interesting fashion, but he may enjoy them in an easy chair. Mr. Wallis’s book is a veritable apotheosis of facts and figures, but facts and figures used with- they have to be worked out, or thoroughly examined, and then they lead to important and always interesting deductions. Nothing is told in isolation; all is correlation. This is making geography, as it should be, an educative study. There is a good deal of “‘ stiff ”’ material when the two authors are dealing with principles, and in the Herbertson this, unfor- tunately, comes quite at the beginning. It cannot be helped, and we would earnestly counsel no teacher to be deterred thereby from adding one or the other, or both books, to his stock of texts. We guarantee he will learn much himself. How many men or women, for instance, who are now teaching geography are sound on “‘ isonephs ’’ and ‘‘isonomalous lines’’ (Wallis) or ‘‘ erosion cycles’’ and ‘‘ earth pyramids ’’ (Herbertson) ? A striking feature of all five books is the wealth of maps, diagrams, and illustrations. Where there are so many there is much variety both of execution and of presentation, nor are all of equal merit. The weakest maps, we think, are the two coloured ones, one physical and one geological, at the beginning and the end of the three county geographies. They are so crowded with names as to appear confused, and, worse than all, their colours stop with the county confines. North- amptonshire. therefore appears as an undulating island in a sea of nothingness. On the other hand, the two coloured maps in the Herbertson are educatively perfect. There is no overcrowd- ing; the features of note are obvious; they are full of deductive lessons. A class with these two maps in their hands would understand in a moment the isolation of the United Kingdom and of Italy, the importance of the Sadne-Rhone valley to France or the Severn to West England, the connection of Swedish history in Vasa times with the opposite shores of the Baltic. The un- coloured maps are equally satisfactory, though there is a tendency here and there, especially in the Wallis, to introduce too much matter. By way of illustration, compare ‘“‘N. America: Relief’? (Wallis, p. 228), which is absolutely illuminative in its clearness, .with “India: In- ternal Trade” (ib. p. 190), which is approximating a jig-saw puzzle in its hieroglyphics. Illustrations in a school book should be speak- IV Supplement to “ Nature,” May 2, 1912. ing, and should illustrate the text. We have little fault to find here in any of the five, but we much prefer the method of presentation which affixes explanatory notes (Herbertson, Davies) at the foot of the photographs, to that which leaves the reader to discover for himself why such and such a picture is in the book at all (McCallum, Brown). Another feature of merit is the numerous exer- cises and questions which the two class geo- graphies contain. Obviously these would be out of place in the scheme of the county geo- graphies. Mr. Wallis has culled his from the examination papers of the world, from the Uni- versities of the Panjab and Sydney, as well as from Oxford and Cambridge. Nevertheless, we think many of the questions require editing. Those of the type, ‘‘ How far is the term clay vale a satisfactory name for the country between the oolitic and chalk ridges?’ ‘‘ How far is it con- tinuous? ’’ ‘‘ What geographical advantages led to the growths of Ely, Peterborough, and Col- chester? ’’ (Herbertson) are unimpeachable. They require short, concise answers, and are capable of diagrammatic illustration. But ‘Write a short account of the climate and products of X,” or “Write a short note on China ’’ (Wallis) we do not like. They invite sketchy, scrappy answers. Contrast (also in Wallis) ‘‘ Select any one coal- field in the British Isles. Show its position on a rough sketch map, together with the nearest iron-ore district, and three or four towns which have profited by the existence of the two “fields.’’’ Exercises of this type are capital practice for examinations, which end both Mrs. Herbertson and Mr. Wallis have evidently kept in view. Indeed, the student who will conscien- tiously work through either of these two works should fear nothing in the way of a geography examination. If, for example, he learns how to analyse the position, or importance, of towns (cf. Herbertson on Belfast, p. 243), or industrial districts (ib. on the Newcastle-Durham coalfield, p. 181), he has made one great step towards floor- ing any modern examination paper. It is from this point of view that the three coun, ,eographies differ entirely from the larger No one would read them with the ‘‘ ex- ” eye. They are too sketchy, for one thing, and, though drawn up on a uniform plan, differ considerably in the handling of it. The idiosyncrasies of the various authors account for this. ‘* Buckinghamshire ’’ is strong on architec- ture and botany, ‘‘ Northamptonshire ”’ books. amination on orni- thology, and so on. Is it, by the way, correct to say with Mr. Brown that the leather obtained by chrome-tanning is stronger and better in every NO. 2218, VOL. 89] way than that obtained by the old process? Stronger, certainly, but it is usually conceded that oak bark still produces the best leather. Or, again, Mr. McCallum states that Loretto School “is conducted on English lines.’’ Is it? Almond was nothing if not original, and though he cer- tainly did not copy any Scotch institution in achieving his great work, he as certainly imitated no English example. These, however, are per- haps matters of opinion, and as such we leave them. It is good for British school-geography that such books should be on the market at so reasonable a price. CHEMISTRY IN ITS RELATION TO MANUFACTURE. Some Chemical Problems of To-day. By Prof. Robert K. Duncan. Pp. vi+254. (New York and London: Harper & Bros., 1911.) Price 7s. 6d. net. HE title of this entertaining American treatise is scarcely comprehensive enough to cover the very wide range of subjects presented some- what at random in eleven mutually independent sections, and the reader who wishes, without un- due delay, to gain precise information on some chemical problems of to-day is advised to begin with the last chapter, which deals with a scheme of industrial fellowships initiated by the author at the University of Kansas in 1907. This scheme depends for its value and acceptability on a mutu- ally advantageous arrangement between manu- facturers on the one hand and the university on the other for the adequate solution of important manufacturing problems. Accordingly, negotiations were entered into with a certain manufacturing firm for the establishment of some type of co-operative work by which these manufacturers, with special knowledge of their trade requirements, might work harmoniously with the university and its laboratories, libraries, and consultative facilities. A form of agreement approved by both parties was drawn up, whereby the manufacturing corporation agreed to endow a fellowship to deal with some important problem requiring a chemical solution, the interests of the corporation being safeguarded by a claim on the results obtained, and a guarantee of three years’ secrecy after the termination of the agreement. These fellowships generally run for two years, and the endowment varies from 500 to 1,500 dollars per annum, sometimes with an additional cash bonus. The results obtained from the six fellow- ships which have now matured appear to be highly The most remarkable success was the National Association of Master satisfactory. gained by Supblement to ‘ Nature,” May 2, 1912. Vv research is given in the chapter devoted to the scientific aspects of bread-making. The value of these industrial fellowships to the college-trained chemist may well be gauged from the data furnished in the chapter on the relation between chemistry and manufacture in America. Here it will be seen that the conditions under which American manufacturers engage their chemists can scarcely be regarded as satisfactory to the latter. Of security of tenure there is virtually none, generally the chemist is “hired” by the week or month, except in a very few cases where contracts are made of one or two years’ duration. The average starting wage is about 720 dollars per annum, and in practically no instance investigated by the author is there any mechanism of promo- tion. The working day varies from seven to nine hours, and there is a very great diversity of prac- tice as regards vacations, which range from “ten days if we can spare him” to those more generous conditions where the chemists either have “seven weeks ” or “generally get what they demand.” It is evident from this not too attractive survey that the American graduate in science who wishes to take up industrial chemistry will probably gain more liberal terms vid an industrial fellowship than by private treaty with a manufacturing firm. The opening chapter of the book indicates some of the industrial prizes of chemistry, and, indeed, several of the problems are already being investi- gated under the industrial fellowship scheme at the Universities of Kansas and Pittsburgh. Most of these problems arise from the immediate and pressing needs of manufacturers and consumers, but although this chapter is not altogether lacking in the wider outlook, it is nevertheless somewhat disappointing to find that the author, although a professor of chemistry, feels compelled to ‘“con- sider frankly why trained and earnest men should devote laborious days to making diketo- tetrahydroquinazoline, or some equally academic substance.” It is always dangerously easy to follow a thoughtless fashion, and at present it is the vogue to regard organic chemistry as the Cinderella of the sciences. But true to her best traditions, this scientific drudge still possesses a fairy-godmother, and from time to time miraculous events occur in her dingy kitchen, with results which are of great benefit to humanity. Then the long names disappear, and such “academic sub- stances” as phenyldimethylpyrazolone and di- aminodihydroxyarsenobenzene become respectively antipyrine and salvarsan. tion is reached, those who formerly scorned the kitchen-maid have nothing but extravagant com- pliments for the fairy princess until her short NO, 2218, voL. 89] When this transforma- | | period of glamour is over and her adventitious charms are again forgotten. In fairness to the author, it should be stated that his disparagement of the work of the mere organic chemist is qualified very considerably in his discus- sion of the ideal training for an industrial chemist, from which the following extract is taken :— “Tt is for this reason that I attach so much importance to the discipline and methods of or- ganic chemistry, for organic chemistry is almost the sole subject in the chemical curriculum in which a student gains educational training in synthetic working and synthetic thinking.” In this passage the author supplies the answer to his earlier query, for is it not just conceivable that those “trained and earnest men” who set their pupils to “make diketotetrahydroquinazoline, or some equally academic substance,” do so because this exercise affords “an educational training in synthetic working and synthetic thinking ” ? The author’s mental attitude towards problems which are not of immediate industrial importance is seen in clearer perspective in the chapters deal- ing with the question of the atom, the chemical interpretation of life and the beginnings of things. In these sections a popular explanation is given of such widely diverse matters as the ultramicro- scope, Rutherford’s apparatus for studying the a-particle, the electrical theory of the atom, catalysts, enzymes, the planetesimal hypothesis, and the origin of terrestrial life. The “whither- ward of matter” deals in a similar manner with the phenomena of radioactivity and the transmuta- tions of the elements. The report on the relation of the Univer- sity of Wisconsin to the State is concerned only to a limited extent with purely chemical problems, but it constitutes a striking testi- mony of the way in which the American uni- versities are entering more and more into the everyday life of the people, so that practically every field of human activity is permeated and inspired by the university atmosphere. Gayla Me AND THEIR INSECT GUESTS. Ihre Anpassungen anein- ander und ihre gegenseitige Abhangigkeit. By Prof. O. von Kirchner. Pp. v+436. (Leipzig & Berlin: B. G. Teubner, rgrt.) Price 6.60 marks. FLOWERS Blumen und Insekten. INCE the well-known classical work of Her- mann Miiller on the ‘“Cross-Fertilisation of Flowers by Insects” (Eng. trans. 1883) has been extended by Knuth (1898) to an encyclopedic vi Supplement to ‘ Nature,” May 2, 1912. compendium of the details and literature of the subject, the English translation of which is in process of issue by the Oxford University Press in several volumes, there remains an obvious need for a more handy book dealing with the funda- mental principles of the subject from the modern point of view. Such a work would prove of greatest value both to the general reader and to those who have experienced a difficulty in obtain- ing a concise arrangement of the subject for teach- purposes. The volume issued by Prof. Kirchner has been designed to fulfil these require- ments, and the work has been carried out in a particularly effective and satisfactory manner. In a small volume of about 4oo pages, with large clear print and more than 160 detailed pen- sketches, many of them full-page blocks, a very comprehensive view of the whole question has been combined with a semi-popular mode of pre- sentation, which renders the material readily accessible to all. There are no footnotes and no direct references to literature, and the treatment of the subject is simplified as much as possible, since those requiring further detailed information with regard to particular plants will consult the volumes of Knuth. The book is divided into sixteen chapters, the subject-matter of which would be admirably adapted for a course of about twenty lectures, in- cluding a review of the entire range of phenomena associated with the reciprocal relationship of flowers and insects. An introductory chapter on the mechanism of pollination, and its relation to subsequent fertilisation, is succeeded by dis- cussion of the different methods of pollination and the essential difference between cross- and self- pollination, special emphasis being laid on the deduction that in special circumstances autogamy may be as essentially important to plant life as allogamy, and that it is impossible to understand the biology of the flower without taking into account the ecological relationships of the whole organism. The consideration of the special characteristics of insect-visited flowers involves the discussion of the origin and use of nectar, scent, and colour materials, together with a general description of the special structural adap- tations for floral diet to be traced in the different groups of insects. The body of the work (pp. 90-385) is devoted to examples of floral mechanism of different types of flowers; but since the number of flowers avail- ing able is so enormous, and the adaptations so in- finitely varied, some method of selection is desirable (a review of all species and genera in the province of the Kirchner has solved systematic order being volumes of Knuth). Prof. NO. 2218, VOL. 89] the problem in an ingenious manner by adopting the flower-classes of Miiller, and selecting about ten examples of each class for more detailed ex- amination and illustration: the value of the work consists largely in the breadth of view exercised in the selection of suitable forms. Thus the flower-classes of Miller, indicated by the irrita- ting symbols PO, A, AB, B, B’, D, H, F (these symbols being replaced by others in the English translation of Knuth), are treated in separate chapters, though Class H (Hymenoptera-flowers) extends to eight sections, of almost equal value, each of which is again illustrated by a series of forms. The types, it is interesting to note, are selected for their intrinsic value, quite apart from their connection with a comparatively poor in- digenous flora. Flowers in general garden or greenhouse cultivation, as well as types from south Europe, or even further atield, are called upon to assist in creating an impression of the scope of the subject. It is interesting to note that the Crocus flowers, which with us only open for a few hours in warm sunshine, are correlated, particularly the white ones, with the visits of night-flying moths in the Alps, while autogamy in this case is effected in older flowers by a continued growth of the perianth-tube, which enables the stamens to make contact with the stigmas. Such. inconsistencies, however, are useful as stimulating observation on the part of the reader. The end chapters are devoted to the discussion of examples of the application of the statistical methods developed by Loew, McLeod, and Robertson, and the manner in which they may be utilised to throw light on the special ecological characteristics of the flora of a given climatic region; to the problems of the fundamental cause of the existing mutual and complementary rela- tions between plants and their pollinating guests; and, finally, to the present state of our knowledge with regard to the origin of the Angiosperm flower and its visitors mainly from the point of view of geological evidence. COSMOGONIES, OLD AND NEW. Lecons sur les Hypothéses Cosmogoniques Professées &@ la Sorbonne. By H. Poincaré. Rédigées par H. Vergne. Pp. xv+294. (Paris: A. Hermann et Fils, 1911.) Price 12 francs. HE most valuable part of the book under Bb review is undoubtedly the preface. Here M. Poincaré expresses something of his own The imperious claim upon our minds of cosmogonical speculation is first justified, then a views. number of differing theories are passed in rapid review and briefly criticised. The conclusion that is reached may perhaps be fairly given by the following extracts :-— “La cosmogonie va-t-elle donc sortir de l’age des hypothéses et de l’imagination pour devenir une science expérimentale, ou tout au moins une science d’observation? . On attend sans doute de moi une conclusion, et c’est cela qui m’embarrasse. Plus on étudie cette question de Vorigine des astres, moins on est pressé de con- clure. Chacune des théories proposées_ est séduisante par certains cétés. Les unes donnent d’une facon trés satisfaisante l’explication d’un certain nombre de faits: les autres embrassent davantage, mais les explications perdent en précision ce qu’elles gagnent en étendue; ou bien, au contraire, elles nous donnent une précision trop grande, mais qui n’est qu’illusoire et qui sent le coup de pouce. ... Nous ne pouvons donc terminer que par un point d’interrogation.” With one reservation, namely, that he does not propose to extend the explanation to cover all the varying types of stellar systems, our author inclines to accept a modified form of the nebular hypothesis of Laplace. At a time when it is the fashion rather to decry Laplace and to look upon his views as exploded it is refreshing to find a writer of the calibre of M. Poincaré standing up in his defence :— “C’est Vhypothése de Laplace qui rend le mieux compte de bien des faits; c’est elle qui répond le mieux & la question que s’est posée son auteur. Pourquoi 1’ordre regne- -til dans le systéme solaire, si cet ordre n’est pas dt au hasard? ” It must be borne in mind, however, that this position is maintained partly by ignoring some of the most recent criticisms that have been levelled at the nebular hypothesis. Full weight is given to the valuable modifications introduced by Roche, but, en the other hand, there is no mention of the recent work of Moulton, or of other critics. This leads one directly to state the weakest feature of the book under review. French cosmogonical speculation is naturally very fully treated, but the work of the men of science of other countries is selected for discussion in a somewhat haphazard manner. It would seem that a hook here or a paper there has caught the eye of the author, and has been introduced into the work. But no attempt has been made to form a complete survey of recent work, and much valuable research has been omitted, especially in the discussion of stellar as opposed to solar theories. The spectroscopic evidence in the theories of stellar evolution is given neither fully nor critically. In fact, the preface, useful save in criticism, even constructive Supplement to ‘“* Nature,” ee 7 TOL 2. Vii Thus two theories, each claiming to explain mony celestial phenomena, may be given in succeeding chapters. The two theories deal with the same phenomena, but they are incompatible. Save in the passage already quoted above from the preface, there is little to show the author’s own attitude to the speculations under review. It is true that “il peut étre utile de les faire connaitre, parce qu’on pourra un jour y trouver a glaner d’intéressantes vérités.” But the hook would have served a more useful purpose if M. Poincaré could have indicated more clearly with regard to each hypothesis where in his opinion lies the grain of truth which is worthy of the gleaning. In the detailed treatment of individual theories the value of the book lies largely in the lucidity of the statements. The writer has evidently enjoyed the opportunities of entering into a mathematical discussion whenever they have presented them- selves. This is notably the case in the account of the theory of M. du Ligondeés, and of the contrast between it and the kinetic theory of gases. The presentation of the analysis of Sir George Darwin’s tidal theories should prove stimulating to all students of his writings. A full discussion is given of the views of Dr. Arrhenius, and on the whole M. Poincaré sums up against his conclusions on “la mort calorifique de 1’Univers.’’ The views of other writers (See, Bélot, Schuster, Lockyer) are given for the most part without much criticism, but they provide very interesting read- ing, as, indeed, does the whole book. It should be added that the work of editing the lectures has been done very satisfactorily by Dr. Vergne. TANNINS, DYES, AND COLOURS. Allen’s Conmmercial Organic Analysis. Edited by W. A. Davis and S. S! Sadtler. Vol. -v-: Tannins, Analysis of Leather, Dyes and Colour- ing Matters, Dyestuffs of Groups 6 to 12, Colouring Matters of Natural Origin, Analysis of Colouring Matters, Colouring Matters in Foods, Inks. By the Editors and the following Contributors: W. P. Dreaper, J. F. Hewitt, W. M. Gardner, A. F. Seeker, P. H. Walker, E. Feilmann. Fourth edition. Entirely re- written. Pp. ix+704. (London: J. and A. Churchill, 1911.) Price 21s. net. N the first division of this work Mr. W. P. Dreaper deals with the tannins. On the question of the constitution of these widespread, numerous, and commercially important bodies there has been much discusSion. The tannin of gall-nuts (tannic acid, gallotannic acid) was formerly regarded as a glucoside, and by some ag is Se lacking throughout the work. ] authorities is still so regarded, or at least a 218, voL. 89] Vill formula, C,H .0,;, based on this assumption was suggested as recently as 1908. The view more generally held, however, has been that pure gallotannic acid has the composi- tion C,,H,,O9, and in constitution is digallic acid, the anhydride of gallic acid. Nevertheless, there are some facts known which do not altogether tally with this view. A summary of the present state of our know- ledge of the subject is provided by the author in the section devoted to the classification and con- stitution of natural tannins. This includes an account of the recent researches of Nierenstein, Ijin, Manning, and others, brought down to the year 1910. The first-named investigator concludes that ‘‘ tannic acid’’ is a mixture of at least two compounds, namely, digallic acid and a “leuco- tannic” acid; its composition is therefore more complex than has been generally supposed, and the question of its exact chemical constitution is still an unsettled one. On the practical side the recognised processes for the detection and estimation of tannins are described at length. For the testing of tannin materials both the European and the American “official ” methods are included. The sections on dyestuffs and colouring matters, occupying as they do some 550 pages, are the chief feature of the volume. Messrs. Dreaper and Feilmann deal with dyes and colours generally, describing the chemistry and classification of these products, and the analysis of colouring materials. Professor Hewitt discusses the chemistry of special groups of synthetical dyestuffs, and is characteristically happy with complicated struc- tural formule. Prof. W. M. Gardner is respons- ible for the section on the group of natural colcuring-matters, which gives a short outline of the method of production and chemistry of indigo, logwood, iustic, weld, turmeric, gamboge, annatto, cochineal, madder, alkanet, and the lac dyes. More analytical details would have been welcome here, but no doubt the question of space had to be considered. A separate section is devoted to substances employed for colouring foods. Although this could have been incorpor- ated with the other chapters on dyes and colour- ing-matters, users of the book who have to do with foodstuffs will consider the separate treatment a decided advantage. So many new dyestuffs have been produced in recent years that the problem of identifying a given colour has become greatly more difficult than it was, say, a generation ago. In fact, as regards synthetic dyes, the general analyst, as distinct from the specialist in colour chemistry, must now perforce content himself in many cases NO. 2218, VOL. 89] Supplement to ‘‘ Nature,” May 2, 1912. with assigning a given colour to its generic group. The positive recognition of the individual dye, even if only one is present, is becoming more and more frequently an almost hopeless task when time is limited and the operator has no special experience. Happily, the general commercial analyst—for whom, after all, this work on “commercial organic analysis’ is primarily written—does not always need to name the precise dye or pigment he may meet with in his work. Frequently it will suffice to discriminate between a natural and an artificial colour, and in the latter case to refer it to its class, as, for instance, an azo-compound, a “sul- phide” dye, or a diphenyl-methane derivative. But when closer differentiation is necessary, there is plenty of help for him in this volume. Gos: CYTOLOGICAL PROBLEMS. Das Problem der Befruchtungsvorginge und andere zytologische Fragen. By Prof. B. Némec. Pp. iv+532. (Berlin: Gebriider Born- traeger, 1910.) Price 20 marks. F we had to compress an account of the im- pression left by a perusal of Prof. Némec’s book into a sentence, it would in effect be that an otherwise interesting theme has been damaged by undue verbosity. The author is well known for his experiments on the action of drugs, especially chloral hydrate, upon dividing cells, and a great part of the treatise before us is devoted to an ex- tended account of these investigations. Némec believes that one of the actions of such drug's is to inhibit the formation of cell walls between the two nuclei resulting from a division, and a second, but not invariable, consequence lies in the re-fusion of the nuclei thus formed. Such double nuclei are marked by the large size of the cell, as well as the resultant nucleus, whilst the latter contains twice the number of chromosomes normally occurring in the nuclei of the particular tissue in the untreated state. In these discoveries he has been confirmed by other investigators, but he goes further and con- siders that the ‘‘syndiploid” nuclei thus produced may (though not necessarily) be reduced to the normal diploid type by a process resembling the reduction of chromosomes at the meiotic phase of the life-history of an animal or plant. In this, however, his conclusions are not borne out by the researches of other workers who have investi- gated the problem in Germany and in this country. Other syndiploid cells, instead of reverting to the normal type, may be simply killed out and leave no further cell products in the ontogeny of the organism. Supplement to “ Nature,’ May 2, 1912. ix The book is, in spite of the merits it undoubtedly possesses, an irritating one to read on account of the excursions into other quite different fields of work into which its author not unfrequently irrele- vantly strays. For example, it is misleading to speak of the further production of syndiploid cells, when one of these pathological units divides and gives rise to its like, as an example of “in- heritance of acquired characters.” This latter phrase has a precise and definite technical mean- ing, and it is only rendered loose and obscure by such a perversion. In the latter half of the volume, where the results detailed in the first part are discussed in their rela- tion to other groups of facts, the author is often suggestive, even if one is unable to agree with him. It is, perhaps, possible that the fusion of the polar nuclei, and perhaps also the odd one from the pollen tube, is to be correlated with the large size of the complete embryo sac after the separa- tion of the other cells from it. But few persons, we imagine, would admit that these fusions are to be at once and directly compared to the patho- logical fusions which may occur after treatment with chloral hydrate. That they may be so com- pared is, of course, undeniable, but whether they can be usefully considered together, in the present exiguous state of our knowledge of the real agencies at work, is very much open to doubt. The chapters on the relation of the chromosome number to alternation of generations, the essentials of fertilisation, and the individuality of the cell in the tissue are well worth reading. The book is an important contribution to cytology, and not the less so because the author is often at variance with much that is elsewhere regarded as the expression of authoritative current opinion. eRe. E: AN AMERICAN MANUAL OF FARM LIVESTOCK. Manual of Farm Animals: A Practical Guide to the Choosing, Breeding, and Keep of Horses, Cattle, Sheep, and Swine. By Prof. M. W. Harper. Pp. xxv+545. (New York: The Macmillan Co. London:. Macmillan & Co., Ltd., 1911.) 8s. 6d. net. 1 is a remarkable fact that, with three or four exceptions, all the important breeds of live- stock throughout the world are of British origin. Their present production and the degree of per- fection that they have reached have been the result of accumulated experience in breeding and rearing in a country where the general environ- mental conditions amid which stock are raised have varied but slightly during many generations. NO. 2218, VOL. 89] The amount of Government support which this important industry has received in Great Britain has hitherto been meagre, but America, on the other hand, has for some time past been provided with State-endowed experiment stations and other agricultural institutions, which may be supposed to compensate to some extent for the natural dis- advantages of a comparatively new country in re- gard to animal production. Nevertheless, in spite of these institutions, upon which very considerable sums are annually spent, Prof. Harper complains that the raising of farm animals does not receive due recognition. Moreover, we are told that not only are British livestock still generally superior, but that the breeders of Europe exercise a care and management which compare favourably with those shown by farmers in America. The object of the present volume is an ambitious one, for the author states that it has been written with a view to promote interest in the daily work with farm animals, in the hope that such interest may lead to the production of a better and more useful class of livestock. For this pur- pose he has confined himself mainly to a discussion of the management of animals, without giving descriptions of the breeds, though, as he points out, a knowledge of the latter is clearly indis- pensable. The first chapter is on how to choose a horse, and contains useful information on the de- tection of unsoundness. This is followed by general considerations on the feeding of farm animals, and a chapter on the feeding of horses. The fourth chapter is devoted to the breeding of animals, and is practical in character. An ex- position of Mendelism, or of scientific systems of breeding, would probably have been out of place in a manual for farm practice, but one fails to see any advantage in the re-statement of such theories as that “the male controls the external and the female the internal organs of the offspring ”— theories which the author himself apparently does not believe, for he afterwards says that “so far as is known, the parents play an equal part in their control of the characters of the offspring.” One misses any reference to telegony, which is surely a matter of practical importance, and in discussing sterility an allusion to the advantages in certain cases of artificial insemination might have been expected. The first part of the book is concluded by chapters on the breeding of horses and mules, the care and management of horses, and the diseases to which they are subject. Most of the breeds mentioned are British, but Percheron and Belgian horses are referred to in passing. The second, third, and fourth parts of the work are devoted respectively to cattle, sheep, and swine, and much useful and interesting informa- tion is given concerning the methods of breeding and management which are adopted in America. Beef and dairy cattle are treated separately, and the breeds referred to include the Guernsey, Jersey, Ayrshire, Shorthorn, Aberdeen Angus, Galloway, Red Poll, and Devon, and among continental breeds the Dutch Belted, Holstein-Friesian, and Brown Swiss cattle. The sheep mentioned are the Merino and the majority of English breeds. Ina section on the breeding of the ewes, it is said that “some owners hold the ewes while the ram serves them; then in a few days the ewes come around naturally, when the ram serves them again in the natural way.” It is difficult to conceive what pos- sible advantage can accrue to this practice, but the author says nothing in disapproval of it. In dealing with pigs he separates the lard type from the bacon type, since these are so different in character. The lard type greatly outnumbers the bacon type in America. It is interesting to note that the Poland China breed, which represents the extreme limit in lard production, is in consequence lacking in fecundity. The operation of castrating pigs is described, but there is no mention of ovariotomy, which is practised in various parts of the British Isles. The volume contains good illustrations of prize animals belonging to the different breeds, and to these are often appended explanatory descrip- tions or other interesting information. To English agricultural readers the work is instructive as throwing light on the conditions of farm practice which prevail in America. Francis H. A. MARSHALL. TECHNOLOGY AND LITERATURE. The Theory and Practice of Technical Writing. By Prof. Samuel C. Earle. Pp. vii+3or. (New York: The Macmillan Co.; London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1911.) Price 5s. 6d. net. OW far it is possible for the technical man to acquire facility in the presentation of his subject by a system of rules laid down by an en- thusiastic teacher must always be open to doubt, and everyone is, after all, the architect of his own style. But much may be done by judicious arrange- ment and example, and the author (an American professor of English literature) has certainly set us a good example in this well-written book. The difficulties to be met in writing for the whole field covered by ‘technical writing ”’ are overcome by separating the various kinds of technical litera- ture, and dealing with each according to its special requirements. Different treatment is necessary for such various kinds of literature as the condensed statement of a patent specifica- NO. 2218, VOL. 89] x Supplement to “ Nature,’ May 2, 1922. tion, the report of a resident engineer upon his work, or the presentation of a great subject at the hands of a master. Various examples drawn from engineering books by well-known authors and published reports are given in a long appendix to illustrate points in the text. The description of the transit (or theodolite, as it is known to English engineers) and Bleriot’s account of his cross-Channel flight represent the opposite poles of technical descrip- tion. While the one is terse, and is shorn of all but a skeleton of words, the latter is florid, imaginative, and altogether unlike the calm de- scriptive writing that we would look for in our technical papers. But French writers are always more lavish with words, and the beauty of their language makes redundancy less noticeable than in English. The two chapters on “addressing general readers’ and ‘addressing specialists” contain much condensed wisdom and many useful hints to those who would address a larger circle of readers than the specialists. Indeed, the spread of scientific and technical knowledge among the general public depends in no small degree upon the absorption by technical writers of the axioms contained in these two chapters. A_ correct diagnosis of the state of special knowledge among the readers that a writer would address is the passport to success. Though ornamentation is often out of place in technical literature, the author does not inhibit “picturesque language, concrete illustrations, contrasts, paradoxes, and figures of speech,’ which in moderation may stimulate interest in a dry subject, or suggest collateral lines of inquiry. Yet, as he says, most technical writers avoid such “literary” qualities. We would wish that it was possible for the author to impart to his students his graceful, simple, and convincing style as easily as he presents his arguments for the arrangement, classification, and balance of their work. The young writer will feel encouraged by a quotation from one who was himself an effective writer and a most successful teacher that “success as a writer depends upon his willingness to fill a waste paper basket if necessary before producing a single finished page.”’ How far the success of great teachers depends upon ability to write easily and in an entertaining manner is familiar to those who have profited by monumental text- books. The works of Clerk Maxwell may be cited as an instance of great literary charm com- bined with cogent reasoning, and a careful perusal of the work before us will show that these are not antagonistic, but complementary qualities. RS se : AvuGuUST 22, 1912] NATURE cclv Sales by Fuction. STEVENS’ AUCTION ROOMS. Esrp. 1760. Sale by Auction is held EVERY FRIDAY at 12.30, which affords first-class opportunities for the disposal o1 purchase of SCIENTIFIC AND ELECTRICAL APPARATUS, Microscopes and Accessories, Surveying Instruments, Photographic Cameras and Lenses, Lathes and Tools, Cinematographs and Films, and Miscellaneous Property. Catalogues and terms for selling will be forwarded on application to Mr. J.C. STEWVENS, 38 KING STREET, COVENT GARDEN, LONDON, W.C. SECOND-HAND DEPARTMENT Microscopes, Telescopes, Spectroscopes, Binoculars, Surveying Instruments, &c., BY THE BEST MAKERS AT MODERATE PRICES. Lists sent post free. > WATKINS & DONCASTER, Naturalists and Manufacturers of CABINETS AND APPARATUS FOR COLLECTORS OF INSECTS, BIRDS' EGGS AND SKINS MINERALS, PLANTS, &c. SPECIAL SHOW-ROOM FOR CABINETS. N.B.—For Excellence and Superiority of Cabinets and Apparatu: references are permitted to distinguished patrons, Museums, Colleges, &c A LARGE STOCK OF INSECTS, BIRDS’ EGGS AND SKINS. SPECIALITY.—Objects for Nature Study, Drawing Classes, &c. Birds, Mammals, &e., Preserved and Mounted by First-class Workmen true to Nature. All Books and Publications on Natural History supplied. 86 STRAND, LONDON, W.C. Instruments Bought, Exchanged and Sold. (Five Doors from Charing Cross.) JOHN BROWNING, aa oe NEW CATALOGUE POST FREE. LIVING SPECIMENS FOR THE MICROSCOPE. ALL KINDS OF BRITISH AND FOREIGN Mineral Specimens, COMMON MINERAL ORES, and CHOICE CRYSTALLIZED SPECIMENS = Salven; Se OER, Distoms, Aniceba, Aree Peo pherinm, at ALL PRICES on view at orticella, Stentor, Hydra, Floscularia, Stephanoceros, Melicerta, and many other specimens of Pond Life. Price 1s. per Tube, Post Free. Helix RICHARDS’ SHOW ROOMS. pomatia, Astacus, Amphioxus, Rana, Anodon, &c., for Dissection purposes. Note new Address :— Lists free. THOMAS BOLTON, 25 BALSALL HEATH ROAD, BIRMINGHAM. MARINE BIOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. THE LABORATORY, PLYMOUTH. The following animals can always be supplied, either living or preserved by the best methods :— Sycon; Clava, Obelia, Sertularia; Actinia, Tealia, Caryopbyllia, Alcy- onium; Hormiphora (preserved); Leptoplana; Lineus, Amphiporus, Nereis, Aphrodite, Arenicola, Lanice, Terebella; Lepas, Balanus, Gammarus, Ligia Mysis, Nebalia, Carcinus; Patella, Buccinum, Eledone, Pectens Bugula, Crisia, Pedicellina, Holothuria, Asterias, Echinus, Salpa (preserved), Scyllium, Raia, &c., &c For prices and more detailed lists apply to Biological Laboratory, Plymouth. THE DIRECTOR. SKELETONS & SKULLS Specimens and Preparations for Teachinz BIOLOGY & ZOOLOGY and for Museums Lists on Application EDWARD GERRARD & SONS Osteologist: and Taxidermists, NATURAL HISTORY STUDIOS 61, College Place, Camden Town, London. 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MARTIN’S STREET, LONDON, W.C. ceclv1 oe Cee [AuGusT 22, 1QI2 THE -f EIT Z “LORD BURY” - NEW APPARATUS FOR Telescope. PHOTOMICROGRAPHY §) recctss* rscsueis nc? For use in Horizontal or Vertical Positions. Fitted with pancratie tube Possessing many New and Important Features. varying the power from 25 IMustrated to 35 diameters. Catalogue LARGE EPIDIASCOPE 9) ssc: ae extended, 31”. SS A new and convenient apparatus for the Direct Will make out wild fowl at The j Projection in Natural Colours of Microscopical 16 miles, will discern _a “Lord Bury” ; Slides, Opaque Objects (such as Book flagstaff at 22 miles, and Tel , Illustrations, Photo Prints, Diagrams, Skin name of lightship at elescope, } Diseases, &c.), Lantern Slides, and Spectra. 10 miles. in bronzed brass, and fitted in Leather LEITZ-EDINGER POST FREB Sling Case (weight of = telescope 2 lb. 3 0z.), DRAWING APPARATUS } |----°.. £440 Remit- For the Direct Projection of Microscopical Pernel Ditto in bronzed light meta Preparations. Ensures greater accuracy in (weight of telescope 1 lb. 8 0z.), drawing. £5 15 O J. H. STEWARD, Optician & Scientific Instrument Maker to the British G Foreign Governments. 406 STRAND & 457 WEST STRAND, LONDON. Established 1852. MICROSCOPES and MICROSCOPIC APPARATUS for all requirements, PRISM FIELD and OPERA GLASSES, &c. Catalogues and Booklets post free. 18 BLOOMSBURY SQUARE, W.C. (A few doors from the British Musenm.) PHOTO-MIGRO & MICRO-PROJECTION APPARATUS. NOW READY. NEW EDITION OF CATALOGUE 2D, giving particulars of the above. It describes Horizontal Cameras—large and small. Vertical Cameras—three patterns. Combined Vertical and Horizontal Cameras. Pocket Camera to fit a microscope tube. INSTANTANEOUS REFLEX CAMERA, the one that pond-life workers have sighed for and not been able to obtain before. WATSON CONRADY CONDENSER SYSTEM, and everything of the latest and best for , : . PHOTO-MICROGRAPHY, including Light Filters, Condensers, Illuminants (Acetylene, Electric, Gas, Paraffin, &c.). NEW MICRO-PROJECTION APPARATUS AND COMBINATION cons FOR MICRO, OPAQUE, AND SCIENCE SUBJECTS, ALSO LANTERN SLIDE For full particulars of all the above, send for Catalogue 2D, aa free on request from W. WATSON & SONS, Ltd. (Estd. 1837), 313 High Holborn, London, W.C. Branch: 16 Forrest Road, EAibEah. ; D ts {2 Easy Row, Birmingham. 3 Works: Barnet, Herts. epotS | 7g Swanston Street, Melbourne, Australia. CHEMICAL & PHYSICAL APPARATUS & GHEMICALS Pure Acids specially made for Analysis. STANDLEY BELCHER & MASON, Ltd., 61 CHURCH STREET, BIRMINGHAM. “> 4). o ° . y 31 Qy Catalogues free upon Application. rp Cray & Sons, LimiTep. at Brunswick Street, Stamford Street, S.E., and published by MACMILLAN AND Co., LimirgD, at St. Martin's Street, London, W.C,, and 1HE MacmiILtan Co.. 66 Fifth Avenue, New York. —THurspay, August 22, 1912. Printea by Ric SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION LIBRARIES TM