eth le ee tt uw *] + ie | : een id hea e Nature A WEEKLY ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL OF SCIENCE VOLU ME Xe SEPTEMBER, 1ro912, to FEBRUARY, 1913 “ To the solid ground Of Nature trusts the mind which builds for aye.” —-WoRDSWORTH fx HS Migs (i \ [ BRA RY SSA a LLZAGb2 Vondon NeACGnViEivicnk AN AN D) GOs, WirwareD NEW YORK: THE MACMILLAN COMPANY Nature, } r LAfpril 24, 1913 Nature April 24, 97 INDEX. AUTHOR Abbott (C. G.), Variability of Solar Radiation, 288 Abbott (G.), Investigation of Flint, 411 Abbott (W. J. Lewis), What the British Caves might tell us, 382 Abderhalden (Prof. Organismus, 66 Abel (E.), Equilibrium in presence of Sodium Acetate, 641 Abercromby (Hon. John), Study of the Bronze Age Pottery of Great Britain and Ireland, and its associated Grave- goods, 2 Abetti (Dr. G.), Diameter of Neptune, 29 Abney (Sir W. de W., F.R.S.), Trichromatic Theory of Colour Vision, 350 Ackermann (A. S. E.), Remarkable Formation of Ice on a Small Pond, 411 Adams (Prof. J.), Germination of Seeds of Dicotyledons, 506 Adams (Prof. John), the Evolution of Educational Theory, 99; Opening Address to Section L, British Association, 202 Adams and Kohlschutter (Messrs.), Geminorum No. 2, 495 Agamennone (Dr. G.), Seismological Report, 59 Agar (W. E.), Transmission of Environmental Effects from Parent to Offspring in Simocephalus vetulus, 635 Agee (Alva), Problems of Soil Fertility, 589 Ainsworth-Davis (Prof. J. R.), Experimental Work at an Agricultural College (Wye, Kent), 174 Aitken (Dr.), 100 New.Double Stars, 659 Aitken (Dr. John, F.R.S.), Influence of Icebergs on Tem- perature of the Sea, 513; Breath Figures, 619 Akeley (Carl E.), Elephants in East Africa, 170 Allbutt (Sir C.), Medical Research and Public Health, 394 Allen’s Commercial Organic Analysis, 65 Allen (Dr. E. J.), the Michael Sars in the Atlantic, Sir J. Murray, K.C.B., F.R.S., and Dr. J. Hjort, 221 Amar (J.), Laws of Work: Filing, 377 Ameghino (Dr.), Two Fossil Human Remains on Atlantic Coast, 278 Amundsen (Captain Roald), Journey to South Pole : Lecture at Royal Geographical Society, 341 Amundsen (Captain Roald), A. G. Chater, the South Pole, Emil), Schutzfermente des _tierischen Spectrum of Nova 515 Anderson (J. S.) and G. B. Burnside, New Method of Starting Mercury-vapour Apparatus, 717 Andrade (Dr. E. N. da C.), Modern Pumps for High Vacua, 574 Ardrewes (Dr.), Arterial Degeneration, 703 Andrews (E. C.), Corrosion by Gravity Streams, 445 Annandale (Dr. N.), Fresh-water Fauna of India, 58; the Blind Prawn of Galilee, 251; Effect of Food on Colour of a Hydra, 396; Survey of Indian Fresh-water Fauna, 450; Biology of the Lake of Tiberias, 508, 665; Indian Fresh-water Mud-turtles, 686 Annett (Mr.), Date-palm Sugar Industry, 116 Anthony (Prof.), (1) The Suprasylvian Operculum in Primates, (2) Brain of La Quina Man, 342 Antonius (Dr. O.), the Tarpan of E. Europe, 59 Aquino (Lieut. R. de), “Newest” Navigation Altitude and INDEX. Azimuth Tables for Determination of Lines of Position at Sea, 617, 709 Arber (Dr.), Earlier Mesozoic Floras of New Zealand, 481 Archimedes, Sir T. L. Heath, Method, 28 Arctowski (Dr. H.), the Solar Constant and Climatic Changes, 93; Sequence of Atmospheric Changes in the United States, 367 Aristotle, A. S. L. Farquharson, de Motu Animalium, 601 Armitage (Eleonora), Precocity of Spring Flowers, 543 Armstrong (Dr. E. Frankland), Carbohydrate Nomen- clature, 320; the Simple Carbohydrates and the Gluco- sides, 510 Armstrong (Prof. H. E.), Stimulation of Plant Growth, 113; Variation of Glucoside and Enzyme in Lotus corniculatus, 319 Armstrong (Prof. H. E. and E. F.) and E. Horton, Herbage Studies, 635 Armstrong (Prof. H. E.) and Dr. J. V. Eyre, Processes operative in Solutions, 690 Arrhenius (S.), Theories of Solutions, 245 Arrol (Sir Wm.), Obituary, 705 Ashcroft (J. W.), the Flotation Process applied to Concen- tratioa of Copper Ore, 298, 402 Asher (Prof.), Cell Permeability, 396 Ashworth (Dr. J. H.), Zoology at the British Association, 447; Catalogue of Chztopoda in the British Museum (Natural History), 595 Ashworth (Dr. J. H.) and Dr. T. Rettie, a Gregarine in the Mid-Gut of Bird Fleas, 479 Ashworth (Dr. J. R.), Mean Magnetic Moment and Energy of a Vibrating Magnet, 533 Aston (F. W.), (1) Influence of Kathode on Length of Crookes Dark Space, (2) Discharge between Concentric Cylinders in Gases at Low Pressures, 243, 349 Atkinson (Messrs. E. B. and Co.), the Ebur Calculator, 367 Atkinson (J. J.), Eclipse of the Sun, 199 Auerbach {F.), Physik in graphischen Darstellungen, 246 Avanzini, Pressure of Fluids on Planes, 91 Avebury (the Right Hon. Lord), Origin of Civilisation and the Primitive Condition of Man, 565 Aveling (Dr. F.), on the Consciousness of the Universal and the Individual, 695 Bacon’s New Globe with Contour Colouring, 161; Bacon’s New Contour Wall Map of the Mediterranean Lands, 360 Bailey (E. B.), Breccia Formation in Mull, 208 Bailey (Colonel F., R.E.), Obituary Note, 577 Baillaud (B.), International Geodesic Association, 272 Baillaud (J.), Integrating Opacimeter for Stellar Photo- graphs, 587 Baillehache (R. de), Metre-lilogramme-second System, 681 Baker (R. T.), New Myrtaceous Plants from New South Wales, 455 Baker (W. M.) and A. A. Bourne, a New Geometry, 275 Balanowsky (Herr), Parallax of Nova Lacerte, 173 iv Index Ballore (Count de M. de), Luminous Phenomena and Earth- quake, 550 Balls (W. L.), the Cotton Plant in Egypt, 667; Meteoro- logical Conditions in a Field Crop, 716 Bancels (J. Larguier des), le Godt et 1’Odorat, 66 Bancroft (Miss Nellie), Indian Jurassic Gymnosperms, 452 ; Structure of a Fossil Stem, 690 Bancroft (Prof. W. D.), Theorem of Le Chatelier, 231 Banerjee (M. N.), a Measure of Chemical Affinity, 63 Bang (Prof.), Foot-and-Mouth Disease, 523 Barber (Dr. C. A.), Seedling Sugar Canes in India, 528 Barbour (Sir D., K.C.S.I., K.C.M.G.), the Standard of Value, 536 Bardswell (Frances A.), Twelve Moons, 304 Barker (IT. V.) and J. E. Marsh, Optical Activity of Mole- cular and Crystal Structure, 612 Barkla (Prof. C. G., F.R.S.) and G. H. Martyn, Reflection of Rontgen Radiation, 435; an X-Ray Fringe System, 647 Barlow (Dr. G.), New Method of Measuring Torque pro- duced by a Beam of Light in Oblique Refraction through a Glass Plate, 612 Barnard (S.) and J. M. Child, a New Algebra, 275 Barnes (Prof. H. T., F.R.S.), Rise of Temperature associated with Melting of Icebergs, 408; Iceberg Melting, 671 Barr (Prof. Archibald), Opening Address to Section G, Engineering, British Association, 83, 497 Barrett (E.) and Dr. YT. P. Nunn, First Class-Book of Chemistry, 668 Barrington (R. M.), Meteorology and Agriculture, 369 Barrow (G.), Oider Granite in Lower Dee Side, 208 Barrows (Prof. W. B.), Michigan Bird-Life, 339 Barton (Prof. E. H.) and Dr. T. P. Black, Introduction to Practical Physics for Colleges and Schools, 246 Bashford (Dr. E. F.), Fresh Light on the Cause of Cancer, Prof. J. Fibiger, 701 Bassett (Prof. H.), Sea Salinity Observations and Weather Forecasting, 480 Bates (O.), Influence of Libyan Migrations, 391 Baubigny (H.), Double Sulphites of Mercury and the Alkalis, 299 Bauer (Prof. J.), Rising Prices and the Public, 524 Bauer (Dr. L. A.), Origin of the Earth’s Magnetic Field, 286 Beal (F. E. L.), Food of Fly-catcher Birds, 475 Bean (W. J.), Gardens in S. Europe, 171 Beatty (Dr. R. T.), 480 Beaven (C. L.), Solutions of the Examples in Godfrey and Siddons’s “Solid Geometry,” 275 Beck (Messrs.), Microscope Improvements, 495 Becker (Dr. E.), Pendulum Experiments in Alsace-Lorraine, 172 Becquerel (A. Henri), Memorial Lecture by Sir O. Lodge at the Chemical Society, 232 Becquerel (J.) and Mlle. W. Wright, Hall Effect in Anti- mony, 691 Beddard (Dr. F. E.), Cestoidea, 690 Bedford (E. J.), Two Orchids new to E. Sussex, 452 Begouen (Couny), Discovery of Clay Figures of Palzolithic Age, 283 Beilby (Dr. G. T., F.R.S.), Solidification of Metals and Quincke’s “Foam Cell” Theory, 199 Bein (Dr. W.), Expansion of Metals on Heating, 657 Bell (Jeffrey), Collections of the National Antarctic Expedi- tion, 573 Bemmelen (W. van), High Tropical Winds, 250 Benedicks (Mr.), Allotropy, 317 Benedikt (Prof. M.), Biomechanik und Biogenesis, 230 Berget (A.), Velocity Formula for Aéroplanes, 351 Bernstein (Prof, J.), Elektrobiologie, 618 Bernthsen (Dr. H. A.), Haber’s Process for synthesising Ammonia, 194 Berridge (Mr.), Practical Science Examinations, 582 Berry (A. J.), Distillation of Binary Mixtures of Metals m vacuo, 318; Volatilisation of Binary Alloys in High Vacua, 402 Berry (Prof.), Animal Nutrition, 398; Analysis of the Oat Kernel, 398 Berry (S. S.), Japanese Cephalopods, 229 Berthault (P.), Maize Disease, 127 Nature, April 24, 1913 Berthelot (D.) and H. Gaudechon, Effect of Light of different Wave-lengths on Decomposition of Glucose, 299; Photolysis by Ultra-violet Rays, 377; Photolysis of Sugar by Ultra-violet Light, 429; Action of Ultra- violet Rays on Ethyl Aldehyde, 613 Bertrand (Prof. G.), Part in Agriculture of Minor Con- stituents of Plants, 194 Berwerth (Prof.), Meteorites, 626 Bessey (Prof. C. E.), Next Steps in Botanical Science : Address, 607 Betts (Miss Annie D.), Fungi of the Beehive, 681 Bhide (R. K.), Two new Species of Graminez from Bombay, 63 Bianu (B.) and L. Wertenstein, an Ionising Radiation emitted by Polonium, 30 Bielecki (J.) and V. Henri, Quantitative Study of Absorp- tion of Ultra-violet Rays by Fatty Acids and Esters, 561, 717 Bierry (H.) and Mlle. Glycemia, 691 Bierry (H.) and Mme. Z. Gruzewska, Method for Deter- mination of Glycogen in the Liver, 507 Bierry, Henri and Ranc (MM.), Inversion of Saccharose by Ultra-violet Rays, 429 Bigourdan (G.), International Time Conference, 324; Ap- paratus for sending Automatic Time Signals, 587 Billy (M.), Simple Method for preparing Mineral Oxides, Lucie Fandard, Adrenaline and 273 Binney (E. W., F.R.S.), Centenary of, 539 Binney (J.), the Centenary of a Nineteenth-century Geologist—Edward William Binney, F.R.S., 539 Bird (Mr.), Manual Training in Schools, 526 Birkeland (K.), Origin of Planets and their Satellites, 324 Birrell (H.), Is the Earth Shrinking? 251 Black’s Modern Guide to Harrogate, G. Home, 329 Blackman (Dr. F. F., F.R.S.), Surface Tension of Living Cells, 201 Blair (W. R.), Diseases of Apes, 58 Blanckenhorn (Prof. Max), Natural History of the Dead Sea and Jordan Valley, 165 Blaxall (Dr.), Oil of Cloves and Calf Lymph, 703 Bloch (Dr. L.), W. C. Clinton, Science of Illumination, 315 Bloch (L. and E.), Ionisation of Gases by Schumann Rays, 325 Boas (Prof. F.), Changes in Bodily Form of Descendants of Immigrants, 667 Bedenstein (Max) and F. Kranendieck, Decomposition of Ammonia in Quartz Vessels, 641 Bodin (E.) and F. Chevral, Bacterial Oysters, 639 Bottger (Prof. H.), Physik, Band i., 187 Boisbaudran (Lecoq de), Obituary, 255 Boll (M.), Velocity of Photochemical Reaction and Incident Radiant Energy, 587; Energy of Ultra-violet Radiation from Mercury Arc, 638 Belton (E. R.) and C. Revis, Fatty Foods: their Practical Examination, 668 Boncour (Dr. G. Paul), Anthropologie Anatomique, 33 Bond (C. J.), Structure of the Ciliary and Iris Muscles in Birds, 71 Boni (Prof.), Lifts in Ancient Rome, 709 Bonney (Prof. T. G., F.R.S.), the Building of the Alps, 703 Bonnier (P.), Late Awakening of Bulbar Centres, 377 Bonola (Prof. R.), Prof. H. S. Carslaw, Non-Euclidean Geometry, 697 Borrelly (M.), Discovery of Comet 1912c, 288, 325, 369 Bort (L. P. Teisserenc de), Obituary, by Dr. W. N. Shaw, F.R.S., 519 Besler (J.), Magnetic Storms, 471 Boss (Prof. Lewis), Obituary, 226 Bosworth (T. O.), Mineral Grains in Sands of Scottish Carboniferous, 211; Keuper Marls near Charnwood, 470 Botazzi (Prof.), Physiology of Marine Organisms, 396 Bottler (Prof. Max), A. H. Sabin, German Varnish-making, 6 Purification of 5 Bottomley (W.), Obituary, 226 Boubier (Dr. M.), Internaciona Biologial Lexiko en Ido, Germana, Angla, Franca, Italiana ed Hispana, 485 Bougault (J.) and M. M. la Fosse, Action of Alkaline Sulphites, 664 Nature, April 24, 1913 Index Vv Boulanger (C.) and G. Urbain, Theory of Efflorescence, 561 Boule (Prof. M.), Neanderthal Man, 290 Boulenger (E. G.), Breeding Habits of the “ Millions” Fish, 350 Boulenger (G. A.), Vertebrate "Fauna of Malay Peninsula, 61 Baulentec (G. A.), Dr. Spurrell, Three New Fishes from Gold Coast, 376 Bourquelot (E.) and Mlle. A. Fichtenholz, Quebrachite in Leaves of Grevillea robusta, 183 Bourquelot (E.) and others, Biochemical Glucosides of Alcohols, 587 Bousfield (Dr.), Medical Research and Public Health, 394 Bousfield (W. R.), Ionic Size in relation to Molecular Physics and a New Law of Heats of Formation of Molecules, 401 Boutan (L.), Vocal Manifestations of an Anthropoid Ape, Hylobates leucogenys, 325 Boutaric (A.), Oscillations et Vibrations, 187 Boutaric (A.) and C. Leenhardt, Cryoscopy in Decahydrated Sodium Sulphate, 299 Bouvier (E. L.), New Primitive Shrimp, 376 Bowman (Prof. H. L.), a Nodule of Iron Pyrites, 613 Boys (C. V.), Rainbow Cup, 579 Bradley (R. N.), Malta and the Mediterranean Race, 464 Bragg (Prof. W. H., F.R.S.), X-Rays and Crystals, 219, 360, 572; Atomic Heat, 424; Radiations Old and New: British Association Discourse, 529, 557; Studies in Radio-activity, 694 Bragg (W. L.), Diffraction of Short Electromagnetic Waves by a Crystal, 402; Specular Reflection of X-Rays, 410 Branly (E.), Intermittent Conductivity of Thin Dielectric Layers, 351 Brentnall (H. C.) and C. C. Carter, the Marlborough Country, 157 Bret (C. M.), Two stable forms of Hevea brasiliensts in W. Africa, 691 Breuil (Abbé), Prehistoric Painting in Caves in South Wales, 195; Excavations in Castillo Cave, 291 Breuil and Sollas (Profs.), Red Mural Bands in Bacon’s Hole, 256 Bridel (M.), Gentiopicrin in Swertia perenmis, 377 Bridgeman (Dr.), Properties of Water and of Mercury at Pressures up to 20,000 kgm. per sq. cm., and Tempera- ture —8o0° to +80° C., 172 Brierley (W. B.), Fungus Sphaeria lemaneae, 690 Briggs (Dr. Wm.) and H. W. Bausor, Elementary Quanti- tative Analysis, 217 Briner (E.), Limit of Formation of Endothermic Com- pounds at very high Temperatures, 429; Chemical Reactions in Compressed Gases, 613 Briner (E.) and E. L. Durand, Formation of Nitrous and Nitric Acids, 156; Action of Temperature on Equili- brium of Nitric and Nitrous Acids, 507 Brochet (A.), Conductivity of Acids and their Absorption by Hide Powder, 561 Brockmann-Jerosch (Dr. H.) and Dr. Ecology : Nomenclature, 656 Brockméller (W.), Geographical Distribution of Monthly Barometric Oscillation, 94 Brooks (C. F.), Snowfall of the United States, 585 Brown (A. F.), Sylviculture in the Tropics, Forest Cultiva- tion in Tropical Regions, 362 Brown (A. R.), Map of Western Australia, 57 Brown (A. R.), Absorption of Light by Inorganic Salts, 638 Brown (G. E.), British Journal Photographic Almanac, 459 Brown (Sir Hanbury, K.C.M.G.), the Land of Goshen and the Exodus, 131 Brown (J. Coggin), the A-ch’ang Tribe of Yunnan, 665 Brown (Prof.-J. Macmillan), Finck’s Theory of Polynesian * Migrations, 599 Brown (Percy), Picturesque Nepal, 544 Brown (Dr. Rudmose), Antarctic Botany, 573 Brown (S. E.), Experimental Science, II. : Chemistry, 217 Brown (T. G.), Narcosis Progression, 636 Browne (F. B.), Life-history of a Water-beetle, 447 Browne (Rev. H.), Museums and Classics, 599 Bruce (Dr. W. S.), the Antarctic Continent, 395; Scottish Antarctic Expedition, 451 Bruce and Watson (Messrs.), Sheep and Cattle Feeding Experiments, 398 Synthesis of E. Riibel, Plant Bryan (Prof. G. H., F.R.S.), Practical Mathematics, 68; a Mathematician’s Lectures on Aéronautics, Sir G. Greenhill, 535; Dynamics of Pianoforte Touch, 716 Bryant (E. G.), the Moon and Poisonous Fish, 305 Bryant (H. C.), Birds and Grasshoppers, 475 Bryce (James), South America, 615 Buchner (Dr.), Intracellular Symbionts, 197 Bullock (S. C.), Modern Lead Concentrating Mill Broken Head Junction, N.S.W., 580 Bulman (G. W.), Radium and Earth History, 305 Burch (Dr. G. J., F-R.S.), Practical Exercises in Physio- logical Optics, 187; Negative After-images with Pure Spectral Colours, 612 Burnet (Dr. E.), Dr. C. Broquet and Dr. W. M. Scott, Microbes and Toxins, 188 Burnham (M. H.), Modern Mine Valuation, 460 Burrard (Col. S. G., F.R.S.), Survey of India: Origin of the Himalayas, 703 Burstall (Miss), Vocation and Education of Girls, 370 Burton (Dr. C. V.), Self-testing of Dispersion Apparatus, at 435 Butler (Samuel), Note-books of, edited by H. F. Jones, 695 Butterfield (W. J. A.), Chemistry of Gasworks, 628 Byrom (T. H.), Physics and Chemistry of Mining, 198 Cahen (E.) and W. O. Wootton, Mineralogy of the Rarer Metals, 434 Call (Prof. L. E.) and E. G. Schafer, Laboratory Manual of Agriculture for Secondary Schools, 569 Callendar (Prof. H. L., F.R.S.), Opening * Address Section A at the British Association, 19 Calmette (A.), Tuberculous Infection in Cattle, 586 Calzolari (F.), Relation between Solubility and Electro- affinity,. 140 Cambage (R. H.), Native Flora of New South Wales, 481 Cameron (A. T.), Radium and Radioactivity, 567 Campbell (A.), Absolute Unit of Resistance, 349 Campbell (M. R.), Mineral Fuels, 659 Campbell (N. P.), Application of Manley’s Differential Densimeter to use on Board Ship, 717 Campbell (Dr. R.), Fossils in Jasper and Green Schist, 209; Lower Old Red Beds of Kincardineshire, 210 Campbell (Dr.) and Prof. Macallum, Cells of the Kidney Tubule, 397 Camus (J.), Saturn, 495 Cannon (Miss), Nova Geminorum No. 2, Cannon (Mr.), Orbit of Persei, 60 Carey (A. L.) and others, Physiography for High Schools, 159 Carne (J. E.), Tin-mining and Distribution of Tin Ores in New South Wales, 497 Carnegie (F.), Rifle Barrel Vibrations, 442 Carnevali (Prof.), Joining of Non-ferrous Metals and Alloys, to 580 199 Carpenter (Prof. H. C. H.), Inversion in certain Copper- zinc Alloys at Temperature 470° C., 199 Carrel (Dr. A.), Nobel Prize, 195 Carslaw (Prof. H. S.), Introduction to the Infinitesimal Calculus, 697 Carson (G. E. St. L.), Place of Deduction in Elementary Mechanics, 5 Cartailhac (Prof.), Cave Man (Paleolithic); 291 Carter (H. J.), Stigmodera, 213 Carter (W. Lower), Geology at the British Association, 207 Castle (W. E.), Heredity and Eugenics, 458 Cathcart (Dr. E. P.), the Physiology of Protein Metabolism, 66 Cavers (Dr. F.), Inter-relationships of the Bryophyta, 3; Botanical and Gardening Books, F. G. Heath, H. E. Corke, Mrs. E. S. Gregory, R. Farrer, Rev. J. Jacob, 433 Cayley (Dorothy M.), New Bacterial Disease of Pisum sativum, 635 Chablay (E.), Reactions of Sodium Amide in presence of Liquid Ammonia, 638 Chadwick (J.) and A. S. Russell, Excitation of Gamma Rays by Alpha Rays, 463, 690 Chalmers (J. A.), Death, 88 Chaloner (J. W.), a Trout Disease, 448 vi Index Nature, April 24, 1913 Chamberlain (Prof. C. J.), Cycadacez, 418; Botanical Excursion Round the World, 599 Chantemesse (M.), Vaccination against Typhoid in the Navy, 613 Chapman (J. C.), Spectra of Fluorescent Réntgen Radia- tions, 400 Chapman (Dr. S.), Total Number of Stars, 426 Charpy (G.) and S. Bonnerot, Reactions due to Osmosis of Hydrogen through Iron, 664 Chase (Dr. F. L.) and M. F. Smith, Parallax, 552 Chesser (E. S.), Perfect Health for Women and Children, 8 Chilton (Prof. C.), Amphipoda of the Scottish Antarctic Expedition, 302 Chree (Dr. C., F.R.S.), Wireless Telegraphy and Terrestrial Magnetism, 37; Studies of Aurora, C. Stormer, 38; Atmospheric Potential, 673 Christophers (Major), Malaria in the Andaman Islands, 549 Church (Prof. J. E., jun.), Mt. Rose Observatory, 550 Churchward (Dr. A.), the Signs and Symbols of Primordial Man, 406 Ciamician (Prof. G.), Photochemistry of the Future and Utilisation of Radiant Solar Energy, 194; Photo- chemistry of the Future, 230 Clark (Allan J.) and W. J. Sharwood, Metallurgy of the Homestake Ore, 402 Clark (J. Cooper), the Story of “Eight Deer” in Codex Colombino, 32 Clark (J. E.), Air Currents at Height of 50 miles indicated by a Bolide, 480 Clark (R. S.) and A. de C. Sowerby, Through Shen-Kan, North China, 544 Clarke (F. W.), Geochemical Statistics, 197 Clarke (H. T.), Handbook of Organic Analysis, 158 Clarke (Wm. Eagle), Bird-migration, 104; Hybrid between Eider and Wild Duck, 344 Claudet (A. C.), Obituary Note, 576 Clayton (H. H.), World Weather Bureau, 708 Cleland (Dr. J. B.), Contents of Crops of Australian Birds, 173 Clerk (Dr. Dugald), Gas Turbine, 498 Cobbold (E. S.), (1) Trilobite Fauna of Comley Breccia-bed (Shropshire) ; (2) Paradoxides from Neve’s Castle, 453 Cockayne (Dr. L., F.R.S.), Address at Philosophical Inst. of Canterbury, N.Z., 282 Cockerell (Prof. T. D. A.), the Prickly Pear in W. China, 464; Australian Bees, 481; Bees from Tasmania, 481; “Rosa Stellata,” 571; Nomenclature at the Zoological Congress, 648 Cedy (S. F.), Royal Aéro Club Gold Medal, 56 Coker (Prof. E. G.), Shearing Stress in thin Celluloid Sheets, 198; Application of Optical Methods to Tech- nical Problems of Stress Distribution, 383; Flow of Mercury in small Steel Tubes, 422; a Column-testing Machine, 453; Optical and Thermoelectric Stress Determinations, 498 Cole (Prof. F. J.), an Analysis of the Church of St. Mary, Cholsey, Berkshire, Rev. J. Griffith, 539 Cole (Prof. Grenville A. J.), the Striation of Stones in Boulder Clay, 37; Mineralogy of Renfrewshire, R. S. Houston; Physiography for High Schools, A. L. Carey and others; Structural and Field Geology, Prof. J. Geikie, F.R.S., all 159; Interbasaltic Iron Ores of N.E. Ireland, 600 Collie (Prof. J. N.. F.R.S.) and H. S. Patterson, Presence of Neon in Hydrogen after Passage of Electric Dis- charge, 653; Appearance of Helium and Neon in Vacuum Tubes, 699 Collinge (W. E.), Food of Nestling Birds, 344; Inheritance of Fecundity in Fowls, R. Pearl, 526 Collingridge (H.), Determination of Optic Axial Angle of thin Crystals, 612 Collot (A.), New Chemical Balance, 600 Colton (H. S.), Self-fertilisation in Fresh-water Snail, 58 Colvert-Glauert and Hilpert (Messrs.), Magnetic Properties of Nickel Steels, 686 Compton (R. H.), Inheritance of Self-sterility in Reseda odorata, 376 Cook (Captain James), Statue at Whitby, 169 Cook (O. F.), Morphology of the Leaf in Prunus, 197 Cooke (L. H.), Specification of Theodolites for Mines and for Precision, 580 Cooper, Nuttall, and Freak (Messrs.), Fat Globules of Millx and its Churnability, 398 Corbino (Prof. O. M.), Double Refraction produced by Distortions of Elastic Bodies according to Volterra’s Theory, 540 Corke (H. E.), G. C. Nuttall, Wild Flowers as They Grow, 432 Gorlees (R.), Radiation Records in 1911 at S. Kensington, 309 Cernish (Dr. V.), Jamaica Earthquake, 197; Panama Canal and Landslides, 657 Cortie (Rev. A. L., S.J.), Errors of the Computed Times of Solar Eclipse Phenomena, 191; Magnetic Disturb- ances, Sun-spots, and the Corona, 426, 561 7 Coulter (Prof. J. M.), Heredity, 458 Coulter (Prof. J. M.) and Dr. Land, an American Lepido- strobus, 113 Courmont (J.) and A. Rochaix, Immunisation against Staphylococcus pyogenes aureus by way of the Intes- tine, 717 Coward (T. A.), Fossil Pith of a Cycadean Stem, 533 Cox (C.), Human Tooth in Cave Earth in Kent’s Cavern, 649 Craig (J. I.), Schuster’s Periodigram and Correlation, 369, 426 Craigie (Major), Development of Scotch Agriculture during 50 Years, 398 Cramer (Dr. W.), Tumour Growth, 397 Cramer (W.) and J. Lochhead, Biochemistry : Rats bearing Malignant Growths 716 Crampton (C. B.), Caithness Vegetation, 259 Crawford (Earl of, F.R.S.), Obituary, 624, 652 Crawley (A. E.), the Golden Bough, Prof. J. G. Frazer, 66; Leitfaden zum Bestimmen der Végel Mittel-Europas, ihrer Jugendkleider und ihrer Nester, 280; the Land and its Lore, Prof. E. C. K. Gonner, Walter Johnson, 301; Philosophy of Nature, Prof. Karl C. Schneider, Prof. A. Greil, Dr. Wm. Mackenzie, 380 Crelier (Prof. L.), Systémes Cinématiques, 569 Crookes (Sir W., O.M., F.R.S.), Medal of Society of Chemical Industry, 56 Cropper (J. W.), Development of a Parasite of Earth- worms, 350 Cross (C. F.) and E. J. Bevan, Researches on Cellulose, 217 Crosthwait (Maior H. L., R.E.), Survey of India: Theory of Isostasy in India, 703 Croze (F.), the Zeeman Phenomenon in the Hydrogen Spectrum, 561 Cunningham (Lieut.-Col. A.), Mersenne’s Numbers, Factors of Pellian Terms, 425 Cunynghame (Sir Henry H., K.C.B.), Economic Science and Statistics: from the Opening Address to Section F, British Association, 116 Curtis (Dr. H. D.), Nebulz, 341 Cuthbertson (Clive and Maude), Refraction and Dispersion of the Halogens, Ozone, &c., and Causes of Failure of the Additive Law, 612 Czako (N.), Alloys of Aluminium with Vanadium Alloys, 587 Czapek (Prof.), eine Methode zur Bestimmung der Ober- flachenspannung der Plasmahaut von Pflanzencellen, Dr. Blackman, F.R.S., 201 Czerny (Prof. V.), Non-operative Methods for Cancer, 89 and D’Agostino (E.) and G. Quagliarello, Chemical Curves, 641 Dahl (Prof. F.), Leitfaden zum Bestimmen der Vé6gel Mittel-Europas, ihrer Jugendkleider und ihrer Nester, 280 Dakin (Dr. H. D.), Animal Body, 510 Dakin (Dr. W. J.), Food of Marine Organisms, 396; Plankton of Lough Neagh, 451 Dakin (Dr. Wm. J.), Dr. W. A. Herdman, F.R.S., Liver- pool Marine Biology Committee Memoirs: Buccinum (the Whelk), 358 Dakin (Dr. W. J.) and Miss Latarche, Plankton of Lough Neagh, 402 Dalby (Prof. W. E.), Method of Studying Motion of a Train Oxidations and Reductions in the Nature, zis Aprit me eae Index vu during the Accelerating Period, 260; Load-extension | Dixey (Or. F. A., F.R.S.), Physiology of Marine Diagrams, 690 Dalton (J. P.), Energetics of the Induction Balance, 428 Daly (R. A.), Pleistocene Glaciation and Coral-reefs, 445 Dana’s Manual of Mineralogy, Prof. W. E. Ford, 286 Daniell (G. F.), Science at Recent Educational Conferences, 582, 603 ; Specific Volume or “ Roomage,” 582 Danysz (J.) and W. Duane, Electrical Charges carried by the a and B Rays, 97 Darling (C. R.), Economising Heat, 709 Darlington (Miss), Statue of J. Priestley, 253 Darwin (C. G.), Theory of lIonised Gases and Carnot’s Principle, M. Gouy, 429; Reflection of X-Rays, 594 Darwin (Dr. Francis), awarded Darwin Medal, 337, 388 Darwin (Sir George Howard, K.C.B., F.R.S.), Illness, 168, 195; Obituary, 413 Davenport (Prof. C. B.), Trait Book, 317; Heredity, 458 Davies (Dr. A. M.) and J. Pringle, Deep Borings at Calvert Station and the Palzozoic Floor North of the Thames, 716 Davies (L.), Cambridge County Geographies: Radnor- shire, 382 Davis (W. A.), Chemical Effects of Light, 393 Davis (W. A.) and S. S. Sadtler, Allen’s Organic Analysis, 65 Davis (Prof. W. M.), Dana’s Proof of Darwin’s Theory of Coral Reefs, 632 Davison (Dr. C.),; Earthquake Prediction, 340; Higher Algebra for Colleges and Secondary Schools, 697 Davy (Sir Humphry), Unpublished Letter on a Mercury Mine, 682 Commercial Dawson (Sir A. T.), Staff Officers in Industrial Works: | Address, 452 Dawson (C.), Discovery of Remains of Ancient Man, 390 Dawson (Charles) and Dr. S. Woodward, Paleolithic Man, 438 Dawson (S.), Brightness with Two Eyes, and with One, 397 Dawson (W. Bell), Actual Conditions affecting Icebergs, 700 Dearle (N. B.), Production and the Public Revenue, Dr. N. G. Pierson, A. A. Wotzel, 431; Municipal Trading and Currency, D. Knoop, Sir D. Barbour, K.C.S.I., K.C.M.G., 536 De Cou (Mr.), Catalogue of Antiquities from Boscoreale, 57 Deeley (R. M.), Retinal Shadows? 594 Delambre ‘J. B. J.), G. Bigourdan, Grandeur et Figure de la Terre, to1 Delezenne (C.) and M. Lisbonné, Action of Ultra-violet Rays on the Pancreatic Juice, 273 Delteil, Négre, and Raynaud (MM.), Besredka Serum, 429 Dendy (Prof. A., F.R.S.), Physiology of Marine Organisms, 396; Reissner’s Fibre and the Subcommissural Organ in the Vertebrate Brain, 450 Denigés (G.) and L. Chelle, New Reagent for Free and Combined Chlorine and Bromine, 376-7 Denning (W. F.), the Markings of Jupiter, 60; Shaking of Windows and Meteoritic Explosions, 417 Derry (Dr.), Red Pigment on Ancient Bones, 343 Descartes’ Skull, 183 Desch (Dr. C. H.), Diffusion in Solids, 319 Deslandres (H. A.), Filaments and Alignements of the Upper Layers of the Solar Atmosphere, 127; Relation between Solar Phenomena, 233; the Sun’s Magnetic Field, 551; General Magnetic Field of the Upper Layers of the Solar Atmosphere, 561; awarded Gold Medal by Royal Astronomical Society, 707 Desmouliére (A.), the Antigen in the Wassermann Reaction, 156, 325, 428, 639 Dessau (Prof. B.), Manuale di Fisica ad Uso delle Scuole Secondarie e Superiori, 538 Dicks (A. J.), Cambridge Geographical Text-books: Inter- mediate, 157 Dickson (Prof. H. N.), Maps: How they are made: How to read them, 329 Dietrich (B.), Moselle Valley, 444 Dines (J. S.), Rate of Ascent of Pilot Balloons, 716 Dines (W. H., F.R.S.), Vertical Temperature Distribution over England, 309 Ditmar (Dr. R.), der Kautschuk, 668 Ditmars (R. L.), Feeding Habits of Snakes, 656 Application of Organisms, 396 Dixon (Prof. H. B.), Gaseous Explosions, 498 Dixon (Prof. H. B.) and H. M. Lowe, Experiments on Abel’s Theory of Effect of Fine Incombustible Dust on Firedamp, 663 Dixon (Prof. H. H.) and W. R. G. Atkins, Pressures in Plants, 506 Don (W. R.), Parka decipiens, 210 Donald (R.), Liquid Measurement by Drops, 612 Denaldson (L.), the Cinematograph and Natural Science, 187 Doncaster (L.), Heredity, W. E. Castle and others, Dr. A. Greil, 458; Luminous Halos surrounding Shadows of Heads, 621 Denitch (Prof.), the Transit of Mercury, November 14, 1907, 580 Donnan (Prof. F. G., F.R.S.), the Beginning of a New Era in Mineralogy, J. H. van’t Hoff and others, 616; the Nernst Festschrift, 641 Dony-Henault (O.), Resistances of Granulated Metallic Chromium for Electrical Heating, 586 Doolittle (Prof. C. L.), the Aberration Constant, 199 Douglass (Prof.), Records of Solar Radiation in Arizona, Osmotic 61 Dew C. S.), Photography by Artificial Light, 367 Downing (Dr. A. M. W., F.R.S.), Errors of Computed Times of Solar Eclipse Phenomena, 162 Draper (Dr. C. H.), a Course of Physics, 567 Dreaper (W. P.), Notes on Chemical Research, 618 Drew (Aubrey H.), Induced Cell-reproduction Protozoa, 673 Dreyer (G.), W. Ray, and E. W. A. Walker, Size of Aorta and of Trachea in Warm-blooded Animals, 479 Droit (L. G.), Opacity to X-Rays of Tissues loaded with Lead Salts, 272 Drude (Dr. Paul), Dr. E. Gehrcke, Lehrbuch der Optik, 567 Drummond (L. M.), Scientific Study of Living Things as Education, 583 Drury (F. E.), Manual Training Woodwork treated Mathematically, 304 Duane (W.), Decomposition of Water by a Rays, 691 Dubois (R.), Anzesthesia by the Digestive Canal, 613 Duckworth (Dr.), Fragment of Palzolithic Human Jaw the in Exercises from Kent’s Cavern, 342; Anthropometric Data collected by Prof. S. Gardiner in Maldive Islands, 37 Duclaux (J.), Specific Heat of Bodies at Low Tempera- tures, 377 Duddell (Wm., F.R.S.), Hughes Medal, 337; the Border- land between Electricity and other Sciences: Presi- dential Address, 345; awarded Medal by Royal Society, 88 Diirer (Albert), Pictures of Walrus, Bison, and_ Elk, 492 Duffield (Prof.), Spectral Series and Are Spectrum of Nickel, 424 Duffield (Prof. W. G.) and G. E. Collis, Deposit upon Poles of an Iron Arc in Air, 422 Duffour (A.), Case of Dimorphism, 691 Duisberg (Dr. C.), Latest Achievements Industry, 194 Duke (H. L.), Trypanosomes, 350 Dumville (B.), the “Look and Say” Method of Teaching to Read, 370; Fundamentals of Psychology, 695 Duncan (J. C.), the Spectroscopic Binary 8 Scorpionis, 394 Dunkerley (Dr. Stanley), Death, 88 Dupuy (L.) and A. Portevin, Thermoelectric Properties of Iron-Nickel-Carbon, 428 Du Toit (A. L.), Physical Geography for South African Schools, 157 Dyer (Dr. H.), Education and National Life, 434 Dyson (Dr. F. W., F.R.S.), Chromospheric Lines and Radium, 393, 426; Astronomy Primer, 443 of Chemical East (C. M.), Heredity, 458 Eastman (Dr. C. R.), Remains of Fresh-water Herrings in Tertiary Deposits in New Guinea, 578 Ebell (Dr.), Elements of Comet 1912a (Gale), 114, 172, 232, 495 Eccles (Dr. W. H.), Propagation of Wireless Waves vill Index Nature, April 24, 1913 quarter way round the Earth, 410, Efficiency of Wireless Transmission, 600 Eccles (Dr.) and A. J. Makower, Production of Electrical Oscillations with Spark-gaps immersed in Running Liquids, 498 Eckel (E. C.), Building Stones and Clays, 537 Edgeworth (Prof. F. Y.), Use of Probabilities in Social Statistics, 627 Edridge-Green (Dr. F. W.), Criticism of the Report on Sight Tests, 396; Light Perception and Colour Percep- tion, 543; Colour Adaptation, 635; Trichromic Vision and Anomalous Trichromatism, 635 Eggar (W. D.), Historical Sequence in Teaching, 582 Eiffel (G.), Resistance of Spheres in Air in Motion, 561; Experimental Studies in Aérodynamics, 677 Elgie (J. H.), Reported Bright Meteor, 601 Elliott (M. S.), Elementary Historical Geography of the British Isles, 671 Elliott-Cooper (R.), Presidential Address to Institution of Civil Engineers, 315 Ellis (R. A.), Spiderland, 488 Engeln (O. D. von), Glacier Drainage and Wastage, 445 Engler and Drude (Profs.), die Vegetation der Erde, 405 Enock (F.), Insect Intelligence, 480 Erichsen’s Maps of Greenland, 258 Eriksson (Prof. Jakob), Anna Molander, Fungoid Diseases of Agricultural Plants, 131 Erskine-Murray (Dr. J.), Handbook of Wireless Telegraphy, 421; 645 Esdaile (Miss P. C.), Salmon Scale Research, 533 Espin (Rev. T. E.), Dark Structures in the Milky Way, 316 Esterre (C. R. d’), Region around Star Clusters H v 33, 34 Persei, 454 Evans (Commander E. R. G., R.N.), British Antarctic Expedition : Dispatch, 649, 675 Evans (Dr. J. W.), Sequence of Volcanic Rocks in Scot- land, 208 Everett (Alice), the Halo in the Ricefield and the Spectre of the Brocken, 570 Evershed (J.), Luminous Halos surrounding Shadows of Heads, 592 Ewart (Dr.), Important Find of Human Remains in a Raised Beach at Gullane, 342; Fat-tailed Sheep, 450 Eyde (Dr. S.), Fixation of Atmospheric Nitrogen, 194 Eyre (Dr. J. V.) and Prof. H. E. Armstrong, Enzymes and Glucoside of Flax, 319 Fabre (J. H.), Souvenirs entomologiques, 196 Fagnano (Marchese Giulio Carlo dei Toschi di), Matematiche, 590 Faithfull (Miss), Education and Vocation, 370 Falconer (J. D.), Origin of Kopjes, 211 Fantham (Dr. H. B.), Isle of Wight Bee Disease, 447 Fantham (H. B.) and Annie Porter, Isle of Wight Bee Disease, 90 Farran (G. P.), Marine Entomostraca, 638; Plankton from Christmas Island, 690 Farrer (R.), the Rock Garden, 433 Fassbender (Dr. H.) and E. Hupka, Testing Magnetic Materials, 627 Fath (Dr.), Integrated Spectrum of the Milky Way, 551 Faulds (H.), Dactylography, 189 Fayet (G.), Identity of Tuttle’s and Schaumasse’s Comets, 288, 299; Next Return of Finlay’s Comet, 613, 628 Fayet and Schaumasse (MM.), Identity of Tuttle’s Comet (1912b), 341 Fearis (Walter H.), Treatment of Tuberculosis by Immune Substances (I.K.) Therapy, 129 Feiss (H. O.) and W. Cramer, Wallerian Degeneration, 635 Fenton (E. G.), the Zodiacal Light, 220 Ferguson (Dr. R. M.), Obituary, 522 Fergusson (J. Coleman), Fergusson’s Percentage Unit of Angular Measurement, with Logarithms; Percentage Theodolite and Percentage Compass, 275 Fermor (L. L.), Origin of Meteorites, 213 ; Luminous Halos surrounding Shadows of Heads, 592 Fernbach (A.), New Form of Soluble Starch, 184 Féry (C.), Velocity of Light, 299; a Dead-heat Galvano- meter with Moving Needle, 376 Fibiger (Prof. J.), Rats, Nematodes, and Cancer, 7o1 Opere Fields (Prof. J. C.), Orders of Coincidence, 426 Filchner (Lieut.), Return from Antarctic, 548 Finck (Prof.), Polynesian Migrations, 599 Findlay (Prof.), Osmotic Pressure and Theory of Solutions, 497 Fisher (Rev. O.), Luminous Halos surrounding Shadows of Heads, 621 : Fitzgerald (F. F.), Electrical Conductance of Solutions and the Fluidity of certain Solutions, with Curves of Molecular Conductance of Silver Nitrate, &c., in Methylamine, 368 Fleck (A.), Inseparability of Thorium and Uranium X, 319 Fleming (Prof. J. A., F.R.S.), Wireless Telegraphy : British Association Address, 262, 291, 421 Fleming-Struthers (R. de J.), Nitrogen Chloride and Photo- chemical Inhibition, 319 Fletcher (Miss Alice), Significance of Life to the Omaha: Smithsonian Report, 234 Fletcher (A. L.), (1) Refined Method of obtaining Sub- limates ; (2) Melting Points of Minerals, 454 Fletcher (F.), the Bacterial Theory of Soil Fertility, 541 Fletcher (Dr. R.), Death, 390 Fletcher (T. B.), Termites, 90 Flett (Dr. J. S.), Volcanic Rocks in Scotland and the Atlantic-Pacific Classification of Suess, 208 Flexner (Prof. Simon), Problems in Infection and its Control, 289 Florence (Miss Laura), Contents of Birds’ Crops, 450 Fosse (R.), Urea, 299; Formation of Urea by Moulds, 613 Fowler (Prof. A.), Spectral Series, 424; Series of Lines in the Hydrogen Spectrum, 454; New Hydrogen Spectral Lines, 466 Fowler (Dr. G. H.), Science of the Sea, 34 Frank (Karl, S.J.), C. T. Druery, Theory of Evolution in the Light of Facts, 670 Franks (W. S.), Comet 1912a (Gale), 199; Comet 1912¢ (Borrelly), 315 Fraser (Miss E. A.), Development of the Thymus, 450 Frazer (Prof. J. G.), the Golden Bough, 66 Freer (Dr. Paul C.), Memorial Number of the Philippine Journal of Science, 231 Freire-Marreco (Barbara) and Prof. J. L. Myres (editors), Notes and Queries on Anthropology, 565 Frerichs (Dr. F. W.), Chemical Engineering Practice : Presidential Addresses, 190 Frey (Prof. M.), Mutual Effect of adjacent Pressure Stimuli, 397 Friedmann (Prof.), Treatment of Tuberculosis, 412 Fritsch (Prof.), Antarctic Fresh-water Alge, 573 Fry (Rt. Hon. Sir E., G.C.B., F.R.S.), a Flower Sanctuary, 102, 163 Fry (Major W. B.) and Capt. H. S. Ranken, Extrusion of Granules by Trypanosomes, 663 Fuchino and Izu (Profs.), Halo in the Ricefield, 419 Fuchs (H. M.), Hybridisation of Echinus, 449 Fujiwhara (Prof.), Theory of Shaw and Dines’s Micro- barograph, 340 : Funk (Dr.), Vitamine from Rice Polishings, 398 Gaede (Dr. W.), Mechanical Pump for High Vacua, on a New Principle, 198, 574; Air Pump on a New Prin- ciple, 574 Gale (W. F.), Discovery of Comet 1912a (Gale), 60, 394 Galitzin (Prince B.), Principles of Instrumental Seis- mology, 4 Galitzin (Prince B.) and George W. Walker, Determination of the Epicentre of an Earthquake, 3 Gallardo (Prof. A.), Compendio Elemental de Zoologia, 304 Gallatly (W.), Orthopole : Address, 493 Gallissot (C.), Scintillation, 429; Influence of Colour and Magnitude in sudden Variations of Brightness of a Stellar Image, 561 Galloway (Prof. W.), Explosions in Mines, 552 Gardiner (C. J.), Silurian Inlier of Usk, 210 Gardiner (J. H.), M. Lecoq de Boisbaudran, 255 Gardner (W.), Hill Fort near Abergele, 343 Garza (R. S. de la), les Nomogrammes de 1’Ingénieur, 302 Gask (Lilian), Legends of our Little Brothers, 331 Gates (Dr. R. R.), Peculiar Development in Evening Prim- reses, 171; Mutating C¬heras, 350 Nature April 24, 1913 Index 1X Gaubert (P.), Attack of Calcite by Acids, 127 Gavin (W.), Interpretation of Milk Records, 397 Geddes (Prof.), Mind and Body, 396 Geerlogs (H. C. P.), the World’s Cane Sugar Industry, 509 Geikie (Sir A., K.C.B., P.R.S.), the Love of Nature among the Romans during the Later Decades of the Republic and the First Century of the Empire, 185; Science Teaching in Public Schools: Address, 555 Geikie (Prof. J., F.R.S.), Structural and Field Geology, 159 Gemmill (Dr. J. F.), Teratology of Fishes, 359; Develop- ment of a Starfish, 449 Geology : Origin of Meteorites, L. L. Fermor, 213 Geophysical Memoirs, 309 Gérardin (M.), Mechanism for Factorising Large Numbers, 425 Gibb (Dr. A. W.), Actinolite-bearing Rock allied to Serpentine, 210 Gibson (Prof. A. H.), Resistance to Flow of Air through Pipes, 368; Loss of Energy at Oblique Impact of Two Confined Streams of Water, 454 Gibson (Prof.) and Mr. Thompson, Suction between Passing Vessels, 498 Gibson (Dr. G. E.), Method of Determining Vapour Den- sities and new Quartz Manometer, Heat of Solids, 423 Gill (Sir David, K.C.B., F.R.S.), Prof. Sandwith and Dr. S. Paget, Research Defence Society, 594 Gilligan (A.), Contents of Millstone Grit of Yorkshire, 211 Giolitti (Dr. F.), la Cementazione dell’ Acciaio, 568 Giorgi (Dr. G.), Problems in Elasticity considering After- effect, 550 Gipp (Mr. and Mrs.), Antarctic Marine Alge, 572 Giuffrida-Ruggeri (Dr.), Homo Sapiens, 483 Glauert (L.), Extinct Marsupials, 90 : Gliick (Prof. H.), Biologische und Morphologische Unter- suchungen tiber Wasser- und Sumpfgewdachse: die Uferflora, 359 Goddard (Dr. E. S.) and D. E. Malan, S. cheta, 403; S. African Leeches, 660 Godfrey (C., M.V.O.) and A. W. Siddons, Geometry, 275 Godfrey (Rev. R.), Migratory Birds of Buffalo River, 173 Gold (E.), the Physics of the Universe, Prof. W. Trabert, 356 Goldman (E. A.), Panama Zoological Collections, 313 Goldschmidt (Dr. H.), Production of Sound Ingots, 317 Goodhart (Sir J.), the Passing of Morbid Anatomy : Harveian Oration, 229 Goodrich (E. S.), Polyclads and Ctenophores, 448; a Hermaphrodite Amphioxus, 450; Structure of Bone in Fishes, 453 Goodricke (John), Note on, 526 Gordan (Paul), Obituary, 597 Gordon (Mrs. Ogilvie), Trade Schools, 526 Gordon (Dr. W. T.), Fossil Flora of Pettycur Limestone, 210 Gorgas (Col. Wm. C.), awarded Medal by Royal Society, 388 Gotch (Prof. F., F.R.S.), adapted Eye, 396 Gouy (M.), a Particular Kind of Electric Currents, 183 ; Kinetic Theory of Ionised Gases and Carnot’s Principle, 272; Simultaneous Action of Gravity and a Uniform Magnetic Field on an Jonised Gas, 428 Gewland (Prof. W., F.R.S.), the Metals in Antiquity : Huxley Memorial Lecture, 344 Grabham (G. W.), the Country North of Lake Albert, 211 Graham (J.), Education of Industrial Classes, 585 Grant (James), the Chemistry of Breadmaking, 357 Gravely (F. H.) and S. P. Agharkar, Indian Fresh-water Jellyfish, 660 Gray (A. A.), Ganglion in Human Temporal Bone, 662 Gray (A. J.), Similarity in Nature of X and Primary y Rays, 400 Gray (J.), Effects of Hypertonic Solutions upon Eggs of Echinus, 376 Gray (Dr. J.), Spinning Tops, 422 Gray (W. Forbes), Books that Count: Standard Books, 592 Green De E. E.), Cochineal Insects, 230; Humming Flies, 70! Greenhill (Sir G.), Dynamics of Mechanical Flight, 535 African Oligo- a Shorter Colour Vision of the Dark- a Dictionary of 22, 638; Atomic | Greenly (E.), Mica Schists of Anglesey, 210; Theory of Menai Strait, 211 Grégoire (A.), Ice Ages, 445 Gregory (Mrs. E. S.), British Violets, 432 Gregson (M. M.), the Story of Our Trees in Twenty-four Lessons, 511 Greil (Prof. A.), Richtlinien des Vererbungs-problems, 380, 458 Griffini (Dr. Achille), le Zebre, 358 Griffith (Rev. John), the French Arthurian Romances, H. Oskar Sommer, 328; Signs and Symbols, Egyptology, and Freemasonry, Dr. A. Churchward, 406; American Anthropology: Putnam Anniversary Volume, 457; “Primeval Man,” 572; the Oak and its Lore, C. Mosley, 589 Grimbert (L.) and M. Laudat, Estimation of Lipoids in Blood Serum, 351 Grimsdale (Mr.), Duty of the Medical Citizen: Hospital Address, 167 Grimshaw (P. H.), Clare Island Survey: Diptera, 403 ; Pheasants and Heather-beetles, 475 Grosvenor (G. H.), Drowning of, 169 Groves (Henry), Death, 284 Giinther (Dr. Albert, F.R.S.), History of the Collections in the Natural History Departments of the British Museum, 595 Giinther (R. T.), the Oxford Country, 131 Guillaume (J.), Comet 1912a (Gale), 272; Solar Observa- tions, 299 Gumlich (Dr.), Iron-carbon and -silicon Alloys, 686 Gunn (J. A.) and F. B. Chavasse, Action of Adrenin on Veins, 662 Gutton (C.), Duration of Establishment of Electrical Double Refraction, 664 Guyot (A.) and A. Kovache, Action of Formic Acid upon Triaryl-carbinols, 299 Gwinnell (R. F.), Calcite Crystals from a Water Tank, 376 Gwyther (R. F.), Specification of Elements of Stress, 586 Entwicklungs- und Haddon (Dr. A. C., F.R.S.), the Wandering of the Bronze Age Potters, Hon. J. Abercromby, 2; Chiriquian Antiquities, Prof. G. G. MacCurdy, 73; Significance of Life to the Omaha, Miss Alice Fletcher, 234; Customs of the World, 330; Arts and Crafts in Torres Straits : Reports, 518; Ceremonies of the Hopi, H. R. Voth, 630 Hadfield (Sir R., F.R.S.), Method of producing sound Ingots, 316 Hagedoorn (A. L.), Tricoloured Dogs, Guinea-pigs, and Cats, 366 Haig (Dr. H. A.), Central Nervous System of Weddell Seal, 454 Haldane (Dr. J. S., F.R.S.), Mind and Body, 396 Haldane (Lord), Educational Organisation, 546 Halder (H.), W. M. Huskisson, Handbook on the Gas Engine, 302 Hale (Dr. G. E.), Zeeman Effect due to Magnetic Field at Sun’s Surface, 682 (Clarence), Explosives in Engineering and Mining Operations, 190 Hall (Cuthbert), Eucalypts of the Parramatta District and new Species, 455 Hall (Prof. Edwin H.), Sailing Flight of Birds, 161 Hall (H_ S.) and F. H. Stevens, Examples in Arithmetic, Hall 275 Hall-Edwards (Dr.), Diffusion Figures, 112 Haller (A.) and E. Bauer, Formation of Dimethylstyrolene, S61 Hallier (H.), Former Land-bridges and Migrations between Australia and America, 660 Hamlyn-Harris (Dr. R.), Papuan Mummification, 578 Hammar (A. G.), the Codling Moth, 418 ; Hamy (M.). Arc Arrangement with Iron Electrodes, 213 Hancock (Dr. J. L.), Tetriginze, 550 Hanriot (M.), Tempering of Metals, 299 Harden (Dr.), Hexose Phosphate, 320 Harding (Ch.), the Summer of 1912, 71; the Weather of 1912, 555 Harding (P. J.), Division, 5 History and Evolution of Arithmetic x Index Nature, April 24, 1913 Hardy (W. B.), Influence of Chemical Constitution upon Interfacial Tension, 612 : Harker (Dr. J. A., F.R.S.), Tables Annuelles de Constantes et Données Numériques, 617 Harrison and Sivan (Messrs.), Black Cotton Soils of India, 626 Harshberger (Prof. J. W.), die Vegetation der Erde: XIII., North and Central America and the West Indies, 405 Hartert (E.), F. C. R. Jourdain, N. F. Ticehurst and H. F. Witherby, a Hand-list of British Birds, 358 Hartridge (H.), Measurement of Absorption Bands, 612 Harvie-Brown (Mr.), the Fulmar, 475 Hatch (Dr. F. H.), Rock-disintegration by Weathering, 481 Hawkins (H. L.), Plates of Echinoids, 690 Hawkins (Mrs. H. P.), Star Calendar, 394 Hawks (Ellison), Bees shown to the Children, 358 Hawley (Prof. R. C.) and Prof. A. F. Hawes, Forestry in New England, 511 Headley (F. W.), Sailing Flight of Birds, 220 Heath (F. G.), Nervation of Plants, 432 Heath (Sir T. L.), Method of Archimedes, 28 Heaton (Noel), Rubies, 114 Heaton’s Annual, 699 Hébert (G.), 1l’Education Physique ou Complet par la Méthode Naturelle, 407 Heckel (E.), Cultural Bud Mutation of Solanum tuberosum, 30; Influence of Removal of Sex Organs on Formation of Sugar in Stems of Maize, 272; Cultural Bud Mutation, 299 Hegner (Prof. R. W.), College Zoology, 245 Heilprin (Michael) and his Sons, Biography, by G. Pollak, 08 Menicesn (Prof. A.), the Twenty-seven Lines upon the Cubic Surface, 591 Henderson (J. R.), New Tortoise, 686 Hendrick (Prof.), Cottonseed Oil and Linseed Oil, 398; Carbonate of Lime as Manure, 399 Henri (V.) and others, New and Very Powerful Ultra- violet Lamp, 299 Henri (V.) and R. Absorption, 97, 613 Henrici (Capt.), the International Map, 395 Henry (A.), a Micromanometer, 428 Henslow (Rev. G.), Vegetable Mechanics, 452 Hepburn (Prof. D.), Anatomy of Weddell Seal : Brain, 454 Hepworth (Commander M. W. C., C.B.), Effect of the Labrador Current upon Temperature, 59, 309 Herbertson (Prof. A. J.) and R. L. Thompson, Geography of the British Empire, 643 Herdman (Prof. W. A., F.R.S.), Minute Life on our Sea- beaches: Address at Linnean Society’s Reception, 371; Rare Marine Animals (Runa Cruise), 453; Marine Biology at Port Erin, 629 Heron-Allen (E.), Recent Foraminifera of Islands, 487 Heron-Allen (E.) and A. Earland, Saccammina sphaerica and Psammosphaera fusca, 350; Distribution of Sac- cammina sphaerica and Psammosphaera fusca in the North Sea and suggested Identity, 401; Life-history of Saccammina, 447 Hertwig (O.), die Radiumkrankheit tierischer Keimzellen, 67 Hertzsprung (Dr.), Galactic Distribution of Stellar Types, 115 Hesse (E.), Artificial Cultivation of Parasitic Fungus of House-fly, 578 Heusler Alloys, 687 Heward (E. V.), Variations of Period of Encke’s Comet, 601 V’Entrainement Wurmser, Law of Photochemical the British Hewison (Dr. J. K.), Cambridge County Geographies : Dumfriesshire, 382 Hewitt (J.) and J. H. Power, S. African Lacertilia, Ophidia, and Batrachia in Kimberley District, 127 Hewlett (G.), School Astronomical Society, 582 Hewlett (Prof. R. T.), Micro-organisms and the Home- stead, Prof. C. E. Marshall, Dr. E. Burnet, Dr. C. Broquet and Dr. W. M. Scott, W. Sadler, 188; Hand- book of the Technique of the Teat and Capillary Glass Tube, Sir A. E, Wright. F.R.S., 218; Tuberculosis and the Milk Supply, 281; Pasteurisation of Milk, 623 Hewlett (Prof.) and Dr. Nankivell, Purification of Water, 793 Heyden (A. F. van der), Notes on Algebra, 697 Heywood (Dr. H. B.), Exponential Curve in Graphics, 426 Hickling (Dr. G.), Band-likke Cloud on December 24, 1912, 586 Hicks (Prof. W. M., F.R.S.), awarded Royal Medal by Royal Society, 337, 388 Higgins (William) and the Imponderable Elements, 103 Hill (Prof. J. P.) and Miss E. A. Fraser, Development of the Thymus, 450 Hill (Prof. Leonard, F.R.S.), Opening Address to Section I, . British Association, 146; Effect of High Water Pressures on Living Tissues, 396; Nutritive Values of Breads, 398 Hill (M. D.), Animal Coloration, 593 Hill (Prof. M. J. M., F.R.S.), Theory of Proportion : Modification of Euclid’s Method, 400 Hill (S. E.), Absorption of Gases in Vacuum Tubes, 298 Hindle (Dr. E.) and G. Merriman, Sensory Perceptions of the Fowl Tick, 392 Hirayama (Prof. S.), Systematic Motions of Sun-spots, 173 Hirota (Shinobu), Seismological Pioneer Work, 435 Hirschwald (Prof. J.), Handbuch der bautechnischen Gesteinspriifung, 537 Hnatek (Dr. A.), Period and Orbit of a Persei, 93 ; Photo- graphic Magnitudes of Stars in Coma Ber., 710 Hobley (C. W.), Stone Implements in Africa, 469 Hobson (Prof. E. W., F.R.S.), a Treatise on Plane Trigo- nometry, 275 Hedgson (E, S.), Worl: of the Reichsanstalt, Charlotten- burg, 446 Hodgson (Dr. G. E.), Rationalist English Educators, 99 Hofer (Prof.), Biological Purification of Sewage by Fish, 549 Hoff (van t’) Medallion, 416 Hoff (J. H. van ’t) and others, Untersuchungen tiber die Bildungsverhiiltnisse der ozeanischen Salzablagerungen, 616 Hogg (H. R.), Falkland Island Spiders, 376 Hollard (A.), la Théorie des Ions et 1’Electrolyse, 567 Holleman (Prof.), Nitration of the Chlorotoluenes, 321 Hollis (H. P.), Comets due to Return this Year, 552 Holmes (Prof. S. J.), Evolution of Animal Intelligence, 160 Holt (A.) and J. E. Myers, Phosphoric Acids and their Alkali Salts, 533 Homans (Dr. J.), Acini, 635 Home (Henry), Worked Flints obtained from “the 25-foot Raised Beach” near Holywood, County Down, 361 Hooley (R. W.), Skeleton of Ornithodesmus latidens, 716 Hooper (C. H.), Pollination of Hardy Fruits and Observa- tions on Insect Visitors, 505 Hooper (C. H.), F. Chittenden, and others, Pollination of Hardy Fruits, 91 Hooper (D.), Ash of the Plantain, 508 Hopkins (Prof. F. G.), Methods of Valuing Foodstuffs, 398 Hopkinson (Prof. B.) and G. Trevor-Wiliiams, Elastic Hysteresis of Steel, 401 Horner (D. W.), “Their Winged Destiny ” : Planets, 160 Horton (Dr. F.), Positive Tonisation produced by Platinum and Salts when Heated, 612 Horwood (A. R.), a Flower-Sanctuary, 163 Horwood (C. Baring), Tridosmine, 287 Hosten (Rey. H.), the Mouthless Indians of Megasthenes, 63 Hough (Dr. S. S.), Periodic Errors in Right Ascensions of Standard Catalogues, 561 Houston (Dr.), Report on London Waters, 366 Houston (Dr. R. A.), Light Production, 460 Houston (R. S.), Transactions of the Paisley Naturalists’ Society : Mineralogy of Renfrewshire, 159 Howard (Mr. and Mrs. A.), Improvement Wheats, 115 Howard (A. G.), S. African Blizzard, June 9-12, 1902, 127 Howe (P. Y.), American Annual of Photography, 1913, 459 Howlett (F. M.), Possible Introduction of Yellow Fever in India by Panama Canal, 528 Hrdli¢ka (Dr.), Early Man in S. America, 112; Race in N.E. Asia allied to American Indians, 344 Hiibner (Julius), Bleaching and Dyeing of Vegetable Fibrous Materials, 65 Islets of Langerhans and Pancreatic a Tale of Two of Indian A Index Xi Hughes (Prof.), Gravels of East Anglia, 480 Jones (H. Chapman), Photography of, To-day, 644 Hughes and placies (Messrs.), Analysis of Soil in the | Jones (H. O., F.R.S.), Proposed Memorial, 625 Delta, 473 Jones (H. O.) and Mrs. Jones, Memorial Service, 195 Hull (Prof. Seiad: F.R.S.), Sub-Oceanic Physiography of | Jones (H. Sydney), Exercises in Modern Arithmetic, 697 the North Atlantic, 32 Jones (Dr. Wood), Lesions caused by Judicial Hanging, 342 Hume (A. O., C.B.), Collection left to British Museum, 57 Humphrey (R. L.), Fireproofing, 657 Hunt (A. R.), the Human Jaw from the Stalagmite in Kent’s Cavern, 134, 190; Discovery by C. Cox of a Human Tooth in Cave Earth in Kent’s Cavern, 649 Hurd (W. E.), Weather of India and her Seas, 171 Hussahof (Dr. L.), Breeding Habits of Sea-lamprey, 549 Hutchins (D. E.), the Moon and Poisonous Fish, 382; British Forestry and the Development Commis ssion, 486 Hutchinson (Dr. A.), Graphical Methods in Crystallo- graphy, 375 Hutchinson (Dr. A.) and W. C. Smith, Labradorite from St. John Point, Co. Down, 375 Hutchinson (Dr.), Lime as an Antiseptic in Soil, 398 Hutchinson (W.), Dr. Haddon, R. W. Williamson, Customs of the World, 330 Huygens (C.), Silvanus P. Thompson, Treatise on Light, 246 Hyde (Prof. I.), Nerve Impulses, 397 Ilkeston (Rt. Hon. Lord), Obituary, 655 Ingram (C.), Races of the Furze Warbler, 173 Irvine (Prof.) and A. Hynd, Synthetic Aminoglucosides, 320 Irvine (Prof.) and Miss B. M. Patterson, Mannitol Triacetone, 320 Irvine (Prof.) and Dr. J. P. Scott, Rotatory Power of partially methylated Glucoses, 320 Irving (Rev. Dr. A.), Implements of Man in the Chalky Boulder Clay, 3; the Titanic, 38; Glaciation and Striation, 103; the Summer of 1912, 163 Iscovesco (H.), Physiological Properties of Lipoids, 428 Ishida (G.), Storm Warning Night Signals, 197 Iyer (L. K. Anantha), the Cochin Tribes and Castes, 565 Jack (Messrs. 658 fediese (F. Hamilton), Rambles in the Pyrenees and the Adjacent Districts, 131 Jackson (S. W.), Spotted Bower-bird, 475 Jacob (Rev. J.), Tulips, 433 Jakob (Dr. M.), Specific Heat and Specific Volume of Steam, 627 Jameson (Dr. H. Lyster), a Pearl from Biology and the Pearl Industry, 451 Jamieson (A.), Elementary Applied Mechanics, 580 Jaumann (Prof. G.), Theory of Gravitation with an Extra Term proportional to Time-flux, 579 Javillier (M.), Substitution of various Elements for Zine in Culture of Sterigmatocystis nigra, 507, 664 Jeanselme (E. and P.), Megalithic Monuments of Cornwall, T. €. and E, G.), the People’s Books, 393, Nautilus, 191; 3 Jégou (P.), Use of Horizontal Wires for receiving Hertzian Waves, 273 Jehu (Dr. T. J.), Local Geology of Dundee District, 208 ; Fossils in old Rocks near Aberfoyle, 209 Jessen-Hansen (Dr.), Physical Chemistry of the Loaf, 115 Johansen (Captain F. H.), Death, 522 Johnson (Stanley C.), Nature Photography, 189 Johnson (Prof. T.), Bothrodendron Kiltorkense, sp., 506 Johnson (Walter), Byways in British Archzology, 301; Wimbledon Common, 461 Johnson (W. H.), Cocoa: its Cultivation and Preparation, 357 Johnston (Sir H. H., G.C.M.G., K.C.B.), Scientific Collec- tions of the German Central Africa Expedition, 110 Johnston (Dr. S. J.), Trematode Parasites of Marsupials, 665 Joly (Prof. J.), Method of Microscopic Mcasurement, Jones (Dr. E.), Psycho-analysis, 695 Jones (Prof. H. C.), Summary of Data on Conductivity, &c., of Aqueous Solutions of Salts and Organic Acids, 506 393 Jones (Prof. H. C.), Dott. Fisica, 668 M. Giua, Trattato di Chimico- Jones (W. N.), Oxydases in White Flowers, 320 Jonsson (Dr. Helgi), the Botany of Iceland: Marine Alge, 645 c jordan (E. W.), cations, 375 Jordan (Prof. H. E.), Human Heredity, 469, 626 Jose (A. W.), T. G. Taylor and Dr. W. G. Woolnough, T. W. E. David, New South Wales, 382 Jouenne (L.) and J. H. Perreau, la Péche au Bord de la Mer, 358 Jourdain (P. E. B.), Mathematical Logic, 114 Jude (Dr. R. H.) and Dr. J. Satterly, Junior Magnetism and Electricity, 246 Julin (Prof. C.), Luminous Cells of Pyrosoma and Cyclo- salpa, 449 Jungersen (Prof. H. F. E.), New Parasitic Copepod, 449 Jungfleisch (E.), Inactive and Racemic Dilactylic Acids, 298 Junichi (Sato), Air Currents, 286 Improved Joule Radiometer and its Appli- Kaempffert (W.), Eugenics, 391 Kanolt (C. W.), Melting Points of Fire Bricks, 658 Kayser (Prof.), Spectral Series, 424 Keeble (Prof. Frederick), Opening Address to Section K, British Association, 175 Keeble (Prof. F.) and Dr. E. F. of Plant Pigmentation, 319 Keene (H. B.), Determination of the Radiation Constant, 480 Keith (Prof. A.), Human Jaw from Kent’s Cavern, 135 Kennelly (Prof. A. E.), Propagation of Wireless Signals, 422 Kennelly and Pierce (Profs.), Telephone Receivers, 498 Kikkawa (S.), Classification of Rice, 599 King (Louis V.), Scattering and Absorption of Light in Gascous Media, 349 King (Willford I.), the Elements of Statistical Method, 33 King (W. J. H.), the Libyan Desert, 395 Kirby (W. F.), Obituary, 364 Kirkby (Rev. P. J.) and J. E. Marsh, Electrical and Chemical Effects of Explosion of Azoimide, 612 Kirkham (S. D.), Outdoor Philosophy, 216 Kirkpatrick (R.), Structure of the Stromatoporoid Skeleton and on Eozoon, 37 Kirkpatrick (W.), Marriage Kanjars, 481 Kleeman (R. D.), Substances, 663 Klein (Prof. F.), Medal from Royal Society, 388 he (D.), Principles and Methods of Municipal Trading, Armstrong, Biochemistry Customs of the Gehara Atomic Constants and Properties of Tener oe C. G.), Electrical Resistance of Nickel in Cross Magnetic Fields, 664 Knox (Dr. J.), Elementary Chemical Theory and Calcula- tions, 431 Kobold (Prof.). Orbit of Comet 1912c, 443 Kohn-Abrest (E.), Action of active Aluminium on Alkaloidal Extracts, 429 Konig (Dr. F.), Reconstruction of Extinct Vertebrates, 139 Konkoly (Dr.), Royal Hungarian Observatory, 173 Konow (Dr. Sten), Buddhist MSS. in Ancient Aryan Lan- guage of Chinese Turkestan, 508 K6pven (Prof.) and Dr. Wendt, Vertical Distribution of Temperature over Hamburg, 94 Korschelt (Prof. E.), Pearls, 578 Kessel (Prof. A.), Lysin in the Guanidine Group, 397 Kraepelin (Prof. K.), Einfiihrung in die Biologie, 245 Krebs (Dr. W.), Upper Trade and Antitrade Winds. 648 Krick (Rev. Fr. N.), an Expedition among the Abors in 1853, 64 Kronecker (Prof.), Taste, 397 Kusano (Dr. S.), New Species of Olpidium, 681 Labat (A.), Bromine in Human Organs, 613 Lacroix (A.), Origin of Transparent Quartz of Madagascar, 97; Mineralogy of Volcanoes of Reunion Island, 127; Madagascar Minerals, 272; Madagascar Lavas, 613 X11 Laidlaw (F. F.), Dragon Flies from Borneo, 37 Lamb (C. G.), Examples in Applied Electricity, 538 Lamplugh (G. W.), Shelly Moraine in Spitzbergen, 445 Lan-Davis (C. F.), Telephotography, 461 Landolt-Bérnstein physikalisch-chemische Tabellen, 431 Langworthy (Dr.) and Caroline Hunt, Cheese as Diet, 90 Lankester (Six E. Ray, K.C.B., F.R.S.), Glaciation and Striation, 219; the Sub-Crag Flint Implements, 249 ; Investigation of Flint, 331; Science from an Easy Chair, 538 Larard (C. E.), Law of Plastic Flow of a Ductile Material and Phenomena of Elastic and Plastic Strains, 453; Kinematograph Illustrations of Twisting and Breaking of Large Wrought-iron and Steel Specimens, 453 Larmor (Sir J., Sec. R.S.), Collected Papers in Physics and Engineering by Prof. James Thomson, F.R.S., 563 Lasausse (E.), Fixation of Allsaline Bisulphites on Salts of Acetylenic Acids, 587 Latarche (Miss M.), Plankton of Lough Neagh, 451 Latta (Prof. R.), Relation of Mind to Body, 396 Lau (Dr. H. E.), Nova Geminorum, 60 Lauder (Dr.) and Mr. Fagan, Effect of Heavy Root Feeding on Cows’ Milk, 398, 550 I.aue (Dr. M.), Crystal Space-lattice Revealed by Réntgen Rays, 306 Laurie (Dr. A. P.), the Palette of the Illuminator from the Seventh to the Fifteenth Century, 399 Laval (Dr. C. G. P. de), Obituary, 655 Law (C. L.) and A. L. Powell, Small Store Lighting in America, 392 Law (E. F.), Oxygen and Oxides in Alloys, 199 Lazarus-Barlow (Dr.), the Infinitely Little: Address, 167 Lea (A. M.), Revision of Australian Curculionidz, 481 Leach (A. L.), Antiquity of Neolithic Man, 134 Lebeau (P.) and A. Damiens, Analysis of Mixtures of Hydrogen and Hydrocarbons, 587, 638; Estimation of Acetylene Hydrocarbons in Mixtures of Gaseous Hydro- carbons, 717 Lecornu (L.), Security of Aéroplanes, 664 Leduc (A.), New Method for determining Ratio of the Two Snecific Heats of a Gas, 325; Latent Heats of Evapora- tion, 613 Leduc (Prof.), Effect of Diffusion, 396 Lelarge (M.), a Cause of Explosion of Tubes containing a Compressed Mixture of Air and Hydrogen, 325 Lémeray (M.), Principle of Relativity and Law of Variation of Central Forces, 376 Lemoigne (M.), Fermentation of subtilis, 273 Lenz (F.), Uber die krankhaften Erbanlagen des Mannes, 360 Lepierre (C.), Action of Zinc on Aspergillus niger, 613, 664 Leslie-Paterson (Miss), Pigmy Flints from Dee Valley, 343 Levings (J. H.), Blast-roasting of Sulphide Ores, 586 Levy (D. M.), Modern Copper Smelting, 484 Lewis (Prof. W. J.), Ilmenite from Lengenbach Quarry, 375; Multiple Twin of Cassiterite, 375 : Lichnowsky (Prince), Speech at Royal Society Anniversary Meeting, 389 7 Linck (Dr. G.), Fortschritte der Mineralogie, &c., 58 Lindemann (Dr. F. A.), Atomic Heat of Solids, 423, 424 Linden (Prof. Grifin von), die Assimilationstatigkeit bei Schmetterlings-Puppen, 379 Lindet (L.), Conditions of Combination of Calcium and Phosphorus in Casein of Milk, 325 Lindsay (Miss E. B.), Stone Totem Post from British Columbia, 343 Lippmann (G.), Electric Time-measuring Apparatus, 507 Lister (Lord), Memorial, 88, 254, 364; University College Hospital, 111; Royal Institution Discourse on, by Sir W. Macewen, F.R.S., 499 Lloyd (Miss Jordan), Parthenogenetic Larvee of Echinus esculentus, 449 Lockyer (Lady), Precocity of Spring Flowers, 562 Lockyer (Dr. W. J. S.), Errors of Computed Times of Solar Eclipse Phenomena, 162 Lodge (Sir Oliver), Becquerel Memorial Lecture of the Chemical Society, 232; Modern Problems, 248 Loeb (Dr. Jacques), the Mechanistic Conception of Life, 327 Hospital Sugar by Bacillus Lndex [ Nature April 24, 1913 Icewenfeld (Dr. K.), Importance of Autograph Documents in History of Science, 402, 506 Loisel (Julien), Atlas Photographique des Nuages, 280 Loney (Prof. S.°L.), Elementary Treatise on Statics, 275 Loomis (E. J.), Death, 439 Low (C. E.), Supply of Agricultural Cattle in India, 528 Lowry (Dr. T. M.), Isomeric Change, 321; Optical Rotatory Power of Quartz, 423; Calibration of a Wave- length Spectroscope in Infra-red, 425 Lozinski (W. von), die periglaziale Facies der mechanischen Verwitterung, 445 Ludlan (Dr. E. B.), Outlines of Inorganic Chemistry, 158 Luther (Prof.), Central Line of Annular Solar Eclipse of April 17, 420 Lutz (Anne M.), Ginothera Lamarckiana, 113 Lydekker (R.), Imitation of Cuckoo’s Note, 655 Lynde (Dr. C. J.) and F. W. Bates, Osmosis in Soils, 682 Maanen (Dr. A. van), Proper Motions of Stars near Orion Nebula, 601 Macallum (Prof. A. in Cells, 397 McAtee (Prof. W. L.), Protective Coloration, 138 MacBride (Prof. E. W.), Echinocardium cordatum, Young Holothurians, 573; Popular Zoology, 658 McCulloch (A. R.), Young Sunfish from Central Pacific, 2¥3 MacCurdy (Prof. G. G.), Chiriquian Antiquities, 73 Macdonald (A.), Diffusion of Education and Knowledge, 321 Macdonald (Prof.), Wireless Wave Propagation, 422 Macdonald (Sir J. H. A., K.C.B., F.R.S.), the Road Problem, 498 MacDowall (A. B.), the Current Winter, 622 McDowall (S. A.), Evolution and the Need of Atonement, B., F.R.S.), Distribution of Potassium 449; 6 Macs (Sir Wm., F.R.S.), Lord Lister: Royal Institu- tion Discourse, 499 M’Intosh (Prof. W. C.), Filograna and. Salmacina, 448; Scottish Sea Fisheries, 1898-1912, 450 M’Keever (F. L.), Rare Fresh-water Alga, 286 McKenzie (A.), the Walden Rearrangement, 321 Mackenzie (A. H.), Theoretical and Practical Mechanics, 288 Mackenzie (Dr. W.), Alle Fonti della Vita, 380 Mackie (Dr. Wm.), Volcanic Rocks in Aberdeenshire, 210 Mackintosh (Mr.), Spraying Potatoes, 174 Maclean (Prof. M.), Electricity and its Practical Applica- tions, 567 McLean (R. C.), Fossil Prothalli, 626 M’Lennan (Evan), Atmospheric Potential, 647 McLennan (Prof. J. C.), Series Lines in the Are Spectrum of Mercury, 425 McLeod (Dr. Charles), Lessons in Geometry, 275 Macleod (Prof. J. J. R.), Stimulation of Splanchnic Nerve causes Hyperglycemia, 397 McLintock (W. F. P.), Gem Stones, 47 Macnair (P.), Cambridge County Geographies: Perthshire, 382 MacRitchie (D.), a Tribe of White Eskimos, 133 McWhan (J.), Electron Theory of Thermoelectricity, 717 Maeterlinck (M.), on J. H. Fabre, 196 Magnan (A.), Functional Adaptation of Intestine in Ducks, 507 Maillard (L. C.), Formation of Humus, &c., without Oxygen or Micro-organisms, 507 Mallock (A.), Some Unclassified Properties of Solids and Liquids, 349 Manen (W. H. R. von), the late Mr. Leigh Smith and Novaya Zemlya, 544 Maquenne (L.) and E. Demoussy, Respiration in Plants, 273, 428, 586, 638; Chlorophyll Coefficients, 717 Marchant (Prof. E. W.), Magnetic Behaviour of Iron, &c., under Oscillatory Discharge, 636 Marr (Dr. J. E., F.R.S.), Cambridge County Geographies : North Lancashire, 382; Lower Palaeozoic Rocks of the Cautley District (Yorkshire), 453; the Meres of Breck- land, 481 Marshall (Prof. C. E.), Microbiology for Agricultural and Domestic Science Students, 188 Marshall (Prof. C. R.), Supposed Dibromo Compound, 321; Pharmacological Papers, 397 . Marshall (Dr. P.), Geology of New Zealand, 590 Nature, i April 24, 1913 Martin (Dr. C. J.), Insect Porters of Bacterial Infections, Mara (Edith How), Precocity of Spring Flowers, 543 Masé (Rev. M. S.), Philippine Earthquakes, 139 Mason (J. A.), Salinan Indians, 578 Mason (W. M.), Thermal Efficiency of Gas and Electricity, 594 Meeceiont Roberts, and Cillard; Dr. H. H. Hodgson; Celluloid: its Manufacture, Applications, and Substi- tutes, 280 Masson (I.), Precipitation of Salts by corresponding Acids, 06 Mataix (Prof. C.), Aéroplane Stability, 92 Mather (Sir Wm.), Cooperation of Employers and Education Authorities, 526 Mathias, Onnes, and C. A. Crommelin (MM.), Rectilinear Diameter of Argon, 587 Matthews (D. J.), Bacteriological Water-bottle, 350 Matthey (George, F.R.S.), Obituary, 679 Maxwell-Lefroy (H.) and C. G. Ghosh, Eri Sill, 686 Medigreceanu (Dr. F.), Manganese Content of Transplanted Tumours, 636 Mellanby (E.), Metabolism during Lactation, 635 Mellor (Dr. J. W.), Modern Inorganic Chemistry, 668 Merck’s “Annual Report” on Advances in Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Therapeutics, 368 Merton (T. R.), Photography of Absorption Spectra, 682 Merrifield (F.), Wariations in Colouring of Lepidoptera, 13 Metch vikoff (Prof.), the Warfare against Tuberculosis, 386 ; the Royal Society, 389 Metz (C.), Modern Microscopical Optics and Fluorite Objec- tives, 603 Meunier (J.), Spectra of Nebule, 664 Meunier (S.), No Ice Age, 446 Miall (Dr. L. C., F.R.S.), the Early Naturalists, 1 Middleton (T. H.), Opening Address to Section M, British Association, 235 Mikkelsen (Capt. Einar), North-east Greenland, 548 Miles (Dr. E. J.), Form of Airship of Minimum Resistance, 286 Militevié (M. N.), Tuttle’s Comet, 141 Mill (Dr. H. R.), British Rainfall in 1911-12, 192, Goo; the Cold August and September in London, 259; Unprece- dented Rainfall in East Anglia, 376; Amundsen’s Antarctic Expedition, 515 Miller (Prof. D. C.), Instrument for Analysing Sound Vibrations, 423 Miller (G. S.), Catalogue of Mammals of W. Europe in the British Museum, 595 Miller (Dr. Hugh C.), Hypnotism and Disease: a Plea for National Psychotherapy, 484 Milligan (H. N.), Animal Locomotion, 656 Millikan (Prof.), Discharge of Ultra-violet Light of High- speed Electrons, 425 Mills (Dr. W. S.), Method of preparing Acetyliodoglucose, 320 Milne (Prof. J., F.R.S.), Shinobu Hirota, 435 Milner (Dr. S. R.), Current-potential Curves of the Oscillat- ing Spark, 422 Minakata (K.), Colours of Plasmodia of some Mycetozoa, 220 Minchin (Prof.), Hereditary Infection of Bees, 448 Mirande (M.), Hydrocyanic Acid in Trifolium repens, 213; New Group of Plants producing Hydrocyanic Acid, 273 Mitchell (P. Chalmers, F.R.S.), Opening Address to Section D, British Association, 75; Preservation of Fauna: British Association Address, 468 Mitsukuri (Prof. K.), Actinopodous Holothurioidea, 549 Mitton (G. E.), Englishwoman’s Year Book, 485 Moller (A.), der Derfflinger Hiigel, 622 Moffatt (C. W. Paget), Science French Course, 190 Mom (F. H.) and S. R. Capps, Geology of Nizina, Alaska, 59 Moir (J. Reid), Boulder Clay in Essex, 38; the Making of a Rostro-carinate Flint Implement, 334; Natural Frac- ture of Flint, 461 Molinari (Dr. E.), Treatise on General and Industrial Inorganic Chemistry, 509 Molliard (M.), Hypertrophiant Action of Products elaborated by Rhizobium radicicola, 507 Lndex Xlll | Monckton (H. W.), the Hafslo Lake and Solvorn Valley in Norway, 427 Mond (Robert), Anthropology at the British Association, 411 Mond (R.) and Mr. Mellor, Coloured Slides of Theban Tombs, 343, 411 Monier-Williams (Dr. G. W.), Bleaching of Flour: Report, 710 Montélius (Prof. O.), Bronze Age, 291 Montessori (Maria), Anne E. George, the Method: Scientific Pedagogy as Applied Education in “The Children’s Houses,” 99 Moody (Prof. H. R.), College Text-book on Quantitative Analysis, 431 Moore (Prof. Benjamin, F.R.S.), the Synthesis of Matter, 190; Physiology of Aquatic Animals, 395; Nutrition of Marine Organisms, 629 Moore (Prof. B.), Dr. Adams, and others, Chemical Changes in Reproductive Organs of the Sea-urchin, 630 Moore (Prof. E. H.), Theory of Composition of Positive Quadratic Forms, 425 Moreau (M.), Pendulum Seat for Aéroplanes, 709 Morel (L.), les Parathyroides, 66 Morgan (Prof. G. T.), Eighth International Congress of Applied Chemistry, 193 Morgan (Prof. W. C.) and Prof. J. A. Lyman, Laboratory Manual in Chemistry, 431 Morin (P.), Glacier Erosion, 445 Morley (Prof. A.) and W. Inchley, Laboratory Instruction Sheets in Elementary Applied Mechanics, 302 Morley (C.), Sibilant Humming in the Air, 660 Morris (Prof. J. T.), Measurement of Wind Velocities by aid of a small Bare Wire Wheatstone Bridge, 498 Morselli (Prof. E.), Antropologia Generale, 67 Mort (F.), Cambridge County Geographies : 382 Mortensen (Dr. T.), a Sessile Ctenophore, 448 Moseley (H.), Reflection of X-Rays, 594 Moseley (H. G. J.), Radium as a Means of Obtaining High Potentials, 48r Mosley (C.), the Oak: its Natural History, Antiquity, and Folk-lore, Rev. J. Griffith, 589 Miller (G. W.), das Tierreich : Ostracoda, 358 Mintz (A.), Luminosity and Plant Assimilation, 664 Muller (J. A.), Mode of Ionisation of Sulphuric Acid in Dilute Aqueous Solution, 50 Muller (P. Th.) and Mlle. Guerdjikoff, Refraction and Magnetic Rotaticn of Mixtures, 273 Murray (J.), African Tardigrada, 4o1 Murray (Sir J., K.C.B., F.R.S.) and Dr. J. Depths of the Ocean,” Dr. E. J. Allen, 221 Murray (J. H. P.), Papua or British New Guinea, 544 Murray (Prof. N.), Service of a University, 533 Myers (Dr. C. S.), Mind-body Relation, 396 Italy and Central Europe in the Montessori to Child Renfrewshire, Hjort, “the Nagaoka (Prof. H.) and T. Takamine, Constitution of Mercury Lines, 298; Mutual Inductance of Two Coaxial Circular Currents, 298 Napier (John), Tercentenary of Discovery of Logarithms, 54 Nernst’s (W.) Disciples, Festschrift zu seinem Doktor- jubilaum, Prof. F. G. Donnan, F.R.S., 641 Nettleton (H. R.), Method of Measuring the Thomson Effect, 375 Neuberg (Prof. C.), Organisms, 683 Newall (Prof.), Nova Geminorum, No. 2, 60 Newbigin (Dr. M. I.), Man and his Conquest of Nature, 131 Newcombe (L.), Catalogue of the Periodical Publications in the Library of University College, London, 161 Newsholme (Dr.), Report on Public Health. 703 Nicholls (Prof. G. E.), Reissner’s Fibre and the Subcom- missural Organ, 230 Nicholson (Prof. J. W.), Wireless Signal Propagation, 422; Atomic Heat of Solids, 423; Series in Spectra, 424; Spectrum of the Corona, 658 Nicoll (Dr. W.), Progress in Helminthology, 448 Nicolle (C.) and others, Transmission of Recurrent Fever by the Flea, 30; Intravenous Inoculation of Dead Typhoid Bacilli in Man, 377 Influence of Light on Living XIV Index Nature, April 24, 1913 Nietner (Prof.), Inaugural Address at the Royal Hospital for Diseases of the Chest, 229 aoe Niven (Prof. C.) and A. E. M. Geddes, Method of Finding Conductivity for Heat, 401 Nolke (Fr.), Origin of Ice Ages, 445 Nowrogee (D.), Indian Insects, 685 2 Nunn (Dr. T. P.), the Calculus ‘in Schools, 5; Science Teaching, 582; Mathematical Teaching, 370 Ogilvie (A. G.), Morocco, 626 p : Ogilvie-Grant (W. R.), Catalogue of Birds’ Eggs in the British Museum, 595 ; O’Leary (Rev. W., S.J.), Upper Air Investigations at Limerick, 379 Omori (Dr. F.), Variation of Latitude and Mean Sea-level in Japan, 471% Onnes (Dr. H. K.), Medal from Royal Society, 388 Oort (Dr. van), Recapture of Marked Birds, 475 Oppenheimer (Prof. Carl), Grundriss der Biochemie, 331 Orleans (Duke of), Arctic Zoological Reports, 313 Orton (J. H.), Occurrence of the Portuguese Man-of-War and of a Giant Spider Crab in the English Channel, 700 Osborn (Prof. H. F.), Skull of Dinosaur Tyrannosaurus TEX, 313 Oshanin iB), Katalog der palaearktischen Hemipteren, 513 Ostwald (M.), Alkaline Nitrites, 507 Owens (J. S.), Settlement of Sand in Water, 211 Oxley (A. E.), Variation of Magnetic Susceptibility with Temperature, 663 Padova (E.), Light-curves of Variable Stars, 173 Paige (S.), Mineral Resources of Texas, 659 Parisot (J.) and M. Vernier, Toxicity of Fungi, 184 Parker (F. H.), Upper Partials of a Tuning-fork, 361 Parkhurst (J. A.), Stellar Actinometry at the Yerkes Observatory, 316 Parkyn (E. A.), the Jaw from the Stalagmite in Kent’s Cavern, 281 Parsons (Dr. H. F.), Report on Isolation Hospitals, 285 ; Luminous Halos surrounding Shadows of Heads, 621 Pascal (P.), Additivity of Diamagnetism, 638 Passarge (Prof. S.), Morphological Geography, 470 Patten (Prof. C. J.), Reported Occurrence of Warbler at Tuskar Rocls, 306 Patton (Capt. W. S.), Oriental Sore, 112 Paulsen (Dr. O. L.), Dr. W. G. Smith, Vegetation of the Transcaspian Lowlands, 711 Peach (Dr. B. N., F.R.S.), Opening Address to Section C (Geology) at the British Association, 49 Peach (Dr. B. N., F.R.S.) and Dr. J. Horne, Archean Rocks of Lewis, 209 Pearl (R.), Mode of Inheritance of Fecundity in Fowls, 526 Pearson (Dr. J.), the Lion in Sinhalese Art, 674 Pearson (Prof. Karl ,f.R.S.), Lectures to the Medical Pro- fession, 111; an Apparent Fallacy in the Statistical Treatment of “Antedating” in the Inheritance of Pathological Conditions, 334 Peck (J. W.), Vocational Call and the Edinburgh Evening Continuation Schools, 370 Peddie (Prof. W.), Apparatus for investigating Motion in Torsional Oscillations, 422; Deviation of the Law of Torsional Oscillation of Metals from Isochronism, 428 Peddie (Prof.), Spectral Series, 424 Peers (C. R.), Ancient Monuments, 490 Peet (T. E.), Megalithic Monuments, 343; Rough Stone Monuments and their Builders, 566 Pennant (Thomas), Collection, 626 Pepper (J. H.). Dr. J. Mastin, the Boy’s Playbook of Science, 538 Péringuey (Dr. L.), Portuguese Commemorative Pillars on the S. African Coast, 403 Perkin (Dr. F. Mollwo), Natural and Synthetic Rubber : Address, 489 Perkin (Prof. W. H.), Rubber Synthesis, 194; Fireproof Flannelette, 194 Perry (Prof. John, F.R.S.), Practical Mathematics, 34; the British Association at Dundee, 41; a Pioneer in Applied Science: Prof. James Thomson, F.R.S., 563 Perrycoste (Frank H.), a Flower Sanctuary, 71, 162 Petersen (J. Fischer), Light-curve of Nova Geminorum Nom 2ians Dartford Petrie (Prof.), Early Dynastic Tombs near Cairo, 343 Pfeiffer (Dr. L.), die steinzeitliche Technik, 622 Pfund A. H.), Sensitiveness of Selenium to Different Colours, 136 Philip (A.) and L. J. Steele, Portable Instrument for Detec- tion of Combustible Gases in Air, 114 Philippi (E.), Geological Results of the German Antarctic Expedition, 573 Phin (John), a Lens or a Burning Glass? 571 Piccard (A.), Constitution of Water and Thermal Variation of the Magnetisation, 507 Pickering (Prof. E. C.) and Miss Cannon, the Variable Star 87, 1911, 580 Pickering (Prof. W. H.), Solar Motion Relatively to the Interstellar Absorbing Medium, 368 Pictet (Dr. A.), les Mécanismes du Mélanisme et 1’Albinisme chez les Lépidoptéres, 135 Pierpoint (Prof. J.), Lectures on the Theory of Functions of Real Variables, 642 Pierson (Dr. N. G.), A. A. Wotzel, Principles of Economics, 43 Pinard (A.) and A. Magnan, Fragility of the Male Sex, 664 Pincussohn (Dr. L.), Medizinisch-chemisches Laboratoriums- Hilfsbuch, 592 Piper (C. W.), Retinal Shadows? 682 Pirie (Dr. J. H. H.), Antarctic Bacteriology, 573 Plassmann (Dr. Joseph), Jahrbuch der Naturwissenschaften, 643 Playfair (G. J.), Plankton of the Sydney Water-supply, 213 Plimmer (H. G.), Blood Fixation, 663; Blood Parasites of Animals, 690 Plummer (F. G.), Lightning in Relation to Forest Fires, 51r Plummer (Prof. H. C.), Motions and Distances of Brighter Stars of Type B—Bs, 561 Pluvinel (Count de la B.) and F. Baldet, Spectrum of Brooks’s Comet, 29 Pocklington (H. C.), Diophantine Impossibilities, 402 Pecock (Ralph J., F.R.S.), Colouring of Zebras, 418; Long-beaked Spiny Anteaters from New Guinea, 469; Procryptic Coloration a Protection against Lions, 593 Poincaré (Prof. Jules Henri, For.Mem.R.S.), Biography (Scientific Worthies), 353 Poincet (M.), Wake and Suction astern of Ships, 351 Pckrowsky (Dr.), Measuring Angular Diameters of Stars, 232 Pollals (G.), Michael Heilprin and his Sons, 408 Pcpe (F. G.), Modern Research in Organic Chemistry, 217 Pepe (Prof.) and C. S. Gibson, Resolution of sec-Bitylamine, 114 Portevin (A.), Deformation and Annealing of Plastic Alloys, 8 Potier (A.), Mémoires sur 1’Electricité et 1’Optique, 246 Potts (F. A.), (1) New Species of Phyllochzetopterus, (2) Reproductive Buds in Trypanosyllis, 448 Poulton (Prof. E. B., F.R.S.), Polymorphism in a Group of Mimetic Butterflies of the Ethiopian Nymphaline Genus Pseudacra, 36; Attacks of Birds upon Butter- flies, 71 Precht (Prof. H.) and Prof. E. Cohen, die Bildungsverhalt- nisse der ozeanischen Salzablagerungen, J. H. van’t Hoff and others, 616 Preston (Prof. T.), Prof. W. E. Thrift, Theory of Light: New. Edition, 231 Price (Dr. T. S.), Per-acids and their Salts, 217 Priestley (J.), Statue Unveiled at Birstall, 253 Pringsheim (Dr. E.), die Reizbewegungen der Pflanzen, 483 Pritchard (Dr. E.), Milk, 578 Procter (Prof. H. R., editor), Leather Chemists’ Pocket- book, 360 Proctor (E.), Fish Remains Southall, 227, 350 Proszynski (K.), the Camera, 712 Putnam (Fred. W.), Anniversary Volume in Honour of, 457 Piitter (Prof. A.), Physiology of Aquatic Animals, 395 from a Deep Boring at “Aéroscope” Kinematograph Hand Quénisset (M.), Comet 1912a (Gale), 341 Ouibell (Mr.), Tombs at Sakkara, Egypt, 343 Quiggin (Mrs. A. Hingston), Primeval Man: the Stone Age in W. Europe, 512, 572; Torres Straits Textiles, 518 Nature, ] April 24, 1913 Index Rabot (C.) and E. Muret, Movements of Glaciers, 490 Rainey (P. J.), Photographs of Wild Animals, 547 Raman (C. V.), Maintenance of Vibrations, 367 Ramsay (Sir W., K.C.B., F.R.S.), Elements and Electrons, 567; Presence of Helium in an X-Ray Tube, 653 Ranken (Capt. H. S.), Treatment of Human Trypano- somiasis and Yaws with Antimony, 662 Rastall (R. H.), Mineral Composition of Cambridgeshire Sands and Gravels, 48r Ravasini (Dr. R.), Italian Fig-trees and their Insect Guests, 310 Rayleigh (Lord, O.M., F.R.S.), Wireless Telegraphy : Wave Propagation, 422; Iridiscent Effects formed by a Surface Film on Glass, 422; Atomic Heat of Solids, 423 ; Spectral Series, 424; Breath Figures, 436; Resist- ance of Spheres in Air in Motion, 587; Junctions on Propagation of Electric Waves along Conductors, 612 Raymond (G.), Catalogue of Celestial Objects, 601 Reboul (G.), Influence of Form of Solids on Chemical Actions, 717 Record (Prof. S. J.), Identification of the Economic Woods of the United States, 5r1r Reeves (E. A.), Improvements in Surveying Instruments, 395; Night Marching Watch, 711 Regan (C. Tate), Antarctic Fishes of Scottish Antarctic Expedition, 506 Regny (P. Vinassa de), Libya Italica, 330 Reichardt (Dr. E. Noel), Significance of Ancient Religions, 407 Reid (Prof. H. F.), Earthquake Prediction, 340 Reid (Captain Mayne), “the Naturalist in Siluria,” 260 Reinheimer (H.), Factors of Biological Processes, 397 Rew (R. H., C.B.), the Nation’s Food Supply, 398 Reynolds (Dr. J. E.), Synthesis of a Silical-cyanide and of a Felspar, 401 Reynolds (J. B.), Regional Geography : the World, 330 Reynolds (J. H.), Presidential Address to Association of Technical Institutions, 687 Reynolds (Prof. S. H.), the Vertebrate Skeleton, 699 Rhumbler (Prof. L.), Mechanics of the Cell and of Develop- ment, 451 Ribaud (G.), Spectrum of Magnetic Rotation of Bromine, 325 : Riccd (Prof.), Interrelation of Solar Phenomena, 233 Richer (P.), Descartes’ Skull, 613 Ridley (H. N.), Collection of Plants from Mt. Menuang Gasing, Selangor, 351 Riecke (Prof. E.), Lehrbuch der Physik, 246 Riefler (Dr. S.), Tables of the Weight of Air and of the Gravity g, 565 Righi (Prof. A.), Convection of Ions produced by Magnetic Rays, 91; Emissions of Ions perpendicularly to the Main Discharge, 198; Tonomagnetic Rotation, 230 Ritchie (J. B.), Test of the Law of Torsional Oscillation of Wires and Behaviour of Torsionally Oscillating Wires, 428 Rivers (Dr.), Disappearance of Useful ticnalism in Art, 343 Reaf (Dr. H. E.), Physiology at the British Association, 365; Liberation of Ions and Oxygen Tension of Tissues during Activity, 716 Robertson (R. A.) and Miss Rosalind Crosse, Periodicity in Plants, 428 Robin (A.). Mineral Contents of Cancerous Liver, 630 Robinoff (Dr. M.), Einwirkung yon. Wasser und Natron- lauge auf Baumwollecellulose, 132 Robinson (H. C.), Vertebrate Fauna of Malay Peninsula, G. A. Boulenger, 619 i Robinson (James), Discontinuity in Photoelectric Properties of Thin Metal Films, 425 Robinson (W. H.), Periodical Variations of Velocity of Wind at Oxford, 716 i Reche (Rev. T.), Quadratic Vector Functions, 403 Rogers (Prof. A. K.), Over-specialisation in Higher Educa- tion, 532 Rolleston (Dr. H.), Universities and Medical Education : Address at Manchester University, 167 Rosa, Dorsey and Miller (Messrs.), the International Ampere, «51 Roscoe (Sir Henry), Birthday Presentation, s2r Arts; Conven- Effect of | XV Rose (Laura), Farm Dairying, 131 Rose (Dr. T. K.), Hardness of Coins, 335 Rosenberg (Dr. H.), Temperatures of Stars, 658 Resenhain W.), Impact and Endurance Tests: (Dr. Summary, 628 Resenhain (Dr.) and Mr. Ewen, Intercrystalline Cohesion of Metals, 200 Rosenvinge (Dr. L. K.) and Dr. E. Warming, Botany of Iceland, 645 Ress (Col. Charles, D.S.O.), the Russo-Japanese War, 1904-5, 68 Ross (Mr.), Individual Attention in Rearing Animals, 398 Ross (Dr. F. E.), Latitude Variation, 683 Ross (Dr.), Magnetism of Heusler Alloys, 687 Ross (Sir Ronald, K.C.B., F.R.S.), Further Researches into Induced Cell Reproduction and Cancer, 102; Tropical Medicine, 578 Roth (H. Ling), Oriental Steelyards and Bismars, 22 Rothé (E.), Reception of Wireless Signals by Antenna on the Ground, 428 Routledge (Mr. and Mrs. W. S.), Easter Island Expedition, II Rous (J.), Stokes’ Law and the Charge of an Electron, 507 Rouzet (M.), Portable Apparatus for Wireless Telegraphy on Aéroplanes, 89 ; Rowland-Brown (H.), Butterflies and Moths at Home and Abroad, 488 Roy (M. de), Opacity of Atmosphere in 1912, 683 Royal-Dawson (W. G.), an Effect due to Sudden Great Increase of Pressure, 569 Royds (Dr.), Latitude Distribution of Dark Markings on Ha Spectroheliograms, 658 Rue (E. de la), Prof. J. G. McKendrick, F.R.S., phone Experiments, 306 Ruff (F.), Reference Book for Statical Calculations, Force- diagrams, Tables, &c., for Building and Engineering, 302 Runciman (Mr.), Development Commission, 416 Runge (Prof. C.), Mathematical Training of the Physicist in the University, 5 Russell (Arthur), Minerals from Virtuous Lady Mine near Tavistock, 375 Russell (Dr. A.), Electric Capacity Coefficients of Spheres, Gramo- 401 Russell (A. S.), Excitation of y Rays by a Rays, 463; Penetrating Power of y Rays from Radium C, 480 Russell (A. S.) and R. Rossi, Spectrum of Ionium, 400 Russell (Dr. Edward J.), Soil Conditions and Plant Growth, 215; the Bacterial Theory of Soil Fertility, 541 Rutherford (Prof. E., F.R.S.), Atomic Heat of Solids, 423 ; Origin of Beta and Gamma Rays from Radio-active Substances, 425; a New International Physical Insti- tute, 545 Rutherford (Prof. E.) and H. Robinson, Heating Effects of Radium Emanation, 425 Ryan (H.) and J. Algar, Montanic Acid and its Deriva- tives, 638 Ryan (H.) and Rev. R. Fitzgerald, Identity of Baphinitone with Homopterocarpin, 638 Sabatier (P.), Nobel Prize, 365 Sabatier (P.) and M. Murat, Preparation of the three Cymenes and Menthanes, 613; Direct Addition of Hydrogen to Phenylacetic Esters, 690 Sachs (E. O.), Testing Reinforced Concrete in Britain, 92 Sack (W.), Iniection of Corpus luteum Extract in Rats, 397 Sadler (Wilfrid), Bacteria as Friends and Foes of the Dairy Farmer, 188 Salisbury (R. D.). H. H. Barrows and W. S. Tower, the Elements of Geography, 643 Salmon (Dr. George, F.R.S.), R. A. P. Rogers, a Treatise on the Analytical Geometry of Three Dimensions, 275 Salmon (Prof.), Economic Mycology, 174 Sambon and Chalmers (Drs.), Etiology of Pellagra, 196 Sampson (Prof. R. A.), Calculation of Fields of Telescopic Objectives, 423; Cassegrain Reflector with Corrected Field, 689 Sanderson (E. D.) and Prof. C. F. Jackson, Elementary Entomology, 488 Sands (W. N.), Agriculture on Area devastated by Soufriére Eruption, 474 xvi Index Nature, April 24, 1913 — Sandwith (Dr. F. M.), Sleeping Sickness, 340 Sarasin (Dr. P.), the Swiss National Park, 224 : Sarasola (Rev. S., S.J.), Cienfuegos Meteorological Report, 59 ? Sastri (M. H.), the Cult Ayi Pantha, 508 Saunder (S. A.), Obituary, 415 j Saxton (W. T.), Leaf-spots of Richardia albo-maculata, 128 Schafer (Prof. E. A., F.R.S.), Inaugural Address to the British Association at Dundee, 7; the Mechanistic Con- ception of Life, Dr. J. Loeb, 327; Experimental Physiology, 539; Lack of State Help for British Universities, 661 Scharlieb (Dr. Mary), Adolescent Girls, go Schaumasse (A.), Discovery of a Comet, 1912b, 231, 273, Sheppard (T.), the Lost Towns of the Yorkshire Coast, 643 Schera (Dr. E.), Turbellarians, 660 ; Scherer (J.), Earthquake Distribution in Haiti, 367; Barisal Guns in Haiti, 681 Schidlof (A.) and Mlle. J. Murzynowska, Law of Stokes and Fall of very small Drops, 638 Schloesing (Th., sen.), Measurement of Flowing Water by Chemical Analysis, 273 Schloesing (Th., jun.), Detection of Free White Phosphorus in Phosphorus Sesquisulphide, 507 Schmidt (Dr. J.), Early Larval Stages of Eels, 681 Schneider (Camillo K.), Illustriertes Handbuch der Laub- holzkunde, 511 ‘ Schneider (Prof. Karl C.), Tierpsychologisches Praktikum in Dialogform, 380 Schott (Dr. G. A.), Electromagnetic Radiation and the Mechanical Reactions arising from it: Adams Prize Essay, 301 Schreiner (K. E.), the Oldest Men, 113 Schreiner and Skinner (Messrs.), Action of Coumarin, &c., on Plant Growth, 474 Schubotz (Dr. H.), Scientific Collections of the German Central Africa Expedition, 110 Schultz (L. G.), Weather and the Ultra-violet Radiations of the Sun, 68 Schultze (A.), Teaching of Mathematics Schools, 697 Schwartz (M.) and M. Villatte, Optical Method of Coincid- ences for Transmission of Time, 587 Schwarz (Herr), Quaggas, 391 Schwarz (Prof. E. H. L.), South African Geology, 590 Scott (Captain Robert Falcon, R.N.), Dr. E. A. Wilson, Captain L. E. G. Oates, Lieutenant H. R. Bowers, and Petty Officer Edgar Evans, Death in the Antarctic, 649; Tribute to, 674, 705 Scrivenor (J. B.), Geological History of Malay Peninsula, in Secondary 63 Seagrave (F. E.), Next Return of Encke’s Comet in 1914, 26 Ser (Dr. G. F. C.), Simple Method of determining Viscosity of Air, 402 Semple (Miss E. C.), Effect of Geographical Conditions upon Japanese Agriculture, 318 Senderens (J. B.) and J. Aboulenc, Ethereal Salts derived from the Cyclanols and Acids of the Fatty Series, 377 Senier (Prof. A.), Opening Address to Section B (Chemistry) at the British Association, 43; Phototropy, 321 Seward (Prof. A. C.), Wealden Floras, 350 Seward (Prof.) and N. Bancroft, Jurassic Plants from Cromarty and Sutherland, 506 Sewell (Capt.) and B. L. Chandhuri, Indian Fish Mosquito- destroyers, 685 Shakespear (Lieut.-Col. J.), the Lushei Kuki Clans, 464 Shaw (D. M.), Emission of Particles by Heated Metals, 594 Shaw (Dr. P. E.), a Standard Measuring Machine, 349 Shaw (Dr. W. N., F.R.S.), Meteorology and Agriculture, 369; L. P. Teisserenc de Bort, 519; Ascent of the Italian Balloon Albatross, 673 Shearer (Dr. C.), Development of Pomatoceros, 449 Sheavyn (Miss), Civil Service Higher Grade Posts Women, 583 Sherrington (Prof. C. S.), Reciprocal Innervation and Symmetrical Muscles, 636; Nervous Rhythm arising from Rivalry between Reflexes, 716 Shinjo (S.), the s-Term in Latitude Variation, Simmons (A. T.) and E. Stenhouse, Class Book Geography, 157 and 232 of Physical Simpson (Prof. F. M.), Plans for Pharmacological Labora- tory, 420 Simpson (Dr. G. C.), Atmospheric Electricity, 411 Simpson (Dr. J. Y.), Spiritual Interpretation of Nature, 695 Sinclair (James) and G. W. M’Allister, First Year’s Course of Chemistry, 217 Sinel (J.), Antiquity of Neolithic Man, 70 Sirear (A. Chandra), Possible Chemical Method of Dis- tinguishing between Seasoned and Unseasoned Teak Wood, 213 Skeat (Prof. W. W.), Death, 169 Slade (R. E.), Electric Furnace for Experiments in vacuo at Temperatures up to 1500° C., gor Slade (R. E.) and F. D. Farrow, Dissociation Pressures and Melting Points of the System Copper-Cuprous Oxide, 401 Sladen (F. W. L.), the Humble-bee, 252 Slocum (Dr.), Attraction of Sun-spots for Prominences, 525 Smith (Adolphe), Cholera Menace, 90 Smith (C.), Optical Properties of Substances at the Critical Point, 349 Smith (Prof. D. E.), Mathematical Teaching in Secondary Schools, 6 ri Smith (Edgar A.), Presentation to, 390 Smith (E. F.) and Misses Brown and McCulloch, Crown Gall, 314 Smith (Prof. G. Elliot, F.R.S.), Opening Address to Section H, British Association, 118; Ancient Stone Monuments, 243; Royal Medal, 337; Megalithic Monu- ments, 343; Bodies from Early Egyptian Tombs, 343 Smith (Dr. G. F. H.), Apparatus for Preparing Thin Rock Sections, 376; Graphical Determinations of Angles and Indices in Zones, 612 Smith (G. W.) and Dr. E. H. J. Schuster, Land Crayfishes of Australia, 453 Smith (Harlan I.). and W. J. Wintemberg, Archzelogical Explorations, 391 Smith (Leigh) and Novaya Zemlya (W. H. R. van Manen), Canadian 544 Smith (P. S.) and H. M. Eakin, Geology of Seward Penin- sula, Alaska, 659 Smith (Dr. R. Greig), Soil-fertility, 665 Smith (S.), the Genus Aulophyllum, 427 Smith (Dr. S. W. J.), Thermomagnetic Study of Steel, 375 Smith (S. W. J.) and H. Moss, Resistance of Electrolytes, 637 Smith (T. Alford), a Geography of Europe, 157 c Smith (T. F.), Photographs of Secondary of Diatom Valve, 258 Smith (Dr. Theodate L.), the Montessori System, 486 Smith (W. Johnson), Dr. A. Chaplin, Medical and Surgical Help for Shipmasters, 645 Soddy (F., F.R.S.), Matter and Energy, 187; Apparatus for Curves of Radio-active Changes, 425; Interpretation of Radium, 671 Soergel (Dr. W.), das Aussterben diluvialer Saugetiere, 622 Sold (J. Comas), Corona at Solar Eclipse of April 17, 20 Sollas (I. B. J.), Onychaster, 635 Solvay (Ernest), founds an International Physical Institute, 545 Somers (Miss A.), Attainment of a Steady State when Heat Diffuses along a Moving Cylinder, 375 Sommer (H. Oskar), the Vulgate Version of the Arthurian Romances, 328 Sommerfeld (Prof.), Surface Waves in Wireless Telegraphy, 422 Sorley (Prof.), A. D. Lindsay, Mechanical Law and Pur- pose, 278 Southwell (R. V.), General Theory of Elastic Stability, 636 Speight (R.), Post-glacial Climate of Canterbury, N.Z., 446 Stanley (F.), Lines in the Arc Spectra of Elements, 219 Stark (Prof. J.), Prinzipien der Atomdynamik, 100 Stead (Dr. J. E.), Sound Ingots, 317 Steinmann (Prof. G.), Origin of Asymmetry in Cetacea, 286 Stephens (Dr. J. W. W.) and Dr. B. Blacklock, Non- identity of Trypanosoma brucei with T. of Uganda Ox, 636 Stephenson (H. H.), Ceramic Chemistry, 457; Who’s Who in Science, 619 Stevens (Neil E.), Cytology of Heterostyled Plants, 171 Stevenson (T.), Chrysanthemums, 248 Nature, | Afprid 24, 1913 Index XVI Stewart (Dr. H. L.), Questions of the Day in Philosophy and Psychology, 695 Stieglitz (Prof. J.), Elements of Qualitative Chemical Analysis, 431 Stiles (Prof. P. G.), Nutritional Physiology, 668 Stock (Prof.) and Dr. G. E. Gibson, Dissociation of Phos- phorus Vapour, 319 Stormer (Carl), Studies of Aurora, 38; Origin of Planets and Satellites, 428; Theorem on Trajectories of Elec- trified Corpuscles in the Field of a Magnet and Applications in Cosmic Physics, 717 Stohr (F. O.), Sleeping Sickness in the Katanga, 337 Stoian (P.), Possible Changes of a Lunar Hill, 629 Stoklasa (Prof.), Presidential Address to International Con- gress for Radiology at Prague, 336; Radio-activity and Plant Development, 428; Influence of Uranium and Lead on Vegetation, 587 Stopes (Dr. Marie C.), the “Fern Ledges” of New Bruns- wick, 210; Petrifactions of the Earliest European Angiosperms, 436 Strasburger (Dr. E.), Dr. Jost, Dr. Schenk, and Dr. Karsten, Prof. W. H. Lang, F.R.S., a Text-book of Botany, 693 Stratton (F. J. M.), Is the Earth Shrinking? 251; Later Spectrum of Nova Geminorum, No. 2, 454 Stromeyer (C. E.), Costs of Fuel or Oil under Boilers and Exploding of Gas in Engines, 287; Is the Earth Shrinking? 335 Strong (W. W.), Electric Precipitation of Matter in Gases, 139 Stroobant (Prof. P.), Distribution of Spectroscopic Double Stars on the Celestial Sphere, 586, 710; les Progrés Récents de 1’Astronomie, 670 Strutt (Hon. R. J.), Absorption of Helium and other Gases under the Electric Discharge, 349; Duration of Luminosity of Electric Discharge, 612 Stubbs (C. M.), Emissivity of Copper and Silver at High Temperatures, 636 Sturgis (Dr. W. C.), Guide to Botanical Literature of Myxomycetes, 579 Stissmilch (C. A.), Introduction to the Geology of New South Wales, 590 Sutcliffe (W. H.), Pigmy Flint Implements, 312 Sutton (Dr. J. R.), Meteorology of Kimberley, 403 Suzuki (Prof. U.) and S. Matsunaga, Nicotinic Acid with Oryzenin in Rice Bran, 709 Swann (Dr. W. F. G.), Increase of Conductivity of Paraffin Wax with Field, 422 Swanton (E. W.), Mary K. Spittal, British Plant-galls, 488 Swift (Lewis), Death, 522 Swingle (W. T.), Slow Artificial Ripening of the Deglet- nour Date, 127 Swinton (A. A. C.), an Electrical Phenomenon, 621 Sylvester (J. J., F.R.S.), Collected Mathematical Papers, 379 Symonds (W. P.), Nautical Astronomy, 617 Tait (Prof. P. G.), Proposed Memorial, 256 Talbot (P. A.), Southern Nigeria, 395 Tanret (G.), Stachyose in the Bean, 507 Tardieu (G.), les Alpes de Provence: Guide du Touriste, du Naturaliste et de 1’Archéologue, 329 Tarr (Prof. R. S.), Alaskan Glacial Features, 445 Tate (Prof. W.), Obituary, 707 Tayler (J. L.), the Nature of Woman, 695 Taylor (Duncan), Composition of Matter and Evolution of Mind, 216 Taylor (F. Noel), Main Drainage of Towns, 133 Taylor (Dr. F. W.) and S. E. Thompson, Concrete Costs, 302 Tegetmeier (W. B.), Death, 338 Teilhard (Rev. P.) and Rev. F. Pelletier, S.J., Wealden Fossil Collection, 111 Temple (Rev. W.) and P. E. Matheson, the Workers’ Educational Association, 526 Teodoresco (E. C.), Influence of Temperature on Nuclease, 127 Terada (T.), Velocity of Earthquake Waves and Yielding of the Earth’s Crust, 579 Termier (P.), Alpine Excursion of the Geologische Vereinigung, 272 Teubner (B. G.), Cheap Scientific and Literary Series, 287 Thayer (A. H.), Cryptic and Protective Coloration in Animals, 196 Theiler (Dr. A., C.M.G.), Stock Diseases in S. Africa: Address, 475 Thenen (Dr. S.), Zur Phylogenie der Primulaceenblite, 381 Theobald (Prof.), Economic Zoology, 174 Thiele (L. A.), Manufacture of Gelatine, 190 Thoday (D.), Apparatus for Analysing Small Volumes of Air, 690 Thole (F. B.), Second Year Course of Organic Chemistry for Technical Institutes: the Carbocyclic Compounds, 217 Thomas (Edward), Norse Tales, 102 Thomas (Rose Haig), Eggs of Phasianus versicolor, P. formosus, and of a Cross, 350 Thomas (H. H.), Fossil Flora of Cleveland District of Yorkshire, 663 Thompson (Dr. Ashburton), Leprosy in New South Wales, 366 Thompson (C.), Derived Cephalopoda of Holderness Drift, 663 Thompson (Prof. D’Arcy), Herbert Spencer Lecture, 680 Thompson (J. M’L.), Floral Zygomorphy, 664. Thompson (Prof. S. P., F.R.S.), Extraordinary Image formed by an Unaxial Crystal, 422 Thomson (A. L.), Bird-marking by Foot Ring, 450 Thomson (G.), Modern Sanitary Engineering: Part i., House Drainage, 484 Thomson (Prof. James, F.R.S.), Collected Papers in Physics and Engineering, selected, &c., by Sir J. Larmor, Sec.R.S., and James Thomson, Prof. J. Perry, F.R.S., 563 Thomson (J. Arthur), Heredity, 671 Thomson (Sir J. J., O.M., F.R.S.), Multiply Charged Atoms, 5; Appearance of Helium and Neon in Vacuum Tubes, 645; Applications of Positive Rays to Study of Chemical Problems, 663 Thomson and Sinton (Drs.), Trypanosoma gambiense and T. rhodesiense, 313 Thorndike (Prof. E. L.), Education, 407 Thornton (Prof.), Gaseous Explosions, 498 Tibbles (Dr. Wm.), Foods: their Origin, Composition, and Manufacture, 357 Tiffeneau (M.) and H. Bosquet, Réle of Caffeine in Diuretic Action of Coffee, 299 Tillyard (R. J.), New Australian Agrionidz, 98; Australian Anisoptera and New Species, 455; New Species of Nannophlebia, 665 Tobler (Dr. F.), Ivy, 418 Topsent (Prof. E.), Antarctic Porifera, 507 Tower (W. L.), Heredity : Chrysomelid Beetles, 458 Townsend (C. H.), the Northern Elephant Seal, 164 Trabert (Prof. W.), Lehrbuch der kosmischen Physik, E. Gold, 356 Trabut (M.), Chlorosis of Citrus, 613 Traquair (Dr. Ramsay H., F.R.S.), Obituary, 363 Trechmann (C. T.), Mass of Anhydrite in Limestone at Hartlepool, 637 Tregarthen (J. C.), the Story of a Hare, 670 Tremearne (Major A. J. N.), Rev. J. Martin, West African Fetish Practices, 57 Tribondeau (L.), Plant Reaction, 639 Trow (Prof. A. H.), Inheritance in Groundsel, 708 Triimpler (R.), Photographic Transit Observations, 629 Truscott (S. J.), Modern Mine Valuation, M. H. Burnham, 460 Tucker (A. E.), Joining of Non-ferrous Metals, 199 Tucker (W. S.), Electrical Conductivity and Fluidity of Strong Solutions, 637 Turner (Prof. H. H., F.R.S.), Seismic Periodicity, 369, 426; Similarity between Variations of S Persei and of Sun-spots, 454 Turner (Sir Wm., K.C.B., F.R.S.), Prussian Ordre pour le Mérite, 56; Right Whale of the N. Atlantic, Balaena biscayensis, 454; Portrait presented to Edinburgh University, 689 Extracts in the Wassermann XVIIl Tutton (Dr. A. E. H., F-R.S.), the Crystal Space-Lattice revealed by Réntgen Rays, Dr. M. Laue, 306 Tyrrell (G. W.), Alkaline Igneous Rocks of Ayrshire, 210 Valentine (C. S.), the Beginner in Poultry, 486 Valentine (Dr. C. W.), Horizontal-vertical Illusion, 397 Valentine (E. S.), Forfarshire, 643 Valier (Max), Brooks’s Comet, 526 Van Slyke (Dr. L. L.), Fertilisers and Crops, 131 Verworn (Prof. Max), Physiological Basis of Memory, 396; Kausale und konditionale Weltanschauung, 698 Very (Prof.), High-level Measurement of Solar Radiation, | 710 Vignon (L.), Fractional Distillation of Coal, 507 Viljev (M.), Westphal’s Comet, 683 Villamil (Lieut.-Col. R. de), A B C of Hydrodynamics, 275 Villavecchia (Prof. V.), Dizionario di Merceologia e di Chimica Applicata, 699 Vincent (H.), Active Immunisation of Man against Typhoid Fever, 30; Action of Polyvalent Antityphoid Vaccine in Latent Infection by the Eberth Bacillus, 273 ; Diagnosis of Typhoid Fever by Spleen Reaction, 351 Vincent (M.), Upper Air Investigations in Belgium, 474 Vincent (Prof. Swale), Internal Secretion and the Ductless Glands, 569 Violle (J.), Effect of niagara Lightning Conductors on Telegraph Wires, 717 Voth (H. R.), the Oraibi Marriage Ceremony, 630 Vries (Prof. H. de), Mutation Theory, 656 Wace and Thompson (Messrs.), Excavations in Achaia Phthiotis, 343 Wada (Takeo), Definition of a Curve, 551 Wada (Dr. Y.), Circular Currents in Sea of Japan, 550; Earthquake Distribution in the Korea, 627 Wade and Knox Shaw (Messrs.), Latitude of Helwan Observatory, 141 Wahl (Dr. W.), Optical Investigation of Solidified Gases, 400 Walker (E. E.), Solutions, 690 Walker (G. W.), Turkish Earthquake of September 13, 163 ; Construction for Epicentre of an Earthquake, 309; New Analytical Expression for Components of Diurnal Magnetic Variation, 636 Walker (J.), Aspergillosis in the Ostrich, 403 Walker (Dr. Jane), Common Sense: Address to London School of Medicine for Women, 167 Wallach (Prof. O.), awarded Medal by Royal Society, 388 Waller (Prof. A. D., F.R.S.), Nerves in an Elephant Trunk, 397; the Electro-cardigram and the Pulse, 397 Wallis (B. C.), a First Book of General Geography, 329 Ward (Prof. J.), Heredity and Memory, 656 Ward (Rowland), Obituary Note, 491; Will, 576 Warren (Prof. T. Herbert), Nature in Roman Literature, Sir A. Geikie, K.C.B., P.R.S., 185 Waterhouse (C. O.), D. Sharp, F.R.S., Index Zoologicus No. II., 569 Watson (Col. Sir C. M., K.C.M.G., C.B.), Opening Address to Section E (Geography), British Association, 81 Watson (D. M. S.), Larger Coal Measure Amphibia, 298 Watson (H. E.), Electric Discharge in Helium and Neon, 402 Watson (Messrs.), Microscope Improvements, 495 Watson (Prof. W., F.R.S.), Intermediate Physics, 246 Watson (W.), Flowers in January, 622 Watt (A.), Rainfall of Scotland, 289; Rainfall, Tempera- ture, and Crops in Forfarshire, 369 Watt (Dr. H. J.), Mind and Body, 396 Watts (Prof. W. W., F.R.S.), Coal Supply of Britain, 113 Watts (Rev. W. W.), the Ferns of Lord Howe Island, 98 Weberbauer (Prof. A.), die Vegetation der Erde: XII., die peruanischen Anden, 405 Webster (Prof. A. G.), Wireless Signal Propagation, 422 Wedderburn (E. M.), Temperature of Madiisee and Loch Earn, 369 Wedekind (Prof.), Magnetic Properties of Compounds and Stoichiometric Composition, 686 Wegener (Dr. A.), Thermodynamik der Atmosphare, 31 Weir (J.), the Energy System of Matter, 187 Weiss (Prof. F. E.), Root-apex and Young Root of Lygino- dendron, 506 Index Nature, April 24, 1913 Welby (the late Victoria Lady), Biographer’s Appeal for Letters, 365 Wellcome (H. S.), Excavations in Southern Sudan, 343 Wells (S. R.) and L. Hill, Influence of Resilience of Arterial Wall, 662 Wendell (Prof.), Nova Geminorum No. 2, 580 Westaway (F. W.), Scientific Method: its Philosophy and its Practice, 277 Whetham (W. C. D., F.R.S., and the Human Mind, 695 Whiddington (R.), R6ntgen Radiation Particles traversing a Gas, 402 Whipple (R. S.), Féry Bomb Calorimeter, 498 White (Miss), Wind and Temperature at Glossop Moor Upper Air Station, 369 ; White (Sir Wm. H., K.C.B., F.R.S.), the Place of Mathe- matics in Engineering Practice : Lecture at Cambridge, and Catherine D.), Science from Kathode 4, 95 White (W. H.), a Handbook of Physics, 567 Whitehead (Dr. A. N.), Principles of Mathematics in Relation to Elementary Teaching, 5 Whitehead (Sir C.), Death, 390 Whitney (W.), F. C. Lucas, H. B. Shinn, and Mabel E. Smallwood, a Guide for the Study of Animals, 245 Whymper (R.), Cocoa and Chocolate: their Chemistry and Manufacture, 357 Wieland (Dr. C. R.), Fossil Cycads, 314 Wilde (Dr. H., F.R.S.), Searchlights for the Mercantile Marine, 471 Williams (Dr. C. Theodore, M.V.O.), Obituary, 439 Williamson (R. W.), the Mekeo People of New Guinea, 324 Williston (Prof. S. W.), American Permian Vertebrates, 160, 215 Wilson (Dr. E. A.), Death in the Antarctic, 649 674 Wilson (Prof. E. B.) and G. N. Lewis, Space-time Manifold of Relativity, 600 Wilson (Dr. F. J.) and Dr. I. M. Theory and Calculations, 217 Wilson (Prof. H. A., F.R.S.), Electrical Flames and of Incandescent Solids, 694 Wilson (Prof. J.), Unsound Mendelian Developments, 454 Wilson (J.), Developments of National Education, 526 Winter (Prof. Thomas), Obituary, 27, 40 Wolf (Prof. Max), Influence of Spectrum Cosmic Problems, 443 Wood (Francis), Modern Road Construction, 100 Wood (H. E.), Orbit of Comet 1912a (Gale), 172; Photo- graphy of, 561 Wood (Dr. J. K.), Leucine and similar Amphoteric Sub- stances, 321 Wood (J. T.), Puering, Bating, and Drenching of Skins, Heilbron, Chemical Properties of Analysis on 130 Woodhouse (E. J.) and T. B. Fletcher, Catching Moth Pests in India, 528 Woodruff (E. G.), Wyoming Oil Fields, 659 Weodruff (L. L.), Pedigreed Culture of the Infusorian Paramoecium aurelia, 171 Woods (Dr. F. Adams), Alternative Heredity of Mental Traits, 317 Woolley (C. L.) and Lord Carnarvon, Excavation at Beacon Hill, 708 ; Worcester (D. C.), Head Hunters of N. Luzon, 229 Worthington (Prof. A. M., C.B., F.R.S.), the Water-surface “Halo,” 647 Wright (Sir A. E.), Handbook of the Teat and Capillary Glass Tube, and its Applications in Medicine and Bacteriology, 218 Wundt (Prof. W.), Psychology, 216 Wylly (Col. H. C., C.B.), From the Black Mountain to Waziristan, 464 Dr. R. Pintner, Introduction to Yabuta (T.), New Acid (“Koji”) formed by Aspergillus Fungus, 709 Yokoyama (M.), Pliocene, 446 Young (Prof. W. H., F.R.S.), New Theory of Integration, 612; Formation of usually Convergent Fourier Series, 636 Climatic Changes in Japan since the Zammarchi (Prof.), Perseids of August 12, 1912, 232 Nature, April 24, 1913 Index SUB/EGi Aberration Constant, Prof. Doolittle, 199 Akors, an Expedition among the, Rev. Fr. N. Krick, 64; Abor Zoological Expedition, 440 Absorption of Gases in Vacuum Tubes, S. E. Hill, 298; Absorption of Helium under Electric Discharge, Hon. R. J. Strutt, 349; Photography of Absorption Spectra, T. R. Merton, 682 A-ch’ang Tribe of Yunnan. J. C. Brown, 665 Adrenaline and Glycemia, H. Bierry and Mlle. Fandard, 691 Adrenin, Action of, on Veins, J. A. Gunn and F. B. Chavasse, 662 Aérodynamics, Experimental Studies, G. Eiffel, 677 Aéronautics: Avanzini’s Work on Pressure of Fluids on Planes, Col. de Villamil, 91; Sailing Flight of Birds, Prof. E. H. Hall, 161; F. W. Headley, 220; Surfaces of Revolution of Minimum Resistance, Dr. E. J. Miles, 286; Dynamics of Mechanical Flight, Sir G. Greenhill, Prof. G. H. Bryan, F.R.S., 535; Resistance of Spheres in Air in Motion, G. Eiffel, 561, Lord Rayleigh, 587; Exhibition at S. Kensington, 602; Experiments, G. Eiffel, 677; International Aéro Exhibition at Olympia, 702 Aéroplanes: Danger of Monoplanes with Rotary Engines, 89; Aéroplane Stability, Prof. C. Mataix, 92; Biplane versus Monoplane, 106; Velocity Formula, A. Berget, 351; Prize Offered for Security, L. Lecornu, 664; Invention for Automatic Control, M. Moreau, 709 Aéroscope Kinematograph Hand Camera, K. Proszynski, 712 Africa: the West Coast of Africa: Diary of Rev. J. Martin, 57; Scientific Collections of the German Central Africa Expedition, Dr. H. Schubotz, Sir H. H. Johnston, G.C.M.G., K.C.B., 110; Victoria Nyanza to Kisii, Dr. F. Oswald, 493 Africa, South: Physical Geography for S. African Schools, Spee NOI eiOita sts Pillars, Dr. L. Péringuey, 403; Catalogue of Serials in certain Institutions, 434; Stock Diseases: Address, Dr. A. Theiler, C.M.G., 475 Agricultural Development Commission: 416, 472, 486, 713 Agriculture: Agriculture in India, 115, 528; Fertilisers and Crops, Dr. L. L. Van Slyke, 131; Experimental Work at the South-Eastern Agricultural College, 174; Micro- biology for Agricultural Students, Prof. C. E. Marshall; Bacteria as Friends and Foes of the Dairy Farmer, W. Sadler, both Prof. R. T. Hewlett, 188; Part played by Minor Constituents of Plants, Prof. G. Bertrand, Prof. Morgan, 194; Soil Conditions and Plant Growth, Dr. E. J. Russell, 215;° Influence of Geographical Conditions upon Japanese Agriculture, Miss E. C. Semple, 318; Cocoa: its Cultivation and Preparation, W. H. Johnson, 357; University of Bristol, 373; Royal Agricultural Society: Annual Meeting, 417; Russian Agriculture, Dr. J. V. Eyre, 419; Tree Planting at Woburn, Dr. S. Pickering, 419; the Beginner in Poultry. C. S. Valentine, 486; Determination of Experimental Error in Field Trials, Prof. Lyon, 549; Laboratory Manual of Agriculture for Secondary Schools. Prof. L. E. Call and E. G. Schafer, 569; Agriculture in Japan, 709; Agricultural Education, Board Development Grants: Report, Prof. T. H. Middleton, 713; see also British Association Air Currents, Sato Junichi, 286; Method of Deter- mining Viscosity of Air, Dr. G. F. C. Searle, 402; Tables of the Weight of Air, Dr. S. Riefler, 565 Alaskan Glaciers, Prof. R. S. Tarr, 445 7 Alga, Rare Fresh-water, found by F. L. M’Keever, 286 Algebra: a New Algebra, S. Barnard and J. M. Child, 275; Notes on Algebra, A. F. van der Heyden, 697; Higher Algebra for Colleges and Secondary Schools, Dr. C. Davison, 697 7 Alkaloids : Carpiline, a New Allaloid from Jaborandi, E. Léger and F. Roques, 428; Destruction of Alkaloids by Body Tissues, A. J. Clark, 523 Allotropy, Mr. Benedicks, 317 Air: Portuguese Commemorative | INDEX. Alloys: Oxides as Impurities, E. F. Law, 199; Inversion in Copper-zinc Alloys at 470° C., Prof. H. C. H. Carpenter, 199; Nomenclature, Dr. W. Rosenhain, 390; Volatilisation of Binary Alloys in High Vacua, A. J. Berry, 402; Thermo-electric Properties of the System Iron-Nickel-Carbon, L. Dupuy and A. Portevin, 428; Ailoys of Aluminium with Vanadium Alloys, N. Czako, 587; Deformation of Plastic Alloys, A. Portevin, 638; Magnetic Properties, Dr. Gumlich, Messrs. Colvert-Glauert and Hilpert, Prof. Wedekind, others, 686; Heusler Alloys, 687 Alps: les Alpes de Provence, G. Tardieu, 329; the Building of the Alps, Prof. T. G. Bonney, F.R.S., 703 Aluminium, Action of Active, on Alkaloidal Extracts, E. K. Abrest, 429 American: Income of American Colleges, 61; Transactions of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 190; American Association for Advancement of Science: Programme, 416, Cleveland Meeting, 581, Next Steps in Botanical Science: Address, Prof. C. E. Bessey, 607; American Anthropology, Rev. J. Griffith, 457 Amphibia: Larger Coal Measure Amphibia, D. M. S. Watson, 298; Herpetologia Europza, Dr. Schreiber, 339 Anesthesia by Digestive Canal rejected, R. Dubois, 613 and Analysis, Elementary Quantitative, Dr. W. Briggs and H. W. Bausor, 217 Anatomy: Anthropologie Anatomique, Dr. G. _ Paul- Boncour, 33; Intercalated Discs of Heart Muscle, H. E. Jordan and K. B. Steele, 492 Ancient: Report of Committee on Ancient Earthworks, 229; Ancient Stone Monuments, Prof. G. Elliot Smith, F.R.S., 243; Protection of Ancient Monuments, C. R. Peers, 490 Angiosperms, Petrifactions of the Earliest European, Dr. Marie C. Stopes, 436 Animal Intelligence, Evolution of, Prof. S. J. Holmes, 160; Animal Life: Legends of our Little Brothers, Lilian Gask, 331 Anisoptera, Australian, R. J. Tillyard, 455 Annelids, New Species, Rev. H. Friend, Henleas, Rev. H. Friend, 401 Antarctic : Journey to the South Pole, Capt. R. Amundsen, 341; the South Pole, Capt. Roald Amundsen, A. G. Chater, Dr. H. R. Mill, 515; Amphipoda of the Scottish Expedition, Prof. C. Chilton, 392; Antarctic Fishes, C. T. Regan, 506; German Expedition, 548; Antarctic Biology and Rocks, 572; British Antarctic Expedition, 649, Tribute to the Dead Explorers, 674, Geological Results, 675, 705; Australian Expedition : Loss of Lieut. Ninnis and Dr. Mertz, 705 Anteaters, Long-beaked, from New Guinea, Mr. Pocock, 469 Anthropology : the Story of “Eight Deer” in Codex Colom- bino, J. Cooper Clark, 32; Anthropologie Anatomique, Dr. G. Paul-Boncour, 33; West Africa, Diary of Rev. J. Martin, 57; the Mouthless Indians of Megasthenes, Rev. H. Hosten, 63; Antropologia Generale, Prof. E. Morselli, 67; Antiquity of Neolithic Man, J. Sinel, 70, A. L. Leach, 134; the Oldest Men, K. E. Schreiner, 113; White Eskimos, D. MacRitchie, 133; Human Jaw of Palzolithic Age from Kent’s Cavern, A. R. Hunt, 134, 190, Prof. A. Keith, 135, E. A. Parkyn, 281; Kent’s Cavern, W. J. L. Abbott, 382; Descartes’ Skull, E. Perrier, 183; Prehistoric Man, Prof. A. Keith, 257; Fossil Remains on S. American Coast, Dr. Ameghino, 278; Fourteenth International Congress: Homo neanderthalensis, Prof. M. Boule; Italy and Central Europe during the Bronze Age, Prof. O. Montélius; Cave Man, Prof. Cartailhac; Castillo Cave, Abbé Breuil, &c., 290; Steatopygy in Mediterranean Races, 366; Discovery of Human Skull (Early Pleistocene ?) near Lewes, C. Dawson, 390; Palzolithic Man in Sussex: Mr. C. Dawson’s Discovery, 438; the Lushei Kuki Clans, Lieut.-Col. J. Shakespear, 464; From thé British DL2 XX Index Nature, April 24, 1913 Black Mountain to Waziristan, Col. H. C. Wylly, C.B., 464; Malta and the Mediterranean Race, R. N. Bradley, 464; Putnam Anniversary Volume, by Friends and Associates of F. W. Putnam, Rev. J. Griffith, 457 ; Homo Sapiens, Dr. Giuffrida-Ruggeri, 483; Primeval Man: the Stone Age in W. Europe, Mrs. A. H. Quiggin, Rev. J. Griffith, 512, 572; Notes and Queries on Anthropology, Barbara Freire-Marreco and Prof. J. L. Myres, 566; Polynesian Wanderings, Prof. J. M. Brown, 599; die steinzeitliche Technik und ihre Beziehungen zur Gegenwart, Dr. Ludwig Pfeiffer, 622 ; das Aussterben diluvialer Saugetiere und die Jagd des diluvialen Menschen, Dr. W. Soergel, 622; der Derfflinger Hiigel bei Kalbsrieth, Armin Moller, 622 ; Migrations between Australia and America, H. Hallier, 660; see also British Association Anthropometry : Committee for Unification of Anthropo- metric Measurements, 137; International Rules for Measurements, 338; Data collected in Maldive Islands by Dr. S. Gardiner, Dr. Duckworth, 376; Changes in Bodily Form of Descendants of Immigrants, 667 Antiseptic Action of Salt and Sugar, L. Lindet, 273 Aorta and Trachea in Warm-blooded Animals, G. Dreyer and others, 479 Archzology : General: Bronze Age Pottery, Hon. J. Abercrombie, Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.R.S., 2; Chiriquian Antiquities, Prof. G. G. MacCurdy, Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.R.S., 73; International Archzological Congress at Rome, 169; Ancient Stone. Monuments, Prof. G. Elliot Smith, F.R.S., 243; Palzolithic Clay Figures, Count Begouen, 283 ; Fourteenth International Congress of Anthropology and Prehistoric Archeology at Geneva, 290; les Alpes de Provence, G. Tardieu, 329; Prehistoric Period in S. Africa, J. P. Johnson, 340; the Metals in Antiquity, Prof. W. Gowland, F.R.S., 344; Canada, Harlan I. Smith and others, 391; African Stone Implements, C. W. Hobley, 469; Cave Drawings in Southern Europe, Abbé Breuil and others, 492; “Primeval Man,” Mrs. A. Hingston Quiggin, Rev. J. Griffith, 512, 572; Annual of the British School at Athens, 565; Rough Stone Monuments and their Builders, T. E. Peet, 566; Lens or Burning Glass from Sargon’s Palace, J. Phin, 571; the Oak, C. Mosley, Rev. J. Griffith, 589; Lifts in Imperial Palace in Ancient Rome, Prof. Boni, 709 British : Implements of Man in the Chalky Boulder Clay, Rev. Dr. A. Irving, 3; Excavations at Maumbury Rings, Dorchester, 112; Prehistoric Mural Decorations in Bacon’s Hole, S. Wales, Abbé Breuil, 195; Red Bands in Bacon’s Hole, 256; Report of Committee on Ancient Earthworks, 229; the Sub-Crag Flint Imple- ments, Sir E. Ray Lankester, K.C.B., F.R.S., 249; Byways in British Archeology, Walter Johnson, A. E. Crawley, 301; the Vulgate Version of Arthurian Romances, H. Oskar Sommer, Rev. J. Griffith, 328; Making of a Rostro-carinate Flint Implement, J. Reid Moir, 334; Worked Flints from the Raised Beach in Co. Down, H. Home, 361; Cornwall Megalithic Monu- ments, E. and P. Jeanselme, 366; What the British Caves might tell us (ve Kent’s Cavern), W. J. L. Abbott, 382; Protection of Ancient Monuments, C. R. Peers, 490; Beacon Hill in Hampshire, C. L. Woolley, 708 See also British Association : Anthropology Architecture : Analysis of the Church of St. Mary, Cholsey, Berkshire, Prof. F. J. Cole, Rev. J. Griffith, 539 Arctic: Erichsen’s Maps of Greenland, 258; Zoological Reports of the Duc d’Orléans Expedition, 314; Disaster to German Spitsbergen Expedition, 548; Capt. Mikkel- sen’s Expedition to N.E. Greenland, 548 Argon, Rectilinear Diameter of, MM. Mathias, Onnes, and Crommelin, 587 Aristotelian Society, Proceedings of the, 277 Arithmetic : Examples in Arithmetic, H. S. Hall and F. H. Stevens, 275; Exercises in Modern Arithmetic, H. S. Jones, 697 Arterial Degeneration, Dr. Andrewes, 703 Arthurian Romances, the Vulgate Version of the, H. O. Sommer, Rev. J. Griffith, 329 Ascidians, Dr. W. G. van Name, 528 * Ash of the Plantain, D. Hooper, 508 Aspergillus niger: Action of Zinc and Cadmium on, C. Lepierre, 613; Formation of Urea by, R. Fosse, 613 Association of Technical Institutions, 687 Astronomical Annuals, 580 Astronomical Society, Leeds, 93 Astronomy : Aberration Constant, Prof. Doolittle, 199 Cassegrain Reflector with Corrected Field, Prof. R. A. Sampson, 689 Comets: Orbits, Prof. Strémgren, 60; Comets due in 1913, H. P. Hollis, 552; Medal offered by the Astro- nomical Society of Mexico, 597; Encke’s Comet’s next Return, F. E. Seagrave, 526; Finlay’s Comet’s next Return, G. Fayet, 613, 628; Comet 1852 iv (Westphal), M. Viljev, 683 ; Comet 1910a, Orbit, S. Mello e Simas, 420; Comet 1911c (Brooks), MM. de la B. Pluvinel and Baldet, 29, Max Valier, 526; Comet 1912a (Gale), 60, 92, 198, 260, 272, 341, 394, 561, 628; Spectrum, P. Idrac, 324; Orbit, Dr. Ebell, 114, 141, 172, 232, 495; H. E. Wood, Mr. Merfield, 172; Comet 1912b (Schaumasse), identical with Tuttle’s Periodic Comet, 231, 273; Orbit and Identity, G. Fayet and others, 141, 260, 288, 299, 341; Comet 1912¢ (Borrelly), 288, 315, 325, 341, 351, 369; Orbit, Prof. Kobold, 443 “Companion to the Observatory,” 526 Cosmic Physics, Prof. W. Trabert, E. Gold, 356; Influ- ence of Spectrum Analysis on Cosmical Problems, Prof. Max Wolf, 443; Theorem on Trajectories of Electrified Corpuscles, C. St6rmer, 717 Fiction: “Their Winged Destiny,” D. W. Horner, 160; “The Triuneverse,” 216 Gazette Astronomique, 420 Gravitation: New Theory, Prof. Jaumann, 579 Interstellar Absorbing Medium and Solar Motion, Prof. W. H. Pickering, 368 Latitude: of Helwan Observatory, Messrs. Wade and Knox Shaw, 141; Physical Cause of the s-term in Latitude Variation, S. Shinjo, 232; Latitude Variation and Mean Sea-level, Dr. F. Omori, 471; Latitude Variation: the Kimura Term, 683 Meteors: Perseid Shower, W. F. Denning, 93; Perseids of August 12, 1912, Prof. Zammarchi, 232; Meteoric Fall in France, 115 ; Shower of Meteoric Stones, W. M. Foote, 420; Bright Meteor reported, 494 Milky Way, the Dark Structures in the, Rev. T. E. Espin, 316; Integrated Spectrum of the Milky Way, Dr. Fath, 551 Moon: Possible Changes of a Lunar Hill, P. Stoian, 629 Nautical Astronomy, W. P. Symonds, 617 Nebulz and Clusters photographed with the Lick Crossley Reflector, 341 Observatory, Opening of the New Allegheny, 89 Photographic Equatorials, Orientation of, E. Esclangon, 272; Photographic Transit Observations, 629 Planet Jupiter: Summary of Markings, W. F. Denning, 60, 393 Planet Mercury: Transit on November 14, 1907, Prof. Donitch, 580 Planet Neptune: Diameter, Dr. G. Abetti, 29 Planets and their Satellites, Origin of, C. Stérmer, 428 Primer, Dr. F. W. Dyson, F.R.S., 443 les Progrés Récents de 1’Astronomie, Prof. Paul Stroobant, 670 Radio-active Elements and Celestial Bodies, Dr. S. A. Mitchell, 115 Right Ascensions of Standard Catalogues, Periodic Errors in, Dr. S. S. Hough, 561 Time: International Standard, 261; International Time Conference, 443 Watch, Reeves’s Night Marching, 711 Zodiacal Light, E. G. Fenton, 220 See also British Association, and Stars and Sun Astrophysical Observatory, Royal Hungarian, Dr. Konkoly, 173 Athens, Annual of the British School at, 565 Atlantic: Effect of Labrador Current on Temperature, Commander Hepworth, 59 Atmosphere: Thermodynamik der Atmosphare, Dr. A. Wegener, 31; Atmospheric Pressure and Temperature, W. Brockméller, Prof. Koppen and Dr. Wendt, 94; Vertical Temperature Distribution over England, Nature. April 24, 1913 L[ndex XX W. H. Dines, F.R.S., 309; Shaw and Dines’s Micro- barograph, Dr. Yoshida, Prof. Fujiwhara, 340; Atmo- spheric Electricity, Dr. G. C. Simpson, 411; Upper Air Investigations: Belgium, Batavia, Ontario, 474; Air Currents at a Height of 50 Miles indicated by a Bolide, J. E. Clark, 480; Atmospheric Potential, Evan M’Lennan, 647; Atmospheric Potential, Dr. C. Chree, F.R.S., 673; Atmospheric Pollution, Investigation of, 651; Atmospheric Opacity in 1912, 683 Atomic Dynamics: Prinzipien der Atomdynamik, Prof. J. Stark, 100; Atomic Weight of Bromine, H. C. P. Weber, 419; Atomic Constants and Properties of Sub- stances, R. D. Kleeman, 663 Aurora, Studies of, Carl Stormer, Dr. C. Chree, F.R.S., 38 Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science, 56, 137) 16 Aeceate Burriniuck Dam, 314; Leprosy in New South Wales, Dr. A. Thompson, 366; Visit of the British Association in 1914, 389; Native Flora of New South Wales, R. H. Cambage, 481; Australia, 634; Migrations between America, H. Hallier, 660 Aviation Exhibits at South Kensington, 602 Australia and Bacillus subtilis, Fermentation of Sugar by, M. Lemoigne, 273 Bacon’s Hole, Red Bands, 195, 256 Bacteriology : Microbiology for Agricultural Students, Prof. C. E. Marshall; Microbes and Toxins, Dr. E. Burnet, Dr. C. Broguet and Dr. W. M. Scott; Bacteria as Friends and Foes of the Dairy Farmer, W. Sadler, all Prof. R. T. Hewlett, 188; Handbook of the Technique of the Teat and Capillary Glass Tube and its Applications, Sir A. E. Wright, F.R.S., R. T. Hewlett, 218; New Laboratories opened at King’s College, 289; Bacteriological Water-bottle, D. J. Matthews, 350; Bacterial Theory of Soil Fertility, F. Fletcher; Dr. E. J. Russell, 541; Antarctic Bacterio- logy, Dr. J. H. H. Pirie, 573; J. Bell, 573 Balloons: Balloon Upper Air Investigations, 474; Protec- tion from Lightning, Prof. Wiener, 525; Ascent of the Italian “Albatross” on August 12, 1909, Dr. W. N. Shaw, F.R.S., 673; Rate of Ascent of Pilot Balloons, J. S. Dines, 716 Baphinitone, Identity of, H. Ryan and Rev. R. Fitzgerald, 638 Barisal Guns in Haiti, 681 Barometer Manual for Seamen, 579 Batrachia of the Malay Peninsula, G. A. Boulenger, 619 Beaches, Minute Life on, Prof. Herdman, F.R.S., 371 Bedford College for Women, 183 Bedrock, 257 Bees: Bee Disease, Isle of Wight, H. B. Fantham and Annie Porter, 90; the Humble-Bee, F. W. L. Sladen, 252; Bees shown to the Children, Ellison Hawks, 358; Australian and Tasmanian Bees, T. D. A. Cockerell, 481 Beit Memorial Fellowships Awards, 447 Bending of Long Electric Waves round the Globe, Dr. W. H. Eccles, 410; see also British Association Beri-beri and Polyneuritis, E. S. Edie and others, 140 Biochemistry : Grundriss der Biochemie fiir Studierende und Aerzte, Prof. Carl Oppenheimer, 331; Gentiopicrin in Swertia perennis, M. Bridel, 377; the Simple Carbo- hydrates and the Glucosides, Dr. E. F. Armstrong, 510; Oxidations and Reductions in the Animal Body, Dr. H. D. Dakin, 510; Glycogen in Liver of Rats with Malignant Growths, W. Cramer and J. Lochhead, 716 Biography : Request for Letters of the late Victoria Lady Welby, 365; Michael Heilprin and his Sons, G. Pollak, 408; Shinobu Hirota, Prof. J. Milne, F.R.S., 435; Lord Lister: Royal Institution Discourse, by Sir W. Macewen, F.R.S., 499; Centenary of a Geologist, E. W. Binney, F.R.S., J. Binney, 539 Biology : Biological Nomenclature : New Term “ Tectotype,” 138; Microbiology, Prof. Marshall, Prof. Hewlett, 189; Colours of Plasmodia of some Mycetozoa, K. Minakata, 220; Einfiihrung in die Biologie, Prof. K. Kraepelin, 245; Photographs of Secondary Structure of Diatom Valve, T. F. Smith, 258; Panama Canal Zone Survey, 313; the Mechanistic Conception of Life, Dr. Jacques Loeb, Prof. E. A. Schafer, F.R.S., 327; Richtlinien University of West | des Entwicklungs- und Vererbungs-problems, Prof. A. Greil, A. E. Crawley, 380; African Tardigrada, J. Murray, 401; Elektrobiologie, Prof. J. Bernstein, 618; Induced Cell-reproduction in the Protozoa, Aubrey H. Drew, 673; Aristotle as Biologist, Prof. D’Arcy Thompson, 680; Life-history of a New Species of Olpidium, Dr. S. Kusano, 681; Biological Work in India, 685; see also British Association Biology, Marine: Science of the Sea, Dr. G. H. Fowler and others, 34; the Michael Sars in the Atlantic, Sir J. Murray keGibo, FaReS Dra ieionte Ore Be il. Allen, 221; Liverpool M.B. Committee’s Memoirs : Buccinum (the Whellkx), Dr. W. J. Dakin, 358; Biologische und morphologische Untersuchungen iiber Wasser- und Sumpfgewdchse: die Uferflora, Prof. H. Gluck, 359; Minute Life on our Sea-beaches, Prof. Herdman, F.R.S., 371; Plankton of Lough Neagh, W. J. Dakin and Miss Latarche, 402 ; Scottish Antarctic Expedition, C. T. Regan, Prof. E. Topsent, 507; Biology of the Lake of Tiberias, Dr. N. Annandale, 508; Antarctic Expeditions (Voyages of the Scotia and Discovery), Mr. and Mrs. Gipp, Dr. Rudmose Brown, fhe Maviaie Jak Pirie, J. Bell, Prof. MacBride, Prof. Fritsch, 572-3 Biomechanik und Biogenesis, Prof. M. Benedikt, 230 Biplane versus Monoplane, 106 Bird-migration, W. Eagie Clarke, 104; Migratory Birds of Buffalo River, S. Africa, Rev. R. Godfrey, 173; Laughing Gull, J. Thienemann, 173; Dartford Warbler reported at Tuskar Light, Prof. C. J. Patten, 306; Capture of Marked Birds, Dr. Van Oort, 475 Bird Sanctuaries: Brean Down, 169; Marsh Island off Louisiana Coast, 228; Brent Valley, 440 Birds : General: Structure of the Ciliary and Iris Muscles in Birds, C. J. Bond, 71; Attacks of Birds upon Butter- flies, Prof. E. B. Poulton, F.R.S., 71; Sailing Flight of Birds, Prof. E. H. Hall, 161; F. W. Headley, 220; Bird Notes, 173, 344, 475; Leitfaden zum Bestimmen der Vogel Mittel-Europas, Prof. F. Dahl, A. E. Crawley, 280; Michigan Bird-life, Prof. Barrows, 339; a Hand-list of British Birds, E. Hartert, F. C. R. Jourdain, N. F. Vicehurst, and H. F. Witherby, 358 Particular : Californian Valley Quail, H. C. Bryant, 112; Furze-warbler, C. Ingram, 173; Eider Nests, H. W. Robinson, 173; Eggs of Phasianus, P. formosus, and of a Cross, Mrs. Rose Haig Thomas, 350; Fulmar, Mr. Harvie-Brown, 475; Spotted Bower-bird, S. W. Jackson, 475 Birds’ Food: Contents of Crops of Australian Birds, Dr. J. B. Cleland, 173; Birds as Destroyers of Grass- hoppers and other Insects, 475; Pheasant, Food of, . P. H. Grimshaw, 475; Appeal for Correspondents, 625 Birstall Statue to Priestley, 253 Bismuth Extraction from Carbonaceous Frerichs, 190 Bison Increase, 338; Pictures of Bison, &c., by Albert Diirer, 492 Bleaching and Dyeing of Vegetable Fibrous Materials, J. Hibner, 65 Blind Prawn of Galilee, Dr. N. Annandale, 251 Bleod: Circulation and Hydrodynamics, Prof. S. Salaghi, 114; Chemical Composition of Blood and Hamolysis, A. Mayer and G. Schaefer, 272; Estimation of Lipoids in Blood Serum, L. Grimbert and M. Laudat, 351; Influence of Resilience of the Arterial Wall, S. R. Wells and L. Hill, 662; New Method of Blood Fixa- tion, H. G. Plimmer, 663 Bloodstains: Precipitin Test, J. Muller, 523 Boiler Economics, Prof. Nicholson, 92 Bolide, see Meteor Bonaparte Fund of the Paris Academy of Sciences, 554 Books : Forthcoming Books of Science, 141, 174; Teubner’s Cheap Series, “Aus Natur und Geisteswelt,” 287; “People’s Books,” Messrs. Jack, 393, 658; “Books that Count,” W. F. Gray, 592 Botany : General: Notes from Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, 59; a Flower Sanctuary, F. H. Perrycoste, 71; Right Hon. Sir E. Fry, F.R.S., 102; 162; S. African Plant List, 91; Pollination of Hardy Fruits, C. H. Ores, F. W. ee xi i Index Weeens 13 Botany (continued) : Hooper and F. Chittenden, 91; C. H. Hooper, 505; Stimulation of Plant Growth, Prof. H. E. Armstrong, 113; Gardens in S. Europe, W. J. Bean, 171; Forcing Plants by Warm Baths, Prof. Parkinson, 174; Cata- logue of Apparatus, Messrs. Gallenkamp and Co., 197; Biologische und morphologische Untersuchungen tber Wasser- und Sumpfgewachse, Prof. H. Gliick, 359; Vegetation der Erde: XII., die Pflanzenwelt der peruanischen Anden, Prof. A. Weberbauer: XIII., Phytogeographic Survey of N. America, Prof. J. W. Harshberger, 405; Nervation of Plants, F. G. Heath, Dr. F. Cavers, 432; Wild Flowers as they Grow: Photographed in Colour, H. E. Corke, G. C. Nuttall, Dr. F. Cavers, 432; Irritability of Plants, Dr. E. G. Pringsheim, 483; Round-the-world Excursion, Prof. C. J. Chamberlain, 599; Some of the Next Steps in Botanical Science: Address to American Association, Prof. C. E. Bessey, 607; Floral Zygomorphy, J. M’L. Thompson, 664; a Text-book of Botany, Dr. E. Stras- burger, Dr. L. Jost, Dr. H. Schenk, and Dr. G. Karsten, Prof. W. H. Lang, F.R.S., 693; Trans- caspian Lowlands, Dr. O. Paulsen, Dr. W. G. Smith, 711 Special: Antarctic Alge, Mr. and Mrs. Gipp, 572; Prof. Fritsch, 573; Antarctic Botany (Scotia’s Voyage), Dr. Rudmose Brown, 573; Bothrodendron Kiltorkense, Prof. T. Johnson, 506; Bryophyta, Inter-relationships of, Dr. F. Cavers, 3; Caithness Vegetation, C. B. Crampton, 259; Californian “Big Trees,” G. B. Sud- worth, 441; Chrysanthemums, T. Stevenson, 248; the Cotton Plant in Egypt, W. L. Balls, 667; Cycadaceae, Dr. C. J. Chamberlain, 418; Date, Artificial Ripening of the Deglet-nour, W. T. Swingle, 127; Dicotyledons, Germination of Seeds of, J. Adams, 506; Eucalypts of Parramatta District, C. Hall, 455; Ferns of Lord Howe Island, Rev. W. W. Watts, 98; Fig-tree and its Insect Guest, Biology of, Dr. R. Ravasini, 310; Galls, British Plant-, E. W. Swanton, Mary K. Spittal, 488; Gramineae from Bombay, New Species, R. K. Bhide, 63; Ground Bean, New, 91; Hevea brasiliensis, Two Stable Forms of, C. M. Bret, 691; Iceland: Marine Algal Vegetation, Dr. Helgi Jénsson, 645; Ivy, Dr. F. Tobler, 418; Leaf-spots of Richardia albo-maculata, W. T. Saxton, 128; Lotus corniculatus and Trifolium yepens, Variation in, Prof. H. E. Armstrong and others, 635; New Myrtaceous Plants from New South Wales, R. T. Baker, 455; Guide to Botanical Litera- ture of Myxomycetes, Dr. W. C. Sturgis, 579; Nasturtium officinale, Grafting of, on Brassica oleracea, L. Daniel, 429; New South Wales, Native Flora, R. H. Cambage, 481; the Oak, C. Mosley, Rev. J. Griffith, 589; Oenothera Lamarckiana, Miss Anne M. Lutz, 113; Genotheras, Mutating, Dr. R. R. Gates, 350; Orchids New to E. Sussex, E. J. Bedford, 452; the Prickly Pear in Western China, T. D. A. Cockerell, 464; Primulaceae, Phylogeny of, Dr. S. Thenen, 381; Rice, Classification of, S. Kikkawa, 599; Rosa stellata, T. D. A. Cockerell, 571; Selangor, Collection of Plants from, H. N. Ridley, 351; Spurge, Remarkable, at Kew, 171; Tulips, Rev. J. Jacob, Dr. F. Cavers, 433; Violets, British. Mrs. E. S. Gregory, Dr. F. Cavers, 432; Wealden Floras, Prof. A. C. Seward, 350 See also British Association and Physiology of Plants Bculder Clay: Implements of Man in the Chalky Boulder Clay, Rev. Dr. A. Irving, 3; Boulder Clay in Essex, J. Reid Moir, 38; Striation of Stones in Boulder Clay, Prof. Grenville A. J. Cole, 38 Boy’s Playbook of Science, J. H. Pepper, 538 Brass, Prof. Carpenter, 199 Breadmaking, Chemistry of, J. Grant, 357 Breath Figures, Lord Rayleigh, O.M., F.R.S., 436; Dr. John Aitken, F.R.S., 619 Bristol: Installation of University Chancellor, 224; Bristol University and Agriculture, 373; Bristol District Geological Excursion Handbook, Prof. S. H. Reynolds, 278; Bristol Museum, 493 British Antarctic Expedition, 651, 674 British Association Meeting at Dundee: Inaugural Address: Life: by Prof. E. A. Schafer, F.R.S., President, 7 Section A (Mathematics and Physics)—Opening Address : Fundamental Ideas with regard to the Nature of Heat, and Advantage of some of the Ideas of the Old Caloric or Material Theory, Prof. H. L. Callendar, F.R.S., President of the Section, 19 Scientific Theory and Outstanding Problems of Wireless Telegraphy: Introductory Remarks at a Joint Dis- cussion by Sections A and G, Prof. J. A. Fleming, F.R.S., 262, 291 Meteorology: Joint Discussion with Section M (Agri- culture) on Application of Meteorological Information to Agricultural Practice, Dr. Shaw; Connection between Rainfall and Temperature and Yield of Crops in Forfarshire, Mr. Watt; Effect of Climate on Plant Life, Dr. E. J. Russell; Utility of Local Observations, R. M. Barrington; Periodicities in Earthquake Phenomena, Prof. Turner; J. I. Craig; Temperature Conditions in Madiisee in Pommerania and in Loch Earn, E. M. Wedderburn; Wind and Temperature Results at the Upper Air Station at Glossop Moor, Miss White; Report on Upper Air Investigations at Mungret College, Limerick, by the Joint Committee, Rev. W. O’Leary, S.J., 369 Joint Discussion with Section G on the Scientific Theory and Outstanding Problems of Wireless Tele- graphy, Prof. J. A. Fleming; How the Waves are propagated a quarter way round the Earth, Dr. W. Eccles, Prof. A. E. Kennelly, Lord Rayleigh, Prof. Macdonald, Dr. Nicholson, Prof. A. G. Webster, Captain Sankey, Prof. S. P. Thompson, S. G. Brown, Prof. A. Sommerfeld, and others; Appointment of a Radio-telegraphic Committee, 421 General Physics: Demonstration of Varying Depth of the Extraordinary Image in Unaxial Crystal, Prof. S. P. Thompson, F.R.S.; Iridescent Effects produced by Surface Film on Glass, Lord Rayleigh, O.M. ; Experiments on Flow of Mercury in Small Steel Tubes, Prof. E. G. Coker; Spinning Tops, Dr. J. Gray; Apparatus for investigating Motion in Tor- sional Oscillations when Viscous and Hysteretic Effects are Present, Prof. W. Peddie; Current- potential Curves of the Oscillating Spark, Dr. S. R. Milner; Increase of Conductivity of Paraffin Wax with Field, Dr. W. F. G. Swann; Deposit upon Poles of an Iron Arc burning in Air, Prof. W. G. Duffield and G. E. Collis; Method of Determining Vapour Densities, Dr. G. E. Gibson; Determinations of Optical Rotatory Power of Quartz, Dr. T. M. Lowry; Calculation of Fields of Telescopic Objec- tives, Prof. R. A. Sampson; Instrument for Analysing Sound Vibrations, Prof. D. C. Miller ; Report of Committee on Electrical Standards ; Report of Committee for Solar Observatory at Yass- Canberra, 422 Discussion on Atomic Heat of Solids, Dr. F. A. Linde- mann, Dr. G. E. Gibson, Lord Rayleigh, Dr. J. W. Nicholson, Prof. Rutherford, Prof. Bragg, Dr. Lindemann, 423 Discussion on Series in Spectra, Dr. J. W. Nicholson, Prof. Kayser, Prof. Fowler, Prof. Peddie, Lord Rayleigh, Dr. Duffield, Dr. T. M. Lowry, Prof. McLennan, 424 Radio-activity and Electronics: Photoelectric Properties of Thin Metal Films, James Robinson, Prof. McLennan; Discharge of Ultra-violet Light of High- speed Electrons, Prof. Millikan, Prof. Strutt; the Earth’s Penetrating Radiation over Land and Large Bodies of Water, Prof. J. C. McLennan, Prof. Strutt; Heating Effects of Radium Emanation and its Products,.Prof. E. Rutherford and H. Robinson; Origin of Beta and Gamma Rays from Radio-active Substances, Prof. Rutherford; Apparatus for Curves of Radio-active Changes, Prof. F. Soddy, 425 Mathematics: Mechanism for Factorising Large Num- bers, M. Gérardin; (1) Mersenne’s Numbers, (2) Arithmetical Factors of the Pellian Terms, Lieut.-Col. A. Cunningham; Theory of Composition of Positive Quadratic Forms, Prof. E. H. Moore, Mr. Nature, 4 Son April 24, Had Lndex XXI111 British Association Meeting at Dundee (continued) : Owens ; Theory of Menai Strait, E. Greenly ; Kopjes: Hilton ; Proof of Theorem on Orders of Coincidence, Prof. J. C. Fields; Algebraic Functions derived from Permutations of any Assemblage, Major MacMahon; Apparatus for Solution of Equations of nth Degree, Prof. W. Peddie; Use of Exponential Curve in Graphics, Dr. H. B. Heywood; Report of Committee for tabulating Bessel’s and other Functions, Dr. Nicholson, 425 : Cosmical Physics and Astronomy: Report of Committee on Seismological Investigations ; Seismic Periodicity, Prof. H. H. Turner; Prof. Schuster’s Method of Analysing for suspected Periodicities and the Method of Correlation, J. I. Craig; Total Number of Stars, Dr. S. Chapman ; Chromospheric Lines and Radium, Prof. Dyson (Astronomer Royal), Prof. MKayser, Prof. the Hon. R. J. Strutt, Prof. Rutherford, Father Cortie, Dr. Lockyer; Magnetic Disturbances, Sun-spots, and the Sun’s Corona, Father Cortie; Report of Committee on Magnetic Observations at Falmouth, 426 Evening Discourse: Radiations Old and New, Prof. W. H. Bragg, F.R.S., 529, 557 Section B (Chemistry)-—Opening Address: I., the Nature and Method of Chemistry; II., Sub-atoms, Atoms, Molecules, Molecular Aggregates, WValency; III., Pursuit of Chemistry Justified by its Useful Applic- ability, Prof. A. Senier, President of the Section, 43 Interaction between Thiocarbamide, Iodine, and Sul- phur, Prof. H. Marshall; Distillation of Binary Mixtures of Metals in vacuo, A. J. Berry; Diffusion in Solids, Dr. C. H. Desch; Nitrogen Chloride and Photochemical Inhibition, R. de J. Fleming- Struthers; Inseparability of Thorium and Uranium X, A. Fleck; Dissociation of Phosphorus Vapour, Prof. Stock and Dr. G. E. Gibson; Enzymes and Glucoside of Flax, Dr. J. V. Eyre and Prof. H. E. Armstrong; Variation of Glucoside and Enzyme in Lotus corniculatus, Prof. Armstrong; Biochemistry of Plant Pigmentation, Prof. F. Keeble and Dr. . E. F. Armstrong ; Distribution of Oxydases in White Flowers, W. N. Jones; Synthetic Aminoglucosides, Prof. Irvine and A. Hynd; Constitution of Mannitol Triacetone, Prof. Irvine and Miss B. M. Patterson; Rotatory Powers of Partially Methylated Glucoses, Prof. Irvine and Dr. J. P. Scott; Method of Prepar- ing Acetyliodoglucose, Dr. W. S. Mills; Hexose Phosphate, Dr. Harden; Nomenclature, Dr. E. F. Armstrong; Prof. Irvine; the Walden Rearrange- ment, A. McKenzie; Isomeric Change, Dr. Lowry; Conversion of Benzenes, Prof. K. J. P. Orton, Prof. Holleman; Leucine and similar Amphoteric Sub- stances, Dr. J. K. Wood; Supposed Dibromo Com- pound, Prof. C. R. Marshall; Phototropy, Prof. A. Senier, 318-321 Section C (Geology)—Opening Address :» Relation between the Cambrian Faunas of Scotland and North America, B. N. Peach, F.R.S., President of the Section, 49; Local Geology, Dr. T. J. Jehu; Breccia formation in Mull, E. B. Bailey; Sequence of Volcanic Rocks in Scotland, Dr. J. S. Flett, Dr. J. W. Evans, Dr. T. Anderson, G. W. Tyrrell, Dr. Hatch; Older Granite in Lower Dee Side, G. Barrow; Archzean Rocks of Lewis, Dr. B. N. Peach and Dr. J. Horne; Fossils in Jasper and Green Schist of the Highland Border, Dr. R. Campbell; Fossils in the Boundary Fault Series, Dr. Jehu, Dr. Horne, Dr. Ami, Miss Ellis; Actinolite-bearing Rock, Dr. A. W. Gibb; Volcanic Rocks in Aberdeenshire, Dr. W. Mackie; Alkaline Igneous Rocks of Ayrshire, G. W. Tyrrell; Mica Schists of Anglesey, E. Greenly; Lower Old Red Beds of Kincardineshire, Dr. R. Campbell; Silurian Inlier of Usk, C. J. Gardiner; the “ Fern Ledges” of New Brunswick, Dr. Marie C. Stopes; Fossil Flora of Pettycur Limestone and Evolution, Dr. W. T. Gordon; the Fossil Parka decipiens, W. R. Don; Dr. G. Hickling, Dr. Newell Arber; Contents of Millstone Grit of Yorkshire, A. Gilligan; Mineral Grains in Sands of Scottish Carboniferous, T. O. Bosworth; Settlement of Sand in Water, J. S. | and Inselberge, J. D. Falconer; Country North of Lake Albert, G. W. Grabham; W. Lower Carter, 207-212 Section D (Zoology)—Opening Address: Zoological Gardens and the Preservation of Fauna, P. Chalmers Mitchell, F.R.S., President of the Section, 75 Discussion of the Problem of the Origin of Life, Prof. E. A. Minchin, H. Wager, Prof. F. W. Keeble, Prof. A. B. Macallum, Prof. Ben. Moore, Prof. J. S. Macdonald, Prof. M. Hartog, Prof. P. Geddes, Dr. J. S. Haldane, Rev. T. R. R- Stebbing, Dr. P- Chalmers Mitchell, 261; Joint Discussion with Section I (Physiology) on Aquatic Organisms (see Section I), 395 Lantern Lecture: Life-history of a Water-beetle, F. Balfour Browne; Life-history of Saccammina, Messrs. Heron-Allen and Earland; Isle of Wight Disease of Bees, Dr. H. B. Fantham, Dr. Annie Porter, Prof. Minchin; a Sessile Ctenophore, Dr. Th. Mortensen, E. S. Goodrich; Recent Progress in Helminthology, and Morphology of Trematodes, Dr. W. Nicoll; Trout Disease due to a larval Bothrio- cephalid, J. W. Chaloner; Polychaeta: Resemblance between Filograna with Operculum and Salmacina without, Prof. W. C. M’Intosh; (1) Habits of a New Species of Phyllochatopterus found off Vancouver Island; (2) Formation of Reproductive Buds in Trypanosyllis sp., F. A. Potts; Development of Mesoderm and Head Kidneys of Pomatoceros, Dr. Cresswell Shearer; Development of the Starfish Asterias rubens, Dr. J. F. Gemmill; Development of Echinocardium cordatum, Prof. E. W. MacBride; Hybridisation of Species of Echinus, H. M. Fuchs; Methods of raising Parthenogenetic Larve of Echinus esculentus, Miss Jordan Lloyd; New Para- site Copepod, Chordeuma obesum, Prof. H. F. E. Jungersen; Luminous Cells of Pyrosoma and Cyclo- salpa, Prof. Ch. Julin, Prof. Minchin; a Hermaphro- dite Amphioxus, E. S. Goodrich; Scottish Sea Fisheries, 1898-1912, Prof. W. C. M’Intosh,. Prof. Ewart, Dr. Petersen; Reissner’s Fibre and the Sub- commissural Organ in the Vertebrate Brain, Prof. Dendy; Crops of 1800 Birds of 95 Species, Miss Laura Florence; Foot Ring Method of Bird-marking, A. L. Thomson; Development of the Thymus and Thyroid in a Marsupial, Prof. J. P. Hill, Miss E. A. Fraser; Origin of Fat-tailed Sheep, Prof. J. C. Ewart; Survey of Fresh-water Fauna of India, Dr. N. Annandale; Marine Zoological Results of the Scottish National Antarctic Expedition, Dr. W. S. Bruce; Plankton of Lough Neagh, Dr. W. J. Dakin and Miss M. Latarche; Biological Science and the Pearl Industry, Dr. H. L. Jameson; Relation of Mechanics of the Cell to Mechanics of Development, Prof. L. Rhumbler; Method by which the Individual Organism becomes adapted to New Enviromental Stimuli, Dr. C. J. Bond; Inheritance Theory, Dr. J. Wilson; Speech in Animals, Prof. R. J. Anderson, Dr. J. H. Ashworth, 447-451 Resolution of Council regarding Preservation of Fauna, 468 Section E (Geography)—From the Opening Address: the International Map of the World on the Scale of 1/1000000: Mapping by Explorers: the Sudan, Colonel Sir C. M. Watson, K.C.M.G., C.B. -President of the Section, 81, 395 The International Map, the Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, Capt. Henrici; Improvements in Surveying Instruments, E. A. Reeves; African Geography, Dr. Oswald, G. W. Grabham; the Libyan Desert, W. J. Harding; the Sonora Desert of Mexico, I. N. Dracopoli; S. Nigeria, P. A. Talbot; the Antarctic, Sir C. Markham, Dr. W. S. Bruce, Dr. R. N. R. Brown, Dr. Marshall, Dr. Hodgson, Prof. Chilton, 395 Section F (Economic Science and Statistics)—From the Opening Address: Claim of Economics to rank among the Exact Sciences: its Capability of being demonstrated by Geometry and Mathematics, Sir XX1V British Association Meeting at Dundee (continued) : Henry H. Cunynghame, K.C.B., President of the | Section, 116 Section G (Engineering).—Opening Address: the Art of Fitness : Duty of Engineers in regarding the Material Interests and Aisthetic Susceptibilities of all who can be affected by their Works, Prof. Archibald Barr, President of the Section, 83 Scientific Theory and Outstanding Problems of Wire- less Telegraphy, Prof. J. A. Fleming, F.R.S., 262, 291 Fifth Report of the Gaseous Explosions Committee ; Experiments on Coal Dust Explosions, Prof. H. Dixon ; Ignition of Gaseous Mixtures by Momentary Arcs, Prof. Thornton; Joint Discussion with Section A on Wireless Telegraphy (see Section A); Produc- tion of Electrical Oscillations with Spark Gaps immersed in running Liquids, Dr. Eccles and A. J. Makower; Telephone Receivers, Profs. Kennelly and Pierce; Measuring Wind Velocities with a small Wheatstone Bridge having Arms of Manganin and Platinum, Prof. J. T. Morris; the Gas Turbine, Dr. D. Clerk; the Road Problem, Sir J. H. A. Mac- donald, K.C.B., F.R.S.; Acceleration and Tractive Power of Motor-cars, Mr. Wimperis; Control of Aéroplanes, Prof. Chatley; Pressure on Aérocurves, A. P. Thurston; Suction between Passing Vessels, Prof. Gibson and Mr. Thompson; Propulsion, Prof. Henderson; Electrical Transmission, Mr. Mavor; Lifeboat Lowering Gear, Axel Welin; Optical and Thermo-electric Stress Determinations, Prof. Coker ; Electro-magnetic Machine for obtaining Repetitions of Stress at Frequencies up to 120 per second, Mr. Haigh; Kinematography of Fracture of Torsion Specimens, Mr. Larard; Heat Transmission, Prof. Petavel, Dr. Lander; Féry Bomb Calorimeter, R. S. Whipple; Motor Gyroscopes, Dr. Gray and Mr. Burnside; Exposure Tests of Aluminium Alloys, Prof. Wilson; Hysteresis Loss in Iron due to Pul- sating Magnetic Fields, Dr. Wall; Rescue Apparatus for Coal Mines, T. Reid; Weathering of Portland Stone, Dr. Owens, 497-498 Section H (Anthropology)—Opening Address: the Evolu- tion of Man, Prof. G. Elliot Smith, F.R.S., President of the Section, 118 Discourse: Modern Problems relating to the Antiquity of Man, Prof. Arthur Keith, 268 (1) Suprasylvian Operculum in Primates with special reference to Man, (2) Brain of La Quina Man, Prof. Anthony ; Human Jaw in Kent’s Cavern, Dr. Duck- worth; Human Remains in Raised Beach at Gullane, Dr. Ewart, Prof. Bryce; Lesions caused by Judicial Hanging, Dr. Wood Jones; Bontoc Igorots, L. Taylor; Discussion on Ethnological Aspects of Scottish Folklore; Discussion on Megalithic Monu- ments, Prof. Elliot Smith, Mr. Peet, and others; Early Dynastic Tombs in Egypt and Sudan, Prof. Petrie, Mr. Quibell, Prof. Elliot Smith; Slides of Temples at Philz, Mr. Ogilvie; Coloured Slides of Theban Tombs, R. Mond, Mr. Mellor (correction, p- 411); Remains of Primitive Ethiopian Races in Southern Sudan, H. S. Wellcome; Red Pigment on Ancient Bones, Dr. Derry; Tombs in Achaia Phthiotis, Mr. Wace; Bronze and Iron Javelins found in Caria, Prof. Ridgeway; Crete, Prof. J. L. Myres; Prehistoric Monuments of Malta and Sardinia, Dr. Ashby; Hill Fort near Abergele, W. Gardner; Pigmy Flints from Dee Walley, Miss Leslie-Paterson ; Artificial Islands in Scotch Lochs; Rev. Father Blundell; Disappearance of Useful Arts, and Con- ventionalism in Art, Dr. Rivers; Living Race in North-eastern Asia allied to American Indians, Dr. Hrdlitka, 342-4 Section I (Physiology)—Opening Address: Evils of Stuffy Rooms or Stagnant Air, Leonard Hill, F.R.S., President of the Section, 146 Joint Discussion with Section of Zoology on Physiology of Aquatic Organisms, Prof. A. Piitter, Prof. B. Moore, F.R.S., Prof. F. Botazzi, Dr. W. J. Dakin, (Effect of High Water Pressures on Living Tissues) Prof. L. Hill, F.R.S., Prof. Doflein, Dr. F. A. Lndex Nature, Afril 24, 1913 Dixey, F.R.S., Dr. N. Annandale, Prof. A. Dendy, F.R.S., 395 Discussion on Relation of Mind to Body, Prof. R. Lattay Ore |oise laldane, (BoRiS a Dr. Mein J Watt Dr. C€. S.. Myers, Prof. Geddes, F.R.S:, Prof. Starling, F.R.S., Prof. L. Hill, F.R.S., 396 Kinematograph Illustration of Beating of Tortoise Heart and Circulation in Frog and Crustacea, Prof. Heger; Illustration of Effects of Diffusion, Prof. Leduc; Colour Vision in Dark Adapted Eye, Prof. F. Gotch, F.R.S.; Criticism of Report of Depart- mental Committee on Sight Tests, Dr. Edridge- Green; Phagocytosis, Prof. Hamburger; Cell Per- meability, Prof. Asher; Physical Chemistry of Muscle, Prof. Bottazzi; Cells of Kidney Tubule and Acid Excretion, Dr. Campbell and Prof. Macallum ; Tumour Growth, Dr. Cramer; Brightness Dis- crimination with Two Eyes and One, S. Dawson; Effect of Two Adjacent Pressure Stimuli, Prof. von Frey ; Effect of Tripolar Electrodes in Blocking Nerve Impulses and Action of Alcohol on Cutaneous Reflexes, Prof. Ida Hyde; Guanidine Group not Free in Lysin, Prof. Kossel; Distribution of Taste Sensations, Prof. Kronecker; Strophanthine an- tagonising Potassium, Prof. Loewi; Distribution of Potassium in Cells, Prof. Macallum, F.R.S.; Stimu- lation of Splanchnic Nerve causes Hyperglycemia, Prof. Macleod; Animals’ Memory of Places, Dr. McIntyre; Race Regeneration, Rev. J. Marchant; Pharmacology, Prof. C. R. Marshall; Gaseous Exchange during Apnoea, Prof. Milroy; Value of an Organism to the Community, H. Reinheimer ; Injec- tion of Extract of Corpus Luteum, W. Sack; Output of Nitrogen after administering Arginine, Prof. W. H. Thompson; Horizontal-vertical Illusion, Dr. Valentine; Nerves in Elephant Trunk, Prof. Waller, F.R.S.; Comparison of Electro-cardiogram with Pulse, Prof. Waller; Dr. H. E. Roaf, 395-397 Joint Discussion with Section M (Agriculture) on Animal Nutrition (see Section M), 398 Section K (Botany)—Opening Address: (i.) Tendency of Specialists to neglect the Art of Expression; (ii.) Mendelism, Prof. Fred. Keeble, 175; Discussion of the Problem of the Origin of Life (see Section D), 261 Section L (Educational Science)—Opening Address: an Objective Standard in Education, Prof. John Adams, President of the Section, 202 Psychological Processes underlying Reading and Writ- ing, F. Smith, Mr. Dumville, Miss Foxley; Relation of the School to Future Vocation, J. W. Peck, Mr. Holland, Miss Faithfull, Miss Burstall, Mr. Reid, Mr. Ferguson; Present Position of Mathematical Teaching, Dr. T. P. Nunn, Dr. Pinkerton, Dr. Milne, Mr. Eggar, Prof. Silvanus Thompson, Prin- cipal Griffiths; Scotch Leaving Certificates, Mr. Strong, Mr. Donne, Sir J. Donaldson; Reports from Committees, 370 Section M (Agriculture)—Opening Address: History of Agriculture in Britain, T. H. Middleton, President of the Section, 235; Joint Discussion with Meteorolo- gists (see Section A), 369 Interpretation of Milk Records, W. Gavin; Effect of Heavy Root Feeding on Milk, Dr. Lauder and Mr. Fagan; Fat Globules of Milk and its Churnability, Messrs. Cooper, Nuttall, and Freak; Discussion on the Nation’s Food Supply, R. H. Rew, C.B., Major Craigie; Joint Meeting with Section I on Animal Nutrition: Feeding Experiments, Mr. Bruce, Mr. Watson; Methods of Valuing Food Stuffs, Prof. Hopkins ; Isolation of Vitamine from Rice Polishings, Dr. Funk; White and Standard Bread, Prof. L. Hill; Individual Attention, Mr. Ross; Cottonseed Oil and Linseed Oil instead of Butter Fat for Calves, Prof. Hendrick; Feeding Cows in W. Scotland, and Probable Error of Pig Feeding Experiments, Prof. Berry; Starch Equivalent, Dr. Crowther; (1) Lime as an Antiseptic in the Soil, (2) Nitrogen Assimila- tion, Dr. Hutchinson; Analyses of the Oat Kernel, Prof. Berry; Carbonate of Lime, Prof. Hendrick: ; r Nature. ] &°° April 24, 1913 L[ndex British Association Meeting at Dundee (continued) : Influence of Origin on Grass Lands, Dr. W. G. Smith and Mr. Crampton, 397-399 British Association, forthcoming Australian Meeting, 56 British Association Birmingham Meeting, 546 British Medical Association: next Annual Meeting, 468 British Museum (Natural History): Collection of Horns of Asiatic Animals left by A. O. Hume, C.B., 57; Casts of Fossil Reptiles, 169; British Museum Natural History Collections, Dr. A. Giinther, F.R.S., G. S. Miller, W. R. Ogilvie-Grant, Dr. J. H. Ashworth, 595 British Rainfall in 1911, Dr. H. R. Mill, 192 British School at Athens, Annual of the, 565 Bromine: New Sensitive Reaction Characteristics of Free Bromine, G. Denigés, 272; Bromine in Human Organs, A. Labat, 613 Brontides in Haiti, 681 Bronze Age Pottery of Great Britain and Ireland, Hon, J. Abercromby, Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.R.S., 2 Bryophyta, Inter-relationships of, Dr. F. Cavers, 3 Buffalo Mill in- India, Messrs. Meggitt and Mann, 523 Building : Reference Book for Calculations, Force-diagrams, Tables, &c., F. Ruff, 302 ; Handbuch der bautechnischen Gesteinspriifung, Prof. J. Hirschwald, 537; Building Stones and Clays, E. C. Eckel, 537 Bulbar Centres, Late Awakening of, P. Burning Glass? J. Phin, 571 Burrinjuck Reservoir, 314 Butterflies: Polymorphism in a Group of Mimetic Butter- flies, Prof. E. B. Poulton, F.R.S., 36; Attacks of Birds upon Butterflies, Prof. E. B. Poulton, F.R.S., 71; Experiments on Colour Variation, Dr. A. Pictet, F. Merrifield, 135; Metabolism of Lepidopterous Pup, Prof. Grafin von Linden, 379; Butterflies and Moths, H. Rowland-Brown, 488 Bonnier, 377 Caffeine, Réle of, in Diuretic Action of Coffee, 299; M. Tiffeneau and H. Bosquet, 299 Caithness Vegetation, G. B. Crampton, 259 Calculus: an Introduction to the Infinitesimal Calculus, Prof. H. S. Carslaw, 697 Cambridge Geographical Text-books: Intermediate, A. J. Dicks, 157; Cambridge Manuals of Science, 172; Cambridge Philosophical Society Elections, 257; Cam- bridge University: Isaac Newton Studentships, 243 ; Memorial on the Examination Question, 662 Canada: Reservation Parks, 170; Archeology, Harlan I. Smith and others, 391; Heaton’s Annual, 699 Cancer: Non-operative Methods, Prof. V. Czerny, 89; : Further Researches into Induced Cell Reproduction and Cancer, Sir Ronald Ross, K.C.B., F.R.S., 102; New Institute at Brompton, 468; Mineral Contents of Cancerous Liver, A. Robin, 639; Fresh Light on the Cause of Cancer, Prof. J. Fibiger, Dr. E. F. Bashford, 701 Caponising Ostriches, Mr. Fitzsimons, 524 Carbocyclic Compounds, F. B. Thole, 217 Carbohydrates, Simple, and Glucosides, Dr. E. F. Arm- strong, 510 Cassegrain Reflector with Corrected Field, Prof. R. A. Sampson, 689 Cassiterite, Multiple Twin of, Prof. W. J. Lewis, 375 Catalogue of the Periodical Publications in the Library of the Royal Society, London, 161 ’ Catalogue of Serial Publications possessed by South African Scientific Libraries, 434 Cattle Plague, 57 Causalism: Kausale und konditionale Weltanschauung, Max Verworn, 698 Cave Prehistoric Paintings in S. Wales, 195, 256; Palzo- lithic Cave Drawings in Spain, Abbé Breuil and others, 492 Cell-reproduction, Induced, in the Protozoa, Aubrey H. Drew, 673 I Cells, Surface-tension of Living, Blackman, 201 Celluloid Committee, 169; Celluloid: its Manufacture, Applications, and Substitutes, Masselon, Roberts, and Cillard, Dr. H. H. Hodgson, 280 F. Czapek, F. F. XXV Cellulose: die Einwirkung von Wasser und Natronlauge auf Baumwollecellulose, Dr. M. Robinoff, 132; Re- searches on Cellulose, Cross and Bevan, 217 Cementing Steel, Dr. F. Giolitti, 568 Cephalopods, Japanese, S. S. Berry, 229 Ceramic Chemistry, H. H. Stephenson, 457 Cetacea, Origin of Asymmetry in, Prof. G. Steinmann, 286 Ceylon : Colombo Museum, 523; the Lion in Sinhalese Art, Dr. J. Pearson, 674 Chain Drives for Motor-’buses, 525 Chaparral of S. California, F. G. Plummer, 470 Cheese, Dr. Langworthy and Caroline Hunt, 90; Ripening of Cheddar Cheese, 285; Vegetable Cheese from Soya Beans, S. Muramatsu, 709 Chemical Affinity, a Measure of, M. N. Banerjee, 63 Chemical Balance, A. Collot, 600 Chemical Calculations, Dr. Wilson and Dr. Heilbron, 217; Dr. J. Knox, 431 Chemical Effects of Light, W. A. Davis, 393 Chemical Engineers, Transactions of the American Institute of, 190 Chemical Equation of State, Prof. Onnes and Dr. Keesom, 493 Chemical Industry: Society of Chemical Industry, 57; Latest Problems of Chemical Industry, Dr. C. Duis- berg, Prof. Morgan, 194 Chemical Society: Becquerel Memorial Lecture, Lodge, F.R.S., 232 Chemical Synthesis: Synthesis of Matter, Prof. B. Moore, Sin O3 190 Chemical Theory and Calculations, Dr. F. J. Wilson and Dr. I. M. Heilbron, 217; Theories of Solutions, S. Arrhenius, 245; Elementary Chemical Theory and Calculations, Dr. J. Knox, 431 Chemistry : Experimental Science: II., Chemistry, S. E. Brown, 217; First Year’s Course of Chemistry, J. Sinclair and G. W. M’Allister, 217; Report of the Government Chemist, 387; Laboratory Manual in Chemistry, Prof. W. C. Morgan and Prof. J. A. Lyman, 431; Chemical Research, W. P. Dreaper, 618, 658; a First Class-book of Chemistry, E. Barrett and Dr. T. P. Nunn, 668 See also British Association Analytical: Allen’s Commercial Organic Analysis, W. A. Davis and S. S. Sadtler, 65; Handbook of Organic Analysis, H. T. Clarke, 158; Elementary Quantitative Analysis, Dr. W. Briggs and H. W. Bausor, 217; South African Association of Analytical Chemists, 228; Chemical Composition of Blood, A. Mayer and G. Schaeffer, 272-3; Foods, Dr. Wm. Tibbles, 357; Elements of Qualitative Chemical Analysis, Prof. J. Stieglitz, 431; College Text-book on Quantitative Analysis, Prof. H. R. Moody, 431; Analysis of Mixtures of Hydrogen and Gaseous Hydrocarbons, &c., P. Lebeau, 587; Method of Analysis of Mixtures of Hydrogen and Hydrocarbons, P. Lebeau and A. Damiens, 638; Fatty Foods: their Practical Examina- tion, E. R. Bolton and C. Revis, 668 Applied: Eighth International Congress of Applied Chemistry, Prof. G. T. Morgan, 193; Elementary Applied Chemistry, L. B. Allyn, 668; Dizionario di Merceologia e di Chimica Applicata, Prof. V. Villa- vecchia, 699 of Cellulose: Effect of Water and Alkaline Solutions on Cotton Cellulose, Dr. M. Robinoff, 132 ; Researches on Cellulose, Cross and Bevan, 217; Inorganic: Outlines of Inorganic Chemistry, Dr. E. B. Ludlan, 158; Per-acids and their Salts, Dr. T. S. Price, 217; Treatise on General and Industrial Inorganic Chemistry, Dr. E. Molinari, 509; Formation of Oceanic Salt Deposits, J. H. van t’Hoff and others, 616; Inorganic Chemistry, Dr. J. W. Mellor, 668 Organic: a Handbook of Organic Analysis, Qualitative and Quantitative, H. Thacher Clarke, 158; Modern Research in Organic Chemistry, F. G. Pope, 217; a Second Year Course of Organic Chemistry for Tech- nical Institutes: the Carbocyclic Compounds, F. B. Thole, 217; Physical: Lectures, Prof. Arrhenius, 287; Dissociation Pressures and Melting Points of the System Copper- Cuprous Oxide, R. E. Slade and F. D. Farrow, 401; XXV1 Lndex [ Nature, April 24, 1913 Chemistry (continued) : Landolt-Bérnstein physikalisch-chemische _ Tabellen, 431; Breath Figures, Lord Rayleigh, O.M., F.R.S., 436; Dr. John Aitken, F.R.S., 619; Organic Deriva- tives of Silicon, Prof. Kipping, 494; Absorption and Conductivity of Acids, A. Brochet, 561; Elements and Electrons, Sir W. Ramsay, K.C.B., F.R.S., 567; the Nernst Festschrift, W. Nernst’s Pupils, Prof. F. G. Donnan, F.R.S., 641; Appearance of Helium and Neon in Vacuum Tubes, Sir J. J. Thomson, O.M., F.R.S., 645 ; Sir Wm. Ramsay, K.C.B., 653; Prof. J. N. Collie, F.R.S., and H. S. Patterson, 653, 699; F. Soddy, 654; Applications of Positive Rays, Sir J. J. Thomson, 663 ; Trattato di Chimico-Fisica, Prof. H. C. Jones, Dott. M. Giua, 668 Physiological: Grundriss der Biochemie fiir Studierende und Aerzte, Prof. C. Oppenhei:aer, 331; Medizinisch- chemisches Laboratoriums-Hilfsbuch, Dr. L. FP iicus- sohn, 592 of Plants: Quebrachite in Leaves of Grevillea robusta, E. Bourquelot and Mlle. Fichtenholz, 183; Hydro- cyanic Acid in Trifolium repens, M. Mirande, 213; Hydrogen Cyanide in Young Plants, Prof. C. Ravenna and G. Bosinelli, 471; Stachyose in the Bean, G. Tanret, 507; Ash of the Plantain, D. Hooper, 508 Technical: Bleaching and Dyeing of Vegetable Fibrous Materials, J. Hubner, 65; German WVarnish-making, Prof. Max Bottler, 65; Allen’s Commercial Organic Analysis, W. A. Davis and S.S. Sadtler, 65 ; Chemistry of Breadmaking, J. Grant, 357; Cocoa and Chocolate : their Chemistry and Manufacture, R. Whymper, 357; Leather Chemists’ Pocket-book, 360; Ceramic Chemistry, H. H. Stephenson, 457; Treatise on General and Industria! Inorganic Chemistry, Dr. E. Molinari, 509; Chemistry in Gasworks, W. J. A. Butterfield, 628; der Kautschuk, Dr. R. Ditmar, 668 Miscellaneous: Benzylperuvic Acid, J. Bougault, 30; Resolution of Sec-bitylamine, Prof. Pope and C. S. Gibson, 114; Attack of Calcite by Acids, P. Gaubert, 127; Conditions of Formation of Nitrous and Nitric Acids, F. Briner and E. L. Durand, 156; Inactive and Racemic Dilactylic Acids, E. Jungfleisch, 298; Double Sulphites of Mercury and the Allalis, H. Baubigny, 299; Action of Formic Acid upon Triarylcarbinols, A. Guyot and A. Kovache, 299; New Reagent for Free and Combined Chlorine and Bromine, G. Denigés and L. Chelle, 376; Ethereal Salts derived from the Cyclanols and Acids of the Fatty Series, J. B. Senderens and J. Aboulenc, 377; Electrical Furnace, R. E. Slade, 400; Synthesis of a Silical-Cyanide and of a Felspar, Dr. J. E. Reynolds, 4o1; Limit of Forma- tion of Endothermic Compounds at High Tempera- tures, E. Briner, 429; Esterification of Cyclanols by Aromatic Acids, J. B. Senderens, 455; Precipitation of Salts by corresponding Acids, I. Masson, 506; Stereo- isomerism of the Oximes, F. C. Palazzo, 525; Constitu- tion of Phosphoric Acids and their Alkali Salts, A. Holt and J. E. Myers, 533; Formation of Dimethylstyrolene, A. Haller and E. Bauer, 561; Fixation of Alkaline Bisulphites on Salts of Acetylenic Acids, E. Lasausse, 587; Chemical Reactions in Compressed Gases, E. Briner and M. Boubnoff, 613; Preparation of the Cymenes and Menthanes, P. Sabatier and M. Murat, 613; Montanic Acid, H. Ryan and J. Algar, 638; Reactions of Sodium Amide in presence of Ammonia, E. Chablay, 638; Action of Alkaline Sulphites on Ethylenic Acids, J. Bougault and M. M. la Fosse, 664 ; Direct Addition of Hydrogen to the Phenylacetic Esters, P. Sabatier and M. Murat, 690 Child, the, 90 Children, Bees shown to the, E. Hawks, 358 China: Engineering Openings, 340; National Geographic Magazine, 418; Prickly Pear in W. China, T. D. A. Cockerell, 464; Through Shén-Kan, R. S. Clark and A. de C. Sowerby, 544 Chiriquian Antiquities, Prof. G. G. MacCurdy, Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.R.S., 73 Chlorine and Bromine, New Reagent for, G. Denigés and L. Chelle, 376 Cholera Menace, Adolphe Smith, 90 Chronometers : Inertia of Balance Spring, J. Andrade, 272 Chrysanthemums, T. Stevenson, C. H. Payne, C. E. Shea, 248 Church Congress at Middlesbrough, 167 Cinematograph, see Kinematograph Civil Service Higher Grades: Entry, Miss Sheavyn, 583 Classics, see Roman Clays and Shales, British, A. B. Searle, 27 Cleveland Meeting of the American Association, 58: Climatological Observations, 146 Clocks, Synchronisation, 28 Clouds: Atlas Photographique des Nuages, J. Loisel, 280; Cloud possibly due to Track of a Meteorite, Dr. G. Hickling, 586 Coal: Coal Supply of Britain, Prof. W. W. Watts, F.R.S., 113; Coal Specimens at Leeds, 138; Explosions in Mines, Prof. W. Galloway, 552; Coal Mines Act, 611; Coal Dust Explosions: Experiments on Abel’s Theory, Prof. Dixon and H. M. Lowe, 663 Cochin Tribes and Castes, L. K. Anantha K. lyer, 565 Cochineal Insects, E. E. Green, 230 Cocoa and Chocolate: their Chemistry and Manufacture, R. Whymper, 357; Cocoa: its Cultivation and Prepara- tion, W. H. Johnson, 357 Coins, Hardness of, Dr. T. K. Rose, 335 Cold Storage, Dr. Heinemann, 90 Colour: Coloration in Animals, Protective and Cryptic, A. H. Thayer, 196; Colours of Plasmodia of some Mycetozoa, K. Minakata, 220; Colouring of Tri- coloured Dogs and Guinea-pigs and Cats, A. L. Hagedoorn, 366; Palette of the Illuminator, Dr. A. P. Laurie, 399; Colouring of Zebras: Obliterative Effect, R. Pocock, 418; Protective Coloration and Lions, F. C. Selous, R. I. Pocock, F.R.S., 593; Animal Coloration, M. D. Hill, 593 Colour Vision: Colour Vision Tests in Mercantile Marine, 92; Measurement of Fatigue of Retina, Sir W. de W. Abney, 350; Negative After-images with Pure Spectral Colours, Dr. G. J. Burch, 612; (1) Colour Adaptation, (2) Trichromic Vision and Anomalous Trichromatism, Dr. F. W. Edridge-Green, 635; see also British Association Column-testing Machine, Prof. E. G. Coker, 453 Comets: Orbits, Correction, Prof. Strémgren, 60; Comets due in 1913, H. P. Hollis, 552; Medal offered by Astronomical Society of Mexico, 597; Next Return of Encke’s Comet, F. E. Seagrave, 526; Next Return of Finlay’s Comet, G Fayet, 613, 628; Comet 1852 iv (Westphal), M. Viljev, 683; Comet 1910a, Orbit, S. Mello e Simas, 420; Comet 1911c (Brooks), MM, de la B. Pluvinel and Baldet, 29; Magnitude and Colour, Max Valier, 526; Comet 1912a (Gale), W. Gale, 60, 394; 92; Mr. Franks, 198, 260, 272; M. Quénisset, 341; H. E. Wood, 561; G. van Biesbroeck, 628; Dr. Moschonkin, 628; Spectrum, P. Idrac, 324; Orbit, Dr. Ebell, 114, 141, 172, 232, 495; H. E. Wood, Mr. Merfield, 172; Comet 1912b (Schaumasse), identical with Tuttle’s Periodic Comet, 231, 273; Orbit and Identity, G. Fayet and others, 141, 260, 288, 299, 341; Comet 1912¢ (Borrelly), 288, 315, 325, 341, 351, 369; Orbit, Prof. Kobold, 443 Common Land and Inclosure, A. E. Crawley, 301 Concrete, Reinforced, Testing in Britain, E. O. Sachs, 92; Concrete Costs, Dr. F. W. Taylor and Stanford E. Thompson, 302 Conductivity, Intermittent, of Thin Dielectric Layers, E. Branly, 351; Conductivity of Aqueous Solutions of Salts and Organic Acids, Prof. H. C. Jones, 393 Congo Rivers, Variation of Levels, M. Roussilhe, 429 Congresses: International Mathematical Congress at Cam- bridge, 4; Church Congress at Middlesbrough, 167; Third International Archeological Congress at Rome, 169; Eighth International Congress of Applied Chemistry, Prof. G. T. Morgan, 192; International Congréss of Anthropology at Geneva, 290; Congress of Universities of the Empire, 374; International Congress of Medicine in London, August, 1913, 440; Inter- national Congress of Agriculture at Ghent, 521, 577; International Congress of Zoology, 576 Consciousness of the Universal and the Individual, Dr. F. Aveliag, 695 Prof. E. C. K. Gonner, Nature, April 24, 1913 Lndex XXVil Ccpper: Impurities in Copper and Copper Alloys, E. FI. Law, Prof. Turner, F. Johnson, 199; Copper-Zinc- Alloys, Prof. Carpenter, 199; Dissociation Pressures and Melting Points of the System Copper-Cuprous Oxide, R. E. Slade and F. D. Farrow, 401; Flotation Process applied to Concentration of Copper Ore, J. W. Ashcroft, 402; Modern Copper Smelting, D. M. Levy, 8 Coral _ the Genus Aulophyllum, S. Smith, 427; Dana’s Proof of Darwin’s Theory of Coral Reefs, Prof. W. M. Davis, 632 Cornwall Royal Polytechnic Society, 28; Cornwall Mega- lithic Monuments, MM. E. and P. Jeanselme, 366 Corrosion, C. E. Stromeyer, 287; Corrosion by Gravity Streams, E. C. Andrews, 445 Cotton Plant in Egypt, W. L. Balls, 667 Cotton-boll Weevil, 339 Crayfishes, Land, in Australia, G. W. Smith and Dr. E. H. J. Schuster, 453 Crops and Methods for Soil Improvement, Alva Agee, 589 Cryoscopy in Decahydrated Sodium Sulphate, A. Boutaric and C. Leenhardt, 299 Crystallisation of Metals by Annealing, F. Robin, 156 Crystals: Intercrystalline Cohesion of Metals, Dr. Beilby, 2co; X-Rays and Crystals, Prof. W. H. Bragg, F.R.S., 219, 360, 572; Crystal Space-lattice revealed by Réntgen Rays, Dr. M. Laue, Dr. A. E. H. Tutton, F.R.S., 306; Ilmenite from Lengenbach, Prof. W. J. Lewis, 375; Multiple Twin of Cassiterite, Prof. W. J. Lewis, 375; Graphical Methods, Dr. A. Hutchinson, 375; Labradorite from Co. Down, Dr. A. Hutchinsen and W. C. Smith, 375; Calcite Crystals from a Water Tank, R. F. Gwinnell, 376; Diffraction of Short Electromagnetic Waves by a Crystal, W. L. Bragg, 402, 410; Efflorescence, C. Boulanger and G. Urbain, 561; Optical Activity and Enantiomorphism of Mole- cular and Crystal Structure, T. V. Barker and J. E. Marsh, 612; Determination of Optic Axial Angle, H. Collingridge, 612; Graphical Determination of Angles and Indices in Zones, Dr. G. F. H. Smith, 612; Goldschmidt Apparatus for Cutting Models, Dr. J. Drugman, 613; a Nodule of Iron Pyrites, Prof. H. L. Bowman, 613; Cubic Surface, the Twenty-seven Lines upon a, Prof. A. Henderson, 591 Currency: the Standard of Value, Sir K.C.S.1., K.€.M.G.. N. B. Dearle, 536 Curve, Definition of a, Takeo Wada, 551 Customs of the World, edited by W. Hutchinson, 330 Cycadacee, Dr. C. J. Chamberlain, 418 Cyclones of the South Indian Ocean, 259 D. Barbour, Dactylography, H. Faulds, 189 Dairy: Farm Dairying, Laura Rose, 131; Bacteria as Friends and Foes of the Dairy Farmer, W. Sadler, Prof. R. T. Hewlett, 188 Dam, Distribution of Shearing Stresses on Horizontal Layers of a, Prof. E. G. Coker, 108 Date, Slow Artificial Ripening of the Deglet-nour, W. T. Swingle, 127 Dead Sea and Jordan Valley, Geology and Natural History of, Prof. Max Blanckenhorn, 165 Deaths: Arrol (Sir William), 705; Bailey (Colonel F., R.E.), 577; Beale (Charles Gabriel), 29; Boisbaudran (Lecoq de), (J. H. Gardiner), 255; Bort (Léon Philippe Teisserenc de), (Dr. W. N. Shaw, F.R.S.), 519; Boss (Prof. Lewis), 226; Bottomley (William), 226; Bourseul (Charles), 365; Brown (Robert), 227; Buckhout (Dr. W. A.), 440; Cailletet (Louis Paul), 521, 547; Carter (Dr. W.), 624; Chalmers (J. A.), 88; Claudet (A. C.), 576; Collett (Prof. Robert), 597, 625; Crawford (James Ludovic Lindsay, 26th Earl of), 624, 652; Daniells (Dr. Wm. Willard), 284; Darwin (Sir George Howard, K.C.B., F.R.S.), 413; Dickinson (Dr. W. H.), 548; Dunkerley (Dr. Stanley), 56, 88; Ferguson (Dr. R. M.), 522; Fletcher (Dr. Robert), 390; Foster, see Ilkeston; Gomperz (Prof. T.), 27; Gordan (Paul), 597; Grosvenor (George Herbert), 169; Groves (Henry), 284; Ilkeston (Sir B. Walter Foster, the Right Hon. Lord), 655; Johansen (Captain F. H.), 522; Kirby » (William Forsell), 364; Koenig (Dr. G. A.), 598; Kriimmel (Prof. Otto), 227; Laval (Dr. G. de), 624, 655; Leigh- Smith, 544; Loeb (Dr. Morris), 227; Loomis (E. J.), 439; Low (F. H.), 195; McHardy (Prof. M. M.), 655; Mallet (Prof. J. W., F.R.S.), 312; Matthey (George, F.R.S.), 679; Mosenthal (Henry de), 468; Pagnoul (Aimé), 312; Parker (James), 228; Rainer (Archduke, of Austria), 598; Redfern (Dr. P.), 491; Saunder (S. A.), 415; Segond (Prof. Paul), 257; Skeat (Prof. W. W.), 169; Smith (B. Leigh), 521; Smith (Edwin), 439; Swift (Lewis), 522; Sykes (Dr. J. F. J.), 625; Tegetmeier (W. B.), 338; Teller (Dr. F.), 576; Torrey (Bradford), 227; Traquair (Dr. Ramsay H., F.R.S.), 363; Tyer (Edward), 491; Ward (Rowland), 491, 576; Whitehead (Sir Charles), 390; Williams (Dr. C. Theodore, M.V.O.), 439; Williams (Dr. O. T.), 577; Winter (Prof. Thomas), 27, 40; Witkowski (Prof. Augustus), 598 Densimeter, Manley’s Differential, N. P. Campbell, 717 Derffling Tumulus, Armin Moller, 622 Deutsche Anthropologische Gesellschaft : schrift, 622 Development Commission, Mr. Runciman, 416; Commis- sioners’ Report, 472; British Forestry, D. E. Hutchins, 486; Development Grant, 713 Development, Dr. A. Greil, L. Doncaster, 458 Diatom Valve Photographs, T. F. Smith, 258 Dictionaries: Internaciona Biologial Lexiko en Ido, &c., Dr. M. Boubier, 485; Dizionario di Merceologia e Chimica Applicata, Prof. V. Villavecchia, 699 Diffraction of Short Electromagnetic Waves by a Crystal, Prof. W. L. Bragg, 402, 410 Diffusion Figures, Dr. Hall-Edwards, 112 Diptera (Clare Island), P. H. Grimshaw, 403 Disease: Infection and its Control: Huxley Lecture, Prof. S. Flexner, 289; Medical Research and Public Health, 394; Pellagra, 467 Diseases of Animals: Diseases of Apes and Monkeys in Confinement, W. R. Blair, 58; Aspergillosis in the Ostrich, J. Walker, 403; Diseases of Stoclx and their Suppression in S. Africa: Address, Dr. A. Theiler, C.M.G., 475; Foot-and-mouth Disease, Prof. Bang, 523 Diseases of Plants: Disease of Maize in Cochin China, M. Foéx and P. Berthault, 127; Fungoid Diseases of Agricultural Plants, Prof. Jakob Eriksson, Anna Molander, 131; Crown Gall, E. F. Smith and Misses Brown and McCulloch, 314; British Plant-galls, E. W. Swanton, 488 ; Infectious Chlorosis of the Citrus, 613 Dispersion Apparatus, Self-testing of, Dr. C. V. Burton, Weimar Fest- 435 Dorset Field Club “Cecil” Prize, 390 Double Refraction produced by Distortion of Elastic Bodies by Volterra’s Theory, Prof. O. M. Corbino, 54r Dragon-flies from Borneo, F. F. Laidlaw, 376 Drainage, Main, of Towns, F. Noel Taylor, 133 Drops, Liquid Measurement by, R. Donald, 612 Drying Oils, New Era, Dr. R. S. Morrell, 494 Ductless Glands, Prof. S. Vincent, 569 Durham University Philosophical Society, 315 Dusts, Incombustible: Experiments on Abel’s Prof. H. B. Dixon and H. M. Lowe, 663 Dynamics of Mechanical Flight, Sir G. Greenhill, Prof. G. Hi. Bryan; P:R-S., 535 Theory, Earth, the: is the Earth Shrinking? H. Birrell, F. J. M. Stratton, 251; C. E. Stromeyer, 335; Earth Features and their Meaning, Prof. W. H. Hobbs, 278; Age of the Earth and suggested Radio-activity of Sodium, Dr. F. C. Brown, 419; Formation of the Earth and its Atmosphere: Address, Prof. G. Linck, Ice Earthquakes : Determination of the Epicentre of an Earth- quake, Prince B. Galitzin, G. W. Walker, 3; Record at Eskdalemuir on September 13, 88; Philippine Earth- quakes, Rev. M. Saderra Maso, 139; Turkish Earth- quake of September 13, G. W. Walker, 163; Origin of the Jamaica Earthquake of January 14, 1907, Dr. V. Cornish, 197; Graphical Construction for Epicentre, G. W. Walker, 309; Earthquake Prediction, Prof. H. F. Reid, Dr. C. Davison, 340; Earthquake at XXVIII Index Nature, April 24, 1913 Sunninghill, near Ascot, 365; Shaken Windows at Sunninghill and the November Meteor Shower, W. F. Denning, 417; Earthquakes of Haiti, J. Scherer, 366-7; Turkish Earthquake on August 9, Dr. G. Agamennone, 419; Luminous Phenomena after Wal- paraiso Earthquake not proven, Count de Montessus, 550; Earthquake Waves Velocity and Earth’s Crust, T. Terada, 579; Korea, Dr. Y. Wada, 627 East Anglia and Prehistoric Man, Prof. A. Keith, 257; Unprecedented Rainfall in East Anglia, Dr. H. R. Mill, 376; East Anglian Gravels, Prof. Hughes, 480 Easter Island: Mr. and Mrs. Routledge’s Expedition, 311 Ebur Calculator (Chemical), 367 Echinoderms, Hybridisation of, 523 Echinoids, H. L. Hawkins, 690 Echinus, Effects of Hypertonic Solutions upon the Eggs of, J. Gray, 376 Ecology, Plant: Nomenclature, Dr. Rubel, 656 Economic Zoology, see Insect Pests Economics: Principles of Economics, Vol. ii., Dr. N. G. Pierson, A. A. Wotzel, N. B. Dearle, 431; Rising Prices and the Public, Prof. J. Bauer, 524; Municipal Trading, D. Knoop, N. B. Dearle, 536; the Standard of Value, Sir D. Barbour, K.C.S.I., K.C.M.G., N. B. Dearle, 536; see also British Association Education: Rationalist English Educators, Dr. G. E. Hodgson, 99; the Montessori Method, Maria Montes- sori, Anne E. George, 99; Evolution of Educational Theory, Prof. John Adams, 99; Dr. T. L. Smith, 486; Diffusion of Education and Knowledge, A. Macdonald, 321; University Students in State-aided Institutions, 347; Advisory Committee, 349; 1’Education Physique par la Méthode Naturelle, G. Hébert, 407; Education, Prof. E. L. Thorndike, 407; Education and National Life, Dr. H. Dyer, 434; North of England Education Conference at Nottingham: Rev. W. Temple, Mr. Bird, Mrs. O. Gordon, Sir Wm. Mather, G. Cadbury, jun., J. Wilson, 526; Service of the University, Prof. N. M. Butler, 533; Educational Organisation, Lord Haldane, 546; Science at Educational Conferences, Dr. Nunn, Sir A. Geikie, Pres.R.S., G. Hewlett, Mr. Berridge, W. D. Eggar, Miss Sheavyn, Miss L. M. Drummond, G. F. Daniell, 582, 603; Preparation of our Industrial Army, J. Graham, 585; see British Association Eels, Early Larval Stages, Dr. J. Schmidt, 681 Efflorescence, Theory of, C. Boulanger and G. Urbain, 561 Egypt: Report upon Rains and Flood of Nile Basin, 146; Influence of Libyan Migrations, O. Bates, 391; Signs and Symbols, Dr. A. Churchward, Rev. J. Griffith, 406; Analysis of Soils from the Delta, Messrs. Hughes and Aladjem, 473; Egyptian Soda, A. Lucas, Dr. H. B. Jerosch and 527 “Eight Deer,” the Story of, in Codex Colombino, J. Cooper Clark, 32 Elastic Hysteresis of Steel, Prof. B. Hopkinson and G. Trevor-Williams, 401 Elastic Stability, R. V. Southwell, 636 Electrical: Capacity Coefficients of Russell, 4o1 Charges carried by @ and B Rays, J. Danysz and W. Duane, 97 Conductance of Solutions in Methylamine and Fluidity of Ammonia, &c., and Fluidity of Solutions in these Solvents, F. F. Fitzgerald, 368 Conductivity and Fluidity of Strong Solutions, 637 Currents: a Particular Kind of Electric Current, M. Gouy, 183; Arrangement of Are with Iron Electrodes with Alternate Currents, M..Hamy, 213 Discharge between Concentric Cylinders in Gases at Low Pressures, F. W. Aston, 243; Absorption of Helium and other Gases under Electric Discharge, Hon. R. J. Strutt, 349; (1) Discharge between Concentric Cylinders in Gases at Low Pressures, (2) Influence of the Kathode on the Length of the Crookes Dark Space, F. W. Aston, 349 Domestic Appliances, 551 Double Refraction, Duration Gutton, 664 Effect due to Sudden Great Increase of Pressure, Spheres, Dr. A. of Establishment of, C. Royal-Dawson, 569; Electrical and Chemical Effects of Explosion of Azoimide, Rev. P. J. Kirkby and J. E. Marsh, 612 Furnace for Experiments in vacuo up to 1500° C., R. E. Slade, 400 Heating, Use of Resistances of Granulated Metallic Chromium for, O. Dony-Henault, 586 Induction Balance, Energetics of, J. P. Dalton, 428 Lamp Association of Cleveland: Bulletin, 709 Phenomenon, A. A. Campbell Swinton, 621 Potentials, Radium as a means of obtaining High, H. G. J. Moseley, 481 Precipitation of Solid and Liquid Matter suspended in Gases, W. W. Strong, 139 Properties of Flames and of Incandescent Solids, Prof. H. A. Wilson, F.R.S., 694 Resistance of Nickel in Cross-Magnetic Fields, Dr. C. G. Knott, 664 Review, Fortieth Anniversary, 338 Time-measuring Apparatus, G. Lippmann, 507 Units : Value of International Ampere, E. B. Rosa, N. E. Dorsey, and J. M. Miller, 551 Waves, Bending of Long, round the Globe, Dr. W. H. Eccles, 410; see also British Association Electricity: William Higgins and the Imponderable Elements, 103; Instrument for detecting Combustible Gases in Air, A. Philip and L. J. Steele, 114; Influence of Nature of Kathode on Length of Crookes Dark Space, F. W. Aston, 243; Junior Magnetism and Electricity, Dr. R. H. Jude and Dr. J. Satterly, 246; Absorption of Gases in Vacuum Tubes, S. E. Hill, 298; Kelvin’s Water-dropper, Dr. von Bernoldk, 340; the Borderland between Electricity and other Sciences: Address to Institution of Electrical Engineers, W. Duddell, F.R.S., 345; Method of Measuring the Thomson Effect, H. R. Nettleton, 375; Thermal Efficiency of Gas and Electricity, W. M. Mason, 594 Applied: Examples in Applied Electricity, C. G. Lamb, 538; Electricity and its Practical Applications, Prof. M. Maclean, 567 Atmospheric: Atmospheric Electricity, Dr. G. C. Simp- son, 411; Atmospheric Potential, E. M’Lennan, 647; Dr. |G. Chree;) FR-S.; 673 Electrobiology, Prof. J. Bernstein, 618 Electrolysis : Electrolytic Conductivity, F. F. Fitzgerald, 368; la Théorie des Ions et 1’Electrolyse, A. Hollard, 567; Resistance of Electrolytes, S. W. J. Smith and H. Moss, 637 Electromagnetic Radiation and the Mechanical Reactions arising from it, Dr. G. A. Schott, 301 Electrometric Spark-gap, A. Guillet and M. Aubert, 299 Electrons, Prof. J. Stark, 100; Electron Theory of Thermo- electricity, J. McWhan, 717 Elements and Electrons, Sir W. Ramsay, K.C.B., F.R.S., 567 Elephant Hunting Expedition to East Africa, C. E. Akeley, 170 Elephant Seal, C. H. Townsend, 164 Emission of Particles by Heated Metals, D. M. Shaw, 504 Emissivity of Copper and Silver at High Temperatures, C. M. Stubbs, 636 Endothermic Compounds: Limit of Formation at Very High Temperatures, E. Briner, 429 Energetics of Induction Balance, J. P. Dalton, 428 Energy: Matter and Energy, F. Soddy, F.R.S., 187; the Energy System of Matter, James Weir, 187 Engine, Gas, Handbook of the, H. Halder, W. M. Hoskisson, 302 Engineering: Boncourt System of Gaseous Combustion, C. D. McCourt, 28; Place of Mathematics in Engineer- ing Practice, Sir W. H. White, K.C.B., F.R.S., 95; Ancient Iron Beams in India, H. G. Graves, 140; Strength of Structure and Mathematics, 140; Transac- tions of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 190; Reference Book for Statical Calculations, Force- diagrams for Frameworks, Tables, &c., F. Ruff, 302; les Nomogrammes de |’Ingénieur, R. S. de la Garza, 302; Laboratory Instruction Sheets in Elementary Applied Mechanics, Prof. A. Morley and W. Inchley, 302 ; Handbook on the Gas Engine, H. Halder, W. M. Huskisson, 302; Concrete Costs, Dr. F. W. Taylor Nature, ] April 24, 1913 L[ndex XX1X and S. E. Thompson, 302; Chinese Openings, 340; Staff Officers in Industrial Works: Address, Sir A. T. Dawson, 452; Collected Papers, Prof. James Thomson, F.R.S., Sir J. Larmor, Sec.R.S. and James Thomson, Prof. Perry, F.R.S., 563; see also British Association Engineering, Sanitary: House Drainage, G. Thomson, 484 Englishwoman’s Year Book and Directory, 1913, 485 Entomology: Termites, T. B. Fletcher, 90; die Assimila- tionstatigkeit bei Schmetterlings-Puppen, Prof. Grafin von Linden, 379; Bees of Australia and Tasmania, T. D. A. Cockerell, 481; Australian Curculionidz (Weevils), A. M. Lea, 481; British Plant-galls, E. W. Swanton, Mary K. Spittal, 488; Elementary Ento- mology, E. D. Sanderson and Prof. C. F. Jackson, 488 ; Katalog der palaarktischen Hemipteren, B. Oshanin, 513; Tetrigine, Dr. Hancock, 550; see also Insects Equation of State, Prof. H. K. Onnes and Dr. W. H. Keesom, 493 “Erewhon,” Note-books of the Author of, Samuel Butler, H. F. Jones, 695 Eskimo: Tribe of White Eskimos, D. MacRitchie, 133; Appeal for Protection of the Eskimo, V. Stefansson, 366 Ethnography : Papua, J. H. P. Murray, 544 Ethnology: West Australia, Map, A. R. Brown, 57; the Abors in 1853, Rev. Fr. N. Krick, 64; Early Man in S. America, 112; Oriental Steelyards and Bismars, H. Ling Roth, 229; the Head Hunters of N. Luzon, D. C. Worcester, 229; Significance of Life to the Omaha, Miss Alice Fletcher, Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.R.S., 234; the Mekeo People of New Guinea, R. W. Williamson, 324; Customs of the World, W. Hutchinson, Editor, 330; Signs and Symbols and the Ancient Egyptians, Dr. A. Churchward, Rev. J. Griffith, 406; Marriage Customs of the Gehara Kanjars, W. Kirkpatrick, 481; Fragment of Buddhist Work in Ancient Aryan Lan- guage of Turkestan, Dr. S. Konow, 508; Ayi Pantha, a Cult in Marwar State, M. H. Sastri, 508; Picturesque Nepal, P. Brown, 544; the Cochin Tribes and Castes, L. K. Anantha K. Iyer, 565; Origin of Civilisation and the Primitive Condition of Man, Right Hon. Lord Avebury, 565; the Salinan Indians of California, J. A. Mason, 578; Papuan Mummification, Dr. R. Hamlyn- Harris, 578; South America, James Bryce, 615; (1) the Oraibi Marau Ceremony, (2) Hopi Papers, H. R. por, Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.R.S., 630; Recent Work, 60 Etiology of Pellagra, Drs. Sambon and Chalmers, 196 Eucalypts of Paramatta District, C. Hall, 455 Euclid’s Method of Treating the Theory of Proportion: Modification, Prof. M. J. M. Hill, F.R.S., 400 Eugenics: Two Lectures to the Medical Profession, Prof. K. Pearson, F.R.S., 111; Papers read at International Congress, 111; Primitive Eugenics, E. Torday, 317; “What it Means,” W. Kaempffert, 391; Heredity and Eugenics, W. E. Castle and others, L. Doncaster, 458; Notation for Pedigrees, 627 Europe: a Geography of Europe, T. Alford Smith, 157 Evolution of Animal Intelligence, Prof. S. J. Holmes, 160; Theory of Evolution, Rev. K. Frank, S.J., C. T. Druery, 670; Evolution and the Need of Atonement, S. A. McDowall, 695; see also Heredity Exodus, the Land of Goshen and the, Sir Hanbury Brown, K.C.M.G., 131 ‘ Experimental Science: II., Chemistry, S. E. Brown, 217 Explosion of Tubes containing Compressed Air and Hydrogen, M. Lelarge, 325; Explosion of Azoimide, Rey. P. J. Kirkby and J. E. Marsh, 612 Explosions in Mines Committee’s Report, Galloway, 552 Explosives used in Engineering and Mining, C. Hall, 190 Eyes: Ocular Accommodation in Birds, C. J. Bond, 71; Eyesight and Typography, 651 Prof. W. Fairy Lore of Bird and Beast, Lilian Gask, 331 Falmouth Observatory, 387 : Farm Dairying, Laura Rose, 131 Fatty Foods, E. R. Bolton and C. Revis, 668 a ane Graphical Solution of, C. F. Tolman, jun., 2 Fermentation of Sugar by Bacillus subtilis, M. Lemoigne, ae Rone OF ord Howe IelanaeRey. Ww. We, Watts) 8 Fertilisers and Crops, Dr. L. L. Van Slyke, 131 Fiction: Their Winged Destiny: a Tale of Two Planets, D. W. Horner, 160; the Triuneverse, by the Author of “Space and Spirit,” 216 Fig-tree and its Insect Guest, Biology of the, Dr. R. Ravasini, 310; Fig-tree Cult, W. H. Beech, 680 Finger-prints, Dactylography or the Study of, H. Faulds, 189 Firebricks, Melting Points of, C. W. Kanolt, 658 Fireproofing, R. L. Humphrey, 657 Fish: the Moon and Poisonous Fish, E. G. Bryant, 305; D. E. Hutchins, 382; 417; Breeding-habits of the “Millions” Fish, E. G. Boulenger, 350; Teratology of Fishes, Dr. J. F. Gemmill, 359; Fishes, Dr. R. H. Traquair, 363 ; Three New Fishes from the Gold Coast, G. A. Boulenger, Dr. Spurrell, 376; Structure of Bone in Extinct Fishes, E. S. Goodrich, 453; Antarctic Fishes, C. IT. Regan, 506; Salmon Scale Research, Miss P. C. Esdaile, 533 Fisheries: Plaice Fisheries of the North Sea, 283; Eastern Sea Fisheries, 313; Fisheries Advisory Scientific Committee, 491; Board’s Committee for Inshore Fisheries, 597 Fishing: la Péche au Bord de la Mer, L. Jouenne and J. H. Perreau, 358 Fishmongers’ Company Dinner, 256 Flannelette, Fireproofing, Prof. Perkin, Prof. Morgan, 194 Flea, Transmission of Recurrent Fever by the, C. Nicolle and others, 30 Flight: Sailing Flight of Birds, Prof. E. H. Hall, 161; F. W. Headley, 220; the Dynamics of Mechanical Flight, Sir G. Greenhill, Prof. G. H. Bryan, F.R.S., Fline? (x) Glaciation and Striation, 219; (2) the Sub-Crag Flint Inplements, 249; (3) the Investigation of Flint, 331, all Sir E. Ray Lankester, K.C.B., F.R.S.; the Making of a Rostro-carinate Flint Implement, J. Reid Moir, 334; Worked Flints from the Raised Beach near Holywood, Co. Down, H. Home, 361; Investigation of Flint, G. Abbott, 411; Natural Fracture of Flint, J. Reid Moir, 461 Flower Sanctuary, F. H. Perrycoste, 71, 162; Right Hon. Sin) Ed sy) GC. B23) BOR=S-) 1025) 162); AN eRo) Hor- wood, 162 Flowers : Wild Flowers as They Grow, H. E. Corke, G. C. Nuttall, Dr. F. Cavers, 432; Precocity of Spring Flowers, Eleonora Armitage, Lady Lockyer, Edith How Martyn, 543; Flowers in January, W. Watson, 622 Fluorite Objectives, C. Metz, 603 Foods: Their Origin, Composition, and Manufacture, Dr. Wm. Tibbles, 357; Fatty Foods, E. R. Bolton and C. Revis, 668; Wheat Supply of Great Britain, 678 Foot-and-mouth Disease, Prof. Bang, 523 Foraminifera: Saccammina sphaerica and Psammosphaera fusca in the North Sea, E. Heron-Allen and A. Earland, 350, 401, 447; Foraminifera of the British Isles, Recent, E. Heron-Allen, 487 Force-diagrams for Frameworks, F. Ruff, 302 Forestry : Svlviculture in the Tropics, A. F. Broun, 362; Dwarf Forests of S. California, 470; British Forestry and the Development Commission, D, E. Hutchins, 486; Illustriertes Handbuch der Laubholzkunde, C. K. Schneider, 511; the Story of Our Trees in Twenty-four Lessons, Margaret M. Gregson, 511; Forestry in New England, Prof. R. C. Hawley and A. F. Hawes, 511; Lightning in Relation to Forest Fires, F. G. Plummer, 511 Forfarshire, E. S. Valentine, 643 Fossils : Structure of the Stromatoporoid Skeleton and on Eozoon, R. Kirlpatrick, 37; Wealden Fossils presented to British Museum, Revs. P. Teilhard and F. Pelletier, S.J., 111; Fossil Cycads, Dr. C. R. Wieland, 314; Fossiliferous Sandstone discovered at Southall, E. Proctor, 350; Trilobite Fauna of Comley Breccia- bed (Shropshire), 453; Fossil Pith of a Cycadean Stem, T. A. Coward, 533; Prothalli from the Lower Coal XXX [ndex Nature, April 24, 1913 Measures, R. C. McLean, 626; Fossil Flora of York- shire, H. H. Thomas, 663; see also Paleontology Fowl Tick: Sensory Perceptions, Dr. E. Hindle and G. Merriman, 392 Fowls, Inheritance of Fecundity in, Collinge, 526 French : Science French Course, C. W. P. Moffatt, 190 Frogs, Hair-like Appendages in Males of certain, Dr. B. Dean, 492 Fruits: Pollination of Hardy Fruits, C. H. Hooper and F. Chittenden, 91; C. H. Hooper, 505; Fruit Research Station at Malling, 661 Fuels, Mineral, 659 Fulmar Breeding Range, Mr. Harvie-Brown, 475 Functions of Real Variables, Theory of, Prof. J. Pier- point, 642 Fungi: Toxicity of Fungi, J. Parisot and M. Vernier, 184; Action of Cadmium on Sterigmatocystis nigra, M. Javillier, 507; Sphaeria lemaneae, W. B. Brierley, 690 Fungoid Diseases of Plants, Prof. J. Eriksson, Anna Molander, 131 R. Pearl, W. E. Galls: Crown Gall, E. F. Smith, Miss Brown and Miss McCulloch, 314; British Plant-galls, E. W. Swanton, Mary K. Spittal, 488 Galvanometer, a Dead-heat, with Moving Needle, C. Féry, 376 37 Gamma Rays: Excitation of y Rays by a Rays, J. Chad- wick and A. S. Russell, 463, 690; 480; Ionisation Currents produced in Solids by, A. Zaroubine, 524 Ganglion in the Human Temporal Bone, A. A. Gray, 662 Garden, the Rock, R. Farrer, Dr. F. Cavers, 433; Tulips, Rev. J. Jacob, Dr. F. Cavers, 433 Gas: Kinetic Theory of Ionised Gases and Carnot’s Principle, M. Gouy, 272; Determination of Dielectric Cohesion of a Rare Gas, E. Bouty, 455; Coal Gas, W. J. A. Butterfield, 494; Gaseous Explosions Com- mittee’s Report, 498; London Gas Supply, 580; Thermal Efficiency of Gas and Electricity, W. M. Mason, 594 Gas Engine, Handbook on the, H. Halder, W. M. Huskisson, 302 Gas Pumps, Humphrey, 683 Gasworks, Chemistry in, W. J. A. Butterfield, 628 Gelatine Manufacture, L. A. Thiele, 190 Gems, W. F. P. McLintock, 470 Geochemical Statistics, F. W. Clarke, 197 Geodesy: Grandeur et Figure de la Terre, J. B. J. Delambre, 101; International Geodesic Association, B. Baillaud, 272; International Geodetic Conference, 471; Survey of India, 703 Geography: Land of Goshen and the Exodus, Sir H. Brown, K.C.M.G., 131; Man and his Conquest of Nature, Dr. M. I. Newbigin, 131; Cambridge Geo- graphical Text-books—Intermediate, A. J. Dicks, 157; a Geography of Europe, T. Alford Smith, 157; Erichsen’s Maps of Greenland, 258; a First Book of General Geography, B. C. Wallis, 329; Maps, Prof. H. N. Dickson, 329; les Alpes de Provence: Guide, G. Tardieu, 329; Regional Geography: the World, J. B. Reynolds, 330; Libya Italica: Terreni ed Acque, P. V. de Regny, 330; New South Wales, A. W. Jose and others, 381; Through Shén-Kan, R. S. Clark and A. de C. Sowerby, 544; Deutsche Siidpolar-Expedition, 1901-3, E. von Drygalski, 572; South America, James Bryce, 615; the Elements of Geography, R. D. Salis- bury, H. H. Barrows, and W. S. Tower, 643; see also Antarctic, British Association, and Maps British : the Marlborough Country, H. C. Brentnall and C. C. Carter, 157; Black’s Modern Guide to Harro- gate, Gordon Home, 329; Cambridge County Geo- graphies: Radnorshire, L. Davies; Renfrewshire, F. Mort; Perthshire, P. Macnair; Dumfriesshire, Dr. J. K. Hewison; North Lancashire, Dr. JE Marr: F.R.S., all 382; a Geography of the British Empire, Prof. A. J. Herbertson and R. L. Thompson, 643; the Lost Towns of the Yorkshire Coast and other Chapters, T. Sheppard, 643 Morphological: Prof. S. Passarge, 470 Physical : Physical Geography for South African Schools, A. L. Du Toit, 157; a Class Book of Physical Geography, A. T. Simmons and E. Stenhouse, 157 Geological Society : Election of Officers, 706 Geology : General: Glaciation and Striation, Rev. Dr. A. Irving, 103 ; Physiography for High Schools, A. L. Carey and others, Prof. G. A. J. Cole, 159; Structural and Field Geology: for Students of Pure and Applied Science, Prof, Ji. Geikie, FoR-S:, Prof. G:) A. J. Coley asoy Flint: Sir E. Ray Lankester, K.C.B., F.R.S., 210, 249, 231; J. Reid Moir, 334, 461; H. Home, 361; G. Abbott, 411; Is the Earth Shrinking? H. Birrell, F. J. M. Stratton, 251; C. E. Stromeyer, 335; Earth Features and their Meaning, Prof. W. H. Hobbs, 278; Graphical Solution of Fault Problems, C. F. Tolman, jun., 278; Types of Ore Deposits, edited by H. F. Bain, 278; the Coral Genus Aulophyllum, S. Smith, 427; Rivers, Glaciers, and the Ice-Age, 444; Complete Rock-disintegration by Weathering, Dr. F. H. Hatch, 81 Local: British Isles: Corals of Limestone Layers of Avon Gorge, Bristol, 111; Upper Old Red Sandstone with Fish Remains found near London, 227; a Geological Excursion Handbook for the Bristol Dis- trict, Prof. S. H. Reynolds, 278; an Introduction to British Clays and Shales, A. B. Searle, 278; West of England Mining Region, J. H. Collins, 278; Lower Paleozoic Rocks of the Cautley District (Yorkshire), J. E. Marr, 453; British Triassic Strata: Keuper Marls near Charnwood, T. O. Bosworth, 470; Gravels of East Anglia, Prof. Hughes, 480; the Meres of Breckland, Dr. Marr, 481; Mineral Composition of some Cambridgeshire Sands and Gravels, R. H. Rastall, 481; Recent Foraminifera of the British Isles, E. Heron-Allen, 487; Interbasaltic Iron Ores of North- east Ireland, Prof. Cole, 600; Mass of Anhydrite in Magnesian Limestone at Hartlepool, C. T. Trechmann, 637; Derived Cephalopoda of the Holderness Drift, C. Thompson, 663; Two deep Borings at Calvert Station, and the Palzozoic Floor North of the Thames, Dr. H. E. Roaf, 716 Local: Abroad: Madagascar Quartz, A. Lacroix, 97; Palestine, Prof. Max Blanckenhorn, 165; Marine Molluscs in W. European Pliocene Area, Dr. J. P. Tesch, 230; Alpine Excursion of the Geologische Vereinigung, O. Termier, 272; Age of Shining Schists of Alps, W. Kilian and C. Pussenot, 324; Hafslo Lake and Solvorn Valley, Norway, H. W. Monckton, 427; Antarctic Geology: Rocks of Western Wilkes Land, E. Philippi, Dr. Reinisch, 573; South African Geology, Prof. E. H. L. Schwarz, 590; Geology of New Zealand, Dr. P. Marshall, 590; Introduction to Geology of New South Wales, C. A. Siissmilch, 590; Malay Peninsula, J. B. Scrivenor, 636; U.S. Geological Survey: Texas, S. Paige: Wyoming, Oil Fields, E. G. Woodruff, C. H. Wegemann: Alaska, P. S. Smith, H. M. Eakin, F. H. Moffit, S. R. Capps: Mineral Fuels, M. R. Campbell, 659; Results of the British Antarctic Expedi- tion, 675; the Alps, Prof. Bonney, F.R.S., 703 See also British Association Geometry : Geometry of the Triangle, Prof. G. Sidler, 259; a Shorter Geometry, C. Godfrey, M.V.O., and A. W. Siddons, 275; a New Geometry, W. M. Baker and A. A. Bourne, 275; Lessons in Geometry, Dr. C. McLeod, 275; Solutions of the Examples in Godfrey and Siddons’s Solid Geometry, C. L. Beaven, 275; Treatise on the Analytical Geometry of Three Dimen- sions, Dr. G. Salmon, F.R.S., R. A. P. Rogers, 275; Orthopole of a Triangle, W. Gallatly, 493; Non- Euclidean Geometry, Prof. R. Bonola, Prof. H. S. Carslaw, 697 ; Geophysical Memoirs, 309; Geophysical Journal, 339 Ghent International Exhibition and British Medical Science, 58 Gifts ana Grants : America: California University, 20,o000l., left by Mrs. Carrie M. Jones, 272; Cornell University, 2000l., from Mr. and Mrs. Eugene Meyer, in memory of their son lost in the Titanic, 715; Knox College, 25,o00l., by three wills, 715; Mount Holyoke College, 110,400l., collected, 272; Ohio-Miami Medical College, 25,000l., Nature, ] April 24, 1913 Index XA Gifts and Grants (continued) : 715; Scientific Institutions in the United States, 15,000]. and Residuary Estate, bequeathed by Prof. Morris Loeb, 505; Yale University, 50,0001, bequeathed by M. C. D. Borden, and the McPherson fund of about go,oool., 182 Britain: Bristol University, 150,o00]., from G. A. and H. W. Wills, 661; Cambridge University, 90,000l., bequest from Rev. J. H. Ellis, 532; Cambridge University, Endowment for Professorship of Astro- physics, Anon., 688; Dublin University and Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, 5000l., bequeathed by R. J. Montgomery, 451; Durham University, 8ool., bequeathed by Lord Ilkeston, for a Scholarship for Women Students, 715; Edinburgh University, 10,000l., from the late Misses Dalgety and Mrs. Dalgety, 323; Linnean Society, 1ool., bequest from Sir J. Hooker, 680; Liverpool University, 20,000]., bequeathed by Thos. Bartlett, 297; London, Battersea Polytechnic, zoool., from Edwin Yate, 451; London, Natural Histery Museum, bequests from Rowland Ward, 577; South London Botanical Institute, 10,o00/. and other property, bequeathed by A. O. Hume, C.B., 57; London, University College Buildings, anonymous bene- faction, 611; London, Zoological Gardens, Terraces from J. N. Mappin, and 1oool. for an Insect House from Sir J. K. Caird, Bart., 577; Mill Hill School, 50001. from Mrs. Richardson, 532; Osborne Royal Naval College, rebuilding, 200,0001., 452; Oxford University, for Forestry, 69o0l., from Sir Wm. Schlich, 451; South Wales University College, another 2750l. from W. J. Thomas, 689; Wye Agricultural College, for Fruit Research, 50o0l., from Board of Agriculture, 323 France: French Science, 25,9601. (649,000 francs), be- queathed by Madame Jonglart, 57; Paris University Institute of Chemistry, 4oool., offered by A. Carnegie, 297; Paris University, a further 20,000]. from the Marquise Arconati-Visconti, 491 Germany: Bavarian Academy of Sciences, 20,o000l., bequest from Alfred Samson, 661; Prussian Academy of Sciences, 100,000]., bequest from Alfred Samson, 661 Italy: R. Accademia dei Lincei, 4ooo0l. from Dr. G. Modigliani, and 20001. from Signora Celli Dutuit, 88 Siberia: House of Science at Tomsk founded by Peter Makoushin, 297 Glaciers: Glacier Erosion, P. Morin; Alaska, Prof. R. S. Tarr, O. D. von Engeln; Shelly Moraine in Spits- bergen, G. W. Lamplugh, all 445; les Variations Périodiques des Glaciers: Report, C. Rabot and E. Muret, 490 Glaciology: Glacial Period, Prof. E. Hull, F.R.S., 32; Glaciation and Striation, Rev. Dr. A. Irving, 103; Sir E. Ray Lankester, K.C.B., F.R.S., 219; Glacial Flora and Fauna of Baden, Dr. P. Stark, 339; Pleistocene Glaciation and Coral-reefs, R. A. Daly, 445 Glass Tube, Teat and Capillary, Sir A. E. Wright, F.R.S., R. T. Hewlett, 218 Globe with Contour Colouring, Bacon’s New, 161 Gold: Emissivity at High Temperatures, E. M. Stubbs and Dr. Prideaux, 349; Chemical Reactions of B-Gold and Crystallised Gold, M. Hanriot and F. Raoult, 428 Golden Bough, the: a Study in Magic and Religion, Part v.: Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild, Prof. J. G. Frazer, A. E. Crawley, 66 Goshen and the Israelites, Sir Hanbury Brown, K.C.M.G., 131 Government Chemist’s Report, 387 Gramophone Experiments, E. de McKendrick, F.R.S., 306 Grasshoppers, Birds as Destroyers of, H. C. Bryant, 475 Gravitation Theory, New, Prof. G. Jaumann, 579 Gravity : Pendulum Experiments in Alsace, Dr. E. Becker, 172; Deviations of Falling Bodies, W. H. Roever, 524 Greenland: Erichsen’s Maps, 258; Capt. Mikkelsen’s Expedition to N.E. Greenland, 548 Greund Bean, New, 91 Groundsel, Prof. A. H. Trow, 708 Gymnosperms, Some Indian Jurassic, Miss Nellie Bancroft, 452 fawRues Prof. J. G: Hemophilia, F. Lenz, 360 Hafslo Lake, Norway, H. W. Monckton, 427 Hall Effect in Antimony, J. Becquerel and others, 691 Halos: Halo in the Ricefield, Profs. Fuchino and Izu, 419; Halo in the Ricefield and the Spectre of the Brocken, Alice Everett, 570; Halos surrounding Shadows of Heads, J. Evershed, L. L. Fermor, 592; Rev. O. Fisher, Dr. H. Franklin Parsons, L. Doncaster, 621; the Water-surface Halo, Prof. A. M. Worthington, C.B., P:R-S., 647 Hardness of Coins, Dr. T. K. Rose, 335 Hare, the Story of a, J. C. Tregarthen, 670 Harmonic Analysis: Corrections to apply to Arithmetic Means of Groups of Periodic Observations, Y. Tsuiji, 286 Harrogate, Black’s Modern Guide to, edited by G. Home, 329 Health, Perfect, for Women and Children, Elizabeth S. Chesser, 484 Heart Muscle Discs, H. E. Jordan and K. B. Steele, 492 Heat: Method of determining Ratio of the Two Specific Heats of a Gas, A. Leduc, 325; Improved Joule Radio- meter, F. W. Jordan, 375; Attainment of a Steady State when Heat diffuses along a Moving Cylinder, Miss A. Somers, 375; Specific Heat of Bodies at Low Temperatures, J. Duclaux, 377; Latent Heats of Evaporation and Maximum Pressures, A. Leduc, 613; Expansion of Metals and Quartz, Dr. W. Bein, 657; Heat Insulation, C. R. Darling, 709 Heaton’s Annual, 699 Helium: Absorption of Helium under Electric Discharge, Hon. R. J. Strutt, 349; Appearance of Helium and Neon in Vacuum Tubes, Sir J. J. Thomson, O.M., F.R.S., 645; F. Soddy, 654; Sir W. Ramsay, 653; Prof. J. N. Collie, F.R.S., and H. S. Patterson, 653, 699 Heredity : Alternative Heredity of Mental Traits, Dr. F. A. Woods, 317; Trait Book, Prof. C. B. Davenport, 317; Apparent Fallacy in Statistical Treatment of “Ante- dating” in Inheritance of Pathological Conditions, Prof. K. Pearson, F.R.S., 334; Inheritance in Stocks, Edith R. Saunders, 350; Eggs of Phasianus versicolor, P. formosus, and of a Cross, Mrs. Rose Haig Thomas, 350; Ueber die krankhaften Erbanlagen des Mannes, F. Lenz, 360; Inheritance of Self-sterility in Reseda odorata, R. H. Compton, 376; Heredity and Eugenics, W. E. Castle, J. M. Coulter, C. B. Davenport, E. M. East and W. L. Tower, L. Doncaster, 458; Richt- linien des Entwicklungs- und Vererbungs-problems, Dr. A. Greil, L. Doncaster, 458; Human Heredity, H. E. Jordan, 469; Inheritance of Fecundity in Fowls, R. Pearl, W. E. Collinge, 526; Human Abnormalities, Prof. H. E. Jordan, 626; Transmission of Environ- mental Effects in Simocephalus vetulus, W. E. Agar, 635; Heredity and Memory, Prof. J. Ward, 656; Heredity, J. Arthur Thomson, 671; see also Mendelian Herpetologia Europzea, Dr. E. Schreiber, 339 Hertzian Waves, Use of Horizontal Wires for receiving, P. Jégcu, 273 Himalaya Mts., Origin of the, Col. S. G. Burrard, F.R.S., 793 History of the Eastern Libyans, Oric Bates, 391; History of Science, Importance of Autograph Documents in, Dr. K. Loewenfeld, 402 Homo Sapiens, Dr. Giuffrida-Ruggeri, 483 Hong Kong University, 560 Hopi Ceremonies, H. R. Voth, Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.R.S., 630 Horse: the Tarpan, Dr. O. Antonius, 59 Hull Museum, 137; T. Sheppard, 258 Human Remains of Pleistocene Period Dawson, 390, 438 Humble-Bee, F. W. L. Sladen, 252 Humming Sounds due to Flies, Dr. Humus Formation by Interaction Sugars, L. C. Maillard. Hybrids: Echinus Eggs, J. Gray, 376; Hybridisation of Echinoderms, 523 Hydrocarbons, Estimation of Acetylene in Mixtures of Gaseous, P. Lebeau and A. Damiens, 717 in Sussex, C. E. E. Green, 708 of Amino-acids with XXXII [ndex Hydrocyanic Acid, New Group of Plants producing, M. Mirande, 273 Hydrodynamics, A.B.C. of, Lieut.-Col. R. de Villamil, 275 Hydrogen : Explosion of Compressed Hydrogen, M. Lelarge, 325; Series of Lines in Spectrum of Hydrogen, Prof. A. Fowler, 454; New Hydrogen Spectra, A. Fowler, 466; Zeeman Phenomenon in the Hydrogen Spectrum, F. Croze, 561 Hydrography: Gulfs of Bothnia and Finland, Dr. R. Witting, Mrs. Ellen Witting, 146; Observations in the Tongue of the Ocean, G. H. Drew, D. J. Matthews, 350; Circular Currents in Sea of Japan, Dr. Wada, 550 Hydromechanics: Pressure of Fluids on Planes, Avanzini, Col. de Villamil, 91; see also Mechanics Hygiene : Cambridge University Press and Public Hygiene, A) Hypnotism and Disease, Dr. H. C. Miller, 484 Hysteresis, Elastic, of Steel, Prof. B. Hopkinson and G. Trevor-Williams, gor a Small Pond, Dicre we Remarkable Formation of Ice on A. S. E. Ackermann, 411; Ice-Ages, 445; Spitalen, 657 Icebergs: Change of Temperature due to Melting of Ice- bergs, Prof. H. T. Barnes, F.R.S., 408, 671 ; Tempera- ture Observations from Steamers’ Log-books, 441; Influence of Icebergs on Sea Temperature, Dr. J. Aitken, F.R.S., 513; Iceberg Observation Vessel in the Atlantic—the Scotia, 680, 706; Ice in Atlantic, 681 ; Actual Conditions affecting Icebergs, W. Bell Dawson, Ice: 700 Iceland, Highlands in, L. Wunder, 470; Marine Algal Vegetation of Iceland, Dr. H. Jonsson, 645 Ido: Internaciona Biologial Lexiko, Dr. M. Boubier, 485 Illumination : Science of Illumination, Dr. L. Bloch, W. C. Clinton, 315; Illuminating Engineering Society for Germany, 365; Studies in Light Production, Dr. R. A. Houston, 460; see also Lighting Illuminator’s Palette from the Seventh Century, Dr. A. P. Laurie, 399 Ilmenite from the Lengenbach Quarry, Prof. W. J. Lewis, 375 Immigration and Anthropometry, 667 Immunisation against Staphylococcus pyogenes Intestinal, J. Courmont and A. Rochaix, 717 Immunity, E. Abderhalden, 66 Index Zoologicus No. II., C. O. Waterhouse, D. Sharp, F.R.S., 569 India: Agriculture in India, 115; Weather of India and her Seas, W. E. Hurd, 171; Educational Appointments, 182; Visvakarma, Dr. A. K. Coomaraswamy, 257; Report on Practical Education, Col. Atkinson and Mr. Dawson, 297; Forest Cultivation in Tropical Regions, A. F. Broun, 362; Meteorological Department, 387; Data of Heavy Rainfall over Short Periods, 392; Agricultural Statistics, 441; Soil Fertility, Mr. Coventry, 473; the Lushei Kuki Clans, Lieut.-Col. J. Shakespear, 464; From the Black Mt. to Waziristan, Col. H. C. Wylly, C.B., 464; Marriage Customs of the Gehara Kanjars, W. Kirkpatrick, 481; Seedling Canes in India, Dr. C. A. Barber: Agricultural Cattle, C. E. Low; Catching Destructive Moths and Caterpillars, E. J. Woodhouse and T. B. Fletcher; Yellow Fever via Panama Canal, F. M. Howlett, all 528; Indian Guild of Science and Technology, 598; Black Cotton Soils, Messrs. Harrison and Sivan, 626; Biological Work in India, 685; Origin of the Himalaya Mts., Col. Burrard, F.R.S., 703; Theory of Isostasy in India, Major H. L. Crosthwait, R.E., 703; Educa- tional Policy, 715 Infantile Paralysis, see Poliomyelitis to the Fifteenth aureus, Infection and its Control: Huxley Lecture, Prof. S. Flexner, 289 Insect Pests: Prof. Theobald’s Report, 174; Mexican Cotton-boll Weevil, 339; Insect Porters of Bacterial Infections, Dr. C. J. Martin, F.R.S., 577 Insects : Crayfish coated with Eggs of Hemipterous Insects, Prof. J. F. Abbott, 139; “Souvenirs entomologiques,” J. H. Fabre, 196; Cochineal Insects, E. E. Green, 230; the Fig-tree and its Insect Guest, Dr. Ravasini, 310; Nature, April 24, 1913 Bees shown to the Children, E. Hawks, 358; Dragon- flies, F. F. Laidlaw, 376; Insect Intelligence, F. Enock, 480; Pollination of Hardy Fruits, C. H. Hooper, 91, 505 Instinct, 160 Institute of Chemistry: New Quarters, 57; Proceedings, 440 ; Institute of Metals: Autumn Meeting, 199 Institution of Civil Engineers: Awards for Papers, 196; Presidential Address: R. Elliott-Cooper, 315 Institution of Electrical Engineers: Presidential Address, W. Duddell, F.R.S., 345 Integration, New Theory, Prof. W. H. Young, 612 Inventions, Seven Most Wonderful, 91 Ionic Size in Relation to Molecular Physics and New Law for Heats of Formation of Molecules, W. R. Bousfield, 401 Ionisation: Jonisation of Sulphuric Acid in dilute Aqueous Solution, 507; Ionisation Currents produced in Solids by Gamma Rays, A. Zaroubine, 524; Ionisation due to Radiation reflected from Crystals, Prof. W. H. Bragg, F.R.S., 572; Positive Ionisation produced by Platinum and by certain Salts when Heated, Dr. F. Horton, 612 Ionomagnetic Rotation, Prof. Righi, 230 Ions: la Théorie des Ions et |’Electrolyse, A. Hollard, 567 Iridosmine, C. B. Horwood, 287 Iron: Ancient Iron Beams in India, H. G. Graves, 140; Iron Ores and Bauxites of N.E. Ireland, 600; a Nodule of Iron Pyrites, Prof. H. L. Bowman, 613 Iron and Steel Institute’s Autumn Meeting: Production of Sound Ingots, Sir R. Hadfield, F.R.S., Dr. H. Gold- schmidt, Dr. J. E. Stead; Allotropy, Mr. Benedicks, 316 Isolation Hospitals, Report on, Dr. H. F. Parsons, 285 Isomerism, W. Mecklenburg, 287 Ivy, Dr. F. Tobler, 418 Jamaica Hurricane in November, 365 Japan: Japanese Cephalopods, S. S. Berry, 229; Japanese Agriculture and Geographical Conditions, Miss E. C. Semple, 318; Imperial University of Tokyo, 479; Climates of Japan, G. Ishida, 627 Junior Institution of Engineers: President’s Address, 452 Jupiter: Summary of Phenomena of Markings, W. Denning, 60; Observations, 393 Jurassic Plants from Cromarty, Bancroft, 506 Prof. Seward and N. Katanga, Sleeping Sickness in the, F. O. Stohr, 337 Kathode, Influence of Nature of, on Length of Crookes Dark Space, F. W. Aston, 243 Kelvin’s Water-dropper, Explanation, Dr. von Bernoldk, 340 Kent’s Cavern: Human Jaw from the Stalagmite, A. R. Hunt, 134, 190; Prof. A. Keith, 135; E. A. Parkyn, 281; What the British Caves might Tell Us, W. J. Lewis Abbott, 382; Human Tooth in the Cave Earth, A. R. Hunt, 649 \ Kimberley, Meteorology of, Dr. J. R. Sutton, 403 Kinemacolor, 598 Kinematics : Systémes Cinématiques, Prof. L. Crelier, 569 Kinematograph and Natural Science, L. Donaldson, 187; Kinematograph Hand Camera: the “Aéroscope,” K. Proszynski, 712 King’s College, London: Opening of New Laboratories of Bacteriology and Public Health, 289 Labrador Current, Effect on Temperature, Commander M. W. C. Hepworth, C.B., 309 Lamprey, Breeding Habits of the Sea-, Dr. L. Hussahof, 549 Land, Common, and Inclosure, Prof. E. C. K. Gonner, 301 Language: Vocal Sounds of an Anthropoid Ape, L. Boutan, 325 Larne, Technical Instruction in, T. Clearkin, 532 - Latitude Variation: Physical Cause. of the z-Term, S. Shinjo, 232; Latitude Variation and Change of Mean Sea-level, Dr. F. Omori, 471; the Kimura Term, 683 Nature, ] April 24, 1913 Index XXXill Lead Concentrating Mill in New South Wales, S. C. Bullock, 586 Leather Chemists’ Pocket-book, 360 Left-handedness, H. E. Jordan, 469 Legends of our Little Brothers, Lilian Gask, 331 Lens or Burning Glass? John Phin, 571 Lepidoptera: Experimental Researches on Variations in Colouring, Dr. Arnold Pictet, F. Merrifield, 135; see Butterflies Leprosy in New South Wales, Dr. Thompson, 366 Libya Italica, P. V. de Regny, 330 Lichens, List of British, 392 Life, Mechanistic Conception of, Dr. J. Loeb, Prof. E. A. Schafer, F.R.S., 327 Lifts in Palace in Ancient Rome, Prof. Boni, 709 Light : ; General: Practical Exercises in Physiological Optics, Dr. G J. Burch, F-R-S., 187; Preston’s’ “Theory of Light”: New Edition, 231; Mémoires sur 1’Electricité et l’Optique, A. Potier, 246; Treatise on Light, Christiaan Huygens, Silvanus P. Thompson, 246; Lehrbuch der Optik, P. Drude, Dr. E. Gehrcke, 567 Special: Sensitiveness of Selenium to Different Colours, A. H. Pfund, 136; New Method of Measuring Velocity, C. Féry, 299; Scattering and Absorption in Gaseous Media with applications to Sky Radiation, L. V. King, 349; Emissivity of Gold, E. M. Stubbs and Dr. Prideaux, 349; Optical Properties at the Critical Point, C. Smith, 349; Application of Optical Methods to Technical Problems of Stress Distribution, Prof. E. G. Coker, 383; Chemical Effects of Light, W. A. Davis, 393; Halos surrounding Shadows of Heads, Profs. Fuchino and Izu, 419; Miss A. Everett, 570; J. Ever- shed, L. L. Fermor, 592; Dr. H. F. Parsons, L. Don- caster, 621; on Water, Rev. O. Fisher, 621; Prof. A. M. Worthington, C.B., F.R.S., 647; Self-testing of Dispersion Apparatus, Prof. C. V. Burton, 435; Luminosity in Plants, Prof. H. Molisch, 441; Optical Properties of a Liquid submitted to Simultaneous Action of Two Electric and Magnetic Fields, A. Cotton, 455; Microscope Improvements, 495; Double Refrac- tion produced by Distortions of Elastic Bodies by Volterra’s Theory, Prof. O. M. Corbino, 540; Light Perception and Colour Perception, Dr. F. W. Edridge- Green, 543; the Brocken Spectra, Miss A. Everett, 571; Microscopical Optics and Fluorite, C. Metz, 603; Measurement of Torque produced by a Beam ‘of Light refracted through a Glass Plate, Dr. G. Barlow, 612; Refraction and Dispersion of the Halogens, Xc., Clive and Maude Cuthbertson, 612; Absorption by Inorganic Salts, A. R. Brown, 638; Light and Plant Assimilation, A. Miintz, 664; Retinal Shadows, R. M. _. Deeley, 594, C. W. Piper, 682 Lighting: Small Store Lighting in America, C. L. Law and A. L. Powell, 392; Studies in Light Production, Dr. R. A. Houston, 460; Lighting of Factories, 577; National Electric Lamp Association of Cleveland, 709 ; see also I\lumination Lightning and Forest Fires, F. G. Plummer, 511; Lightning Conductors and Telephone Wires, J. Violle, 717 Lincei, R. Accademia dei, Anniversary Meeting, 88 Linnean Society’s Reception: Address by Prof. Herdman, Be Sanna Linseed Cake. Prussic Acid from, Prof. Auld, 174 Lions in Ancient Sinhalese Art, 523; Dr. Joseph Pearson, 674 Lipoids: Estimation of Lipoids in Blood Serum, L. Grim- bert and M. Laudat, 351; Physiological Properties, H. Iscovesco, 428 Liquid Measurement by Drops, R. Donald, 612 Lister Memorial, 254, 364 Live Stock Journal Almanac, 492 Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine : Expedition to West Indies, 257 Load-extension Diagrams, Prof. W. E. Dalby, 690 Local Authorities’ Trading, D. Knoop, N. B. Dearle, 536 Local Government Board Report, 703 Logarithms, Genesis of, A. Ferguson, 259; Merchiston’s Centenary, 548 f London Mathematical Society’s Council Election, 337 Napier of London School of Tropical Medicine: Dinner, 257 London, University College, New Pharmacological Labora- tory, 420 Leugh Neagh, see Plankton Luminous Halos, see Halos Madagascar Minerals and Gems, A. Lacroix, 97, 272, 613 Madras Museum, 170 Magnetisation of Water and of Oxygen, P. Weiss and A. Piccard, 455; Constitution of Water and Thermal Variation of its Magnetisation, A. Piccard, 507 Magnetism: Convection of Ions produced by Magnetic Rays, Prof. A. Righi, 91; Ionomagnetic Rotation, a New Phenomenon, Prof. Righi, 230; Junior Magnetism and Electricity, Dr. R. H. Jude and Dr. J. Satterly, 246; Magnetic Rotation Spectrum of Bromine, G. Ribaud, 325; Dead-heat Galvanometer with Moving Needle, C. Féry, 376; Mean Magnetic Moment and Energy of a Vibrating Magnet, Dr. J. R. Ashworth, 533; Magnetic Materials, Testing Method at the Reichsanstalt, 627; Magnetic Behaviour of Iron, &e., under Oscillatory Discharge, Prof. E. W. Marchant, 636; Additivity of Diamagnetism in Combination, P. Pascal, 638; Variation of Magnetic Susceptibility with Temperature, A. E. Oxley, 663 ; Magnetic ’ Properties of Alloys, 686 Magnetism, Terrestrial: Wireless Telegraphy and Terres- trial Magnetism, Dr. C. Chree, F.R.S., 37; Origin of the Earth’s Magnetic Field, Dr. L. A. Bauer, 286-7 ; Magnetic Observations off East African Coast, 442; New Theory of Magnetic Storms, J. Bosler, 471; Sun’s Magnetic Field, H. Deslandres, 551; Analytical Expres- sion for Components of Diurnal Variation, G. W. Walker, 636; Zeeman Effect due to Magnetic Field at Sun’s Surface, Dr. G. E. Hale, 682 Malaria in the Andaman Islands, Major Christophers, 549 Malay Peninsula, Geological History of, J. B. Scrivenor, 636 Maldive Islands, Anthropometric Data, Dr. Duckworth, Dr. S. Gardiner, 376 Males, Fragility of, A. Pinard and A. Magnan, 664 Malta and the Mediterranean Race, R. N. Bradley, 464 Mammoth, Ivory Statuette of, found near Prerau, 138 Man and his Conquest of Nature, Dr. M. I. Newbigin, 131 Manchester School of Technology : Journal, 92 ; Manchester Museum Extension, 285 Manometer, New Quartz, Dr. G. E. Gibson, 638 Manufacture of Cocoa and Chocolate, R. Whymper, Foods, Dr. Wm. Tibbles, 357 Maps: Bacon’s New Globe with Contour Colouring, 161; Erichsen’s Maps of Greenland, 258; Maps: How they are made: how to read them, Prof. H. N. Dickson, 329; New “Contour” Wall Map of the Mediterranean Lands, 360 Marine Biological Association of W. Scotland, 59; Marine Biological Station at Port Erin, 629 Marine Biology, see Biology, Marine Marlborough Country, the, H. C. Brentnall and Gai Carter, 157 Mathematical Physics applied to Medicine, Prof. S. Salaghi, 114 Mathematics : General: Fifth International Congress of Mathematicians at Cambridge: Prof. E. W. Brown, Prince B. Galitzin, Sir W. H. White, P. J. Harding, Sir J. fo Thomson, Dr. A. N. Whitehead, G. E. St. L. Carson, Dr. T. P. Nunn, Prof. C. Runge, Prof. D. E. Smith, 4; “Method” of Archimedes, Sirs ha mlemeileath, 28: Practical Mathematics, John Perry, F.R.S., 34; Prof. G. H. Bryan, F.R.S., 68° Place of Mathematics in Engineering Practice: Cambridge Lecture, Sir Wm. H. White, K.C.B., F.R.S., 95; Mathematical Logic and Principles, P. E. B. Jourdain, 114; Manual Training Woodwork Exercises treated Mathematically, F. E. Drury, 304; Scientific Worthies, Prof. J. H. Poincaré, For.Mem.R.S., 353; Collected Mathematical Papers, James J. Sylvester, F.R.S., 379; Opere Matematiche del Marchese G. C. Dei T. di Fagnano, 590; the Teaching of Mathematics in Secondary Schools, A. Schultze, 697 3575 XXXIV Index Nature. April 24, 1953 Mathematics (continued) : Branches: Genesis of Logarithms, A. Ferguson, 259; Treatise on Plane Trigonometry, Prof. E. W. Hobson, F.R.S., 275; Examples in Arithmetic, H. S. Hall and F. H. Stevens, 275; a New Algebra, S. Barnard and J. M. Child, 275; Fergusson’s Percentage Unit of Angular Measurement with Logarithms: Percentage Theodolite and Compass, 275; Modification of Euclid’s Method of Treating the Theory of Proportion, Prof. M. J. M. Hill, F.R.S., 400; Quadratic Vector Func- tions, Rev. T. Roche, 403; Napier of Merchiston’s Centenary, 548; Definition of a Curve, Takeo Wada, 550; Paul Gordan, 597; the New Theory of Integra- tion, 612; Lectures on the Theory of Function of Real Variables, Prof. J. Pierpoint, 642; Exercises in Modern Arithmetic, H. Sydney Jones, 697; Notes on Algebra, A. F. van der Heyden, 697; Higher Algebra for Colleges and Secondary Schools, Dr. C. Davison, 697; an Introduction to the Infinitesimal Calculus, Prof. H. S. Carslaw, 697; see also British Association and Geometry Matter and Energy, F. Soddy, F.R.S., 187; the Energy System of Matter, J. Weir, 187; the Synthesis of Matter, Prof. B. Moore, 190 Mauritius Census, 441 Measuring Machine, Dr. P. E. Shaw, 349 Mechanical Pump for High Vacua on a New Principle, Dr. W. Gaede, 198 Mechanics : General: A.B.C. of Hydrodynamics, Lieut.-Col. R. de Villamil, 275; Elementary Treatise on Statics, Prof. S. L. Loney, 275; Mechanical Law and Purpose, Prof. Sorley, A. D. Lindsay, 278; Theoretical and Practical Mechanics, A. H. Mackenzie, 288; Laboratory Instruc- tion Sheets, Prof. A. Morley and W. Inchley, 302; Vegetable Mechanics, Rev. G. Henslow, 452; Manuale di Fisica: Vol. i., Prof. B. Dessau, 538; Teaching of Mechanics, G. F. Daniell, W. D. Eggar and others, 582 Special: Cylindrical Tunnel subjected to Earth Pressure, Prof. A. F. Jorini, 92; Method of Studying Motion of a Train during Acceleration, Prof. W. E. Dalby, 260; Resistance to Flow of Air through Pipes, Prof. A. H. Gibson, 365; Principle of Relativity and Law of Central Forces, M. Lémeray, 376; Elastic Hysteresis of Steel, Prof. B. Hopkinson and G. Trevor-Williams, 401; Deviation of Law of Torsional Oscillation of Metals from Isochronism, Prof. W. Peddie, 428; Torsional Oscillation of Wires, J. B. Ritchie, 428; (1) Law of Plastic Flow of a Ductile Material and Phenomena of Elastic and Plastic Strains; (2) Kine- matograph Illustrations of Twisting and Breaking of large Wrought-iron and Steel Specimens, C. E. Larard, 453; a Column-testing Machine, Prof. E. G. Coker, 453; Loss of Energy at Oblique Impact of Two Con- fined Streams of Water, Prof. A. H. Gibson, 454; Stress Determinations, Prof. Coker, 498; Three Bodies Problem, Prof. F. R. Moulton, ss0; Tables of the Weight of Air, Dr. S. Riefler, 565; Systémes Ciné- matiques, Prof. L. Crelier, 569; Specification of Elements of Stress, R. F. Gwyther. 586; Resistance of Spheres in Air in Motion, G. Eiffel, 561, Lord Ray- leigh, 587; Elastic Stability, R. V. Southwell, 636 Mechanistic Conception of Life, Dr. J. Loeb, Prof. E. A. Schiifer, F.R.S._ 327 Medicine: Riberi Prize, 88; the Antigenic Bodies in the Wassermann Reaction, A. Desmouliére, 156; Medical New Year Addresses, Mr. Grimsdale, Dr. Lazarus- Barlow, Dr. Jane Waller, Dr. H. Rolleston, 166; Technique of the Teat and Capillary Glass Tube and its Applications. Sir A. E. Wright, F.R.S., R. T. Hewlett, 218; Harveian Oration, Sir J. Goodhart, 228 ; Infection and its Control, Prof. S. Flexner, 289; Medical Research and Public Health, Sir Clifford Allbutt, Dr. Bousfield, 394; Award of Beit Memorial Fellowships for Medical Research, 447; Perfect Health for Women and Children, Elizabeth S. Chesser, 484 5 Hypnotism and Disease, Dr. H. C. Miller, British Medical Science at Ghent Exhibition, 584; Medical and Surgical Help for Shipmasters in the Merchant Navy, W. J. Smith, Dr. Arnold Chaplin, 484: | 645; Scientific Work of the Local Government Board, 793 Mediterranean Lands: New Contour Wall Map, 360; Malta and the Mediterranean Race, R. N. Bradley, 464 Melting Points of Minerals, A. L. Fletcher, 454 Mendelian Developments, Unsound, Prof. J. Wilson, 454 Mental Deficiency Bill, 389 Mentality of Nations, A. Macdonald, 321 Mercury: Constitution of Spectrum Lines, Nagaoka and T. Takamine, 298; New Starting Mercury-vapour Apparatus, J. S. and G. B. Burnside, 717 Metabolism and Mental Activity, 90; Metabolism Lepidopterous Pupz, Prof. Grafin von Linden, 379 Metals: Autumn Meeting of the Institute of Metals, 199; Solidification of Metals, Dr. G. T. Beilby, F.R.S., 199; Intercrystalline Cohesion, Dr. Rosenhain and Mr. Ewen, 200; Hardness of Annealed Metals, M. Hanriot, 272; Tempering of Metals, M. Hanriot, 299; Hardness of Coins, Dr. T. K. Rose, 335; the Metals in Antiquity: Huxley Memorial Lecture, Prof. W. Gowland, F.R.S., 344; Ebur Calculator, 367; Metal- lurgy of the Homestake Ore, Allan J. Clark and W. J. Sharwood, 402; the Flotation Process as Applied to the Concentration of Copper Ore at the Kyloe Copper Mine, N.S.W., J. W. Ashcroft, 402; Deviation of Law of Torsional Oscillation from Isochronism, Prof. W. Peddie, 428; (1) Law of Plastic Flow of a Ductile Material; (2) Kinematograph Illustrations of Twisting and Breaking of large Iron and Steel Speci- mens, C. E. Larard, 453; Modern Copper Smelting, D. M. Levy, 484; la Cementazione dell’ Acciaio, Dr. Protepmble Method of Anderson of F. Giolitti, 568; Lead Concentrating Mill in New South Wales, S. C. Bullock, 586; Blast-roasting of Sulphide Ores, J. H. Levings, 586; Emission of Particles by Heated Metals, D. M. Shaw, 504 Meteorites: Perseid Shower, W. F. Denning, 93; Origin of Meteorites, L. L. Fermor, 213; Perseids of August 12, 1912, Prof. Zammarchi, 232; Meteoritic Explosions and Shaking of Windows at Sunninghill, W. F. Denning, 417; Air Currents at a Height of Fifty Miles indicated by a Bolide, J. E. Clark, 480; Bright Meteor reported, 494; Meteorites, Prof. Berwerth, 626 Meteorological Committee’s Report, 344 Meteorological Committee, International, 107 Meteorological Instruments: Angstrém Pyrheliometer and Callendar Sunshine Recorder, J. Patterson, R. F. Stupart, 28 Meteorological Observatories: Observations at the Rad- cliffe. Oxford, 146; Sonnblick, 197; Montserrat, Addendum to Report, 231; Deutsche Seewarte, 286; Mount Rose, Sierra Nevada, Prof. Church, 550 Meteorology: Weather of 1912, C. Harding, 71, 555; Bremen, 91; Geographical Distribution of Monthly Range of Barometric Oscillation, W. Brockméller, 94; Vertical Distribution of Temperature over Hamburg, Prof. K6ppen and Dr. Wendt, 94; Storm Warning Signals at Night, G. Ishida, 197; Meteorology of German Protectorates, 315; Geophysical Memoirs, 309 ; Lehrbuch der kosmischen Physik, Prof. W. Trabert, 356; Meteorology of Kimberley, Dr. J. R. Sutton, 403; Scottish Meteorological Society: Report, 468; Upper Air Investigations, Belgium, Batavia, and Ontario, 474: Obituary of L. P. Teisserenc de Bort, Dr. W. N. Shaw, F.R.S., 519; Barometer Manual for Seamen, 579; Snowfall of the United States, C. F. Brooks, 585; the Current Winter, Alex. B. MacDowall, 622; United States Meteorological Charts, 627; High Ascent of the Italian Balloon “Albatross,” August 12, 1913: Dr. W. N. Shaw, F.R.S., 673; Meteorological Conditions in a Field Crop, W. L. Balls, 716; see also British Association, Rain, Weather, and Wind Metric System: American Jewellers adopt Metric Carat, 312; Parliamentary Ignorance, 315 Michael Sars, the, Sir J. Murray, K.C.B., F.R.S., Dr. J: Hjort, Dr. Allen, 221 Microbes and Toxins, Dr. E. Burnet, Dr. C. Broquet and Dr. W. M. Scott. Prof. R. T. Hewlett, 188 Microbiology for Agricultural and Domestic Science Students, Prof. C. E. Marshall, Prof. R. T. Hewlett, 189 Naiure, | April 24, 1913 Micromanometer, A. Henry, 428 Micrometry, New Method, Prof. J. Joly, 506 Microscope : Royal Microscopical Society’s Conversazione, 235; Microscope Improvements, 495; Microscopical Optics and Fluorite Objectives, C. Metz, 603 Mice and the Homestead, Prof. Cy - Marshall, . E. Burnet, Dr. C. Broquet ‘and Dr. Ww. M. Scott, aa Sadler, Prof. R. T. Hewlett, 188 Migrations between Australia and America, H. Hallier, 660 Milk : Tuberculosis and Milk, Prof. R. T. Hewlett, 281; Combination of Calcium and Phosphorus in Casein of Milk, L. Lindet, 325; Lancaster Report on Milk Tests and Records, 366; Buffalo Millk in India, Messrs. Meggitt and Mann, 523; Effect of Heavy Root Feeding on Cows, Messrs. Lauder and Fagan, 550; Milk, Dr. E. Pritchard, 57 Pasteurisation, Prof. R. T. Hewlett, 623 Milky Way Dark Structures, Rev. T. E. Espin, 316; Integrated Spectrum of the Milky Way, Dr. Fath, 551 Milliones Fish: Breeding-habits, E. G. Boulenger, 350; Mosquito-destroying by, 685 Mine Valuation, Modern, M. Truscott, 460 Mineral Industries, Patent Office Subject List of Books on, 29, 314 Mineralogical Society, Council Election, 337 Mineralogy: Fortschritte der Mineralogie, Dr. G. Linck and others, 58; American Mineral Statistics, 61 ; Mada- gascar Quartz, Minerals and Gems, Lavas, A. Lacroix, Howard Burnham, S. J. 97, 272, 613; Mineralogy of Volcanoes of Reunion Island, A. Lacroix, 127; Renfrewshire, R. S. Houston, Prof. G. A. J. Cole, 159; Mineral Oxides, Simple Method of preparing, M. Billy, 273; Dana’s Manual of Mineralogy, Prof. W. E. Ford, 286; Minerals from Virtuous Lady Mine near Tavistock, A. Russell, 375; Apparatus for preparing Thin Sections of Rock, Dr. G. F. H. Smith, 376; Mineralogy of the Rarer Metals : a Handbook for Prospectors, E. Cahen and W. O. Wootton, 434; Melting Points, A. L. Fletcher, 454; Mineral Composition of Cambridgeshire Sands and Gravels, R. H. Rastall, 481; die Bildungsverhaltnisse der ozeanischen Salzablagerungen, J. H. van t’Hoff and others, Prof. F. G. Donnan, F.R.S., 616 Miners’ Safety Lamps: Official Tests, 56 Mining: Physics and Chemistry of Mining, 2nd edition, T. H. Byrom, 198; West of England Mining Region, J. H. Collins, 278; Types of Ore Deposits, H. F. Bain, 278; the Flotation Process as applied to the Concen- tration of Copper Ore at the Kyloe Copper Mine, N.S.W., J. W. Ashcroft, 298; Mining School for South Wales, 478; Tin Mines of New South Wales, J. E. Carne, 497; Theodolites, L. H. Cooke, 585; Mining Hygiene and Rescue Lectures at Leeds University, 611; see also Coal and Metals Mistletoe, C. Mosley, Rev. J. Griffith, 5So Modern Problems, Sir O. Lodge, F.R.S., 248 Molecules, Ionic Size and New Law relating to Heats of Formation of, W. R. Bousfield, 4o1 Monoplane Dangers, 89; Biplane versus Monoplane, 106 Montanic Acid and Derivatives, H. Ryan and J. Algar, 638 Montessori Method: Scientific Pedagogy as Applied to Child Education, Maria Montessori, Anne E. George, 99; the Montessori System, Dr. Theodate L. Smith, 486 Monuments: Ancient Stone Monuments, Prof. G. Elliot Smith, F.R.S., 243; Rough Stone Monuments, T. E. Peet, 566 Moon: the Moon and Poisonous Fish, E. G. Bryant, 305 ; D. E. Hutchins, 382, 417, 655; Possible Changes of a Lunar Hill, P. Stoian, 629 Morbology, see Disease and Pathology Morphology of the Leaf in the Prunus Section, O. F. Cook, 197 Moselle Valley, B. Dietrich, 444 Mosquitoes, New Species, Dr Tovar, 112 the Milliones Fish, 350, 685 Moth, Codling, A. G. ‘Hammar, 418 Motor-omnibus, 525 Mountains and their Roots, Prof. Bonney, F.R.S.; Burrard, F.R.S.; Major Crosthwait, R.E., 703 ; Mosquitoes and Col. Index XAXV Municipal Trading, Principles and Methods of, D. Knoop, N. B. Dearle, 536 Museums: American Museum of Natural History, 170; Peabody, Yale, 227; Hull Municipal, 228, 258; Brooklyn, 258; Living Guides, J. H. Leonard, 258; Museum Conference at Manchester, 312; Wales National, 417; Halifax, W. B. Crump, 440 ; Museums and the. Classics, Rev. H. Browne, 599; Natural History Society of Northumberland, &c., 626; see also Natural History Mushrooms and Poisonous Fungi, 91 Mutation: Cultural Bud Mutation of Solanum tuberosum and iminite, E. Heckel, 30, 299; Mutating Cénotheras, Dr. R. R. Gates, 171, 350; Mutation Theory, Prof. H. de Vries, 656 Mycetozoa, Colours of Plasmodia of some, K. Minakata, 220 Mycology, Economic, Prof. Salmon, 174 National Health Society Lecture: Tuberculosis, Prof. Metchnikoff, 386 National Physical Laboratory, 387, 712 National Trust for Places of Historic Interest: Blalkeney Point in Norfollx, 389 Natural History Museum (British), 57, Models of Gastropod Mollusca, 228; History, Ginther, F.R.S.; Catalogues, G. S. Miller, Ogilvie-Grant, Dr. J. H. Ashworth, 595 Natural Science Papers, 528 169, 196; Working Dr. A. We. R: Naturalists, Early, Dr. L. C. Miall, F.R.S., 1 Nature: Nature-protection, 169; the Love of Nature among the Romans during the Later Decades of the Republic and the First Century of the Empire, Sir A. Geikie, KGB, BaRIS:, Prof, Lf. Ho Warren; 185); Nature Photography, Se 1c Johnson, 189; Outdoor Philosophy, S. D. Kirkham, 216; the Naturalist in Siluria, Capt. Mayne Reid, 260; Twelve Moons, Frances Bardswell, 304; Practical Utility of Phenological Observations, R. H. Hooker, 524; Moving Pictures of P. J. Rainey’s East African Hunt at Holborn Empire, 547; Transla- tion of Aristotle’s “De Motu Animalium de Incessu Animalium,” A. S. L. Farquharson, 601; the Story of a Hare, J. C. Tregarthen, 670; the Spiritual Interpreta- tion of Nature, Dr. J. Y. Simpson, 695 Nature Reservations: Swiss National Park, 224; Nature Reservation at Blakeney Point in Norfollx, 389 ; Society for Promotion of Nature Reserves, 467 Nautical Astronomy, W. P. Symonds, 617 Nautilus Pearls, Dr. H. L. Jameson, 191; Ss die Hickson, F.R.S., 220 Navigation: Fergusson’s Percentage Theodolite and Com- pass, &c., 275; Navigation at the Royal Technical College, Glasgow, 684 Nebula and Clusters photographed at the Lick, 341; of Nebula, J. Meunier, 664 Negative After-images with Pure Spectral Colours, G. J. Burch, 612 Neolithic Man, Antiquity of, Prof. Spectra Dr. Jiesinelss 70); Sq) a. leeachs. 134 “Nepal, Picturesque,” Percy Brown, 544 Neptune, Diameter of, Dr. G. Abetti, 29 Nervation of Plants, F. G. Heath, Dr. F. Cavers, 432 Nervous Rhythm arising from Rivalry between Antagon- istic Reflexes, Prof. C. S. Sherrington, 716 New Guinea: the Mekeo People, R. W. Williamson, British New Guinea, J. H. P. Murray, 544 New South Wales, A. W. Jose and others, 382 New Zealand: Jubilee of the Canterbury Philosophical Institute, 282; Earlier Mesozoic Floras, Dr. Arber, 481; New Zealand Geology, Dr. P. Marshall, 590 Nickel, Changes of Electrical Resistance in Cross-magnetic Fields, Dr. C. G. Knott, 664 Nitric and Nitrous Acids, Action of Temperature on Equilibrium of, E. Briner, 507 Nitrifying Organisms: Azotobacter, A. Prazmowski, 549 Nitrites, Alkaline, M. Ostwald, 507 Nitrogen, Fixation of Atmospheric, Dr. sen, Prof. Morgan, 194 Nobel Prize for Medicine, 195; Nobel Prizes, 311 324; Eyde, Dr. Bernth- XXXVI L[ndex Nature, April 24, 1913 Nomenclature at the Zoological Congress, Prof. T. D. A. Cockerell, 648 Nomogrammes de l’Ingénieur, R. S. de la Garza, 302 Nuclease, Influence of Temperature on, E. C. Teodoresco, 12 . Nutritional Value of Green Vegetables, 285; Nutritional Physiology, Prof. P. G. Stiles, 668 Cals, the: its Natural History, Antiquity, and Folls-lore, C. Mosley, Rev. J. Griffith, 589 Ocean: Science of the Sea, Dr. G. H. Fowler, 34; the Depths of the Ocean: Researches of the Michael Sars, Sir J. Murray, K.C€.B., F.R.S., Dr. J. Hjort, Dr. E. J. Allen, 221 Oceanic Salt Deposits, J. H. van t’Hoff and others, Prof. F. G. Donnan, F.R.S., 616 GEnotheras: Miss Anne M. Lutz, 113; Peculiar Develop- ment in CEnothera, Dr. R. R. Gates, 171; Mutating GEnotheras, Dr. R. R. Gates, 350 Oils: Oil for Burning and for Exploding in Engines, Costs, C. E. Stromeyer, 287; Essential Oils and Per- fumery, 493; Drying Oils: Chinese Wood Oil, Dr. R. S. Morrell, 494; Wyoming Oil Fields, E. G. Woodruff, C. H. Wegemann, 659 Oligocheta, S. African, Dr. E. S. Goddard and D. E. Malan, 403 Olympia, International Aéro Exhibition at, 702 Omaha, Significance of Life to the, Miss Alice Fletcher, Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.R.S., 234 Optic Axial Angle of Thin Crystals, Determination of, H. Collingridge, 612 Optical Methods applied to Technical Problems of Stress Distribution, Prof. E. G. Coker, 383; Optical Activity and Enantiomorphism of Molecular and Crystal Structure, T. V. Barker and J. E. Marsh, 612; Optical Load-extension Indicator, Prof. W. E. Dalby, 690 Optics, see Light Orang-utan’s “Nest,” 339 Orchids New to E. Sussex, E. J. Bedford, 452 Ore Deposits, Types of, H. F. Bain, 278 Organic Analysis, a Handbook of, H. T. Clarke, 158 Oriental Sore, Capt. W. S. Patton, 112 Origin of Civilisation, Rt. Hon. Lord Avebury, 565 Oscillations et Vibrations, A. Boutaric, 187 Osmosis : Osmotic Pressure and Theory of Solutions, Prof. A. Findlay, 497; Osmotic Pressures in Plants, Prof. H. H. Dixon and W. R. G. Atkins, 506; Reactions accompanying Osmosis of Hydrogen through Iron, G. Charpy and S. Bonnerot, 664; Osmosis in Soils, Dr. Lynde and F. W. Bates, 682 Ostracoda (das Vierreich), G. W. Miller, 358 Ostrich: Aspergillosis in the Ostrich in S. Africa, J. Walker, 403; Caponising the Ostrich, Mr. Fitzsimons, 524 Outdoor Philosophy, S. D. Kirkham, 216 _ Oxford Country, R. T. Giinther and others, 131 Oxidations and Reductions in the Animal Body, Dr. H. D. Dakin, 510 Oxides, Method for preparing Mineral, M. Billy, 273 Oysters, Bacterial Purification of, E. Bodin and F. Crevrel, 639 Paisley Naturalists’ Society Transactions: Mineralogy of Renfrewshire, R. S. Houston, Prof. G. A. J. Cole, 159 Palaearktischen Hemipteren, Katalog der, B. Oshanin, 513 Palzeobotany : American Lepidostrobus, Prof. J. M. Coulter and Dr. Land, 113; Glacial Flora of Baden, Dr. P. Stark, 339; Petrifactions of the Earliest European Angiosperms, Dr. Marie C. Stopes, 436; Indian Jurassic Gymnosperms, Miss N. Bancroft, 452; Earlier Mesozoic Floras of New Zealand, Dr. Arber, 481; Root of Lyginodendron, Prof. F. E. Weiss, 506; Jurassic Plants from Cromarty, Prof. Seward and N. Bancroft, 506; Fossil Cycadean Stem from Timperley, T. A. Coward, 533 Palzohistology : rich, 453 Paleolithic Man: Discovery. of Clay Figurines in a Cave, Count Begouen, 283 ; Sussex Discovery, 438 Structure of Bone in Fishes, E. S, Good- Paleontology: [Extinct Marsupials from Balladonia, West Australia, 90; Reconstruction of Extinct Vertebrates, Dr. F. Konig, 139; Eobatrachus agilis from Upper Jurassic, Prof. R. L. Moodie, 139; New Plaster Casts of Fossil Reptiles at British Museum (Natural History), 169; American Permian Vertebrates, Prof. S. W. Williston, 215; Fish Remains from Boring at Southall, 227; Larger Coal Measure Amphibia, D. M. Ss! Watson, 208 ; Gigantic Dinosaur, Tyrannosaurus rex, Prof. H. F. Osborn, 313; Kent’s Cavern, W. J. L. Abbott, 382 ; S. American Iniidz, Prof. True, 418; Herrings in Tertiary Deposits in Guinea, Dr. C. R. Eastman, 578; Toad from Como Jurassic of Wyoming, Dr. Moodie, 599; das Aussterben diluvialer Saugetiere, Dr. W. Soergel, 622; Skeleton of Ornithodesmus latidens from Wealden Shales in Isle of Wight, R. W. Hooley, 716 Palestine, Geology, &c., of, Prof. Max Blanckenhorn, 165 Panama: Aboriginal Tribes, 138; Panama Canal Zone Biological Survey, 313; Panama Canal and Land- slides, Dr. V. Cornish, 657 Papua or British New Guinea, J. H. P. Murray, 544 Parallax: Solar, Prof. Doolittle, 199; Stellar, Groningen Catalogue, 60; of Southern Stars, Dr. F. L. Chase and M. F. Smith, 552 Paramoecium aurelia, Pedigreed Culture of, L. L. Wood- ruff, 171 Parasites: Cysts of Carini in the Rat, M. and Mme. P. Delanoé, 213; Parasite of Earthworms, J. W. Cropper, 350; Parasites of Scoter Duck and their relation to Pearl-inducing Trematode, 376; Gregarine in Mid-gut of Bird-fleas, Dr. J. H. Ashworth and Dr. T. Rettie, 479; Rhizobium radicicola and the Pea, M. Molliard, 507; New Parasites of Marsupials, Dr. S. J. Johnston, 665 Parathyroid Glands, L. Morel, 66 Paris Academy of Sciences: Prize Awards, Fund, 554 Pasteurisation of Milk, Prof. R. T. Hewlett, 622 Pathology: Harveian Oration, Sir J. Goodhart, 228 Pearls: Pearl from Nautilus, Dr. H. L. Jameson, 1913 Prof. S. J. Hickson, F.R-S.,.220; Pearls, Prof. EB: Worschelt, 578 Pellagra, 467 Pendulum Experiments in Alsace-Lorraine, Dr. 496; Bonaparte E. Becker, 172 Per-acids and their Salts, Dr. T. S. Price, 217 Periodical Publications, Catalogue of, in Library of (1) the Royal Society, 161; (2) of University College, L. Newcombe, 161 Periodicity in Plants, Crosse, 428 P. A. Robertson and Miss Rosalind Petrol Fire Extinction, 682 . Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Therapeutics: Merck’s Annual Report, 368; Adrenaline and Glycemia, H. Bierry and Mlle. Fandard, 691 Pharmacological Laboratory, London, 420 Pheasant, Food of. P. H. Grimshaw, 475 Phenology: Plea for Nature-study, R. H. Hooker, 524; Precocity of Spring Flowers, Eleonora Armitage, Lady Lockver, Edith How Martyn, 543; Flowers in January, New, at University College, W. Watson, 622 Philippines: the Head Hunters of N. Luzon, D. C. Worcester, 229 Philosophy: Outdoor Philosophy: the Meditations of a Naturalist, S. D. Kirkham, 216; Composition of Matter and Evolution of Mind, D. Taylor, 216; Modern Problems, Sir O. Lodge, F.R.S., 248; Scientific Method, F. W. Westaway, 277; Alle Fonti della Vita, Dr. Wm. Mackenzie, A. E. Crawley, 380; Conscious- ness of the Universal and the Individual, Dr. F. Aveling, 695; Science and the Human Mind, W. C. D. Whetham, F.R.S., and Catherine D. Whetham, 695; Note-books of Samuel Butler, H. F. Jones, 695; Spiritual Interpretation of Nature, Drees Simpson, 695; Questions of the Day in Philosophy and Psychology. Dr. H. L. Stewart, 695; Kausale und kxonditionale Weltanschauung, Max Verworn, 608 Phosphoric Acids and their Alkali Salts, Constitution, A. Holt and J. E. Myers, 533 Nature. | April 24, 1913. L[ndex XXXVI Phosphorus, Detection of Free White P. in P. sesqui- sulphide, T. Schloesing, jun., 507 Photochemistry of the Future, Prof. G. Ciamician, 230; Relation of Velocity of Photochemical Reaction to Incident Radiant Energy, M. Boll, 587 Photographic Equatorials, Orientation of, E. Esclangon, 272; Photographic Transit Observations, R. Triimpler, 629 Photography: Nature Photography, Stanley C. Johnson, Prof. R. T. Hewlett, 189; Photography by Artificial Light, J. S. Dow, 367; Photographic Diary, 442; Tele- photography, C. F. Lan-Davis, 461; Northern Photo- graphic Exhibition, 522; Action of Inks on the Photo- graphic Plate, G. de Fontenay, 561; Integrating Opacimeter for Stellar Photographs, J. Baillaud, 587; Photography of To-day, H. Chapman Jones, 644 Photo-mechanical Process, New, A. E. Bawtree, 29 Phylogeny: Zur Phylogenie der Primulaceenbliite, Dr. S. Thenen, 381 Physical Apparatus: Instrument for Detection of Com- bustible Gases in Air, A. Philip and L. J. Steele, 114; Rainbow Cup, C. V. Boys, 579 Physical Institute, New International, Prof. E. Rutherford, BeRes5 545 Physical Laboratories: Jefferson Physical Laboratory of Harvard, 172; National Physical Laboratory, 712 Physical Society : Eighth Annual Exhibition, 390; Election of Officers, 706 Physics : General: William Higgins and the Imponderable Ele- ments, 103 ; Matter and Energy, F. Soddy, F.R.S., 187; the Energy System of Matter, J. Weir, 187; L. Donald- son, 187; Physik, Prof. H. Bottger, 187; Becquerel Memorial Lecture at the Chemical Society, Sir O. Lodge, 232; an Introduction to Practical Physics for Colleges and Schools, Prof. E. H. Barton and Dr. T. P. Black 246; Intermediate Physics, Prof. W. Watson, F.R.S., 246; Lehrbuch der Physik, Prof. E. Riecke, 246; Physik in graphischen Darstellungen, F. Auerbach, 246; Physics of the Universe, Prof. W. Trabert, E. Gold, 356; Physikalisch-technische Reichsanstalt: Work in 1911, E. S. Hodgson, 446; the Boy’s Playbook of Science, J. H. Pepper, Dr. J Mastin, 538; Manuale di Fisica ad Uso delle Scuole Secondarie e Superiori, Prof. B. Dessau, 538; Collected Papers, Prof. James Thomson, F.R.S., Sir J. Larmor, Sec.R.S. and James Thomson, Prof. J. Perry, F.R.S., 563; a Handbook of Physics, W. H. White, 567; a Course of Physics, Dr. C. H. Draper, 567 Special: Properties of Water and of Mercury at High Pressures at different Temperatures, Dr. Bridgeman, 172; the Cinematograph and Natural Science, L. Donaldson, 187; Oscillations et Vibrations, A. Boutaric, 187; Kinetic Theory of Ionised Gases and Carnot’s Principle, M. Gouy, 272; Some Unclassified Properties of Solids and Liquids, A. Mallock, 349; Remarkable Formation of Ice on a Pond, A. S. E. Ackermann, 411; Simultaneous Action of Gravity anda Uniform Magnetic Field on an Ionised Gas, M. Gouy, 428; C. G. Darwin, 429; Breath Figures, Lord Ray- leigh, O.M., F.R.S., 436; Dr. J. Aitken, F.R.S., 619; Equation of State, Prof. Onnes and Dr. Keesom, 493 ; Emissian of Particles by Heated Metals, D. M. Shaw, 594; Optical Activity and Enantiomorphism of Mole- cular and Crystal Structure, T. V. Barker and J. E. Marsh, 612; Determination of Vapour Densities at High Temperatures and a New Manometer, Dr. G. E. Gibson, 638; Interpretation of Radium, F. Soddy, 671; Studies in Radio-activity, Prof. W. H. Bragg, F.R.S., 694 See also British Association and branch headings Physiography: Monograph on the Sub-Oceanic Physio- graphy of the N. Atlantic Ocean, Prof. Ed. Hull, F.R.S., Prof. J. W. W. Spencer, 32; Physiography for High Schools, A. L. Carey and others, Prof. G. A. J. Gale; 159; New South Wales, A. W. Jose and others, 382 Physiological Chemistry, Dr. L. Pincussohn, 592 Physiological Optics, Practical Exercises in, Dr. G. J. Burch, F.R.S., 187; Retinal Shadows? R. M. Deeley, 594; C. Welborne Piper, 682; see also Colour Vision Schutzfermente des tierischen Organismus, E. Abderhalden, 66; les Parathyroides, L. Morel, 66; le Gott et l’Odorat, J. Larguier des Bancels, 66; Physiology of Protein Metabolism, Dr. E. P. Cathcart, 66; Late Awakening of Bulbar Centres, P. Bonnier, 377; Assimilation of Nitrogen by Pupz, Prof. Grafin von Linden, 379; Richtlinien des Entwicklungs- und Vererbungs-problems, Prof. A. Greil, A. E. Crawley, 380; Destruction of Alkaloids by Body Tissues, 523; Experimental Physiology, Prof. E. A. Schafer, BeRess, 539; Internal Secretion and the Ductless Glands, Prof. Swale Vincent, 569; Physiology of Printing, 651; Influence of Resilience of the Arterial Wall, S. R. Wells and L. Hill, 662; New Ganglion in the Human Temporal Bone, A. A. Gray, 662; Nervous Rhythm arising from Rivalry between Antagonistic Reflexes, Prof. C. S. Sherrington, 716; Liberation of Ions and Oxygen Tension of Tissues, Dr. H. E. Roaf, 716; see also British Association Physiology, Nutritional, Prof. P. G. Stiles, 668 Physiology, Plant: Ueber eine Methode zur direkten Bestimmung der Oberflachenspannung der Plasmahaut ven Pflanzenzellen, F. Czapek, F. F. Blackman, 201; Influence of Removal of the Sex Organs on Formation of Sugar in Stems of Maize and Sorghum, E. Heckel, 272; Respiration in Plants, L. Maquenne and E. Demoussy. 273, 428, 455, 586; Urea, R. Fosse, 299; Influence of Temperature on Absorption of Water by Seeds, Prof. A. J. Brown and F. P. Worley, 350; Periodicity in Plants, R. A. Robertson and Miss R. Crosse, 428; Luminosity in Plants, Prof. H. Molisch, 441; die Reizbewegungen der Pflanzen, Dr. E. G. Pringsheim, 483; the Cotton Plant in Egypt, W. L. Balls, 667 Pianoforte Touch, Dynamics of, G. H. Bryan FE.R.S., 716 Pigmenis used in Illuminated MSS., Dr. A. P. Laurie, 399 Pipes, Resistance to Flow of Air through, Prof. A. H. Gibson, 365 Plaice Fisheries of the North Sea, 283 Planets and their Satellites, Origin of, Kr. Birkeland, 3245 C. Stérmer, 425 Plankton Investigations, 94; Plankton of Sydney Water- supply, G. I. Playfair, 213; Plankton of Lough Neagh, W. J. Dakin and Miss Latarche, 402; Plankton from Christmas Island, G. P. Farran, 690 Plant Growth: Stimulation of Plant Growth, Prof. H. E. Armstrong, 113; Action of Coumarin, Vanillin, and Quinone on Plant Growth, Drs. Schreiner and Skinner, 474; Influence of Uranium and Lead on Plant Growth, J. Stoklasa, 587 Plants: Photochemical Action on Plants, Prof. G. Ciamician, 230; Plants producing Hydrocyanic Acid, M. Mirande, 213, 273; Irritability, Dr. E. G. Pringsheim, 483 ; Osmotic Pressures in Plants, Prof. H. H. Dixon and W. R. G. Atkins, 506; Plant Assimilation and Light, A. Miintz, 664; see also Physiology, Plant Platinum: Reported Discovery near Nelson in British Columbia Discredited, 231; Diffusive Power of Platinum Black, C. Féry, 455 Platypus, J. A. Kershaw, 492 Pliocene, Marine Molluscs in West European, Dr. J. P. Tesch, 230 Pneumocysts of Carini in Rats, M. and Mme. P. Delanoé, 213 Poisonous Fungi, 91; J. Parisot and M. Vernier, 184 Poliomyelitis, Prof. S. Flexner, 289 Polymerisation of Butadiene and Isoprene, Prof. W. H. Perkin, Prof. Morgan, 194 Polymorphism in a Group of Mimetic Butterflies of the Ethiopian Genus Pseudacreea, Prof. E. B. Poulton, Bi Ro5= 137, Polynesian Migrations, Prof. J. M. Brown, 599 Port Erin Marine Biological Station, 629 Portuguese Man-of-war and a Giant Spider-crab in the English Channel, J. H. Orton, 700 Positive Rays applied to Chemical Problems, Sir J. J. Thomson, 663 Potassium, Estimation of, in Fertilisers and Soil Extreicts, W. A. Davis, 441 Potato Spraying, Mr. Mackintosh, 174 Physiology : Prof. XXXVIII Index Nature, April 24, 1913 Pottery, see Ceramic Poultry : the Beginner in Poultry, C. S. Valentine, 486 Prawn, Blind, of Galilee, Dr. N. Annandale, 251 Precipitation of Salts by corresponding Acids, I. 506 Pressure, Effect due to Sudden Great Increase of, W. G. Royal-Dawson, 569 Prickly Pear in W. China, T. D. A. Cockerell, 464 Primeval Man: the Stone Age in W. Europe, Mrs. A. Hingston Quiggin, Rev. J. Griffith, 512, 572 Primulaceze, Phylogeny of, Dr. S. Thenen, 381 Printing, Physiology of, 651 Prize Awards: Nobel, 195, 311; Paris Academy of Sciences, Masson, 496 Prizes Offered: by Royal Academy of Sciences of Naples, 2o0l. for Researches on Algae, 257; by Turin Academy, 6cl. (1500 lire) for worl on Avogadro’s Law, 257; by Rotterdam Society, 312; by Dorset Field Club for paper on Petroleum Oil, 390; by the Paris Academy of Sciences in 1914, 583; for Security of Aéroplanes, 664 Procryptic Coloration a Protection against Lions, F. Selous, R. I. Pocock, F.R.S., 593 Production and the Public Revenue, Dr. N. G. Pierson, A. A. Wotzel, N. B. Dearle, 431 Protection of Scenery, Antiquities, &c., others, 58 Protective Coloration in Animals, Prof. W. L. McAtee, 138; A. H. Thayer, 196; F. C. Selous, R. I. Pocock, BeRES:, 593 Protein Metabolism, Physiology of, Dr. E. P. Cathcart, 66 Provence, les Alpes de, G. Tardieu, 329 Pseudovitellus, 197 Psycho-analysis, Dr. E. Jones, 695 Psychology: an Introduction to Psychology, Prof. W. Wundt, Dr. R. Pintner, 216; Anales de Psicologia, Prof. Bocls and 277; Purpose and Mechanism, Prof. Sorley, A. D. Lindsay, 278; Richtlinien des Entwicklungs- und Vererbungs-problems, Prof. A. Greil, A. E. Crawley, 380; Significance of Ancient Religions, Dr. E. N. Reichardt, 407; the Fundamentals of Psychology, B. Dumville, 695; Questions of the Day, Dr. H. L. Stewart, 695 ‘ Psychology, Animal: Evolution of Animal Intelligence, Prof. S. J. Holmes, 160; Tierpsychologisches Prakkti- kum in Dialogform, Prof. K. C. Schneider, A. E. Crawley, 380 Psychotherapy, Dr. H. C. Miller, 484 Public School Science Masters’ Association: Presidential Address by Sir A. Geikie, K.C.B., Pres.R.S., 555 Pulmonary Circulation, Duration of the, J. P. Langlois and G. Desbouis, 428 Pump, Mechanical, for High Vacua on a New Principle, Dr. W. Gaede, 198 Pyrenees, Rambles in the, F. H. Jackson, 131 Quagga and Zebra Group, 391 Quail, Californian, H. C. Bryant, 112 Quartz, Origin of Madagascar, A. Lacroix, 07 Quebrachite in Grevillea yobusta, E. Bourquelot and Mlle. A. Fichtenholz, 183 Radiation: Tonising Radiation emitted By Polonium, B. Bianu and L. Wertenstein, 30: Radiation Records in 1gtr at S. Kensington and Comparison with Kew, R. Corless, 309; Total Energy radiated by Sym- metrical Radiator, M. Lémeray, 455; a Determination of the Radiation Constant, H. B. Keene, 480 Radiations Old and New, British Association Prof. W. H. Bragg, F.R.S., 529, 557 Radio-activity : Electrical Charges carried by the a and B Rays, J. Danysz and W. Duane, 97; Similarity of X-Rays and Primary y Rays, J. A. Gray. 400; Age Discourse, of the Earth from Sodium in Oceans, Dr. F. C. Brown, 419; Influence of Radio-activity on Plant Development, J. Stoklasa, 428; Excitation of y Rays by a Rays, J. Chadwick and A. S. Russell, 463, 690 ; Penetrating Power of y Rays from Radium C, A. S. Russell, 480; Elements and Electrons, Sir W. Ramsay, K.C.B., F.R.S., 567; Decomposition of Water by a Rays, MM. Duane and Scheuer, 691; Studies in Radio-activity, Prof. W. H. Bragg, F.R.S., 694 Radiological Institute of Heidelberg, 579 Radiology, International Congress for: Address, Prof. Stoklasa, 336 Radiometer, Improved Joule, F. W. Jordan, 375 Radium: die Radiumkrankheit tierischer Keimzellen, O- Hertwig, 67; Measurement for Sale Purposes, 259; Radium and Earth History, G. W. Bulman, 305; Radium in the Chromosphere, Dr. Dyson, 393; Radium as a means of obtaining High Potentials, H. G. J. Moseley, 481; Radium and _ Radio-activity, A. T- Cameron, 567; Occlusion of Products of Radium, M. Costanzo, 587; the Interpretation of Radium, F. Soddy, 671; Blue Salt: Letter from Sir H. Davy, 682 Rain: Unprecedented Rainfall in East Anglia on August 26, Dr. H. R. Mill, 139, 376; British Rainfall in 1911- 12, Dr. H. R. Mill, 192, 600; Mean Annual Rainfalt in Scotland, A. Watt, 289; Data of Heavy Rainfall over Short Periods in India, 392 Rainbow Cup, C. V. Boys, 579 Reflection of Réntgen Radiation, Prof. C. G. Barkla and G. H. Martyn, 435; H. Moseley, C. G. Darwin, 594 Refraction and Dispersion of the Halogens, &c., Clive and Maude Cuthbertson, 612 Regeneration, Prof. D. Barfurth, 528 Reichsanstalt, Charlottenburg, E. S. Hodgson, 446 Reissner’s Fibre and the Subcommissural Organ, G. E. Nicholls, 230 Relativity Principle and Central Forces, M. Lémeray, 376; Space-time Manifold of Relativity, Profs. Wilson and Lewis, 600 Religion : the Golden Bough, J. G. Frazer, A. E. Crawley, 66; Significance of Ancient Religions, Dr. E. N. Reichardt, 407 Renfrewshire, Mineralogy of, R. S. Houston, Prof. G. A. J. Cole, 159 : Reptiles: Herpetologia Europaa, Dr. E. Schreiber, 3393 Reptilia and Batrachia of the Malay Peninsula, George A. Boulenger, 619 Research Defence Society, Sir D. Gill, K.C.B., F.R.S., Prof. Sandwith and Dr. S. Paget, 594 Resistance of Spheres in Air in Motion, G. Eiffel, 561; Lord Ravleigh, 587, Resistance of Electrolytes, S. W. J. Smith and H. Moss, 637 Respiration of Plants, L. Maquenne and E. Demoussy, 273, 324, 455, 717 Retinal Shadows? R. M. Deeley, 594; C. W. Piper, 682 Presidential Prof. REVIEWS AND Our BOoKSHELr. Agriculture : Agee (Alva), Crops and Methods for Soil Improvement, 589 Broun (A. F.), Sylviculture in the Tropics, 362 Call (Prof. L. E.) and E. G. Schafer, Laboratory Manual of Agriculture for Secondary Schools, 569 Development Commissioners’ Report, 472 Eriksson (Prof. Jakob), Anna Molander, Fungoid Diseases of Agricultural Plants, 131 Farrer (R.), the Rock Garden, Dr. F. Cavers, 433 Geerligs (H. C. P.), the World’s Cane Sugar Industry, 509 Gonner (Prof. E. C. K.), Common Land and Enclosure, A. E. Crawley, 301 Hawley (Prof. R. C.) and Prof. A. F. Hawes, Forestry in New England, 511 Jacob (Rev. Joseph), Tulips, Dr. F. Cavers, 433 Johnson (W. H.), Cocoa: its Cultivation and Prepara- tion, 357 Jouenne (L.) et J. H. Mer, 358 Marshall (Prof. C. E.), Microbiology for Agricultural and Domestic Science Students, Prof. R. T. Hewlett, 188 Rose (Laura), Farm Dairying, 131 Russell (Dr. Edward J.), Soil Growth, 215 . Sadler (Wilfrid), Bacteria as Friends and Foes of the Dairy Farmer, Prof. R. T. Hewlett, 188 Perreau, la Péche au Bord de la Conditions and Plant Nature ] April 24, 1913 Lndex XXX1X Reviews and Our Bookshelf (continued) : Schneider (C. K.), Illustriertes Handbuch der Laubholz- kunde, 511 South-Eastern Agricultural College, Wye, Kent: Journal, No. 20 for 1911, Prof. J. R. Ainsworth-Davis, 174 Valentine (C. S.), the Beginner in Poultry: the Zest and the Profit in Poultry Growing, 486 Van Slyke (Dr. L. L.), Fertilisers and Crops, or, the Science and Practice of Plant-feeding, 131 “nthropology : Abercromby (Hon. John), a Study of the Bronze Age Pottery of Great Britain and Ireland, and its associated Grave-goods, Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.R.S., 2 Avebury (Right Hon. Lord), the Origin of Civilisation and the Primitive Condition of Man, 565 Boas (Prof. Franz), Changes in Bodily Form of De- scendants of Immigrants, 667 Boncour (Dr. G. Paul-), Anthropologie Anatomique, 33 Bradley (R. N.), Malta and the Mediterranean Race, 464 | British School at Athens, Annual of the, 565 Brown (Percy), Picturesque Nepal, 544 -Bryce (James, H.B.M. Ambassador to the United States), South America: Observations and Impressions, 615 Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits : Vol. iv., Arts and Crafts, 518 Churchward (Dr. A.), Signs and Symbols Ancient Egyptians, Rev. J. Griffith, 406 Clark (J. Cooper), the Story of “Eight Deer” in Codex Colombino, 32 Cole (Prof. F. J.), an Analysis of the Church of St. Mary, Cholsey, Berkshire, Rev. J. Griffith, 539 Faulds (Henry), Dactylography, or the Study of Finger- prints, 189 ; Fletcher (Miss Alice), the Significance of Life to the Omaha: Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.R.S., 234 Frazer (Prof. J. G.), the Golden Bough: Part v., Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild, A. E. Crawley, 66 Freire-Marreco (Barbara) and Prof. J. L. Myres (editors), Notes and Queries on Anthropology, 565 Giuffrida-Ruggeri (Dr.), Homo Sapiens, 483 Hutchinson (W., editor), Customs of the World, 331 Iyer (L. IX. Anantha K.), the Cochin Tribes and Castes, 595 MacCurdy (Prof. G. G.), a Study of Chiriquian An- tiquities, Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.R.S., 73 Moller (Armin), Festschrift der Deutschen Anthropo- logischen Gesellschaft: der Derfflinger MHtigel bei Kalbsrieth (Sachsen), 622 Morselli (Prof. E.), Antropologia Generale: Lezioni sull’ Uomo secondo la Teoria dell’Evoluzione, 67 Mosley (C.), the Oak, Rev. J. Griffith, 589 Murray (J. H. P.), Papua or British New Guinea, 544 Peet (T. E.), Rough Stone Monuments and _ their Builders, 566 Pfeiffer (Dr. Ludwig), Festschrift der Deutschen Anthro- pologischen Gesellschaft: die steinzeitliche Technil und ihre Beziehungen zur Gegenwart, 622 Putnam Anniversary Volume: Essays Presented to Fred. Ward Putnam in Honour of his Seventieth Birthday by his Friends and Associates, Rev. J. Griffith, 457 Quiggin (Mrs. A. Hingston), Primeval Man: the Stone Age in Western Europe, Rev. J. Griffith, 512, 572 Reichardt (Dr. E. Noel), the Significance of Ancient Religions : in Relation to Human Evolution, 407 Shakespear (Lieut.-Col. J.), the Lushei Kuli 464 Wylly (Col. H. C., C.B.), From the Black Mountain to Waziristan, 464 Biology: Ashworth (Dr. J. H.), Catalogue of the Chztopoda in the British Museum (Natural History), 595 Balls (W. Lawrence), the Cotton Plant in Egypt, 667 Bernstein (Prof. J.), Elektrobiologie, 618 Boulenger (George A.), a Vertebrate Fauna of the Malay Peninsula, edited by H. C. Robinson: Reptilia and Batrachia, 619 Broun (A. F.), Sylviculture in the Tropics, 362 Burnet (Dr. E.), Dr. C. Broquet and Dr. W. M. Scott, Microbes and Toxins, Prof. R. T. Hewlett, 188 Castle (W. E.), J. M. Coulter, C. B. Davenport, E. M. and the Clans, East, and W. L. Tower, Heredity and Eugenics, L. Doncaster, 458 Cavers (Dr. F.), Inter-relationships of the Bryophyta, 3 Clarke (Wm. Eagle), Studies in Bird-migration, 104 Corke (H. Essenhigh), G. C. Nuttall, Wild Flowers as They Grow: Photographed in Colour, Dr. F. Cavers, 2 Cane (F.), Ueber eine’ Methode zur direkten Bestim- mung der Oberflachenspannung der Plasmahaut von Pflanzenzellen, Dr. F. F. Blackman, F.R.S., 201 Dahl (Prof. F.), Leitfaden zum Bestimmen der Végel Mittel-Europas, ihrer Jugendkleider und ihrer Nester, A. E. Crawley, 280 Dakin (Dr. H. D.), Oxidations and Reductions in the Animal Body, 510 Dakin (Dr. Wm. J.), Liverpool Marine Biology Com- mittee : Memoirs on Typical British Marine Plants and Animals: edited by Dr. W. A. Herdman, F.R.S.: Buccinum (the Whelk), 358 Ellis (R. A.), Spiderland, 488 Engler and Drude (Profs., editors), Prof. A. Weberbauer, Prof. J. W. Harshberger, die Vegetation der Erde: XII. and XIII., 405 Farrer (R.), the Rock Garden, Dr. F. Cavers, 433 Frank (Karl, S.J.), C. T. Druery, the Theory of Evolu- tion in the Light of Facts, with a Chapter on Ant and Termite Guests, by P. E. Wasmann, 670 Gallardo (Prof. Angel), Compendio Elemental de Zoologia, oO Gemmill (Dr. James F.), Teratology of Fishes, 3=0 German Central Africa Expedition of 1907-8, Wissen- schaftliche Ergebnisse: Band iii., edited by Dr. H. Schubotz, 110 Gliick (Prof. H.), Biologische und morphologische Unter- suchungen iiber Wasser- und Sumpfgewachse: die Uferflora, 359 Gregory (Mrs. E. S.), British Violets, Dr. F. Cavers, 432 Gregson (Margaret M.), the Story of Our Trees in Twenty-four Lessons, 511 Greil (Prof. A.), Richtlinien des Entwicklungs- und Vererbungsproblems: i., A. E. Crawley, 380; ii., L. Doncaster, 458 Griffini (Dr. A.), le Zebre, 358 Giinther (Dr. Albert, F.R.S.), History of the Collections in the Natural History Departments of the British Museum : Vol. ii-, 595 Harshberger (Prof. J. W.), die Vegetation der Erde, edited by Profs. Engler and Drude: Phytogeographic Survey of North America, 405 Hartert (E.), F. C. R. Jourdain, N. F. Ticehurst and H. F. Witherby, a Hand-list of British Birds, 358 Hawks (Ellison), Bees shown to the Children, 358 Heath (F. G.), Nervation of Plants, Dr. F. Cavers, 432 Hegner (Prof. R. W.), College Zoology, 245 Holmes (Prof. S. J.), the Evolution of Animal telligence, 160 Jacob (Rev. Joseph), Tulips, Dr. F. Cavers, 433 Jonsson (Dr. Helgi), the Botany of Iceland, edited by Dr. L. K. Rosenvinge and Dr. E. Warming: the Marine Algal Vegetation, 645 Jouenne (L.) et J. H. Perreau, la Péche au Bord de la Mer, 358 Kraepelin (Prof. K.), Einfiihrung in die Biologie, 245 Linden (Prof. Grafin von), die Assimilationstatigkeit bei Schmetterlings-Puppen, 379 Loeb (Dr. Jacques), the Mechanistic Conception of Life, Prof. E. A. Schafer, F.R-S., 327 Marshall (Prof. C. E., editor), Microbiology for Agri- cultural and Domestic Science Students, Prof. R. T. Hewlett, 188 Miall (Dr. L. C., F.R.S.), the Early Naturalists, 1 Miller (Gerrit S.), Catalogue of the Mammals of Western Europe in the Collection of the British Museum, 595 Mosley (C.), the Oak: its Natural History, Antiquity, and Folk-lore, Rev. J. Griffith, 589 Miiller (G. W.), das Tierreich : Ostracoda, 358 Murray (Sir John, K.C.B., F.R.S.) and Dr. Johan Hjort, “the Depths of the Ocean”: a General Account of the Modern Science of Oceanography based largely on the Scientific Researches of the Michael Sars in the North Atlantic, Dr. E. J. Allen, 221 In- xl Index Reviews and Our Bookshelf (continued) : National Antarctic Expedition: Natural History: Vol. vi., Zoology and Botany, 573 Ogilvie-Grant (W. R.), Catalogue of the Collection of Birds’ Eggs in the British Museum (Natural History), 595 Oshanin (B.), Katalog der palearktischen Hemipteren, 1 Been (Dr. O.), Dr. W. G. Smith, Vegetation of the Transcaspian Lowlands, 711 Pearl (Raymond), the Mode of Inheritance of Fecundity in the Domestic Fowl, W. E. Collinge, 526 Pictet (Dr. Arnold), Recherches Expérimentales sur les Mécanismes du Mélanisme et 1’Albinisme chez les Lépidoptéres, 135 Pringsheim (Dr. E. G.), die Reizbewegungen der Pflanzen, 483 Ravasini (Dr. Ruggero), die Feigenbaume Italiens und ihre Beziehungen zu einander, 310 Record (Prof. S. J.), Identification of the Economic Woods of the United States, 5rr Reynolds (Prof. Sidney H.), the Vertebrate Skeleton, 699 Rowland-Brown (H.), Butterflies and Moths at Home and Abroad, 488 Russell (Dr. Edward J.), Growth, 215 Sadler (Wilfrid), Bacteria as Friends and Foes of the Dairy Farmer, Prof. R. T. Hewlett, 188 Sanderson (E. D.) and Prof. C. F. Jackson, Elementary Entomology, 488 Schneider (C. K.), Illustriertes Handbuch der Laubholz- kunde, 511 Schneider (Prof. Karl C.), Tierpsychologisches Praktikum in Dialogform, A. E. Crawley, 380 Scottish National Antarctic Expedition : Vol. iii., Botany, Soil Conditions and Plant Selous (F. C.), Protective Coloration and Lions, 593 Sheppard (T.), Hull Museum Pamphlets, 258 Sidler (Prof. G.), Geometry of the Triangle, 259 Sladen (F. W. L.), the Humble-bee : its Life-history and how to Domesticate it, 252 Soergel (Dr. W.), Festschrift der Deutschen Anthropo- logischen Gesellschaft : das Aussterben diluvialer Sauge- tiere und die Jagd des diluvialen Menschen, 622 Stevenson (T.), C. H. Payne, C. E. Shea, Chrysanthe- mums, 248 Strasburger (Dr. E.), Dr. L. Jost, Dr. H. Schenk, and Dr. G. Karsten, Prof. W. H. Lang, F.R.S., a Text- book of Botany, 693 Swanton (E. W.), British Plant-galls: a Classified Text- book of Cecidology, 488 Thenen (Dr. Salvator), Zur Phylogenie der Primulaceen- bliite, 381 Thomson (J. Arthur), Heredity, 671 Tower (Prof.), see Castle Townsend (C. H.), Zoologica : Seal, 164 Tregarthen (J. C.), the Story of a Hare, 670 Waterhouse (C. O.), D. Sharp, F.R.S., Index Zoologicus No. JI.: compiled for the Zoological Society of London, 569 Weberbauer (Prof. A.), die Vegetation der Erde, edited by Profs. Engler and Drude: XII., die Pflanzenwelt der peruanischen Anden in ihren Grundziigen dar- gestellt, 405 Whitney (W.), F. C. Lucas, H. B. Shinn, and Mabel E. Smallwood, a Guide for the Study of Animals, 245 Williston (Prof. S. W.), American Permian Vertebrates, 215, 260 Chemistry : Allen’s Commercial Organic Analysis, edited by W. A. Davis and S. S. Sadtler, 65 Allyn (L. B.), Elementary Applied Chemistry, 668 American Institute of Chemical Engineers, Transactions of, 190 Armstrong (Dr. E. F.), the Simple Carbohydrates and the Glucosides, 510 Arrhenius (Svante), Theories of Solutions, 245 Barrett (E.) and Dr. T. P. Nunn, a First Class-book of Chemistry, 668 the Northern Elephant | I Nature, April 24, lar3 Bolton (E. R.) and C. Revis, Fatty Foods, their Practica) Examination, 668 Bottler (Prof. Max), A. H. Sabin, German Varnish- making, 65 Brown (S. E.), Experimental Science: II., Chemistry, 217 Clarke (Hans T.), a Handbook of Organic Analysis, Qualitative and Quantitative, 158 Cross (C. F.) and E. J. Bevan, Researches on Cellulose, 217 Dakin (Dr. H. D.), Oxidations and Reductions in the Animal Body, 510 Ditmar (Dr. R.), der Kautschuk, 668 Dreaper (W. P.), Notes on Chemical Research, 618 Explosions in Mines Committee: Second Report, Prof. W. Galloway, 552 Giua (Dott M.), Prof. H. C. Jones, Trattato di Chemico- Fisica, 668 Government Chemist, Report of, 387 Grant (James), the Chemistry of Breadmaking, 357 Hoff (J. H. van t’) and others, Prof. H. Precht and Prof. E. Cohen, editors), Untersuchungen iiber die Bildungsverhaltnisse der ozeanischen Salzablagerungen insbesondere des Stassfurter Salzlagers, F. G. Donnan, 616 Hiibner (Julius), Bleaching and Dyeing of Vegetable Fibrous Materials, 65 Knox (Dr. J.), Elementary Chemical Theory and Calcula- tions, 431 Landolt-Bornstein physikalisch-chemische Tabellen (Drs. R. Bornstein and W. A. Roth, editors), 431 Ludlan (Dr. E. B.), Outlines of Inorganic Chemistry, 15$ Mellor (Dr. J. W.), Modern Inorganic Chemistry, 668 Molinari (Dr. Ettore), Dr. E. Feilmann, Treatise on General and Industrial Inorganic Chemistry, 509 Moody (Prof. H. R.), College Text-book on Quantitative Analysis, 431 Morgan (Prof. W. C.) and Prof. J. A. Lyman, a Labora- tory Manual in Chemistry, 431 Nernst’s (Prof. W.) Pupils, Festschrift W. Nernst zu seinem Doktorjubilaum gewidmet, Prof. F. G. Donnan, F.R.S., 641 Oppenheimer (Prof. Carl), Grundriss der Biochemie fiir Studierende und Aerzte, 331 Pincussohn (Dr. Ludwig), Medizinisch-chemisches Labora- toriums-Hilfsbuch, 592 Pope (F. G.), Modern Researches in Organic Chemistry, 217 Price (Dr. T. S.), Per-acids and their Salts, 217 Procter (Prof. H. R., editor) and others, Chemists’ Pocket-book, 360 Robinoff (Dr. M.), Ueber die Einwirkung von Wasser und Natronlauge auf Baumwollecellulose, 132 Sinclair (J.) and G. W. M’Allister, First Year’s Course of Chemistry, 217 Stephenson (H. H.), Ceramic Chemistry, 457 Stieglitz (Prof. J.), Elements of Qualitative Chemical Analysis, 431 Tables Annuelles de Constantes et Données Numériques de Chimie, de Physique et de Technologie, Dr. J. A. Harker, F.R.S., 617 Thole (F. B.), Second Year Course of Organic Chemistry for Technical Institutes: the Carbocyclic Compounds, 217 Tibbles (Dr. Wm.), Foods: their Origin, Composition and Manufacture, 357 Villavecchia (Prof. V.), Dizionario di Merceologia e di Chimica Applicata, 699 Whymper (R.), Cocoa and Chocolate: their Chemistry and Manufacture, 357 Leather Engineering : American Institute of Chemical Engineers, Transactions of the, 190 Burnham (M. H.), Soe Truscott, 460 Garza (R. Seco de la), les Nomogrammes de 1’Ingénieur, 02 Halder (Herman), a Handbook on the Gas Engine, 302 Houston (Dr. R. A.), Studies in Light Production, 460 Ruff (Francis), Reference Book for Statical Calculations, Force-diagrams for Frameworks, Tables, &c., for Building and Engineering, 302 Modern Mine Valuation, Nature, April 24, 1913 Index xli Reviews and Our Bookshelf (continued) : Taylor (F. Noel), the Main Drainage of Towns, 133 Taylor (Dr. Fred. W.) and Stanford E. Thompson, Con- crete Costs, 302 Thomson (G.), Modern Sanitary Engineering: Part i., House Drainage, 484 Thomson (Prof. James, F.R.S.), Collected Papers in Physics and Engineering, edited by Sir J. Larmor, Sec.R.S., and James Thomson, 563 Wood (Francis), Modern Road Construction: a Practical Treatise, 100 Geography : Amundsen (Roald), A. G. Chater, the South Pole: an Account of the Norwegian Antarctic Expedition in the Fram, 1910-12, Dr. H. R. Mill, 515 Bacon (G. W. and Co., publishers), New Globe with Contour Colouring, 161; New “Contour” Wall Map of the Mediterranean Lands, 360 Black’s Modern Guide to Harrogate, edited by Gordon Home, 329 Brentnall (H. C.) and C. C. Carter, the Marlborough Country, 157 Brown (Sir Hanbury, K.C.M.G.), the Land of Goshen and the Exodus, 131 Brown (Percy), Picturesque Nepal, 544 Bryce (James, H.B.M. Ambassador to the United States), South America: Observations and Impressions, 615 Cambridge County Geographies, 382 Clark (R. S.) and A. de C. Sowerby, Major C. H. Chepmell, Through Shén-Kan: Account of the Clark Expedition in North China in 1908-9, 544 Davies (Lewis), Cambridge County Geographies : Radnor- shire, 382 Dicks (A. J.), Cambridge Geographical Intermediate, 157 Text-books— Dickson (Prof. H. N.), Maps: how they are made: how : to read them, 329 Du Toit (Alex. L.), Physical Geography for South African Schools, 157 Elliott (M..S.), an Elementary Historical Geography of the British Isles, 671 Giinther (R. T., editor), the Oxford Country, 131 Herbertson (A. J.) and R. L. Thompson, a Geography of the British Empire, 643 Hewison (Dr. J. K.), Cambridge County Geographies : Dumfriesshire, 382 Jackson (F. Hamilton), Rambles in the Pyrenees and the Adjacent Districts, Gascony, Pays de Foix and Roussillon, 131 Jose (A. W.), IT. G. Taylor, and Dr. W. G. Woolnough, New South Wales: Historical, Physiographical and Economic, 382 Macnair (Peter), Cambridge County Geographies: Perth- shire, 382 Marr (Dr. J. E., F.R.S.), Cambridge County Geo- graphies: North Lancashire, 382 Mort (Fred.), Cambridge County Geographies: Renfrew- shire, 382 Murray (J. H. P.), Papua or British New Guinea, 544 Newbigin (Dr. Marion I.), Man and his Conquest of Nature, 131 Regny (P. Vinassa de), Libya Italica: Terreni ed Acque : Vita e Colture della Nuova Colonia, 330 Reynolds (J. B.), Regional Geography : the World, 330 Salisbury (R. D.), H. H. Barrows and W. S. Tower, the Elements of Geography, 643 ie (T.), the Lost Towns of the Yorkshire Coast, 43 Simmons (A. T.) and E. Stenhouse, a Class Book of Physical Geography, 157 Smith (T. Alford), a Geography of Europe, 157 Tardieu (G.), les Alpes de Provence: Guide du Touriste, du Naturaliste et de l’Archéologue, 329 Valentine (E. S.), Forfarshire, 643 Wallis (B. C.), First Book of General Geography, 329 Geology: Bain (H. Foster), Types of Ore Deposits, 278 Binney (James), Centenary of a Nineteenth-century Geologist : Edward William Binney, F.R.S., 539 Blanckenhorn (Prof. Max), Naturwissenschaftliche Studien am Toten Meer und im Jordantal, 165 Bonney (Prof. T. G., F.R.S.), the Building of the Alps, 793 Burnham (M. Howard), Modern Mine Valuation, S. J. Truscott, 460 Burrard (Colonel S. G., F.R.S.), Survey of India: on the Origin of the Himalaya Mountains: a Considera- tion of the Geodetic Evidence, 703 Cahen (Ed.) and W. O. Wootton, Mineralogy of the Rarer Metals, 434 Carey (A. L.), F. L. Bryant, W. W. Clandenin, and W. T. Morrey, Physiography for High Schools, Prof. Grenville A. J. Cole, 159 Collins (J. H.), Observations on the West of England Mining Regions, 278 Crosthwait (Major H. L., R.E.), Survey of India: Investigation of the Theory of Isostasy in India, 703 Deutsche Stidpolar-Expedition, 1901-3, edited by E. von Drygalski: Band ii., Geographie und Geologie, 572 Geikie (Prof. James, F.R.S.), Structural and Field Geology: for Students of Pure and Applied Science, Prof. Grenville A. J. Cole, 159 Hobbs (Prof. W. H.), Earth Features and their Meaning, 278 Hoff (J. H. van t’) and others, (Prof. H. Precht and Prof. E. Cohen, editors), Untersuchungen tber die Bildungsverhaltnisse der ozeanischen Salzablagerungen insbesondere des Stassfurter Salzlagers, Prof. F. G. Donnan, F.R.S., 616 Houston (R. S.), Transactions of the Paisley Naturalists’ Society: Notes on the Mineralogy of Renfrewshire, Prof. G. A. J. Cole, 159 Hull (Prof. Edward, F.R.S.), Monograph on the Sub- Oceanic Physiography of the N. Atlantic Ocean, with a Chapter on Sub-Oceanic Physical Features by Prof. J. W. W. Spencer, 32 Marshall (Dr. P.), Geology of New Zealand, 590 Murray (Sir J., K.C.B., F.R.S.) and Dr. J. Hjort, “the Depths of the Ocean”: Researches of the Michael Sars, Dr. E. J. Allen, 221 Rabot (C.) and E. Muret, les Variations Périodiques des Glaciers : Report, 490 Reynolds (Prof. S. H.), a Geological Excursion Hand- book for the Bristol District, 278 Schwarz (Prof. E. H. L.), South African Geology, 590 Searle (A. B.), an Introduction to British Clays, Shales, and Sands, 278 Siissmilch (C. A.), Introduction to the Geology of New South Wales, 590 Tolman (C. F., Problems, 278 United States, Mineral Resources, Calendar Year 1910: Part i., Metals: Part ii., Non-metals, 61 United States Geological Survey Bulletins, 659 jun.), Graphical Solution of Fault Mathematics and Physics: Aquino (Lieut. R. de), the “Newest” Navigation Altitude and Azimuth Tables for Facilitating the Determination of Lines of Position and Geographical Position at Sea, Auerbach (Felix), Physik in graphischen Darstellungen, 246 Baker (W. M.) and A. A. Bourne, a New Geometry, 275 Barnard (S.) and J. M. Child, a New Algebra, 275 Barton (Prof. E. H.) and Dr. T. P. Black, an Introduc- tion to Practical Physics for Colleges and Schools, 246 Beaven (C. L.), Solutions of the Examples in Godfrey and Siddons’s “Solid Geometry,” 275 Bottger (Prof. H.), Physik, 187 Bonola (Prof. Roberto), Prof. H. S. Carslaw, Non- Euclidean Geometry: a Critical and Historical Study of its Development, 697 Boutaric (A.), Oscillations et Vibrations, 187 Bragg (Prof. W. H., F.R.S.), Studies in Radio-activity, 694 Burch (Dr. G. J., F.R.S.), Practical Exercises in Physio- logical Optics, 187 Cameron (A. T.), Radium and Radio-activity, 567 Carslaw (Prof. H. S.), an Introduction to the Infinitesimal Calculus, 697 Crelier (Prof. L.), Systémes Cinématiques, 569 Czapek (Prof. F.), Ueber eine Methode zur direkten xhi L[ndex Nature, (ey 24, 1913 Reviews and Our Bookshelf (continued) : Bestimmung der Oberflaichenspannung der Plasmahaut von Pflanzenzellen, Prof. F. F. Blackman, 201 Davison (Dr. Charles), Higher Algebra for Colleges and Secondary Schools, 697 Delambre (J. B. J.), Grandeur et Figure de la Terre, 101 Dessau (Prof. B.), Manuale di Fisica ad Uso delle Scuole Secondarie e Superiori, 538 Donaldson (L.), the Cinematograph and Natural Science, 187 Draper (Dr. C. H.), a Course of Physics: Practical and Theoretical, 567 Drude (Dr. Paul), Optik, 567 Drury (F. E.), Manual Training Woodwork Exercises Treated Mathematically, 304 Eiffel (G.), Nouvelles Recherches Expérimentales sur la Résistance de ]’Air et l’Aviation, 677 Erskine-Murray (Dr. J.), Handbook of Wireless Tele- graphy, 645 Fagnano (Marchese Matematiche, 590 Fergusson (J. Coleman), Fergusson’s Percentage Unit of Angular Measurement, with Logarithms: also Descrip- tion of his Percentage Theodolite and Compass, 275 Godfrey (C., M.V.O.) and A. W. Siddons, a Shorter Geometry, 275 Greenhill (Sir G.), the Dynamics of Mechanical Flight : Lectures delivered at the Imperial College of Science, Prof. G. H. Bryan, F.R.S., 535 Hall (H. S.) and F. H. Stevens, Examples of Arithmetic, E. Gehrcke, editor, Lehrbuch der G. C. dei Toschi di), Opere 275 Henderson (Prof. A.), the Twenty-seven Lines upon the Cubic Surface, 591 Heyden (A. F. van der), Notes on Algebra, 697 Hobson (Prof. E. W., F.R.S.), a Treatise on Plane Trigonometry, 275 Hollard (A.), la Théorie des Ions et 1’Electrolyse, 567 Houston (Dr. R. A.), Studies in Light Production, 460 Huygens (Christiaan), Silvanus P. Thompson, Treatise on Light, 246 Jones (H. Sydney), Exercises in Modern Arithmetic, 607 Jude (Dr. R. H.) and Dr. J. Satterly, Junior Magnetism and Electricity, 246 King (Willford I.), Elements of Statistical Method, 33 Lamb (C. G.), Examples in Applied Electricity, 538 Lan-Davis (C. F.), Telephotography, 461 Loisel (J.), Atlas Photographique des Nuages, 280 Loney (Prof. S. L.), an Elementary Treatise on Statics, 275 Maclean (Prof. M.), Electricity and its Practical Applica- tions, 567 McLeod (Dr. Ch.), Lessons in Geometry, 275 Mill (Dr. H. R.), British Rainfall, 1911, 192 Pepper (J. H.), Dr. J. Mastin, the Boy’s Playbook of Science, 538 Pierpoint (Prof. J.), Lectures on the Theory of Functions of Real Variables, Vol. ii., 642 Potier (A.), Mémoires sur 1’Electricité et 1’Optique, 246 Ramsay (Sir W., K.C.B., F.R.S.), Elements and Elec- trons, 567 Riecke (Prof. Eduard), Lehrbuch der Physik, 246 Riefler (Dr. S.), Tables of the Weight of Air y7, of the Air-pressure Equivalents 8’, and of the Gravity g, in German, French, and English, 565 Salmon (Dr. George, F.R.S.), R. A. P. Rogers, a Treatise on the Analytical Geometry of Three Dimen- sions, 275 Schott (Dr. G. A.), Electromagnetic Radiation and the Mechanical Reactions arising from it, 301 Schultze (Arthur), the Teaching of Mathematics Secondary Schools, 697 Soddy (F., F.R.S.), Matter and Energy, 187; the Inter- pretation of Radium, 671 Stanley (F.), Lines in the Arc Spectra of Elements, 219 Stark (Prof. J.), Prinzipien der Atomdynamik, 100 Stroobant (Prof. Paul), les Progrés Récents de 1’Astro- nomie, 670 Sylvester (James Joseph, F.R.S.), the Collected Mathe- matical Papers of, 379 in | Symonds (W. P.), Nautical Astronomy, 617 . Tables Annuelles de Constantes et Données Numériques, M PI Dr. J. A. Harker, F.R.S., 617 Thomson (Prof. James, F.R.S.), Collected Papers in Physics and Engineering, edited by Sir J. Larmor, Sec.R.S., and James Thomson, Prof. J. Perry, F.R.S., 563 Trabert (Prof. W.), Lehrbuch der kosmischen Physik, E. Gold, 356 Verworn (Max), schauung, 699 Villamil (Lieut.-Col. R. de), A B C of Hydrodynamics, 275 Watson (Prof. W., F.R.S.), Intermediate Physics, 246 Wegener (Dr. A.), Thermodynamik der Atmosphare, 31 Weir (James), the Energy System of Matter, 187 Wilson (Prof. H. A., F.R.S.), the Electrical Properties of Flames and of Incandescent Solids, 694 edicine : Abderhalden (Emil), Organismus, 66 Bancels (J. arguier des), le Gofit et 1’Odorat, 66 Burnet (Dr. E.), Dr. C. Broquet and Dr. W. M. Scott, Microbes and Toxins, Prof. R. T. Hewlett, 188 Cathcart (Dr. E. P.), Physiology of Protein Metabolism, 66 Kausale und konditionale Weltan- Schutzfermente des _ tierischen Chesser (Elizabeth S.), Perfect Health for Women and Children, 484 Fearis (Walter H.), the Treatment of Tuberculosis by means of the Immune Substances (I.K.) Therapy, 129 Hertwig (O.), die Radiumkrankheit tierischer Keim- zellen, 67 Lenz (F.), Uber die krankhaften Erbanlagen des Mannes, 60 3 Miller (Dr. Hugh C.), Hypnotism and Disease: a Plea for National Psychotherapy, 484 Morel (L.), les Parathyroides, 66 Schafer (Prof. E. A., F.R.S.), Experimental Physiology, 9 Smith (W. Johnson), Dr. Arnold Chaplin, a Medical and Surgical Help for Shipmasters and Officers: including First Aid, 645 Stiles (Prof. P. G.), Nutritional Physiology, 668 Stohr (F. O.), la Maladie du Sommeil au Katanga, 337 Vincent (Prof. Swale), Internal Secretion and the Duet- less Glands, 569 Wright (Sir A. E., F.R.S.), Handbook of the Technique of the Teat and Capillary Glass Tube and its Applica- tions in Medicine and Bacteriology, R. T. Hewlett, 218 itlosophy and Psychology: Anales de Psicologia, 277 Aristotelian Society, Proceedings of the, 277 Aveling (Dr. F.), on the Consciousness of the Universal and the Individual, 695 Butler (Samuel, Author of “Erewhon”), the Note-books of, edited by Henry F. Jones, 695 Dumiville (B.), the Fundamentals of Psychology, 695 Jones (Dr. E.), Papers on Psycho-analysis, 695 Kirkham (Stanton Davis), Outdoor Philosophy: the Meditations of a Naturalist, 216 McDowall (Stewart A.), Evolution and the Need of Atonement, 695 Mackenzie (Dr. William), Alle Fonti della Vita, A. E. Crawley, 380 Schneider (Prof. Karl C.), Tierpsychologisches Praktikum in Dialogform, A. E. Crawley, 380 Simpson (Dr. J. Y.), the Spiritual Nature, 695 Stewart (Dr. H. L.), Questions of the Day in Philosophy and Psychology, 695 Tayler (J. L.), the Nature of Woman, 695 Taylor (Duncan), Composition of Matter and Evolution of Mind, 216 Westaway (F. W.), Scientific Method: its Philosophy and its Practice, 277 Whetham (W. C. D., F.R.S.) and Catherine D. Whet- ham, Science and the Human Mind, 695 Wundt (Prof. W.), Dr. R. Pintner, Introduction to Psychology, 216 Interpretation of Nature, Index xiii April 24 1413 Reviews and Our Bookshelf (continued) : Technology: American Annual of Photography, 1913, edited by Percy Y. Howe, 459 Bottler (Prof. Max), A. H. Sabin, German Varnish- making, 65 British Journal Photographic Almanac and _ Photo- grapher’s Daily Companion, 1913, edited by G. Brown, cane (J. E.), the Tin-mining Industry and the Distribu- tion of Tin Ores in New South Wales (N.S.W. Depart- ment of Mines), 497 Ditmar (Dr. R.), der Kautschuk, 668 Eckel (E. C.), Building Stones and Clays: their Origin, Characters, and Examination, 537 Erskine-Murray (Dr. J.), a Handbook of Wireless Tele- graphy: its Theory and Practice, 645 Geerligs (H. C. P.), the World’s Cane Sugar Industry, Past and Present, 509 Giolitti (Dr. F.), la Cementazione dell’Acciaio, 568 Hirschwald (Prof. J.), Handbuch der bautechnischen Gesteinspriifung, 537 Hiibner (Julius), Bleaching and Dyeing of Vegetable Fibrous Materials, 65 Johnson (Stanley C.), Nature Photography, 189 Jones (H. Chapman), Photography of To-day, 644 Lan-Davis (C. F.), Telephotography, 461 Levy (Donald M.), Modern Copper Smelting, 484 Masselon, Roberts, and Cillard, Dr. H. H. Hodgson, Celluloid: its Manufacture, Applications, and Substi- tutes, 280 Tables Annuelles de Constantes et Données Numériques, Dr. J. A. Harker, 617 Tibbles (Dr. Wm.), Foods: their Origin, Composition, and Manufacture, 357 Villavecchia (Prof. V.), Dizionario di Merceologia e di Chimica Applicata, 699 Whymper (R.), Cocoa and Chocolate, 357 Wood (J. T.), the Puering, Bating, and Drenching of Skins, 130 Miscellaneous : Adams (Prof. John), Evolution of Educational Theory, 99 Barbour (Sir David, K.C.S.I., K.C.M.G.), the Standard of Value, N. B. Dearle, 536 Bardswell (Frances A.), Twelve Moons, 304 Boubier (Dr. M.), Internaciona Biologial Lexiko en Ido, Germana, Angla, Franca, Italiana ed Hispana, 485 Churchward (Dr. Albert), Signs and Symbols of Primor- dial Man: an Explanation of the Religious Doctrines from the Eschatology of the Ancient Egyptians, Rev. John Griffith, 406 Dyer (Dr. H.), Education and National Life, 434 Englishwoman’s Year Book and Directory, 1913, edited by G. E. Mitton, 485 Gask (Lilian), Legends of our Little Brothers: Fairy Lore of Bird and Beast, 331 Geikie (Sir A., K.C.B., F.R.S.), the Love of Nature among the Romans during the Later Decades of the Republic and the First Century of the Empire, Prof. T. Herbert Warren, 185 Gray (W. Forbes, editor), Books that Count: a Dictionary of Standard Works, 592 Heaton’s Annual: the Commercial Handbook of Canada and Boards of Trade Register, 1913, edited by E. Heaton and J, B. Robinson, 699 Hébert (Georges), 1’Education Physique ou 1’Entraine- ment Complet par la Méthode Naturelle, 407 Hodgson (Dr.-G. E.), Rationalist English Educators, 99 Jahrbuch der Naturwissenschaften, rg11-12, edited by Dr. J. Plassmann, 643 Johnson (Walter), Wimbledon Common: its Geology, Antiquities, and Natural History, 461 Knoop (D.), Principles and Methods of Municipal Trading, N. B. Dearle, 536 Lankester (Sir Ray, K.C.B., F.R.S.), Science from an Easy Chair: Second Series, 538 Lodge (Sir Oliver, F.R.S.), Modern Problems, 248 Mackenzie (Dr. Wm.), Alle Fonti della Vita, A. E. Crawley, 380 Moffatt (C. W. Paget), Science French Course, 190 Montessori (Maria), Anne E. George, the Montessori Method: Scientific Pedagogy as Applied to Child Education in “The Children’s Houses,” 99 Newcombe (L.), Catalogue of the Periodical Publications in the Library of University College, London, 161 Pierson (Dr. N. G.), A. A. Wotzel, Principles of Economics : vol. ii., N. B. Dearle, 431 Plummer (F. G.), Lightning in Relation to Forest Fires, II Pollak (G.), Michael Heilprin and his Sons, 408 Ross (Col. Charles, D.S.O.), an Outline of the Russo- Japanese War, 1904, 1905, 68 Royal Society of London, Catalogue of the Periodical Publications in the Library of the, 161 Schneider (Prof. Karl C.), Tierpsychologisches Praktikum in Dialogform, A. E. Crawley, 380 Smith (Dr. Theodate L.), the Montessori System in Theory and Practice, 486 Sommer (H. Oskar), the French Arthurian Romances, Rev. John Griffith, 328 South Africa: Catalogue of the Serial Publications possessed by the Geological Commission of Cape Colony, Royal Observatory, Royal Society of S.A., S.A. Association for the Advancement of Science, S.A. Museum, and S.A. Public Library, 434 “Space and Spirit,” the Author of, the Triuneverse: a Scientific Romance, 216 ; Thomas (Edward), Norse Tales, 102 Thorndike (Prof. Edward L.), Education: a First Book, 407 Who’s Who, 1913, 485 Who’s Who in Science: International, 1913 (H. H. Stephenson, Editor), 619 Writers’ and Artists’ Year Book, 1913, the, 485 Rhodesia Museum, Lack of Funds, 170 Rice, Classification, S. Kikkawa, 599; Nicotinic Acid in Rice, Prof. Suzuki and S. Matsunaga, 709 Rifle Barrel Vibrations, F. Carnegie, 442 Riparian Flora, Prof. Gliick, 359 Rivers, Glaciers, and the Ice-Age, 444 Road Construction, Modern, Francis Wood, 100 Rock : Composition of Rocks, F. W. Clarke, 197; the Rock Garden, R. Farrer, Dr. F. Cavers, 433; Rock- disintegration by Weathering, Dr. F. H. Hatch, 481 R6ntgen Rays: the Crystal Space-lattice revealed by Roéntgen Rays, Dr. A. E. H. Tutton, F.R.S., Dr. M. Laue, 306; Spectra of Fluorescent Réntgen Radiations, J. C. Chapman, 400; Réntgen Radiation from Kathode Particles traversing a Gas, R. Whiddington, 402; Reflection, Profs. Barkla and Martyn, 435; Messrs. Moseley and Darwin, 594; see also X-Rays Romans: the Love of Nature among the Romans during the Later Decades of the Republic and the First Century of the Empire, Sir A. Geikie, K.C.B., F.R.S., Prof. T. H. Warren, 185 Rosa stellata, Prof. T. D. A. Cockerell, 571 Royal Anthropological Institute: the Metals in Antiquity, Prof, W. Gowland, F.R.S., 344 Royal Astronomical Society : Gold Medals, 624, 707 Royal Commission to Report on the Natural Resources of the Empire, 256 Royal Geographical Society: Journey to the South Pole, Capt. R. Amundsen, 341; Victoria Nyanza to Kisii Highlands, Dr. Felix Oswald, 493; Admission of Women, 521, 576; North-east Greenland, Captain Einar Mikkelsen, 548 Royal Institution Discourse: Lord Lister, by Sir Wm. Macewen, F.R.S., 499 Royal Microscopical Society : Conversazione, 235 Royal Society : Catalogue of Periodical Publications in the Library, 161; “the Record,” 172; New Council, 312; Medal Awards, 337; Anniversary Meeting, 387 Royal Society of Arts: the Palette of the Illuminator: Address, Dr. A. P. Laurie, 399 Royal Society of Edinburgh: Elections, 257 Royal Society of South Africa: Annual Meeting, 228 Rubber : Rubber Synthesis, Dr. C. Duisberg, Prof. Perkin, Prof. Morgan, 194; Natural and Synthetic Rubber: Address, Dr. F. M. Perkin, 489; Malay States Report, H 579; der Kautschuk, Dr. R. Ditmar, 668 i Rubies: Noel Heaton, 114 xliv Index Nature, April 24, 1913 Russo-Japanese War, 1904-05, Col. Charles Ross, D.S.O., 68 Saccammina sphaevica and Psammosphaera fusca, E. Heron-Allen and A. Earland, 350, 401, 447 Sahara, Proposed Flooding of, 58 Sailing Flight of Birds, Prof. Edwin H. Hall, 161; Headley, 220 St. Paul’s Cathedral Damaged, Sir F. Fox, 524 Salmon Scale Results, Miss P. C. Esdaile, 533 Salt and Sugar, Antiseptic Action of, L. Lindet, 273 Salts, Absorption of Light by Inorganic, A. R. Brown, 638 Sanitary Engineering, Modern, G. Thomson, 484 Sanitary Science : Chadwick Trust Public Lectures, 611 Saturn, J. Camus, 495 Schumann Rays, L. and E. Bloch, 325 Science: Forthcoming Books, 141, 174; Course, ©. W. P. Moffatt, 190; Le Chatelier’s Theorem, Prof. W. D. Bancroft, 231; Address to Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, N.Z., Dr. L. Cockayne, F.R.S., 282; the March of Science, 361; Catalogue of Serials in certain South African Institu- BE. W. Science French tions, 434; Importance of Autograph Documents, 506; Science Museum Advisory Committee, 521; Science from an Easy Chair, Sir Ray Lankester, K.C.B., F.R.S., 538; Science Teaching in Public Schools: Address, Sir A. Geilkie, K.C.B., Pres.R.S., 555; Science at Recent Educational Conferences, G. F. Daniell, 582, 603; Jahrbuch der Naturwissenschaften, Igl1I—12, 643; Science and the Human Mind, W. C. D. Whetham, F.R.S., and Catherine D. Whetham, 695; Science Exhibition at Surbiton, 707 Scientific Method: its Philosophy and its Practice, F. W. Westaway, 277 Scientific | Worthies: For.Mem.R.S., 353 Scintillation, C. Gallissot, 429 Scottish Meteorological Society, A. Watt, 289 Scottish Universities and Treasury Interference, 400, 478 Sea, Science of the, Dr. G. H. Fowler and others, 34 Sea of Japan, Circular Currents in, Dr. Wada, 550 Sea-serpent or Monster, Hon. A, Wilmot, 469 Seals: Pribilow Fur-seal, 113; the Northern Elephant Seal, C. H. Townsend, 164; Anatomy of the Weddell Seal, Prof. D. Hepburn, 454; Central Nervous System of the same, Dr. H. A. Haig, 454 Searchlights for the Mercantile Marine, Dr. F.R.S:, 471 Seed Germination of Dicotyledons, J. Adams, 506 Seismography : Fall of House near Rome registered, Prof. G. Cora, 548; see also Earthquakes Seismological Observatory of Rocco di Papa, 59 Selangor, Plant Collection from, H. N. Ridley, 351 Selenium, Sensitiveness of Selenium to Light of Different Colours, A. H. Pfund, 136 Self-fertilisation in Fresh-water Snail, 58 Sewage: Main Drainage of Towns, F. Noel Taylor, 133; Sewage Purification by Fish, Prof. Hofer, 549 Sex: Experimental Analysis of Sex, Geoffrey Smith, 230; Ueber die krankhaften Erbanlagen des Mannes, F. Lenz, 360 Shells from Malay Peninsula and Siam, Dr. C. C. Hosséus, Prof. Jules Henri Poincaré, H. Wilde, 285 Ships: New Rules for Life-saving Appliances, 93; Wake and Suction at back of Ships, M. Poincet, 351; Suction between Passing Vessels, Prof. Gibson and Mr. Thompson, 408 Shrimp, New Primitive, E. L. Bouvier, 376 Siberia: U.S. Zoological Expedition to Altai Mts., Siberian Immigration, Major-Gen. Greely, 492 Sight Tests, 92 Signs and Symbols of Primordial Man and the Ancient Egyptians, Dr. A. Churchward, Rev. J. Griffith, 406 Silical-cyanide, Synthesis of a, Dr. J. E. Reynolds, gor Silicon, Organic Derivatives of, Prof. Kipping, 494 Silk, Eri or Endi, H. Maxwell-Lefroy and C. G. Ghosh, 686 Skins, Puering, Bating, and Drenching of, J. T. Wood, 130 Sleeping Sickness in the Katanga, F. O. Stohr, 337; “Research Defence” Society Pamphlet, Dr. F. M. Sandwith, 338 470 ; Smoke Abatement, 651 Smoking and Football Men, Dr. F. J. Pack, 285 Snakes, Feeding Habits of, R. L. Ditmars, 656 Snowfall of the United States, C. F. Brooks, 585 Société Helvétique des Sciences naturelles, 223 Societies : Asiatic Society of Bengal, 63, 213, 481, 508, 665 Cambridge Philosophical Society, 257, 376, 402, 480, 663 Challenger Society, 350 Geological Society, 350, 427, 453, 636, 663, 716 G6ttingen Royal Society of Sciences, 213, 243 Institute of Metals, 199 Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, 298, 402, 585 Linnean Society, 350, 452, 455, 481, 505, 637, 690 Linnean Society of New South Wales, 98, 213, 665 Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, 243, 298, 402, 481, 506, 533, 586, 663, 690 Mathematical Society, 351, 453, 561, 690 Mineralogical Society, 375, 612 Paris Academy of Sciences, 30, 97, 127, 156, 183, 213, 272, 298, 324, 351, 376, 428, 507, 561, 586, 613, 638, 664, 690, 717 Physical Society, 298, 375, 453, 637, 716 Royal Anthropological Institute, 324 ,, Astronomical Society, 454, 561 » Dublin Society, 454, 506 », Geographical Society, 341, 493, 548, 576 », Institution, 499 », Irish Academy, 402, 638 », Meteorological Society, 376, 480, 585, 716 s, Microscopical Society, 401, 480 », Society, 243, 349, 400, 479, 612, 635, 662, 689, 716; Council, 312 ; Anniversary, 387 »» Society of ‘Arts, 399 », Society of Edinburgh, 257, 428, 454, 506, 638, 664, ded, Society of South Africa, 127, 228, 403 Society of Chemical Industry, New York Meeting, 57 Society for Promotion of Nature Reserves, 467 Zoological Society, 350, 376, 453, 690 Sociology : Modern Problems, Sir O. Lodge, F.R.S., 248 Soda, Egyptian, A. Lucas, 527 Soil Fertility : Soil Conditions and Plant Growth, Dr. E. J. Russell, 215; Recent Publications on Soil Fertility, 473; Phosphorus in Land near Cities, Messrs. Hughes and Aladjem, 473; Bacterial Theory of Soil Fertility, F. Fletcher; Dr. E. J. Russell, 541; Crops and Methods for Soil Improvement, Alva Agee, 589; Soil Fertility, Dr. R. Greig Smith, 665 Solar: Errors of Computed Times of Solar Eclipse Pheno- mena, Dr. A..M. W. Downing, F.R.S., Dr. W. J. S. Lockyer, 162; Utilisation of Radiant Solar Energy, Prof. G. Ciamician, Prof. Morgan, 194; International Union for Solar Research, 311; Solar Physics Observatory at Cambridge, 374; see also Sun Solubility and Electro-affinity, F. Calzolari, 140 Solutions: Theories of Solutions, Svante Arrhenius, 245; Conductivity of Aqueous Solutions: Summary, Prof. H. C. Jones, 393; Theory of Solutions, Prof. A. Findlay, 497; Electrical Conductivity and Fluidity of Strong Solutions, W. S. Tucker, 637 60, Sonnblick Meteorological Observatory, 197 Soufriére Eruption: Revival of Agriculture in Devastated Area, W. N. Sands, 474 Sound: Upper Partials of a Tuning-fork, F. H. Parker, 361; Maintenance of Vibrations, C. V. Raman, 367 South African Association of Analytical Chemists, 228; South African Geology, Prof. E. H. L. Schwarz, 590; South African University Bill, 611 South America: Observations and Impressions, James Bryce, 615 South Pole: Captain Amundsen’s Journey: Lecture at Royal Geographical Society, 341; the South Pole, R. Amundsen, A. G. Chater, Dr. H. R. Mill, 515 Spark-gaps immersed in Running Liquids, Dr. Eccles and A. J. Makower, 408 Spectra: Lines in the Arc Spectra of Elements, F. Stanley, 219; Composition of Spectral Lines with Echelon, 259; Constitution of Mercury Lines, Prof. H. Nagaoka and T. Takamine, 298; Spectrum of Magnetic Rotation of Bromine, G. Ribaud, 325; Spectra of Fluorescent Nature, April 24, 1913. Index xlv Réntgen Radiations, J. C. Chapman, 400; Spectrum oi | - Ionium, A. S. Russell and R. Rossi, 400; Series of Lines in Spectrum of Hydrogen, Prof. A. Fowler, 454; New Hydrogen Spectra, A. Fowler, 466; Photography of Absorption Spectra, T. R. Merton, 682 Spectroheliograms, Latitude of Absorption Markings on Ha, Dr. Royds, 658 Spectro-photometric Comparison of Emissivity of Gold with that of a Full Radiator, E. M. Stubbs and Dr. Prideaux, 349; of Copper and Silver, E. M. Stubbs, 636 Spectroscopy : Prinzipien der Atomdynamik, Prof. J. Stark, 100; the Spectroscopic Binary Star B Scorpionis, J. C. Duncan, 394; Self-testing of Dispersion Apparatus, Prof. C. V. Burton, 435; Influence of Spectrum Analysis on Cosmical Problems, Prof. Max Wolf, 443 | Specular Reflection of X-Rays, Prof. W. L. Bragg, F.R.S., 410 Spiderland, R. A. Ellis, 488 Spiders from Falkland Islands, H. R. Hogg, 376 Spiritual Interpretation of Nature, Dr. J. Y. 695 Spitsbergen, Disaster to German Expedition to, 548 Standard of Value, Sir D. Barbour, K.C.S.I., K.C.M.G., N. B. Dearle, 536 Starch, New Form of Soluble, A. Fernbach, 184 Stars: Catalogue of Stellar Parallaxes, Groningen Ob- servatory, 60; Parallax of Nova Lacerte, Dr. Bala- nowsky, 173; Parallaxes of Southern Stars, Dr. F. L. Chase and M. F. Smith, 552; Galactic Distribution of certain Stellar Types, Dr. Hertzsprung, 115; Measur- ing the Angular Diameters of Stars, Dr. Pokrowsky, 232; Stellar Actinometry at the Yerkes Observatory, J. A. Parkhurst, 316; a Star Calendar, Mrs. H. Periam Hawkins, 394; Region around the Star Clusters H v 33, 34 Persei, C. R. d’Esterre, 454; Scintillation, C. Gallissot, 429; Integrated Spectrum of the Milky Way, Dr. Fath, 551; Integrating Opacimeter for Stellar Photographs, J. Baillaud, 587; Stellar Motions : Type B, Prof. H. C. Plummer, 561; Temperatures, Dr. H. Rosenberg, 658; Photographic Magnitudes of Stars in Coma Ber., Dr. Hnatek, 710 Double: Orbit of — Persei, Mr. Cannon, 60; Period and Orbit of a Persei, Dr. A. Hnatek, 93; the Spectro- scopic Binary B Scorpionis, J. C. Duncan, 394; Distri- bution of Spectroscopic Binaries on the Celestial Sphere, P. Stroobant, 586; New Double Stars, Dr. Aitken, 659 i Variable: Nova Geminorum No. 2, Various, 60; Light- curve, J. Fischer-Petersen, 316; Later Spectrum, F. J. M. Stratton, 454; Spectrum, Messrs. Adams and Kohlschutter, 495; Prof. Wendell, Miss Cannon, 580; 628; Parallax of Nova Lacerta, Dr. Balanowsky, 173; Observations and Light Curves, E. Padova, 173; Algol and John Goodricke, 526; Star 87, 1911, Miss Cannon, 580 Statics, an Elementary Treatise on, Prof. S. L. Loney, 275 ; Statical Calculations, &c., Reference Book for Building and Engineering, F. Ruff, 302 Statistics: the Elements of Statistical Method, Willford I. King, 33; Apparent Fallacy in Statistical Treatment of “Antedating” in Inheritance of a Pathological Con- dition, Prof. K. Pearson, F.R.S., 334; Probabilities in Social Statistics, Prof. Edgeworth, 627 Steam, Specific Heat and Volume of, M. Jakob, 627 Steatopygy among Mediterranean Races, 366 Steel: Thermomagnetic Study, Dr. S. W. J. Smith, 375; Elastic Hysteresis of Steel, Prof. B. Hopkinson and G. Trevor-Williams, 401; la Cementazione dell’ Acciaio, Dr. F. Giolitti, 568 Steelyards and Bismars, Oriental, H. Ling Roth, 229 Stereoisomerism of Oximes, F. C. Palazzo, 525 Sterilisation, New Very Powerful Ultra-violet Lamp for, V. Henri and others, 299 Stigmodera, H. J. Carter, 213 Stock Diseases in S. Africa, Dr. A. Theiler, C.M.G., 475 Stokes’ Law for Small Drops, A. Schidlof and Mlle. Murzynowska, 638 Stone Age, Dr. L. Pfeiffer, 622 Storm Warning Signals at Night, G. Ishida, 197 Simpson, Technology : Stress: Optical and Thermoelectric Methods applied to Problems of Stress Distribution, Prof. E. G. Coker, 383, 498; Specification of Elements of Stress, R. F. Gwyther, 586 Stromatoporoid Skeleton, R. Kirkpatrick, 37 Sub-Crag, see Archeology Submarine Boat Eq, 551 Sugar : Sugar-beet, 174; Antiseptic Action, L. Lindet, 273 ; Fermentation by Bacillus subtilis, M. Lemoigne, 273; the World’s Cane Sugar Industry, H. C. P. Geerligs, Structure of, and on Eozoon, 509 Sulphide Ores, Blast-roasting of, J. H. Levings, 586 Summer of 1912, C. Harding, 71; Rev. Dr. A. Irving, 163 Sun: the Solar Constant and Climatic Changes, H. Arctowski, 93; Filaments and Prominences, A. Riccd, 97; Filaments and Alignements, H. Deslandres, 127 ; Relations between various Solar Phenomena, Prof. Riccd, M. Deslandres, 233; Solar Parallax, Prof. Doolittle, 199; Variability of Solar Radiation, C. G. Abbot, 288; Observations at Lyons Observatory, J. Guillaume, 299; the March of Science, 361; Solar Motion relatively to the Interstellar Absorbing Medium, Prof. W. H. Pickering, 368; Radium in the Chromo- sphere, Dr. Dyson, 393; the Sun’s Magnetic Field, H. Deslandres, 551; Magnetic Field of the Upper Layers of the Solar Atmosphere, H. Deslandres, 561; Latitude Distribution of Absorption Markings on Ha Spectro- heliograms, Dr. Royds, 658; see also Solar Sun-dials, M. Roguet, M. Montmorin, M. Joyeux, 288 Sun Eclipses : Corona at the Total Eclipse of April 17, 1912, J. C. Sold, 29; the Total Eclipse on October 10, 1912, in Brazil, 92, 199; J. H. Worthington, 315; Errors of Computed Times of Solar Eclipse Phenomena, Dr. A. M. W. Downing, F.R.S., Dr. W. J. S. Lockyer, 162: Rev. A. L. Cortie, S.J., 191; Spectrum of the Corona, Prof. J. W. Nicholson, 658 Sun-spots : 443; Sun-spot Activity, 173 ; Systematic Motions of Sun-spots, Prof. Hirayama, 173; Similarity of Variations of S Persei and Sun-spots, Prof. H. H. Turner, 454; Attraction of Sun-spots for Prominences, 525; Sun-spots and Terrestrial Magnetic Phenomena, 1898-1911, 561 Sunfish, Young, from Central Pacific, A. R. McCulloch, Dr. T. D. Liddle, R.N., Surbiton “Wonders of Science” Exhibition, 625, 707 Surface-tension of Living Cells, F. Czapek, Dr. F. F. Blackman, F.R.S., 201 Surgery : Lord Lister: Royal Institution Discourse, Sir W. Macewen, F.R.S., 499 Surveying : Percentage Unit of Angular Measurement with Logarithms: Percentage Theodolite and Compass, J. C. Fergusson, 275 Swiss Society of Natural Sciences, and National Park, 223 Symbiosis : Pseudovitellar Cells, Dr. Biichner, 197 Synthesis of Matter, Prof. Ben. Moore, 190 Tables: Landolt-Bérnstein physikalisch-chemische Tabellen, Dr. R. Bornstein and Dr. W. A. Roth, 431; Tables of the Weight of Air, Air-pressure Equivalents, and Gravity g, in German, French, and English, Dr. S. Riefler, 565; Tables Annuelles de Constantes et Données Numériques de Chimie, de Physique et de Technologie, Dr. J. A. Harker, F.R.S., 617; Nautical Tables, Lieut. R. de Aquino, 710 Yanning, J. T. Wood, 130 Yardigrada, African, J. Murray, 401 Yarpan, Dr. O. Antonius, 59 ‘Taste and Smell, J. L. des Bancels, 66 ‘ealk Wood, Chemical Method of Distinguishing Seasoned, A. CG. Sircar, 213 ‘echnical Institutions, Association of : Presidential Address, J. H. Reynolds, 687 Dizionario di Merceologia e Applicata, Prof. V. Villavecchia, 699 ‘lelephotography, C. F. Lan-Davis, 461 di Chimica ‘lemperature: Temperature of N. Atlantic, 59; Rev. Dr. A. Irving, 163; Vertical Temperature Distribution over England, W. H. Dines, F.R.S., 309 ; Temperature Effects of Icebergs, Prof. H. T. Barnes, F.R.S., 408; Influence of Icebergs on Temperature of the Sea, xlvi Index Nature, April 24, 1913 Dr. J. Aitken, F.R.S., 513; Diurnal Variation in Italy, Dr. P. Eredia, 470 leratology of Fishes, Dr. J. F. Gemmill, 359 Termites, T. B. Fletcher, 90 Testing Materials, International Association for, Dr. W. Rosenhain, 628 Theodolites: Fergusson’s Percentage Theodolite, Theodolites for Mines, L. H. Cooke, 585 Theology: the Golden Bough: Part v., Prof. J. G. Frazer, 66 Therapeutics: d’Arsonval’s Method of Using High- frequency Currents of Low E.M.F., J. Bergonié, 429; Hypnotism and Disease, Dr. H. C. Miller, 484; Use of Low Temperatures in Cryotherapy, F. Bordas, 586; Action of Adrenin on Veins, J. A. Gunn and F. B. Chavasse, 662 Thermodynamik der Atmosphare, Dr. A. Wegener, 31 Thermo-electric Properties of the System Iron-Nickel- Carbon, E. L. Dupuy and A. Portevin, 428 Thermo-electricity, the Electron Theory of, J. McWhan, 717 Thermomagnetic Study of Steel, Dr. S. W. J. Smith, 375 Thomson Effect, Measurement of the, H. R. Nettleton, 375 Thought and Development, Prof. C. J. Patten, 524 Tiberias Lake, Biology of, Dr. N. Annandale 508, 665 Tick, Sensory Perceptions of the Fowl-, Dr. E. Hindle and G. Merriman, 392 Time: International Conference on Time Reckoning, 195; G. Bigourdan, 324; 443; International Standard Time, 261; Electric Time-Measuring Apparatus, G. Lippmann, 507; Automatic Apparatus for Time Signals, G. Bigourdan, 587; Optical Method of Coincidence for Transmission of Time, MM. Schwartz and Villatte, 587 Tin Mines of New South Wales, J. E. Carne, 497 Titanic, Loss of the, Dr. A. Irving, 38; Dr. H. Wilde, F.R.S., 471; Wrecking Iceberg met by the Clio, 681 Tongue of the Ocean, Observations by G. H. Drew, D. J. Matthews, 350 Torque produced by a Beam of Light in Oblique Refrac- tion through a Glass Plate, Dr. G. Barlow, 612 Torsional Oscillation of Metals, Prof. W. Peddie, 428; of Wires, J. B. Ritchie, 428 Toxins: Microbes and Toxins, Dr. E. Burnet, Dr. C. Broquet and Dr. W. M. Scott, Prof. R. T. Hewlett, 2755 188: Action of Active Aluminium on Alikaloidal Extracts, E. K. Abrest, 429; Fungi, 91, 184 Transcaspian Lowland Vegetation, Dr. O. Paulsen, Dr. W. G. Smith, 711 Trees: Big-Trees of California, G. B. Sudworth, 441; the Story of Our Trees, Margaret M. Gregson, 511 Triangle, Geometry of the, Prof. G. Sidler, 259; Orthopole of Triangle, W. Gallatly, 493 Trigonometry, Treatise on Plane, Prof. E. W. Hobson, F.R-S., 275 Tripoli, Climate of, Dr. P. V. de Regny, 330 “Triuneverse,” the, 216 Tropical Medicine : London School’s Dinner, 257; Liverpool School’s Expedition to West Indies, 257; 313; Tropical Medicine, Sir Ronald Ross, 578 Tropical Winds, High, Dr. van Bemmelen, 250 Tropics, Agricultural University in the, 595 Trypanosomes: T. gambiense and T. rhodesiense, Drs. J. G. Thompson and J. A. Sinton, 313; Titles of Royal Society Papers, 350; Non-identity of Trypanosoma brucei of Zululand and Uganda, Dr. J. W. W. Stephens and Dr. B. Blacklock, 636; Treatment of Human Trypanosomiasis and Yaws with Antimony, Capt. H. S. Ranken, 662 Tuberculosis: Frozen Meat, Prof. Bordoni-Uffreduzi, 112; Treatment by the Immune Substances (I.K.) Therapy, W. H. Fearis, 129; Address at Royal Hospital, City Road, Prof. Nietner, 229; Milk, Prof. R. T. Hewlett, 281; W. Buckley, 443 ; Weber-Parkes Prize Award, 284: the Warfare against Tuberculosis, Prof. Metchnikoff, 386; Prof. Friedmann’s Treatment, 412; Japanese Society to Combat, 416; Tuberculosis and House-Tax, Sir W. Macewen, F.R.S., 502; Tuberculosis, Dr. Metchnikoff, 578; Tuberculous Infection, A. Calmette and C. Guérin, 586 Tulips, Rev. J. Jacob, 433 Tuning-fork, Upper Partials of a, F. H. Parker, 361 P. Eredia, 146; Libya Italica, Tunnel subjected to Earth Pressure, Prof. A. F. Jorini, 92 Turbine, Gas, Dr. D. Clerk, 498 Turkish Earthquake of September 13, G. W. Walker, 163 Twelve Moons, Frances Bardswell, 304 : Typhoid: Active Immunisation of Man against Typhoid Fever, H. Vincent, 30; Action of Polyvalent Anti- typhoid Vaccine in Persons in a State of Latent Infec- tion by the Eberth Bacillus, H. Vincent, 273 ; Diagnosis of Typhoid Fever by Spleen Reaction, H. Vincent, 351; Intravenous Inoculation of Dead Typhoid Bacilli in Man, C. Nicolle and others, 377; Waccin-therapy, M. A. Delteil and others, 429; Vaccination against Typhoid in the French Navy, M. Chantemesse, 613 Typhoon in Japan, September 22-24, 137 Uganda: Natural History Society’s Journal, 469 Ultra-violet Rays: Weather and Ultra-violet Solar Radia- tion, L. G. Schultz, 68; Photochemical Absorption for Reactions produced by Ultra-violet Rays, V. Henri and R. Wurmser, 97; Absorption by Chlorophyll, C. Dhéré and W. de Rogowski, 213; Action on the Pancreatic Juice, C. Delezenne and M. Lisbonné, 273; New Very Powerful Lamp and its Use for Sterilising, V. Henri and others, 299; Photochemical Decomposition of Glucose according to Wave-length, D, Berthelot and H. Gaudechon, 299; Ionisation of Gases by Schumann Rays, L. and E. Bloch, 325; Action on Organisms, Prof. Stoklasa, 336; Effect of Wave-length on Chemical Changes, D. Berthelot and H. Gaudechon, 377; Inver- sion of Saccharose by Ultra-violet Rays, H. Bierry, 429; Photolysis of Sugars, D. Berthelot and H. Gaudechon, 429; Theory of the Photo-electric Effect, Dr. K. Herrmann, 442; Absorption by Fatty. Acids and their Isomeric Esters, J. Bielecki and V. Henri, 561; Action on Ethyl Aldehyde, D. Berthelot and H. Gaudechon, 613; Measurement of Energy of a Mercury Lamp, M. Boll, 638 Units: M.K.S. System, R. de Baillehache, 681 Universities: University of Bristol, 224; in relation to Agriculture, 373; University Students in State-aided Institutions, 347; Nationalities of Students in American Universities, 348; Congress of Universities of the Empire, 374; University in the Tropics, 595; Uni- versity of Western Australia, 634 Uranium, Volumetric Method for Estimation of, V. Auger, 213 = Uranous Oxide, Action of Sulphuric and Hydrochloric Acids upon, A. Colani, 455 Vacuum Pump on New Principle, Dr. W. Gaede, 198 Vacuum Tubes, Appearance of Helium and Neon in, Sir J. J. Thomson, O.M., F.R.S., 645; Sir W. Ramsay, K.C.B., F.R.S., 653; Prof. J. N. Collie, F.R-S. and H. S. Patterson, 653, 699 Vapour Densities at High Temperatures, Dr. G. E. Gibson, 638 Varnish-making, German, Prof. Max Bottler, A. H. Sabin, 65 Vector Functions, Quadratic, Rev. T. Roche, 403 Vegetation der Erde, Profs. Engler and Drude, Weberbauer, Prof. J. W. Harshberger, 405 Venice : Campanile of St. Mark’s, 60 Vertebrate Skeleton, Prof. S. H. Reynolds, 699 Vertebrates, American Permian, Prof. S. W. Williston, 215 Veterinary Science: “Struck Sheep,” Prof. Cave, 174; Parasitic Gastritis, B. Gardener, 174; S. Africa, 475 Vibrations, Experimental Investigations of Maintenance of, C. V. Raman, 367 Violets, British, Mrs. E. S. Gregory, Dr. F. Cavers, 432 Viscosity of Air, Simple Method of Determining, Dr. G. F. €. Searle, 402 Vocal Sounds of an Anthropoid Ape, L. Boutan, 325 Vulgate Version of the Arthurian Romances, H. Oskar Sommer, Rev. J. Griffith, 328 Prof. War, the Russo-Japanese, Col. Ch. Ross, D.S.O., 68 Wassermann Reaction, the Antigen in the, A. Desmouliére, 325, 428, 639 Nature - * Par Seger cs ee Index xvii Watch, Reeves’s Night Marching, 711 Year-books: Hazell’s Annual, 443; Who’s Who, 485; Water: Measurement of Flowing Water by Chemical Analysis, Th. Schloesing, sen., 273; Constitution of Water, A. Piccard, 507; Examination of London Water Supplies, Dr. Houston, 366 Water-surface Halo, Rev. O. Fisher, Prof. A. M. Worthing- ton, C.B., F-R.S., 647 Waves at Sea, Heights of, 524 Wealden Floras, Prof. Seward, 350 Weather :* Weather and the Ultra-violet Radiations of the Sun, L. G. Schultz, 68; Weather of 1912, C. Harding, 71, 555; Weather in S. Africa, June 8-13, 1902, A. G. Howard, 127; Weather of India and her Seas, W. E. Hurd, 171; the Cold August and September, Dr. Mill, 259; British Weather, 285, 417, 625; North Atlantic Area, November 4-14, 392; Proposed International Weather Bureau, H. H. Clayton, 708 Weather Forecasting: Pressure Variations in the United States, Dr. Arctowski, 367; Utility of Salinity Observa- tions for Long-date Forecasting, Prof. H. Bassett, 480 Welding, Autogenous, Prof. Carnevali, A. E. Tucker, 199 Whale, Right, of N. Atlantic, Sir Wm. Turner, 454 Wheat Supply of Great Britain, 678 Whelk, Dr. W. J. Dakin, 358 Who’s Who, 1913, 485; Who’s Who in Science: Inter- national, 1913, 619 Willing’s Press Guide, 551 Wimbledon Common: its Geology, Antiquities and Natural History, W. Johnson, 461 Wind: High Tropical Winds, Dr. van Bemmelen, 250; Cyclones of the S. Indian Ocean, 259; Method of Measuring Velocities with a small Wheatstone Bridge, Prof. J. T. Morris, 498; the Upper Trade and Anti- trade Winds, Dr. W. Krebs, 648; Periodical Varia- tions at Oxford, W. H. Robinson, 716 “Winged Destiny, Their,” D. W. Horner, 160 Wireless : Wireless Telegraphy and Terrestrial Magnetism, Dr. C. Chree. F.R.S., 37; Portable Apparatus for Aéroplanes, M. Rouzet, 89; Horizontal Wires for Receiving Hertzian Waves, P. Jégou, 273; Theory and Problems of Wireless Telegraphy: British Association Address, Prof. J. A. Fleming, F.R.S., 291; Presidential Address to the Institution of Electrical Engineers, W. Duddell, F.R.S., 345; Reception of Wireless Signals by Antennz on the Ground, E. Rothé, 428; Noiseless Spark-gaps in Running Liquids, Dr. Eccles and A. J. Makower, 498; Postmaster-General’s Committee, 598; Calculation of Efficiency of Transmission between Aérials, Dr. Eccles, 600; a Handbook of Wireless Telegraphy, Dr. J. Erskine-Murray, 645; see also British Association Wires, Torsion Oscillation of, J. B. Ritchie, 428 Woman, the Nature of, J. L. Tayler, 695 | Wood : Identification of the Economic Woods of the United States, Prof. S. J. Record, 511 Woodwork Exercises treated Mathematically, F. E. Drury, 304. : Work, Laws cf: Experiments on Filing, J. Amar, 377 Writers’ and Artists’ Year Book, 1913, 485 X-Rays: and Crystals, Prof. W. H. Bragg, F.R.S., 219, 360, 572; Dr. A. E. H. Tutton, F.R.S., 306; W. L. Bragg, 402; Specular Reflection of X-Rays. W. L. Bragg, 410; X-Rays, Prof. W. H. Bragg, F.R.S., 530, 557; Opacity to X-Rays of Tissues dyed with Lead Salts, L. G. Droit, 272; X-Rays and Primary y Rays: Similarity, J. A. Gray, 400; Spectra of Fluorescent Rontgen Radiations, J. C. Chapman, 400; Rays from Kathode Particles, R. Whiddington, 402; Reflection of Roéntgen Radiation, Prof. C. G. Barkla, F.R.S. and G. H. Martyn, 434; Reflection of X-Rays, H. Moseley, C. G. Darwin, 594; an X-Ray Fringe System, Prof. C. G. Barkla, F.R.S. and G. H. Martyn, 647 Englishwoman’s Year Book, 485; Writers’ and Artists’ Year Book, 485; Willing’s Press Guide, 551; Who’s Who in Science: International, 1913, 619; Heaton, 699 Yellow Fever and the Panama Canal, F. M. Howlett, 528 Yorkshire Coast, the Lost Towns of, T. Sheppard, 643 Zebra: le Zebre, Dr. A. Griffini, 358; Colouring of Zebras, R. Pocock, 418 Zeeman Phenomenon in the Hydrogen Spectrum, F. Croze, 561 Zodiacal Light, E. G. Fenton, 220 Zoological Gardens: Los Angeles, 312; London: Dona- tions from J. N. Mappin and Sir J. K. Caird, Bart., 577; Zoological Garden for Edinburgh, 598, 683 Zoological Nomenclature, Prof. T. D. A. Cockerell, 648 Zoology : General: Zeitschrift fiir wissenschaftliche Zoologie : Cen- tenary, 170; a Guide for the Study of Animals, W. Whitney, F. C. Lucas, H. B. Shinn, and M. E. Smallwood, 245; College Zoology, Prof. R. W. Hegner, 245; Compendio Elemental de Zoologia (Argentine), Prof. Angel Gallardo, 304; das Tierreich, 358; Abor Expedition, 440; Preservation of Fauna, Dr. P. Chalmers Mitchell, F.R.S., 468; Index Zoologicus No. Lis (G7 ©) Waterhouse, Di Sharps, E-R&S: 560); Natural History Collections of the British Museum, Dr. A. Ginther, F.R.S., G. S. Miller, W. R. Ogilvie- Grant, Dr. J. H. Ashworth, 595; Jordon’s Law, E. L. Michael, 599 Invertebrate : Indian Fresh-water Fauna, Dr. N. Annan- dale, 58; Self-fertilisation in Fresh-water Snail, H. S. Colton, 58; Pedigreed Culture of Ciliate Infusorian Paramoecium aurelia, L. L. Woodruff, 171; Working Model of Gastropod Mollusca at Natural History Museum, 228; Phreatoicopsis terricola female, Miss J. W. Raff, 229; Blind Prawn of Galilee, Dr. N. Annandale, 251; Arctic Voyage of the Belgica, 313; Ostracoda (das Tierreich), G. W. Miller, 358; Effects of Hypertonic Solutions upon the Eggs of Echinus, J. Gray, 376; Spiders from Falkland Islands, H. R. Hogg, 376; New Primitive Shrimp, E. L. Bouvier, 376; Amphipoda of the Scottish Antarctic Expedition, Prof. C. Chilton, 392; Distribution of Saccammina sphaerica and Psammosphaera fusca in the North Sea, E. Heron-Allen and A. Earland, 401; British Henleas, Rev. H. Friend, 401; Clare Island Survey, 403; South African Oligochzeta, Dr. E. S. Goddard and D. E. Malan, 403; Spolia Runiana, Prof. W. A. Herdman, 453; Land Crayfishes in Australia, G. W. Smith and Dr. E. H. J. Schuster, 453: Australian Anisoptera, R. J. Tillyard, 455; Spiders, R. A. Ellis, 488; Nervous System of Sepia officinalis, R. Hillig, 549; Errant Polychzeta of Japan, A. Izuka, 549; Japanese actino- podous Holothurioidea, Prof. K. Mitsukuri, 549; Recent Work on Invertebrates, 660 On the border-line: Cephalodiscus from Antarctic in Natural History Museum, Dr. Ridewood, 391 Vertebrate: Collection of Heads and Horns of Asiatic Animals left by A. O. Hume, C.B., 57; S. African Lacertilia, Ophidia, and Batrachia, of Kimberley District, J. Hewitt and J. H. Power, 127; Small Mammals from Central China, O. Thomas, G. F. Owen, 258; Ape’s Vocal Manifestations, L. Boutan, 325; le Zebre, Dr. A. Griffini, 358: Quagga and Zebra Group, 391: Weddell Seal, Prof. Hepburn, Dr. Haig, 454; U.S. Expedition to the Altai Mountains in Siberia and Mongolia, 470; Hair-like Appendages in certain Male Frogs, Dr. B. Dean, 492; Vertebrate Fauna of the Malay Peninsula: Reptilia and Batrachia, Geo. A. Boulenger, 619; the Vertebrate Skeleton, Prof. Sidney H. Reynolds, 699 ‘ See also Birds, British Association, Fish, Insects, Palz- ontology, Parasites ae © we usec A’ WEEKLY ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL OF SCIENCE™ “To the solid ground Of Nature trusts the mind which builds for aye.’—WorpsWwortH. A No. 2236, VOL. 90] THURSDAY, Registered asa Newspaper at the General Post Office. i ROTATING || ELECTRIC 7 LANTERN. The best and most convenient instrument for science teaching. Write for fully illus- trated Catalogue to NEWTON & CO., Manufacturers of Optical and Scientific Instr Rees 72 WIGMORE ST., LONDON, wW. Telegrams: ‘‘ Newtobar, London.” Established over 200 years. THE “LONDON” MICROSCOPE. A New Form for Research Work. (THE REGENT MODEL.) Slow motion four times finer than usual. Swing-out centring focussing substage. Iris diaphragm in stage level with surface. and Finder divisions to mechanical stage, &c. CANTOR LECTURES By Conrap Beck on the Theory of the Microscope, Price I/- aC0te ae Lanpow! 68 CORNHILL, E.C. SEPTEMBER 5, R. & J. BECK, LTD., | 1912 _[Prici E "SIXPENCE AL Rights | Reserved. 4 LEWIS’S CIRCULATING MEDICAL AND SCIENTIFIC LIBRARY. Astronomy, Biology, Botany, Chemistry, Electricity, Engineering, Geography, Geology, Microscopy, Mining, Philosorhy, Physics, Physiology, Sociology, Technology, Travels, Zoology, &c. In addition to Every Branch of Medical Science. The LIBRARY READING AND WRITING ROOM is open daily for the use of Subscribers. New Works and New Editions are added to the Library immediately on publication. Subscription, Town or Country, from 21s. | Prospectus, with Quarterly List of Additions, post free. | es London: H. K. LEWIS, 136 Gower Street, W.C. 4 The Student Equatorial Telescope, with 3” object glass, and divided circles 4° in diameter, the hour circle reading to I minute, th: de- clination to 5’. Fitted in case, with 3 eyepieces, and complete with tripod = - §25 NEGRETTI ¢ ZAMBRA, Holborn Viaduct, London, E.C. Ge Cornhill, E.C., & 122 Regent St,,W. Apply for New Price List of TELESCOPES, sent Post Free. | il NATURE [SEPTEMBER 5, 1912 UNIVERSITY OF LONDON, UNIVERSITY COLLECE. (University Centre for Medical Sciences.) Provost oy T. GREGORY Foster, Ph.D. FACULTY OF MEDICAL SCIENCES The SESSION 1912-13 begins on MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 30, 1912. [re EO IEE COLLIE, LL.D., Pb.D., R. WHYTLAW. GRAY, Ph.D. CRS) “| N. T. M. WILSMORE, D.Sc. | R. H, ADERS-PLIMMER, D.Sc. W. B. TUCK, D.Sc. Physics F. T. TROUTON, M.A., F.R.S. Botany .. .. .«. F, W. OLIVER, M.A., D.Sc. Zoology 5 35 sr, Ah ish Jah ey Dyste Biology ... . . W. J. DAKIN, D.Sc. R : (G. D. THANE, LL.D., Sc.D., F.R.C.S. Anatomy \ (Dean). rahe Tet {E. H. STARLING, M.D., B.S., F.R.C.P., hysiology ... “) ERS. Ph lpey jA. R. CUSHNY, M.A., M.D., F.R.S. SC OLOEY “ \ (Vice-Dean). FI ESe fia Ra KENWOOD T SMEBa aD) Pats, MONS \MSEICISS (EERESAE Experimental Neurology... (ee SNC ee M.B., B.S., VAUGHAN HARLEY, M.D., M.R.C.P. The New Pharmacology Laboratories, erected through the generosity of Mr. Andrew Carnegie, will be ready in October. Courses of instruction are arranged for the First Medical and the Second Medical Examination in Medicine of the University, as well as for the corresponding examinations of the Examining Board of the Royal Colleges of Physicians and Surgeons and other Licensing Bodies. Post-graduate and Research Work is provided for in all Departments. Fees: For the First Medical Course, 26 guineas, and for the Second Medical Course, 58 guineas, both including subscription to the Union Society, which entitles students to the use of the Gymnasium and of the Athletic Ground. Pathological Chemistry University College Hall, Ealing (Warden: provides residence for Students, For Prospectus and other information apply to the undersigned, WALTER W. SETON, M.A., Secretary. University College, London (Gower Street). SESSION OPENS 30th SEPTEMBER, 1012. EAST LONDON COLLEGE. (UNIVERSITY OF LONDON.) Walter W. Seton, M.A.) Classics ... F. R. Earp, M.A. English H. Bettoc, M.A. French Mina Pagulkgr. German ... J. Srerpat, Ph.D. History F. Crarke, M.A. Mathematics. .. THE PRINCIPAL. Physics O59 = x Fee Coe GEES, ED Sc. hans. Chemistry ar sa fe ... *J. T. Hewitt, M.A., F.R.S. Botany A F. E. Fritscu, D.Sc. Geology .. W. L. Carrer, M.A. Civil and Mechanical . Enningorine } D. A. Low, M.I.M.E Electrical Engineering J. T. Morris, M.1.E.E. * University Professors. Fees ten guineas per annum. by Drapers’ Company. Special facilities for Post-Graduate and Research Students. of courses of study, &c., on application to the REGISTRAR, or to J. L. S. HATTON, M.A., Principal, at the College. CHE, TECHNICAL COLLEGE, SUNDERLAND. The College provides a complete four years’ Course of Instruction for Engineering and Electrical Engineering apprentices during the six winter months, October 1 to March 31. Apprentices ca_ return to the works of the firms to which they are apprenticed during the six summer months. Valuable Entrance Scholarships awarded Particulars Students can obtain the College Diploma, and, Degree in Engineering of the University of London. if they so desire, the Intending students should have spent one or two years’ full time in the Shops and have attended classes in Practical Mathematics, Mechanics, and Machine Drawing before entering the College Course. Write to V. A. MunvELLA, M.A., Principal, for the Apprentice-Student- ship Pamphlet and Prospectus, Entrance Examination on September 6 and 7 Tuition Fee, £10 per session. THE DAVY-FARADAY RESEARCH LABORATORY ROYAL INSTITUTION, No. 20 ALBEMARLE STREET, W. DIRECTOR: Professor Sir JAMES DEWAR, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. This Laboratory was founded by the late Dr. Ludwig Mond, D.Sc., F.R.S., as a Memorial of Davy and Faraday, for the _purpose of promoting, by original research, the development and extension of Chemical and Physical Science. Persons fully qualified to undertake original scientific research admitted to the Laboratory are entitled to the use of the apparatus, and to such materials and chemicals as may be supplied by the Director, subject to the approval of the Laboratory Committee. The Staff of the Laboratory, and a trained Mechanician, are under the contro] of the Director. MICHAELMAS TERM. December 21. LENT TERM.—Monday, January 13, to Saturday, March 15. EASTER TERM.—Monday, April 7, to Saturday, July 26. Applicants can receive full information regarding the Laboratory by addressing the Assistant SecrETARY, Royal Institution, No. 2r Albemarle Street, W. —Monday, October 7, to Saturday, ENGINEERING AND TECHNICAL OPTICS. NORTHAMPTON POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE, CLERKENWELL, LONDON, E.C. MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING AND ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. Full Day Courses in the Theory and Practice of the above Subjects will commence on Monday, September 30, 1912. The courses in Mechanical Engineering include specialisation in Automobile and Aéronautical Engineering, and those in Electrical Engineering include specialisation in Radio-Telegraphy. ENTRANCE EXAMINATION on Wednesday and Thursday, September 25 and 26 These courses include periods spent in Commercial Workshops, and extend over four years. They also prepare for the degree of B.Sc. in Engineering at the University of London. Fees, 415 or S11 per annum. THREE ENTRANCE SCHOLARSHIPS of the value of £52 each will be offered for competition at the Entrance Examination in September next. TECHNICAL OPTICS. Full and Part Time Day Courses in all branches of this important department of Applied Science given in specially equipped laboratories and lecture rooms. Full particulars as to fees, dates, &c., and all information respecting the work of the Institute. can be obtained at the Institute or on application to R. MULLINEUX WALMSLEY, D.Sc., Principal. CITY OF LONDON COLLEGE. ACTING IN CONJUNCTION WITH THE LONDON CHAMBER OF COMMERCE. WHITE ST., and ROPEMAKER ST., MOORFIELDS, E.C. (Near Moorgate and Liverpool Street Stations). PRINCIPAL: SIDNEY HUMPHRIES, B.A., LL.B. (Cantab.) Michaelmas term Bas Monday, SOO 30th. EVENING CLASSES LABORATORIES for Practical BOTANY, GEOLOGY. Special Courses for Conjoint Board, Pharmaceutical and other examir - ations. Classes are also held in all Commercial Subjects, in Languages and Literature. Art Studio. All Classes are open to both sexes. DAY SCHOOLOF COMMERCE. Preparation fora COMMERCIAL or BUSINESS career. Prospectuses, and all other information, gratis on application. DAVID SAVAGE BATTERSEA POLYTECHNIC, S.W. Principal—S. G. Rawson, D.Sc. BOTANY DEPARTMENT. Lecturer—Lician J. Ciakke, B.Sc., F.L.S. Assistant Lectuier—E. pe Fraine, D.Sc., F.L.S. Complete Courses, Day and Evening, in preparation for the Matricu- lation, Intermediate B.Sc., and Final B.Sc. Examinations, under recognised teachers of the University of London. Field work in rst and 3rd Terms. Facilities for Research Students. Full particulars see Calendar, 1¢. 5 in SCIENCE, Well-equipped Work in CHEMISTRY, » Secretary. post free, 57. A WEEBKEY TLLUSTRATED JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. ““To the solid ground Of Nature trusts the mind which THURSDAY, ‘SEPTEMBER 5, 1912. EARLY NATURALISTS. The Early Naturalists. Their Lives and Work (t5g0-07e9)) By, Dr sEenC.- Miall, F-R.S. Pp. xi+396. (London: Macmillan and Co., tds 1912.) “Price ros. net. this account of the naturalists who worked and wrote during the period between the com- mencement of the Protestant Reformation and that of the French Revolution, Prof. Miall has placed under a considerable obligation those who are interested in the advancement of natural know- ledge. The period to which the work is in the main limited constitutes perhaps as natural an epoch as may be found in human history. Whether the period be natural or not, the charming introductory sketch of “Natural History down to the Sixteenth Century ”’ fully justifies the selec- tion of the date at which the author’s account of scientific progress formally opens, while the closing date adopted is at least convenient. But the work is one that could only have been written with unusually full knowledge of the scientific happen- ings since the date of Buffon’s death, and it is owing to the possession of this knowledge that the author has been able to assess so authorita- tively as he does the extent and the value of the permanent additions to biological truth which marked the period he passes under review. The work, in the main, deals, as its title implies, with the lives and the labours of the naturalists who flourished during the period in question. In a happy mean between the methods of the skilled biographer and of the formal historian of human progress. As a result, he succeeds in enabling the reader to acquire a clear conception not only NO. 2236, VOL. 90] builds for aye.’-—WorpDsworth. of what was accomplished during the period, but of the character of those by whom the work was done and of the intellectual atmosphere in which they lived. To the personal interest thus aroused is largely due the force of the incisive estimates provided by the author of men like Clusius and Belon, Ray and Leeuwenhoek, Réaumur and Buffon, to mention only a few of the worthies whose lives are discussed. Even in those rare in- stances in which the reader may feel inclined to differ from Prof. Miall, it will be admitted that his estimates are the result of complete knowledge and judicial thought; any disinclination to accept the verdicts depends not on the facts, but on the point of view from which these facts are regarded. There is, however, a certain want of unity in the work. In addition to the accounts of in- dividual naturalists which we conclude from the | title to be its main subject, the book contains a series of essays of a different type, each of them as self-contained as the character-sketches of which the work is principally composed. One of these, already alluded to, aptly serves as an intro~ duction to these sketches. Another, on ‘“‘ The Natural History of Distant Lands,” is _ inter- polated between the accounts of the earlier Con- tinental and the earlier English naturalists, but scarcely serves as a connecting link between the one group and the other. This essay is, however, so interesting in itself that one welcomes it as a digression, which at least does not carry us beyond the later limit of the period discussed, and may be excused for taking us back further than | its earlier one. his treatment of the subject Professor Miall strikes | Two similar essays, equally self-contained, on “The Investigation of the Puss Moth,” and on ‘Early Studies of the Flower,’ which are not accorded the position of distinct sections, but are incorporated in other sections, deviate more con- B 2 NATORE [SEPTEMBER 5, 1912 siderably from the plan of the work as a whole; the former brings us down to the present day, while the latter carries us from Theophrastus to the first De Candolle. Still, both essays are ger- mane to the purpose of the book, and add so much to its value that it would be more than un- gracious to cavil at their presence among these delightful and informing sketches of the “ Early Naturalists. ”’ THE WANDERING OF THE BRONZE AGE POTTERS. A Study of the Bronze Age Pottery of Great Britain and Iveland, and its associated Grave-goods. By the Hon. John Abercromby. Vol. 1., pp. 163+1xi plates. Vol. i1., pp. 128+ plates Ixii-cx. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1912.) Two volumes, price £3 35. net. RCHASOLOGISTS have long been looking forward to the Hon. Dr. John Abercromby’s monograph on Bronze Age pottery, and, as was to be expected, it has proved to be exhaustive and workmanlike. As an indication of the pains which the author has taken, it may be mentioned that there are photographs of 54 Continental beakers, 291 British beakers, 421 food vessels, 570 cinerary urns, numerous photographs of other objects, several plates of details of ornamentation, and a number of valuable maps of distributions. homme sont conditionnés par l’action purement chimique d’un produit de sécrétion. Que les psychologues méditent ces faits! Parathyroids. The case of the parathyroid glandules is still more remarkable. These organs were discovered by Sand- strom in 1880. They are four minute bodies, each no larger than a pin’s head, imbedded in the thyroid. Small as they are, their internal secretion possesses hormones which exert a powerful influence upon the nervous system. If they are completely removed, a complex of symptoms, technically known as “tetany,” is liable to occur, which is always serious and may be fatal. Like the hormones of the thyroid itself, there- fore, those of the parathyroids produce effects upon the nervous system, to which they are carried by the blood; although the effects are of a different kind. Pituitary. Another internally secreting gland which has evoked considerable interest during the last few years is the pituitary body. This is a small structure no larger than a cob-nut attached to the base of the brain. It is mainly composed of glandular cells. Its removal has been found (by most observers) to be fatal—often within two or three days. Its hypertrophy, when occurring during the general growth of the body, is attended by an undue development of the skeleton, so that the stature tends to assume gigantic propor- tions. When the hypertrophy occurs after growth is completed, the extremities—viz., the hands and feet, and the bones of the face—are mainly affected ; hence the condition has been termed ‘‘ acromegaly” (enlargement of extremities). The association of this condition with affections of the pituitary was pointed out in 1885 by a distinguished French physician, Dr. Pierre Marie. Both ‘giants’? and ‘‘ acromegalists ”’ are almost invariably found to have an enlarged pituitary. The enlargement is generally confined to one part—the anterior lobe—and we conclude that this produces hormones which stimulate the growth of the body generally and of the skeleton in particular. The remainder of the pituitary is different in struc- ture from the anterior. lobe and has a different func- NO. 2236, VOL. 90] tion. From it hormones can be extracted which, lilce those of the suprarenal capsule, although not exactly in the same manner, influence the contraction of the heart and arteries.. Its extracts are also instrumental in promoting the secretion of certain glands. When injected into the blood they cause a free secretion of water from the kidneys and of milk from the mammary glands, neither of which organs are directly influenced (as most other glands are) through the nervous system. Doubtless under natural condi- tions these organs are stimulated to activity by hor- mones which are produced in the pituitary and which pass from’ this into the blood. The internally secreting glands which have been mentioned (thyroid, parathyroid, suprarenal, pituitary) have, so far as-is known, no other function than that of producing chemical substances of this character for the influencing of other organs, to which they are conveyed by the blood. It is interesting to observe that these glands are all of very small size, none being larger than a walnut, and some—the para- thyroids—almost microscopic. In spite of this, they are essential to the proper maintenance of the life of the body, and the total removal of any of them by disease or operation is in most cases speedily fatal. Pancreas. There are, however, organs in the body yielding internal secretions to the blood in the shape of hor- mones, but exercising at the same time other func- tions. A striking instance is furnished by the pancreas, the secretion of which is the most -im- portant of the digestive juices. This—the pancreatic juice—forms the external secretion of the gland, and is poured into the intestine, where its action upon the food as it passes out from the stomach has long been recognised. It was, however, discovered in 1889 by von Mering and Minkowski that the pancreas also furnishes an internal secretion, containing a hormone which is passed from the pancreas into the blood, by which it is carried first to the liver and afterwards to the body generally. This hormone is essential to the proper utilisation of carbohydrates in the organism. It is well known that the carbo- hydrates of the food are converted into grape sugar and circulate in this form in the blood, which always contains a certain amount; the blood conveys it to all the cells of the body, and they utilise it as fuel. If, owing to disease of the pancreas or as the result of its removal by surgical procedure, its internal secre- tion is not available, sugar is no longer properly utilised by the cells of the body and tends to accumu- late in the blood; from the blood the excess passes off by the kidneys, producing diabetes. Duodenum. Another instance of an internal secretion furnished by an organ which is devoted largely to other funce- tions is the “pro-secretin”” found in the cells lining the duodenum. When the acid gastric juice comes into contact with these cells it converts their pro- secretin into ‘‘secretin.” This is a hormone which is passed into the blood and circulates with that fluid. It has a specific effect on the externally secreting cells of the pancreas, and causes the rapid outpouring of pan- creatic juice into the intestine. This effect is similar to that of the hormones of the pituitary body upon the cells of the kidney and mammary gland. It was discovered by Bayliss and Starling. Internal Secretions of the Reproductive Organs. The reproductive glands furnish in many respects the most interesting example of organs which— besides their ordinary products, the germ- and sperm- cells (ova and spermatozoa)—form hormones which 18 NALTORE [SEPTEMBER 5, 1912 circulate in the blood and effect changes in cells of distant parts of the body. It is through these hor- mones that the secondary sexual characters, such as the comb and tail of the cock, the mane of the lion, the horns of the stag, the beard and enlarged larynx of a man, are produced, as well as the many differ- ences in form and structure of the body which are characteristic of the sexes. The dependence of these so-called secondary sexual characters upon the state of development of the reproductive organs has been recognised from time immemorial, but has usually been ascribed to influences produced through the nervous system, and it is only in recent years that the changes have been shown to be brought about by the agency of internal secretions and hormones, passed from the reproductive glands into the cir- culating blood.*® Chemical Nature of Hormones. It has been possible in only one or two instances to prepare and isolate the hormones of the internal secretions in a sufficient condition of purity to subject them to analysis, but enough is known about them to indicate that they are organic bodies of a not very complex nature, far simpler than proteins and even than enzymes. Those which have been studied are all dialysable, are readily soluble in water but in- soluble in alcohol, and are not destroyed by boiling. One at least—that of the medulla of the suprarenal capsule—has been prepared synthetically, and when their exact chemical nature has been somewhat better elucidated it will probably not be difficult to obtain others in the same way. From the above it is clear that not only is a co- ordination through the nervous system necessary in order that life shall be maintained in a normal condition, but a chemical coordination is no less essential These may be _ indepen- dent of one another; but, on the other hand, they may react upon one another. For it can be shown that the production of some at least of the hormones is under the influence of the nervous system (Biedl, Asher, Elliott); whilst, as we have seen, some of the functions of the nervous system are dependent upon hormones. Protective Chemical Mechanisms.—Tozins and Antitowins. Time will not permit me to refer in any but the briefest manner to the protective mechanisms which the cell-aggregate has evolved for its defence against disease, especially disease produced by parasitic micro- organisms. These, which belong with few excep- tions to the Protista, are without doubt the most formidable enemies which the multicellular Metazoa, to which all the higher animal organisms belong, have to contend against. To such micro-organisms are due, inter alia, all diseases which are liable to become epidemic, such as anthrax and rinderpest in cattle, distemper in dogs and cats, smallpox, scarlet fever, measles, and sleeping sickness in man. The advances of modern medicine have shown that the symptoms of these diseases—the disturbances of nutrition, the temperature, the lassitude or excite- ment, and other nervous disturbances—are the effects of chemical poisons (toxins) produced by the micro- organisms and acting deleteriously upon the tissues of the body. The tissues, on the other hand, en- deavour to counteract these effects by producing other chemical substances destructive to the micro- organisms or antagonistic to their action: these are known as anti-bodies. Sometimes the protection takes the form of a subtle alteration in the living substance 26 The evidence is to be found in F. H. A. Marshall, “‘The Physiology of Reproduction,” 1911. NO. 2236, VOL. 90| | of the cells which renders them for a long time, or even permanently, insusceptible (immune) to the action of the poison. Sometimes certain cells of the body, such as the white corpuscles of the blood, eat the invading micro-organisms and destroy them bodily by the action of chemical agents within their protoplasm. The result of an illness thus depends upon the result of the struggle between these oppos- ing forces—the micro-organisms on the one hand and the cells of the body on the other—both of which fight with chemical weapons. If the cells of the body do not succeed in destroying the invading organisms, it is certain that the invaders will in the long run destroy them, for in this combat no quarter is given. Fortunately we have been able, by | the aid of animal experimentation, to acquire some knowledge of the manner in which we are attacked by micro-organisms and of the methods which the cells of our body adopt to repel the attack, and the knowledge is now extensively utilised to assist our defence. Parasitic Nature of Diseases. For this purpose protective serums or anti- toxins, which have been formed in the blood of other animals, are employed to supplement the action of those which our own cells produce. It is not too much to assert that the knowledge of the parasitic origin of so many diseases and of the chemical agents which on the one hand cause, and on the other combat, their symptoms, has transformed medicine from a mere art practised empirically. into a real science based upon experiment. The transformation has opened out an illimitable vista of possibilities in the direction not only of cure, but, more important still, of prevention. It has taken place within the memory of most of us who are here present. And only last February the world was mourning the death of one of the greatest of its benefactors—a former President of this Association **7—who, by applying this knowledge to the practice of surgery, was instru- mental, even in his own lifetime, in saving more lives than were destroyed in all the bloody wars of the nineteenth century! Senescence and Death. The question has been debated whether, if all acci- dental modes of destruction of the life of the cell could be eliminated, there would remain a possibility of individual cell life, and even of aggregate cell life, continuing indefinitely; in other words, Are the phenomena of senescence and death a natural and necessary sequence to the existence of life? To most of my audience it will appear that the subject is not open to debate. But some physiologists (e.g. Metchnikoff) hold that the condition of senescence is itself abnormal; that old age is a form of disease or is due to disease, and, theoretically at least, is capable of being eliminated. We have already seen that individual cell life, such as that of the white blood- corpuscles and of the cells of many tissues, can under suitable conditions be prolonged for days or weeks or months after general death. Unicellular organisms kept under suitable conditions of nutrition have been observed to carry on their functions normally for prolonged periods and to show no degeneration such as would accompany senescence. They give rise by division to others of the same kind, which also, under favourable conditions, continue to live, to all appear- ance indefinitely. But these instances, although they indicate that in the simplest forms of organisation existence may be greatly extended without signs of decay, do not furnish conclusive evidence of indefinite 27 Lord Lister was President at Liverpool in 1896. SEPTEMBER 5, I912| NATURE 19 prolongation of life. Most of the cells which con- stitute the body, after a period of growth and activity, sometimes more, sometimes less prolonged, eventually undergo atrophy and cease to perform satisfactorily the functions which are allotted to them. And when we consider the body as a whole, we find that in every case the life of the aggregate consists of a definite cycle of changes which, after passing through the stages of growth and maturity, always leads to senescence, and finally terminates in death. The only exception is in the reproductive cells, in which the processes of maturation and fertilisation result in rejuvenescence, so that instead of the usual down- ward change towards senescence, the fertilised ovum obtains a new lease of life, which is carried on into the new-formed organism. The latter again itself ultimately forms reproductive cells, and thus the life of the species is continued. It is only in the sense of its propagation in this way from one generation to another that we can speak of the indefinite continu- ance of life: we can only be immortal through our descendants ! Average Duration of Life and Possibility of its Prolongation. The individuals of every species of animal appear to have an average duration of existence.** Some species are known the individuals of which live only for a few hours, whilst others survive for a hundred years.*” In man himself the average length of life would probably be greater than the three-score and ten years allotted to him by the Psalmist if we could eliminate the results of disease and accident; when these results are included it falls far short of that period. If the terms of life given in the purely mytho- logical part of the Old Testament were credible, man would in the early stages of his history have pos- sessed a remarkable power of resisting age and dis- ease. But, although many here present were brought up to believe in their literal veracity, such records are no longer accepted even by the most orthodox of theologians, and the nine hundred odd years with which Adam and his immediate descendants are credited, culminating in the nine hundred and sixty- nine of Methuselah, have been relegated, with the accounted of Creation and the Deluge, to their proper position in literature. When we come to the Hebrew patriarchs, we notice a considerable diminution to have taken place in what the insurance offices term the “expectation of life.’ Abraham is described as having lived only to 175 years, Joseph and Joshua to 110, Moses to 120; even at that age “his eye was not dim nor his natural force abated.”” We cannot say that under ideal conditions all these terms are impossible; indeed, Metchnikoff is disposed to regard them as probable; for great ages are still occasionally recorded, although it is doubtful if any as considerable as these are ever substantiated. That the expecta- tion of life was better then than now would be inferred from the apologetic tone adopted by Jacob when questioned by Pharaoh as to his age: ‘The days of the years of my pilgrimage are a hundred and thirty years; few and evil have the days of the years of my life been, and have not attained unto the days of the years of the life of my fathers in the days of their pilgrimage.’’ David, to whom, before the advent of the modern statistician, we owe the idea that seventy years is to be regarded as the normal period of life,*° 28 This was regarded hy Buffon as related to the period of growth, but the ratio is certainly not constant. The subject is discussed by Ray Lankester in an early work: ““On Comparative Longevity in Man and Animals,” 1870. 29 The approximate regular periods of longevity of different species of animals furnishes a strong argument against the theory that the decay of old age is an accidental phenomenon, comparable with disease. *0 The expectation of life of a healthy man of fifty is still reckoned at about twenty years. NO. 2236, VOL. 90] is himself merely stated to have ‘died in a good old age.’’ The periods recorded for the Kings show a considerable falling-off as compared with the Patriarchs; but not a few were cut off by violent deaths, and many lived lives which were not ideal. Amongst eminent Greeks and Romans few very long lives are recorded, and the same is true of historical persons in medizeval and modern history. It isa long life that lasts much beyond eighty; three such linked together carry us far baclx into history. Mankind is in this respect more favoured than most mammals, although a few of these surpass the period of man’s existence.** Strange that the brevity of human life should be a favourite theme of preacher and poet when the actual term of his “erring pilgrimage’’ is greater than that of most of his fellow creatures! The End of Life. The modern applications of the principles of pre- ventive medicine and hygiene are no doubt operating to lengthen the average life. But even if the ravages of disease could be altogether eliminated, it is certain that at any rate the fixed cells of our body must eventually grow old and ultimately cease to function; when this happens to cells which are essential to the life of the organism, general death must result. This will always remain the universal law, from which there is no escape. “All that lives must die, passing through nature to eternity.” Such natural death unaccelerated by disease—is not death by disease as unnatural as death by accident ?— should be a quiet, painless phenomenon, unattended by violent change. As Dastre expresses it, ‘‘ The need of death should appear at the end of life, just as the need of sleep appears at the end of the day.” The change has been led gradually up to by an orderly succession of phases, and is itself the last manifestation of life. Were we all certain of a quiet passing—were we sure that there would be “no moaning of the bar when we go out to sea’’—we could anticipate the coming of death after a ripe old age without apprehension. And if ever the time shall arrive when man will have learned to regard this change as a simple physiological process, as natural as the oncoming of sleep, the approach of the fatal shears will be as generally welcomed as it is now abhorred. Such a day is still distant; we can scarcely say that its dawning is visible. Let us at least hope that, in the manner depicted by Diirer in his well- known etching, the sunshine which’ science irradiates may eventually put to flight the melancholy which hovers, bat-like, over the termination of our lives, and which even the anticipation of a future happier existence has not hitherto succeeded in dispersing. SECTION A. MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS. OpeNING Appress BY Pror. H. L. Cattenpar, LL.D., F.R.S., PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. My first duty on taking the chair is to say a few words in commemoration of the distinguished members whom we have lost since the last meeting. George Chrystal, Professor of Mathematics in the University of Edinburgh for more than thirty years, officiated as President of this section in the year 1885, and took a prominent part in the advancement of science as secretary of the Royal Society of Edinburgh since 1901. Of his brilliant mathematical work and his ability in developing the school at Edinburgh, I am not competent to speak, but I well remember as a student his admirable article on ‘‘Electricity and 31 Hominis z@vum czterorum animalium omnium superat preter ad- modum paucorum.”—Francis Bacon, ‘‘ Historia vitz et mortis,"’ 1637. 20 NATURE [SEPTEMBER 5, 1912 Magnetism” contributed to the ‘ Encyclopaedia Britannica,’’ which formed at that time the ground- work of our studies at Cambridge: under Sir J. J. Thomson. It would be difficult to find a more com- plete and concise statement of the mathematical theory at the time when that article was written. One can well understand the value of such a teacher, and sympathise with his university in the loss they have sustained. John Brown, F.R.S., who acted as local secretary for the Association at Belfast in 1902, will be remem- bered for his work on the Volta contact effect between metals, which he showed to be in the main dependent on chemical action, and to be profoundly affected by the nature of the gas or other medium in which the plates were immersed. Although the theory of this difficult subject may not. yet be completely elucidated, there can be little doubt that his work takes the first rank on the experimental side. William Sutherland, D.Sc., who at one time acted as Professor of: Physics at Melbourne, is best known for his familiar papers on the subject of molecular physics in The Philosophical Magazine. His work was always remarkable for its wide range and bold- ness of imagination. Many of his hypotheses cannot yet be weighed in the balance of experiment, but some have already been substantiated. . For instance, his theory of the variation of viscosity of gases with temperature has been generally accepted, and results are now commonly expressed in terms of Sutherland’s constant. Osborne Reynolds, the first Professor of Engineer- ing at Owens College, was President of Section G in 1887, but belongs almost as much to mathematics and physics, in which his achievements are equally memorable. It would be scarcely possible for me to enumerate his important contributions to the science of engineering, which will be more fittingly com- memorated elsewhere. His mastery of mathematical and physical methods, while contributing greatly to his success as a pioneer in the engineering laboratory, enabled him to attack the most difficult problems in physics, such as the theory of the radiometer and the thermal transpiration of gases. His determination of the mechanical equivalent of heat is a most striking example of accurate physical measurement carried out on an engineering scale. His last great work, on the *Submechanics of the Universe,” is so original in its ideas and methods that its value cannot yet be fully appreciated. While it differs so radically from our preconceived ideas that it fails to carry immediate conviction, it undoubtedly represents possibilities of truth which subsequent workers in the same field cannot afford to ignore. The present year has been one of remarkable activity in the world of mathematical and physical science if we may measure activity by the number and importance of scientific gatherings like the present for the interchange of ideas and the general advance- ment of science. The celebration of the 250th anni- versary of the foundation of the Royal Society brought to our shores a number of distinguished delegates from all parts of the world, to promote the ever- growing fellowship among men of science which is one of the surest guarantees of international progress. The Congress of Universities of the Empire brought other guests from distant British dominions, and con- sidered, as one of the principal points in its pro- gramme, the provision of facilities for the interchange of students between different universities, which will doubtless prove particularly advantageous to the scientific student in the higher branches of re- search. In the special branches of knowledge more particularly associated with this section, the Inter- national Congress of Mathematics at Cambridge, NO. 2236, VOL. 90} while it affords to Cambridge men like myself a most gratifying recognition of our alma mater as one of the leading schools of mathematics in the world, has given us the opportunity of meeting here a number of distinguished. foreign mathematicians whose presence and personality cannot be otherwise than inspiring to our proceedings, and will compensate for. any deficiency in our own mathematical programme. The Optical Convention held this year in London, by the importance of the papers contributed for discussion, and by its admirable exhibition of British instruments, has revealed the extent. of our optical- industry and talent, and has done much to dispel the impression, fostered by an unfortunate trade regulation, that the majority of optical instruments were ‘‘made else- where.” The MRadio-Telegraphic Conference, held under the auspices of the British Government, has formulated recommendations for regulating and ex- tending the application of the discoveries of modern physics for saving life and property at sea. The work of this Conference will be fittingly supplemented on the scientific side by the discussion on wireless tele- graphy which has been arranged to take place in this | section. in conjunction with Section G. It would be impossible, even if it were not out of place, for me to attempt to review in detail the im- portant work of these congresses, a full account of which will shortly be available in their several reports of proceedings now in course of publication. In the present age of specialisation and rapid publication it would be equally. impossible to give any connected account in the time at my disposal of recent develop- ments in those branches of science which come within the range of our section. The appropriate alterna- tive, adopted by the majority of my predecessors in this chair, is to select some theory or idea, sufficiently fundamental to be of general interest, and to discuss it in the light of recent experimental evidence. It may sometimes be advantageous to take stock of our funda- mental notions in this way, and to endeavour to deter- mine how far they rest on direct experiment, and how far they are merely developments of some dynamical analogy, which may represent the results of experi- ment up to a certain point, but may lead to erroneous conclusions if pushed too far. With this object I propose to consider on the present occasion some of our fundamental ideas with regard to the nature of heat, and in particular to suggest that we might with advantage import into our modern theory some of the ideas of the old caloric or material theory which has for so long a time been forgotten and discredited. In so doing I may appear to many of you to be taking a retrograde step, because the caloric theory is generally represented as being fundamentally opposed to the Iinetic theory and to the law of the conservation of energy. I would, therefore, remark at the outset that this is not necessarily the case, provided that the theory is rightly interpreted and applied in accordance with experiment. Mistakes have been made on both theories, but the method commonly adopted of select- ing all the mistakes made in the application of the caloric theory and contrasting them with the correct deductions from the kinetic theory has created an erroneous impression that there is something funda- mentally wrong about the caloric theory, and that it is in the nature of things incapable of correctly repre- senting the facts. I shall endeavour to show that this fictitious antagonism between the two theories is with- out real foundation. They should rather be regarded as different ways of describing the same pheno- mena. Neither is complete without the other. The lxinetic theory is generally preferable for elementary exposition, and has come to be almost exclusively adopted for this purpose; but in many cases the caloric theory would have the advantage of emphasis- SEPTEMBER 5, I912| NATURE Dal ing at the outset the importance of fundamental facts which are too often obscured in the prevailing method of treatment. The explanation of the development of heat by fric- tion was one of the earliest difficulties encountered by the caloric theory. One explanation, maintained by Cavendish and others,, was simply that caloric was generated de novo by friction in much the same way as electricity. Another explanation, more commonly adopted, was that the fragments of solid, abraded in such operations as boring cannon, had a smaller capacity for heat than the original material. Caloric already existing in the substance was regarded as being squeezed or ground out of it without any fresh caloric being actually generated. The probability of the second explanation was negatived by the celebrated experiments of Rumford and Davy, who concluded that friction did not diminish the capacities of bodies for heat, and that it could not be a material substance because the supply obtainable by friction appeared to be inexhaustible. Rumford also showed that no increase of weight in a body when heated could be detected by the most delicate apparatus available in his time. Caloric evidently did not possess to any marked extent the properties of an ordinary ponderable fluid; but, if it had any real existence and was not merely a convenient mathematical fiction, it must be some- thing of the same nature as the electric fluids, which had already played so useful a part in the description of phenomena, although their actual existence as physical entities had not then been demonstrated. Heat, as Rumford and Davy maintained, might be merely a mode of motion or a vibration of the ultimate particles of matter, but the idea in this form was too vague to serve as a basis of measurement or calcula- tion. The simple conception of caloric, as a measur- able quantity of something, sufficed for many pur- poses, and led in the hands of Laplace and others to correct results for the ratio of the specific heats, the adiabatic equation of gases, and other fundamental points of theory, though many problems in the rela- tions of heat and work remained obscure. The greatest contribution of the caloric theory to thermodynamics was the production of Carnot’s im- mortal “Reflections on the Motive Power of Heat.” It is one of the most remarkable illustrations of the undeserved discredit into which the caloric theory has fallen, that this work, the very foundation of modern thermodynamics, should still be misrepresented, and its logic assailed, on the ground that much of the reasoning is expressed in the language of the caloric theory. wearying you with an oft-told tale, I cannot refrain from taking this opportunity of reviewing the essential points of his reasoning, because it affords incidentally the best introduction to the conception of caloric, and explains how a quantity of caloric is to be measured. At the time when Carnot wrote, the industrial im- portance of the steam-engine was already established, and the economy gained by expansive working was generally appreciated. The air-engine, and a primi- tive form of the internal-combustion engine, had recently been invented. On account of the high value of the latent heat of steam, it was confidently expected that more work might be obtained from a given quan- tity of heat or fuel by employing some other working substance, such as alcohol or ether, in place of steam. Carnot set himself to investigate the conditions under which motive-power was obtainable from heat, how the efficiency was limited, and whether other agents were preferable to steam. These were questions of immediate practical importance to the engineer, but the answer which Carnot found embraces the whole range of science in its ever-widening scope. In discussing the production of work from heat it NO. 2236, VOL. 90| In justice to Carnot, even at the risk of | is necessary, as Carnot points out, to consider a com- plete series or cycle of operations in which the worl:- ing substance, and all parts of the engine, are restored on completion of the cycle to their initial state. Nothing but heat, or its equivalent fuel, may be supplied to the engine. Otherwise part of the motive power obtained might be due, not to heat alone, but to some change in the working substance, or in the disposition of the mechanism. Carnot here assumes the fundamental axiom of the cycle, which he states as follows:—‘ When a body has undergone any changes, and, after a certain number of transforma- tions, it is brought back identically to its original state, considered relatively to density, temperature, and mode of aggregation, it must contain the same quantity of heat as it contained originally.” This does not limit the practical application of the theory, because all machines repeat a regular series of operations, which may be reduced in theory to an equivalent cycle in which everything is restored to its initial state. The most essential feature of the working of all heat-engines, considered apart from. details of mechanism, is the production of motive power by alternate expansion or contraction, or heating and cooling of the working substance. This necessitates the existence of a difference of temperature, produced by combustion or otherwise, between two bodies, such as the boiler and condenser of a steam-engine, which may be regarded as the source and sink of heat respec- tively. Wherever a difference of temperature exists, it may be made a source of motive-power, and con- versely, without difference of temperature, no motive- power can be obtained from heat by a cyclical or con- tinuous process. From this consideration Carnot deduces the simple and sufficient rule for obtaining the maximum effect :—‘‘ In order to realise the maxi- mum effect, it is necessary that, in the process employed, there should not be any direct interchange of heat between bodies at sensibly different tempera- tures.” Direct. transference of heat between bodies at sensibly different temperatures would be equivalent to wasting a difference of temperature which might have been utilised for the production of motive-power. Equality of temperature is here assumed as the limit- ing condition of thermal equilibrium, such that an infinitesimal difference of temperature will suffice to determine the flow of heat in either direction. An engine satisfying Carnot’s rule will be reversible so far as the thermal operations are concerned. Carnot makes use of this property of reversibility in deducing his formal proof that an engine of this type possesses the maximum efficiency. If in the usual or direct method of working such an engine takes a quantity of heat O from the source, rejects heat to the con- denser, and gives a balance of useful work W per cycle, when the engine is reversed and supplied with motive-power W per cycle it will in the limit take the same quantity of heat from the condenser as it pre- viously rejected, and return to the source the same quantity of heat Q as it took from it when working direct. All such engines must have the same efficiency (measured by the ratio W/Q of the worl: | done to the heat taken from the source) whatever the working substance, provided that they work between the same temperature limits. For, if this were not the case, it would be theoretically possible, by em- ploying the most efficient to drive the least efficient reversible engine backwards, to restore to the source all the heat taken from it, and to obtain a balance of useful work without the consumption of fuel; a result sufficiently improbable to serve as the basis of a formal proof. Carnot thus deduces his famous principle, which he states as follows :—‘ The motive power obtainable from heat is independent of the agents set at work to realise it. Its quantity is fixed 22 NATORE [SEPTEMBER 5, 1912 solely by the temperatures between which in the limit the transfer of heat takes place.” Objection is commonly taken to Carnot’s proof, on the ground that the combination which he imagines might produce a balance of useful work without in- fringing the principle of conservation of energy, or constituting what we now understand as_ perpetual motion of the ordinary kind in mechanics. It has become the fashion to introduce the conservation of energy in the course of the proof, and to make a final appeal to some additional axiom. Any proof of this kind must always be to some extent a matter of taste; but since Carnot’s principle cannot be deduced from the conservation of energy alone, it seems a pity to complicate the proof by appealing to it. For the particular object in view, the absurdity of a heat- engine working without fuel appears to afford the most appropriate improbability which could be in- voked. The final appeal must be to experiment in any case. At the present time the experimental verification of Carnot’s principle in its widest applica- tion so far outweighs the validity of any deductive proof, that we might well rest content with the logic that satisfied Carnot instead of confusing the issue by disputing his reasoning. Carnot himself proceeded to test his principle in every possible way by comparison with experiment so far as the scanty data available in his time would permit. He also made several important deductions from it, which were contrary to received opinion at the time, but have since been accurately verified. He appears to have worked out these results analytically in the first instance, as indicated by his footnotes, and to have translated his equations into words in the text for the benefit of his non-mathematical readers. In consequence of this, some of his most important conclusions appear to have been overlooked or attributed to others. Owing to want of exact knowledge of the properties of substances over ex- tended ranges of temperature, he was unable to apply his principle directly in the general form for any tem- perature limits. We still labour to a less extent under the same disability at the present day. He showed, however, that a great simplification was effected in its application by considering a cycle of infinitesimal range at any temperature t. In this simple case the principle is equivalent to the assertion that the work obtainable from a unit of heat per degree fall (or per degree range of the cycle) at a temperature t, is some function F’t of the temperature (generally known as Carnot’s function), which must be the same for all substances at the same temperature. From the rough data then available for the properties of steam, alcohol, and air, he was able to calculate the numerical values of this function in kilogrammetres of work per kilocalorie of heat at various temperatures between 0° and 100° C., and to show that it was probably the same for different substances at the same temperature within the limits of experimental error. For the vapour of alcohol at its boiling-point, 78°7° C., he found the value F’t=1'230 kilogrammetres per kilocalorie per degree fall. For steam at the same temperature he found nearly the same value, namely, F’t=1r212. Thus no advantage in point of efficiency could be gained by employing the vapour of alcohol in place of steam. He was also able to show that the work obtainable from a kilocalorie per degree fall probably diminished with rise of temperature, but his data were not sufficiently exact to indicate the law of the variation. The equation which Carnot employed in deducing the numerical values of his function from the experi- mental data for steam and alcohol is simply the direct expression of his principle as applied to a saturated vapour. It is now generally known as Clapeyron’s equation, because Carnot did not happen to give the NO. 2236, VOL. 90] equation itself in algebraic form, although the prin- ciple and details of the calculation were most minutely and accurately described. In calculating the value of his function for air, Carnot made use of the known value of the difference of the specific heats at constant pressure and volume. He showed that this difference must be the same for equal volumes of all gases measured under the same temperature and pressure, whereas it had always previously been assumed that the ratio (not the difference) of the specific heats was the same for different gases. He also gave a general expression for the heat absorbed by a gas in expand- ing at constant temperature, and showed that it must bear a constant ratio to the work of expansion. These results were verified experimentally some years later, in part by Dulong, and more completely by Joule, but Carnot’s theoretical prediction has generally been overlooked, although it was of the greatest interest and importance. The reason of this neglect is probably to be found in the fact that Carnot’s ex- pressions contained the unknown function F’t of the temperature, the form of which could not be deduced without making some assumptions with regard to the nature of heat and the scale on which temperature should be measured. It was my privilege to discover a few years ago that Carnot himself had actually given the correct solu- tion of this fundamental problem in one of his most important footnotes, where it had lain buried and unnoticed for more than eighty years. He showed by a most direct application of the caloric theory that if temperature was measured on the scale of a perfect gas (which is now universally adopted) the value of his function F’t on the caloric theory would be the same at all temperatures, and might be represented simply by a numerical constant A (our ‘‘ mechanical equivalent ’’) depending on the units adopted for work and heat. In other words, the work W done by a quantity of caloric Q in a Carnot cycle of range T to T, on the gas scale would be represented by the simple equation : W=AQ(P—T,): It is at once obvious that this solution, obtained by Carnot from the caloric theory, so far from being inconsistent with the mechanical theory of heat, is a direct statement of the law of conservation of energy as applied to the Carnot cycle. If the lower limit T, of the cycle is taken at the absolute zero of the gas- — thermometer, we observe that the maximum quantity of work obtainable from a quantity of caloric O at a temperature T is simply AQT, which represents the absolute value of the energy carried by the caloric taken from the source at the temperature T. The energy of the caloric rejected at the temperature T, is AOT,. The external work done is equal to the difference between the quantities of heat energy sup- plied and rejected in the cycle The analogy which Carnot himself employed in the interpretation of this equation was the oft-quoted analogy of the waterfall. Caloric might be regarded as possessing motive-power or energy in virtue of elevation of temperature just as water may be said to possess motive-power in virtue of its head or pres- sure. The limit of motive-power obtainable by a reversible motor in either case would be directly pro- portional to the head or fall measured on a suitable scale. Caloric itself was not motive-power, but must be regarded simply as the vehicle or carrier of energy, the production of motive-power from caloric depending essentially (as Carnot puts it) not on the actual con- sumption of caloric, but on the fall of temperature available. The measure of a quantity of caloric is the work done per degree fall, which corresponds with the measure of a quantity of water by weight, 7.e. in kilogrammetres per metre fall. SEPTEMBER 5, 1912] NATURE 23 That Carnot did not pursue the analogy further, and deduce the whole mechanical theory of heat from the caloric theory, is scarcely to be wondered at if we remember that no applications of the energy principle had then been made in any department of physics. He appears, indeed, at a later date to have caught a glimpse of the general principle when he states that “motive-power |his equivalent for work or energy| changes its form but is never annihilated.’’ It 1s clear from the posthumous notes of his projected ex- perimental work that he realised how much remained to be done on the experimental side, especially in rela- tion to the generation of calorie by friction, and the waste of motive-power by conduction of heat, which appeared to him (in 1824) ‘“‘almost inexplicable in the present state of the theory of heat.” One of the points which troubled him most in the application of the theoretical result that the work obtainable from a quantity of caloric was simply pro- portional to the fall of temperature available, was that it required that the specific heat of a perfect gas should be independent of the pressure. This was in- consistent with the general opinion prevalent at the time, and with one solitary experiment by Delaroche and Bérard, which appeared to show that the specific heat of a gas diminished with increase of pressure, and which had been explained by Laplace as a natural consequence of the caloric theory. Carnot showed that this result did not necessarily follow from the caloric theory, but the point was not finally decided in his favour until the experiments of Regnault, first published in 1852, established the correct values of the specific heat of gases, and proved that they were practically independent of the pressure. Another point which troubled Carnot was that, ac- cording to his calculations, the motive-power obtain- able from a kxilocalorie of heat per degree fall appeared to diminish with rise of temperature, instead of remaining constant. This might have been due to experimental errors, since the data were most uncer- tain. But, if he had lived to carry out his projected experiments on the quantity of motive-power required to produce one unit of heat, and had obtained the result, 424 kilogrammetres per kilocalorie, subse- quently found by Joule, he could scarcely have failed to notice that this was the same (within the limits of experimental error) as the maximum work AQT obtainable from the kilocalorie according to his equa- tion. (This is seen to be the case when the values calculated by Carnot per degree fall at different tem- peratures were multiplied by the absolute temperature in each case. E.g. 1212 kilogrammetres per degree fall with steam at 79° C. or 352° Abs. 1212 x 352=426 kilogrammetres.) The origin of the apparent dis- crepancy between theory and experiment lay in the tacit assumption that the quantity of caloric in a _ kilocalorie was the same at dif- ferent temperatures. There were no experiments at that time available to demonstrate that the caloric measure of heat as work per degree fall, implied in Carnot’s principle, or more explicitly stated in his equation, was not the same as the calorimetric measure obtained by mixing substances at different temperatures. Even when the energy principle was established its exponents failed to perceive exactly where the discrepancy between the two theories lay. In reality both were correct, if fairly interpreted in accordance with experiment, but they depended on different methods of measuring a quantity of heat, which, so far from being inconsistent, were mutually complementary. The same misconception, in a more subtle and in- sidious form, is still prevalent in such common phrases as the following: ‘‘We now know that heat is a form of energy and not a material fluid.” The experi- NO. 2236, VOL. 90] mental fact underlying this statement is that our ordinary methods of measuring quantities of heat in reality measure quantities of thermal energy. When two substances at different temperatures are mixed, the quantity remaining constant, provided that due allowance is made for external work done and for external loss of heat, is the total quantity of energy. Heat is a form of energy merely because the thing we measure and call heat is really a quantity of energy. Apart from considerations of practical convenience, we might equally well have agreed to measure a quantity of heat in accordance with Carnot’s principle, by the external work done in a cycle per degree fall. Heat would then not be a form of energy, but would possess all the properties postulated for caloric. The caloric measure of heat follows directly from Carnot’s prin- ciple, just as the energy measure follows from the law of conservation of energy. But the term heat has become so closely associated with the energy measure that it is necessary to employ a different term, caloric, to denote the simple measure of a quantity of heat as opposed to a quantity of heat energy. The measure- ment of heat as caloric is precisely analogous to the measure of electricity as a quantity of electric fluid. In the case of electricity, the quantity measure is more familiar than the energy measure, because it is generally simpler to measure electricity by its chemical and magnetic effects as a quantity of fluid than as a quantity of energy. The units for which we pay by electric meter, however, are units of energy, because the energy supplied is the chief factor in determining the cost of production, although the actual quantity of fluid supplied has a good deal to do with the cost of distribution. Both methods of measurement are just as important in the theory of heat, and it seems a great pity that the natural measure of heat quantity is obscured in the elementary stages of exposition by regarding heat simply as so much energy. The in- adequacy of such treatment makes itself severely felt in the later stages. Since Carnot’s principle was adopted without material modification into the mechanical theory of heat, it was inevitable that Carnot’s caloric, and his solution for the work done in a finite cycle, should sooner or later be rediscovered. Caloric reappeared first as the ‘‘thermodynamic function”? of Rankine, and as the ‘‘equivalence-value of a transformation ”’ in the equations of Clausius; but it was regarded rather as the quotient of heat energy by temperature than as possessing any special physical significance. At a later date, when its importance was more fully recognised, Clausius gave it the name of entropy, and established the important property that its total quan- tity remained constant in reversible heat exchanges, but always increased in an irreversible process. Any process involving a decrease in the total quantity of entropy was impossible. Equivalent propositions with regard to the possibility or impossibility of transforma- tions had previously been stated by Lord Kelvin in terms of the dissipation of available energy. But, since Carnot’s solution had been overlooked, no one at the time seems to have realised that entropy was simply Carnot’s caloric under another name, that heat could be measured otherwise than as energy, and that the increase of entropy in any irreversible process was the most appropriate measure of the quantity of heat generated. Energy so far as we know must always be associated with something of a material nature acting as carrier, and there is no reason to believe that heat energy is an exception to this rule. The tendency of the kinetic theory has always been to regard entropy as a purely abstract mathematical function, relating to the distribution of the energy, but having no physical existence. Thus it is not a quantity of anything in the kinetic theory of gases, but merely the logarithm 24 NATURE [SEPTEMBER 5, 1912 of the probability of an arrangement. In a similar way, some twenty years ago the view was commonly held that electric phenomena were due merely to strains in the ather, and that the electric fluids had no exist- ence except as a convenient means of mathematical expression. Recent discoveries have enabled us to form a more concrete conception of a charge of elec- tricity, which has proved invaluable as a guide to research. Perhaps it is not too much to hope that it may be possible to attach a similar conception with advantage to caloric as the measure of a quantity of heat. It has generally been admitted in recent years that some independent measure of heat quantity as opposed to heat energy is required, but opinions have differed widely with regard to the adoption of entropy as the quantity factor of heat. Many of these objections have been felt rather than explicitly stated, and are therefore the more difficult to answer satisfactorily. Others arise from the difficulty of attaching any con- crete conception of a quantity of something to such a vague and shadowy mathematical function as entropy. The answer to the question ‘t‘ What is caloric?’ must necessarily be of a somewhat speculative nature. But it is so necessary for the experimentalist to reason by analogy from the seen to the unseen, that almost any answer, however crude, is better than none at all. The difficulties experienced in regarding entropy as a measure of heat quantity are more of an academic nature, but may be usefully considered as a_pre- liminary in attempting to answer the more funda- mental question. The first difficulty felt by the student in regarding caloric as the measure of heat quantity is that when two portions of the same substance, such as water, at different temperatures are mixed, the quantity of caloric in the mixture is greater than the sum of the quantities in the separate portions. The same diffi- culty was encountered by Carnot from the opposite point of view. The two portions at different tempera- tures represented a possible source of motive-power. The question which he asked himself may be put as follows :—“If the total quantity of caloric remained the same when the two portions at different tempera- tures were simply mixed, what had become of the motive-power wasted?’’? The answer is that caloric is generated, and that the quantity generated is such that its energy is the precise equivalent of the motive- power which might have been obtained if the transfer of heat had been effected by means of a perfect engine working without generation of caloric. The caloric generated in wasting a difference of temperature is the necessary and appropriate measure of the quantity of heat obtained by the degradation of available motive- power into the less available or transformable variety of heat energy. The processes by which caloric is generated in mixing substances at different temperatures, or in other cases where available motive-power is allowed to run to waste, are generally of so turbulent a character that the steps of the process cannot be followed, although the final result can be predicted under given conditions from the energy principle. Such processes could not be expected a priori to throw much light on the nature of caloric. The familiar process of conduction of heat through a body the parts of which are at different temperatures, while equally leading to the generation of a quantity of caloric equivalent to the motive-power wasted, affords better promise of elucidating the nature of caloric, owing to the comparative simplicity and regularity of the phenomena, which permit closer ex- perimental study. The earliest measurements of the relative conducting powers of the metals for heat and electricity showed that the ratio of the thermal to the electric conductivity was nearly the same for all the NO. 2236, VOL. 90| pure metals, and suggested that, in this case, the carriers of heat and electricity were the same. Later and more accurate experiments showed that the ratio of the conductivities was net constant, but varied nearly as the absolute temperature. At first sight this might appear to suggest a radical difference between the two conductivities, but it results merely from the fact that heat is measured as energy in the definition of thermal conductivity, whereas electricity is measured as a quantity of fluid. If thermal conductivity were defined in terms of caloric or thermal fluid, the ratio of the two conductivities would be constant with respect to temperature almost, if not quite, within the limits of error of experiment. On the hypothesis that the carriers are the same for electricity and heat, and that the kinetic energy of each carrier is the same as that of a gas molecule at the same temperature, it becomes possible, on the analogy of the kinetic theory of gases, to calculate the actual value of the ratio of the conductivities. The value thus found agrees closeiy in magnitude with that given by experiment, and may be regarded as confirming the view that the carriers are the same, although the hypotheses and analogies invoked are somewhat speculative. When the electrons or corpuscles of negative elec- tricity were discovered it was a natural step to identify them with the carriers of energy, and to imagine that a metal contained a large number of such corpuscles, moving in all directions, and colliding with each other and with the metallic atoms, like the molecules of a gas on the kinetic theory. If the mass of each carrier were 1/1700 of that of an atom of hydrogen, the velocity at 0° C. would be about sixty miles a second, and would be of the right order of magnitude to. account for the observed values of the conductivities of good conductors, on the assumption that the number of negative corpuscles was the same as the number of positive metallic atoms, and that the mean free path of each corpuscle was of the same order as the dis- tance between the atoms. The same _ hypothesis served to give a qualitative account of thermo-electric phenomena, such as the Peltier and Thomson effects, and of radiation and absorption of heat, though in a less satisfactory manner. When extended to give a consistent account of all the related phenomena, it would appear that the number of free corpuscles re- quired is too large to be reconciled, for instance, with the observed values of the specific heat, on the assump- tion that each corpuscle possesses energy of translation equal to that of a gas molecule at the same tem- - perature. Sir J. J. Thomson has accordingly proposed and discussed another possible theory of metallic conduc- tion, in which the neutral electric doublets present in the metal are supposed to be continually interchanging corpuscles at a very high rate. Under ordinary condi- tion these interchanges take place indifferently in all directions, but under the action of an electric field the axes of the doublets are supposed to become more or less oriented, as in the Grotthus-chain hypothesis of electrolytic conduction, producing a general drift or current proportional to the field. This hypothesis, though fundamentally different from the preceding or more generally accepted view, appears to lead to prac- tically the same relations, and is in some ways pre- ferable, as suggesting possible explanations of diffi- culties encountered by the first theory in postulating so large a number of free negative corpuscles. On the other hand, the second theory requires that each neutral doublet should be continually ejecting cor- puscles at the rate of about 10% per second. There are probably elements of truth in both theories, but, without insisting too much on the exact details of the process, we may at least assert with some confidence ‘ that the corpuscles of caloric which constitute a cur- SEPTEMBER 5, 1912] NATURE 25 rent of heat in a metal are very closely related to the corpuscles of electricity, and have an equal right to be regarded as constituting a material fluid possessing an objective physical existence. If I may be allowed to speculate a little on my own account (as we are all here together in holiday mood, and you will not take anything I may say too seriously), I should prefer to regard the molecules of caloric, not as being identical with the corpuscles of negative electricity, but as being neutral doublets formed by the union of a positive and negative cor- puscle, in much the same way as a molecule of hydrogen is formed by the union of two atoms. Nothing smaller than a hydrogen atom has yet, so far as I know, been discovered with a positive charge. This may be merely a consequence of the limitations of our experimental methods, which compel us_ to employ metals to so large an extent as electrodes. In the symmetry of nature it is almost inconceivable that the positive corpuscle should not exist, if only as the other end of the Faraday-tube or vortex-filament representing a chemical bond. Prof. Bragg has identified the X or y rays with neutral corpuscles travelling at a high velocity, and has: maintained this hypothesis with brilliant success against the older view that these rays are not separate entities, but merely thin, spreading pulses in the ether produced by the collisions of corpuscles with matter. I must leave him to summarise the evidence, but if neutral corpuscles exist, or can be generated in any way, it should certainly be much easier to detach a neutral corpuscle from a material atom or molecule than to detach a corpuscle with a negative charge from the positive atom with which it is associated. We should therefore expect neutral corpuscles to be of such ex- ceedingly common and universal occurrence that their very existence might be overlooked, unless they hap- pened to be travelling at such exceptionally high velocities as are associated with the y rays. Accord- ing to the pulse theory, it is assumed that all y rays travel with the velocity of light, and that the enormous variations observed in their penetrative power depend simply on the thickness of the pulse transmitted. On the corpuscular theory, the penetrative power, lile that _of the a and 8 rays, is a question of size, velocity, and electric charge. Particles carrying electric charges, like the « and 8 rays, lose energy in pro- ducing ions by their electric field, perhaps without actual collision. Neutral or -y rays do not produce ions directly, but dislodge either y rays or B rays from atoms by direct collisions, which are comparatively rare. The 8 rays alone, as C. T. R. Wilson’s photo- graphs show, are responsible for the ionisation. Per- -sonally, I have long been a convert to Prof. Bragg’s views on the nature of X rays, but even if we regard the existence of neutral corpuscles as not yet definitely proved, it is, I think, permissible to assume their existence for purposes of argument, in order to see whether the conception may not be useful in the inter- pretation of physical phenomena. If, for instance, we assume that the neutral cor- puscles or molecules of caloric exist in conductors and metallic bodies in a comparatively free state of solu- tion, and are readily dissociated into positive and negative electrons owing to the high specific inductive capacity of the medium, the whole theory of metallic conduction follows directly on the analogy of conduc- tion in electrolytic solutions. But, whereas in elec- trolytes the ions are material atoms moving through a viscous medium with comparatively low velocities, the ions in metallic conductors are electric corpuscles moving with high velocities more after the manner postulated in the kinetic theory of gases. It is easy to see that this theory will give similar numerical results to the electronic theory when similar assump- NO. 2236, VOL. 90] tions are made in the course of the work. But it has the advantage of greater latitude in explaining the vagaries of sign of the Hall effect, and many other peculiarities in the variation of resistance and thermo- electric power with temperature. For good conductors, like the pure metals, we may suppose, on the electro- lytic analogy, that the dissociation is practically com- plete, so that the ratio of the conductivities will approach the value calculated on the assumption that all the carriers of heat are also carriers of electricity. But in bad conductors the dissociation will be far from complete, and it is possible to see why, for instance, the electric resistance of cast-iron should be nearly ten times that of pure iron, although there is comparatively little difference in their thermal con- ductivities. The numerical magnitude of the thermo- electric effect, which is commonly quoted in explana- tion of the deviation of alloys from the electronic theory, is far too small to produce the required result ; and there is little or no correspondence between the thermo-electric properties of the constituents of alloys and the variations of their electric conductivities. One of the oldest difficulties of the material theory of heat is to explain the process of the production of heat by friction. The application of the general prin- ciple of the conservation of energy leads to the undoubted conclusion that the thermal energy generated is the equivalent of the mechanical work spent in friction, but throws little or no light on the steps of the process, and gives no information with regard to the actual nature of the energy produced in the form of heat. It follows from the energy principle that the quantity of caloric generated in the process is such that its total energy at the final temperature is equal to the work spent. If a quantity of caloric represents so many neutral molecules of electricity, one cannot help asking where they came from, and how they were produced. It is certain that in most cases of friction, wherever slip occurs, some molecules are torn apart, and the work spent is represented in the first instance by the separation of electric ions. Some of these ions are permanently separated as frictional electricity, and can be made to perform useful work; but the majority recombine before they can be effec- tively separated, leaving only their equivalent in thermal energy. The recombination of two ions is generally regarded simply as reconstituting the original molecule at a high temperature, but in the light of recent discoveries we may perhaps go a step further. It is generally admitted that X or y rays are produced by the sudden stoppage of a charged corpuscle, and Lorentz, in his electron theory of radiation, has assumed that such is the case however low the velocity of the electron. A similar effect must occur in the sudden stoppage of a pair of ions rushing together under the influence of their mutual attraction. Rays produced in this way would be of an exceedingly soft or absorbable character, but they would not differ in kind from those produced by electrons except that their energy, not exceeding that of a pair of ions, would be too small to produce ionisation, so that they could not be detected in the usual way. If the X rays are corpuscular in their nature, we cannot logically deny the corpuscular character even to the slowest moving rays. We know that X rays continually pro- duce other X rays of lower velocity. The final stage is probably reached when the average energy of an X corpuscle or molecule of caloric is the same as that of a gas molecule at the same temperature, and the number of molecules of caloric generated is such that their total energy is equal to the work originally spent in friction. In this connection it is interesting to note that Sir J. J. Thomson, in a recent paper on ionisation by moving particles, has arrived, on other grounds, at 26 the conclusion that the character of the radiation emitted during the recombination of the ions will be a series of pulses, each pulse containing the same amount of energy and being of the same type as very soft X rays. If the X rays are really corpuscular, these definite units or quanta of energy generated by the recombination of the ions bear a_ close resemblance to the hypothetical molecules of caloric. It may be objected that in many cases of friction, such as internal or viscous friction in a fluid, no electrification or ionisation is observable, and that the generation of caloric cannot in this case be attributed to the recombination of ions. It must, however, be remarked that the generation of a molecule of caloric requires less energy than the separation of two ions; that, just as the separation of two ions corresponds with the breaking of a chemical bond, so the genera- tion of one or more molecules of caloric may corre- spond with the rupture of a physical bond, such as the separation of a molecule of vapour from a liquid or solid. The assumption of a molecular constitution for caloric follows almost of necessity from the mole- cular theories of matter and electricity, and is not inconsistent with any well-established experimental facts. On the contrary, the many relations which are known to exist between the specific heats of similar substances, and also between latent heats, would appear to lead naturally to a molecular theory of caloric. For instance, it has often been noticed that the molecular latent heats of vaporisation of similar compounds at their boiling-points are proportional to the absolute temperature. It follows that the molecular latent caloric of vaporisation is the same for all such compounds, or that they require the same number of molecules of caloric to effect the same change of state, irrespective of the absolute tempera- tures of their boiling-points. From this point of view one may naturally regard the liquid and gaseous states as conjugate solutions of caloric in matter and matter in caloric respectively. The proportion of caloric to niutter varies regularly with pressure and temperature, and there is a definite saturation limit of solubility at each temperature. One of the most difficult cases of the generation of caloric to follow in detail is that which occurs when- ever there is exchange of heat by radiation between bodies at different temperatures. If radiation is an electro-magnetic wave-motion, we must suppose that there is some kind of electric oscillator or resonator in the constitution of a material molecule which is capable of responding to the electric oscillations. If the natural periods of the resonators correspond suffi- ciently closely with those of the incident radiation the amplitude of the vibration excited may be sufficient to cause the ejection of a corpuscle of caloric. It is generally admitted that the ejection of an electron may be brought about in this manner, but it would evidently require far less energy to produce the emis- sion of a neutral corpuscle, which ought therefore to be a much more common effect. On this view, the conversion of energy of radiation into energy of caloric is a discontinuous process taking place by definite molecular increments, but the absorption or emission of radiation itself is a continuous process. Prof. Planck, by a most ingenious argument based on the probability of the distribution of energy among a large number of similar electric oscillators (in which the entropy is taken as the logarithm of the probability, and the temperature as the rate of increase of energy per unit of entropy), has succeeded in deducing his well-known formula for the distribution of energy in full radiation at any temperature; and has recently, by a further extension of the same line of argument, arrived at the remarkable conclusion that, while the absorption of radiation is continuous, the emission of NO. 2236, VOL. 90] NATURE [SEPTEMBER 5, IQI2 radiation is discontinuous, occurring in discrete elements or quanta. Where an argument depends on so many intricate hypotheses and analogies the possible interpretations of the mathematical formule are to some extent uncertain; but it would appear that Prof. Planck’s equations are not necessarily inconsistent with the view above expressed that both emission and absorption of radiation are continuous, and that his elementa quanta, the energy of which varies with their frequency, should rather be identified with the mole- cules of caloric, representing the conversion of the electro-magnetic energy of radiation into the form of heat, and possessing energy in proportion to their temperature. Among the difficulties felt, rather than explicitly stated, in regarding entropy or caloric as the measure of heat quantity is its awkward habit of becoming infinite, according to the usual approximate formule, at extremes of pressure or temperature. If caloric is to be regarded as the measure of heat quantity, the quantity existing in a finite body must be finite, and must vanish at the absolute zero of temperature. In reality there is no experimental foundation for any other conclusion. According to the usual gas formule it would be possible to extract an infinite quantity of caloric from a finite quantity of gas by compressing it at constant temperature. It is true that (even if we assumed the law of gases to hold up to infinite pres- sures, which is far from being the case) the quantity of caloric extracted would be of an infinitely low order of infinity as compared with the pressure required. But, as a matter of fact, experiment indicates that the quantity obtainable would be finite, although its exact value cannot be calculated owing to our ignorance of the properties of gases at infinite pressures. In a similar way, if we assume that the specific heat as ordinarily measured remains constant, or approaches a finite limit at the absolute zero of temperature, we should arrive at the conclusion that an infinite quantity of caloric would be required to raise the temperature of a finite body from 0° to 1° absolute. The tendency of recent experimental work on specific heats at low temperatures, by Tilden, Nernst, Lindemann, and others, is to show, on the contrary, that the specific heats of all substances tend to vanish as the absolute zero is approached, and that it is the specific capacity for caloric which approaches a finite limit. The theory of the variation of the specific heats of solids at low temperatures is one of the most vital problems in the theory of heat at the present time, and is engaging the attention of many active workers. Prof. Linde- mann, one of the leading exponents of this work, has kindly consented to open a discussion on the subject in our section. We are very fortunate to have suc- ceeded in securing so able an exponent, and shall await his exposition with the greatest interest. For the present I need only add that the obvious conclusion of the caloric theory bids fair to be completely justified. A most interesting question, which early presented itself to Rumford and other inquirers into the caloric theory of heat, was whether caloric possessed weight. While a positive answer to this question would be greatly in favour of a material theory, a negative answer, such as that found by Rumford, or quite recently by Profs. Poynting and Phillips, and by Mr. L. Southerns working independently, would not be conclusively against it. The latter gb ‘vers found that the change in weight, if any, ce aly did not exceed r in 10° per 1° C. If the mass’c! a molecule of caloric were the same as that generally attributed to an electron, the change of weight, in the cases tested, should have been of the order of r in 107 per 1° C., and should not have escaped detection. It is ‘ generally agreed, however, that the mass of the elec- SEPTEMBER 5, I912| NAT OLE: a5 df tron is entirely electro-magnetic. Any such statement Virtually assumes a particular distribution of the electricity in a spherical electron of given size. but if electricity itself really consists of electrons, an argument of this type would appear to be so pertectly circular that it is questionable how much weight should be attached to it. If the equivalent mass of an electron in motion arises slowly from the electro- magnetic field produced by its motion, a neutral cor- puscle of caloric should not possess mass or energy of translation as a whole, though it might still possess energy of vibration or rotation of its separate charges. For the purpose of mental imagery we might picture the electron as the free or broken end of a vortex filament, and the neutral corpuscle as a vortex ring produced when the positive and negative ends are united; but a mental picture of this kind does not carry us any further than the sphere coated with electricity, except in so far as either image may sug- gest points for experimental investigation. 1n our ignorance of the exact mechanism of gravity it is even conceivable that a particle of caloric might possess mass without possessing weight, though, with the possible exception of the electron, nothing of the kind has yet been demonstrated. In any case it would appear that. the mass, if any, associated with a quantity of caloric must be so small that we could not hope to learn much about it by the direct use of the balance. The fundamental property of caloric, that its total quantity cannot be diminished by any known process and that it is not energy but merely the vehicle or carrier of energy, is most simply represented in thought by imagining it to consist of some in- destructible form of matter. The further property, that it is always generated in any turbulent or irre- versible process, appears at first sight to conflict with this idea, because it is difficult to see how anything indestructible can be so easily generated. When, however, we speak of caloric as being generated, what we really mean is that it becomes associated with a material body in such a way that we can observe and measure its quantity by the change of state produced. The caloric may have existed previously in a form in which its presence could not be detected. In the light of recent discoveries we might suppose the caloric generated to arise from the disintegration of the atoms of matter. No doubt some caloric is produced in this way, but those corpuscles that are so strongly held as to be incapable of detection by ordinary physical methods require intense shocks to dislodge them. A more probable source of caloric is the zther, which, so far as we know, may consist entirely of neutral corpuscles of caloric. The hypothesis of a continuous ether has led to great difficulties in the electro- magnetic theory of light and in the kinetic theory of gases. A molecular, or cellular-vortex, structure appears to be required. According to the researches of Kelvin, Fitzgerald, and Hicks, such an zther can be devised to satisfy the requirements of the electro- magnetic theory without requiring it to possess a density many times greater than that of platinum. So far as the properties of caloric are concerned, a neutral pair of electrons would appear to constitute the simplest type of molecule, though without more exact knov” dge of the ultimate nature of an electric charge it id be impossible to predict all its pro- perties. \ u cher an ather composed of such molecules would be competent to discharge satisfactorily all the onerous functions expected from it, may be difficult to decide, but the inquiry, in its turn, would probably throw light on the ultimate structure 9f the molecule. Without venturing too far into the regions of meta- physical speculation, or reasoning in vicious circles about the nature of an electric charge, we may at least NO. 2236, VOL. 90] assert with some degree of plausibility that material bodies under ordinary conditions probably contain a number of discrete physical entities, similar in kind to X rays or neutral corpuscles, which are capable of acting as carriers of energy, and of preserving the statical equilibrium between matter and radiation at any temperature in virtue of their interchanges with electrons. If we go a step further and identify these corpuscles with the molecules of caloric, we shall cer- tainly come in conflict with some of the fundamental dogmas of the kinetic theory, which tries to express everything in terms of energy, but the change involved is mainly one of point of view or expression. The ex- perimental facts remain the same, but we describe them differently. Caloric has a physical existence, instead of being merely the logarithm of the probability of a complex ion. In common with many experimentalists, I cannot help feeling that we have everything to gain by attaching a material conception to a quantity of caloric as the natural measure of a quantity of heat as opposed to a quantity of heat energy. In the time at my disposal I could not pretend to offer you more than a suggestion of a sketch, an apology for the possibility of an explanation, but I hope I may have succeeded in conveying the impression that a caloric theory of heat is not so entirely unreasonable in the light of recent experiment as we are sometimes led to imagine. NOTES. Dr. G. T. Berrpy, F.R.S., has been appointed a member of the Royal Commission on Oil Fuel in suc- cession to the late Dr. H. Owen Jones. Tue death is announced, at eighty years of age, of Prof. T. Gomperz, of the University of Vienna, dis- tinguished by his studies in philology and philosophy, and well known by his work “Greelx Thinkers,’ of which an English translation appeared several yeans ago. i As previously announced, the autumn meeting of the Institute of Metals will be held in London on Wednes- day and Thursday, September 25 and 26. The follow- ing are among the papers that are expected to be submitted :—Autogenous welding by means of oxygen and acetylene of copper and its principal alloys, and of aluminium, Prof. F. Carnevali; the effect of other metals on the structure of the beta constituent in copper-zine alloys, Prof. H. C. H. Carpenter; the effect of temperatures higher than atmospheric on tensile tests of copper and its alloys, Prof. A. K. Huntington; the influence of oxygen on the proper- ties of metals and alloys, E. F. Law; the annealing of coinage alloys, Dr. T. Kirke Rose; intererystalline cohesion in metals (with an appendix on the formation of twinned crystals in silver), Dr. W. Rosenhain and D. Ewen; oxygen in brass, Prof. T. Turner. WE regret to announce that Prof. T. Winter, pro- fessor of agriculture in University College of North Wales, Bangor, died on Sunday, September 1, at forty-six years of age. Prof. Winter was educated at Darlington Grammar School and Edinburgh Univer- sity, where he graduated in arts. He afterwards became assistant lecturer on agriculture at the Uni- versity College of North Wales. Later he was ap- pointed lecturer in agriculture at the University of Leeds; and in 1894 he returned to the University College of North Wales as head of the agricultural department. He took an active part in agricultural 28 NEAT [SEPTEMBER 5, IQI2 Wales, and known and respected throughout the country. matters in was widely We are glad to see that progress is gradually being made with the synchronisation of clocks, thanks largely to the enterprise of private companies. Last vear a committee of the British Science Guild pre- sented a valuable report upon the position of the sub- ject and the system employed by the General Post Office, instructive account of synchronisa- tion and the importance of correct time is given by Major O’Meara in an address printed in this year’s report of the Guild. The committee recommended that, as a beginning, it would probably be well to have a few large public clocks in London synchronised, and that these should be set apart and considered as “standard time clocks.’”? An electric clock which may be used for the purpose suggested by the committee has just been built by the Silent Electric Clock Co., 192 Goswell Road, London, E.C., on the new mills of the Hovis Bread Co., Vauxhall Bridge Road. We understand that this electric clock, with its four faces each g ft. 6 in. diameter, is not only the largest elec- tric clock in London, but is also to be controlled by a master clock directly synchronised from Greenwich. The clock thus represents an up-to-date form of public timekeeper which is likely to be extensively adopted in the future. and an A Locat society which possesses such a creditable record of worl as the Royal Cornwall Polytechnic Society does well to commemorate worthies who were members of their body. In the first part of its Pro- ceedings for 1912 it publishes portraits and lives of three of its most eminent members, Sir C. Lemon, F.R.S., first president (1833-67), who did good ser- vice to science by his attempt to found a school of mines at Truro, a project which was in advance of the times when it was proposed, but has been since realised; Lord de Dunstanville, first patron, scholar and politician; and last, but not least, Davies Gilbert, who succeeded Sir Humphry Davy as president of the Royal Society, an accomplished botanist and distin- guished in other branches of science. In the annual report the council tales occasion to congratulate the Rey. Philip Carlyon, a former vice-president of the society, on attaining the age of a hundred years in December last. j VOLUME xi. of the Zoological Publications of the Field Museum is devoted to an account of the mammals of Illinois and Wisconsin, comprising 502 pages of text and a large number of illustrations. “Keys’’ to the various genera and their species are given. In the report of the Field Museum of Natural His- tory, Chicago, for 1911, the director refers to the acquisition by the trustees of a site for a new building in Jackson Park, immediately to the north of the present structure. The plans for the new building have been approved, and the specifications for the contracts drawn up. The report is illustrated with photographs of bird groups and other interesting exhibits recently added to the museum. Tue Meteorological Service of Canada has issued a very useful pamphlet on the comparison of the NO. 2236, VOL. 90] Angstrom pyrheliometer and the Callendar sunshine recorder, and the determination of the proportion of heat received on a horizontal surface from the diffuse radiation from the sky to that received from the sun. The International Union for Cooperation in Solar Research at its Oxford conference recommended (1) the adoption of the former instrument, and (2) comparisons between it and other standard instru- ments, but except at laboratories and the larger observatories little is yet generally known about its working. The paper in question, prepared by Mr. J. Patterson, under the direction of Mr. R. F. Stupart, gives a very clear idea of the construc.ion and action of both the above instruments. The fol- lowing are among the noteworthy features shown by their comparison: (1) the maximum intensity of radiation measured by the Angstrom instrument occurred at apparent noon, and by the Cal- lendar recorder about forty minutes later. (2) The Angstrém instrument gave slightly higher values in the afternoon than in the morning, and the Callendar recorder much higher values. (3) In the early morn- ing and late afternoon the Callendar instrument gave higher readings than the Angstrom. (4) Excluding the morning readings the greatest percentage differ- ence occurred between gh. and toh. a.m.; from about th. to 3h. p.m. the change in percentage was very slight. Sir T. L. Hearn has now supplied an English edition (Cambridge Press, 2s. 6d.) of the ‘* Method” of Archimedes, discovered by Heiberg in 1g06. This tract is of very great interest, because it gives mechanical discussions of geometrical problems based upon the principle of the lever. Thus we have the rule for the quadrature of a parabolic segment which Archimedes elsewhere proves by the method of exhaus- tion. Archimedes expressly says that the ** Method” does not supply demonstrations; he does not give any reasons, but no doubt he had in mind what we should call the theory of infinitesimals of different orders. For example, a triangular lamina may be roughly, but not exactly, replaced by a set of parallel rectangular strips; to find the centroid of the triangle we must find the limiting position of the centroid of the system of strips. Among other noteworthy points it may be observed that Archimedes arrived at the formula for its area; and that he attributes to Democritus the discovery of the theorem that pyramids of equal bases | and altitudes are of equal volume. ‘The first proof, allowed to be rigorous, he assigns (as elsewhere) to | Eudoxus. As usual, the editor’s task is performed with great learning and thoroughness; his introduc- tion in particular will be found extremely useful by those who are not familiar with Greek mathematics beyond the elementary stage. The Central—the journal of the City and Guilds | Engineering College—for August contains an article advocating the use of direct rather than alternating currents in electric traction by Mr. L. Calisch, an account of some recent improvements in yacuum evaporation by Mr. W. A. Davis, and a description | of the Boncourt system of gaseous combustion by one for the volume of a sphere before he discovered that: SEPTEMBER 5, 1912] NATO TEE 29 of its inventors, Mr. C. D. McCourt. The feature of the system is the combustion of the gas and air mix- ture as it is passing with the requisite velocity through the interstices of a granular refractory material. A steam boiler fired in this way evaporates 16 lbs. of water per hour per square foot of heating surface. The old student notes occupy fifteen pages. Referring to work in the drawing office of a French engineering firm, Mr. K. C. Barnaby writes:—'‘t. .. there is the delightful metric system. JI cannot imagine any- one who has worked and calculated in a Continental office who would not wish our antiquated system of weights and measures—well, where parallels meet.” Tue fifty-seventh annual exhibition of the Royal Photographic Society, which was opened last Monday, will remain open until the 21st inst. at the Gallery of the Royal Society of British Artists, Suffollk Street, Pall Mall. In the scientific and technical sections four exhibits have been awarded medals. The first consists of examples of a new photo-mechanical process by Mr. A. E. Bawtree, who has found a method of trans- ferring the pigment of an impression from an engraved plate, whether it is old or new, to a sheet of glass, so producing a more perfect transparency than any camera method can‘yield. He claims that not a grain of the pigment is lost. From this transparency copies of the original may be made by various photographic or photo-mechanical methods as is well known. He can then retransfer the pigment from the glass to paper without the loss of even the finest detail. The method of transfer is so easy that the author does not yet describe it, because it enables facsimiles of bank-notes and such documents to be prepared with a very moderate outlay for apparatus. Dr. D. H. Hutchinson’s series of photomicrographs of the ova of the “[exican Axolotl show the development of the embryo from the first day after the egg has been laid up to the time of its escape from the egg. This, and Mr. Farren’s series of photographs of the little egret, and Mr. G. Busby’s autochrome landscape, well deserve the medals that have been awarded them. Among the numerous other exhibits we may perhaps direct special attention to the radiographs of Dr. Hall- Edwards, which show the effect of bismuth salts and iodoform in indicating details with great clearness, Dr. Thurstan Holland’s “plastic” radiographs, Dr. T. W. Butcher’s high-power photomicrographs, and Dr. Rodman’s stereo-photomicrographs of the scales on the wings of moths and butterflies and the hairs on the leaves of plants, though it seems almost invidious to do so where so much good work is shown illustrating many different branches of work. Parts ii. and iii. of the Subject List of Works on Mineral Industries in the Library of the Patent Office have just been published at the office, 25 Southampton Buildings, Chancery Lane, W.C., price sixpence each. Part ii. contains classified titles of works on iron manufacture, alloys, and metallography, and part iii. those relating to metallurgy (non-ferrous and general), assaying, and fuel combustion. The lists, like others in the same series, are most helpful guides to the contents of a very valuable library. NO. 2236, VOL. 90] OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. THe SPECTRUM OF BRrooKs’s COMET, Ig11c.—Some excellent spectrograms of comet 1911¢ are reproduced and their special features discussed by MM. de la Baume Pluvinel and Baldet in the September number of L’Astronomie. The spectrographs employed were mounted at the Juvisy Observatory, and an examina- tion of the complete series of plates shows very markedly the spectral changes which took place as the comet approached the sun; between August and the end of October a number of ‘“‘unknown”’ radiations between A 4100 and A 4ooo suffered a considerable diminution of intensity as compared with other radia- tions. The wave-lengths of these lines, considered precise to 1 A, are 4099, 4074, 4065, 4051, 4041, 4032, and 4o16. These radiations were peculiar to the nucleus of the comet, being found neither in the coma nor the tail, and as they became fainter the tail radiations became strong; it was also noted that in the later spectra the tail radiations extended well to the front of the comet’s head, showing that in active comets, such as this one and Morehouse’s, the tail matter is expelled in all directions. In Kiess’s comet it appeared to escape from one point only. Altogether 47 monochromatic images of the nucleus were counted on the Juvisy plates, but the kathode spectrum of nitrogen was not recognised among them. Tue Corona at THE TotaL SOLAR EcLipsr OF APRIL 17-—A drawing of the corona, made by Senor J. Comas Sola, at Barco de Valdeorras (Galicia), on April 17. appears in No. 4597 of the Astronomische Nachrichten. Although observers at other stations were uncertain as to the definite apparition of the corona, Senor Comas Sola saw it well extended, and on his drawing depicts it extending equatorially to about 24 solar diameters on either side of the sun. The drawing, given principally to show the general form, repre- sents a corona distinctly of the minimum type. The same observer also describes his spectrum observa- tions, while many others give the results of observa- tions of the contacts, &c. Tue DtaMeteR oF NEpPTUNE.—An interesting paper by Dr. G. Abetti, discussing the various measures of Neptune made since 1846, appears in No. 8, vol. i. (second series), of the Memorie della Societa degli Spettroscopisti Italiani. He shows that the measured diameter has, in general, tended to become less as the aperture and magnification employed have in- | creased. Using only the results from apertures of more than 4o c.m. and magnifications greater than 620, the mean values being 76 c.m. and 794 respec- tively, the diameter at unit distance comes out as 69°04” for the mean aperture, and 68°98" for the mean other considerations show that the true value power ; differs but little from 69”. Using this value, he then calculates the true diameter as 5x10* km., the density (earth=1) as o’29 or (water=1) 16, and the superficial gravity as 112, that at the earth’s equator being taken as ro. As seen from the earth, the apparent diameter ranges between 2°39” and 2°20". UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE. BirRMINGHAM.—The University has suffered a severe loss by the death of the Vice-Chancellor, Alderman Charles Gabriel Beale, at the early age of 69. Alder- man Beale, who was a graduate of Trinity College, Cambridge, was one of the most prominent citizens of Birmingham, having been elected to the mayoral chair no fewer than four times. _ He was mainly instrumental in carrying to a successful conclusion the great scheme for supplying the city with water from the Welsh 30 NATURE | SEPTEMBER 5, 1912 mountains. He was, from the outset, a most energetic supporter of the movement for establishing a University in Birmingham, and was largely responsible for the working-out of the scheme, for which his legal train- ing and experience qualified him in an unusual degree. When the University became an accomplished fact in 1900, his services to the cause were fittingly recog- nised by his appointment as the first Vice-Chancellor. His ideas were on a large scale, and he believed in the importance of associating the University with buildings which by their imposing size and appearance should appeal to local patriotism and serve to keep before the inhabitants of a great industrial centre the claims of higher education. Within the University he was known to the undergraduates for his special interest in their social welfare. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. Paris. Academy of Sciences, August 26.—M. A. Bassot in the chair.—Edouard Heckel: The cultural bud muta- tion of Solanum tuberosum. An account of experi- ments in the cultivation of wild potato plants from Chile, Bolivia, and Peru. The tubers produced from the cultivated plants were edible, and contained a greater amount of starch than the wild plants. The tubercles from Bolivia showed the characters of muta- tion; those from other sources appeared to be in course of mutation.—W. H. Young: The summability of a function of which the Fourier’s series is given.— B. Bianu and L. Wertenstein: An ionising radiation, attributable to the radio-active recoil, emitted by polonium. It was found to be necessary to use a polonium film in these experiments not exceeding 1opm in thickness. The curves obtained with a silver disc covered with this thin polonium layer, in presence of a transversal magnetic field of 1100 units, were analogous with those obtained in the case of radium C, and show clearly the existence of an absorbable radia- tion.—]. Bougault : Benzylpyruvic acid. The acid was prepared by the action of alkaline solutions on phenyl- a-oxycrotonamide. The yields of benzylpyruvic acid were good. The condensation products of this acid with itself and with acetone. were. also studied.— H. Vincent: The active immunisation of man against typhoid fever. Details of five cases are given which show that inoculations of typhovaccin have a preven- tive power not only against subsequent absorption of typhoid cultures, but ‘also against a recent infection anterior to the inoculation.—Charles Nicolle, L.. Blaizot, and E. Conseil: The conditions of transmission of recurrent fever by the flea. The evidence is against the assumption of hereditary transmission in the flea. Details are ‘given of studies in the necessary conditions for infection.—J. Wolff: The stimulating action of alkalies and of ammonia in particular on peroxydase.—P. Chaussé: The vitality of the tubercle bacillus tested by inoculation and by inhalation. BOOKS RECEIVED. Notes on Algebra. By A. F. van der Heyden. Pp. viii+133. (Middlesbrough: W. Appleyard and Sons, Ltd.) 2s. 6d. Exercises in Modern Arithmetic. By H. S. Jones. Pp. x+336. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd.) 2s. 6d. British Rainfall, 1911. By Dr. H. R. Mill. Pp. 388. (London: E. Stanford, Ltd.) ros. Life Understood from a Scientific and Religious Point of View, &. By F. L. Rawson. Pp. xv+660. (London: The Crystal Press, Ltd.) 7s. 6d. net. Identification of the Economic Woods of the United NO. 2236, VOL. 90] States. By Prof. S.J: Record. Pp: 6 plates. (New York: J. Wiley and Sons; Chapman and Hall, Ltd.) 5s. 6d. net. Forestry in New England. By Profs. R. C. Hawley and A. F. Hawes. Pp. xv+a479. (New. York: J. Wiley and Sons; London: Chapman and Hall, Ltd.) rss. net. Dove Marine land. Report for : New Series. I. Edited by Prof. A. castle-on-Tyne: Cail and Sons.) 5s. Catalogue of the Periodical Publications including the Serial Publications of Societies and Governments vii+ 117+ London : Northumber- June 30, 1912. Meek. (New- Laboratory, Cullercoats, the year ending in the Library of University College, London. By L. Newcombe. Pp. vii+269. (Oxford: H. Hart.) Catalogue of the Periodical Publications in the Library of the Royal Society of London. 455. (London: H. Frowde.) Results of the Magnetical and Meteorological Ob- Pp. viii+ servations made at the Royal Alfred Observatory, Mauritius, in the year 1go2. Pp. xxii+Ixxviii+ 5 plates. Ditto, 1903. Pp. xxi+Ixxiv+7 plates. Ditto, 1908. Pp. xxv+Ixxxvili+6 plates. (Mauritius.) An Introduction to the Study of the Protozoa, with special reference to the Parasitic Forms. By Prof. E. A. Minchin. Pp. xi+520. (London: E. Arnold.) 2Is. net. Eugenics and Public Health. By Prof. K. Pearson. Pp. 34. (London: Dulau and Co., Ltd.) ts. net. Darwinism, Medical Progress, and Eugenics. ‘The Cavendish Lecture, 1912. By Prof. K. Pearson. Pp. 29+7 plates. (London: Dulau and Co., Ltd.) ts. net. Instinct and Experience. By Prof. C. Lloyd Morgan. Pp. xviit+299. (London: Methuen and Co: itd.) ss. net. Lebensbild eines Naturforschers. By E. du Bois- Reymond. Zweite Auflage. Pp. 50. (Brackwede i.W: Dr. W. Breitenbach.) 80 pfennigs. Grundriss der Biochemie fiir Studierende und Aerzte. By Prof. C. Oppenheimer. Pp. vii+399- (Leipzig: G. Thieme.) 9 marks. The Boy’s Playbook of Science. By J. H. Pepper. Revised, &c., by Dr. J. Mastin. Pp. x+68o. (London: G. Routledge and Sons, Ltd.) 5s. Dana’s Manual of Mineralogy. Thirteenth edition. By Prof. W. E. Ford. Pp. vilit+t460. (New York: J. Wiley and Sons; London: Chapman and Hall, Ltd.) 8s. 6d. net. CONTENTS. PAGE Early Naturalists . . mo. o, i The Wandering of the Bronze Age Potters. By Dr. OOS ara 2 : ities Our Bookshelf... oe. en Letters to the Editor :— Determination of the Epicentre of an Earthquake.— Prince B. Galitzin; George W. Walker ... Implements of Man in the Chalky Boulder Clay.— Rev. Dr. A. Irving. . 3 The Fifth International Congress of Mathematicians at Cambridge coed! The British Association at Dundee. . 6 Inaugural Address by Prof. E. A. Schafer, AT D., D.Sc , M.D., F.R.S., President Section A.—Mathematics and Physics. — Opening Aa- dress by Prof. H. L. Callendar, LL.D., F.R.S., President of the Section . . : A te) Notes . t ; 27, Our Astronomical Column :— The Spectrum of Brooks's Comet, 1911¢ 29 The Corona at the Total Solar Eclipse of April 17 29 The Diameter of Neptune . : 29 University and Educational Intelligence 29 Societies and Academies . SAL cc Romero Oc 30 Books Received" <..: 2 eer ea as se ae 30 A WEEKLY ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. ~SZal Muse} “To the solid ground Of Nature trusts the mind which builds for aye.’’—WoRDSWORTH. No. 2237, VOL. 90] _ THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 12, 1912 | Price SIXPENCE Registered as a Newspaper at the General Post Office.] NEWTON & CO.’S “DEMONSTRATOR'S’ LANTERN FOR ELECTRIC OR LIMELICHT With Prism for Erecting, and for Vertical Projection. The most simple and efficient Single Lantern yet constructed for general scientifie work. 72 WIGMORE ST., LONDON, w. - Established over 200 Years _ THE RAINBOW CUP C. V. BOYS’S PATENT. MAGICAL ASTOUNDING COLOUR EFFECTS A_NEW_ INSTRUMENT or studying the colours of thin films. Produces the most beautiful colour forms and colour changes imaginable. Price 25s.., including two bottles of special soap solution and full instructions. SOLE MAKERS: JOHN J. GRIFFIN & SONS, Ltd. Kemble St., KINGSWAY, LONDON, W.C. ¢ % [All Rights Reserved. REYNOLDS & BRANSON, Ltd. (AWARDED GRAND PRIX, TURIN, 1911.) Ais * SPECIAL APPARATUS ny for Consterdine & Andrews’ “ PRACTICAL ARITHMETIC.” Set ‘£A,” 120 models, £1 5 0 Set “ B,” 75 models, £0 16 6 (Descriptive List on = eee Application.) Special Apparatus for Mackenzie and Forster’s Theoretical & Practical Mechanics & Physics. Detailed Catalogue on Application. CATALOGUES POST FREE. Scientific Apparatus and Chemicals. Apparatus for Teaching Mechanics, Machine-and Building Construction. Optical Lanterns. Photographic Apparatus. 14 COMMERCIAL STREET, LEEDS. 0 a NEGRETTI & ZAMBRA’S “Hyetograph”’ is a simple, re- liable, & approved Recording Rain Gauge at a very moderate price. Please write for pamphlet. 38 Holborn Viaduct, London, E.C. 45 Cornhill, E.C. 122 Regent St., W. # XV1 NATURE IQI2 [SEPTEMBER 12, IMPERIAL COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOCY. SOUTH KENSINGTON, LONDON, S.W. Including as integral parts : THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF SCIENCE, THE ROYAL SCHOOL OF MINES, THE CITY AND GUILDS (ENGINEERING) COLLEGE. Vistror: HIS MAJESTY THE KING. CHAIRMAN: The Most Hon. the MARQUESS of CREWE, K.G. Courses of instruction and opportunities for ADVANCED STUDY AND RESEARCH are provided in the following branches of Science, viz. :— ROYAL COLLEGE OF SCIENCE. MATHEMATICS AND MECHANICS (Professor PERRY, F.R.S.) PHYSICS (Professor CALLENDAR, F.R.S., Professor the Hon. R. J. STRUTT, F-.R.S.). CHEMISTRY, including Chemical Technology (Professor BRERETON BAKER, F.R.S.). FUEL AND REFRACTORY MATERIALS (Professor BONE, F.R.S.). BOTANY (Professor FARMER, F.R.S.). PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AND PATHOLOGY (Professor BLACK- MAN). - TECHNOLOGY OF WOODS AND FIBRES (Professor GROOM). ZOOLOGY (Professor SEDGWICK, F.R.S., Professor MACBRIDE). ENTOMOLOGY (Professor MAXWELL LEFROY). GEOLOGY (Professor WATTS, F.R.S.) ROYAL SCHOOL OF MINES. MINING (Professor FRECHEVILLE). METALLURGY (Professor CARLYLE). CITY AND GUILDS (ENGINEERING) COLLEGE. (1) CIVIL & MECHANICAL ENGINEERING (Professor DALBY). (2) ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING (Professor MATHER, F-.R.S.). Prospectus and all particulars sent free on application to the SECRETARY, Imperial College IMPERIAL COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, SOUTH KENSINGTON, LONDON, S.W., INCLUDING ROYAL COLLEGE OF SCiENCE, ROYAL SCHOOL OF MINES, CITY AND GUILDS (ENGINEERING) COLLEGE. Special Courses of Advanced Lectures, as follows, will begin during October next :— Subjects. Conducted by { Assistant-Professor A. Fow Ler, A.R.C.S., Spectroscopy .. .. .. ES ROALS RES: Economic Geology : (Prof. W. W. Warts, LL.D., Sc.D.. M.Sc, A. Mining Geology ...) F.R.S., F.G.S., and Assistant-Professor \_C.G. Cunts, D.Sc, F.GS. Bu Rnsinestine Geol ,{ Hersert Larwortnu, D-.Sc., M.Inst.C.E., + @ngineering VEoowy | F.G.S., and Professor W. W. Watts. C. Geology of Petroleum A. Wang, A.R.C.S., D.Sc., F.G.S. Particulars of these and other Courses to follow free on application to the SECRETARY. SESSION OPENS 30th SEPTEMBER, to12. EAST LONDON COLLEGE. (UNIVERSITY OF LONDON.) Classics ... F. R. Earp, M.A. English H. Betroc, M.A. French Mina Paguier. German ... J. Steppat, Ph.D. History aaj F. Crarke, M.A. Mathematics... THE PRINCIPAL. Physics . *C, H, Lexs, DiSc., F.R.S. Chemistry *J. T. Hewirt, M.A., F.R.S. Botany ; 5 F. E. Fritscu, D.Sc. Geology .. =r W. L. Carter, M.A. Civil EAcinssHps tote } ... D. A. Low, M.ILM.E Electrical Engineering J. T. Morris, M.1,E.E. * University Professors. Fees ten guineas per annum. by Drapers’ Company. Special facilities for Post-Graduate and Research Students. of courses of study, &c., on application to the REGISTRAR, or to J. L. S. HATTON, M.A., Principal, at the College. UNIVERSITY OF LIVERPOOL. SESSION COMMENCES ON THURSDAY, OCTOBER 3. FACULTY OF ENGINEERING. Dean, J. Wemyss ANvErsoN, M.Eng., M.Inst.C.E. Prospectus and full particulars of the following may be obtained on application to the Registrar :— Engineering, Elec rical Engineering, Civil Engineering, Naval Archi- tecture Engineering Design and Drawing, Mathematics, Physics, Inor- ganic Chemistry. Valuable Entrance Scholarships awarded Particulars 1912-13 NEW SESSION BEGINS WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 25. BIRKBECK COLLEGE, BREAMS BUILDINGS, CHANCERY LANE, E.C. Principal: G. Armitage-Smith, M.A., D.Lit. COURSES OF STUDY (Day and Evening) for the Degrees of the UNIVERSITY OF LONDON in the FACULTIES OF ARTS & SCIENCE (PASS AND HONOURS) under RECOGNISED TEACHERS of the University. SCIENCE.—Chemistry, Physics, Mathematics (Pure and Applied), Botany, Zoology, Geology and Mineralogy. ARTS.—Latin, Greek, English, French, German, Italian, History, Geography, Logie, Economics, Mathematics (Pure and Applied). Evening Courses for the Degrees in Law and Economics. Day: Science, £17 10s.; Arts, £10 10s. SESSIONAL FEES { 7 ening: Science, Arts, or Economics, £5 5s. POST-GRADUATE AND RESEARCH WORK. For particulars apply to the SECRETARY. —————— ENTRANCE SCHOLARSHIPS EXAMINATION, SEPT. 23, 10 a.m. SOUTH-WESTERN POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE, | MANRESA ROAD, CHELSEA, S.W. Day Courses under recognised Teachers in Preparation for London University Degrees in Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, in Chemistry, Physics and Natural Science: and Technical Courses arranged to extend over Three Years and Prepare for Engineering, Electrical, Chemical and Metallurgical Professions, Commencing September 30, 1912. Session Fee, £15. Evening Courses in all Departments, Commencing September 28, 1912. Mathematics—*J. Lister, A.R.C.S.; Physics—*S. SKINNER, M.A., *L. Lownos, B.Sc., Ph.D., *F. W. Jorpan, B.Sc. ; Chemistry—*J. B. Coteman, A.R.C.S., *J. C. Crocker, M.A., D.Sc., and *F. H. Lowe, M.Sc.; Botany—*H. B. Lacey, S. E. CHANDLER, D.Sc., and W. RusuTon, A.R.C.S., D.I.C. ; Geology—*A. J. Masten, F.G.S., F.L.S. ; Human Physiology—E. L. KeNNaway, M.A., M.D.; Zoology—*J. T. CunnincHam, M.A. ; Engineering—*W. Camesett Houston, B.Sc., A.M.I1.C.E.; *V._C. Davies, B.Sc., and H. AuGuTiE; Electrical Engineering—*A. J. Maxkower, M.A., *B. H. Morpuy and U. A. Oscuwa tp, B.A. *Recognised Teacher of the University of London. Prospectus from the SECRETARY, post free, 4d. ; at the Office, 1a. a Telephone : 899 Western. SIDNEY SKINNER, M.A.,, Princ ~ CITY OF LONDON COLLEG:. ACTING IN CONJUNCTION WITH THE LONDON CHAMBER OF COMMERCE. WHITE ST., and ROPEMAKER ST., MOORFIELDS, E.G. (Near Moorgate and Liverpool Street Stations). PRINcIPAL: SIDNEY HUMPHRIES, B.A., LL.B. (Cantab.) Michaelmas term begins Monday, September 30th. EVENING CLASSES in SCIENCE. Well-equipped LABORATORIES for Practical Work in CHEMISTRY, BOTANY, GEOLOGY. Special Courses for Conjoint Board, Pharmaceutical and other examin ations, Classes are also held in all Commercial Subjects, in Languages. and Literature. Art Studio. All Classes are open to both sexes. DAY SCHOOL OF COMMERCE. Preparation fora COMMERCIAL or BUSINESS career. Prospectuses, and all other information, gratis on application. DAVID SAVAGE, Secretary. UNIVERSITY OF BRISTOL. CHEMICAL DEPARTMENT. ALFRED Carrer Pass Professor OF CHEMISTRY :— FRANCIS FRANCIS, D.Sc. Victoria, Ph.D. Erlangen, F.1.C. The NEW CHEMICAL WING was recently built and equipped at a cost of about £35,000. Special provision is made for advanced work and investigations in Physical Chemistry, Agricultural Chemistry, Bio- Chemistry, Bacteriological Chemistry, Hygienic Chemistry, and Electro- Metallurgy. Currents are available of voltages from 500 downwards and of amperage up to 2000. Training received in other Institutions, and Degrees of any approved University are counted towards the period of study required for al Bristo Degrees. Prospectuses of the FACULTIES of ARTS, SCIENCE MEDICINE and ENGINEERING, and further particulars may be obtained on application. JAMES RAFTER, Registrar. NATORE 31 THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 12, 1912. THERMODYNAMICS OF THE ATMOSPHERE. der Atmosphdre. By Dr. A. Pp: viii+331. (Leipzig: J. A. Price 11 marks. Thermodynamik Wegener. Barth, 1911.) HE progress of a science depends upon the intellectual calibre of the men who pursue it: that determines what shall be written for them as well as by them. It is therefore significant for meteorology that a text-book on the thermo- dynamics of the atmosphere should be added to a collection recently enriched by treatises on meteorological optics and on the foundations of dynamical meteorology. Special phases of the subject have been treated at some length by Helmholtz, Hertz, von Bezold, and others, but their papers are scattered among different scientific journals, rarely accessible in a single library. Dr. Wegener’s treatise, which has been written with the object of giving a systematic account of the existing knowledge and methods, should there- fore be generally welcomed. In an introductory chapter the author deals with the constitution of the atmosphere, and discusses in interesting fashion the extreme heights at which vus optical phenomena, aurora, meteors, and liacal light appear. He finds that in all cases ne values lie roughly between 7o and roo km., or ‘n the layer in which the nitrogen atmosphere is changing to the hydrogen atmosphere. After an account of the thermodynamics of an ideal gas and its application to a consideration of the precise proportions in which different gases exist at dif- ferent heights, he indulges in some speculation about the existence of a hypothetical gas, geo- coronium, above the hydrogen atmosphere. Such speculation is out of place in a text-book, and the same criticism applies to the statement that the stratosphere extends from 11 to 70 km. There is no evidence as to the upper limit of the tem- perature conditions characteristic of the strato- sphere. In the third section the different phases of water vapour, the condensation on nuclei, and the formation of crystals are discussed thoroughly and comprehensively. The fourth and fifth sections, which comprise rather more than two-thirds of the book, are undoubtedly the most valuable parts of the work. In them the author treats of the thermodynamics of adiabatic changes and of the physics of clouds respectively. The effect of the condensation of water vapour in diminishing the vertical tempera- ture gradient for air rising adiabatically is impor- NO. 2237, VOL. 90] | tant both in the general circulation and in local disturbances, and it is usually put forward as the explanation of the Féhn. The cooling of the air which rises on the windward side of the moun- tains is influenced by the condensation and pre- cipitation of the water which it contains. This air descends on the lee side, where there is no moderating effect on the vertical temperature gradient, and is consequently hot and dry. Dr. Wegener deduces, from the fact that the average vertical gradient is less than that corresponding to the adiabatic gradient either for saturated or for dry air, that the rising of the air on the wind- ward side actually exerts a moderating influence on the Féhn. A very full account is given of “inversions,” i.e. cases in which the temperature remains con- stant or increases with increasing altitude. Their connection with waves and wave-clouds is dis- cussed at length, and the form of the surface between currents of different densities and veloci- ties is made the subject of mathematical investiga- tion. A chapter is devoted to the stratosphere. The different types of the temperature-height curve between the troposphere and stratosphere are illus- trated by an excellent diagram derived by Schmauss from a consideration of the results obtained at Munich. In the discussion of the meteorological conditions in the stratosphere itself it is assumed that the relative humidity at the base of the stratosphere, the region of minimum temperature, is 50 per cent. As there is no process by which the nitrogen-oxygen atmosphere is “dried” except by the precipitation of water con- densed by cooling, it is not easy to see how a relative humidity of 50 per cent. could be obtained at the place of minimum temperature, where dif- fusion and convection would both tend to produce saturation. The discussion of clouds is excellent. It cludes a note on the rate of fall of drops and its connection with the passage from cloud to rain. The photographs of the different forms of clouds, some of which were taken from balloons above the clouds, are well reproduced, and add consider- ably to the educational value of the descriptive matter and the theoretical discussion. Dr. Wegener has performed a signal service in producing a good book on a branch of the subject which had not: previously been dealt with sys- tematically. The work as a whole loses by the deliberate exclusion of radiation, which is funda- mentally and indissolubly connected with the application of thermodynamic considerations to the problems which confront the meteorologist every day. The author regards it, however, as a subject for separate treatment. in- Cc (os) to NATURE [SEPTEMBER 12, 1912 THE STORY OF “EIGHT DEER.” The Story of “ Eight Deer” in Codex Colombino. By J. Cooper Clark. Pp. 33+plates A-J (coloured). (London: Taylor and Francis, 1912.) Pricé 21s. net. MONG the papers presented to the Inter- national Congress of Americanists during the session held in London at the end of last June was a pamphlet by Mr. J. Cooper Clark entitled “The Story of ‘ Eight Deer’ in the Codex Colom- bino.” This is an attempt to throw some light into the obscurity of the pre-Columbian American manuscripts. Mr. Cooper Clark commenced his researches with a careful examination of the Codex Colom- bino, a picture-writing painted on prepared deer- skin, folded like a screen, and measuring 6'80 metres in length when spread open, now preserved in the National Museum in the City of Mexico. In this manuscript Mr. Cooper Clark traced the history of a warrior chieftain named “ Eight Deer.”’” All the personages identified by Mr. Cooper Clark in this codex are named after days of the month, and the name “ Eight Deer ”’ is ex- pressed by a deer’s head with the numeral eight (that is, by eight round discs) attached to it, a deer’s head (Macatl) being one of the twenty day signs of the Nahua month, and according to the Nahua method of noting time, this date would occur only once in a cycle of fifty-two years. It is not, however, explained why this particular day was chosen as the name of the warrior, although it is stated that it was not the day of his birth. The life-history of Eight Deer is most inge- niously traced through the pages of the codex, but the most interesting fact established by Mr. Cooper Clark is that the history of the same individual is atso told in five of the other extant pre-Columbian codices, namely, the Zouche (British Museum), the Vienna, the Bodleian, the Baker, and the Selden. By a careful comparison of these codices, Mr. Cooper Clark has not only been able to show that in part they tell the same story, but to supply incidents in the history of Eight Deer which are missing from the Codex Colombino owing to the destruction of a part of the manuscript. Mr. Cooper Clark has further come to the con- clusion that Eight Deer can be identified as the glyph attached to the figure of a warrior carved on one of the stone slabs from Monte Alban in Oaxaca (in the Zapotee country), now exhibited in the National Museum of Mexico, and from this he argues that the codices dealing with the story of Hight Deer must be of Zapotec and not Aztec origin, adding, “ Not many Nahua codices NO. 2237, VOL. 90] are likely to have survived the destruction by Arch- bishop Zumdrraga of the temple libaries of Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and the other cities around the lakes, whereas, warned by the example of Mexico, the Zapotecs would have had ample time to secrete their records.” There is no difficulty in fixing the dates men- tioned in the Codex Colombino within the fifty-two year cycle; the difficulty arises in determining in which cycle of fifty-two years the dates occur. If the events depicted are placed in the next cycle before the arrival of the Spaniards, the birth of Eight Deer would have taken place in the year 149r A.D.; but Mr. Cooper Clark thinks that it more probably took place in the previous cycle, when the date would correspond to 1439 A.D. The pamphlet is illustrated with plates most care- fully drawn and coloured from the original manu- scripts, showing how the same events in the life of Eight Deer are depicted in the Colombino, Zouche, Bodleian, and Becker codices. Mr. Cooper Clark is to be heartily congratulated on his most painstaking achievement. The pamphlet was written for the few who are interested in ancient American civilisations, and can only be fully appreciated by those who have access to copies of the codices discussed; but even to the general reader it must be of interest as showing a native American method of recording historical events, and, moreover, as demonstrating how, by careful and intelligent examination and comparison, order and meaning may be evolved from the most obscure and unpromising material. SUBMERGED RIVER-VALLEYS. Monograph on the Sub-Oceanic Physiography of the North Atlantic Ocean. By Prof. Edward Hull, F.R.S. With a Chapter on the Sub- Oceanic Physical Features off. the Coast of North America and the West Indian Islands, by Prof. J. W. W. Spencer. Pp. vili+ 41 +xi plates. (London: E. Stanford, 1912.) Price 21s. net. HIS is a folio publication with eleven excel- lent maps and nine short chapters of ex- planatory text, and an additional chapter by Prof. J. W. Winthrop Spencer. The author has based the work on a detailed study of the Admiralty charts showing the soundings over the continental shelf and the upper part of the continental slope off the western coasts of Europe and Africa, and this leads up to a statement of his views as to the cause of the Glacial Period. It is pointed out that there are two principal schools of geographical evolution, the one believ- ing that the ocean basins and the position of the chief continental areas retain traces of their NATURE SEPTEMBER 12, 1912] 33 primeval structure and have undergone only slight OUR BOOKSHELF. the other, to which the author | The Elements of Statistical Method. BY modification, belongs, believing that land and sea have changed places at various geological periods. The latter view, he considers, is upheld by a consideration of the distribution of geological formations on both sides of the North Atlantic. A detailed description is then given of the sub- merged river-valleys occurring off western Europe and Africa and in the Mediterranean as traced from the soundings shown on the charts. These were formed not only by rivers, the greater part of the course of which is visible on land, such as the Loire and the Congo, but also by rivers which rose on land now completely submerged, such as the “Trish Channel River ” and the “ English Channel River.” They all indicate a former great uplift of land. The Norwegian fjords also are regarded as river-valleys of great geological age. Professor Spencer shows that the continental shelf off the east coast of America is likewise cut up by submarine river-valleys and that there was a land connection between the West Indies and the American continent, and he upholds the view that great changes of level, amounting in some cases to thousands of feet, have taken place in recent geological times. In the final chapter Prof. Hull gives his explana- tion of the cause of the Glacial Period. As shown from a study of the submerged river-valleys, a general elevation of the earth’s crust took place all round the North Atlantic, the date of which is concluded to be about the close of the Tertiary Period. This brought about a much colder climate and at the same time a great change in the direction and temperature of the Gulf Stream. When the Antilles were directly connected with the American continent this current could not enter the Caribbean Sea, where at present it gains about 13° Fahrenheit of temperature; hence arose an additional cause for decreased temperature along all the coasts of the North Atlantic. The com- bined effect of these two factors, viz., the increased elevation of land on both sides of the Atlantic and the decrease of temperature in the Gulf Stream, would be sufficient, the author considers, to call into existence a rigorous glacial climate over the northern parts of America and Europe, which in its turn would affect a great part of the rest of Europe and western Asia, and more or less the entire northern hemisphere. Thus Dr. Hull shows that he belongs to those who regard purely terres- trial factors as the cause of the Glacial Period, in contrast to those who explain it on an astro- nomical basis. The book is useful to all who are interested in physical geography, whether they can agree with Dr. Hull’s conclusions or not. NO. 2237, VOL. 90| Willford I. King. Pp. xviit+250. (New York : The Macmillan Company; London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1912.) Price 6s. 6d. net. In this volume Mr. King has endeavoured ‘“‘ to furnish a simple text in statistical method for the benefit of those students, economists, administra- tive officials, writers, or other members of the educated public who desire a‘ general knowledge of the more elementary processes involved in the scientific study, analysis, and use of large masses of statistical data.’’ After a brief historical in- troduction, he outlines the uses and sources of statistical data, and then gives a few short chapters on “‘ the gathering of material’’; the third part, forming the bulk of the book, deals with ‘“‘analysis,’’ i.e., tabulation, averages, dis- persion, correlation, and so forth. The writing of a satisfactory elementary work on such a subject—a work that can be placed in the hands of the junior student with confidence that he will not have to unlearn at a later stage some of the notions that he has gathered—is an exceedingly difficult feat, much more difficult in many respects than the .writing of a work for more advanced students, and we cannot say that, in our opinion, Mr. King has altogether succeeded. The style is simple enough, but some matters are very insufficiently explained—probable errors, for example—and in other cases, notably in the chapters dealing with correlation, extensive re- vision and correction are required. A coefficient ““of concurrent deviations ’’ suggested on p. 208° does not fulfil the fundamental condition of be- coming equal to zero if the deviations are inde- pendent. The student, in dealing with correlation, is repeatedly told to divide deviations by the mean, and the graph of regression obtained when the deviations have been divided by their respective means is termed the ‘‘ Galton graph.’’ What Sir Francis Galton did was to divide deviations by their respective quartile deviations—not their means—and he obtained the correlation coefficient graphically in that way. The relation of regres- sion to correlation is never clearly exhibited, and Mr. King’s use of the term is not in accordance with general usage. As it at present stands, the book cannot be recommended as a completely trust- worthy guide. Anthropologie Anatomique. Crane—Face—Téte sur le Vivant. By Dr. Georges Paul-Boncour. Pp. xix+ 396. (Paris: Octave Doin et Fils, 1912.) Price 5 francs. (Encyclopédie Scien- tifique. ) Tue enterprising publishers of the “Encyclopédie Scientifique”? have arranged for the issue of a series of forty-eight volumes dealing with anthro- pology, the editorship of the series being assigned to Prof. Papillault, of 1’ cole d’Anthropologie, Paris. This volume, by Dr. Georges Paul- Boncour, forms the first of the series, and if its successors maintain an equally high standard, the “ Bibliothéque d’Anthropologie’’’ is destined to | become a standard work. 34 NATURE [SEPTEMBER 12, 1912 Dr. Paul-Boncour’s task is limited to a system- atic study of the cranium, the facial part of the cranium, and the head of the living; his volume gives an accurate reflection of the methods and conclusions of the French school of anthropolo- gists. The nature of his book is best indicated by a bare recitation of the subject-matter of its chapters. The volume commences with a discussion on the growth and evolution of the skull, and then passes on to a description of its various parts. The succeeding chapters are devoted to the forma- tion of the cranial cavity, to the methods of measurement and estimation of indices and of angles. The mandible and brain cavity are the subject-matter of special chapters. The second part—the more valuable—is devoted to the methods employed in registering the racial and individual characters as seen in living people— the form of the head, the development of muscles, the colour of the skin, the shape of the eyes, contour of the nose, form of ear, mouth, hair, and chin. Dr. Paul-Boncour’s volume is a simple, explicit, and methodical presentment of methods and opinions which have been perfected by the three generations of men who have made Paris the Mecca of anthropologists. Science of the Sea. Fowler. Pp. Murray, 1912.) Edited by Dr. G. Herbert XVili+452. (London: John Price 6s. net. THERE is a large though scattered body of people interested in oceanography or fascinated by marine biology, but prevented from making any advance by the want of practical direction and assistance : not only explorers and yachtsmen, but officers in the Navy with time on their hands in port or in foreign stations, medical officers on board ship or on coastal stations, and gentlemen who have retired from active service. To all such who wish to learn the methods of oceanographic inquiry, this book will be gladly welcomed, for it brings ‘to- gether instructions that otherwise are hard to find, given with the greatest care, and tested by the practical experience of many lives. The handbook is, in fact, the collective wisdom of the most active members of the Challenger Society, a body that has met quarterly in an unobtrusive fashion in London for some years, and now expresses its interest in oceanographic research by this publication. The book begins with a chapter on meteorology by Dr. Mill and Capt. Wilson Barker, whose names, like those of the succeeding contributors, are guarantees of soundness and fulness of know- ledge, and then proceeds to a well-illustrated ac- count of hydrography, the joint work of Prof. H. N. Dickson and Mr. D. J. Matthews, of Plymouth. A very interesting and practically helpful account of tropical shore-collecting and outfit is given by Prof. Stanley Gardiner, whose methods, with a little adaptation, are applicable to similar work in temperate seas. Then follow four chapters on marine biology, including one by Sir John Murray NO. VOL. 90] Bho Me ks SOW ft) on oceanic deposits and the organisms of the sea- floor. Fishing, whaling, and sealing are referred to in a rather summary fashion. Finally, the editor gives valuable counsel on methods of note- taking, whilst yacht-equipment, dredging, trawl- ing, and the preservation of specimens are dealt with in a most helpful manner by the Director of the Marine Biological-Association and others. We congratulate the editor, Dr. Fowler, on the manner in which he has correlated and brought together such a valuable elementary compen- dium, and we can recommend this handbook as a trustworthy and practical guide to travellers, and not less a book of great interest to all biologists. F. W. G: EERE S) ROPE se D tn Ok: [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for Opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of Nature. No notice ts taken of anonymous communications.]| Practical Mathematics. I was particularly sorry to be absent from the meetings of the International Mathematical Congress at Cambridge, because an address was expected from me upon the teaching of practical mathematics, and because Sir Wm. White, in his address on the relation of mathematics to engineering practice, referred to practical mathematics in a most contemptuous way. Twenty years ago mathematics continued to be taught in what may be called the orthodox way, a way that succeeded fairly well with students who were fond of abstract reasoning, 3 per cent. of all students, and quite failed with the other 97, per cent. At the British Association discussion of 1go01 (verbatim report published by Messrs. Macmillan), most of the great mathematicians and teachers of mathematics spoke or sent remarks in writing. In opening that dis- cussion, I published my proposed Science and Art De- partment syllabus on practical mathematics. There was essential agreement with my views; there was scarcely one dissentient remark. A committee was formed, and recommended methods of teaching which are now extensively adopted. It is perhaps a pity that I gave such a misleading name as practical mathematics to the reformed methods, but I wanted to differentiate them from the orthodox methods of twenty years ago, and I did not dream that the new methods would be adopted so quickly. They are in use now in all the public schools where natural science is taught; they are in use in all science colleges and in all engineering colleges. In evening schools it used to be that when a class of thirty apprentices was started in elementary mathe- matics, the attendance dwindled to ten in November, and in May it was usual to find only one or two faithful students. Now, in such schools, there is almost no teaching of the kind we used to call orthodox, but some hundred thousand apprentices study practical mathematics. The class of thirty formed in September remains in good attendance all the winter, and remains an excited and interested class of thirty in May. The new method suits the boy of great mathematical promise, but it is really ar- ranged to give the average boy a love for computation and the power to use mathematical reasoning with pleasure and certainty. It recognises that every boy, every man, already possesses the fundamental notion of the infinitesimal calculus, and that it is quite easy SEPTEMBER. 12, 1912| NATURE 45 to develop this notion so that he can use the methods of the calculus in his reasoning and computation. The subject was first recognised by the Science and Art Department in 1899; the number of students has increased year by year by the compound interest law, and it is now the most important science subject of the Board of Education. When I was appointed professor of mathematics and mechanics, seventeen years ago, at the Royal College of Science, it was known that I would adopt that experimental method of teaching mechanics and ap- plied mechanics and engineering science with which my name had become identified at the Finsbury Col- lege of the City Guilds. It is the method now in use in nearly all polytechnics and engineering colleges. It went hand in hand with the practical mathematics which it was also understood that I should establish at Kensington. My books describing these methods have been translated into many languages, and the methods have been largely adopted in America, Ger- many, and other foreign countries. Much of my time has been spent in showing foreign visitors how my methods of teaching were carried out in practice. I feel sure that few of the men listening to Sir Wm. White, even of the foreigners, were ignorant of these facts. It is known that the most elementary class at the college, attendance at which is compulsory on all students of the Royal School of Mines and the chemical and other students, was taught on the lines laid down for all evening classes in practical mathe- matics, the work being made interesting for the average student, and including the elementary methods of the calculus. Not only here, but in the very highest mathematical work of the college, a com- petent person will see that the study is exceedingly different from what used to be the study of the mere mathematician on the same subjects. All our sylla- buses and methods of teaching have been highly praised by most eminent judges, like the late Lord Kelvin, and they are now in no way different from what thev were seventeen years ago. According to the report in The Times, Sir Wm. White said that in the teaching of engineer- ing students, some authorities now favoured special courses in practical mathematics; others be- lieved that engineers should be taught by professional mathematicians because this method must lead to broader views and greater capacity for original inves- tigation. His experience led him to ranlx himself with the supporters of the latter, and he said that this view is now adopted at the Imperial College of Science and Technology. I know that Sir William contemplates great changes at the Imperial College, and no doubt great changes will rapidly take place, as I have been asked to retire, and Prof. Henrici has already retired. An attempt will, no doubt, be made to give up those methods to which I gave the misleading name practical mathe- matics, and in all probability the places of Prof. Henrici and myself will be taken by more orthodox persons. It is also probable that a ‘professional mathematician” will be put in charge of the teach- ing of mechanics. As I am still on the staff of the college I do not think that I can criticise the actions of the governing body. It is, however, my duty to deny a hurtful statement about my own department, and to oppose what I consider to be a wrong opinion, expressed at a public meeting by one of the forty members of the governing body. I wish to observe that no change has yet been made. The syllabus and methods of teaching are exactly as they have been for seventeen years, and when Sir William says that his view is now adopted at the Imperial College he really means that he himself has adopted this view. NO. 2237, VOL. 90| This is a most important matter. Sir William White’s remarks may influence the action of the governing bodies of the other engineering colleges of the country. In England, if a man is a great lawyer it is assumed that his views about Tibet must be right; if he is a great chemist it is held that his views about women’s suffrage must not be disputed; and if he is a great designer of ships it is assumed that he is an authority on technical education. It used to be that colleges were governed by a council of the professors, but now the opinions of the professors are of no account, and the staff dare not even suggest to the governors that it is possible for honest, sensible, diligent, self-sacrificing shop- keepers, merchants, and manufacturers to be so mis- led that they may ruin technical education for the next ten years. Such ruin will only be temporary, it is true, but when I think of our competition with the foreigner I look with great dismay on the pos- sibility that Sir William White’s opinions may have too much weight with the persons who have charge of technical education. The old engineering college did mot compel its students to have more than the most elementary mathematical knowledge, because only civil engineer- ing was taught, and the average civil engineer needs no mathematics. When mechanical engineering and shipbuilding students began to be taught, the mathe- matics standard was only slightly raised. But modern high-speed machinery has made it mecessary for mechanical engineers to understand the effects ot vibration, critical speeds of shafts, &c., and to pursue numerous studies which require a knowledge of higher mathematics even in the average student. And nowadays we have the electrical engineer requiring a knowledge of the methods of very advanced mathe- matics. Sir Wm. White thinks of the requirements of the civil engineer or shipbuilder of his youth; we teachers have to think of the requirements of the student of to-day. Now I affirm that the average student cannot be taught this necessary advanced work unless by the reformed methods. He cannot be carried beyond the most elementary things, and these he does not understand. : I have now expressed my opinion in regard to Sir William’s remark about practical mathematics. In weighing our opinions it must be remembered that Sir William’s practical experience as an engineer has been in naval architecture only, and as a teacher it lay also in naval architecture only, and a considerable time ago. Sir William says that all the mathematical teaching of engineers should be by what he calls professional mathematicians, and he evidently means by this that these teachers shall not be engineers or men acquainted with engineering science. He means that they shall be mere mathematicians. Well, this has been tried often enough, and it has always been found that the one or two good students take a distaste to practical engineering, and the average student is never brought bevond the driest elementary work, and he hates the appearance of a mathematical symbol all his life after. The average student cannot understand abstract reasoning; his teacher has no knowledge of him, and pursues his serenely ignorant way, wonder- ing how it is that so many students are stupid, or else he wonders that he and a few other men should be so supremely clever. He never studies his pupil. There are men who can train almost any animal; they study its habits of thought; thev are kind and sym- pathetic. The poor average English boy is never studied by the professional mathematician. : Joun Perry. Imperial College of Science and Technology, September 2. 36 NATURE [SEPTEMBER 12, 1912 Polymorphism in a Group of Mimetic Butterflies of the Ethiopian Nymphaline Genus Pseudacrea. A LITTLE more than two years ago Dr. Karl Jordan informed me that he had been studying the male genital armature of the Pseudacraeas, and that he could not find any difference between the “species” of a large group made up of Linné’s eurytus and its numerous allies on the west coast, of Neave’s hobleyi, terra, and obscura in Uganda, of Trimen’s rogerst of the Mombasa district and his imitator ot Natal. All these forms possess patterns mimetic of species of the Acreine genus Planema. The con- clusion was a very startling one. If each mimetic Pseudacrazea had been confined to a single area and had interbred on its margin with the Pseudacreee of surrounding areas with different mimetic patterns, we should have been confronted with a more remark- able and complex example than any as yet known (except perhaps Papilio dardanus), but one that raised no special difficulty. Dr. Jordan’s discovery, however, involved far more than this: it led to the remark- able conclusion that the sexually dimorphic P. hobleyi, mimicking the sexually dimorphic Planema macarista in the Entebbe district, was the same species as the two monomorphic Pseudacreeas flying in the same forests with it, viz. P. terra and P. obscura, mimicking respectively the sexually monomorphic Planema tellus and P. paragea. Dr. Jordan communicated his discovery to the First International Entomological Congress, meeting at Brussels in 1910, and at “the same meeting I brought forward the results of researches in 1909 by Mrs @" A. Wiggins, D.P.M.O. of the Uganda Protectorate, upon the Pseudacraeas and other mimetic butterflies of the forests near Entebbe. Jordan’s conclusions by the careful study of a splendid mass of material. Out of the long series of Pseudacraeas, two speci- mens yielded strong support: (1) ‘a male P. terra with a pattern approaching the male of P. hobleyi; (2) a female P. hobleyi bearing the mimetic colours of its own male. Nevertheless, I felt, and stated in the paper published in the Proceedings of the Congress, that conclusions so far-reaching ought not to be finally accepted until they had been tested by breeding. Mr. Wiggins has continued his fruitful study of mimicry in the forest butterflies of Uganda from the point reached in the Brussels paper up to the present time. There was, however, a break in 1911, when he came home and worked with me upon: his material in the Oxford museum, preparing a tabular statement for the Second International Congress which has just met at Oxford. The results which have been gained from his enthusiasm and energy will throw far more light on the ‘proportions of mimics and models at different seasons and in different years than has been shed by any other naturalist in any part of the world. A few more intermediate Pseudacraeas, and one or two more male-coloured females of P. hobleyi, ap- peared in the wonderful series obtained by him, but the collection as a whole shows that in the forests within a few miles of Entebbe two out of these three mimetic Pseudacreas, viz. hobleyi and terra, are wonderfully constant and sharply mar ked off, and that the sexual dimorphism of one of them is nearly always pronounced. In the Entebbe district the third form, P. obscura, is so much rarer than the others that it is at present impossible to speak with any certainty of its constancy. 7) ae While Mr. W iggins was continuing his researches on the mainland, Dr. G. D. .H. Carpenter, a member of the Royal Society’s Sleeping Sickness Commission, NO. 2237, VOL. 90] The preparation of this’ latter paper afforded the opportunity’ of testing Dr. began to study Pseudacraeas in the intervals of his work on the tsetse-flies of the islands in the north- west of the Victoria Nyanza. During a large part of 191i Dr. Carpenter was on Damba Island, on the Equator, about twenty miles south-east of Entebbe. Early in the present year he moved to Bugalla, one of the Sesse islands, to the south-west of Damba. In both these islands he found the Planema models rare as compared with their mimics. The Planemas are. apparently more exclusively forest butterflies than the Pseudacreeas, and the forested areas on the islands may not be extensive enough for them to establish themselves freely. Furthermore, the proportions of the three forms of Pseudacrzeas are very different. On the adjacent mainland hobleyi is by far the commonest form, and obscura much the rarest. Although on the islands the exact proportions have not been ascertained, it is clear that terra is by far the. commonest, and obscura quite’ abundant. Male- coloured females of hobleyi are rare, although ap- parently less rare than in the Entebbe district; but the chief interest of the island Pseudacrzeas lies in the jextraordinary number of transitional forms—between |Dr. Jordan’s terra and obscura, between terra and the female hobleyi, between terra and the male hobleyi, between obscura and the female hobleyi. Dr. Carpenter has also observed on Bugalla the male of hobleyi pursuing. the female of terra, the male of terra the female of hobleyi, and the male of obscura the female of terra. All these facts offer the most convincing support to conclusions, as well as to an interpreta- tion of mimicry based on natural selection. Where the models—which are different species sharply cut off from one another—are predominant the mimetic. forms of an interbreeding community are also sharply | cut off, and intermediates are rare; where the models '—although all of them exist—are in a small minority, ‘one another, the forms of the mimetic community tend to run into The results here summed up were com- municated to the Entomological Society, and will be ‘found in the pee aaee for I9ti (pp. xci.-xev.) and 1912 (pp. Xix.—xniii., and later pages as yet unpub- lished). ; : Finally, my sates Mr.. Guy A. K. Marshall, - scientific secretary. of the Entomological Research ' Semliki Valley, to the west. /possible to study the patterns in detail, ,important conclusion has emerged, ‘coloured females of P. commoner outside the Entebbe district than we know ‘lected ten males of P. Committee of the Colonial Office, and Mr. S. A. Neave have given me the opportunity of study- ing the collections. made in, 1911-12 by the latter over a wide area in the Uganda Protectorate —from the Mount Elgon district. far to the north- east of Entebbe, to Buddu: in the south, and Ankole, Unyoro, and Toro, as far as Ruwenzori. and. the As yet only a few of. the so that it has been im-. but one viz. that. male- were relatively far specimens have been “set,” hobleyi them to be within it. The most remarkable mani- festation of this tendency was encountered (August 13, 1911) on the Siroko River (3600 ft.), near the western foot of Mount Elgon, when Mr. Neave col- hobleyi, eight male-coloured females, and four normal females: This change in -the proportion of the females corresponds with a ‘change in that of the models, Planema poggei, with both sexes resembling the male of P. macarista, being commoner and P. macarista rarer outside than they are within the Entebbe -district, so well investigated, by. Mr. C..A. Wiggins. Mr. Neave never saw the latter species near. Mount Elgon, in Kavirondo, or indeed anywhere to the east of the Nile at Jinja. We now come to the evidence furnished by breeding, which indeed is the object of the present letter. Ever since the Brussels Congress I have tried to «induce SEPTEMBER 12, 1912] NAL OTE 37 African naturalists to settle this question. In Natal Mr. G. F. Leigh, the late Mr. A. D. Millar, and Miss Fountaine have been successful in breeding the two Pseudacreeas, lucretia and imitator, but the latter, which is the only Natal member of Dr. Jordan’s group, appears in a single form mimetic of Planema aganice, and is therefore incapable of supplying the desired test. I attempted to induce both Miss Foun- taine and Mr. Millar to travel to Entebbe in order to decide the question. My friend Mr. W. A. Lam- born, who has done such splendid work in breeding Lepidoptera in the Lagos district, has reared P. lucretia and also P. semire—the latter, I believe, for the first time—but has not yet been successful in finding the larvae or in obtaining the eggs of any local form of P, eurytus. Lately, however, I have felt confident that success would be achieved by Dr. Carpenter, with his wide experience of breeding and residence in an exception- ally favourable locality. He first succeeded in finding and rearing the larvee of. P. lucretia, and then made many attempts to obtain eggs from captured females of the hobleyi group. Discouraged by many failures, he was beginning to despair when, some weeks past, he observed in the Bugalla forest a female obscura “with a touch of hobleyi” settling in an unusual position on a leaf of the food-plant of lucretia—almost certainly a Sapotaceous plant. The butterfly escaped, but Dr. Carpenter found the egg on the leaf, and hoped to rear the perfect insect before or during the meeting of the Second International Congress at Oxford (August 5-10), and he promised that if the offspring turned out to be terra or hobleyi, he would cable the result. He wrote that he anticipated terra, because this form is much the commonest on Bugalla. Unfortunately the eagerly-expected butterfly did not emerge until after the meeting, but on August 19 I received a cable from Entebbe with the word ‘terra.’ Furthermore, Dr. Carpenter has now succeeded in obtaining eggs laid by known parents upon enclosed branches of the food-plant in the forest, so that we shall not have to wait long for evidence that is toler- ably certain to afford direct proof of Dr. Jordan’s conclusions as regards all the forms of the hobleyi group on the island, and is likely to establish the genetic relationship between them. Dr. Jordan, Mr. Wiggins, Mr. Neave, and Dr. Carpenter are all to be warmly congratulated on the parts they have played in solving a bionomic problem of extraordinary interest and complexity. E.. B. Poutton. St. Helens, Isle of Wight, August 28. Wireless Telegraphy and Terrestrial Magnetism. THE report in The Times of the discussion on wire- less telegraphy at the British Association meeting in Dundee mentions the hypothesis—introduced appar- ently by Dr. Eccles—that several of the phenomena of the propagation of electric waves round the earth are largely influenced by the existence of an ionised layer in the atmosphere. The hypothesis seems analogous to, if not identical with, one made by several mag- neticians independently, with the object of explaining phenomena exhibited by the diurnal variation of the magnetic elements. This diurnal variation is now generally regarded as most probably due to electric currents in the upper atmosphere, and it has been suggested that the fact that the magnetic changes are normally larger by day than by night is due to an increased ionisation of the atmosphere due to sun- shine. The regular diurnal magnetic variations are much larger in years of many than of few sun-spots. The NO. 2237, VOL. 90] | difference between the size of the day and night move- ments is relatively reduced in years of sun-spot maxi- mum, and in all years during large magnetic storms. Again, the diurnal variation is much larger in high latitudes—where aurora abounds—than elsewhere, and the difference between day and night phenomena is there much _ reduced. Finally, it has been recently found that a substantial part of the magnetic sun-spot relationship may be explained by a direct connection between the ampli- tude of the diurnal magnetic range and the spotted area of the sun some four days previously. These phenomena, or at least some of them, have been ascribed to corresponding changes in the ionisation of the upper atmosphere. The natural inference, in short, is that the ionisation is much enhanced in years of sun-spot maximum and during magnetic storms, and is substantially influ- enced by the sun-spot area four days previously. Also one would infer that in high latitudes the upper atmo- sphere is normally much more highly ionised than elsewhere. If wireless telegraphy is largely dependent on an ionised layer, then unless this layer is distinct from that which influences terrestrial magnetism, we should expect wireless phenomena to show peculiarities corresponding to those just described in terrestrial magnetism. My object in writing this note is to direct the attention of those in control of wireless installations to the field of research which is thus sug- gested. Wireless telegraphy may yet lend itself to the direct experimental investigation of the causes of a variety of the phenomena of terrestrial magnetism. September 7. C. CHREE. On the Structure of the Stromatoporoid Skeleton, and on Eozoon. I HAVE pointed out (Annals. Mag. Nat. Hist., September, 1912) that Stromatoporoids are Foramini- fera, but I did not give an explanation of the struc- ture of the skeleton. I now find that the clue to this structure lies in the “‘astrorhize”’ or stellate patterns on the surface of many of these fossils. Each astrorhiza consists of a spiral series of chambers formed round a central and a circum- ambient chamber, and the existence of a number of astrorhize is due to budding—as in corals. Anyone who has been bewildered—as I have been—at the apparent complexity of Stromatoporoid structure will at once appreciate—I cannot forbear saying—the beautiful simplicity of this solution of a difficult problem, and will realise that these organisms have at last come to rest in their proper place. I am publishing in the October number of the Annals a revised classification of the group. Eozoon canadense likewise is a colony-forming Foraminiferan, the unit in this case being a coiled Nummulitid shell. Convincing evidence for this state- ment also will be given in the October number of the Annals Mag. Nat. Hist. In view of a possible recrudescence of the Eozoon controversy, it is very fortunate that the evidence in favour of the theory of organic origin is now so over- whelming that the former opponents of that theory will readilv change their views. R. Kirkpatrick. British Museum (Nat. Hist.). ‘ The Striation of Stones in Boulder Clay. In Nature of September 5, Dr. A. Irving, in criticism of statements by Mr. Reid Moir, asks “how could the soft matrix of the Boulder Clay scratch a flint, or even hold a harder stone with sufficient grip to give it effect as a graving-tool?”’ a 3° NAT OIE, [SEPTEMBER 12, IQt2 emerging from It is true that one may see flints while softer arctic glaciers unscratche d and unrounded, rocks are reduced to strongly striated boulders; but Dr. Irving seems to conceive the Boulder Clay as something distinct from the ice-sheet in which it originated, and as merely pressed on by superincum- bent ice. It cannot be too strongly urged that the lower portions of glaciers of the continental or ice- sheet type consist largely of stones and mud and abrading sand-grains, “and that these materials are held in the grip of the ice and are moved against one another as it flows. The ice-sheet is, in fact, a con- glomerate with an ice cement; the Boulder Clay is an essential part of it, and remains as its representative when the portion that can melt has yielded before climatic change. GRENVILLE A. J. COLE. Royal College of Science, Dublin, September 6. Boulder Clay in Essex. Your correspondent Dr. Irving, in his letter en- titled ** Boulder Clay in Essex’? (Nature, August 22), states that he has made a keen but futile search for a human artefact in the Boulder Clay, and, I presume, infers that these relics do not occur therein. 1 have had no opportunity of carefully examining the Boulder Clay of Essex, but for the last six years I have been able to search that of Suffollk, and know that the occurrence of humanly flaked flints in this latter deposit is capable of unassailable demonstra- tion. As until the notification of a human skeleton nevis been found beneath the Boulder Clay no search had been made in the clay for worked flints, and as that notification was made only a few months ago, 1 think that- perhaps further and. more - prolonged search in the Essex deposits will reveal some of the type of implements which are found in. Suffolk. But even if this isnot so, it cannot be brought as an argument against man’s presence here before the deposition of the Boulder Clay. It would be as foolish to argue that because palzolithic implements are not found: in-a certain section. of river-gravel, they do not occur in any, other portion of the same deposit. J. Rem Morr. 12 St. Edmund’s Road, Ipswich. The ‘‘ Titanic.’’ Your -article. (NatuRE, August- 29, 1912) on ‘the report of the Advisory Committee having emphasised the contention from the ‘first of some of us (students of science and old naval commanders) ‘as to the’ in- sanity of high speed ‘at night in the known vicinity of ice,’’ it behoves surely’ men of Science to the question whether we have not reached the impe -rative limits of that false security which the “ practical man” is wont to feel in his contempt for scientific “theory’’; and, further, whether the time has not therefore come for legislation requiring commanders of the largest ocean-going steamers to hold a diploma, guaranteeing such a systematic course of study (say in a class at Greenwich or Kensington) in marine physio- ask graphy and the elementary laws of mechanics as would quicken their imagination as to the uncer- tainty and the magnitude of the risks to be run in an abnormally ice-drifted sea. Lord Mersey’s report may whitewash the facts, but the facts en évidence remain; and the chain of cause and effect in the lamentable and tragic loss of the Titanic leads us in the last resort to the notorious contempt for scientific acquaint ance with the facts and laws of nature on the part of the ‘‘ practical man.” A. IRVING. Hockerill, Bishop’s Stortford, September De NO. 2237, VOL. 90| | | | | | |; at Bossekop, in the extreme north of Norway, SHUDIES OF AURORA. ON or two photographs of aurora seem to have been taken before, but Prof. Stérmer is the first to meet with marked success. In the earlier of the volumes before us he describes with full detail the apparatus and methods employed in photographing aurora during a stay of some months early in 1910. Photographs were taken by Stérmer and an assistant from the two ends of a base of about 4; kilometres, simultaneity of exposure being secured by telephonic signal. Using special plates, satisfactory photographs were obtained with a few seconds’ exposure. One or more prominent stars were always included in the photograph, and the time was ‘carefully noted. From the known co- ordinates of the stars, it was thus possible to fix the position of the aurora. The base was long enough in general to give a parallax which could be measured with sufficient accuracy to determine the approximate position and height of selected prominent points. The heights calculated for the ! different auroras varied from 36 to 461 kilometres. Fig. 1 shows a photograph—from the original Fic. 1.—Reproduction of a. photograph of an aurora : original size.« negative—taken with 3 seconds’ exposure; Fig. 2 is an enlargement, the original of which had a 5 seconds’ exposure. The second of the two volumes referred to below repeats some of the information given in the first, but is mainly theoretical. St6rmer was apparently first attracted to-the subject of aurora and magnetic storms by the work of his well- known colleague at Christiania, Prof. Kr. Birle- land, but the views he now holds are independent. An electrified particle projected in a uniform magnetic field H describes with uniform velocity a helix about the lines of magnetic force. If pro- jected perpendicular to the lines of force, it de- scribes a circle of radius p. If m be the mass, e the charge, v the velocity of the particle, and V the velocity of light, then, according to Stérmer, Hp=(m/e)v(1 —v2/V2 *)-2. This differs from the usual formula in Baelien books unless (v/I’)? be 1 “Bericht iiber eine Expedition nach Bossekop zwecks photographischer Aufnahmen und Pepeamessungen von Nordlichtern. 3y Carl Stérmer. (Utgit for Fridtjof Nansens Fond.) Pp. 112+88 plates. (Kristiania : Jacob Dybwad, 1911.) Extract from Videnskap. Skrift. Mat. Natur. Klasse, Sein les Trajectoires des Corpuscles électrisés dans l’espace sous I'action du Magnétisme Terrestre avec application aux Aurores boréales (second Mémoire). By Carl Stérmer. Pp. 163-+10 plates. Extrait des Archives des Sciences physiques et naturelles, Geneva, 1912. SEPTEMBER 12, 1912| NATURE negligible, which is far from the case in some of the hypothetical cases dealt with by Stérmer. Hp may for mathematical purposes be regarded as the characteristic constant for a definite species of ray. In his Stérmer treated the earth as a _ uniformly magnetised ae of moment 852 x 10% C.G.S : to Hp values ordinarily conceded ‘to keathode - rays and B-rays of radium, he found that no electrified particle coming from the sun could reach the earth’s .atmosphere except in the immediate vicinity of a magnetic pole. If, for instance, Hp is 1000, the greatest angular distance from the earliest work, abatement. Stdérmer’s next idea was suggested apparently by experiments of Birkeland’s, which showed that kathode rays in a vacuum tube con- taining a magnetised sphere can form a luminous ring in the magnetic equator. Stérmer supposes a gigantic ring of kathode rays to form and persist for some time in the plane of the earth’s magnetic equator, and the auxiliary magnetic field’ thus produced is believed to render access to low lati- tudes possible to other kathode rays coming from the sun. In the absence of a ring, as already remarked, rays require Hp to equal ro® to permit of their getting as far as 22° from the magnetic pole, but Fic. 2.—Enlargement of a photograph of an aurora on February 28, 1910. is only 38°, and to increase the angle to —which answers roughly to the position of maximum aurora—one must assign to Hp the enormous value 10°. To account for the observed occurrence of aurora in low latitudes, Prof. Birke- land has had to assume no less a value than 7 x 10°, which implies a very close approach in v to the velocity of light. Prof. St6érmer sets out in quest of another explanation. His first idea was to substitute for the field of a uniformly magnetised sphere that derived from the earth’s Gaussian potential, based ultimately on the work of Carlheim Gyllenskéld. The mathematical difficulties were there by. much increased, while the physical difficulties showed no NO. VOL. 90] pole (0) 2 9927 tro} /E) f this becomes possible to rays the Hp of which :s only 1000, provided there is an equatorial ring of 140 times the earth’s radius, carrying a current of about 60 million amperes. The rays forming the ring are supposed to be quite distinct. Their value of Hp increases from 1oo when the ring’s radius is 1400 times the earth’s to 10° when the former radius is 14 times the latter. For a given size of ring, the distance from the mag- netic pole which rays coming from the sun can attain increases with the current in the ring. In the case of the largest angular distance considered in detail, 416°, the rays forming the ring and those coming from the 10° and the sun have both for their value of Hp, 40 NATURE [SEPTEMBER 12, 1912 current required in the ring is roo million amperes. The magnetic field due to this current at the earth’s surface is given as 681y, which represents a magnetic storm of the first order. In considering how the question is affected by the presence of the earth’s atmosphere, Stérmer inclines to the views of Wegener (while not com- mitting himself to the existence of a gas, “geo- coronium,” of one-fifth the density of hydrogen). At altitudes above 100 kilometres there is supposed to be no trace of anything but the lighter gases, especially hydrogen (and geocoronium, if it exists). In agreement with Lenard, Stérmer concludes that ordinary kathode rays coming from space would be absorbed in the upper hydrogen atmosphere before reaching the 100 kilometres level, that B-rays of radium would be absorbed in the nitrogen atmosphere at heights of 50 to 70 kilometres—a common altitude for the lower border of auroral “curtains ’—and that the rays forming the lowest aurora he has measured must have a greater pene- tration than f-rays. Fairly substantial evidence has been advanced by Paulsen and others that auroras in the auroral belt, especially in Green- land, sometimes come much below the lowest height, 36 kilometres, observed by Stérmer at Bossekop. This tends to support Birkeland’s latest views as to an enormously high velocity in the rays if they originate in the sun. On the other hand, there seems reason to accept Stérmer’s view that auroras seen in low latitudes are usually at considerably greater heights than those seen in the Arctic. Thus aurora in low latitudes would seem to arise from rays of less, not of higher, penetration than those in high latitudes, which seems inconsistent with Birkeland’s hypothesis. Stérmer’s mathematical work, like Birkeland’s, assumes the motion of the individual corpuscle to be unaffected by the presence of other corpuscles. This is one of the principal criticisms urged by Prof. Schuster,2 who concluded that the scattering inevitably produced is fatal to Birkeland’s theory, so far at least as magnetic storms are concerned. The same criticism would seem to apply, with at least equal force, to Stérmer’s theory. It would thus be of great interest to have Prof. Stérmer’s views on the validity of Prof. Schuster’s criticisms. Meantime, considering the calibre of the pro- tagonists, the prudent course seems to be to “ wait and see.” But whatever the fate of Stérmer’s theoretical work may be, his photographs .of aurora clearly constitute a fundamental advance towards exact knowledge. In temperate and southern Europe, aurora and large magnetic storms are both rare events, and their coincidence of occurrence seems the rule rather than the excep- tion. A total absence of physical connection between the two phenomena seems thus almost inconceivable. The careful intercomparison of measurements of aurora—rendered possible by Stérmer’s work—with contemporaneous records from magnetic observatories is clearly one of the most promising methods of getting at the root of the matter. C. CHREE. 2 Roy. Soc. Proc., A. 85, rgrr, p. 44. NO. 2237, VOL. 90| | PROF. THOMAS WINTER. | Bassas THOMAS WINTER, of the University College of North Wales, Bangor, whose ' death we recorded in our last issue, was the son of Mr. Thomas Winter, of Lotherton Park, Aberford, Leeds. Born in 1866, he was educated at the Darlington Grammar School under Dr. Wood, and afterwards proceeded to the University of Edinburgh, where in 1888 he graduated in arts with honours in natural science. On leaving the University he became a master at a Scarborough school, and later at the Norfolk County School at Dereham. The son of a successful practical farmer, and equipped with a university training in natural science, he was naturally attracted to the develop- ment of schools of agriculture in the provincial colleges and universities which marked the later decades of the last century. In 1891 he was appointed assistant lecturer in agriculture at the University College of North Wales, Bangor. In 1892 he accepted a similar appointment at the Yorkshire College, Leeds, as it then was, but returned in 1894 to Bangor as head of the depart- ment of agriculture, a post which he occupied for the next eighteen years. It is thus in North Wales that his life-work chiefly lay, and where the stimulus which he gave to the cause of agricultural education will be longest felt. The work of a school of agriculture has its internal and external sides. On the internal side courses of instruction have to be provided with a view to certificates, diplomas, and degrees. On the external side the agricultural community within the area served by the school has to be considered, and extension lectures, field experi- ments, and instruction in dairy-work have to be provided for the benefit of those who cannot reach the college. In both these aspects of the work of his chair, Prof. Winter achieved a rare success. Within the University of Wales his sound judgment contributed to the framing of the existing scheme of instruction for the degree in agriculture and rural economy, the marked feature of which is the requisition of an adequate acquaintance with the pure sciences, prior to the study of their applications to agriculture. It was also to Prof. Winter’s fostering care that the chair of forestry was established at Bangor. In’ the’ external work of the department his gift, of.organisation, and his tact and. good sense have greatly contributed to the remova of the distrust. of agricultural education among old-fashioned. farmers. Not the least contribu- tion to-this end was his successful management of a college farm, where experiments in cropping and breeding have been carried out, and where the visits of farmers and their sons and daughters have always been welcomed. Prof. Winter’s death while still in the prime of life will be greatly deplored by his colleagues on the senates of his college and university, by his former pupils scattered in many parts of the world, and not least among the farmers of the North Welsh counties. SEPTEMBER 12, 1912] NATURE 41 THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION AT DUNDEE. ES is often pointed out that the meetings of the British Association can never be so important in the future in the estimation of the public as they were in the past. First, because there used to be only one yearly congress attracting general attention; now there are many, and any such meeting is a great expense to a town. Secondly, the most important function of the meeting, the temporary creation of an interest in natural science, is less wanted, because everybody now takes an interest in science, and almost every city now visited has a science college where evening lectures are given. Thirdly, the disappearance of the pioneers of the Huxley type, whose names were well known outside scientific circles. Fourthly, the death of that interest which used to be excited by the quarrel between science and religion. The Dundee meeting shows that the British Association excites as much interest, not merely among scientific men, but in the general public, as it has ever done in the past. In the hotels here there is still hanging a notice of some weeks ago referring to the expectation that the member- ship of this meeting may reach 1200 in number. As I write, the number is more than 2460, a number greater than that of the members of the Dundee meeting of forty-five years ago, which is often referred to as a great meeting. There has been a little grumbling that there were some hundreds of members who could not get seats for the president’s address and some of the evening lectures. Naturally, the local secretaries are blamed, but they have the valid excuse that nobody could have expected the meet- ing to be so successful as to numbers, and they were probably afraid that the hall provided might actually be too large. Much of the success of a British Association meeting is due to the recognition by the local authorities that some one man of great energy and knowledge and tact and good humour must devote himself to its organisation for eighteen months beforehand. Large subscriptions of money are wanted; en- thusiasm must be created and maintained in an army of hard-working members of committees. Nobody denies that it is to Prof. D’Arey Thompson that the enormous success of this meeting is due. Everybody knows the grumbling which in some irritable members is sometimes very loud, when they meet with slight inconveniences. Whether it is that the arrangements are more perfect than usual or that members are in better temper, I do not know, but there is certainly less than the usual amount of complaint. Almost everybody expected the weather to be bad. Except that we had rather windy weather for a day, and some occasional threats of rain which came to nothing, the weather has been very good. The hotel accommodation is not great for so important a town, but there is much private hospitality, and on the whole the physical com- forts of the visitors are better looked after than NO. 2237, VOL. 90] a person acquainted with Dundee could anticipated. At every meeting of the British Association it is found by the visitors that most of the good reserved seats for the presidential address are booked by local people before the first day of the meeting. It is probable that the pressure of the local desire for seats is always too great for the resistance of the local secretaries. The conse- quent heartburning has been greater than usual this year, because the number of members so largely exceeds all expectation. The success of a meeting depends greatly on the attention paid to certain details some of which might seem unimportant. First, the re- ception room should be large, and should have such ample accommodation of many kinds that members, when there, shall feel almost as if they were in a club. It ought to be in a central posi- tion, as near as possible to the most frequented section. It is essential that the meetings of the council and general committee and the committee of recommendations should be held in some neigh- bouring place, if not in the same building. Secondly, there are now twelve sections, and meet- ing rooms must be provided for each of them, each with its committee room, and sometimes one section may split up into two or three. These rooms must all be large and conveniently arranged, because changes cannot be made near the time of the meeting, and any of the sections may turn out to be exceedingly popular, and be unexpectedly well attended. Thirdly, although there are many members who wish to attend only one section, and the Recorders try to keep papers of one particular kind of interest to one section, on any one day, a member always finds that there are papers interesting to him in two or more sections, and he desires to hear them. It is therefore important to have facilities for getting rapidly from one section to another. I am now speaking of the scientific members. But besides these, the non-scientific people must be thought about, the people who divide their atten- tion over all the sections, and who desire to hear as many interesting papers as possible on quite diverse subjects. It is evident that the best of all cities for a British Association meeting is one which can house all the twelve sections and reception room in one great building or in a few large buildings which are close together. But as this is generally impossible, the best com- promise is to place the sections near one another in groups of allied subjects. It is evident that great attention has been paid to this most im- portant idea at Dundee, and, considering the accommodation of the town, it is impossible to suggest a change for the better. The sections for mathematics and_ physics, chemistry and engineering, are in the University College buildings, not too easily reached from the reception room, a fifteen minutes’ walk or by infre- quent tram-car; with these we have zoology and physiology. The College buildings are well away from the other groups. One other such group is of geology, botany, and agriculture; have 42 NATURE [SEPTEMBER I2, 1912 another is geography and anthropology; another is economics and education, and, except the College group, they are all quite near the reception room. No matter what arrangements had been made, there must have been inconyeni- ence for some members. It is now difficult for a man whose chief interest is in physiology to hear a botany paper, or for a man interested in mathematics or physics or chemistry to hear an education paper, but I have heard much less complaint about such matters than I have ever heard before at a British Association meeting. The presidential address is usually rather a disappointment to a general audience, many of whom cannot hear, and the subject is often of only special interest to some scientific people. On this occasion the voice of the president was low but penetrating, and I never remember an occasion since the time of Tyndall when one felt so strongly that there was subdued but intense feeling in the audience. When at length the Lord Provost sprung upon the meeting the hitherto carefully hidden fact that Dr. Caird had made us a gift of 10,000l., there was a thrill through the audience which made itself immediately manifest. Satisfaction and delight were to be expected on the faces of the visitors, but it might have been expected that Dundee people would not altogether like to see so large a benefaction leaving their town. But, as a matter of fact, the pride already felt by the local people in the acknowledged success of the meeting was augmented in a won- derful manner, and there was only delighted satis- faction in their faces and congratulation in their language. The feeling of the more permanent members of the association is soberly expressed in the remarks of the treasurer when he proposed the vote of thanks to Dr. Caird at the meeting of the general committee. As for the scientific work, I can only speak as one member attending sections A and G. The presidents’ addresses and the reading of papers have so far been well attended by mathematicians, physicists, and engineers, as well as by the ordinary members. A joint discussion between these sections on unsolved problems in wireless telegraphy was so well maintained and so in- teresting that when Lord Rayleigh was speaking, one thought at once of the possible return of the older times when Kelvin or Fitzgerald suddenly illuminated our proceedings. From men attend- ing the other sections I have heard so far only of successful sectional meetings. There is no doubt that much more than the average number of members capable of speech and interested in the scientific work of the Association are present at this meeting of the British Association. Joun PERRY. At the meeting of the general committee on Friday, September 6, it was unanimously resolved ‘‘ That the best thanks of the British Association be expressed to Dr. J. K. Caird for his most generous gift to the Association.”” Speaking to the motion, Prof. Perry, the general treasurer, said:—‘‘This is the only gift of money that the British Association has ever received. iO, 2237, VOL. 90] It is greatly needed. In my eight years of office as treasurer the nominal assets of our Association have neither increased nor diminished. I have made the fat years of our visits to large cities make up for the lean years of our visits to smaller towns. But although our nominal wealth is the same, our actual wealth is less because of the depreciation of Consols and our other investments. “There are two great functions of the British Asso- ciation. One is to stir up all the people of this Empire occasionally to take an interest in scientific discovery and research of. all kinds; the other is less known. It is perhaps the treasurer of the British Association who knows better than anybody else the enormous importance of the work that is done every year by the committees appointed by the various sec- tions to make scientific researches during the ensuing year. “Groups of men of the highest scientific attainments and reputation give their time and enthusiasm to the work, and they only ask that quite a small part of their out-of-pocket expenses shall be paid. I know of no work in the world that is so important or that is so little known. ‘“Every year your treasurer meets the Committee of Recommendations, each section strong in its reason for getting money, and. yet the aggregate amount asked for is so much above our means. It really goes to my heart every year to limit the supply of money, and my colleagues here, the secretaries, blame me every year because I give more money than I ought. I particularly feel for the biological committees. I know nothing of biology, but I know of the enormous importance of the worls done by the biological com- mittees ; and these biological people can get no outside money. If I want money for any important scientific object relating to physics or engineering, I know at once where to apply for a few hundreds or even many hundreds of pounds, and I get it readily, for men have become rich through engineering. But the biologicat people seem to have no outside pecuniary resources. I am, however, glad to think that this gift is not earmarked in any way. It is generous and uncon- ditional. “Gentlemen, your treasurer assures you that this splendid gift of Dr. Caird will return him more interest than all the other benefactions.” At the same meeting of the general committee, Sir William White, K.C.B.; F.R.S., was elected President for the meeting of the Association to be held at Birmingham next year from September 10 to Sep- tember 17. The following have been appointed Vice- Presidents of this meeting :—The Right Hon. the Lord Mayor of Birmingham, the Lord Lieutenant of War- wickshire (the Most Hon. the Marquess of Northamp- ton), the High Sheriff of Warwickshire, the Lord Lieutenant. of Worcestershire (the Right Hon. the Earl of Coverltry), the Lord Lieutenant of Stafford- shire (the Right Hon. the Earl of Dartmouth, V.D.), the Right Rev. the Lord Bishop of Birmingham, the Chancellor of the University of Birmingham (the Right Hon. J. Chamberlain, M.P.), the Vice-Chan- cellor of the University of Birmingham, the Principal of the University of Birmingham (Sir Oliver Lodge, F.R.S.), the Hon. President of the Birmingham Chamber of Commerce (the Right Hon. Jesse Collings, M.P.), Alderman the Right Hon. William Henricls, J.P., the Deputy Lord Mayor of Birmingham, Prof. J. H. Poynting, F.R.S., Prof. C. Lapworth, F.R.S. Local officers :—Treasurers, Alderman Sir G. H. Kenrick and Councillor Neville Chamberlain, J.P. ; secretaries, Prof. F. W. Gamble, Mr. Howard Heaton, Mr. John Humphreys, and Mr. W. Byng Kenrick. SEPTEMBER 12, 1912] NATURE 43 SECTION B. CHEMISTRY. OPENING ADDRESS BY Pror, A. SENIER, Pu.D., M.D., D.Sc., PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. I Am sure it will be agreeable to the feelings of the members of this section that, before beginning my address, I should refer to the great losses we have sustained by death since our gathering last year at Portsmouth. An active member and past-president has passed away in the death of Edward Divers, after a serious operation, undergone at his advanced age with char- acteristic fortitude. His devotion of his long life, in this country and Japan, to the advancement and dif- fusion of science is indelibly inscribed in its records. But Divers was more than an investigator and teacher; he was a beloved centre of our social life, and was particularly happy when he could bridge over the distance between the young beginner in research and the older experienced master. He understood and had the sympathy of both. In Henry Forbes Julian, one of the victims of the awful disaster to the Titanic, we have lost a valued contributor to our proceedings; though he was best known as a geologist and metallurgical engineer. It was, however, by chemistry, under the inspiring in- fluence of Sir Henry Roscoe, that his first enthusiasm for science was aroused. Forbes Julian was a leading technical adviser in mining undertakings, and _ his advice was much sought after, especially in South Africa, and even in Germany. Another tragedy, from the shock of which we have not yet recovered, has deprived science of the young and promising inquirer, Humphrey Owen Jones. We know the dreadful details—he and his young wife— how they became sacrifices to the treacherous crags and snows of Mont Blanc. And this, alas, is not all. On the very day of the fatal accident to Humphrey Jones, another young and promising chemist—John Wade—passed from us from the effects of a cycling accident. He was an inquirer of singular ability, and found time also to give us one of our deservedly most popular manuals of organic chemistry. Part I. The Nature and Method of Chemistry. Perhaps there is no intellectual occupation which demands more of the faculty of imagination than the pursuit of chemistry, and perhaps also there is none which responds more generously to the yearnings of the inquirer. It is surely no commonplace occurrence that in experimental laboratories day by day the mys- terious recesses of Nature are disclosed and facts previously quite unknown are brought to light. ‘The late Sir Michael Foster, in his presidential address at the Dover meeting, said :—‘‘ Nature is ever making signs to us, she is ever whispering the beginnings of her secrets.” The facts disclosed may have general importance, and necessitate at once changes in the general body of theory; and happily, also, they may at once find useful application in the hands of the technologist. Recent examples are the discoveries in radio-activity, which have found an important place as an aid to medical and surgical diagnosis and as a method of treatment, and have also led to the neces- sity of our revising one of the fundamental doctrines of the theory of chemistry—the indivisibility of atoms. But the facts disclosed may not be general or even seem important; they may appear isolated and to have no appreciable bearing on theory or practice—our journals are crowded with such—but he would be a bold man who would venture to predict that the future will not find use for them in both respects. To be the NO. 2237, VOL. 90] recipient of the confidences of Nature; to realise in all their virgin freshness new facts recognised as positive additions to knowledge, is certainly a great and wonderful privilege, one capable of inspiring enthusiasm as few other things can. While the method of discovery in chemistry may be described, generally, as inductive, still all the modes of inference which have come down to us from Aristotle, analogical, inductive and deductive, are freely made use of. A hypothesis is framed which is then tested, directly or indirectly, by observation and experiment. All the skill, all the resource the inquirer can command, is brought into his service; his worl: must be accurate; and with unqualified devotion to truth he abides by the result, and the hypothesis is established, and becomes part of the theory of science, or is rejected or modified. In framing or modifying hypotheses imagination is indispensable. It may be that the power of imagination is necessarily limited by what is previously in experience—that imagination cannot transcend experience; but it does not follow, therefore, that it cannot construct hypotheses capable of leading research. I take it that what imagination actually does is—it rearranges experience and puts it into new relations, and with each successive discovery it gains in material for this process. In this respect the framing of a hypothesis is like experimenting, wherein the operator brings matter and energy already existing in Nature into new relations, new circumstances, with the object of getting new results. The stronger the imaginative power, the greater must be the chance of success. The Times, ina recent leading article on Science and Imagination, says :—‘It has often been said that the great scientific discoverers ... see a new truth before they prove it, and the process of proof is only a demonstration of the truth to others and a confirmation of it to their own reason.” While never forgetting the essentially tentative nature of a hypothesis, still, until it has been tested and found wanting, there should be some confidence or faith in its truthfulness; for nothing but a belief in its eventual success can serve to sustain an inquirer’s ardour when, as so often happens, he is met by diffi- culties well-nigh insuperable. In a well-known pas- sage Faraday says:—‘The world little knows how many of the thoughts and theories which have passed through the mind of a scientific investigator have been crushed in silence and secrecy by his own severe criticism and adverse examination; that in the most successful instances not a tenth of the suggestions, the hopes, the wishes, the preliminary conclusions have been realised.” But a hypothesis to be useful, to be admitted as a candidate for rank as a scientific theory, must be capable of immediate, or at least of possible, verifica- tion. Many years ago, in the old Berlin laboratory in the Georgenstrasse, when our imaginations were wont, as sometimes happened, to soar too far above the working benches, our great leader used to say :—‘‘I will listen readily to any suggested hypothesis, but on one condition—that you show me a method by which it can be tested.” As a rule, I confess we had to return to the workaday world, to our bench experi- ments. No one felt the importance of the careful and correct employment of hypotheses more than Liebig. In his Faraday lecture Hofmann says of Liebig :— “Tf he finds his speculation to be in contradiction with recognised facts, he endeavours to set these facts aside by new experiments, and failing to do so he drops the speculation.’ Again, he gives an illustra- tion of how on one occasion, not being able to divest himself of a hypothesis, he missed the discovery of the element bromine. While at Kreuznach he made an investigation of the mother-liquor of the well- |‘ known salt, and obtained a considerable quantity of 44 a heavy red liquid which he believed to be a chloride of iodine. He found the properties to be different in many respects from chloride of iodine; still, he was able to satisfy all his doubts, and he put the liquid aside. Some months later he received Balard’s paper announcing the discovery of bromine, which he recog- nised at once as the red liquid which he had previously prepared and studied. Thus, though imagination is indispensable to a chemist, and though I think chemists should be, and let us hope are, poets, or at least possess the poetic temperament, still, little can be achieved without a thorough laboratory training ; and he who discovers an improved experimental method or a new differentiating reaction is as surely contributing to the advancement of science as he who creates in his imagination the most beautiful and promising hypothesis. It may never be possible to trace in civilisation’s early records the exact period and place of the origin and beginnings of our science, but the historical student has been led, it appears to me, by a sure instinct to search for this in such lands of imagina- tive story as ancient Egypt and Arabia. For is there anything more fittingly comparable with the mar- vellous experiences of a chemical laboratory than the wonderful and fascinating stories that have come down to us in ‘‘ The Arabian Nights’’? Those monuments of poetic building of which Burton, in the introduc- tion to his great translation, says that in times of official exile in less-favoured lands, in the wilds of Africa and America, he was lifted in imagination by the jinn out of his dull surroundings, and was borne off by him to his beloved Arabia, where under diaphanous skies he would see again ‘“‘the evening star hanging like a golden lamp from the pure front of the western firmament; the after-glow transfigur- ing and transforming as by magic the gazelle-brown and tawny-clay tints and the homely and rugged features of the scene into a fairyland lit with a light which never shines on other soils for seas. Then would appear,’”? &c. I cannot help thinking that the study of such books as this, the habit of exercising the imagination by reconstructing the scenes of beauty and enchantment which they describe, might do much to strengthen and sharpen the imaginative faculty, and greatly increase its efficiency as an indispensable tool in the hands of the pioneer who seeks to extend the boundaries of knowledge. The Times, in the leading article already quoted, says that, as with a Shakespeare, “‘it is the same with imaginative dis- coverers in science. . . . But the faculty is not merely a fairy gift that can be exercised without pains. As the sense of right is trained by right action, so the sense of truth is trained by right thinking and by all the labour which it involves. That is as true of the artist as of the man of science; and one of the greatest achievements of science has been to prove this fact and so to justify the imagination and distinguish it from fancy.” Again, let it not be forgotten that chemistry in its highest sense—that is, in its most general and useful sense—is purely a world of the imagination, is purely conceptual. And in addition to this, moreover, it is based, like all science, on the underlying assumption of the uniformity of Nature, an assumption incapable of proof. If we think of the science as a body of abstract general theory, and exclude for the moment from our purview its innumerable practical applica- tions, and also all special individual facts not yet known to be related to general theory, then what remains are the more or less general facts or laws. These it is which give the power of prediction in newly arising cases of a similar character; the power of foresight by which the claim of chemistry to its position as a science is justified. Chemistry, as such, NO. 2237, VOL. 90] NATURE [SEPTEMBER 12, IQI2 i. . - . . . is a complicated ideal structure of the imagination, a gigantic fairy palace, and, be it noted, can only con- tinue to exist so long as there are minds capable of reproducing it. Think of all the speculation—and speculation too of the highest utility when translated into concrete applications—about the internal struc- ture of molecules. I venture to say that the most magnificent creations of the world’s greatest archi- tects are not more elaborate or more beautiful or more fairylike than the chemist’s conception of intra- molecular structure and the magical transformations of which molecules are capable; and yet no one has had direct sensuous experience of any molecule or atom, or possibly ever will. It is well from time to time to recall these truths and realise where we are. But although the conceptual nature of science is un- questionable, it certainly contains truth in some form as tested by deductive concrete realisation, by correct- ness of prediction, and during the last century or two has undoubtedly given to man a mastery over Nature never before dreamt of. A Brief Historical Retrospect. The foundations of chemistry, as we now know it, were laid under the influence, the guidance, of three great theories: first, the theory of the alchemists of the transmutation of metals by means of the philo- sopher’s stone; second, the theory of phlogiston, con- nected so much with the names of Becher and Stahl, which held sway for some two centuries; third, the theory of combustion, the quantitative period of chemistry, inaugurated by the great Scottish chemist Black by his introduction of the balance. How this’ led to a veritable renascence of chemistry in the hands of Lavoisier and the other giants of that stirring period—the close of the eighteenth and commence- ment of the nineteenth centuries—is well known. Looking back at the warfare which was waged about these older theories, for and against them, one realises’ now that there were elements of truth on both sides; for have we not in the work of Sir William Ramsay and others the revival of transmutation, and does not the essential truth of phlogiston survive in the modern doctrine of heat? In one of Dr. Johnson’s letters to Boswell there is a curious reference to transmutation. He says that a learned Russian had at last suc- ceeded, but, fearing the consequences to society, he had died without revealing the secret. After the discovery of oxygen and the beginnings of quantitative chemistry, the science was ready for Dalton’s great discoveries respecting combination by weight; the corresponding discoveries by Gay-Lussac on combination of gases by volume, and, through the latter, for Avogadro’s famous hypothesis. Dalton had indeed, by reviving an old Greek suggestion, pro- posed to explain his discoveries by his atomic theory, but neither this nor our molecular theory, though the latter was inherent in the laws of gaseous combina- tion of Gay-Lussac and in Avogadro’s hypothesis, was finally put upon its present basis until Can- nizzaro took up the subject half a century later. Mean- while Dulong and Petit had completed their studies of atomic heat, and Mitscherlich had pointed out the relation between isomorphism and molecular structure. When it is considered how little is known of solid or liquid structure, and that our present knowledge of molecules is only of gaseous molecules, it is fortunate that these methods of study of solids are available. The same may be said of the results of the work of Kopp and his successors on molecular volumes. Of other aids to fixing our conception of molecules and atoms I need only refer to the periodic law, the studies of the properties of dilute solutions, of electro- lytic dissociation, and of surface tension of liquids. Liebig, in his first inquiry, begun before he went SEPTEMBER 12, 1912] NATURE 45 to Gay-Lussac in Paris, proved that silver fulminate and silver cyanate, though distinct substances, had exactly the same composition; thus was opened that great chapter in the history of chemistry which Berzelius named isomerism. Perhaps nothing in chemistry has given rise in recent years to more intel- lectual and practical activity than isomerism. Wohler’s classical synthesis of urea, by the metastasis of ammonium cyanate, added another instance of isomerism, and Berzelius soon afterwards announced the isomerism of tartaric and racemic acids. Wohler’s synthesis of urea, followed, as it was, by numerous other laboratory syntheses, showed that substances which occur in living organisms are not different from those which may be prepared artificially, and the old distinction between inorganic and organic chemistry disappeared—there is, of course, only one chemistry. The words, it is true, have survived, but only for reasons of practical convenience. After isomerism the next great step forward in the study of intra-molecular structure was the discovery of groups partially individualised which are capable of remaining intact through many reactions. Gay- Lussac had previously noticed the cyanogen group as common to cyanides; but it was the celebrated paper by Wohler and Liebig on the radical of benzoic acid which finally established the existence of com- pound radicals or groups such as benzoyl, and ob- tained for the theory of compound radicals the posi- tion in chemistry it now holds. Bunsen followed somewhat later with the discovery of cacodyl, and now such groups are almost innumerable. In many respects, by the experimental skill which it shows, the clearness of its logical method, and the beauty of its form and diction, this memoir is a model of what a scientific communication should be. I will read the opening paragraph, using Hofmann’s translation :— ““When a chemist is fortunate enough to encounter, in the darksome field of organic nature, a bright point affording him guidance to the true path by following which he may hope to explore the unknown region, he has good reason to congratulate himself, even though he may be conscious of being still far from the desired goal.” Of this memoir Berzelius, in a letter quoted by Hofmann (Faraday lecture), says :—‘‘ The facts put forward by you give rise to such considerations that they may well be regarded as the dawn of a new day in vegetal (organic) chemistry.” The history of the advance of chemistry since the days of the Giessen laboratory is bewildering in its extent. This has been largely due to the Giessen laboratory itself, which sent trained investigators, each carrying with him some touch of its master’s magic, into all civilised lands. I cannot attempt to even catalogue the results here. One thing may be said, that chemistry is not worked out, as some have thought; but rather the opportunities of discovery seem greater and more promising than at any previous period. Parr If. Sub-atoms, Atoms, Molecules, Molecular Aggregates; Valency. Whether in the light of recent researches it may become necessary to give up that portion of Dalton’s theory of atoms in which he regards them as un- decomposable and indivisible; or whether we may consider them, as Prout suggested a hundred years ago, as different aggregates of sub-atoms of a uniform kind of matter; or whether they must be regarded as complexes built in the manner supposed by the electron hypothesis; also what should be our attitude towards the related problem of transmutation—all this I pass over, the more willingly that these subjects were discussed so recently by so high an authority NO. 2237, VOL. 90| as Sir William Ramsay in his address to the Associa- tion last year at Portsmouth. I assume that we are fairly satisfied with our present atoms and their respective weights, and this no matter how the atoms are constructed, and that we shall be satisfied with them so long as they disport themselves in chemical changes as indivisible entities. And further, | assume that we are satisfied with our molecules and their respective weights, as determined by the application of Avogadro’s hypothesis. Whether the molecular weight is obtained by direct determina- tion of gaseous density or by taking advantage of the properties of dilute solutions, in either case the molecular weight which results is the weight of a supposed gaseous molecule, for the latter method depends for its justification on the former. All our molecular weights are weights of molecules in the gaseous state or are supposed to be; they are not necessarily applicable to liquids, and much less to solids: solids and liquids may well consist of far more complex particles. Gradually the central problem of chemistry has become more and more the study of internal structure of molecules—of gaseous molecules. The enormous number and variety of the compounds of carbon, with which so many workers have enriched the science during the last hundred years, and the special adapt- ability of these compounds to the experimental study of molecular structure, have led investigators to make use of them rather than of the so-called inorganic compounds: thus out of inquiries into the intra- molecular structure of these compounds arose and were developed the theories of types of Gerhardt, William- son, and Kekulé. These are now, however, looked upon more as aspects of the general problem. More fruitful has been the study of the compound radicals or individualised groups of Wohler and Liebig. But gradually these molecular structures have been regarded, in agreement with the views of Dumas, as complete wholes; like fairy temples, which from different points of view show different parts in relief, accentuating, it may be, this or that column or frieze or pediment. Kekulé’s brilliant and suggestive theory of chain compounds and ring compounds did more than any other theory to guide and stimulate research in chemistry in recent times. Like Gay-Lussac’s theory of gaseous combination, though built in the first place only upon a few facts, this theory has proved true of the thousands of others with which we have since become acquainted; there seems indeed to be a need of a new psychology to account for such truly marvellous foresight as is here exhibited. The atoms forming these varied structures were, however, regarded as being arranged in a plane, until the great discoveries of Pasteur made it necessary for chemists to extend their conceptions and to frame hypotheses of three dimensions. Thus have arisen in the hands of Le Bel and van’t Hoff and others our modern theories of stereo-chemistry. When isomerism occurs in an element Berzelius names it allotropy. It seems to me that now, when molecules of the elements do not differ essentially from molecules of compounds, there is no longer any distinctive meaning in the term, and that it might well be abandoned. I would like also to male another suggestion respecting nomenclature : that when we distinguish ring compounds as cyclic we might appropriately adopt the word hormathic (from the Greek word for a chain or a row) for chain compounds. But in order to understand the linking of atoms in these molecular edifices some combining value had to be assigned to the different atoms. This idea of valency of the atoms was, no doubt, implied in Gerhardt’s theory of types; but it did not gain much attention until later, when Frankland and Kolbé 46 NATURE [SEPTEMBER 12, IQI2 formulated an empirical theory of variable valency. Kekulé thought that atoms could not vary in their valency; but the alternative formule which he put forward to explain cases of difficulty would appear to be, rather, an attempted explanation of variable valency. It might be more correct to say that Kekulé’s formul constitute an anticipation of Werner’s theory of auxiliary valencies, the theory which seems to find most favour at the present day. Fixed valency can scarcely now be defended, in view of the existence of such compounds, for example, as the two fluorides and the two chlorides of phosphorus; the two oxides of carbon, ammonia and ammonium chloride; and, for example, the two series of compounds respectively of iron, mercury, and copper. Variable valency of atoms is, empirically at least, an establish fact. By the latest conceptions of variable atomic valency and its extension almost without limit—so that, for example, oxygen may be regarded as quadrivalent and even sexivalent—no doubt the existence of numerous compounds which previously presented difficulties can be explained. There are, however, others long known to chemists, such as double salts and the combination of water with salts, formerly called ** molecular compounds,” definite and individual, in which these views do not assist us. These com- pounds do not exist as gases, and unless they admit of experimental study by the methods of dilute solu- tion, even their gaseous molecular weights cannot. be ascertained. It is noteworthy that in most of the instances recently investigated where variable valency has been assumed the compounds studied have been easily decomposable solids or liquids, and for one reason or another their gaseous molecular weights could not be determined. Many of these compounds, indeed, only exist at low temperatures. As instances of work of this kind I may mention Collie and Tickle on quadrivalent oxygen in dimethylpyrone derivatives ; Gomberg on triphenylmethyl; Landolf on acetone di- hydrofluoride; Thiele and Peter on methyl-iodo- dichloride; and similar studies by Kehrmann, Will- statter and Iglauer, Bulow and Sicherer, Baeyer and Villiger, Archibald and McIntosh, Chattaway, Pfeiffer and Truskier, and others. Another most interesting class of solids which are capable of existing in two isomeric forms distinguished from each other by such physical properties as density or colour are the Schiff’s basis or anils. Some of these were studied by Hantzsch, who proposed to explain their existence by the Hantzsch-Werner stereo hypothesis :— HO.C,Hy.CH HC.C,H,OH Kr’ vee But since only a few, and these not very satisfactory, compounds show this isomerism, which do not con- tain the hydroxyl group, other suggestions have been put forward to account for the isomerism, by Ansel- mino and by Manchot. In my own laboratory, associated with Mr. F. G. Shepheard and also with Miss Rosalind Clarke, I have made a study of various Schiff’s bases for the purpose of investigating the remarkable property which some of these bases exhibit of phototropy. By phototropy is meant the capability of reversible change of colour in solids depending upon the presence or absence of light. Incidentally, too, I wished to study another physical property which many Schiff’s bases possess, in common with other substances, of reversible change of colour with raising or lowering of temperature. This property we have called thermotropy, and’ many old instances will be remembered of substances of simpler constitution which exhibit it: thus, when NO. 2237, VOL. 90] = subjected to the temperature of solid carbon dioxide, ordinary sulphur becomes colourless, red oxide of mer- cury becomes yellow, vermilion becomes scarlet, and on return to the ordinary temperature the original colours reappear. As has been pointed out in a recent communication by Biilman, it is most important in these discussions that we should be perfectly clear in the use of terms, I take it for granted that isomerism is a general term for compounds differing in some respect but having the same composition. If the molecules (gaseous) have the same weights they are metamerides; if of different weights they are polymerides, When solids crystallise in more than one form they are polymorphous. Now it does not seem reasonable to suppose that reversible colour changes such as those exhibited by phototropes or thermotropes involye such violent intra-molecular changes as the breaking and reconnecting of atomic linkages. For example, take the three bases, salicylidene-m-toluidine, which in the dark or imme- diately it is exposed to light is yellow, but on continued exposure to light quickly becomes orange, and changes back again to its original colour in the dark; salicylidene-m-aminophenol, which at ordinary temperatures is orange, but is much paler at the temperature of solid carbon dioxide, on raising the temperature to nearly the melting-point (128°9°) becomes orange red, and these changes take place in the reverse order again on _ cooling; salicylidene-p-aminobenzoic acid, studied by our- selves and by Manchot and Furlong indepen- dently, shows a wider range of thermotropic change between bright yellow and blood-red, and is also phototropic. To explain such changes as these and the others of a similar nature previously referred to, I think some less drastic hypothesis should be sought than intra-molecular breaking, and consequent meta- stasis or polymerisation. Though doubtless the hypo- thesis of Hantzsch and Werner could be invoked, or the modified hypotheses of Manchot or Anselmino, I think there should be some simpler explanation. Someone suggests polymorphism. Now polymorphism means that a change of crystalline form takes place which might doubtless connote change of colour. If one watches phototropic crystals changing colour under the influence of light from yellow to red, and notices that after remaining in the dark the same crystals have changed back to the original colour, and, remember, that these changes can be repeated with the same crystals apparently without limit, it will not be considered likely that this pheno- menon depends 'on a reversible change of crystalline form, In a communication to the Chemical Society some three years ago Mr. Shepheard and I put forward the following suggestion :—‘t Evidence is accumulat- ing of reversible isomeric reactions, like those described in this paper, which are indicated by physical differ- ences, such as changes of colour. It is possible that these may be explained by hypotheses, similar to that of Hantzsch and Werner, assuming intra-molecular rearrangement; but in the case of phototropy and thermotropy it should not be forgotten that the sub- stances exhibiting these phenomena are solids. No one will doubt, however, that these differences of colour depend on isomeric change of some kind, but in the case of solids we know practically nothing of their molecules, not even of their relative molecular weights. The molecules of solids are probably far more com- plex than those of liquids or gases; indeed, they may be rather complex groups or aggregates of ordinary gaseous molecules, which would give rise to far more numerous possibilities of isomerism. It appears to us that phototropic and thermotropic reactions are more probably due to isomeric changes affecting the aggregation of molecules in solids than to intra- SEPTEMBER 12, I912| NATURE 47 molecular change of molecules derived from a study of gases.” It seems to me that just as atoms may be structures built of sub-atoms of some kind, and just as molecules of gases are built of atoms variously linked together, it is reasonable to conceive that molecules might combine to form aggregates, particularly when con- stituting solids; that as the sub-atoms may be con- ceived to haye a combining valency—and the atoms are already accredited with this property, and in addi- tion, as is supposed with Thiele’s partial or Werner’s auxiliary valencies—molecules may have valencies also’ whereby to combine into molecular aggregates. It may be presumed that such aggregates are more complicated in structure, and thus may give rise to greater variety of isomerides, and be more readily transmutable than gaseous molecules. If such aggre- gates of gaseous molecules exist they might explain not only the easily changed isomerides recently studied, but also the large class of ‘‘molecular compounds”’ of the older chemists. I imagine someone saying that in suggesting this hypothesis—which by the way is not new, for it is mentioned in Ostwald’s ‘* Outlines ’—I am violating the canon to which I have myself sub- scribed, as a condition of a scientific hypothesis, that it should be verifiable. Perhaps we carry our critical faculty sometimes too far. It is most highly scientific to doubt, but doubt which is merely destructive has little value; rather, with Descartes, it should lead on to construction, for he who builds even imperfectly is better than he who simply destroys. And I do not doubt that some way will be found to study solids and obtain data that will lead to the determination of their molecular aggregate weights. The study of molecular volumes of solid solutions; the remarkable results obtained by Pope and Barlow; Tutton’s work on erystallography, and much besides, induce the hope that some day solids, like gases, will find their Avogadro. Parr III. Pursuit of Chemistry Justified by its Useful Applicability. In the pursuit of all this abstract theory, and still more so in the bewildering multitude of undigested individual facts, there is danger that important and fundamental, even moral, considerations may be lost sight of. For example, take the fundamental ques- tion: Why should we pursue chemistry? No doubt it is considered by its votaries, those who seek in our laboratories to advance the science, that they are entitled to have provided for them, and will be rewarded by the provision of, the ordinary means of livelihood; but these, it will- scarcely be denied, could generally be far better assured by other pursuits. It is suggested that intellectual discipline is a reason; but, I ask, for what purpose? Will anyone pretend that intellectual discipline’ without “utilitarian object, without the possibility of using it for the betterment of society, is a worthy pursuit? JI think not. But, in any case, none of us have devoted ourselves to chemistry merely for the sharpening of our wits. Again, someone suggests that chemistry and learning generally should be pursued for their own sake. In a recent most interesting and inspiring academic address? Prof. Sir Walter Raleigh commends ‘those who seelx nothing from. knowledge but the pleasure of understanding.” If such a statement bears its most obvious meaning then, I venture to think that, in common with intellectual discipline without the intention of applying to a useful object the intellect so trained, such a reason is selfish, inadequate, and unworthy, and does not justify the pursuit of any- thing. No; research in chemistry apart from the 1 ‘*The Meaning ofa University."" (Clarendon Press, 1911.) NO. VOL. 90] 22373 possibility of applying it to the advantage of humanity cannot be defended. The mastery of the seemingly unlimited resources of -Nature which chemistry achieves more and more and its use to alleviate the misery and add to the happiness of mankind are the only worthy and effective defence. And that this is the underlying ideal, in point of fact, that leads the chemist onward, not necessarily that he is always conscious of it, but always when he reflects, I think cannot be doubted. But, of course, no narrow idea of utility must be aimed at. Practically any chemical inquiry may. lead to results of material advantage. Certainly nothing could be more mischievous than to make a narrow immediate utility the test, It would be easy to illustrate all this from the records of science, but instances in point are so well known that it is unnecessary. On the other hand, it should not be forgotten that in making use of the manifold advantages derived from the growth of science, humanity, on its part, owes a great debt to scientific inquirers, and ought to feel it a sacred duty to do in return all in its power by support and encouragement to further scientific research. As Sir Walter Raleigh, in the address already referred to, says:—‘‘It is so easy to use the resources of civilisation that we fall into the habit of regarding them as if they were ours by right. They are not ours by right; they come to us by free gift from the thinkers.” Some Concrete Applications of the Science, That this advantage to civilisation has been, and is, the result of the pursuit and consequent advance of chemistry is. happily a truth that is well known, There is scarcely an industry or a profession that has not been materially influenced or even created by the discoveries of chemistry, and therefore the welfare of nations is most intimately concerned in promoting its advancement. Now, it is common knowledge that no country has appreciated this to the same degree as Germany. It will, therefore, be worth our while to consider a moment the inauguration in Berlin, a year ago, of an entirely new institution, the Kaiser Wilhelm Institut, for the promotion and organisation of chemical research. This research is to be effected throughout the German Empire, in the universities, the technical high schools, or in works, and it is supported mainly, at least at first, by subscriptions of the chemical manufacturers. An address of very great importance was delivered at its opening by Prof. Emil Fischer, than whom, perhaps, no one living has added more to the progress of chemistry, A translation of this address appeared in Nature, and, with additions, has since been published in a convenient book form.” In this address an authorita- tive account is given of the main contributions of chemistry to the national welfare, which even to those familiar with the subject must be astonishing in their importance, variety, and universality. It includes the applications of the science to problems of nourish- ment, to agriculture, and food supply; to engineer- ing, metallurgy, cements; to clothing, artificial sill, or to colouring—dyes; to indiarubber production, both natural and artificial; to perfumery—artificial violet and other artificial floral perfumes, even that of the rose; to synthetic camphor; to drugs and synthetic materia medica, including the recent arsenic and selenium organic compounds which promise so much in the treatment of cancer and other fatal diseases; to radio-activity, to therapeutics, to the destruction of pathogenic microbes; to’ methods of sewage disposal; to the preparation of efficient ex- 2 Sone Research in its Bearings on National Welfare.” (London, 1gI2. - 48 NATURE [SEPTEMBER 12, IQI2 plosives ; and to many other useful objects. In co- nection with the manufacture of explosives the public should know that the ability to wage war is becoming more and more dependent on the worl of chemists. When the supply of mineral nitrates is exhausted, or even before that event, the requisite nitrogen compounds will have to be provided in some other way, and almost certainly they will be obtained syn- thetically from the atmospheric gases which even now are becoming a commercial source. The Time-spirit and. Science. But students of history know that there are certain periods that for some unexplained reason are specially fruitful in certain departments of intellectual or artistic development. Prof. Sir Walter Raleigh, for instance, a high authority on this subject, says :— “The human body, so far as we know, has not been improved within the period recorded by history ; nor has the human mind, so far as we can judge, gained anything in strength or grace.’’ Further, regarding literature :—‘‘The question is not by how much we can excel our fathers, but whether with toil and pains we may make ourselves worthy to be ranked with them.’’ Again :—‘‘In the beautiful art which models the human figure in stone or some other enduring material, who can hope to match the Greeks? In the art of building who can look at the crowded confusion of any great modern city, with all its fussy and meaningless wealth of decoration, like a pastrycook’s nightmare, and not marvel at the simplicity, the gravity, the dignity and the fitness of the ancient classic buildings? How can _ the seasoned wisdom of life be better or more search- ingly expressed than in the words of Virgil or Horace, not to speak of more ancient teachers?” Thus all things are not progressing. The time- spirit now, and for some two centuries past, seems to have chosen to take under its particular guardianship the physical and natural sciences, their cultivation and applications, rather than philosophy or architec- ture or scuipture, or painting or literature. We shall do well to recognise this, and not waste our resources in striving to fight against it. Present Indiscriminate Elementary Teaching and Neglect of Research. Large sums of money are expended in this country on the diffusion of some knowledge of chemistry among all classes of scholars and students; in fact, scarcely anyone escapes from a smattering, largely undigested if not indigestible, either forced on them by regulations or by allurements of bribes in the form of prizes, scholarships, or academic laurels. And if this is not good for scholars and students, it is worse for masters or professors. Our professors work ‘‘whole time’ at this “‘stall-feeding ’’ process, and if they happen to be strong men mentally and physically they may be able when weary with work to devote any overtime to—what I submit is far the more important matter for the State—the advancement of science by research. But this pursuit requires, for its successful prosecution, for resource and initiative to be at their best, that all the faculties should be in readiness in their fullest strength, freedom, and adaptability. How many, alas! are not strong mei, and in their praiseworthy endeavours, notwithstand- ing, to contribute something to the achievements of their time succumb as martyrs to their devotion. The truth of this statement, I fear, is too well known to many of us here. In Germany this strain of elemen- tary teachin is more recent, and is only now being felt. Prof. Emil Fischer in his address (loc. cit.) says of it: ‘‘During the last ten years a scheme of prac- NO. 2237, VOL. 90] tical education of the masses has developed.” ‘ But this very education of the masses tends mentally to exhaust the teacher, and to a great extent, certainly to a higher degree than is desirable or indeed com- patible with the creative power of the investigator, there prevails in modern educational laboratories a condition of overstrained activity.” And again, ‘In the harassing cares of the day the teacher too readily loses that peace of mind and broad view of scientific matters necessary for tackling the larger problems ot research.’’ | Laboratories, he says, are wanted “which should permit of research in absolute tran- quillity, unencumbered by the duties of teaching.’ I have given these quotations from Prof. Fischer’s address as indicating the matured judgment of a highly competent authority, communicated in the presence of the German Emperor on an_ historic occasion. His words are words of great weight, and no country which regards its future welfare can afford to ignore them. Sir Walter Raleigh (loc. cit.) says that every university is bound to help the poor... but that does not mean that a university is doing good if it helps those who have no special bent for learned pursuits to acquire with heavy labour and much assistance—just so much as may enable them to pass muster; on the contrary, it is doing harm. I would like to invite the attention of all who are seriously interested in the country’s welfare to reconsider the present policy in the teaching of chemistry: and this applies also to other sciences. For the advancement of civilisation, for the increased welfare of the race by the technical applications of our science, it is not the indiscriminate teaching of the masses and the multiplication of examinations that is wanted, but the training of the few, of capable investigators. I do not propose necessarily that we should interfere with, or much less abandon, much of our present elementary teaching, and I know that elementary, largely technical, training in chemistry is needed for medicine and engineering; but I do propose that our first endeavour should be to secure under present conditions in the present college or works laboratories, or in laboratories to be specially provided, that capable men, of whom we have many, should be able to devote themselves to research without the worry of teaching and examining or of providing the ways and means of livelihood. There is, happily, reason to believe that this vital need is to some extent becoming known; for there have been several recent instances where a particular investigator has been afforded the means, financially, of prosecuting his particular researches in tranquillity. The diversion of endow- ments to such purposes, instead of their going to the foundation of additional school or undergraduate scholarships, cannot be too highly commended. We may learn a lesson which bears on this from that remarkably prolific period of our science, the close of the eighteenth and the beginning of the nineteenth centuries. It was then no easy matter to pass the precincts of a chemical laboratory; only the fittest survived the ordeal. At the beginning of the nineteenth century the traditions of Berthollet and Lavoisier in Paris were kept alive by Gay-Lussac ; in England those of Cavendish and Priestley by Davy; and Berzelius in Sweden worthily maintained the older school of Bergmann and. Scheele. By a happy fate the interest of Alexander v. Humboldt was the means of both Liebig and Dumas being admitted to the intimacy of Gay-Lussac; and in Sweden Wohler was fortunate to gain the confidence of Berzelius; and in London, Faraday that of Davy. The achievements of these men—Liebig, Dumas, Wohler, and Faraday—are part of the history of SEPTEMBER I2, IQI2| NATURE 49 science. To me it contains a lesson, in point, of great importance. The opportunity offered them was beset with difficulties. No bribes such as scholars or students expect to-day were offered them; they knew no examinations, and their available apparatus and laboratory equipment were of the smallest and crudest description; but they were eager students with whom the master was in sympathy, and it is common knowledge that they completed the founda- tions of our science. Now I ask, considering the thousands of students whom we teach and examine to-day, are we doing as well in the interest of the country as our predecessors a century ago? Who can confidently answer in the affirmative? No; whatever else is done, the country needs the provision of men whose untrammelled energy should be devoted to original chemical research. Even as_ intellectual discipline the value of research is of the highest importance. In his address to the British Association at Winnipeg, Prof. Sir J. J. Thomson bears testimony to this. He says: “I have had considerable expe- rience with students beginning research in experi- mental physics, and I have always been struck by the quite remarkable improvement in judgment, inde- pendence of thought, and maturity produced by a year’s research. Research develops qualities that are apt to atrophy when the student is preparing for examinations, and, quite apart from the addition of new knowledge to our stote, is of the greatest importance as a means of education.” ' And the object and ideal are wrong also in our system of technical training. We aim too much at giving elementary instruction to artisans, which, though important in itself, can never take the place of the higher education of leaders or managers of industrial works. This is different in Germany, where, although the training of artisans is by no means neglected, the chief energy is directed to the training and teaching of the smaller class of managers. There is, too, in Germany a far more intimate relation between academic and industrial work, and the leaders in each often interchange posts. In one respect we have an advantage over Germany ; it is important that this should be understood. The higher technical instruction across the Rhine has not been undertaken by the universities, but is carried out in separate institutions. With us the universities have gradually undertaken, in addition to the older technical subjects, theology, medicine, and law, the various branches of engineering and agriculture, and even commerce. This, it is to be hoped, will be exterided so that the highly trained technologist may have the advantage of the undoubted humanising influence of the university. Conclusion, I have not attempted in this address any complete survey of chemistry, either its growth in the past or its present condition, but I have endeavoured to give some account of the sort of thing chemistry is—of its method—and to maintain three theses: (1) That the logical method by which chemistry advances is not a simple one, and requires as one essential element the use of a highly developed imagination. To render this more efficient I have advocated special training. (2) Without violating, I hope, the canons of the proper use of hypothesis, I have proposed, in order to account for certain isomeric and other phenomena, the conception of solid molecular aggre- gates, although I am not able at present to indicate precise methods for its further investigation. These molecular aggregates are supposed to be formed by the combination of gaseous molecules just as. the latter are formed by the combination of atoms. (3) As a matter of vital interest to the continued NO. 2237, VOL. 90] well-being of this country I have insisted strongly that our educational resources devoted to chemistry should be directed, in the first place and chiefly, to the highest possible training of promising students in the prosecution of research, and that the giving to the many of elementary instruction should be at least a secondary consideration. Now IJ do not wish to dictate how this last pro- position could be best carried into effect. I think we should distinguish three classes of chemists, or tech- nical chemists, whose domains would more or less overlap. Occasionally there will be a man, like the late Sir William Perkin, who would combine all three. The three classes are: first, the pure chemist, devoted to scientific discovery only; second, the tech- nical chemist, who prepares the discoveries of the pure chemist for the technologist, and has to deter- mine such questions as economical production and, for example, the conversion of colours into dyes; third, the technologist or works manager. These three classes should be in close relation to one another. By such a scheme we should probably overcome by education one of our most serious present difficulties—the ignorance of owners of works of the value of science. It is a matter deserving most earnest consideration whether, under the propitious influence of our own time-spirit, it would be- possible to organise research and develop it’ without interfering with its essential freedom and initiative, and this in each of the three classes I have mentioned, either by means of some of our existing institutions, or by the inauguration here of such an organisation as the Kaiser Wilhelm Institut in Berlin. SECTION C. GEOLOGY, Openinc ApprEss By B. N. Peracu, LL.D., F.R.S., PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. The Relation between the Cambrian Faunas of Scotland and North America. Introduction. Ever since the announcement made by Salter in 1859 that the biological affinities of the fossils found in the Durness Limestone are more closely linked with American than with European forms, the rela- tion between the older palzozoic faunas of Scotland and North America has been a subject of special interest to geologists. The subsequent discovery of the Olenellus fauna in the north-west Highlands furnished striking confirmation of Salter’s opinion. This intimate relationship raises questions of prime importance bearing upon the sequence and distribu- tion of life in Cambrian time in North America and north-west Europe, on the probable migration of forms from one life-province to another, and on the palzogeographical conditions which doubtless affected these migrations. On this occasion, when the British Association revisits the border of the Scottish Highlands, it seems appropriate to refer to some of these problems. With this object in view I shall try to recapitulate briefly the leading features of the life-history of Cambrian time in Scotland and North America, to indicate the relation which these life-provinces bear to each other, and, from these data, to draw some inferences regarding the probable distribution of land and sea which then obtained in those regions. The two great rock groups in Scotland that are universally admitted to be older than Cambrian time are the Lewisian Gneiss and the Torridon Sandstone. The Lewisian Gneiss, as mapped by the Geological 50 NATURE [SEPTEMBER 12, I9}2 Survey, consists mainly of igneous rocks, or of gneisses and schists of igneous origin. But, in addition to these materials, we find, in the Loch Maree region, schists 0 sedimentary origin, com- prising siliceous schist, mica-schist, graphite-schist, limestone, chert, and other sediments. The associa- tion of graphite-schist with limestone and chert sug- gests that we are here dealing with rocks that were formed at or near the extreme limit of sedimentation, where the graphite, the limestone, and the chert were probably accumulated from the remains of plankton. But this assemblage has been so completely altered into crystalline schists that all traces of original organic structure in them have been destroyed. The Torridonian strata were evidently accumulated under desert or continental conditions, and could therefore furnish little or no evidence bearing upon the development of marine life. That life existed, however, is clear from the presence of phosphatic nodules, containing remains of cells and fibres of organic origin, in the upper division of the system, and from the presence of worm burrows and casts in the Diabaig beds (Lower Torridon). Geologists are familiar with the fact that the Cambrian faunas all over the globe present highly specialised types belonging to most of the great groups of marine invertebrate life. Scotland is no exception to this general rule. For the fossils prove that their ancestors must have had a long history in pre-Cambrian time. The Cambrian Fauna of Scotland, Beginning with the false-bedded quartzites forming the basal sub-division of the Cambrian strata in the north-west Highlands, we find no traces of organic remains in them, except at one locality, where worm casts (Scolithus linearis) were obtained. In the upper subdivision of the quartzites—the pipe-rocks—the cylinders of sand are so numerous that the beds have been arranged in five subzones, based on a definite order of succession of different forms probably of specific value. One of them, Arenicolites of Salter, may be of generic importance. Worms of this habit are confined to comparatively shallow water, and there- fore near the shore line. Their occurrence helps to confirm the belief that the quartzites were laid down on an ancient shelving shore line during a period of gentle subsidence. Their presence also indicates the existence of plankton, from which they derived nourishment. Besides the relics of these burrowing annelids, one of the subzones of the pipe-rock has yielded specimens of Salterella (Serpulites Maccul- lochii)—a tubicolar annelid, which becomes more abundant in the overlying fucoid beds, serpulite grit, and basal limestone, where it is associated with Olenellus and other typical Lower Cambrian forms. The fucoid beds, which immediately overlie the pipe-rocks, consist chiefly of shales and brown dolomitic bands, with intercalations of grit locally developed. This type of sedimentation indicates that the mud line was superimposed on the shore line by subsidence. With this change of conditions there is a change of organisms, for though the burrowing forms (Scolithus) are still to be found in the sandy layers, the most characteristic types are those occur- ring along the bedding planes, known under the name of Planolites (Nicholson). They are very varied forms, and were probably produced by many types of errant annelids. The tubicolar annelids are repre- sented by Salterella, Coleoloides, and Hyolithes—an organism which perhaps links the worms with the hingeless brachiopods. This suggestion gains addi- tional support from the researches of Dr. Walcott in the Middle Cambrian rocks of Canada. It is NO. 2237, VOL. 90] interesting to note that small annelids seem to have bored the spines of dead trilobites. Walcott has found similar borings in the chetae of annelids in the Middle Cambrian rocks of Canada.* The researches of Dr, Walcott have proved beyond doubt that representatives of nearly all the divisions of the annelids are entombed in the Middle Cambrian rocks of Mount Stephen, in British Columbia. We may therefore reasonably infer that the worm casts of Scolithus type found in the north-west Highlands are due to annelids. He has also shown that worm- like holothurians are to be found in the same beds.” In this connection it may be observed that some of the recent holothurians have much the same _ habit of obtaining nourishment from the sands and silts containing organic matter. Fragments showing the characteristic microscopic structures of the plates and ossicles of echinoderms have been found in the fucoid beds. These are possibly Cystidean. Hingeless forms of brachiopods also occur, among which may be mentioned Paterina labradorica and Acrothele subsidua. The type of Acrothele suggests a genetic descent from such a tubicolar worm as Hyolithes. Of the gasteropods, only one specimen, belonging to a subgenus of Murchisonia, has been obtained at one locality in Skye. Helenia bella, a curved calcareous tube, open at both ends, doubtfully referred to the Dentalidae by Walcott, is comparatively plentiful. It occurs also in the Olenellus zone in Newfoundland. But the organic remains that render the fucoid beds of exceptional interest and importance are the trilobites, because they clearly define the horizon of this zone in the Cambrian system and display strong affinities with American types. They are represented by five species and varieties of Olenellus, very closely resembling the forms in the Georgian terrane, or Olenellus zone, on the east and west sides of the North American continent. The genus Olenelloides has also been recorded from these beds. The crus- tacea are represented by phyllocarids, among which we find Aristozoe rotundata, likewise characteristic of the Olenellus zone of North America. Next in order comes the serpulite grit, which indi- cates a recrudescence of the pipe-rock conditions of deposition, and presents the Scolithus type of annelid borings. From the diameter of the pipe and the depth of the burrow it is probable that the worm may have belonged to a different species from any of those the casts of which are to be found in lower horizons. This large variety is associated with smaller and more irregular worm casts which have often weathered out and leave the rock honeycombed with hollow casts. The characteristic form from which the zone takes its name is Salterella (Serpulites Maccullochit). It occurs abundantly along certain calcareous layers that mark pauses in the deposition of the sand. This calcareous type culminates at the top of the zone, where there is a thick, carious, weathering band, crowded with specimens of Sal- terella, forming a passage bed into the calcareous shales at the base of the Durness dolomites. At one locality near Loch an Nid, Dundonnell Forest, Ross- shire, thin shales, intercalated in the serpulite grit, vielded a fine carapace of Olenellus Lapworthi—a form of frequent occurrence in the underlying fucoid beds. Prof. Lapworth recorded the finding of Orthoceras and linguloid shells in the top part of this zone at Eireboll.* Immediately above the serpulite grit in Eireboll and Assynt we find a few feet of dark calcareous shale, with iron pyrites, probably deposited at the limit of * Smithsonian Miscell. Collect., vol. lvii., No. 5, p. 125, 1911. 2 Jbid., No. 3, tart. ® Geol. Mag., vol. x., new series, p. 126, 1883. SEPTEMBER 12, IQ12] NATURE 5 sedimentation. This layer, which is singularly devoid of organisms, ushers in the great succession of dolo- mites and limestones, upwards of 1500 feet in thick- ness—perhaps the most remarkable type of sedimenta- tion among the Cambrian rocks of the north-west Highlands. The Geological Survey has divided this calcareous sequence into seven well-marked groups, some of which have as yet yielded no fossils beyond worm casts. Attention will presently be directed to the absence of calcareous forms in many of the bands of dolomite and to the probable cause of their dis- appearance. The thin calcareous shale just referred to is fol- lowed by dark blue dolomite limestone, forming the basal portion’ of the Ghrudhaidh group. It contains sparsely scattered, well-rounded sand grains, with a bed about three feet thick, near the bottom, charged with Salterella pulchella and S. rugosa. In the over- lying twenty feet of dolomite the sand grains gradually disappear, and the rock assumes a mottled character, due to innumerable worm casts of the Planolites type, Here a second layer, yielding S. pulchella and S. yugosa, supervenes, both forms occurring in the Olenellus zone of North America. The brief summary of the palaontological evidence which has just been given clearly shows that the strata ranging from the middle of the pipe-rock: zone to the upper Salterella band of the Durness dolomites represent in whole or in part the Olenellus zone of North America. Owing to the absence of fossils we have no means of deciding more definitely the base and top of the Lower Cambrian rocks of the north-west Highlands. All the quartzites lying below the middle of the pipe-rock, notwithstanding the absence of zonal forms, have been included in the Lower Cambrian division. This correlation receives some support from the remarkable discovery of Dr. Walcott, who found primitive trilobites several thousand feet beneath the beds yielding Olenellus Gilberti, the form closely allied to the Highland trilobites. On the other hand, when we pass upwards for a certain distance from the Salterella bands the evidence is insufficient to establish the stratigraphical horizon of the beds. For in the overlying strata, comprising the remainder of the Ghrudhaidh group, the whole of the Eilean Dubh group, and the lower part of the Sail Mhor group, and consisting of dolomites, lime- stones, and cherts, with little or no terrigenous mate- rial, the only fossils that can be shown to be due to organisms are worm casts of the nature of Planolites, although the limestone and chert may have originated from the débris of the calcareous and siliceous organ- isms of the plankton. A noticeable feature of the Ghrudhaidh and Eilean Dubh groups is the occurrence in them of bands of brecciated dolomite on several horizons, which do not imply any break in the con- tinuous sequence of deposits. The total thickness of this portion of the Durness dolomites and limestones, yielding no fossils beyond worm casts, amounts to 50 feet. But in the upper part of the Sail Mbhor group siliceous and calcareous organisms of a higher grade make their appearance. Among the former we find the Rhabdaria of Billings. The calcareous forms are represented by (1) gasteropods, including .a single specimen of a murchisonid, two species of a pleuroto- marid (Euconia Ramsayi and E. Etna) of a type occur- ring in the calciferous rocks of Newfoundland and Canada; (2) cephalopods, comprising two slightly bent forms with closely set. septa and wide endogastric siphuncles, showing affinities with those of Endoceras and Piloceras; (3) arthropods, represented by the epitome of a large asaphoid trilobite resembling that of Asaphus canalis of Conrad. This evidence is in- NO. 2237, VOL. 90] sufficient to determine the exact horizon of these beds, but clearly indicates that we are no longer dealing with Lower Cambrian strata. The cephalopods are like those found in the Ozarkic division of Ulrich (Upper Cambrian), in North America. According to Schuchert, the cephalopods with closely set septa are of Cambrian type and older than those of the Beel- mantown terrane of American geologists. On_ the other hand, the asaphoid type of trilobite is sugges- tive of a somewhat higher horizon. No fossils have been found in the overlying Sango- more group, about 200 feet thick, which consists mainly of granular dolomite, with bands of chert, some being oolitic, together with thin fine-grained limestones near the top. Above this horizon, at a height of more than 800 feet above the top of the Olenellus zone, we encounter the great home of the fossils peculiar to the Durness limestone in the Balnakeil and Croisaphuill groups- The: former consists mostly of dark limestones, with nodules of chert, and, with a few alternations, of white limestone bands. A few thin layers are charged with worm casts. The overlying group. is more varied, the lower part being composed of dark grey limestones full of worm casts, and with some small chert nodules arranged in lines; the middle portion, of dark granular and unfossiliferous dolomite ; and the upper part, of massive sheets of fossiliferous limestone full of worm casts. The total thickness of these two groups in Durness is about 550 feet. These two subdivisions have yielded more than twenty genera and about one hundred species. In Durness sixty-six species have been obtained from the Balnakeil group alone, fifteen of which have not as yet been found in the overlying Croisaphuill group, thus leaving fifty-one species common to both divisions. The Ben Suardal limestones in Skye, which were mapped by the Geological Survey as one division, are regarded, on palzontological grounds, as the equivalents of both these groups. Owing to the number of species com- mon to both subdivisions, the fauna will be here referred to as a whole. Both siliceous and calcareous organisms are present in this fauna. Among the former we find Archaeoscyphia (Hinde), described by Billings as Archaeocyathus, an_ early Cambrian coral, but shown by Hinde to be a_ siliceous sponge." The genus Calathium is represented by four species. Other genera and species of sponges occur, so that the siliceous nodules, which are very common in both groups, may be in great part due to them. In this connection it may be mentioned that Hinde obtained sponge spicules from some of the nodules. Hinged brachiopods have ‘also been collected from these beds, and include Niswsia (Orthosina) festinata, N. grandaeva, and Camarella. But the characteristic feature of the fauna is the assemblage of calcareous mollusca comprising lamelli- branchs, gasteropods, and cephalopods, showing a wide range of variation, and consequently a long ancestry. The lamellibranchs, though represented only by two genera, Euchasma and Eopteria of Bill- ings, with several intermediate forms, are of extreme interest, as they are only known to occur elsewhere in Newfoundland and eastern Canada. The gastero- pods, however, furnish the largest number of species —-about 48 per cent. of the whole. The primitive euomphalids, Maclurea and Ophileta, are most char- acteristic. The former genus has a large number of species, many of which are to be found in the Beek- mantown limestone of Newfoundland and_ eastern North America. Only one of the species (Maclurea Peachi) is peculiar to Durness. Several species of 4 Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., vol. xlv., p. 125, 1889 52 NATURE [SEPTEMBER 12, 1912 Ophileta are found, some of which likewise occur in the Beekmantown limestone. Euomphalus has also been recorded, while several forms belonging to the nearly allied family of the Turbinidz, and placed in Lingstrém’s genus Oriostoma, are also met with in the Beekmantown limestone. Murchisonids and Pleurotomarids number twenty- seven species and show a very wide range of variation. The chief subgenera of the former are Hormotoma and Ectomaria, many species of which occur with remarkable variations. All the types of variation found in Durness are to be found in North America, and several of the species are common to both regions. The pleurotomarids vary in a similar manner, the chief genera being Raphistoma and Euconia, and a form resembling Hormotoma, only with a shorter spire. Species belonging to each of these subgenera are like- wise common to both areas, while some are only kxnown from the north-west Highlands. The cephalopods are of equal interest. They are also of primitive type, and, at the same time, show a wide range in form. The prominent feature in the straighter specimens is the great width of the laterally placed siphuncle, which is generally furnished with endocones and organic deposits. The genus Piloceras is the most characteristic type and shows this peculiar feature best. It has only been recorded from Scot- land, Newfoundland, Canada, and the eastern States of North America. The following additional genera are represented, viz. Endoceras, chiefly by siphuncles in great variety; Actinoceras, Cyrtoceras, and, doubt- fully, Orthoceras. Several forms have been attributed to Orthoceras which, on re-examination have been found to be the siphuncles of other genera, resembling American types described by Hall and Whitfield. The whorled nautiloids provisionally classed with the genus Trocholites of Conrad are represented by several distinct forms as yet unnamed. The trilobites are of rare occurrence in these two groups of dolomite and limestone. They are frag- mentary and poorly preserved. This is doubtless one of the disappointing features connected with this re- markable assemblage of organic remains, for the presence of a zonal form would have helped to define the horizon of these beds. Only one species, Bathyrus Nero (Billings) has been identified, which also occurs in the Beekmantown limestone of Newfoundland. The other trilobite remains, though poorly preserved, leave a Cambrian facies characteristic of North America. In connection with this fauna certain features have been observed which throw some light on the absence of calcareous organisms from thick zones of the Durness dolomite and limestone. In my detailed de- scription of the paleontology of the Cambrian rocks of the north-west Highlands in the Geological Survey Memoir I stated that ‘‘in most cases the septa and walls of chambered shells have been wholly or in part dissolved away, so as to leave only the more massive structures of the siphuncles, and worm castings are often found within the chambers where the septa have been preserved. These features seem to indicate that the accumulation of the calcareous mud in which the fossils were embedded was so slow that there was time for the solution of part of an organism before the whole of it was covered up.”* There is good reason to believe that many organisms wholly dis- appeared by this process, so that it is reasonable to conclude that the fossils obtained from the Durness dolomites cannot be regarded as furnishing a complete life-history of the forms that originally existed in that sequence of deposits. Attention has already been directed to the fact that beneath the two subdivisions now under consideration there are groups of dolomite 5 “Geological Structure of the North-west Highlands,” Geol. Sur. Mem., | 1907, p. 380. NO. 2237, VOL. 90] and limestone which so far have yielded no organic remains beyond worm castings. And even in the important Croisaphuill group, with its fossiliferous zones, there are thick groups of dolomite which have furnished no calcareous organic remains. Obviously the paleontological record in this instance is glaringly incomplete, for we have no reason to suppose that the life of the time flourished in some of the calcareous zones and not in others. The highest subdivision of the Durness limestone, measuring about 150 feet in thickness (Durine group), has yielded two species of Hormotoma—viz. H. gracilis and H. gracillima—both of which occur in the two underlying groups. H. gracilis occurs in the Beekmantown, the Chazy, and the Trenton limestones of America. Before assigning any stratigraphical horizons to the fauna of the Durness dolomites, it is desirable, owing to the American facies of the fossils, to recapitulate the evidence bearing upon the life of Cambrian time in North America. But the Cambrian life-history of Scotland would be incomplete without a brief refer- ence to the recent discovery of fossils along the eastern border of the Highlands. In rg1r Dr. Campbell announced in The Geological Magazine that fossils had been found in the Highland border series north of Stonehaven, and, during this year, Dr. Jehu made a similar discovery in rocks belonging to this series near Aberfoyle. Papers on these subjects will be communicated to this section. For my present purpose it will be sufficient to indicate the nature of the fossils and the lithological characters of the rocks containing them. The Highland border series north of Stonehaven and near Aberfoyle includes sheared igneous rocks, both lavaform and intrusive, with black shales, cherts, and jaspers. North of Stonehaven the fossils occur in thin, dark, flinty pyritous shale, while at Aberfoyle they have been found in shaly films at the edge of the chert bands. Several years ago radiolaria were de- tected in the cherts between Aberfoyle and Loch Lomond. From time to time these Highland border rocks have been carefully searched for fossils, but until recently with little success, owing to the intense movement to which they have been subjected, result- ing in marked flaser structure in all except the most resistant bands. The fossils consist chiefly of horny, hingeless brachiopods, phyllocarid crustacea, worm-tubes, and the jaws and chetz of annelids. The genera of brachiopods comprise Lingulella, Obolus, Obolella, Acrotreta, and Linarssonia. The association of these brachiopods with phyllocarid crustaceans resembling Hymenocaris and Lingulocaris is suggestive of an Upper Cambrian horizon—an inference which is sup- ported by the absence of graptolites. In the published Geological Survey maps these Highland border rocks are queried as of Lower Silurian age. This correlation was based partly on their resemblance to the Arenig volcanic rocks and radiolarian cherts of the Southern Uplands, and partly because, as shown by Mr. Barrow, they are overlain by an unconformable group of sediments, termed by him the Margie series. The cherts, the green schists, and the Margie series have shared in a common system of folding, and are unconformably surmounted by Downtonian strata near Stonehaven. Though the original correlation may not be strictly correct, it is probable, in my opinion, that representatives of both the Arenig and Upper Cambrian formations may occur in the Highland border series, and, further, that Upper Cambrian strata may yet be found in the Girvan area, as originally suggested by Professor Lapworth in correspondence with Dr. Horne. SEPTEMBER 12, 1912] The Cambrian Fauna of North America. The classification of the Cambrian fauna found in North America is based on the researches of a band of distinguished palaontologists, comprising among the older investigators Billings, Hall, and Whitfield, and among modern workers Walcott, Ulrich, Schuchert, Brainerd, Seely, Ruedemann, Matthew, Clarke, and Grabau. Prominent among these inves- tigators stands Dr. Walcott, alilke for his original and exhaustive contributions to this branch of inquiry and for his complete mastery of the sequence and distribu- tion of life in Cambrian time in North America. In- deed, geologists all over the world owe him a deep debt of gratitude for the services which he has ren- dered to Cambrian palzontology. Throughout the greater part of Cambrian time there existed in North America two distinct life pro- vinees. The eastern one ran along the Atlantic coast from the north of Newfoundland to a point south of New York, extending only a short distance inland, with a faunal facies resembling that of north-west Europe, exclusive of the north-west Highlands of Scotland. The western province lay to the north-west of that just described, and ranged from northern Newfoundland, south-westwards to Central North America and the Pacific Ocean. On the east side of the Rocky Mountains it swept northwards to British Columbia, perhaps as far as the Arctic Ocean. The remarkable feature of the life of the western province is its essentially American facies. Geologists are familiar with the triple classification of the Cambrian system by means of the trilobites in North America, as in Europe. The Lower Cambrian division represents the Olenellus epoch of Walcott, characterised by some form of Olenellid, or, to use the name now given to the family by that investigator, the Mesonacidae. The western life-province contains the true Olenellus of which O. Thompsoni is the type. The strata yielding this fauna extend over such a wide area of North America that within this same province we find a western and an eastern facies. The western facies is found. in Nevada and California, where Olenellus is represented by such specific forms as O. Gilberti and O. Freemonti. But it is noteworthy that these forms occur near the top of the Lower Cam- brian series, and are soon followed by Zacanthoides and Crepicephalus, trilobites of Middle Cambrian affinities. Towards the lower part of the sequence of deposits, which there consist mainly of limestone, and extend downwards for a distance of more than 4000 feet beneath the beds containing the true Olenellus, Walcott found specimens of Holmia Rowei and Nevadia Weeksi. The latter form is regarded by him as the most primitive of all the Mesonacidae yet known Near the base the limestones have yielded the primi- tive corals, Archaeocvathus and Ethmophyllum; and the brachiopods Mickwitzia and Trematobolus. The other forms found on this horizon belong to the fol- lowing genera: (trilobites) Protypus and Microdiscus (brachiopods) Kutorgina, Swantonia, Nisusia, Billing- sella, and (tubicolar annelids) Hyolithellus and Salterella. The eastern facies of the western life-pro- vince is best known from the region of Georgia, in Vermont. It is the home of the type species of Olenellus (O. Thompsoni). It is associated with Mesonacis vermontana, which has now given the name to the whole family, with Elliptocephalus asaphoides, one of the earliest known trilobites of the family, and with other forms such as Bathynotus, Holopygia, Protypus, and Microdiscus. The tubicolar worms are represented by Hyolithellus and Salterella, the brachio- pods by Nisusia, Swantonia, Kutorgina cingulata, and Paterina labradorica. There can be no doubt that the assemblage of organic remains found in this NO. 2237, VOL. 90| NAD REX 53° Georgian terrane is merely the counterpart of that found in the Olenellus zone of the north-west Highlands. Proceeding now to the eastern life-province, we find that the Lower Cambrian rocks are characterised by the trilobite genus Callavia, belonging to the family of the Mesonacide, and bearing a close resemblance both to Holmia and Nevadia, In southern Newfound- land two species of Callavia occur, of which C. Brog- geri is the type. It is accompanied by Microdiscus, Hyolithellus, Paterina labradorica, and Helenia bella. In New Brunswick the Protolenus fauna, with Pro- tolenus as the characteristic trilobite, probably repre- sents the upper part of the Olenellus zone. In this connection the recent discovery of the Protolenus fauna by Mr. Cobbold, in Shropshire, in strata asso- ciated with Callavia, and overlain by beds yielding Paradoxides, is of special importance, as it shows the close relation between the Lower Cambrian fauna of Wales and that of the Atlantic or eastern province of North America.® The Middle Cambrian division of the western life- province is characterised chiefly by the trilobite genus Olenoides; indeed, the western part of it is the ‘home of Olenoides and the large-tailed trilobites. The char- acteristic genera of this group to be found in that region are Kootenia, Zacanthoides, Bathyuriscus, Asaphiscus, Neolenus, Dorypygella, Dorypyge, Dame- sella, and Ogygopsis. In this region the Middle Cambrian limestones and shales occurring on Mount Stephen, in British Columbia, have “yielded a magnificent series of trilo- bites, eurypterids, limuloids, crustacea ranging from congeners of the brine shrimps to phyllocarid nebalids, annelids belonging to most of the still extant families, holothurians, medusae, and other organic remains. For the most part many of these forms are so fragile that only their tracks remain as indications of their existence in palzozoic deposits. Not till we reach the Solenhofen slates in Jurassic time do we find similar favourable conditions for the entombment and _ pre- servation of their highly modified successors. The remarkable evidence bearing on the evolution of groups of organisms furnished by this assemblage of fossils from Mount Stephen has been admirably de- scribed and illustrated by Walcott in his series of papers published in the Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections. In the New Brunswick portion of the eastern or Atlantic life-province the strata yielding Paradoxides follow those bearing the Profolenus fauna. Six species of Paradoxides have been obtained from this horizon, including P. davidis, together with the following genera: Agnostus, Agranlos, Liostracus, Conocoryphe, and Ctenicephalus. Schuchert points out that this fauna is “closely allied to the Paradoxides faunas of Wales and Sweden, but less so with that of Bohemia.’’? In southern Newfoundland Walcott showed that the base of the Middle Cambrian division is marked in Manuel’s Brook by a conglomerate containing fossils of the lower or Georgian terrane, thus indicating elevation and erosion of the Lower Cambrian rocks. Higher up the strata yielded Paradoxides davidis and P. bennetti. Important evidence pointing to the conclusion that the Paradoxides fauna of the eastern or Atlantic pro- vince encroached to some éxtent on the eastern part of the western life-province has been obtained by Waleott at St. Albans, Vermont. But the suggestion has been made by Schuchert that their present posi- tion is there due to north-westerly thrusting.*® 6 Quart. Tour. Geol. Soc., vol. Ixvii., p. 296, torr. 7 Bull. Geol. Soc. of Amer., vol. xx. (1gt0), p. 522. 8 Jbid. 54 NATURE It should be borne in mind that in Middle Cambrian time the eastern and western parts of the western life-province were evidently separated from each other by a land barrier, owing to crustal movement, which was probably connected with the elevation of the Lower Cambrian rocks in the region where they were subjected to erosion. In the upper division of the Cambrian system in North America there is a marked change in the fauna. Its characteristic features are thus clearly summarised by Schuchert : ‘‘In a general way it may be said that the Ozarkic period of Ulrich (Upper Cambrian) begins with the trilobite genus Dikelocephalus and the first distinct molluscan fauna... . The trilobites and in- articulate brachiopods (greatly reduced in species) are still Cambrian in aspect, while the new faunal feature consists in a rapid evolution, in form and size, of the coiled gasteropods, and of both straight and coiled cephalopods. The latter are distinguished from those of subsequent periods by the exceedingly close arrange- ment of the septa.” ® The distinctive trilobite genus of the Upper Cam- brian strata of the western life-province is Dikeloce- phalus, where it is associated with an American facies of fossils. The eastern or Atlantic province is char- acterised by Olenids, though Dikelocephalus also occurs, and by typical European forms. In Minne- sota and Wisconsin, where the strata consist of sandstones, dolomites, and shales, two _ species of Dikelocephalus have been obtained, together with other genera of trilobites such as Agnostus and Illaenurus; the limuloid Aglaspis; and the gastero- pods Holopea, Ophileta, and Raphistoma. In certain areas this period is characterised by a great succession of calcareous deposits, comprising parts of the Shenandoah limestone and Kittatinny dolomite in New Jersey, portions of the Knox dolo- mite in Tennessee, and of the dolomite and limestone in Oklahoma. In some of these localities, at least, the lower portions of this calcareous series are grouped with the Upper Cambrian sediments, while the upper parts are classed with Lower Silurian or Ordovician strata. The researches of American palzontologists have shown that in certain areas there is a mixed Cambrian and Ordovician fauna in some of the beds, as in the Tremadoc rocks of Wales. This com- mingling of faunas is exemplified in the case of the Beekmantown limestone, which is grouped with the Ordovician (Lower Silurian) rocks by most American geologists. Ulrich and Schuchert, on the other hand, regard it as a formation (the Canadic) distinct from the overlying Ordovician system. The type areas of the Beekmantown limestone are Lake Champlain, the Mingan Islands, and New- foundland, where the strata consist mainly of a succes- sion of limestones and dolomites more than r1ooo feet thick. The fossils are chiefly molluscan, comprising lamellibranchs, gasteropods, and cephalopods. The lamellibranchs are represented, among others, by the genera Euchasma and Eopteria; the gasteropods by Ophileta, Maclurea, Euomphalus, Holopea, Hormo- toma, Ectomaria, Murchisonia, Lophospira, Euconia, Raphistoma, Helicotoma; the cephalopods by Ortho- ceras, Cyrtoceras, Gomphoceras, Piloceras, Trocholites. Of the foregoing genera many of the species are common to this region and the north-west Highlands of Scotland. The trilobites associated with this fauna comprise the genera Dikelocephalus, Bathyrus, Asaphus, Harpes, and Nileus. In northern Newfoundland, in zones F to N of Billings, this fauna, with localised species, is found in great development in limestones and dolomites re- 9 Of. cit., Pr. 524. NO. 2237, VOL. 90} [SEPTEMBER 12, 1912 sembling those of Durness. Its upper limit is there clearly defined, for the limestones and dolomites are overlain by dark shales containing graptolites of undoubted Arenig age. A careful comparison of the faunas of the Durness and Beekmantown limestones shows that the assem- blage of fossils in the Balnakeil and Croisaphuill groups of Durness is practically identical with that in the zones F to N of Billings, as developed in New- foundland. These groups must therefore be older than the Arenig rocks of Wales, and must represent at least the Welsh Tremadoe strata, if not part of the Lingula Flags, both of which, according to the English classification, are grouped with the Cambrian system. But even in the purely European province of North America, in New Brunswick, where the Beekman- town caleareous fauna is entirely absent, and where the faunal sequence and type of sedimentation are almost identical with those of North Wales, the basal Ordovician or Lower Silurian rocks of American geologists include the Peltura scarabaeoides and the Parabolina spinulosa zones, which, in Wales, are classed with the Lingula Flags. It is obvious, there- fore, that the boundary-line between the Cambrian and Ordovician (Lower Silurian) systems is not drawn at the same stratigraphical horizon by American and British geologists. In fixing the age of the Durness dolomites. and limestones the English classification has been adopted. ; The paleontological evidence now adduced regard- ing the relation of the Cambrian fauna of the north- west Highlands to that of North America leads io the following conclusions :— 1. The Lower Cambrian fauna of the north-west Highlands, distinguished by the genus Olenellus and its associates, is almost identical in character with that’ of the Georgian terrane of the western life- province of North America, and essentially different from the Lower Cambrian’ fauna of the rest of Europe. 2. No forms characteristic of the’ Middle Cambrian division, either of Europe or North America, have as yet been found in the north-west Highlands; but this division may be represented- by the unfossiliferous dolomites and limestones of the Ghrudhaidh, Eilean Dubh, and the lower Sail Mhor groups. 3. The fossiliferous bands of the Sail Mhor group may be the equivalents of the lower part of the Upper Cambrian formation. 4. The Balnakeil and Croisaphuill groups of the Durness dolomites and ‘limestones contain a_ typical development of the molluscan fauna of the Beekman- town limestone, belonging to the western life-province of North America. As the Beekmantown limestone is succeeded by shales, with Arenig graptolites, it follows, in accordance with British classification, that these groups must be of Upper Cambrian age. 5. The highest subdivision of the Durness limestone (Durine) has not yielded fossils of zonal value; and the members of this group are not overlain in normal sequence by graptolite-bearing shale or other sedi- ments. Cambrian - Palaeogeography between. North America - and North-West Europe. In attempting to restore in outline the distribution of land and sea in Cambrian time between North America and north-west Europe reference must be made to various investigators whose researches in palaogeography are more or less familiar to geo- logists. Among these may be mentioned Suess,’ Dana, De Lapparent,’ Frech, Walcott, Ulrich, Schuchert, Bailey Willis, Grabau, Hull, and Jukes Browne. The SEPTEMBER 12, 1912] NATURE - 6) views now presented seem to me to be reasonable in- ferences from the palzontological evidence set forth in this address. In the north-west Highlands there is still a rem- nant of the old land surface upon which the Torridonian sediments were laid down. There is con- clusive evidence that the pre-Torridonian land was one of high relief. As the Torridonian sediments form part of a continental deposit it may be inferred that the Archean rocks had a great extension in a north- westerly direction. The increasing coarseness of the deposits towards the north-west suggests that the land may have become more elevated in that direction. At any rate, the pile of Torridonian sediments points to a subsidence of the region towards the south-east, and probably to a correlative movement of elevation towards the north-west. The sparagmite of Scandinavia is an arkose re- sembling the dominant type of the Torridon sand- stone; is of the same general age, and has evidently been derived from similar sources in the Scandinavian shield. In eastern North America coarse sedimentary deposits form part of the newer Algonkian rocks, which are still to be found rising from underneath the Cambrian strata in the region of the great lakes. These materials were obtained from the great Canadian shield, which must have formed a large continental area during their deposition. It is reasonable to infer that these isolated relics of old land surfaces were united in pre-Torridonian time, thus forming a continuous belt from Scandi- navia to North America. During the period which elapsed between the deposition of the Torridon sand- stone and the basement members of the Cambrian system a geosyncline was established which gave rise to a submarine trough, trending in an east-north- east and west-south-west direction, both in the British and North American areas. In the latter region it extends from Newfoundland to Alabama, its south- eastern limit being defined by the old land surface of Appalachia. The extension of this Appalachian land area in a north-east direction beyond the limits of Nova Scotia and Newfoundland was postulated by Dana and other American writers. This geosyncline remained a line of weakness throughout palzozoic time, both in Britain and North America, which re- sulted in the Caledonian system of folding in Britain, and in the Taconic, Appalachian, and Pennsylvanian systems in North America. Hence it is manifest that the original shore-lines of this trough are now much nearer each other than they were in Cambrian time. The Cambrian rocks of the north-west Highlands were laid down along the north-west side of this trough during a period of subsidence, fer the great succession of Durness dolomite and limestone, with little or no terrigenous material, is superimposed on the coarser sediments of that formation. On the other hand, the Cambrian strata of Wales seem to have been deposited along the southern limit of this marine depression. The Archean rocks that now constitute the central plateau of France may have formed part of its southern boundary. The extension of this land area towards the north-east may have given rise to the barrier that separated the Baltic life-province from that of Bohemia, Sardinia, and Spain. In my opinion this southern land area in Western Europe was continuous across the Atlantic with Appalachia. For the life sequence found in the Cambrian rocks. of New Brunswick is practically identical with that of Walés and the Baltic provinces, thus showing that there must have been continuous intercourse between these areas. Along this shore- line the migration of forms seems to have been from NO. 2237, VOL. 90] | east of Alabama. | submarine depression at Lake Champlain, at Bonne Europe towards America. On the other hand, along the northern shore the tide of migration seems to have advanced from America towards the north-west Highlands. The question naturally arises, what cause prevented the migration of the forms from one shore of this trough to the other? American geologists are of opinion that this is probably due to the existence of land barriers; but, in my opinion, it can be more satisfactorily accounted for by clear and open sea, aided by currents. The south-western extremity of the American trough in Lower Cambrian time opened out into the Missis- sippian sea, which was connected with the Pacific Ocean, and stretched northwards towards the Arctic regions. Reference has already been made to Wal- cott’s discovery in Nevada of the primitive trilobite Nevadia Weeksi, from which he derives both branches of the Mesonacidae, one branch linking Nevadia, through Callavia, Holmia, and Wanneria, with Para- doxides, the other connecting Nevadia with Olenellus, through Mesonacis, Elliptocephalus and Paedumias. In Nevada the genus Holmia, as already shown, is associated with the primitive type Nevadia. Wan- neria is found in Nevada, in Alabama, and in Penn- sylvania, thus showing that this genus is common to the Missisippian sea and to the long trough north- Mesonacis has been obtained in the and at the north side of the Straits of Belle Isle. Elliptocephalus has been re- corded from the New York State. Olenellus has been found ip Nevada, in Vermont, and in the north-west Highlands. All the genera now referred to may have migrated along the north-western shore of this trough. As regards the distribution of the genus Callavia, this form has been met with in Maine, in Newfound- land, and in derived pebbles in a conglomerate in Bay, Newfoundand, | Quebec. Two species have been recorded in Shrop- shire. These forms probably moved along the | southern shore of this sea from Wales to North America. Reference has already been made to the fact that, in the interval between Lower and Middle Cambrian time, in certain areas in North America the Lower Cambrian rocks were locally elevated and subjected to erosion. During this interval the southern end of the trough seems to have had no connection with the | Mississippian sea, for in Middle Cambrian time, as already indicated, the Paradoxides fauna is found | in the trough on the east side of North America, whereas on the west side it is represented by the Olenoides fauna. In Upper Cambrian time a great transgression of the sea towards the north supervened. The Dikelo- cephalus fauna is found on both sides of America, thus showing that the previous land barrier had been submerged. While this genus occurs in Wales and the Baltic provinces, it has not as yet been recorded from the north-west Highlands, but I quite expect that this discovery may be made at some future time. Along the northern side of the American trough clear water conditions prevailed, owing to the north- ward recession of the shore-line, which led to the accumulation of a great succession of calcareous de- posits, including the Beekmantown limestone, to which reference has already been made. Schuchert, as already stated, has pointed out that, in the lower part of the Ozarkie (Upper Cambrian) system, in Minne- sota and Wisconsin, the gasteropod genera Hoopea, Ophileta, and Raphistoma are associated with two species of Dikelocephalus. This molluscan fauna is evidently the precursor of that of the Beekmantown limestone. It was probably from this central region 56 NATURE [SEPTEMBER 12, 1912 of America that the calcareous fauna of Beekmantown migrated to the submarine trough in the typical Champlain region, and through Newfoundland to the north-west Highlands of Scotland. The section at St. John, New Brunswick, where the Baltic and Welsh types of the Olenus fauna occurs, shows that the southern shore line of the trough must then have occupied much the same relative position as in Lower and Middle Cambrian time. In the same region the strata containing this fauna, with Peltura scarabaeoides and Dictyonema flabelliforme, are over- lain by dark shales with Arenig graptolites. These graptolite-bearing terrigenous deposits eventually ex- tended across the trough northwards, until, in New- foundland, they catme to rest on the Beekmantown limestones. In the Lake Champlain region, in the Chazy lime- stone, which there immediately succeeds the Beek- mantown limestone without the intervention of the Arenig graptolite shale, there is a survival of the Beekmantown molluscan fauna with only such slight modifications as to indicate genetic descent. In the same trough the descendants of this fauna are to be found in the Trenton limestone. In this connection it is worthy of note that the molluscan fauna and the corals of the Stinchar and Craighead limestones of Upper Llandeilo age in the Girvan district of the Southern Uplands have an American facies, as first suggested by Nicholson. The appearance of American types in these limestones may be accounted for in the following manner: attention has already been directed to the divergent types of sedimentation presented by the Upper Cambrian strata of the north-west Highlands, and of the south-east Highlands, at Stonehaven and Aberfoyle. In the former case there is a continuous sequence of dolomites and limestones, while in the latter we find a group, com- prising radiolarian cherts and black shales, associated with pillowy spilitic lavas and intrusive igneous rocks, indicating conditions of deposition at or near the limit of sedimentation. But, notwithstanding the different types of sedimentation and ‘the divergent faunas in the two areas, I believe that during the Upper Cam- brian period, and probably for some time thereafter, continuous sea extended from the north-west High- lands to beyond the eastern Highland border. The Upper Cambrian terrigenous sediments which we now find at Stonehaven and Aberfoyle must have been derived from land to the south. In Llandeilo time the Arenig and Lower Llandeilo rocks of the Girvan area were elevated and subjxcted to extensive denuda- tion. On this highly eroded platform, as first proved by Prof. Lapworth, coarse conglomerates, composed of the underlying materials, were laid down in asso- ciation with the Stinchar and Craighead limestones. In my opinion the appearance of the American forms in these limestones is connected with the movement that produced this unconformability in the Girvan area. This local elevation was probably associated in some form with the great crustal movements that culminated in the overthrust of the north-west High- lands and caused the intense folding and _flaser structure of the rocks along the Highland border. By these movements shore-lines may have been estab- lished between the north side of the old Palaeozoic sea and the Girvan area, which permitted the southern migration of the American forms. Note.—Since writing the above my attention has been directed to the recent work of Bassler on ‘‘ The Early Paleozoic Bryozoa of the Baltic Provinces,” published by the Smithsonian Institution in r9g1r. Tn his introduction the author has shown that the Ordo- vician (Lower Silurian) and Gothlandian (Upper Silu- rian) rocks of the Baltic provinces contain a larger NO, 2237, VOL. 90] percentage of bryozoan species, in common with the Black River, Trenton, and Niagara limestones of the same relative age in eastern North America. This fact suggests that during Lower and Upper Silurian time the old lines of migration were still open, and that the Bryozoa, being of clear-water habit, were able to cross the old trough from side to side. NOTES. From a Press cutting just received from Sydney we learn that Mr. Fisher, Prime Minister, Australia, referred to the forthcoming visit of the British Asso- ciation in 1914 in his Budget speech on August 1. He said :—‘‘ We have been advised that about half as many more members of that association are likely to visit the Commonwealth than was anticipated when our invitation was accepted. This will entail an increase in the amount of money which I propose to give towards their expenses; and, speaking for this Parliament and country, I say that no greater compli- ment could be paid to Australia than the fact that our visitors are to be increased in number. It is usual a year or eighteen months before the visit is made to’ send a representative man of the same class as them- selves to get into communication with them. We pro- pose to incur that expenditure pending the expendi-, ture of a larger amount to cover their expenses.” Tue Chancellor of the Royal Prussian Ordre pour le Mérite has, through the German Embassy, informed Sir William Turner, K.C.B., F.R.S., vice-chancellor and principal of the University of Edinburgh, that the German Emperor has appointed him to be knight of the Order in the department of science. The number of those on whom this Order is conferred is strictly limited, and since 1885, when Lord Lister was ap- pointed, Sir John Murray, Sir Joseph D. Hooker, Lord Avebury, Lord Rayleigh, the Right Hon. James Bryce, Sir David Gill, and Sir Wm. Ramsay have been its recipients. The death of Lord Lister having caused a vacancy, his Majesty the Emperor has been pleased to confer the Order on Sir Wm. Turner, in recognition of the contributions which he has made to anatomical science. Tue fourteenth meeting of the Australasian Asso- ciation for the Advancement of Science will be held in Melbourne in January, 1913. Tue Royal Aero Club has decided to award its gold medal to Mr. S. F. Cody in recognition of his victory in the recent War Office aeroplane trials. Mr. T. H. Morrram has been appointed to succeed: the late Mr. Pickering as divisional inspector of mines in charge of the Yorkshire and North Midlands Dis- trict. Mr. J. R. Wilson, of Leeds, will fill the position vacated by Mr. Mottram. WE regret to see the announcement of the death, on September 4, of Dr. Stanley Dunkerley, formerly professor of engineering, Manchester University, and the Royal Naval College, Greenwich, and the author of a standard work.on ‘“‘ Hydraulics.” Tue departmental committee appointed by the Home Office to consider the best methods of testing miners’ safety lamps reports that the official tests for flame SEPTEMBER 12, I1912| NATURE 57 safety lamps should be mechanical and photometric, and should be made by means of an explosive mix- ture. For the mechanical test they suggest that a lamp should be dropped from a height of 6 ft. on a wooden floor. Tue annual general meeting of the Society of Chemical Industry was held in New York last week under the presidency of Dr. R. Messel, F.R.S. The society’s medal, awarded once in every two years for conspicuous service rendered to applied chemistry by research, discovery, invention, or improvements in processes, has this year been awarded to Sir William Crookes, O.M., F.R.S., for his discoveries in physical chemistry and the rare metals. It has been decided to hold the next annual meeting of the society in Liverpool. : AccorpinG to Thé Lancet, the following sums have been bequeathed by Madame Jonglart for the further- ance of science in France :—5o,oo0 francs to the Collége de France; 95,000 francs to the faculty of science of the Sorbonne, of which -amount 55,000 francs is to be devoted to the zoological laboratory ; 95,000 francs to thé museum; 50,000 francs to the Faculty of Medicine; 7ojooo francs to the School of Advanced Studies; 150,000 francs to be divided be- tween the Geographical and Anthropological Societies and the Association for the Advancement of Science, and 139,000 francs to various scientific and charitable institutions. Tue Board of Agriculture and Fisheries desires to direct attention to the fact that the employment, from time to time, in the newspaper Press and elsewhere, of the phrase “cattle plague” in connection with the recent outbreaks of foot-and-mouth disease in this country has given rise to considerable apprehension in Continental countries, and is calculated to be pre- judicial to the interests of British stockowners. The Board wishes, therefore, specifically to state that no case of cattle plague (Peste bovine, Rinderpest) has recently occurred in the United Kingdom, which has been absolutely free from that disease since the year 1377, that is for more than thirty-five years past. By the will of Mr. A. O. Hume, C.B., an obituary notice of whom appeared in our issue of August 8, his collection of heads and horns of Asiatic and other animals is left to the trustees of the British Museum, provided that an undertaking be given by the trustees that the collection be preserved in an undivided condi- tion. The testator confirmed a settlement dated January 10, 1907, by which he gave a sum of 10,000l. Two-and-a-Half per Cent. Consolidated Stock for the endowment of the South London Botanical Institute, and also the provisions of an indenture dated Septem- ber 29, 1911, by which he gave his premises, 323, Norwood Road, for the purposes of the institute, and he left all his botanical books and books on ornitho- logy and dictionaries upon trust for the institute, to encourage the study of botany (especially British botany) in the county of London south of the River Thames, and also all parts of his herbaria not already transferred to the institute. Subject to the payment of certain annuities, Mr. Hume left the residue of his property to the South London Botanical Institute. NO. 2237, VOL. 90] it TueE council of the Institute of Chemistry is making an endeayour to raise a fund for new buildings for the institute. There can be no doubt that the institute has steadily raised the standard of education in chemical science in the British Empire, and by its means the practice of chemistry, as a profession, has become firmly established and honourably maintained for the public good. From a perusal of the papers relating to the appeal issued to the fellows and asso- ciates, it appears that owing to alterations which the London County Council proposé to carry out by the widening of Southampton Row, at the rear of the present premises of the institute, 30 Bloomsbury Square, it will not be possible to effect a renewal of the present lease. The council of the institute wishes, therefore, to take this opportunity to secure more suit able and permanent headquarters. It is reckoned tha’ with real economy, adequate provision for the work of the institute can be obtained for about 15,000]. The appeal has now been issued nearly three years, and the amount promised to date is about 1o,oo0l. As the council will proceed to select a site and prepare plans at the close of this year, it is very desirous of being assured that the full sum of 15,o0ol. will be available, and it is hoped, therefore, to raise the 50001. which is still required before the end of October. Contribu- tions may be forwarded to the president at 30 Blooms- bury Square, London, W.C., or may be sent direct to the account of the Institute of Chemistry (Buildings Fund), with the London County and Westminster Bank, Ltd., 214 High Holborn, London, W.C. In the September issue of Man Mr. A. R. Brown has compiled from his own personal knowledge and information gathered from some published literature a useful map of Western Australia, showing the dis- tribution .of several of the native tribes. The map also marks the division between the tribes which prac- tise circumcision and subincision on the east, and those on the west among whom these rites are unknown. Major A. J. N. TREMEARNE publishes in the Sep- tember issue of Man selections from a diary written in the years 1843-48 by his great-uncle, the late Rev. John Martin, a Wesleyan missionary to the West Coast of Africa, which possess a special interest because they supply a record of a remarkable type of fetish practices before anthropologists had begun to interest themselves in such matters. The natives in his day, he says, had some confused ideas about metem- psychosis, which to a reader of our time suggests, totemism. Thus, when a child was carried off by a wild beast, it was believed that some deceased member of the family, annoyed at the neglect of his relatives, had entered the animal and caused the attack, and for this reason they would not kill such animals. The living sacred snake, Dagwe or Dagbi, used to get loose, enter houses and kill poultry until he was finally captured by his priest. The insolent and outrageous conduct of the fetish priests and priestesses during their processions through the towns is specially note- worthy. Tue Field Museum established at Chicago in 1893 has issued a well-illustrated catalogue of a valuable collection of antiquities from Boscoreale, in South 58 NATURE [SEPTEMBER 12, I912 Italy, which has been recently presented. It is the work of Mr. De Cou, who was killed by Arabs while conducting excavations at Cyrene in north Africa in March, 1911. Mr. Tarbell, professor of classical archeology at Chicago, has now edited the work of his friend, with some additions. | Nearly the whole collection comes from a villa at the foot of Mount Vesuvius which shared the fate of Pompeii in the eruption of 79 A.p. It contains some curious frescoes and a number of bronze articles, of which the most remarkable is a fine bronze table, the legs shaped in the form of a lion’s feet. This was found in a room with the skeletons of two men and a woman, who had apparently perished in the attempt to remove to safety the more valuable property of the house. Two bronze bathing-tubs, which have counterparts in the Naples Museum from Pompeii, are interesting on account of their comparative rarity. THE movement in favour of the protection and con- servation of scenery, antiquities, and the native flora and fauna has made considerable progress in Germany and Switzerland, as well as in other parts of the Continent, during the last few years. A recent number of the Naturwissenschaftliche Wochenschrift (No. 27, 1912) is occupied by a series of four articles dealing with the scenic, geological, botanical, and zoological aspects of the question, and contributed by Profs. W. Bock, F. Wahnschaffe, P. Graebner, and M. Braess respectively. In each case the writer describes, with numerous concrete examples, the melancholy results of various acts of vandalism and destruction—the spoiling of otherwise beautiful scenery by huge advertisement hoardings, the erec- tion of painfully conspicuous buildings on_ hillsides and on the shores of lakes, the conversion of fine lakes into unsightly marshes owing to the construc- tion of waterworks in the neighbourhood, the build- ing over of interesting or even unique geological out- crops, the rooting-up of rare plants, the threatened extinction of rare animals, &c. Righteous indigna- tion is expressed at the wanton or careless mischief done by those responsible for such acts; but it is gratifying to note that vigorous steps are being taken by the State and by private organisations to protect beautiful and interesting natural objects, animate and inanimate, from continued vandalism, and to undo wherever possible the harm already done. AN article in The Scientific American of August 10 discusses the proposal of Prof. Etchegoyen to flood a portion of the Sahara with sea-water by means of a channel from the Mediterranean and thereby to create an inland sea, which, as he claims, would favourably affect the climate, make for conditions of fertility, and for possibilities of colonisation, and pro- vide a channel of communication. Quite apart from the possibility or desirability of the scheme itself, a considerable number of crimes seem to have been committed in the name of physical geography by opponents of the scheme, who have foreseen that the new subtropical area thus created would so far affect the climate of more northern lands as to bring the arctic belt southward to Denmark, and they even seriously discuss the probability of the upsetting of NO. 2237, VOL. 90] the earth’s equilibrium by the displacement of so great a body of sea-water. The writer of the article is at pains to calm these fears, shows that the total area of the Sahara capable of flooding from the sea is no large proportion of the whole, and appears to welcome the idea as much for its own romantic sake as for any benefits which it might confer. He is not concerned to remark upon the ultimate condition of a practically stagnant pond of sea-water, with only a long narrow channel connecting it with the general marine circulation. Tue second volume of Dr. G. Linck’s ‘‘ Fortschritte der Mineralogie, Kristallographie und Petrographie ”’ is now issued (Jena: G. Fischer, 1912. Price 10.50 marks). This annual of the German Mineralogical Society contains original memoirs, and also useful reviews of current work, in which a number of papers are brought together and compared. J. H. L. Vogt (p. 24) summarises his views on the production of ore- deposits by magmatic differentiation; A. Ritzel (p. 62) treats of plasticity in crystals; and both these papers have considerable geological interest. H. Stremme (p. 87) discusses what is known as to the chemistry of kaolin, and papers follow on petrography and on meteorites. The aim of the publication, like that of the Geologische Rundschau, is to correlate recent work in the interests of those engaged in teaching and research. The individuality imparted by the authors to their reviews makes an annual of this type far more interesting than a collection of ordinary abstracts. Diseases of the respiratory and digestive organs among apes and monkeys in confinement are discussed by Mr. W. R. Blair in vol. i., No. 9, of Zoologica. Among other items in the report, it may be noted that orang-utans and chimpanzees in the New York Gardens were infected in 1901 by an outbreak of ulcerating dysentery due to the presence of Balantidium coli. The source of the infection was traced to Galapagos giant tortoises in an adjacent enclosure, the colons of which swarmed with the parasite, although the health of the reptiles was unaffected. Dr. ANNANDALE has sent us a copy of the report of a lecture on recent advances in our knowledge of the fresh-water fauna of India, published in vol. viii. of the Journal and Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. During the last five years Dr. Annandale has devoted great attention to this fauna, with special regard to the biological relations between different groups of fresh-water organisms, seasonal changes in the life-cycles of the lower invertebrates, and the effect of environment on sponges and other plastic groups. The geographical distribution of the fresh-water fauna as a whole is reserved for future investigation. SELF-FERTILISATION in the fresh-water snail Limnaea columella forms the subject of an article by Mr. H. S. Colton in the May issue of the Proceedings of the Philadelphia Academy. As the result of investigation, it appears that the eggs, when isolated, are self- fertilised, and that the generation-period lasts only two or three months. When more than one species of pond-snail inhabit the same area, hybridisation may occur. L. columella seems to present some of the factors necessary for the investigation of a “ pure- SEPTEMBER I2, 1912| NATURE Sis) line’ development, that is to say, a line formed by the descendants of a single ‘‘homozygotic’’ organism propagating by self-fertilisation. THE annual report of the Marine Biological Associa- tion of the West of Scotland for 1911 shows that the marine station at Millport is being more largely used by competent investigators, and the amount of first- class scientific work which is being carried out is highly creditable to those who have charge of its organisation. The report contains summaries of the work of Dr. J. F. Gemmill on the anatomy and development of starfishes, of Prof. MacBride’s re- searches on Echinus and Echinocardium and _ their hybrids, and of Dr. Valentin Dogiel’s studies on the development of Pycnogonida. The most unsatisfac- tory feature of the report is the statement that the steam yacht Mermaid has been laid up from want of funds to run her. The use of an adequate steamboat for collecting work is a matter of vital importance to every marine station, and it is to be hoped that in such a wealthy district as that in which the station is situated this defect may soon be remedied by local enterprise. To the Naturwissenschaftliche Wochenschrift of August 18, 1912, Dr. O. Antonius contributes an article on the tarpan of eastern Europe and its rela- tionship to the wild Mongolian horse. The wild horses seen by Pallas in some part of Mongolia are considered to represent a race of the latter; the name Equus ferus, Pallas (shown by Mr. Lydekker to be invalid), being adopted for the Mongolian horse, which Hamilton Smith identified years ago as the true tarpan, although this is not referred to by the author. On the other hand, the Russian tarpans obtained in 1853, 1862, and 1866, and described by Schatilow and Radde, are regarded as a truly wild and distinct species, for which the name E. gmelini is proposed. The third of these, which was gelded soon after its capture, was acquired in 1884 by the Zoological Gardens at Moscow, where it died a few years later, and was the last representative of its kind. It may be added that these Russian tarpans are generally regarded as half-breds, to which category belongs the animal figured by. the author as Przewalski’s horse of Mongolia. The domesticated ponies of Bosnia are considered to represent the tarpan type. Tue fifth volume of Notes from the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, has just been completed by the issue of part xxv., containing an index to the volume and various items of information concerning the garden, together with a somewhat bald key-plan— plenty of blank space is left which might with advan- tage be utilised in indicating the outdoor plants grown in the garden, as’is done in the case of Kew. The most important contents of the present volume are the articles dealing with the plants, including many new species, collected by George Forrest in Yunnan and Eastern Tibet, and described by various distin- guished systematists. THE seismological observatory of Rocca di Papa, near Rome, is one of the oldest in Italy. That it is NO. 2237, VOL. 90] also one of the most efficient is shown by the sum- mary of the records of the last twelve years recently issued by the director, Dr. G. Agamennone, and his assistant, Mr. A. Cavasino. From this it appears that the average yearly number of earthquakes re- corded is 186. Of these, 44, or one-quarter of the total number, originated at distances of less than too km., the extinct Latial volcanoes being the seat of a considerable number; while 85 originated at dis- tances greater than 5000 km. Tue report on rainfall registration in Mysore for the year 1910, which has recently reached us, shows that the number of official stations was then 227, in addition to which a few coffee-planters maintain private stations on their estates. Compared with the district averages for the forty years, 1870-1909,. the rainfall was in excess by about 8 inches, or 22 per cent. Some heavy falls in twenty-four hours were recorded in each of the eight districts into which the province is divided, the heaviest being 10°8 inches at Nagar and to°5 inches at Aralagode in the Shimoga district early in July. Tue first report of the Meteorological Observatory in connection with the College of Nuestra Senora de Montserrat, Cienfuegos, Cuba, has just been issued. The volume has been prepared by the Rev. Simon Sarasola, S.J., director, and contains, details of the establishment of the observatory, together with notes upon the meteorological observations taken at the college from 1886, and upon cyclones and _ their prognostication. The position of the observatory is an important one, especially with regard to the Panama Canal, and the results obtained will probably prove of great interest. The instrumental equipment is excellent, including. nine self-recording. instruments. The tables for 1911, printed in the report, include observations made every two hours, from 6 a.m. to 8 p.m., of barometer, temperature, vapour tension, relative humidity, and direction and force of wind, with cloud observations four times daily and notes on the weather. The tables are not arranged on the international system, although the international symbols are used in the weather columns. It is a matter for regret that the daily maxima and minima of temperature are not printed instead of the highest and lowest of the bi-hourly readings. The absolute extremes of temperature of each month are, however, given in one of the yearly tables. Tue Meteorological Office has commenced the issue of a series of geophysical memoirs, the first of which is by Commander Hepworth, and deals with the effect of the Labrador current on the surface temperature of the North Atlantic, and of the latter on the air tem- perature and pressure over the British Isles. The author shows from the records of the last. eight years that abnormally low temperatures in the North Atlantic are due to the current of cold water from the coast of Labrador and not to the ice which that current brings with it. The low temperature of the water lowers the temperature of the air over these islands by cooling the winds from seawards, by influencing the paths of depressions, and by diminish- ing cloudiness. When the north-eastern arm of the 60 NATURE [SEPTEMBER 12, I912 North Atlantic is colder than usual, the centres of depressions pass almost directly over the British Isles and produce excessive cloudiness and rain. The Builder for August 30 has an illustrated article on the reconstruction of the campanile of St. Mark’s, in Venice. Preserving the old foundations as a nucleus, a strong enclosure of Istrian stone has been constructed around them; the old foundations had a superficies of 222 square metres, and the present foundations cover 407 square metres, nearly double the surface. As the tower began to rise, a movable framework was employed; for the carrying up of the materials a Steigler elevator was used, which also lifted the bells into position. The bells weigh respec- tively 3625, 2556, 1087, 1366, and ro11 kilograms, and the angel 1300 kilograms. The tower itself from outside the ground to its summit weighs 8,900,000, and with its foundation included about 12,970,000 kilograms. The Loggetta of Sanso- vino has also been successfully restored. The loggia had been completely crushed by the campanile in its fall. All the fragments of sculpture were carefully collected before commencing the worl: of reconstruc- tion; in the group of the Virgin and Child alone there were no fewer than 1600 separate pieces. The new campanile was opened on April 25 of this year. “THEORIES OF SOLUTIONS,”’ by Svante Arrhenius, director of the Nobel Institute of the Royal Swedish Academy of Science, Stockholm, is being published this week by Mr. Frowde for the Yale University Press. The volume constitutes the eighth of the series of Silliman Memorial Lectures at Yale. OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. Discovery or a Comet.—A telegram from the Kiel Centralstelle announces the discovery of a comet by Mr. Gale, of New South Wales, on September 9. The position at 7h. 248m. (Sydney M.T.) on that date was :—R.A.=13h. 37m. is., decl.=36° 3082! 'Southe Tue Marines or Jupirer.—A valuable summary of the phenomena attending the various prominent markings on Jupiter is contributed by Mr. Denning to No. 452 of The Observatory. He first deals with the large dusky marking discovered by Major Moles- worth, in the same latitude as the red spot, in February, 1901. This remarkable object, which can be seen well with a 3-in. refractor, has exhibited some extraordinary variations in length, having, for example, decreased from 115° in June, 1911, to 63° recently. It has also exerted a marked influence on the red spot, the motion of the latter being consider- ably accelerated at the conjunctions of the two features In 1902, 1904, 1906, 1908, and 1910. For the period 1894-1910 the rate of rotation of the red spot was gh. 55m. 40'63s., exactly that adopted for system rien but then a rapid acceleration set in, and for the two succeeding years the period was gh. 55m. 37’ss._ This drifting westward was at the rate of about 22,000 miles per year, but recent observations indicate that it is temporarily suspended. OBSERVATIONS OF Nova GeEMINORUM No. are discussed in No. 4598 of the Astronomische Nach- richten, chiefly dealing with determinations of position NO. 2237, VOL. 90] 2.—A |} number of observations of Nova Geminorum No. 2 | and magnitude. Dr. H. E. Lau, from observations made between March 14 and May 18, finds secondary maxima on the light-curve on March 14, 23, and 31, April 18, and May 1. At first the period appeared to be about eight days and the amplitude 10 magni- tude, but later the period lengthened and the ampli- tude decidedly decreased. Most of the observations indicate that the magnitude became fairly stationary about the end of May, its value being about 8'o, but Prof. Eginitis records an apparent augmentation from 80 on June 4 to 7°4 on June 7. Prof. Newall states that spectroscopic observations by Messrs. Stratton and Brunt on August 13 showed the nebula line, 501“, to be much the strongest line in the visible spectrum; other lines observed were at A464 (?), 486 (HB), 496, 531 (7), and 575. The mag- nitude, difficult to estimate, was probably a little brighter than 9’o. Prof. Stromgren records the magnitude as 7°70, on the PD system, on August 24, while, in No. 452 of The Observatory, Mr. Harold Thomson gives it as 77 on August 20, on the scale employed by the Variable Star Section of the B.A.A. Tue Orit or & Perset.—The star € Persei is one of those interesting binaries in which the radial velocity as determined from the H and K lines of calcium differs from that determined from the other lines. Its spectrum is of the Oe 5 B class, according to Miss Cannon, and shows lines of H, He, Ca, and Fe, but the H and He lines are generally too diffuse to give trustworthy results for the velocity. Using the H and K lines only, Mr. Cannon, of the Ottawa Observatory, has derived an orbit from his own measures and those made at the Yerkes Observa- tory, which he publishes in No. 3, vol. vi., of the Journal of the R.A.S., Canada. He finds the period to be 6951 days, the range of velocity 15°7 km., and the velocity of the system 15°4 km. The diameter of the projected semi-major axis of the orbit is 751,800 km. An attempt was also made to determine the velocity from the broad lines, other than calcium, but nothing more definite can be said than that they show a much higher positive velocity than do the H and K lines. CaTALOGUE OF STELLAR ParaLeaxEs.—No. 24 of the Publications of the Astronomical Laboratory at Groningen contains a. wealth of information concern- ing the parallaxes, probable intrinsic luminosities, &c., of 365 stars. The table has been made up from many sources, and relative weights are given to the different values. There are eleven stars with parallaxes greater than +0300", the five nearest, with their adopted parallaxes, being: © a ‘Centauri (+0°759"), Sirius (+0°376"), Piazzi, oh. ‘130 :(+0°360"), 7 Ceti (+0°334"), and Procyon (+0°324"). Ten. stars have computed luminosities greater than one hundred times that of the sun, the five most luminous being: B Centauri (520), Regulus. (423), Achernar (350), Capella (300), and Arcturus (230); the values in brackets are the computed luminosities, that of the sun being taken as unity. Tue Orsits or Comets.—In No. 4598 of the Astro- nomische Nachrichten, Prof. Strémgren points out, in reference to a recent note by Prof. W. Pickering on the fundamental form of cometary orbits, that Prof. Pickering has misconstrued the sense of his conclu- sions. The final contention of Prof. Strémgren’s (not Prof. Kobold’s, as was inadvertently stated in our previous note on August 15) was that if the effects of Newtonian gravitation be strictly taken into con- sideration it is probable that all the cometary orbits yet considered would prove to be elliptical. SEPTEMBER 12, 1912| NATURE 61 AMERICAN MINERAL ‘STATISTICS.} pele annual report of the production of minerals in the United States has been issued for 1910 by the United States Geological Survey in the form of two bulky volumes dealing with metallic and non- metallic products respectively. Most of the statistical information had been already published in the special pamphlets issued from time to time by the Geological Survey, so that the present volumes contain no new facts, although they add a great quantity of important and interesting details, whilst the study of the sub- ject is, of course, greatly facilitated by the collection and juxtaposition of all the various items. The total value of the mineral production is given as a little more than 2,000,000,000 dollars, an increase of 62 per cent. over that of 1909. This figure is quite comparable with the values of output of the United States for previous years, but is not comparable with those for other countries, because of a number of in- exactitudes due to the method in which the returns are presented. As has more than once been pointed out, the grand total contains a number of reduplications, in spite of the statement in the report itself that ‘‘all unnecessary duplication has been excluded.’”’ The report directs attention to the fact that the value of the coke produced, practically 100,000,000 dollars, is excluded from the total, because “the quantity and value of the coal used in its manufacture are included in the statistics of coal production.’ It neglects the equally important fact that practically the whole of this coke is consumed in the production of metals, such as pig-iron, copper, and lead, and as the value of these metals is given, and not merely that of the ores from which they are extracted, the cost of the coke is really included in the value assigned to the metals. If the total value assigned to mineral products is to be correct, the value of all the fuel used for metallurgical purposes, and for burning clay products, lime, cement, &c., should be deducted from the grand total; this is by no means a trifling correction, for it would probably mean a diminution of the total by something like 1o per cent. Care has been taken in this report to include only metals produced from domestic ores as far as pos- sible; this brings out the very interesting fact that the recovery of metals from residues, by-products, waste materials, &c., is assuming very important dimensions. Thus in 1910 the production of zinc, here called ‘“‘primary spelter,’’ direct from domestic ores amounted to 252,479 toms, and that of zinc from imported—chiefly Mexican—ores to 16,705 tons, whilst the quantity of so-called ‘‘secondary zinc’? recovered from waste and scrap materials of various kinds was no less than 68,723 tons, or about a quarter of the production of primary spelter. In the case of tin the figures are still more striking; the quantity of tin obtainable direct from ores is not stated, but appears to be of the order of some 4o tons, whilst the recovery of secondary tin from scrap of all kinds amounted to no less than 13,903 tons. It is calculated that the recovery of secondary tin throughout the world is only 27,000 tons, so that one-half of this production takes place in the United States. Seeing that the world’s output of primary tin was about 115,920 tons in 1910, the recovery of tin from scrap is assuming very im- portant dimensions. Amongst the non-metallic minerals, coal is, of course, by far the most important, the output for 1910 exceeding 500 millions of tons, this being the first time that this figure has been attained. The mineral 1 “Mineral Resources of the United States, Calendar Year, 1910.” Part i., Metals. Pp. 796+plate. Part ii., Non-metals. Pp. 1005-+plates. Washington : Government Printing Office, rgr1.) NO. 2237, VOL. 90] output shows steady and progressive development in practically all directions, and these volumes afford con- clusive evidence of the prominent position that the mineral riches of the United States hold amongst the sources of national wealth. It should, however, in all fairness be added that these two fine volumes of mineral statistics are not unworthy of the flourishing industries, the progress of which they chronicle. Is it too much to hope that we may have some day in this country a record of mineral statistics that might worthily sustain comparison for accuracy and com- pleteness with that issued by the United States Geo- logical Survey ? ely Wr, INCOME OF AMERICAN COLLEGES OF UNIVERSITY RANK. {pee second volume of the report of the United States Commissioner of Education for the year ended June 30, 1911, has now been received from Washington. It is chiefly devoted to statistical details concerning the development and present provision of educational facilities in institutions of all the grades included in the American system of education. Especially interesting are the facts which may be gathered respecting education of university rank. — The total receipts of the universities in the United States are given as 18,934,410l., derived from a variety of sources, as shown in the following table :— Total Receipts of Universities and Colleges for the year ended June 30, 1911. Zz Tuition and other educational fees 3,695,600 Room rent ... pos + 06 381,700 Board and other non-educational fees 1,218,970 Productive funds pa nig 2,658,700 State or city for increase of plant ... 932,430 aa on current expenses ... 2,941,450 United States Government es cop Halli fer.Ke) Private benefactions for increase of plant .. 1,144,700 AC a endowment 2,753,970 of oA current expenses... 693,950 All other sources - 1,334,900 Total receipts . 18,934,410 More detailed information is provided as to the benefactions given during the year under review, which exceeded four and a half millions sterling, or 4,592,6201. to be precise. We notice, for example, that the total is more by 845,200l. than was received during rg09-r910. Fifty universities and colleges each received gifts amounting to more than 20,o00ol., and, as the following table shows, seven universities and colleges were fortunate enough to benefit to the extent of 100,000l. or more. Universities and Colleges receiving 100,000l. or more in Benefactions during 1910-11. Columbia University ... ane 507,010 Harvard College, Massachusetts 349,090 University of Chicago... 271,790 Yale University een ne 226,880 New York University... eS 260 185,690 Dartmouth College, New Hampshire 156,890 Amherst College, Massachusetts 101,950 A separate chapter in the report deals with agricul- tural and mechanical colleges, but the Commissioner is careful to point out that some of them are also included under universities and colleges, so that over- lapping occurs. The following table shows the total income of the agricultural and mechanical colleges for the year under consideration. Grants for experiment stations, farmers’ institutes, and other means for 62 NATURE extending agricultural education are not included in the amounts shown. Income of Agricultural and Mechanical Colleges for 1g10-Il. oe Income from State endowment 22,890 Appropriations for current expenses 1,004,990 Tax levy 35 ae 575,820 Appropriations for increase of plant 558,410 Tax levy 55 my 100,440 Total State aid 2,262,550 From land grant of 1862 156,670 From other land grants 47,090 Additional endowment 450,000 Total Federal aid 653,700 From other endowment funds 149,800 Tuition and incidental fees 487,310 Other sources 562,500 Total income 4,115,920 UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE. Dr. R. G. McKerron has, with the approval of the King, been appointed professor of midwifery in the University of Aberdeen, in succession to Prof. W. Stephenson, who has resigned. Tue foundation stone of a new college for the training of teachers at Dundee was laid on Thursday last by Lord Camperdown. The cost of the building will be 60,000/., and provision will be made for 400 students. Pror. J. Lorrain Situ, F.R.S. (at present pro- fessor of pathology and pathological anatomy in the University of Manchester) has been appointed to the chair of pathology in the University of Edinburgh, in succession to Prof. W. S. Greenfield, who is retiring from the position. THE sum of 5o000l. has been given by the Lord Lieutenant of Berkshire, Mr. J. H. Benyon, towards the new buildings of University College, Reading. The donor has apportioned his gift between the new hall, the Letters Buildings, the Agricultural Build- ings, and the new St. Patrick’s Hall. Tue Board of Agriculture has issued a scheme under which the University College of North Wales, Bangor, will undertalke advisory work ia forestry for the whole of Wales. Prof. F. Story, prefessor of forestry at the College, has been appointed to the position of advisory officer for all Wales under this scheme. Prof. Story will retain his professorship, but Mr. Thomson Thomson has been appointed assistant lecturer under him. Tue Senate of the projected University of Western Australia recently advertised eight professorships, and the Agent-General for the State reports that the response has been of a character justifying the belief of good appointments being made. The Senate now invites applications for lectureships in veterinary science and mental and moral philosophy. It is stated that Crawley Park, near Perth, which contains spacious grounds, is likely to be selected as the site of the new institution. j Tue fourth international congress of physical edu- cation is to be held in Rome on October 24 to 27. Discussions are to take place on the organisation of physical education as a preparation for military NO. 2237, VOL. 90] | SEPTEMBER 12, IQI2 service; a rational method of physical training in primary, middle, and secondary schools; the value of sports in physical education, and their physiological limitations; the physical education of woman in rela- tion with her function in the family and in society; respiratory gymnastics and choral singing in schools; open-air schools; the physical exercises suitable for the prophylaxis of tuberculosis. Tue following are the arrangements for the opening of the winter session of certain of the medical schools :—That of St. Bartholomew’s Hospital will be inaugurated on October 1 by an old students’ dinner ; at Charing Cross Hospital the prizes will be distri- buted on October 2 by the Bishop of Peterborough and Lady Mary Glyn; at St. George’s Hospital the prizes will be distributed on October 1, and an address delivered by Mr. H. B. Grimsdale on ‘* The present Duty of the Medical Citizen”; at Guy’s Hospital there will be a conversazione on October 4 by the Pupils’ Physical Society, the session commencing on October 1; at the London Hospital the Schorstein memorial lecture will be delivered on October 1 by Prof. T. W. Griffith; at the London School of Medi- cine for Women an address on ‘‘Common Sense” will be given on October 1 by Dr. Jane Walker; King’s College Hospital will hold a dinner on October 1; at the Middlesex Hospital the prizes will be distri- buted on October 1 by Sir Charles Wyndham, and an address delivered by Dr. W. S. Lazarus-Barlow on “‘The Genius of the Infinitely Little’; at St. Mary’s Hospital on October 1 the Lord Mayor of London will deliver an address and distribute the prizes; in con- nection with St. Thomas’s Hospital there will be an old students’ dinner on October 1; the Westminster Hospital School will have a dinner on October 3; a dinner, on October 2, will inaugurate the new session of the University College Hospital School; there will be a conversazione on October 1 in connection with the University of Birmingham; an address will be given on October 1 at the University of Manchester by Dr. H. D. Rolleston on ‘‘ Universities and Medical Education,’ and at the University of Leeds an ad- dress will be delivered on October 1 by Sir Alfred Keogh, K.C.B. THE new session of the Sir John Cass Technical Institute, Aldgate, E.C., which is especially devoted to technical training in experimental science and in the artistic crafts, will commence on Monday, September 23. The instruction in experimental science provides systematic courses in mathematics, physics, and chem- istry for London University examinations, in addition to the courses on higher technological instruction, which form a special feature of the work of the institute. In connection with the latter, several new departures are being made for the coming session. The curriculum of the fermentation industries has been much developed, and now includes courses of instruction on brewing and malting, on bottling and cellar management, and power and mechanical plant in the brewery, on the microbiology of the fermenta- tion industries, and on the chemistry and technology of hops, in addition to courses in chemistry and physics for those who have not sufficient previous knowledge of these subjects. In the department of physics and mathematics a special course of lectures and demonstrations will be given on colloids, which will deal with the methods employed in their inves- tigation and their relation to technical problems; also a special course of lectures on the theory and applica- tion of mathematical statistics, in which the applica- tion of modern mathematical methods of dealing with statistical data in social, educational, economic, and physical problems will be discussed and opportunity SEPTEMBER 12, 1912] NATURE 63 given to students to investigate problems on their own account. In the metallurgy department, in addition to the ordinary courses of instruction in general metallurgy, several special courses of an advanced character are provided. The special courses on liquid, gaseous and solid fuel have also been extended, and in addition to a course of lectures, will include labora- tory work on fuel analysis, and on technical gas analysis. It is also of interest to note that included amongst the language classes is a course on scientific and technical German. A LONG resolution embodying the oft-repeated education demands of the Trade Union Congress was adopted unanimously at a meeting of the congress at Newport (Mon.) on September 4. The main points are as follows :—(1) A national system of education under full public control, free from the primary school to the university; (2) The adequate maintenance of school children; (3) Scientific physical education with annual individual medical inspection, and records showing the physical development of each child; (4) that secondary and technical education be an essential part of every child’s education, and secured by such a reform and extension of the scholarship system as will place a maintenance scholarship within the reach of every child, and thus make it possible for all children to be full-time day pupils up to the age of sixteen; (5) That the best intellectual and technical training be provided for the teachers of the children, that each educational district shall be required to train the number of pupil teachers demanded by local needs, and to establish training colleges, preferably in con- nection with universities or university colleges; (6) that the provision of educational buildings and facili- ties be obligatory upon the local authority, which shall always retain administrative control of the buildings and facilities so provided; (7) that the cost of educa- tion be met by grants from the Imperial Exchequer, and by the restoration of misappropriated educational endowments. The congress placed on record its emphatic disapproval of the refusal of Ministers of Education to grant the demand for a Royal Commis- sion to inquire into such endowments; and instructed the Parliamentary Committee once more to press for the appointment of such a Royal Commission, which shall inquire into :—(a) The finances of the universi- ties and of the great public schools; and to issue a report containing a statement of the history and pre- sent value of those endowments which were originally intended for the poor; (b) the conditions of scholar- ships and other aids in -universities and public schools ; (c) the relations with lower education institutions; (d) the government of universities and public schools, and to bring forward recommendations showing how these institutions may be brought under full public control. SEconpary education in New South Wales has now been organised completely, and Mr. Board, the director of education, in announcing at the beginning of July last a series of appointments to the high schools, described the character of the system which has now been inaugurated. We learn, from The Sydney Morning Herald, that Mr. Board claims for the New South Wales scheme of secondary education that it assigns a definite time for the studies of a secondary school, making four years the minimum which any student should spend on these studies. Another good point is the certificating system, which connects the secondary school with the primary school on one hand and the university on the other, and also leads definitely to certain well-marked types of career —for example, the technical or the commercial. At- tached to the scheme of certificates is the system of examination. NO. 2237, VOL. 90] The examinations are, in the first place, « school examinations as well as tests of individual attainments. In the second place, the results of the examination will be modified by consideration of the school record of the pupil, and, again, the examina- tion can only follow upon the completion of a specific programme of studies that has occupied a definite period of time, and in the last place the examinations for the certificates are closely associated with the thorough inspection of the schools. A specially con- stituted board of examiners, representing both the University and the Education Department, will deter- mine the award of all certificates. In a few years there will be a large number of efficient high schocis under the control of the Department of Public Instruc- tion, and it is hoped that a leaving and intermediate examination will be carried on somewhat on the lines of that in Scotland. The alternative scheme, which was not adopted, was a system of inspection and examination by the University of Sydney. That is not, however, the true function of a university. Sydney has acted wisely in not undertaking it, though the University may assist, as it has done, to strengthen the State Education Department, and get it to organise secondary education as well as primary and technical. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. CaLcurta. Asiatic Society of Bengal, August 7.—R. K. Bhide: Two more new species of Graminez from Bombay. Two new species of grasses are described, (1) Chloris quinyuesetica, collected by Mr. G. A. Gammie, and subsequently by the author, from Bassein, and (2) Sporobolus scabrifolius, collected by the author from Rannebennur.—Manindra Nath Banerjee: A measure of chemical affinity. The chemical activity of an element bears a simple relation to its density; if its atomic volume be divided by its density, the figure obtained, for which the name “specific extensity”” is suggested, gives a measure of the chemical activity of the element. For instance, platinum, which is a very inactive element, is near one end of the scale with a specific extensity of 042; hydrogen, a very active one, is near the other end with a specific exten- sity of 12725. There are a number of exceptions to the rule, the most obvious being the inactive gases found in the atmosphere.—Rev. H. Hosten : The mouthless Indians of Megasthenes. According to Megasthenes, there lived near the sources of the Ganges a tribe of people, the Astomoi, who had no mouth, but merely orifices through which they breathed. They ate and drank nothing. When they went on a distant journey, they took with them certain roots and flowers or wild apples, on the perfumes of which they subsisted. ‘‘ Should they inhale very foul air death is inevitable.” The tribe is found mentioned in conjunction with the Trispithami (men of three spans long), the Pygmies, and the Scyritze or Scyratee (Kiratas), tribes whose characteristic features are dis- tinctly Mongolian or Himalayan. A number of texts are quoted to prove that the “foul air’ against which the Astomoi had to protect themselves represents the phenomenon known as mal-de-montagne, or breath- seizure, and that the ‘‘wild apples” they used as antidote were onions, dried apples, and apricots, nostrums employed in the Himalayas wherever breath- seizure prevails. The fact that some hill tribes used in their travels fruits of which they inhaled the perfume, lest the ‘‘foul air’? should kill them, seems then to have led to the idea that they subsisted on nothing else. From this to the belief that they needed no - mouth, and, in fact, had none, or “instead of mouths had orifices through which they breathed,” the infer- 64 NATURE [SEPTEMBER I2, 1912 ence was easy.—Rev. Fr. Nicholas Krick: Account of an expedition among the Abors in 1853. The recent expedition among the Abors gives renewed interest to Fr. Krick’s visit to them in 1853. His ‘‘ Relation d’un voyage au Thibet en 1852 et d’un voyage chez Jes Abors en 1853’’ (Paris, 1854) has become scarce; hence we are under obligations to Rev. Fr. A. Gille, S.J., for having translated that part which concerns the Abors. Fr. Kricl’s remarks on their manners and customs are as applicable to-day as they were nearly sixty years ago. BOOKS RECEIVED. Catalogue Général des Antiquités Egyptiennes du Musée du Caire. Nos. 61051-61100: The Royal Mummies. By Prof. G. Elliot Smith. Pp. vii+118+ 103 plates. (Le Caire: Imprimerie de 1’Institut Francais.) Eine physiologische Histologie des Menschen- und Satigetier-Koérpers im Wort-Bild und Praparat. By Prof. F. Sigmund. Lief. i., Die Haut. Zweite verbes- serte Auflage. Pp. 38. (Stuttgart.) 9.50 marks. Kreislaufvorgange in der Erdgeschichte. By Prof. G. Linck. Pp. iiit4o. (Jena: G. Fischer.) 1.50 marks. A Critical Revision of the Genus Eucalyptus. By J. H. Maiden. Vol. ii., part 5. (Sydney: W. A. Gullick.) 2s. 6d. Elementary Entomology. By E. D. Sanderson and Prof. C. F. Jackson. Pp. vii+372. (London: Ginn and Co.) 8s. 6d. A Text-Book of Botany. By Profs. E. Strasburger, H. Schenck, L. Jost, and G. Karsten. _ Fourth Eng- lish Edition, revised with the tenth German edition, by Dr. W. H. Lang. Pp. xi+767. (London: Mac- millan and Co., Ltd.) 18s. nee A Text-book of Pathology. By Drs. J. G. Adami and J. McCrae. Pp. x+759. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd.) 25s. net. A Hand-list of the Lichens of Great Britain, Ireland, and the Channel Islands. By A. R. Horwood. Pp. 45. (London: Dulau and Co., Ltd.) 1s. net. The People’s Books :—Practical Astronomy with the Unaided Eye. By H. Macpherson, jun. Pp. 94. Theosophy. By Annie Besant. Pp. 94. Rudolf Eucken: a Philosophy of Life. By Dr. A. J. Jones. Pp. 94. Dietetics. By Dr. A. Bryce. Pp. 94. Aris- totle. By Dr. A. E. Taylor. Pp. 91. Aviation: its Principles, its Present and Future. By S. F. Walker. Pp. 96.: The Evolution of Living Organisms. By E. S. Goodrich. Pp. 108. Embryology: the Begin- nings of Life. By Dr. G. Leighton. Pp. o2. (vone plod eee Edinburgh : T..C. andl Ben. ack») i odeenet: eac Dactylography, or the Study of Finger-prints. By H. Faulds. Pp. 127. (Halifax: Milner and Co.) 1s. net. Fortschritte der naturwissenschaftlichen Forschung. By Prof. E. Abderhalden. Sechster Band. Pp. iii+ 300. (Berlin and Vienna: Urban and Schwarzen- berg.) 1 mark. The People’s Medical Guide. By Dr. J. Grimshaw. Pp. xx+839. (London: J. and A. Churchill.) 8s. 6d. net. Analytical Geometry. By C. O. Tuckey and W. Nayler. Pp. xiv+367. (Cambridge University Pr ay 55. net. Examples in Applied Electricity. By C. G. Lamb. Pp. iv+6r1. (Cambridge University Press.) 2s. 6d. net. The Building of the Alps. By Prof. T. G. Bonney. Pp. 384. (London: T. F. Unwin.) 12s. 6d. net. Das Gesetz der Wiistenbildung in Gegenwart und NO. 2237, VOL. 90] Vorzeit. By Prof. J. Walther. Zweite Auflage. Pp. xv+342. (Leipzig : Quelle and Meyer.) 12 marks. Chemical Theory and “Calculations. By Drs. F. J. Wilson and I. M. Heilbron. Pp. iv+138. (London: Constable and Co., Ltd.) 2s. 6d. net. The Lushei Kuki Clans. By Lieut.-Col. J. Shake- spear. Pp. xxii+250. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd.) tos. net. From the Black Mountain to Waziristan. Being an account of the Border Countries and the more turbu- lent of the Tribes controlled by the North-west Frontier Province, and our Military Relations with them in the East. By Col. H. C. Wylly. Pp. xx+ 505+8 maps. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd.) Ios. 6d. net. A Preparatory Arithmetic. By C. Pendlebury... Pp. G. Bell and Sons, Ltd.) xiv+185+xxx. (London: Is. 6d. Man’s Place Ay Re Wallace, O.M. New and cheaper edition. Pp. vi+ 283. (London: Chapman and Hall, Ltd.) 1s. net. Nature Photography. By S. C. Johnson. Ppy aise (London: Hazell, Watson and Viney, Ltd.) 1s. net. Contributions from the Jefferson Physical Labora- tory of Harvard University for the Year 1911. Vol. ix. (Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A.) in the Universe. By Dr. Paleolithic Man and Terramara Settlements in Europe. By Dr. R. Munro. Pp. xxiiit+507+75 plates. (Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd; London: Gurney and Jackson.) 16s. net. CONTENTS. PAGE Thermodynamics of the Atmosphere ....... 31 MberStory of anne 63 BooksrReceiveds ms.) Oem nont om sdf C 64 — AY WEEE YeSUEL STR: ATED JOURN “To the AUER OR SECLENGE solid ground Of Nature trusts the mind which builds for aye .’’—WoRDSWORTH. No. 2238, VoL. 90] THURSDAY, SE PTEMBE ie 10, [ PRICE SIXPENCE 1gI2 Registered as a Newspaper at the General Post Office.) (al Rights Reser 7 NEWTON & CO’S \ LONG-RANGE ELECTRIC LANTERN. Single Long-range Lantern, Pes ee penienseres and extra large front lenses 3 in. in diameter. Complete with the “© New Universal’? Hand-feed Arc Lamp in case, £22. NEWTON & CO., 72 Wigmore Street, London, W. ‘Velegrams: ‘‘ Newtobar, London.” STUDY rue LENS It is the Key to Success in Photography. Established over 200 Years. Who can expect to excel who does not understand how to use the diaphragm, the swing back, the rising front, focussing scale, &c., &c.? All such questions are lucidly and simply explained in “PHOTOGRAPHIC LENSES A SIMPLE TREATISE.” . 350 pages, 44 plates, numerous diagrams and ilustrations, cloth bound. R. & J. BECK, Ltd., 88, CORNHILL, *9 London, E.cC. REYNOLDS & BRANSON, Ltd. GRAND PRIX, TURIN, 1911. SOLE AUTHORISED MAKERS OF STROUD & RENDELL SCIENCE LANTERNS. The *‘ University” Lan- tern, with Russian iron body, sliding baseboard, two superior objectives, plane silvered mirror ‘‘ A,” which is moved by a knob causing the rays to be reflected upwards for the projection of objects in a_ horizontal plane, condensers 4} in. diam., prism with silvered back which can be used at ‘‘C,” or aS an erecting prism in. mount “D,” lime-light burner, slide carrier. Price complete in travelling case, withour reversible adjustable table “ B,” £9 10 0 Ditto, ditto, with ‘‘ Phoenix” ar Lamp... Seoul ete 33 Reversible adjustable table ‘‘ B” for supporting apparatus, extra 7 6 The ‘‘ College” Tanteri without eeustaple table, with lime-light burner complete eeitouG: Ditto, ditto, with “Phoenix” arc lamp .. Ee 9) 108 (0 Slit and prism for spectrum with BUBRAED for either lantern... 1 7h 3 Polariser and analyser ... a “0 2 ONG Catalogues: post fread Optical Lanterns and Accessory Apparatus, 223 pages. Abridged List of Chemical Apparatus and Chemicals, 44 pages. Mechanical Models for teaching Building and Machine Construction. 14 COMMERCIAL STREET, LEEDS. 0 ‘ NEGRETTI & ZAMBRA’S “Hyetograph” is a Recording Rain Gauge dis- tinguished by its simplicity ; and low price—£6 15 0 Lilustrated Price List oy Recording and other Rain Gauges sent post free. 38 HOLBORN VIADUCT, E.C. 45 CORNHILL, E.C. 122 RECENT ST., W LONDON. XXVI NAT Oia [SEPTEMBER 19, 1912, IMPERIAL COLLECE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOCY. | SOUTH KENSINGTON, LONDON, S.W. Including as integral parts : THE ROVAL COLLEGE OF SCIENCE, THE ROYAL SCHOOL OF MINES, THE CITY AND GUILDS (ENGINEERING) COLLEGE. Visitor: HIS MAJESTY THE KING. CuairmaAn: The Most Hon. the MARQUESS of CREWE, K.G. Courses of instruction and opportunities for ADVANCED STUDY AND RESEARCH are provided in the following branches of Science, viz. :— ROYAL COLLEGE OF SCIENCE. MATHEMATICS AND MECHANICS (Professor PERRY, F.R.S.) PHYSICS (Professor CALLENDAR, F.R.S., Professor the Hon. R. J. RUTT, F.R.S.). CHEMISTRY, including Chemical Technology (Professor BRERETON BASH F_R.S.). FUE! D REFRACTORY F.R.S.). BOTANY (Urolessoe FARMER, F.R.S.) PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AND PATHOLOGY (Professor BLACK- MAN). TECHNOLOGY OF WOODS AND FIBRES (Professor GROOM). ZOOLOGY (Professor SEDGWICK, F.R.S., Professor MACBRIDE), ENTOMOLOGY (Professor MAXWELL LEFROY). GEOLOGY (Professor WATTS, F.R.S.) ROYAL SCHOOL OF MINES. MINING (Professor FRECHEVILLE). METALLURGY (Professor CARLYLE). CITY AND GUILDS (ENGINEERING) COLLEGE. (:) CIVIL & MECHANICAL ENGINEERING (Professor DALBY). (2) ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING (Professor MATHER, F.R.S.) Prospectus and all particulars sent free on application to the SECRETARY, Imperial College IMPERIAL COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, SOUTH KENSINGTON, LONDON, INCLUDING ROYAL COLLEGE OF SCiENCE, ROYAL SCHOOL OF MINES, CITY AND GUILDS (ENGINEERING) COLLEGE. Special Courses of Advanced Lectures, as follows, will begin during October next :— MATERIALS (Professor BONE, Way Subjects Conducted by S { Assistant-Professor A. Fow Ler, A.R.C.S., pectroscopy ... as acoi\| MIR RWACGSURAREG: Economic Geology : Prof. W. W. Warts, LL.D., Sc.D, M.Sc, A. Mining Geology F.R.S., F.G.S., and _Assistant-Professor CNG Curris; D:Sc,ukeGiss Ate = _{ Hersert Lapwortu, D:Sc., M.Inst.C.E., B. Engineering Geology \ F.G.S., and Professor W. W. Warts. C. Geologyof Petroleum A. Wang, A.R.C.S., D.Sc., F.GS. Particulars of these and other Courses to follow free on application to the SECRETARY. SESSION OPENS 30th SEPTEMBER, i912. EAST LONDON COLLEGE. (UNIVERSITY OF LONDON.) Classics ... F. R. Earp, M.A, English H. Betroc, M.A. French Mina Paguierr. German ... J. Steppat, Ph.D. History F, Crarke, M.A. Mathematics... THE PRINCIPAL, Physics eee) ACs CULAR ESD: SC.,) hake: Chemistry . *J. T. Hewitt, M.A., F.R.S. Botany ... F. E. Fritscu, D.Sc. Geology .. W. L. Carter, M.A. Civil and Mechanical Engineering D. A. Low, M.I.M.E Electrical Engineering J. T. Morris, M.1.E.E. * University Professors. Fees ten guineas perannum, Valuable Entrance Scholarships awarded by Drapers’ Company. Special facilities for Post-Graduate and Research Students. of courses of study, &c., on application to the REGISTRAR, or to J. L. S. HATTON, M.A., Principal, at the College. THE NORTH OF SCOTLAND COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE. SESSION 1912-13. Applications for the Calendar for 1912-13, showing complete Courses in Agriculture, suitable for Farmers, Land Agents, Managers, and Teachers of Agriculiural Classes, should be made to the SECRETARY. Particulars ‘The WINIER SESSION opens on Thursday, October ro. GEO. HENDRY, Secretary. 414 Union Street, Abeidzen, Septemb r, 1912. i THE DAVY-FARADAY RESEARCH LABORATORY ROYAL INSTITUTION, No. 20 ALBEMARLE STREET, W. DIRECTOR: Professor Sir JAMES DEWAR, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. This Laboratory was founded by the late Dr. Ladwig Mond, D.Se., F.R.S., as a Memorial of Davy and Faraday, for the purpose of promoting, by original research, the development and extension of Chemical and Physical Science. Persons fully qualified to undertake original scientific research admitted to the Laboratory are entitled to the use of the apparatus, and to such materials and chemicals as may be supplied by the Director, subject to the approval of the Paboratory Committee. The Staff of the Laboratory, and a trained Mechanician, are under the contro! of the Director MICHAELMAS TERM.—Monday, October 7, to Saturday, December 21. LENT 1ERM.—Monday, January 13, to Saturday, March 15. EASTER TERM.—Monday, April 7, to Saturday, July 26. Applicants can receive full information regarding the Laboratory by addressing the Assistant SecRETARY, Royal Institution, No. 2: Albemarle Street, W. UNIVERSITY OF LONDON. KING’S COLLEGE. DIVISION OF NATURAL SCIENCE. In this Division a Course of Study in Science is provided suitable for general education or for the Examinations of the London and other Universities. Students are admitted into the Division either as Matriculated or non- Matriculated Students. Several valuable Scholarships and Prizes are offered in this Division. The Laboratories of the College are open to post-Graduates and Research Students by special arrangement with the Heads of Departments. The following are the Departments under the charge of the various Professors, assisted by the Junior Staff :— Mathematics Prof. S. A. F. Wuitr, M.A. Physics eee c G. Bark a, D.Sc., F.R.S. q rof. Joun M. Tuomson, LU.D., F.R.S. Chemistry aw { Brof HL jacwsom, FLG, RES Botany Prof. W. B. Borromtey, Ph.D., F.L.S. Zoology ... Prof. AkTHUR Denpy, D.Sc., F.R.S. Geology and Mir eralozy T. FrankKuin Sipty, D.Sc. Pay scloey = x { Frog D. Havuisurton, M.D., B.Sc., The next TERM commences WEDNESDAY, OCTOBER 2, 1912. For further particulars apply to the SECRETARY, King's College, Strand, London, W.C. UNIVERSITY OF LONDON. KING’S COLLEGE. EVENING CLASS DEPARTMENT. COURSES are arranged for the INTERMEDIATE and FINAL EXAMINATIONS for the B.A. and B.Sc. DEGREES of the UNIVERSITY OF LONDON. Students taking the full Course pay Composition Fees and rank as Internal Students of the University. Eveninc Ctasses are also held for Mechanical and Electrical Engineer- ing, Architecture and Building Construction, Drawing, Mathematics, Physics, and other Science Subjects. For full information and prospectus apply to the Dean (Mr. R. W. K Edwards) or to the Secrerary, King’s College, Strand, London, W.C. CITY OF LONDON COLLEGE. ACTING IN CONJUNCTION WITH THE LONDON CHAMBER OF COMMERCE. WHITE ST., and ROPEMAKER ST., MOORFIELDS, E.C. (Near Moorgate and Liverpool Street Stations). Principat: SIDNEY HUMPHRIES, B.A., LL.B. (Cantab.) Paleheeliias term gehts ON September 30th. EVENING CLASSES LABORATORIES for Practical Work BOTANY, GEOLOGY. Special Courses for Conjoint Board, Pharmaceutical and other examir - ations. Classes are also held in all Commercial Subjects, in Languages, and Literature. Art Studio. All Classes are open to both sexes. DAY SCHOOL OF COMMERCE. Preparation fora COMMERCIAL or BUSINESS career. Prospectuses, and all other information, gratis on application. DAVID SAVAGE, Secretary. in SCIENCE. Well-equipped in CHEMISTRY, NATURE 65 THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER ‘19, 1912. CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY. (1) Bleaching and Dyeing of Vegetable Fibrous Materials. By Julius Hibner. With an Intro- duction by Prof. R. Meldola, F.R.S. Pp. xxili+434. (London: Constable and Co., Ltd., 1912.) Price 14s. net. (2) German Varnish-making. By Prof. Max Bottler. Authorised Translation with Notes on American Varnish and Paint Manufacture. By A. H. Sabin. Pp. vii+363. (New York: john Wiley and Sons; London: Chapman and Hall, Etds,, ror2.) Price 15s. net. (3) Allen’s Commercial Organic Analysis. Edited by W. A. Davis and S. S. Sadtler. Fourth edition. Entirely re-written. Vol. vi. Pp. ix+726. (London: J. and A. Churchill, 1912.) Price 21s. net. (1) HIS is a practical manual intended for the use of students and junior employees. The purely scientific aspect of bleaching and dyeing is not within the scope of the work. As Prof. Meldola remarks in an interesting introduc- tion, Mr. Hiibner knows the theoretical side of the industry as well as anybody does . . . but his present treatment of his subject is not intended to supersede but to superadd to the scientific treat- ment. About one-third of the book is devoted to the description of bleaching operations, including some preliminary sections dealing with the materials employed, namely, the textile fibres, water, chemicals, and mordants. After a few pages on mercerising, the rest of the space is allotted to the discussion of dyestuffs and dyeing procedure. Practical directions for carrying out the operations are given, and frequently different methods of applying the same dyestuffs are adduced for purposes of comparison. There are numerous illustrations, chiefly of sections of machinery; and a feature of these is that in many cases they are made much more intelligible than usual by the use of a two-colour device to show the course of the fabric through the machine. The book can be cordially recommended as a concise and up-to-date compilation of practical information. (2) Mr. Sabin is an enthusiast on the subject of paints and varnishes, and his translation of Prof. Bottler’s book is far from being dry reading. The original is too concise and brief, in the translator’s opinion; he has therefore added a number of notes en passant. ‘These are printed distinct from the main text, and include useful bibliographical references, explanatory comments, and extensions NO. 2238, VOL. 90] of matters mentioned in the original or suggested by it. For example, when resenes are, first referred to (as constituents of copal and other resins), Mr. Sabin interpolates a brief account of their properties, with a reference and a criticism. Hence the work may be looked upon as giving the German practice in varnish-making, annotated from the American point of view. But in addition to the running notes, Mr. Sabin contributes whole chapters also; one upon miscellaneous points in the manufacture of varnish, and one on the nature and constitution of paint; there is, further, a useful appendix of notes and references on analytical methods employed in the examination of varnishes. It is worthy of remark that, according to the translator, “our (i.e., the American) methods are based upon English practice, and the English alone among foreign nations are still able to sell varnish here against our best makers.” (3) The general characteristics of,the new edition of Allen’s “Commercial Organic Analysis” are now tolerably familiar to users of the work, and in this connection it need only be noted that the sixth volume follows much the same lines as its predecessors. It is concerned with the chief organic bases and the alkaloids. All the latter, however, are not dealt with, some being relegated to the succeeding volume. The amines, anilines, naphthylamines, and their allies are discussed by Messrs. Davis, Sadtler, and Glover respectively. In dealing with the alkaloids, the plan has been to have first a general description of the vegetable alkaloids (this is contributed by Dr. Henry), and then to have the various groups of these products dealt with by special contributors. It is perhaps invidious to single out any sections where all appear to be well done, but mention may be made of the articles on the volatile alkaloids and the opium group by Mr. F. O. Taylor; those on the aconite alkaloids and on atropine and its allies by Mr. F. H. Carr; and that on the cinchona group by Mr. Oliver Chick. The section on caffeine, tea, and coffee, by Messrs. Fox and Sage- man, is a very useful contribution, as is also that on cocoa and chocolate by Mr. Whymper; the former is illustrated with photographs of leaves said to have been used as adulterants of tea, and by some diagrammatic sketches showing the microscopic structure tea, and chicory. of coffee, The descriptions of the theoretical chemistry of the various products dealt with in the book appear to be trustworthy, and it is a convenience to have them in conjunction with the analytical working details. eee Chiriquian Antiquities. (J///ustrated.) By Dr. A. C Rladdoa RS... oo a eeeneene es see 73 The British Associationat Dundee. ........ 73 SectionD. — Zoology. — Opening Address by P. Chalmers Mitchell, D.Sc., F.R.S., President of ebevsection: . . |) (ae ee 75 Section E.—Geography.—From the Opening Address by Colonel Sir C. M. Watson, K.C.M.G., C.B., Bresident, of the Sectionies-mem.s |. 1s ane 81 Section G.—Opening Address by Prof. Archibald Barr, D.Sc., President of the Section. .... 83 INIOECS Meme Es <= cc, -° | aie ae 88 Our Astronomical Column :— Galeis;Gomet, 1912... 2 jaune eos, 5 92 The Total Solar Eclipse of tiene: UO] - ste ee 92 The Perseid Shower of Meteors . ...... eels} The Solar Constant and Climatic Changes. . . .. . 93 Dhe Leeds Astronomical Society: - 2. 22. ee 93 The Period and Orbit ofa Persei. . . ....-:+- - 93 New Rules for Life-saving Appliances in British Ships Ee es eels oes 03 Atmospheric aeeenure aoe Temperature 5d A 94 PlanktonInvestigations . ; )) eas 5 5 = ees 94 The Place of Mathematics in Engineering Practice. By Sir William H. White, K.C.B., F.R.S. . . . . 95 University and Educational Intelligence ...... 96 Societies;and’Academies’. \ 3 s9ae5. sons 97 Books*Recewvedy. «<< 2 cs eaememee aise one oe ay ihe A WEEKLY ILLUSTRATED: JOURNAL OF S€IENCE. “To the solid ground Of Nature trusts the mind which builds for aye. —Worpswortn. No. 2230, VoL. 90] TH _ THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 26, 1912 _ [Price SIXPENCE _ Registered as a Newspaper at the General Post Office.] (All ‘Rights Reserved, LANTERN POLARISCOPE. Elbow BoEsCope, for iMustma eet the various phe- nomena of polarized light, with polarizing glass plates, prism and lenses, mounted in brass, with rack adjustment to focus tube, in case, complete, &7 7s. NEWTON & CO. 72 WIGMORE ST., LONDON, w. THE RAINBOW CUP C. V. BOYS'’S PATENT. MAGICAL COLOUR ASTOUNDING EFFECTS A NEW INSTRUMENT or studying the colours of thin films. Produces the most beautiful colour forms and colour changes imaginable. Price 25s., including two bottles of special soap solution and full instructions. SOLE MAKERS: JOHN J. GRIFFIN & SONS, Ltd. Kemble St., KINGSWAY, LONDON, W.C. REYNOLDS & BRANSON, Ltd. “RYSTOS” MICROSCOPE PLATFORM For use with the Stroud & Rendell Seience Lanterns. This platform is adjustable, so that any ordinary microscope (the draw tube being removed) can be used for projection work. The platform can be raised or lowered in order that the eptical centre of the microscope may coincide with that of the lantern.. c com El OY) es Catalogue of Optical Lanterns and descript Z Apparatus for the S. & R. Lanterns, lar of Accessory t free. TUE C @080809080008080 eo e080 bet Sot tot tot tot sot sot tok tok tok tok tek tet tet tet ted tot Ped tot tok toh 4 8: “Hyetograph” is a Recording Rain Gauge that has given great satisfaction by its perfect reliability. Se 3 Illustrated Price List of $e Recording & other Rain eo Gauges sent post free. 80 88 38 Holborn Viaduct, 3 London, E.C. 45 Cornhill, E.C. 122 Regent St., W XXXVI NATURE [SEPTEMBER 26, 1912 IMPERIAL COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, SOUTH KENSINGTON, LONDON, S.W., INCLUDING ROYAL COLLEGE OF SCiENCE, ROYAL SCHOOL OF MINES, CITY AND GUILDS (ENGINEERING) COLLEGE. Special Courses of Advanced Lectures, as follows, will begin during October next :-— Conducted by Gneciroscopy, { Assistant-Professor A. FowLer, Spectroscopy -» +» +) FRIAS. F.R:S. { Prof. W. W. Watts, LL.D., Sc.D, M.Sc, A. Mining Geology... F.R.S., F.G.S., and Assistant-Professor \_c G. Curtis, D.Sc, F.GS. 5 heroes oe { Herpert Lapwortn, J).Sc., M.Inst.C.E. B. Engineering Geology, GS, and Professor W. W: WATTS. A. Wang, A.R.C.S., D.Sc., F.G.S. Particulars of these and other Courses to follow free on application to the SECRETARY. Subjects A.R.C.S., Economic Geology : C. Geology of Petroleum IMPERIAL COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, SOUTH KENSINGTON, LONDON, S.W., INCLUDING ROYAL COLLEGE OF SCIENCE, ROYAL SCHOOL OF MINES, and CITY AND GUILDS (ENGINEERING) COLLEGE. A Special Course of Lectures, with practical work, on PLANT BIO-CHEMISTRY, itable for advanced students in Botany and Plant Physiology, will be given by Mr. S. G. PAINE, F.I-C., commencing on October g next. Particulars of these and other Courses to follow free on application to the SECRETARY. SESSION OPENS 30th SPPTEMBER, 1912. EAST LONDON COLLEGE. (UNIVERSITY OF LONDON.) Classics ... F. R. Earp, M.A. English H. Bettoc, M.A. french Mina Pagulier. German ... J. Steppat, Ph.D. History... “cr F. Crarke, M.A. Mathematics... . THE PRINCIPAL. Physics ... Sree CoE ORES) eD) OCr mia as Chemistry .. *J. T. Hewitt, M.A., F-R.S. Botany... aS F. E. Fritscu, D.Sc. Geology .. aie oe Ass W. L. Carter, M.A. Civil and Mechanical Engineering Fs = D. A. Low, M.I.M.E Electrical Engineering J. T. Morris, M.1.E.E. * University Professors. Fees ten guineas per annum. Valuable Entrance Scholarships awarded y Drapers’ Company. Special facilities for Post-Graduate and Research Students. of courses of study, &c., on application to the REGISTRAR, or to J. L. S. HATTON, M.A., Principal, at the College. Particulars ENGINEERING AND TECHNICAL OPTICS. NORTHAMPTON POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE, CLERKENWELL, LONDON, E.C. MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING AND ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. Full Day Courses in the Theory and Practice of the above Subjects will commence on Monday, September 30, 1912. The courses in Mechanical Engineering include specialisation in Automobile and Aéronautical Engineering, and those in Electrical Engineering include specialisation in Radio-Telegraphy. ENTRANCE EXAMINATION on Wednesday and Thursday, September 25 and. 26. These courses include periods spent in Commercial Workshops, and extend over four years. They also prepare for the degree of B.Sc. in Engineering at the University of London. Fees, 45 or S11 per annum. THREE ENTRANCE SCHOLARSHIPS of the value of £52 each will be offered for competition at the Entrance Examination in September next. TECHNICAL OPTICS. Full and Part Time Day Courses in all branches of this important department cf Applied Science given in specially equipped laboratories and lecture rooms. Full particulars as to fees, dates, &c., and all information respecting the work of the Institute. can be obtained at the Institute or on application to R. MULLINEUX WALMSLEY, D.Sc., Principal. BIRKBECK COLLEGE, BREAMS BUILDINGS, CHANCERY LANE, E.C. Principal: G. Armitage-Smith, M.A., D.Lit. COURSES OF STUDY (Day and Evening) for the Degrees of the UNIVERSITY OF LONDON in the FACULTIES OF SCIENCE & ARTS (PASS AND HONOURS) under RECOGNISED TEACHERS of the University. SCIENCE.—Chemistry, Physics, Mathematies (Pure and Applied), Botany, Zoology, Geology and Mineralogy. ARTS.—Latin, Greek, English, French, German, Italian, History, Geography, Logie, Economies, Mathematics (Pure and Applied). Evening Courses for the Degrees in Economics and Law. = { Day: Science, £17 10s.; Arts, £10 10s. SESSIONAL FEES \ Evening: Science, Arts, or Economics, £5 5s. POST-GRADUATE AND RESEARCH WORK. Particulars on application to the Secretary. South-Western Polytechnic Institute, MANRESA ROAD, CHELSEA, S.W. Evening Courses of Lectures with practical work :— BIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY. HUGH MacLEAN, M.D., Ch.B., M.Sc. HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY & HISTOLOGY. BE. L. KENNAWAY, M.D., M.A. SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. S. E. CHANDLER, D.Sc., A.R.C.S., F.L.S. Further particulars on application to the SECRETARY. SIDNEY SKINNER, M.A., Principal. CITY OF LONDON COLLEGE. ACTING IN CONJUNCTION WITH THE LONDON CHAMBER OF COMMERCE. WHITE ST.,and ROPEMAKER S8T., MOORFIELDS, E.C, (Near Moorgate and Liverpool Street Stations). Principat: SIDNEY HUMPHRIES, B.A., LL.B. (Cantab.) EVENING CLASSES in SCIENCE. Well-equipped LABORATORIES for Practical Work in CHEMISTRY, BOTANY, GEOLOGY. Special Courses for Conjoint Board, Pharmaceutical and other examin- ations. Classes are also held in all Commercial Subjects, in Languages, and Literature. Art Studio. All Classes are open to both sexes. DAY SCHOOL OF COMMERCE. Preparation fora COMMERCIAL or BUSINESS career. Prospectuses, and all other information, gratis on application. DAVID SAVAGE, Secretary. Le BOROUGH POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE, BOROUGH ROAD, LONDON, S.E. CHEMISTRY DEPARTMENT. ’ Under the direction of C. Dorée, M.A., D.Sc. The Classes—Elementary, Advanced and Honours, Inorganic and Organic Chemistry—commence September 23, 1912. The following Special Evening Courses in Applied Chemistry have also been arranged :— THE CHEMISTRY AND TECHNOLOGY OF THE ESSENTIAL OILS. Lectures and Practical Work, Wednesday, 7.30. B.Sc., F.I.C. THE CHEMISTRY AND MANUFACTURE OF FOODSTUFFS. E. Hinks, B.Sc., F.1.C., and T. Macara, Cc. T. Bennett, Lectures, Monday, 7.30. ch i ELECTROCHEMISTRY. Wednesday and Friday, 7.30. THE ANALYSIS AND VALUATION OF LAUNDRY TRADE MATERIALS. A Practical Course, Monday and Friday, 7.30. C. Dortr, M.A., D.Se For full particulars apply to the Principal, C. T. Mirus. NATURE 99 THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 26, 1ror1z2. SCIENTIFIC PEDAGOGY. (1) Rationalist English Educators. By Dr. G. E. Hodgson. Pp. 254. (London: S.P.C.K.; New York: E. S. Gorham, 1912.) Price 3s. 6d. (2) The Montessori Method: Scientific Pedagogy as Applied to Child Education in “‘ The Children’s Houses.’’ With additions and revisions by the author. By Maria Montessori. Translated from the Italian by Anne E. George. Pp. xliii+ 377. (London: W. Heinemann, 1912.) Price 7s. 6d. net. (3) The Evolution of Educational Theory. By Prof. John Adams. Pp. ix+410. (London: Macmil- lan and Co., Ltd., 1912.) Price ros. net. (The Schools of Philosophy.) (1) ROBABLY Miss Hodgson is by tempera- ment incapable of entering sympatheti- cally into the point of view of those of whom she writes in this volume—Locke, the Edgeworths, and John Stuart Mill. In any case she should show a more adequate acquaintance with the Edgeworths when she writes about them. In the first line of her essay she misquotes the title of the only book of theirs she refers to, and continues so to mis- quote it throughout her text. A competent reader will soon discover that she has missed the message of the book in her superficial résumé of its con- tents. It is therefore scarcely necessary to examine her criticisms. The treatment of Locke is the most satisfactory performance of the three. (2) Mdme. Montessori’s work for young children in the slum districts of Rome had received wide- spread recognition before the translation of her chief. pedagogical writing appeared. The ground had in other ways been well prepared, and now we are threatened with a regular invasion of Montessori machinery. This is not said to belittle what has been accomplished in the “Children’s Houses ” in Rome. The idea of a central nursery for children from three to seven in the great tene- ment blocks was admirable in itself, and it was made still more so by associating the parents with its management and by appointing directrices who should live on the spot amongst those whom they were trying to serve. As a creat social experi- ment, there is much to learn from Mdme. Montes- sori’s success, whether it is the little school societies themselves which we regard, or the whole social setting of the establishments which she set up. From the point of view of scientific pedagogy, the book and the experiment are interesting because of the sources of Mdme. Montessori’s in- spiration. Primarily a medical woman, the author made a special study of psychiatry, and took up NO. 2239, VOL. 90] the education of mentally deficient children. This brought her into touch with the pioneer works of Séguin and Itard, and led her to take courses in experimental psychology. For two years she was the working director of the State orthophrenic school. Her experience and her reading had led to the collection of a great quantity of didactic matériel, but, as she found at Bicétre and else- where, admirable matériel is of little use, even when used in ways that are technically accurate, unless the spirit of its inventor is present. The idea of these “‘tenement nurseries ” and of applying the apparatus designed for the mechani- cal exercise of defective neural apparatus to the education and training of young but normal children occurred to her. The volume before us is a simple and fascinating account of what has been accomplished on these lines. Obviously much more than the transference of the apparatus was involved. It had to be adapted to children in whom the power of self-direction and self-educa- tion was present. But the principle of “training the senses,” &c., was preserved. It is an interest- ing reversal of the ordinary tendency which is to apply modified infant school methods to the defec- tive schools, and another instance of the way in which the scientific study of the abnormal may react upon the treatment of the normal. Whether or not Dr. Montessori’s methods will lead to a reversion to formal training—none the less soul- less because it is derived from modern psychology —is perhaps debateable. That there is some danger of this nobody who knows the schools will be likely to deny. (3) It is quite impossible to do justice to Prof. Adams’s latest contribution to the literature of education within the limits laid down. It is the first volume of a series which is to appear under the general editorship of Sir Henry Jones—‘‘ The Schools of Philosophy.” The task assigned to Prof. Adams was a supremely difficult one, and we know nobody who could have attempted it with greater chances of success. He had no pre- decessors in the field upon whose work he might have improved, as he necessarily abandoned the usual methods of presentation employed by his- torians of educational thought. Instead of a strictly chronological treatment he has given us a broad view of the development of educational concepts—of their interaction, of the recognition of their mutual implications, and of their relation to social and scientific advance. Thus many of the dangers implicit in the study of the history of education are avoided—there is no mistaking the external shell of teaching devices for the spirit and substance of the thought behind them. It need scarcely be said that Prof. Adams’s E 100 NATURE [SEPTEMBER 26, 1912 method occasionally upsets the conventional sense of proportion. Some of the things that we had supposed really mattered are treated with indiffer- ence; a new sense of values is introduced. Whether these will bear closer examination remains to be seen, but in any case we may warmly congratulate the author on the successful completion of an arduous undertaking. jane! ATOMIC DYNAMICS. Prinzipien der Atomdynamik. By Prof. J. Stark. I. Teil: “Die elektrischen Quanten.” Pp. x+124. (Leipzig: S. Hirzel, rg10.) Price 3.20 marks. II. Teil: “Die elementare Strahlung.” Pp. xv+286. (Leipzig: S. Hirzel, 1911.) Price 7.80 marks. N this work Prof. Stark gives a systematic account of the experimental facts which throw light on the constitution of the atom, and develops a theory of the structure of the atom, mainly on the basis of optical phenomena. The work is divided into three parts. Part i. is in- tended as an introduction, and deals with our knowledge of the nature and properties of elec- trons, and of the energy and structure of the electromagnetic field. Little space is devoted to the description of the methods by which the experimental results were obtained, and more prominence is given to the discussion of the validity of the experiments and their value elucidating the internal structure of the atom. In chapter iii. the constitution of the atom on Stark’s theory is described. It is assumed that electrons and positively charged entities (archions) which are endowed with mass form the constituent parts of anatom. On account of magnetic forces, the archions form a definite configuration in the atom, and cannot be separated without causing its disruption. On the other hand, the electrons which are attached to the archions can be separated without causing the atom to decay. This atomic system, which is more fully developed in part ii., is capable of explaining and systematising many of the experimental facts. The second part is mainly concerned with electromagnetic radiation. After a discussion of the theoretical principles of radiation, the grouping of spectrum lines into series and the relations existing between the frequencies of the lines are considered. A detailed discussion of line and band spectra and similar phenomena exhibited by R6ntgen rays is also given. The archion theory is then worked out more fully, and hypotheses are put forward to account for the origin of spectra. The band spectra are ascribed to the vibrations of the electrons which are attached to the archions, NO. 2239, VOL. 90] in /as to their cost and endurance. while the archion itself, after losing the electron attached to it, is the elementary oscillator respon- sible for the line spectrum. The continuous spectrum is ascribed to the vibrations of the free electrons. These by frequent collisions suffer irregular accelerations, and thus give rise to a continuous succession of frequencies. A full and interesting account of the bearing of the author’s theory on such problems as the Doppler effect in canal rays, the Zeeman effect, fluorescence, and allied phenomena is given. Also the results obtained with Réntgen and y-rays are considered in relation to the theory. The third part, which has not yet appeared, is, according to a statement in the preface, mainly intended for the chemist. It will deal with the structure of the electromagnetic field on the sur- face of chemical atoms, and with the forces which hold the atoms together in chemical combinations. A work of this nature, which aims at a discus- sion of the principles of atomic dynamics, must to a large extent be of a speculative character. In this connection, however, it is important to remem- ber that the work always distinguishes very clearly between experimental facts and speculative theory. Also, the reader who does not agree with the speculations put forward in the work will find in it a very useful record of all researches which con- tribute to the elucidation of the internal structure of the atom. Perhaps one misses a fuller discus- sion of radioactive phenomena, which are inti- mately connected with the problems discussed in this work. Stark’s book, which deals with such a fascinating subject in an interesting manner, will prove very useful as a guide to further research. ERGG: MODERN ROAD CONSTRUCTION. Modern Road Construction: a Practical Treatise for the Use of Engineers, Students, Members of Local Authorities, @-c. By Francis Wood. Pp. xi+137; illustrated. (London: Charles Griffin and Co., Ltd., 1912.) Price 4s. 6d. net. HE conditions relating to the maintenance of roads during the last few years have undergone so much alteration, owing to the in- troduction of motor vehicles, that the publication of a practical treatise on the subject is fully justified. The book now under notice cannot fail to be of great service to those having charge of urban roads. The author, who has the supervision of the roads in the Borough of Fulham, appears to have devoted a great deal of attention to observ- ing and recording the wear and tear of different kinds of material used; and in obtaining statistics The book gives, SEPTEMBER 26, 1912] NATURE IOl in a concise, and not too technical a form, the leading characteristics and details of modern road construction, and the results of the traffic to which these roads are subject. The relative merits of macadam, granite sets, asphalt, and wood paving are fully dealt with. The author considers that macadam on a good foundation, for horse-drawn vehicles, is the best, and the condition of these roads is greatly im- proved, both as to cleanliness and endurance, when the surface is sprayed with tar; that creosoted soft wood, such as red pine or yellow deal, gives more satisfactory results for urban traffic as regards wear than the harder woods, such as oak or jarrah; that wood paving has the advantage of being silent and not slippery ; and that for motor traffic asphalt paving is the best. The relative endurance, and the time the surface will last without replacing, is given as two years for macadam laid on a good foundation; for soft ereosoted wood paving laid on concrete, fifteen years; and for rock asphalt on concrete, twenty years. Statistics are given showing the great advan- tage that is derived from the use of tar for spray- ing macadam roads, both in the prevention of dust and by increasing the length of the life of such roads, which the author calculates at 33 per cent. It is also shown that the use of motor vehicles reduces considerably the amount of refuse that has to be removed from the surface of the roads. The book contains eleven chapters dealing with a general introduction on modern road construc- tion; macadam roads; wear of roads; effect of trafic; tarring macadam roads; methods of using tar and bitumen; roiiers and rolling; paving; cost of maintenance of roads; with appendices giving a specification for road-making; wood paving ; tarring ; and copies of the Road Board specifica- tion for pitch. HISTORICAL GEODESY. Grandeur et Figure de la Terre. By J. B. J. Delambre. Ouvrage augmenté de notes, de cartes, et publié par les soins de G. Bigourdan. Pp. viii+4o02. (Paris: Gauthier-Villars, 1912.) Price 15 francs. ‘i ES conquétes passent, et ces opérations restent,” was the compliment with which Napoleon accepted from Delambre a copy of his “Base du Systéme métrique décimal.” The publication of this work of the great French geodesist offers a good reason why the second half of the above remark was as true as the first. The manuscript which Delambre left unpublished at his death gave an interesting his- NO. 2239, VOL. 90] torical account of the pioneer work of the eighteenth century in investigating the size and shape of the earth, and it also reveals the value of his own share in that work. Names well known outside the world of astronomy appear in the book : Colbert gave the first order for a measure of an are along the meridian of Paris; Robespierre signed a document expelling Lavoisier, Laplace, Coulomb, and Delambre, with others, from the Commission des Poids et Mesures. Many other French names also occur in the book to remind the world how much geodesy owed in its earliest stages to the Académie des Sciences. The direct effect on contemporary scientific work of such a tremendous upheaval as the French Revolution is well shown in Delambre’s account of the delays caused by his repeated arrests at the hands of ignorant provincials. One is tempted to wonder whether, if the metric system had been established at a time when more friendly relations existed between France and England, this country would also have adopted it. M. de Talleyrand’s invitation to the British Parliament to appoint a commission of Fellows of the Royal Society to cooperate with members of l1’Académie des Sciences in fixing natural and invariable units of weight and length, is still of more than academic interest. Enough has been said of the historical side of this book. It must now be added that Delambre’s accounts of the surveys of arcs in the different parts of the world are marked by very close study of all available sources of information. Where possible, the original manuscripts were studied, and by very acute criticism the faults of much of the earlier work and some of the later work were elucidated. Several investigators, notably J. Cassini, come in for pretty severe treatment; Delambre’s critical remarks may still be most useful to warn the young observer as to faults to be avoided. The accounts of the journeys of some of the surveying parties are very interest- ing, in particular the journal of the Abbé Outhier on the Lapland survey of 1736. Curiously interest- ing, too, it is to see new items of knowledge gradually entering in as factors in elucidating the problem under discussion. Thus the first emer- gence of spherical trigonometry and the modifica- tion of results owing to the discovery of nutation, come upon the present-day reader with a curious sense of shock. A debt of gratitude is owing to M. Bigourdan for his work in editing the manuscript. We note only one misprint; Groombridge is spelt wrongly on p. 314. The successful way in which the editing has been done may be taken as a sign of the pleasure that M. Bigourdan has felt in carry- ing through the undertaking. [SEPTEMBER 26, 1912 102 NATURE OUR BOOKSHELF. | equation in which degrees of temperature, minutes pa ; a A of time, and cubic centimetres of solutions are added Norse Tales. By Edward Thomas. Pp. 159. | together.” (Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1912.) Price 2s. Tuis book is a successful attempt to popularise the romance and poetry of ancient Norse litera- ture. Though he has not quite attained the dignity and charm of style which render Sir G. Dasent’s “Story of Burnt Njal”’ and the “ Popular Tales’ from the collection of Asbjorsen classics in our folk-lore literature, this presentment by Mr. Thomas offers little ground for criticism. The collection falls into two parts :—first, stories of the gods, a rearrangement of the Prose or Younger Edda, compiled by Snorri Sturleson in the thirteenth century; secondly, an adaptation of the excellent collection of early poetry made by Gudbrand Vigfuson and F. York Powell, under the title of “Corpus Poeticum Boreale.” Mr. Thomas, perhaps wisely, does not discuss at length the many problems of the Eddas. All that is certain is that the poems were collected in Iceland, that some bear internal evidence of being older than others, and that they assumed their present shape long after the time of their com- position. The land in which they were originally written is still uncertain. The editors of the “Corpus Poeticum Boreale” suggest that some may have their origin in these islands, or may have been re-edited here ‘‘at a time when the Irish Church, with her fervent faith, her weird and wild imaginings, and curious half-Eastern legends, was impressing the poetic mind on one side, while the rich and splendid court of Eadgar or Canute would stimulate it on the other.” The introduction by Mr. Thomas is excellent, so far as it goes. But as the book seems to be intended for school use, it might with advantage have been extended, and a bolder attempt might have been made to prepare the student for the assimilation of much that is unfamiliar. We must, however, be thankful for what he has given us: “The Making of the Worlds, of Gods, and of Giants”; the twisting of Loki in the cave which causes earthquakes; the tale of Balder and Loki, where a note might have been added to direct the reader to Prof. Frazer’s explanation of the myth; Thor, Helgi, and Sigurd—a splendid feast of poetry and romance. LETTERS TO THE EDITOR: {The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of Nature. No notice is taken of anonymous communications.] Further Researches into Induced Cell Reproduction and Cancer. THE reviewer of Mr. H. C. Ross’s book, ‘‘ Further Researches into Induced Cell Reproduction and Cancer,” vol. ii. (Nature, August 15, page 601), appears to me to have been very unfortunate in saying that “The accuracy of the observations now described depends upon the accuracy of those described before, and they in turn depend upon the accuracy of an NO. 2239, VOL. 90] The accuracy of Mr. Ross’s observations does not depend in any way upon the equation referred to, which is simply a formula for making a certain jelly. The reviewer would imply that the equation itself is unscientific because degrees of temperature, minutes of time and cubic centimetres of solutions are added together, and that therefore the author does not possess even an elementary knowledge of the subject. The reviewer, however, is himself obviously ignorant of the fact that such an addition is quite scientific and allowable. It is not degrees of temperature and minutes of time which are added together, but the numbers of units of these entities concerned. He might as well criticise any chemical formula, such as H,O, because such would imply that the hydrogen is multiplied by the oxygen. As a matter of fact, Mr. H. C. Ross’s equation was given on my advice, because it is the most suitable way of representing the various factors concerned in the proper concoction of the jelly. The equation represents the differential coefficient of a function of many independent vari- ables, which is the sum of the partial differential coefficients obtained from each variable. The other remarks of the reviewer show the same want of accuracy. Mr. Ross has proved that human leucocytes can be forced to divide in large numbers by certain agencies, as described by me in Nature of December 14, 1911, No. 2198, p. 231, and it seems to me absurd to maintain that the facts found by him ‘necessitate the abandonment of every generally accepted belief with regard to mitosis.’’ If the mode of division of human blood leucocytes had been pre- viously determined with certainty, your reviewer’s remarks might have been justified; but this is not the case. If Mr. Ross’s observations cannot be recon- ciled with previous hypotheses (which I do not admit), so much the worse for the hypotheses. At all events the leucocytes actually do divide exactly as he has described. During the last two and a half years Mr. Ross has been subjected to many criticisms of this nature— which criticisms remind me very strongly of the story of Galileo and his critics regarding the satellites of Jupiter. So far as I remember, it is said that the critics denied the possibility of Jupiter having satellites, but at the same time refused to look at them through Galileo’s telescope. I think that if some of Mr. Ross’s critics would spend as much time over his specimens as I have done they would not be so free with their a priori objections. Ronatp Ross. Johnston Tropical Laboratory, University of Liverpool, August 31. A Flower-sanctuary. I pec to thank Mr. Perrycoste for his letter in Nature of September 19. The county of Somerset has for some time had a by-law similar to that of the county of Cornwall; but you will observe that the by-law does not justify the protection of any particular plant, and that the special flora of Cheddar might easily disappear without any violation of its provisions. It only applies to the uprooting or destruction of plants ‘“‘in such a manner and in such quantities as to damage or disfigure any road,” &c., and it is further limited by the proviso which enables persons to collect specimens in small quantities for private and scientific use. I fear that the cases in which a prose- cution under such a by-law would succeed are very few, and certainly the by-law falls far short of the realisation of the wish to protect a rare flora. Epw. Fairland, near Bristol, September 2r. Fry. SEPTEMBER 26, 1912] NATURE ney William Higgins and the Imponderable Elements. Ir is interesting to compare the semi-prophetic speculations of Oersted as so ably stated by Prof. Silvanus Thompson in Nature of August 29 with a theory put forward by William Higgins in a book published at Dublin in 1814. This work, entitled “Experiments and Observations on the Atomic Theory and Electrical Phenomena,’ was _ primarily intended to prove that Dalton’s theory had been anticipated by the author in 1789,* but some thirty pages in the early part of the book are devoted to a statement of his views on the ‘imponderable elements.” The following extracts may serve to give some idea of the nature of his surmises :— “The ultimate particles of ponderable matter are exceedingly minute, but those of imponderable elements, such as caloric, electricity, and light, are so beyond calculation. The utmost stretch of the human mind can no more estimate the size of those particles than it can measure space and duration. However, their divisibilitv is limited’’ (p. 24). ‘Every ultimate particle of a metal is surrounded with a small although dense atmosphere of caloric, together with a small portion of the electric or some other subtile fluid . . . when two atoms unite, the compound becomes surrounded with one common atmosphere of caloric and rejects a third atom of either of its constituents”’ (p. 13 et seq.). ““When two ultimate particles unite chemically their individuality is destroyed, and they form one solid atom whose capacity is less than its constituents in a detached or simple state, hence it is that caloric is liberated by chemical union. These atoms how- ever retain a sufficient quantity of caloric to furnish them with atmospheres ’’ (p. 20). ‘‘The ultimate particles of different kinds of matter, whether in a solid or gaseous state, do not retain the same quantity of caloric in their respective atmo- spheres. This probably is occasioned by their different forces of attraction toit. Those particles which attract caloric with most force are surrounded with more of it, in a less space than those particles that attract it with a smaller force’’ (p. 19). ““Solids also contain a prodigious quantity of caloric, as may be shewn by deflagrating together nitre, brimstone, and crude antimony, reduced to powder, and intimately mixed” (p. 25). “Caloric and the electric fluid are antagonistic elements, whereas light and caloric seem to be kind and almost constant associates. The light of the sun, and that produced by artificial means, are accom- panied by caloric”’ (p. 40). Good conductors are those part of the caloric of which is capable of being readily replaced by the elec- tric fluid. ‘‘Dry oxides are non-conductors, as their calorific atmospheres are small and strongly attached to their atoms” (p. 43). The electric spark inflames gunpowder or alcohol owing to “caloric which is disengaged from these sub- stances or from the air in contact with them.” Wires are fused by a battery because of ‘‘a rapid dislodge- ment of the specific heat of the metals by the electric matter,” and since a wire remains heated during the passage of a current the electric fluid ‘“‘must also possess the power of urging on, during its passage, through the battery and conductors, a sufficiency of caloric to supply the waste occasioned by the ignition” (p. 26 et seq.). In similar fashion he “explains”? the lumin- osity of meteors, why the electric spark causes combustion between oxygen and hydrogen, and a See Meldrum, C/em. News, 1910, for a discussion of his claims on this point. NO. 2239, VOL. 90] why earthquakes and volcanic eruptions are ac- companied by thunder and lightning. The pro- duction of heat in Rumford’s experiment he admits presents a difficulty, and suggests that it might be due to the displacement of some of the specific heat by electricity, which, it was well known, could be produced by friction. He precedes this by saying that ‘“*Heat evolved by friction, however unaccountable and mysterious it may appear, is not sufficient to in- validate the doctrine of the materiality of caloric, being only a solitary fact opposed to thousands that tend to establish its existence as an elementary sub- stance”’ (p. 37). He concludes this part of his work with a touch of the true Baconian philosophy :—‘tThe theory, or rather the hypothesis, which I have advanced, on electrical phenomena . . . according to my knowledge is quite new.”” ‘‘So fully convinced am I, at present, of the truth of this doctrine that no vague or super- ficial objections will be able to stagger my creed; at the same time, I am ready to submit to convincing facts and arguments, for truth should be the sole object of every writer on philosophical subjects” (p. 45 et seq.). It will be seen that his speculations, though crude, and, of course, erroneous in the light of modern theory, are none the less characterised by considerable lucidity in expression and no little ingenuity in appli- cation. In this connection we may well remember the words of Liebig: “All our views have been developed from errors.’’ From the flashing embers of fallacy springs the Phoenix of Truth. ASUS N: London, W.C., September 1. Glaciation and Striation. Pror. Core (Nature, September 12, p. 37) would scarcely maintain the assumption that the stones seen in Boulder Clay were in the “ englacial’’ distribution of the materials in closer juxtaposition than we find them in the deposit itself. The tendency of the larger stones to gravitate towards the bottom of the moving and shearing ice-mass through liquefaction and regelation is well illustrated in the Harlow “till.” But Prof. Cole seems to forget that a ‘*con- glomerate with an ice-cement’’ would give usa glacial gravel or a ‘‘schotter” on the melting of the ice, and not a Boulder Clay. The efficiency as a graving- tool of a grain of quartz or of some harder mineral when caught between the contact-surfaces of two fragments of rock undergoing differential movement can scarcely be doubted. As to the pre-Boulder Clay age of the “Ipswich man,” the evidence of which I have examined on the spot, the attention of Mr. J. R. Moir (ibid., p. 38) and others may be fairly directed to the new light thrown upon the question by the Thorley section. With reference to scratches on flints, I venture to ask Sir Ray Lankester whether in plate 17 of his monograph (Phil. Trans. R.S., Series B, vol. ccii., pp- 203 ff.) he has not overlooked (1) the fact that the striations shown in Fig. 1 are on the original cortex of the flint-nodule, and therefore not neces- sarily connected with glaciation, and (2) the prob- ability that the markings shown in Fig. 2 (enlarged in Figs. 3, 4, 5) are the etched-out skeletons of some spongoid fossil, by humus acids acting differentially as a solvent on the various modifications of the silica found often in the same flint-nodule? Of such differ- ential solvent action I have a large collection of examples, in some cases showing corrosion to the extent of the complete obliteration of the lithological character of the flint as such. A, IrvING. Bishop’s Stortford, September 17. 1O4 BIRD-MIGRATION.} aps book has been long expected, and it is certainly one worth waiting for. The author remarks “that no country in the world 1s more ivourably the movements of migratory birds; that there is none in which the many phases of the phenomenon more varied nature; situated than our own for witnessing e ofa and none in which Fic. 1.—Fair Isle: a rift in the western cliffs. the subject has received greater attention.” To which we venture to add that no one has made » much use of these opportunities as Mr. Eagle Clarke has done, and that no contribution to the ibject compares in impertance with the work | ) is summarised in the book before us. It is, t in Bird Migration.” By Wilham Eagle Clarke: Vol. 1.; PI vi Vol. ii, pp. vit 3aé 5 plates. (London: Gurney and J burg Oliver and Koyd, 1912.) Price 1 net, 2 vols go | NATCORE From ‘Studies in Bird Migration SEPTEMBER 26, 1912 indeed, a striking fact that although the book deals almost wholly the author’s own work, it has a completeness and scope far superior to that of any other book on migration. It represents the spare-time industry of a quarter of a century, a remarkable persistence. of observation under difficult conditions on lighthouses, lightships, and lone islands of the sea, a resolute courage in facing and accomplishing the dreary task of analysing the immense masses of data provided by the _ British Association Committee, and a remarkable restraint in dealing with a fascinating subject which has repeatedly proved itself fatally provoca- tive of romantic treatment. It is scarcely necessary to say that the author has given us from time to time instal- ments of his results, but here we have a revised and unified presentation of the whole— an achievement calling for the warmest congratulation. The plan of the book is simple. After a pleasant chapter on antiquated views (such as the “hibernation” theory, which lasted from Aristotle to Gilbert White and longer) and another— tantalisingly short—on some modern views, the author plunges in medias res. He classifies our migratory birds —summer visitors, partial migrants, winter visitors, and birds of passage—gives a summary of the move- ments of these several groups under their and indicates in a general way —the only possible way as yet—whence they come to us and whither they go from us. The next chapter, on “The Geographical Aspects of British Bird-Migration,” account of with seasons, is 2 masterly a very complicated sub- ject, with rather more in- sistence on definite routes [W. Nor than we have been accus- tomed to from recent writers. Perhaps a _ more critical attitude might have been adopted towards the earlier work of Palmen and others. The next three chapters, which are devoted to “Round the Year among British Migratory Birds,” bring out very clearly the contrasts between the spring, autumn and winter movements, and there are two valuable appendices giving the dates ol the arrivals and departures of the various species. The last general chapter deals with the vexed SEPTEMBER 26, 1912] NATURE 105 question of “Weather Influences,” and is an admirable instance of careful scientific discussion. So much nonsense has been written on this subject that an authoritative statement is doubly welcome ; and not only has Mr. Eagle Clarke had the vast data of the British Association Committee to draw upon, but he has secured the valuable cooperation of Dr. W. N. Shaw, Director of the Meteoro- logical Office. To those who glibly theorise on insufficient data with regard to migrants’ supposed preference for “tail-winds,”’ ‘“‘beam-winds,” and such like, we commend what is said on page 173: “The direc- tion of the wind has in itself nothing to do with the results described. The winds and the per- formance, or non-performance, of the migratory movements are the effects of a common cause— namely, the particular type of weather prevailing at the time, which may be favour- able or unfavourable for the flight of birds to or from our islands.” Furthermore we learn that similar condi- tions—including wind direc- tions—are favourable for a movement both in spring and in autumn, although the direction of the movement is, of course, exactly the oppo- site at one season to what it ISmatethe other, ‘Thus “south-easterly weather” (a large continental anticyclone to the east of our shores but extending to them, and south-easterly winds in the British area) favours migra- tion across the North Sea in either direction (according to the season), but is unfavour- able to intermigration be- tween Britain and Iceland. The remainder of the book may be divided into — photo. two parts. Chapters 1ix.— Fic. 2.—Flannan Islands : xvi. deal in detail with the migrations of eight typical birds—swallow, fieldfare, white-w agtail, song-thrush, skylark, lap- wing, starling, and rook. Much of this valuable work is already well known to those who have followed the author’s separate papers, but the whole has been thoroughly revised. The second volume and one chapter of the first deal with the author’s observations at typical stations round the British coasts—the Eddystone Lighthouse (shown on a “bird-night” in a fine frontispiece by Marian Eagle Clarke), the Kentish Knock ESS Bair Isle (“the British Heligoland”’), Kilda, the Flannan Isles, Sule Skerry (west of Brae Ushant (where the ‘author was treated as a spy!), and Alderney. An account is given of the movements observed at each station, and what is known in regard to each species of bird is tersely summarised. NO. 2239, VOL. 90] It must be clearly understood that this admir- able piece of work is not intended as a treatise on bird-migration, summing up all that has been done by various methods in different parts of the world; it is an account of the author’s personal observations and inductions. This explains what we cannot help regretting—the deliberate conden- sation and reserve of the second chapter, which is intended as a general introduction for the non- expert, as the majority of zoologists, for instance, must in this connection be called. But even for such as these—the most appreciative of all readers after ornithologists proper—the terseness is surely overdone. Let us illustrate. In the few lines | devoted to migration in the southern hemi- | sphere, an important point has surely. been ob- scured in ignoring the great difference between (C. Duck Peddie. Eilean Mor from the east. From “Studies in Bird Migration.” | migration in the twe hemispheres, - that’ while | many ‘northern summer birds go far south of the | | equator to “winter in the southern summer, only a few petrels and others from the south perform a | | reverse journey of corresponding extent. Simi- larly some mention of alternative views~on’ the | origin of the migratory habit might well have been given. Again, Mr. Cl: irke quotes with appar- gS Ss | I ent approval Mr. Chapman’s opinion that the recent experimental proof of the homing power | of the noddy and sooty terns dispels “‘the so- called mystery’ of how migrants find their way, placing it on a par with “any other instinctive functional activity.’’ - But this is an obvious non sequitur. Nor does it help matters to describe the special sense of direction (in which Mr. Clarke firmly believes) in Prof. Newton’s phrase asi in- herited but uncenscicus experience.” An interest- 106 NATURE [SEPTEMBER 26, 1912 ing point in this chapter is the author’s suggestion that night travelling is an adaptation to the neces- sity that most birds have of devoting the daytime to the seach for food. The book is lucidly and carefully written and the author occasionally slackens his rein and re- veals his power as a stylist, the description of a “bird-night ” at Eddystone being perhaps the finest example. There are several good photographs of various stations, notably those of Fair Isle by Mr. \WV. Norrie, but the chief illustrations are maps and weather-charts—all conspicuous for clearness and simplicity. We have already referred to the admirable first frontispiece. The book is dedicated to the Duchess of Bedford, herself an ardent ornithologist, who has given the author valued assistance. THE QUESTION OF THE BIPLANE VERSUS THE MONOPLANE. ARETE recent order of the War Office suspending the use of monoplane flying machines for military purposes has led to the renewal, in the daily Press, of a discussion of the old riddle, “Which is the better, the monoplane or the biplane?” When Blériot crossed the Channel, the daily papers rang with the praises of the mono- plane; now everyone favours the biplane, and there is a danger lest the monoplane may be con- demned for faults not necessarily attributable to the mere fact that it is a monoplane. The military authorities have wisely called in the assistance of the National Physical Laboratory in seeking an explanation of why so many of the recent accidents have occurred with monoplane machines. Even if the work placed in the hands of the Teddington department does not extend beyond overhauling and testing the machines used in the Army, the physicists ought to have sufficient scope for arriving at many important conclusions regarding essential features of aeroplane con- struction. For the purposes of an inquiry of the type proposed, it appears desirable that the same tests should be applied to biplanes as to mono- planes; but the value of the work will be creatly enhanced if the investigation is conducted on general lines, and not confined to the mere testing of the Army machines. It is easy enough to say that when a stay has broken it should be replaced by a stronger one, and to draw up a report which would suffice to enable any defects in existing machines to be patched up, but it is essential for real progress that the Laboratory authorities should have a free hand to assist in the evolution of a more perfect type of flying machine than either the existing monoplane or biplane. It must not be forgotten that the terms mono- plane and biplane usually imply something more than the mere difference between a “sing le- decker” and “double-decker” (to quote the German equivalents). The former usually has the propeller in front, the latter behind. Thus an inquiry necessarily turns on at least two points, namely, the relative advantages of the sinele- and double-decker, and whether the propeller is better NO. 2239, VOL. 90] placed in front or behind. Further subjects sug- gested are the gyrostatic effect of the propellers, the relative merits of rotary and oscillating engines, and so forth. In regard to the first point, it must be remem- bered that even Liiienthal experimented success- fully with the double-decked type; that Chanute, after trying not only “single-” and “double- decked” gliders, but also “multiple-winged | machines,” finally decided on the glider with two superposed surfaces as the best on which to experi- ment; that his experiments were continued by the Wrights, and led to their first realisation of arti- ficial flight. One advantage of the two-surfaced arrangement is that, with an equivalent area, the wings can be made of lesser span, and thus the bending moments they have to sustain are propor- tionately reduced; moreover, these bending moments are much better sustained by the frame- work, which naturally takes the form of a latticed girder. Of course, from this point of view a triplane would even be better than a biplane, but the gain would be less important. There would be no difficulty in constructing a “two-decker”’ with a propeller in front, and, from the point of view of the physicist, the position of the propeller depends largely on whether it is better for the propeller to receive the wash from the planes or for the planes to receive the wash from the propeller. One advantage of the latter plan has not, perhaps, received the attention that it deserves. It must not be forgotten that the action of the propeller sets up a rotation in the “wash” behind it, and, as Sir G. Greenhill has pointed out, so far from being negli- gible, the amount of this rotation is directly related to the horse-power and rate of revolution of the engine. In fact, the propeller exerts on the air a constant torque, which tends to produce angular momentum, and is equal in amount to the torque of the engine. If, then, the main planes are placed in the wash of the propeller, the rotating air on striking them will produce a difference of pressure on the two sides tending to counteract the corresponding torque on the aeroplane, and the machine will not heel over sideways to the same extent that it would if a single propeller were placed behind. For the purposes of the War Office, the propeller in front is disadvantageous, as it interferes with scouting or shooting from an aeroplane. On the other hand, we have the recommendation of a well-known engineer that the engine should be in front of the aviator, so that the latter shall not be crushed underneath the former in case of an accident. Apart from these essential differences between monoplane and biplane, great importance attaches to an investigation into the gyrostatic couples caused by both rotary engines and propellers. At present, apart from setting up strains in the framework, which require the latter to be ade- quately stayed, these cause a mixing-up of the longitudinal and lateral motions of the machine which must necessarily greatly increase the danger of accidents when the machine is being navigated in gusts of wind. It is important that more SEPTEMBER 26, 1912] NATURE 107 attention should be given to the question of balancing, not only of the actual propeller torque by the use of two propellers, but also of the gyro- static couples due to both the propeller and the rotary engine. Why do not the makers try an engine rotating about a horizontal axis perpen- dicular to the line of flight, driving a pair of pro- pellers rotating in opposite directions by means of bevelled cogs? fectly symmetrical, and the gyrostatic couple of the engine might be used to assist in lateral | steering. Another disadvantageous feature of many mono- planes, though not an essential feature of them, is that the wings are usually of considerable breadth, and, of course, are cambered. The result is that when such a machine pitches, effects may occur the nature of which will remain entirely unknown until some experimental know- ledge has been obtained regarding air pressures on rotating planes. To assume that these effects are negligible, or even that they may not be the cause of accidents, is, in the circumstances, scarcely justifiable. It will be interesting to see whether any ques- tions of stability are considered in connection with the present inquiry. The tendency which has existed up to the present time of shelving the problem of inherent stability, and attempting to attribute accidents to other causes, is, after all, very natural. If stability could be ignored alto- gether, the problem of aviation would be greatly simplified, and much laborious work, both theoretical and experimental, would be saved. Those of us who have spent much time in studying the theory of stability would have been glad to give our attention to other subjects instead, had we believed that a final solution of the problem of flight was possible which should make aviation independent of stability considerations. At the present time, no experimental information exists regarding inherent stability, and a comparison of theory with practice is urgently needed. Under theoretically assumed conditions, stability, both longitudinal and lateral, is greatly affected by variations in the inclination of the flight path to the horizon, and this is a point on which experi- mental tests would be of particular interest. The fact that so many accidents have occurred the causes of which are unknown shows that aviators have not yet been altogether successful in their attempts to dispense with theories of, and experi- ments on, stability. The accounts of many acci- dents are strangely suggestive of what would happen under theoretical conditions if an aeroplane should be flying at an inclination to the horizon consistent with inherent instability. As regards the monoplane and biplane, these limits are probably very different in existing machines of the two types, but there is no essential difference between the “single-” and “double-decker ” in regard to stability. Many monoplanes are of the Antoinette type, and can be made laterally stable by making the tail of sufficient length; many existing biplanes do not possess sufficient auxiliary surfaces for lateral NO. 2239, VOL. 90] The arrangement would be per- | | stability, though this defect is probably remedied | when the planes are bent up; on the other hand, | the auxiliary planes in them are as a rule more favourable to longitudinal stability. These are, however, details of construction which do not depend on whether the machine is a monoplane or biplane. It is probable that most existing aeroplanes satisfy the condition that lateral, like longitudinal, instability increases when rising in the air. It is necessary to repudiate any suggestion that a so-called “theory” of stability (which is really an experimental study of the results of cer- tain assumed hypotheses, the apparatus for which are the methods of mathematical analysis) should be applied to actual aeroplanes without first being subjected to a second experimental test performed with the actual aeroplanes or models of them. But would not even this course be better than continuing to use aeroplanes about the stability of which nothing is known? And admitting that most flights have to be performed in gusty winds, is this any reason for being satisfied with a flying machine which would not fly straight in still air? Some people appear to think so. But is it not probable that the problem of stability pre- sented by an actual aeroplane is more complex and not less complex than that presented by a system of narrow planes moving at small angles through a resisting medium? If this be so, the complexities of the simpler problem may afford some clue to those existing in the more difficult and at present unsolved problem. It is hoped that no suggestions made in the present article will be regarded as authoritative statements except so far as they may be confirmed by experiments conducted with the aid of mathe- matical or physical apparatus. If any conclusions are to be drawn from these remarks, they should be to the effect that it is far less important to try to decide whether a biplane is better than a mono- plane than to investigate the relative merits of flying machines on a perfectly broad basis. It | is, therefore, to be hoped that the staff of the National Physical Laboratory will not only be given a very free hand in the investigations that are placed in their hands, but that they will pro- duce a powerful and thorough report, and—if a small criticism is permissible—give a little more attention to formulating broad general principles, and confine themselves a little less exclusively to the tabulation of minute experimental details than they have done on some previous occasions. Ga EieaBe THE INTERNATIONAL METEOROLOGICAL COMMITTEE. WEATHER TELEGRAPHY AND MARITIME METEOROLOGY. EETINGS were held in London during the week ending on Friday, September 20, of two Commissions constituted by the International Meteorological Committee to deal with questions concerning international weather telegraphy on the one hand, and with those concerning mari- 108 NATURE [ SEPTEMBER. 26, I912 time meteorology and storm warnings on the other. The Commissions were first provisionally appointed at the meeting of the International Committee held in Paris in 1907; they held meet- ings in London in June, 1909, and upon their report to the meeting of the International Com- mittee held at Berlin in 1910, it was decided to recommend to the meteorological institutes of Europe to substitute a reading of the ‘‘ barometric tendency” (the change of pressure in the three hours preceding the morning observation) for the reading of the wet-bulb thermometer in the international code. A scheme of storm signals for daylight, using two cones, was also recom- mended as an international system. In the telegraphic reports of the morning of May 1, 1911, the change of code recommended was introduced simultaneously by all the countries of Europe, and the “barometric tendency” has now become an important feature of the daily weather message. The recommendation as to storm warnings was hampered by the fact that no agreement could be reached as to the signals that were to take the place of the cones at night. Having regard to the various incidental ques- tions which remained unsettled, the International Committee at Berlin decided that the two Com- missions, which had consisted of only few persons, should be enlarged and become permanent. All the members of the International Committee had therefore been invited to join these Commissions, and also to nominate other persons interested in weather telegraphy and maritime meteorology respectively. In accordance with the tradition of the Inter- national Meteorological Organisation, the ad- ministrative work of a commission rests entirely with its president; both the Commissions men- tioned are under the presidency of the Director of the Meteorological Office, London, who is also president of the International Meteorological Com- mittee, by which they were appointed. Meeting’s of the Commissioners were accordingly arranged to be held in London on Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday of the third week in September. The Board of Education kindly lent the com- mittee-room of the Science Museum for the meetings. The members present were :—For the Commission for weather telegraphy, General Rykatcheff, Director of the Meteorological Ser- vice of Russia; Geheimrat Hellmann, Director of the Prussian Meteorological Service, secretary of the International Committee ; Prof. Grossmann, representing the Deutsche Seewarte; Prof. Palazzo, Director of the Meteorological and Geo- dynamic Institute of Rome; M. Angot, Director of the Central Meteorological Bureau of France; Prof. Mohn, Director of the Meteorological Ser- vice of Norway; Prof. Van Everdingen, Director of the Meteorological Service of the Netherlands; Captain Ryder, Director of the Meteorological Service of Denmark; Mr, R. G. K. Lempfert, Superintendent of the forecast division of the Meteorological Office. For the Commission for NO. 2239, VOL. 90] | Maritime Meteorology and Storm Warnings there were, in addition, Comandatore Santi, Director of the Hydrographic Bureau of the Royal Italian Marine at Genoa; Dr. van der Stok, Superin- tendent of Marine Meteorology at de Bilt; and _Commander Hepworth, Superintendent of the Marine Division of the Meteorological Office. His Highness the Raj Rana of Jhalawar, and Senor Duarte, chef de service of the Brazilian Meteoro- logical Service, now being reorganised, were invited to attend the meetings of the Commis- sions. The representatives of Japan, Dr. Nakamura and Dr. Okada, were prevented from coming by the death of the Emperor. Letters of regret were also received from Prof. Willis Moore, of the United States Weather Bureau; Mr. H. A. Hunt, Commonwealth meteorologist of Australia; Rev. L. Froc, of Zikawei Observatory; Mr. T. F. Claxton, of Hong Kong Observatory; and others. As regards weather-telegraphy, the questions for discussion grouped themselves into four sub- jects, which may be mentioned in turn :— (1) The first was the revision of the international code, incidental to the substitution last year of the “barometric tendency ” for the reading to the wet bulb. After a long discussion agreement was reached whereby two consecutive figure-places can be obtained in the morning groups by using only two figures for the barometric tendency, and also for the air temperature. It is suggested that for ordinary stations one of these places be assigned to the characteristic of the barometric variation in the past three hours, and the other to the direction of motion of the upper clouds; but, in order to encourage the preparation of a daily map of the circulation of the upper air over Europe, it is proposed that for those few international stations where observations of the direction and apparent velocity of clouds can be obtained, the two figures shall be assigned to those elements. For a figure-place incidentally available in the evening groups, the “characteristic of the weather in the past twenty-four hours” is suggested. Figure codes for the four new meteoro- logical “elements” here mentioned were drawn | up. (2) Secondly, the question of the extension and proper organisation of the evening telegraphic weather service was brought forward by the Seewarte, and General Rykatcheff brought before the meeting a project of the Russian service for | synchronous observations twice a day over the whole of the Russian Empire, covering 150° of longitude, in cooperation with the service of middle and western Europe. A schedule of the present hours of observation in all parts of the globe was put forward; and in order to assist these projects it was agreed to recommend 7 a.m., 1 p.m., and 6 p.m. (G.M.T.) as “international hours” for the region between | the longitude 30° W. and 30° E., and 6 a.m., | 12 noon, and 6 p.m., G.M.T. (8h., 2h., 8h. of St. | Petersburg time), as international hours between the longitudes 30° E. and 180° E. SEPTEMBER 26, 1912 | NAIURE (3) The form of the Iceland telegrams was the third general subject of consideration; and, with reference to that, the Director of the Danish service undertook to give effect as far as possible to any modification that was generally acceptable and that might be regarded as permanent. The opinion of the institutes upon the question will therefore be invited. 4) The last subject of discussion, mooted by Prof. Willis Moore as a sequel to the deliberations of the recent conference on radiotelegraphy in London, was the notification, to certain centres, of observations at Greenwich noon by all vessels at sea carrying radio-telegraphic apparatus, and the issue of forecasts from the centres to the vessels. The suggestion of organising the distribution of reports by radio-telegraphy on an international plan was welcomed. Some doubt was expressed as to Greenwich noon being the most suitable international hour for the observations, as it would not fit in well with the European system, and some provision for the more general distribution of the information was mentioned as desirable. As the scheme implied legislative action by the various countries, it was decided as a first step to invite the opinions of the various institutes upon the scheme. The Commission for Maritime Meteorology and Storm Warnings was chiefly concerned with the question of the signals to be used at night to re- place the day signals already agreed upon. Copies of a third edition of the provisional sum- mary of the maritime weather signals at present in use in the various countries of the globe had been prepared for distribution at the meeting. The various schemes, either at present in opera- tion or advocated on various grounds, group themselves into (1) schemes of three lanterns in the vertical, (2) two lanterns in the vertical, and (3) one lantern only. The scheme of three lan- terns was proposed by the Bureau Central Météorologique of France on behalf of the French Ministry of Marine, on the ground that a combina- tion of two lanterns might be confused with signals already adopted in the “regulations for avoiding collisions at sea” or with harbour lights. The Board of Trade approved of these proposals, and undertook to use its good offices to get the harbour lights at ‘two ports where confusion might arise so arranged as to obviate that difficulty. On the other hand, a scheme of two lanterns for gales in the four quadrants, with three lanterns for a hurricane, originally proposed by the Com- mission in 1909, and objected to first by the Seewarte, and subsequently by others, on account of the liability to confusion, had been tried by the Seewarte on the German coast, and no con- fusion had arisen; whereas the alternative scheme of three lanterns was pronounced unmanageable, and the hurricane signal was accordingly replaced by one red lamp for an “‘atmospheric disturbance.”’ Prof. Willis Moore, to whose initiative the work of the Commission is due, also expressed the opinion that a scheme of three lanterns is un- manageable, and therefore modified the original proposal by proposing two red lamps for a hurri- NO. 2239, VOL. 90] | 109 cane (instead of one white between two red) and one white lamp for a gale in the north-west quadrant. One red lamp is 4t present used in some countries to replace any day signal. In these circumstances it was evident that there was no general agreement in favour of a single scheme of signals, and it was therefore necessary to place the recommendations for the present on the lower plane of agreeing tnat any combination of lamps forming a storm signal shall have the same significance in whatever country 1f 1s used. The propositions to be submitted to the various institutes will theretcre be—that, in countries which use three lanterns in the vertical for storm warn- ings at night, the lanterns shall not be less than two metres apart, and shall be arranged according to the approved scheme of three lanterns: that in countries which use two lanterns, the lanterns shall be not less than two metres apart, generally four metres or fifteen feet, and shall be arranged in accordance with ‘the original pro- posal of the Commission, with one red lamp to signify an atmospherical disturbance without indication of the direction of the winds instead of three lamps to signify a hurricane; that in countries which use only one lamp for night signals, one red lamp shall replace any of the day | signals. “It was agreed to take the opinion of the in- stitutes on a proposal to indicate at a signal- station by a green flag or a green lamp, or other- wise, the information that no warning can be hoisted on account of telegraphic communication being interrupted or for some other cause, as is now done at Thorshayn. It was also agreed to take the opinion of the institutes upon the desirability of adopting a scheme of international ‘‘non-local signals ” indicating the position of an atmospheric disturb- ance, on the lines oz the code used at Zikawei and elsewhere on the China coast. Another scheme of day and night signals for a similar purpose, using three cones or three lanterns to indicate the position of a tropical revolving storm, was submitted by Commander Hepworth, and will be circulated also for comments with the report. Finally the Commission agreed, on the motion of Dr. van der Stok, to recommend the collection of extracts of data from the meteorological logs of ships of all nations for certain ocean squares on the trade routes, with a view to their publication as a contribution to the meteorology of the globe. The proceedings of the week commenced with a reception by Mrs. Shaw at ro Moreton Gardens on Monday, September 16. Tuesday, Wednes- day, and Friday morning and afternoon, and Thursday morning, were occupied with meetings. Thursday afternoon was set free to enable the reports of proceedings to be prepared in the Meteorological Office. Instead of meeting, the delegates Visited Kew Observatory by motor, and took tea in Kew Gardens. In the evening they dined together on the invitation of Dr. Shaw, the President of the International Committee, who was 1 Te) NATURE [SEPTEMBER 26, 1912 honoured by the presence of the Raj Rana of Jhalawar, and was supported by Sir Norman Lockyer, Sir Charles Watson, Sir George Gibb, the Deputy-Master of Trinity House, the President of the Royal Meteorological Society, Captain Loring, R.N., Captain Sueter, R.N., Captain Clarke, Captain Thomson, C.B., Captain Lyons, R.E., Captain Henrici, R.E., and other representa- tives of various public offices. The Raj Rana entertained the members of the Commission at dinner at Bailey’s Hotel on Friday, September 20. Some of the delegates remaining in England were entertained for the week-end by Mr. and Mrs. Cave at Ditcham Park, Petersfield. The reports of the proceedings at the meetings, which were read and signed at the final meetings on Friday, September 20, will now be printed and circulated to the various meteorological institutes for comments. These will be taken into con- sideration at the next meeting of the International Meteorological Committee, which, 1t is hoped, may be held in Rome in the week after Easter Week in the year 1913. The meeting will have to con- sider not only the reports of the Commissions which have already met, but also the important question of the application of meteorology to agri- culture, which has been raised by a letter addressed to the president of the International Meteoro- logical Committee by the president of the Inter- national Institute for Agriculture, which has its seat at Rome. Besides the Commissions, the proceedings of which have been referred to here, it may be noted that the Commission for Radiation, under the presidency of Prof. J. Maurer, of Ziirich, met in Switzerland in the first week of September; and, earlier in the year—May 27 to June 1—a largely attended meeting of the Commission for Scientific Aéronautics was held at Vienna, under the presi- dency of Prof. Hergesell. The Commission passed a number of resolutions, one of which, in favour of the establishment of a network of stations for daily observations with pilot balloons, has already been communicated to various Governments through diplomatic channels. Perhaps the most noteworthy of the resolutions were those passed on the initiative of Prof. Bjerknes, formerly of Christiana, and now of Leipzig, proposing that the results of upper air observations shall be arranged according to definite steps of pressure instead of steps of height; that the heights shall be given in “dynamic” meters—that is, a step corresponding to a certain difference of gravity potential, not of geometrical height; and, thirdly, that pressures shall be recorded in millibars (C.G.S. units) instead of millimetres or inches. These important steps in the direction of arranging the material obtained from the investigation of the upper air in a form suitable for dynamical calculation are to come into effect with January, 1913, but the resolution as to pressure units is to be subject to the approval of the International Meteorological Committee. The forthcoming meeting proposed for Rome is therefore likely to be one of great importance. NO. 2239, VOL. 90] SCIENTIFIC COLLECTIONS OF THE GERMAN CENTRAL AFRICA EXPEDITION OF 1907—1908.! ips 1902 the Duke Adolf Friedrich visited East Africa. In 1904 he returned there and ex- plored the region immediately to the south-east of Lake Victoria Nyanza. In 1907 he started again, this time at the head of a well-equipped scientific expedition charged with the special task of exam- ining the volcanic regions west of the Victoria Nyanza and north of Tanganyika. The general results of this 1907-8 expedition have already been published, both in German and in English, the English version having been brought out by Cassell and Co. in 1910. The Duke, after leading his expedition through the countries of Karagwe, Ruanda (including the Kivu district), and the Virunga volcanoes, travelled past Lake Edward Nyanza to the Semliki, the Albert Nyanza, the gold-mines of Kilo, and then westwards through the Ituri Forest and down the Aruwimi to the main Congo, and so back to Germany by the Atlantic Ocean. The volume before us is the third issued as the result of a careful examination of the immense collections made by this scientific expedition. The two previous volumes have dealt with the topo- graphy, geology, and meteorology, and with botany. Vol. i. gives us, first, a remarkably interesting dissertation on the earth-worms or Oligochata; on the Serphide, Cynipide, Chal- cidide, Evaniide, and Stephanide of hymenop- terous insects; on the decapod crustaceans (the land-crabs, shrimps, prawns, &c.) of equatorial Africa; on the bees, the Cladocera, the molluscs (especially land-snails), the bivalves, the burrowing Hymenoptera, and wasps; the birds of the Cen- tral African lake region; the ants; the Braconidze and beetles; the copepods of the East African lake region; the cockroaches and butterflies of Ruwenzori and the Congo Forest. The separate articles have evidently been inserted in the order in which they were written, and have thus been cited here. It would have been more convenient to the zoologist, however, if they had been arranged systematically, so that one passed on, for example, from bees and wasps to ants, or from one group of crustaceans to another, wich- out some intervening description of a totally dif- ferent group of animals. Probably the most valuable part of the present compilation will be that on the earth-worms and the birds. Earth-worms—it has long been realised, even by those who do not specialise im any way in that study—are amongst the most interesting and certain means of estimating the relationship between the existing distribution of land and water on the earth’s surface and that of past times. The article on the Oligocheta col- lected by the Adolf-Friedrich Scientific Expedition is accompanied by a well-written summary of the 1 “ Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse der Deutschen Zentral-Afrika-Expedi- tion, 1907-8," unter Fiihrung Adolf Friedrichs, Herzogs zu Mecklenburg. Band iii., Zoologie i., herausgegeben von Dr. H. Schubotz. Pp. xxiti-+- s60+plates xi-xiv. (Leipzig: Klinkhart and Biermann, 1912.) Price 2@ marks. SEPTEMBER 26, 1912| NATURE MVEA distribution peculiarities of the earth-worms of Africa and adjoining regions, showing, amongst other things, the intimate faunistic relationships (involving, of course, continuous land surface at one time) between Spain, Syria, and Persia, and again between Sardinia, Sicily, and Tunis; between all equatorial or tropical Africa (Sene- gambia to Abyssinia and Mocambique), and—it might be added in a lesser degree—Guiana and Brazil; and the very separate and peculiar char- acter, from an earth-worm point of view, of Mada- gascar and the southern extremity of Africa, both of which constitute very distinct regions in the character of their earth-worms. So far as our knowledge yet extends, the most interesting and richly endowed earth-worm region in Africa is round about Ruwenzori, between the west coast of Victoria Nyanza and the north coast of Tan- ganyika. In the article on birds, the survey of all well- known collections is somewhat incomplete, very little reference being made to the reports on the collections made by the writer of this review in Uganda and on Ruwenzori. (In his general sum- mary of the results of the expedition, the Duke Adolf Friedrich attributes the discovery of the Okapi, not to the writer of this review, but to Lieutenant Eriksson; the true facts of the case have been so well stated in M. Jules Fraipont’s monograph on the Okapi that it is not necessary to repeat them here.) Several mistakes are made in the spelling of names of non-German authori- ties and certain place-names. This article, how- ever, like some which have recently appeared in the Ibis, emphasises the remarkable beauty and strangeness in coloration of the Central African shrikes (Malaconotus) and the tree hoopoes (Scoptelus). The most striking species of Scop- telus has been named after the Duke Adolf Friedrich. H. H. JounsTon. NOTES. Sir W. T. TuisELTon-DyER, K.C.M.G., F.R.S., has been elected an honorary fellow of the Royal Society of South Africa. A memorial to Lord Lister is to be established at University College Hospital, where Lister was a student. A special committee has been formed under the presidency of the Duke of Bedford, president of the hospital, with Sir John Tweedy, consulting oph- thalmic surgeon, as hon. treasurer of the fund. The exact nature of the tribute will be largely decided by the amount of the subscriptions received, but it has been suggested that either a bust or a tablet should be placed in both the hospital and the college. It is understood that the memorial will be local in character, and only those who have been in some way connected with University College or the hospital are being asked to subscribe. A NEw case has just been arranged in the Geological Department of the British Museum (Natural History) to illustrate the characteristic coral of each of the successive layers or zones in the Carboniferous Lime- NO. 2239, VOL. 90| stone of the Avon Gorge, Bristol, as determined by Dr. Arthur Vaughan. The actual fossils and photo- graphs of the cliff-sections are explained by accom- panying diagrams, prepared by Mr. W. D. Lang. It appears that the successive faunas, including the corals, are not directly derived from each other on the spot, but represent a series of migrations. Dr. Vaughan has presented to the museum the whole of the collec- tion of corals on which his well-known researches were based, and this gift has been supplemented by another from Dr. Albert Wilmore, illustrating similar re- searches undertaken by him in the Carboniferous Lime- stone of Yorkshire. Tue Geological Department of the British Museum (Natural History) has also recently received a valuable gift of Wealden fossils from the Revs. P. Teilhard and F. Pelletier, S.J., who made the collection during a four years’ residence near Hastings. A large proportion of the specimens are small teeth from bone-beds which had previously been very little examined, and among them is the unique mammalian tooth described under the name of Dipriodon valdensis by Dr. Smith Wood- ward in 1911. There are numerous teeth of the dwarf crocodile Theriosuchus, which has hitherto been known only from the Purbeck Beds. The series of plant- remains is also important and will shortly be described by Prof. A. C. Seward in a communication to the Geological Society. Mr. Wittiam H. Hoce having been appointed an inspector under the Board of Agriculture for Scotland, the post of resident manager of the Royal Agricultural Society’s Experimental Farm at Woburn has become vacant. Applications for the appointment are to be made to the secretary of the society, at 16 Bedford Square, London, W.C., not later than Saturday, November 2. Pror. Kart. PEARSON has recently addressed two lectures to the medical profession. One, entitled “Eugenics and Public Health,’’ was delivered at the York Congress of the Royal Sanitary Institute, and the other, ‘Darwinism, Medical Progress and Eu- genics,’’ before the West London Medico-Chirurgical Society as the ‘*Cavendish Lecture.” In both the importance of statistical training is insisted on in dealing with the data collected in the Public Health service, and also in deciding the method for their collection. Instances are given of the kind of errors which may be or have been made and can only be avoided by the application of the requisite knowledge and experience. The mattar is one of urgent public importance, as social legislation of a kind that is difficult to repeal may be based on conclusions such as Prof. Pearson here criticises in his usual clear and forcible style. A voLtumMe entitled ‘‘Problems in Eugenics” | (London: The Eugenics Education Society, 1912, pp. 490) contains the majority of the papers read before the recent International ‘Congress in Eugenics, to- gether with translations into English of those which were written in other languages. Such contributions as were sent in too late for inclusion in this volume are to be published in a supplement, which will con- fn) NATL ORE [SEPTEMBER 26, 1912 tain also reports of the discussions and of the speeches delivered at the inaugural banquet. As- might be expected, a very wide range of subjects is covered. On one page we read of the inheritance of fecundity in fowls and on another of proposed temperance legis- lation in Norway. The comparative merits of hectine and salvarsan are set forth by one author, while another discusses the elements which go to make up a success- ful demagogue. FHlistory, anthropology, and experi- mental psychology have all been drawn on, yet nothing has been included which is not to some extent or in some manner relevant. DurinG this season’s excavations of the Maumbury Rings, Dorchester, the removal of much material from the terrace thrown up during the Civil Wars (1642-43) has disclosed remains of the Roman period, including Samian and other ware of that age, with a brass coin of Constantine. Search was made for indi- cations of tiers of seats, but without result. It must, however, be remarked that according to Valerius Maximus the Senate forbade the erection of such con- veniences for public use, although Ovid records that it was Romulus who first arranged seats of turf for the spectators. Tue Bureau of American Ethnology announces a forecast of the results of a tour conducted in Argentine territory by Dr. Hrdlicka with the object of studying the remains of early man in that region. In order to ensure the verification of the necessary geological data, he was accompanied by Mr. Bailey Willis, of the U.S. Geological Survey. Unfortunately, the results of this investigation are not in harmony with claims previously made by the discoverers of certain ‘finds’? in South America. The conclusion now reached is unfavour- able to the hypothesis of the great antiquity of man in this region, more especially as to the existence of very early predecessors of the Indian in South America; nor does it sustain the theories of the evolu- tion of man in general, or even that of an American race alone, in the southern continent. The facts collected attest only the existence of the already differ- entiated and relatively modern American Indian. It is not, of course, denied that early man may have existed in South America, but the position taken is that this hypothesis cannot be accepted without much additional scientific evidence. The importance of this announce- ment in connection with the theories advanced by Prof. Elliot Smith at the recent meeting of the British Association is sufficiently obvious. In a paper published in the Archives of the Roentgen Ray, Dr. Hall-Edwards directs attention to diffusion figures—figures obtained by dropping different coloured dyes in definite amount and regular order on absorbent paper. Very beautiful coloured geometrical figures may thus be produced, four of which are reproduced in a coloured plate, and Dr. Hall-Edwards anticipates that their study may throw some light on the produc- tion of patterns in nature. A TECHNICAL engineering journal is a somewhat curious place in which to describe new species of mosquitoes, and yet this has been done by Dr. M. N. NO. 2239, VOL. 90] Tevar in ine june issue of the Revista Tecnica del Ministerio de Obras Publicas, published at Caracas, Venezuela, in the course of an article on the biting gnats and flies of the Monagas estate, Maturin, such new species being respectively named Psorophora blanchardi and Sabethoides rangeli. In a second illustrated article in the same issue Dr. L. Alvarado describes certain prehistoric objects from Venezuela. Tue fiftieth number of ‘Scientific Memoirs by Officers of the Medical and Sanitary Departments of the Government of India” contains a preliminary report by Captain W. S. Patton upon his investiga- tions into the etiology of Oriental sore in Cambay. The author concludes that the house-flies (Musca spp.) play no part whatever in the transmission of the disease in Cambay. Although he has failed up to the present to transmit the parasite by the bed-bug, he has ‘“‘no doubt whatever that the bug Cimex rotund- atus is the only insect transmitter of the disease’ in Cambay, on the ground that the parasite only passes into its flagellate stage in the bug below a certain temperature, and that “this observation exactly coin- sides with the geographical distribution of the disease in India.’”’ The problem of the transmission of this disease is therefore still without its final solution. THE importation of tuberculosis in frozen meat forms the subject of a short note by Prof. Guido Bordoni-Uffreduzi in the Rendiconti del R. Istituto lombardo, xlv., 12. According to this writer something like a scare has occurred in Italy, and exaggerated statements have been circulated to the effect that go per cent. of the cattle in the Argentine Republic, whence the beef is obtained, are tuberculous. Prof. Uffreduzi, on the other hand, finds the Argentine cattle to be far less affected by tuberculosis than those bred in Italy; further, he refers to the circumstances (1) that the bacillus occurs rarely in the muscular parts and that only in animals obviously unfit for food; (2) that cooking destroys the bacillus; (3) that adults are not very liable to infection from tuberculosis introduced in the form of food. Hence it is concluded that the danger is more imaginary than real, and is not based on circumstantial evidence. Tue need of legislative protection for the Califor- nian so-called valley quail (Lophortyx californica) forms the subject of an article by Mr. H. C. Bryant in the July number of The Condor. In some districts these birds show a great diminution in number, although in certain areas there is an increase. The provision of sufficient food and proper covert is stated to be necessary. The Egyptian Gazette of August 1 contains a list of twenty-four species of Sudani mammals and ten of birds living examples of which have been recently received at the Government Zoological Gardens at Giza. The most interesting of these is a white-eared kob antelope (Cobus leucotis), from the swamps of the White Nile, believed to be the first example of its kind that has ever left the Sudan alive. A NEw species of the minute annelids of the genus Achzeta—so called from the absence of bristles—from ! Armagh is described by the Rev. H. Friend in the SEPTEMBER 26, 1912] NATURE t13 September number of The Irish Naturalist as A. spermatophora. A second addition to the British fauna is recorded by Mr. N. H. Joy in The Entomo- logist’s Monthly Magazine of the same date in the shape of Orthochaetes insignis, a beetle common in Brittany. Tue American Camp Fire Club has issued a circular letter setting forth the part played by that body in regard to legislation for the protection of the Pribilow fur-seals. It is claimed that both the recent inter- national fur-seal treaty and the Bill establishing a five-year close season for the fur-seals are the result of action taken by the club. Be this as it may, the enactment of such a..close can scarcely fail to be a source of satisfaction. in. this country... During the Russian occupation of the Pribilows the number of fur-seals was at one time.reduced to 31,000, but when the United States came into possession of the islands, after a ten-years’ close season, it had increased to nearly five millions. At the present time it is believed that the seal herd does not comprise more than 125,000 head, but it is confidently expected that at the end of the five-years’ close season the number will have risen to more than a million. Tue greater part of Naturen for July and August is occupied by an illustrated article by Mr. K. E. Schreiner on ‘‘the oldest men,” in which skulls. of the Neanderthal, Spy, and other early races are figured, as well as the lower jaw of Homo heidei- bergensis, and the skull, teeth, and femur of Pithec- anthropus, are figured. Genealogical diagrams illus- trating different views which have been expressed as to the relationship of the genus last mentioned to the Neanderthal and modern man are of interest. In one case Pithecanthropus is regarded as the direct ancestor of Homo sapiens, with H. neandertaliensis as the intermediate link; in a second Pithecanthropus and the Neanderthal race are regarded as separate lateral offshoots of the stem which gave rise to the modern races, while in a third Pithecanthropus occupies the same collateral position, but is supposed to have given rise to Neanderthal man, who is accordingly only a distinct cousin of the existing races of mankind. Unoper the title ‘‘ An American Lepidostrobus,”’ Prof. J. M. Coulter and Dr. W. J. G. Land have described (Botanical Gazette, vol. 51) the first hitherto discovered American coal-measure cone showing the internal structure. Until now American palaeozoic fructifica- tions and seeds have been known only as impressions or casts, in striking contrast to the richness of the coal-measures in Britain and France in_ petrified remains showing beautifully preserved structure, though the mesozoic formations have yielded a rich harvest of material to American palaeo-botanists such as is unequalled in any other country. The well-known werk of Prof. H. de Vries on the evening primrose, Oenothera Lamarckiana, and the various forms (mutants and hybrids) derived from it has been followed up by various cytologists in the hope of elucidating the origin and nature of these forms with reference to the nuclear phenomena. Miss Anne NO. 2239, VOL. 90] M. Lutz has published an extensive paper (Biologisches Centralblatt, 1912, No. 7) based upon the counting of the chromosomes in the dividing nuclei of various GEnotheras, especially in the forms called ‘triploid mutants ’’—in which the somatic cells have thrice in- stead of twice the number of chromosomes normally found in the male and female germ-cells from which the plant arose. The results obtained by Gates, Davis, Geerts, and the writer herself are discussed at length, and considerable ingenuity is shown in the explana- tion of the various numbers of chromosomes observed in different GEnotheras—a list is given of more than forty possible combinations and permutations in the chromosome numbers in the germ-cells, and the writer claims to have demonstrated *‘ the harmonious relation- ship existing between practically all of the observed phenomena thus far reported for the germ and somatic cells of Oenothera.” Pror. H. E. ArMstRoNG’s lecture to the: Royal Horticultural Society on ‘‘ The Stimulation’ of) Plant Growth” is printed in the current number: (vol. 38, part 1) of the Society’s journal. It is primarily con- cerned with the action of volatile activating bodies or hormones, which can pass through the membranes of plant cells and stimulate enzymes to set up chemical changes in the cell contents. In the growth of an ordinary green. plant two periods may be distinguished —that in which assimilation occurs under the influence of light, and that in which growth tales place at the expense of the materials thus produced. The latter is apparently the period during which stimulation is necessary, that in which enzymes are brought into action as simplifying agents and the products of their action enter into circulation and are carried to the places where they can be used as building materials in promoting growth; probably during this period the membranes become more or less permeable to sub- stances which do not pass them during the period of assimilation. It is pointed out that manures probably act largely as hormones; that ammonia is the most active ‘‘natural’’ stimulant, and that a substance (ammonia, for instance) which is a valuable hormone when used in proportions not exceeding a certain low maximum. at once becomes toxic when this maximum is exceeded. In the Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London for 1912, vol. Ixviii., part 2 (price 5s.), the president, Prof. W. W. Watts, F.R.S., reviews the important subject of the coal supply of Britain. He urges forcibly that an exploration by boring of concealed coal areas might well be undertaken by the State. The ““Summary of Progress of the Geo- logical Survey of Great Britain for 1911” (1912, price ts.) shows how the Coal Measures of the Denbigh- shire district are being examined, and coal again attracts attention in Staffordshire, Warwickshire, and Scotland (pp. 22, 23, and 46). A second edition has been issued of the Survey’s memoir on the country around Cardiff (1912, price 2s.), with especial reference to the growth of information as to mines. The memoir on the country around Ollerton, by G. W. Lamplugh and others (price 2s.), accompanies sheet ii if NAL OIRE [SEPTEMBER 26, 1912 113 of the map (price 1s. 6d.). Both in the memoir and in the section on the map, the position of the concealed coalfield under Sherwood Forest is well emphasised. Perhaps in anticipation of the compre- hensive publication that we expect from the Inter- national Geological Congress of 1913, Mr. E. F. Pittman has prepared a handy volume on “ The Coal Resources of New South Wales” (Geol. Surv., N.S.W., 1912, price 1s.). Tue series of papers on the development of the theories of mathematical logic and the principles of mathematics, by Mr. P. E. B. Jourdain, appearing in The Quarterly Journal of Pure and Applied Mathe- matics, forms a useful contribution to mathematical literature. The sections dealing with Leibniz and Boole appeared some time ago, and we have now received the part (Quarterly Journal, No. 171, 1912) dealing with the work of Hugh McColl (1837-1909), Gottlob Frege (born 1848), and Giuseppe Peano. All these sections have been revised, both by the respective authors with whose work they deal and by Mr. Bertrand Russell. A PAPER contributed to the Atti dei Lincei, xxi. (2), 1, by Prof. S. Salaghi bears the title ““On the vul- garisation and application of mathematical physics in medicine.’’ It constitutes a plea for the application of hydrodynamical principles to the study of the circulation of the blood, the formule for the purpose being the ordinary equations of hydraulics applicable to the motion of liquids in tubes, a subject which the author claims to have introduced into Italy for the first time, but which is now being investigated by Dr. Morandi under the name hzmodynamics. A sMALL pamphlet on ‘‘ Rubies,’’ written by Mr. Noel Heaton, has been issued by the Burma Ruby Mines, Ltd. In the course of a few concise paragraphs, Mr. Heaton explains how the natural ruby may be distin- guished from other red gem-stones, and especially from the reconstructed and synthetic rubies. The difference in structure between the natural and the artificially pre- pared stones is clearly brought out by some admirable illustrations. The pamphlet will be found invaluable by jewellers and dealers in precious stones, to whom of late years the identification of rubies has been a troublesome problem. The salient items of the pamph- let are also reprinted in the form of a chart, which may be framed and hung in a convenient position on a wall. Tue Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers for July contains a description of a portable instrument for the detection of combustible gases and vapours in. air, devised by Messrs. A. Philip and L. J. Steele. It depends on the possibility of causing the gas or vapour to combine with the oxygen of the air by bringing the mixture into contact with a platinum spiral raised to the necessary temperature by the passage of an electric current through it. The combustion thus brought about produces heat which raises the temperature of the platinum spiral still | The electric current passes through a second | further. spiral identical with the first, but protected from contact with the mixture of gases. By combining the NO. 2239, VOL. 90] two spirals in any of the well-known ways, the differ- ence of their electrical resistances may be made to indicate the presence of the combustion. In the in- strument described, the spirals are in series with the coils of a differential relay, and the redistribution of current which results from the heating of one spiral actuates the relay and a red lamp lights up. In the Chemical Society’s Journal Prof. Pope and Mr. C. S. Gibson give an account of their successful resolution of sec-bitylamine, C,H,.CH(NH,).CH,, a simple substance which had resisted earlier attempts to separate it into two optically-active isomerides. Although the base behaves normally, and its hydro- chloride is highly dispersive, a series of sulphonic derivatives were found to produce practically constant rotations in the yellow and green regions of the spectrum. This absence of rotatory dispersion is very exceptional, though some parallel is found in sub- stances such as ethyl tartrate, which show a maximum of specific rotatory power in the yellow or green region of the spectrum. THE current issue of Science Progress contains a second article by Dr. Charles Walker on theories and problems of cancer, and a long article by Dr. F. G. Hopkins on Dr. Pavy and diabetes. Prof. Love con- tributes an article on tides and the rigidity of the earth, and Mr. J. N. Worthington gives a critical review of the possibilities and limitations of observa- tions of the planet Mars, to be followed in a later article by an account of what these observations have revealed. Chemists will welcome an extremely lucid exposition, by Mr. F. W. Aston, of Sir J. J. Thom- son’s new method of chemical analysis, which pre- cedes a second article by Mr. D. L. Chapman on conditions of chemical change. Dr. Desch contri- butes an illustrated article on the structure of metals, Mr. C. T. Gimingham discusses variations in pas- tures, with special reference to the ‘*fatting’’ and “non-fatting ’’ pastures of the Romney Marshes, and the ‘‘teart’’ lands of Somersetshire, and Mr. Allan Ferguson gives an historical account of the genesis of logarithms. Tue latest addition to the handy little subject lists issued by the Patent Office, London, W.C., is the subject list of works on horology in the library of the office. The list comprises works on the determination and division of time, dialling, clocks, watches, and other timekeepers. OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. Comet 1912a (GaLE).—From observations made on September 8, 11, and 15, Dr. Ebell has calculated a set of elements and an ephemeris for comet 1912a. The time of perihelion is given as October 47088 (Berlin M.T.), and the following is an extract from the ephemeris given in the Kiel Centralstelle Circular, No. 135 :— Ephemeris 12h. (Berlin M.T.) R.A Decl. S. R.A. Decl. S. n =m. 4 hm. = r jeoeptesyec 15 773) .. IL acSlpsept..300y WLS L65sae eons 20. 15 LOG 9 55:21 Oct: © "1... 15) 19°0).--.0 sho a 38) ces Tey BRI rete 3107 |] 2)...-15 21°6)\... 4 4510 SEPTEMBER 26, 1912| NATURE nS The calculated magnitude for the whole of this period is 5.0, and as the comet sets at about 7 p.m. it is only possible, in these latitudes, to see it low down in the south-west, immediately after sunset. | But as the southern declination is decreasing the conditions will become more favourable; also as the comet nears the sun it may’ brighten intrinsically. Consequently, at the beginning of October, it may become visible about an hour after sunset at an altitude of about 10° above the south-western horizon. ReporteD Mereoric Fatt in FranceE.—-According to a message transmitted by Reuter’s Agency a large and brilliant meteorite fell at two o’clock on Friday morning (September 20), in the department of the Aube, Central France. The report states that the meteorite exploded with such great violence as to shake the neighbouring houses and to cause the resi- dents to believe that an earthquake was occurring. Tue Garactic DistRIBuTION OF CERTAIN STELLAR Typrs.—In a paper appearing in No. 4600 of the Astronomische Nachrichten, Dr. WHertzsprung pub- lishes some interesting results concerning the distri- bution of certain special types of celestial objects in relation to the galaxy. The seven types considered are shown in the follow- ing table, together with the coordinates of the pole of the plane in which each type principally gathers :— Coordinates, for 1900, of the pole of the favoured plane OTOL Galactic Type objects Long. Lat. a 6 Helium stars Oe,-By 1402 ... 179°2 +83°0 ... 182°1 +27°0 Eclipsing variables... 150 .. 234°0 +87°3.... 1882 +25°8 | cand aestars:.. ... 98 ... 243°99 +88'r ... I89°1 +26°3 Type V.,Oao-Oeo 87... 300°0 +88'7 ... 190°7 +26°9 Gaseous nebulze 130 472 +87°6 ... 192°7 +281 aby pe IVa iN) ie 228 352°6 +862 ... 194°2 +27°4 5 Cephei variables... 60 3489 +84°6 ... 195°9 +26°8 The data providing these results were talen from vol. lvi. of the Harvard Annals, and Pickering’s value, a=190°, 5= +28° (1900), for the position of the galactic pole was used. As will be seen from the results, the type V. stars chiefly lie in a plane nearly coincident with that of the galaxy, while the mean pole for the six other types is practically the same. It should be remarked that the helium stars and those of the fifth | type show a tendency to cluster in various galactic longitudes. Thus 72 per cent. of the helium stars lie within 90° of galactic longitude 248°, and 69 per cent. of the fifth type stars lie within go0° of long. 305°, the two positions 248° and 305° being, respectively, the places of greatest density. Rapio-acTIVvE ELEMENTS IN CELESTIAL Bopirs.— Having secured excellent spectrograms of the chromo- sphere during the Spanish eclipse of 1905, Dr. S. A. Mitchell has compared his (unpublished) wave-lengths | with those of Exner and Haschek’s radium spectrum, and finds himself unable to confirm Prof. Dyson’s | suggestion that radium may be present in the chromo- | sphere. As previously noted in these columns, the chromospheric spectrum is probably adequately ex- plained by the presence of other elements. Dr. Mitchell finds no sufficient evidence for the presence of radium emanation and uranium in the chromosphere, and deduces that we must wait for better photographs with greater dispersion. than those of Nova Gemi- norum (2) obtained by Dr. Giebeler before seriously contemplating the presence of these radio-active sub- | stances in nove (Astronomische Nachrichten, No. 4600). NO. 2239, VOL. 90] THE PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY OF THE LOAF. pe question of strength in wheaten flour has of late years repeatedly engaged the attention of chemists. Recent researches, more particularly those of Prof. T. B. Wood, have established that strength, or, in other words, the capacity of the flour to give a bold, well-risen loaf, depends in the main on the influence of the electrolytes naturally present on the gluten. The difficulties of the problem have hitherto prevented a more quantitative study of the electrolytes present in flour, but a recent paper from the Carlsberg Labora- tory, Copenhagen, by Jessen-Hansen, perhaps marks a first step in this direction. Use is made by him of S6rensen’s methods of determining small amounts of acidity, either colorimetrically or by determinations of electrical conductivity, to study the degree of acidity, or, as it is usually termed, the ‘“‘hydrogen ion con- centration’’ of a number of doughs made in the usual way. In particular, the effect of the addition of different quantities of acid to the dough was examined, and the acidity compared with the result obtained on baking. The conclusion is drawn that there is a certain optimum concentration of hydrogen ions, in presence of which the best results are obtained on baking; this concentration is rather higher than that of dough prepared from natural flour and distilled water. It differs only slightly according to the | quality of the flour, being somewhat higher for the superior grades and rather lower for the lower kinds; it also differs slightly in flour milled from different parts of the berry, being highest for the so-called patents. The optimum concentration corresponds approximately to a hydrogen ion concentration of 1o-* normal, pure distilled water being about 10-7 normal. It will be obvious that doughs made in this country with the hard alkaline service water must diverge a good deal from this concentration. Dr. Jessen-Hansen seeks to explain the effect of the various flour improvers which have been brought forward during the last year or so, as due to their increasing the hydrogen ion concentration and not to any subtle working of the improver, as the patentee would sometimes have us believe. Nothing is said, however, to indicate in what way the optimum acidity may be supposed to condition the subtle changes in the gluten which produce a good loaf. It is perhaps significant that the acidity also corresponds to the optimum acidity for protein coagulation. EB 2 AY AGRICULTURE IN INDIA. ps! his report on the condition of agriculture in India, Mr. Coventry is able to state that the progress recorded in earlier reports has been well maintained, and the beneficent and _ productive | Character of the Department’s undertakings made much more apparent. Sustained efforts are being | made in the cotton tracts to improve the quality and increase the quantity of the staple. In Madras, the improvements have taken two lines—the separation and selection of the best indigenous variety and the introduction of the exotic Cambodia. Similar improvements are also noted in the Central Provinces and Bombay. The well-known work of Mr. and Mrs. Howard on the improvement of Indian wheats is being carried on, and has entered a new phase by the establishment of seed farms where the new varie- ties can be grown on the large scale for distribution 1 Report on the Progress of Agriculture in India, (Calcutta, 1912.) Memoirs of the Department of Agriculture in India. (Pusa.) The Agricultural Journal oj India, (Pusa.) 1160 NATURE [SEPTEMBER 26, 1912 to the growers. ‘[he sugar industry, however, is in a critical condition, the native product failing to com- pete with sugar from the West, but it is hoped that the industry can be remodelled on scientific lines. Turning to the memoirs published recently from Pusa, Mr. and Mrs. Howard have succeeded in crossing rust-resistant wheat from northern Europe with some of the native wheats. It was not possible to do this at Pusa, on account of the impossibility of getting the rust-resisting parents to flower in time for crossing to be done and for the resulting grain tc ripen before the hot weather set in. The difficulty was overcome by sending the Indian parents to Cam- bridge for spring sowing, and by carrying out the actual hybridisation work in England. In this way crosses were made between variou: Indian types and American club and other rust-resi:tant wheats that promise to be very useful. In the chemical department Mr. Annett has begun an important study of the date-palm sugar industry, which has hitherto been entirely worked by native methods, involving considerable losses. There can be no doubt of the value of this kind of work; success in putting native industries on a sound foundation would be an achievement of which any department might be proud. The saltpetre industry has already been investigated by Dr. Leather, and we may hope for further good results. Dr. Leather also reports further work on the water requirements of crops. The Entomological Department has proceeded on its usual lines. Progress has been made with inquiries into the life-histories and habits of injurious insects, amongst the more important being the rhinoceros beetle, the surface and painted grass- hoppers, potato bug, lucerne Hypera, small cabbage caterpillar, termites, &c. Steady progress has been made in the preparation and issue of coloured plates illustrative of insect pests of crops, and these have been distributed to various institutions. Useful work has also been done on sericuiture. The Bacteriological Department is now in full work, and may be expected shortly to turn out useful results; whilst the mycologist, the agriculturist, and the cotton specialist are all able to report good work done. THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION AT DUNDEE. SECTION F. ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. From THE Opentinc ApprEss BY Str Henry H. CunyNGHAME, K.C.B., PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. HavinG endeavoured to the best of my ability to protest against the idea that economics is not a science, but a mere collection of copybook aphorisms that may be used at random like quack medicines, I should like, with your leave, to endeavour to establish its claim to come among the exact sciences by the surest test that can be applied—namely its capability of being demonstrated by means of geometry and mathematics. Everyone in this room is no doubt acquainted with the machine known as a barograph or registering barometer. It is constructed as follows: A vertical cylinder covered with white paper revolves once in a week. A light arm is hinged on to a series of hollow elastic circular chambers, from which the air has been pumped out. As the pressure of the atmosphere varies, the air chambers dilate and contract, carrying the arm with them. The arm carries a pen which marks with a dot on the paper the height of the barometer at any time. As the paper moves the dot is drawn out into a line, which gives a continuous NO. 2239, VOL. 90] { record of barometric variations. This diagram is a picture of one of the records. Now, a little consideration will show what a useful diagram we have here. If we were to attempt to give the information contained in it in words we should have to say something like this. On Monday at o a.m. the barometer stood at 288 in.; during the morning of Monday it rose until about 2 p.m., when it remained stationary for three hours. It again steadily rose in the evening, until at midnight it stood at 299 in. (Fig. 1). On Tuesday it still con- tinued to rise until midday, when it again experienced a fall, &c. Or, if the same results were put into arithmetical form, we should have quite a column of figures. But this diagram shows us the height of the barometer at any time, and all its fluctuations. as Wed Its IN 32 3l 30 29 28 PAS as life-history for the week and the law of its variations are obvious at a glance, in a way which no words could convey to us. So great are the advantages of this method that barographs are printed in many of the newspapers. But the use of such curves is not confined to the registration of atmospheric pressure or temperature. They may be used for all purposes. Thus, for example, we might have a curve indicating the varia- tion in successive years of the number of marriages per head of the population. Line 1 (Fig. 2) shows the proportion of marriages to population from 1870 to 1910. The advantages of this synoptic view are obvious. But they become more obvious still when we add other curves. For instance, line 4 shows the price of wheat in various AAaN 1870 1910 Fic. 2. years, line 3 the price of coal, line 2 the average of money wages, and line 1 the number of marriages per head of the population. A simple inspection shows that these curves rise and fall sympathetically, and proves beyond doubt that the facts they represent are causally connected. How eloquently this diagram represents on a space that in a printed book may be three inches square, a series of relations which would tale three or four pages to describe even imperfectly in words. And would any description in words enable us to follow the changes like this diagram? The diagram, in fact, plays the part that maps play in geography, and when duly appreciated becomes as valuable as maps of countries. SEPTEMBER 26, 1912| NATURE 7 We may use similar diagrams in the exposition of economic facts. It was, however, reservea for Cour- not to show that the use of curves might go further still. Not only might they be used to display statistical facts, but they might also be used to solve problems. I will endeavour to illustrate this very ingenious and interesting development. It is a well-known fact that in certain departments of industry the cost of making an article increases in proportion to the number produced. The growth of corn is a familiar example of this principle. The principle depends on two facts: (1) that corn can be grown in* some places with a less expenditure of capital and labour than in others; and (2) that the quantity of the more favourable land is limited. Whence it follows that growers will first have recourse to the most fertile land; afterwards to that which is Y| Money Supply O M x Fic: 3. less fertile. If we were acquainted exactly with the economics of corn-growing we could represent this state of things in any country at any given time by a curve like a barograph. Along the line OX (Fig. 3), instead of the progres- sive days of the week, we should mark off successive quantities of corn, and the vertical height of the curve above any given quality would represent the price per quarter of production of that part which was produced at greatest expense. Thus, the cost of pro- duction of the first and most easily grown quarter would be, say 18s., of the next 18s. 1d., and so on. And it would be evident that the total cost of the The contemplation of these curves of corn will no doubt suggest the question whether if we had them we could tell what the market price would be. For it seems obvious that if we know all the conditions, both of demand and supply, we ought to be able to foretell the market price. This is the case and can be easily done. All that is necessary is to superpose the curves, as is done in Fig. 5. We then see at once that PM must represent the market price of corn per quarter at a given epoch, | and OM the quantity produced in a standard time. For if more than OM were grown it could only be sold at a loss; if less the growing of corn would produce an abnormal profit, which would soon cause an expansion, so as to bring the quantity grown and sold up to the maximum that could be profitably produced. ; Y, O M Fis. 5. X These diagrams have therefore done more than present a state of facts; they have solved a problem, | just as could be done by. a pair of algebraic equations. whole of the wheat grown would be obtained by | adding all these prices together, that is to say, by the area of the curve OMBA;; for an area is but the sum Y, Money Se, WwW Oo O x Fic. 4. of all its constituent parallel lines, just as the total | of a bill for goods is an addition of all its items. Let us now dismiss this corn-growing graph from our minds and turn to another side of the question. Let us consider the various prices which consumers would give for various quantities of corn if they could get these and no more. I do not mean the market prices of the quantities, but what might be called the famine prices, which they would give rather than not have the corn. If we draw a corn-consumers’ graph it will obviously be a descending curve, for the more they can get the less they will value successive por- tions. In fact, if the supply of corn were unlimited the surplus would be used first to feed animals, then to consume as fuel, then as manure, and at last have to be destroyed as a nuisance. The curve would be of the form shown in Fig. 4. NO. 2239, VOL. 90] Moreover, other illustrations can be derived from Fig. 5. By drawing the series of lines shown in Fig. 6 meanings can be given to various parts of the diagram. The area NPMO represents the total price paid for the corn; the area APMO represents the total cost of growing; the area APN, which is the difference between them, represents the surplus profit obtained from, the use of the better lands, or, in other words, rent; the area BPMO represents the total enjoyment the consumer derives from the corn, ex- pressed in terms of money; and since NPMO is the » M IG. 6. FE price he pays for it, BNP is the surplus enjoyment he gets by obtaining corn for less than he would have given for it had there been a famine. Let us go a little further. Suppose that a tax were laid on corn, and that all corn grown in a country were subject to an excise duty like that now levied on the manufacture of spirits. Suppose the duty were 5s. a quarter, and to simplify the problem suppose no corn came in from the outside. Then the curve APS (Fig. 7) would be pushed upwards all along its length by 5s., and assume a position A’P’S’. And notice that the price would rise, not by 5s., but by some amount rather less than 5s. For M’P’-MP must always be less than the upward movement of the curve APS. Again, the rent would be decreased, for the area 118 NATURE [SEPTEMBER 26, 1912 N’P’A’ is less than NPA. The amount grown would decrease from OM to OM’. The proceeds of the tax would be OM’ times five shillings, and the consumers’ surplus of enjoyment would have considerably diminished. This is all obvious enough if you look at the curves. But I want to ask whether, without a curve, you could have got all that so quickly by logical cogitation? I agree it could have been done by hard thought, but what a help the diagram has been in thinking it out. It is like drawing a genea- logical tree when you are thinking out some complex problems of family relationship. A simple inspection of the figure also shows that an ad valorem tax on rent would not increase price or diminish production. Again, what is a monopoly? A monopoly is simply “alee S fo) M M xX a power of stopping production at a point short of that which it would reach under conditions of free production, sale, and distribution. You can stop pro- duction by means of statutes regulating quantities produced, or by combinations to limit production, or to limit the supply of labour produced, or by statutes regulating the employment of capital, or by statutes fixing minima of wages, or in various other ways. If you exercise the power, then the state of things shown in Fig. 8 comes into play. The quantity pro- duced is reduced to OM’. The price rises from PM to P/M’, the surplus producers’ profit (including rent) rises from ANP to AOP’N’. So that profits, interest, and wages increase, but the consumers’ surplus enjoy- ment goes down from NPB to N’P’B. The limitation of output plays a far larger part in the regu- Fic. 8. lation of prices than is commonly supposed. Those who are engaged in the manipulation of the meat trade, and the bread trade, and the petroleum indus- try, the supply of machinery or other articles, do not usually advertise the means they have taken to limit supply, nor do trade unions publicly descant upon the means they adopt to limit the labour of adults or apprentices. It is no part of our business here to discuss the necessity or the legitimate limits of such limitations. All that I am here to do is to show how useful diagrams are in explaining their effects. The monopoly controller seeks, of course, to make the area AOP’N’ a maximum, arranging his price just in the way a milliner would do who had to cut the biggest square she could out of a remnant of NO. 2239, VOL. 90] material. How much reduction of output and increase of price will the market bear? is the question that all monopolists present to themselves. I could go on with these curves through a great variety of questions. They become especially interest- ing where applied to show the effects of tariffs upon export and import trade, but I must forbear. My principal object has not been to introduce to the notice of the audience a subject already known to many of them, but rather to use it as an illustration of the truth that national economics is subject to laws —laws which, though complicated, are as exact and unfailing as the laws of physics, chemistry, or engineering, and which, if neglected by political engineers, will as certainly bring the State to ruin as the miscalculation of a mechanical engineer in design- ing a boiler, or of a civil engineer in designing a bridge. Whence, then, instead of consigning economics to Saturn, let us study it, not in a meta- physical or Aristotelian manner, using question- begging epithets, or, on the other hand, in the manner of some moderns, as, for example, Ruskin, by re- placing reason by sentiment; but let us approach it in the spirit of positive science. SECTION H. ANTHROPOLOGY. OpeniNG ApprESsS BY Pror. G. Ettior SmitH, M.A., M.D., Cu.M., F.R.S., PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. The Evolution of Man. At the outset it is fitting that I should express our sense of the loss this section has sustained in the death of Mr. Andrew Lang. Meeting as we do so near to his home at St. Andrews, it was hoped at one time that his versatile scholarship and literary skill would have been available to add lustre to our deliberations. But early last winter we learned with deep regret that the state of his health would not permit him to accept the presidency of the section. In associating ourselves with those who are deploring the loss literature and history have sustained, we realise that our science also is the poorer to-day through the death of one of its most brilliant ex- positors. The Scope of Evolution. In a recent address Lord Morley referred to ** evolu- tion’? as ‘tthe most overworked word in all the language of the day”; nevertheless, he was con- strained to admit that, even when discussing such a theme as history and modern politics, ‘‘ we cannot do without it.”’ But to us in this section, concerned as we are with the problems of man’s nature and the gradual emergence of human structure, customs, and institutions, the facts of evolution form the very fabric the threads of which we are endeavouring to dis- entangle; and in such studies ideas of evolution find more obvious expression than most of us can detect in modern politics. In such circumstances we are peculiarly liable to the risk of ‘‘overworking” not only the word evolution, but also the application of the idea of evolution to the material of our investi- gations. My predecessor in the office of president of this section last year uttered a protest against the tendency, to which British anthropologists of the present genera- tion seem to be peculiarly prone, to read evolutionary ideas into many events in man’s history and the spread of his knowledge and culture in which careful in- “ec 1 This report represents the address as it was delivered at the meeting ; it ~ is a somewhat condensed and rearranged form of that appearing in the Association's Reports. SEPTEMBER 26, 1912| NATURE 119 vestigation can detect no indubitable trace of any such influences having been at work. I need offer no apology for repeating and emphasis- ing some of the points brought forward in Dr. Rivers’s deeply instructive address; for his lucid and convincing account of the circumstances that had compelled him to change his attitude toward the main problems of the history of human society in Melanesia first brought home to me the fact, which I had not clearly realised until then, that in my own experience, working in a very different domain of anthropology on the opposite side of the world, I had passed through phases pre- cisely analogous to those described so graphically by Dr. Rivers. He told us that in his first attempts to trace out “the evolution of custom and institution” he started from the assumption that ‘‘ where similari- ties are found in different parts of the world they are due to independent origin and development, which in turn is ascribed to the fundamental similarity of the workings of the human mind all over the world, so that, given similar conditions, similar customs and institutions will come into existence and develop on the same lines.’”? But as he became more familiar with the materials of his research he found that such an attitude would not admit of an adequate explana- tion of the facts, and he was forced to confess that he “had ignored considerations arising from racial mixture and the blending of cultures.” I recall these statements to your recollection now, not merely for the purpose of emphasising the far- reaching significance of an address which is certain to be looked back upon as one of the most distinctive and influential utterances from this presidential chair, nor yet with the object of telling you how, in the course of my investigations upon the history of the people in the Nile Valley,’ I also started out to search for evidences of evolution, but gradually came to realise that the facts of racial admixture and the blending of cultures were far more obtrusive and significant. Mv intention is rather to investigate the domain of anthropology in which unequivocal evolu- tionary factors have played a definite réle; I refer to the study of man’s genealogy, and the forces that determined the precise line of development his ances- tors pursued and ultimately fashioned man himself. I suppose it is inevitable in these days that one trained in biological ways of thought should approach the problems of anthropology with the idea of in- dependent development as his guiding principle; but the conviction must be reached sooner or later, by everyone who conscientiously, and with an open mind, seeks to answer most of the questions relating to man’s history and achievements—certainly the chapters in that history which come within the scope of the last sixty centuries—that evolution yields a surpris- ingly small contribution to the solution of the difficul- ties which present themselves. Most of the factors that call for investigation concerning the history of man and his works are unquestionably the direct effects of migrations and the intermingling of races and cultures. But I would not have you misunderstand my mean- ing. Nothing could be further from my intention than to question the reality of evolution, as understood by Charles Darwin, and the tremendous influence it is still exerting upon mankind. In respect of certain perils man may, perhaps, have protected himself from “the general operation of that process of natural selection and survival of the fittest which, up to his appearance, had been the law of the living world” (Sir Ray Lankester); but it has been demonstrated quite definitely that man, in virtue of these very heightened powers, which, to some observers, seem 2 “The Ancient Egyptians,” Harpers, rorz. NO. 2239, VOL. 90] to have secured him an immunity from what Sir Ray Lankester calls “‘nature’s inexorable discipline of death,”’ is constantly exposing himself to new condi- tions that favour the operations of natural selection, as well as other forms of ‘selection’? which his in- creased powers of intelligent choice and his subjection to the influences of fashion expose him. It is not, however, with such contentious matters as the precise mode of operation of evolution at the present day that I propose to deal; nor yet with the discussion of when and how the races of mankind became specialised and differentiated the one from the other. It is the much older story of the origin of man himself and the first elimmerings of human charac- teristics amidst even the remotest of his ancestors to which I invite you to give some consideration to-day. In a recently published book * the statement is made that “the uncertainties as to man’s pedigree and antiquity are still great, anditis undeniably difficult to discover the factors in his emergence and ascent.” There is undoubtedly the widest divergence of opinion as to the precise pedigree; nevertheless, there seems {to me to be ample evidence now available to justify us sketching the genealogy of man and confidently drawing up his pedigree as far back as Eocene times —a matter of a million years or so—with at least as much certainty of detail and completeness as in the case of any other recent mammal; and if all the factors in his emergence are not yet known, there is one unquestionable, tangible factor that we can seize hold of and examine—the steady and uniform development of the brain along a well-defined course throughout the primates right up to man—which must give us the fundamental reason for ‘‘man’s emergence and ascent,” whatever other factors may contribute toward that consummation. What I propose to attempt is to put into serial order those vertebrates which we have reason to believe are the nearest relatives to man’s ancestors now available for examination, and to determine what outstanding changes in the structure of the cerebral hemispheres have talen place at each upward step that may help to explain the gradual acquirement of the distinctively human mental faculties, which, by immeasurably in- creasing the power of adaptation to varying circum- stances and modifying the process of sexual selection, have made man what he is at present. Vhe links in the chain of our ancestry supplied by paleontology are few, and of doubtful value, if con- sidered apart from the illumination of comparative anatomy. Psychologists have formulated certain definite phases through which the evolution of intelligence must have passed in the process of gradual building-up of the structure of the mind. The brain in a sense is the incarnation of this mental structure; and it seemed to me that it would be instructive, and perhaps use- ful, to employ the facts of the evolution of the brain as the cement to unite into one comprehensive story the accumulations of knowledge concerning the essential facts of man’s pedigree, and the factors that have contributed to his emergence, which have been gathered by workers in such diverse departments of knowledge as zoology and comparative anatomy, geology and palzontology, and physiology and psychology. For it was the evolution of the brain and the ability to profit by experience, which such perfecting of the cerebral mechanism made possible, that led to the emergence of mammals, as I attempted to demonstrate in opening the discussion on the origin of mammals at the Portsmouth meeting last year*; and from 3 J. A. Thomson and P. Geddes, “‘ Evolution,” 1912, p. 102. e 4 Discussion on the ‘* Origin of Mammals” at the meetings of Section D (Brit. Assoc. Reports, 1911, p. 424). 126 NATURE | SEPTEMBER 26, I912 the mammalia, by a continuation of this process of building-up the cerebral cortex, or, if you prefer it, the structure of the mind, was eventually formed that living creature which has attained the most extensive powers of profiting by individual experience. The study of the brain and mind, therefore, should have been the first care of the investigator of human | origins. Charles Darwin, with his usual perspicuity, fully realised this; but since his time the réle of in- telligence and its instruments has been almost wholly ignored in these discussions; or when invoked at all wholly irrelevant aspects of the problems have been considered. There can be no doubt that this neglect of the | evidence which the comparative anatomy of the brain supplies is in large measure due to the discredit cast upon this branch of knowledge by the singularly futile pretensions of some of the foremost anatomists who opposed Darwin’s views in the discussions which took place at the meetings of the British Association and elsewhere more than forty years ago. Many of you no doubt are familiar with Charles Kingsley’s delightful ridicule of these learned discus- sions in the pages of ‘Water Babies.’ The con- troversy excited by Sir Richard Owen’s contention that the great distinctive feature of the human brain was the possession of a structure that used to be called the hippocampus minor was not unjustly the mark of his scathing satire. “The professor had even Association and declared that apes had hippopotamus majors in their brains, just as men have. Which was a shocking thing to say; for, if it were so, what would become of the faith, hope, and charity of immortal millions? You may think that there are other more important differences between you and an ape, such as being able to speak, and make machines, and know right from wrong, and say your prayers, and other little matters of that kind; but that is only a child’s fancy, my dear. Nothing is to be depended upon but the great hippopotamus test. If you have a hippopotamus major in your brain you are no ape, though you had four hands, no feet, and were more apeish than the apes of all aperies. Always remember that the one true, certain, final, and all-important difference between you and an ape is that you have a hippopotamus major in your brain and it has none. If a hippopotamus was discovered in an ape’s brain, why, it would not be one, you know, but something elsexe The measure of the futility of the contention thus held up to scorn can be more justly realised now ; for some years ago I discovered that the feature referred to in Kingsley’s burlesque phrase, ‘ hippo- potamus major,”’ which Owen claimed to be distinctive of the human brain, and Huxley maintained was present also in apes, is quite a primitive characteristic, and the common property of the mammalia in general. This illustration of the nature of the discussions which distracted attention from the real problems, although the most notorious one, is unfortunately characteristic of the state of affairs that prevailed when prejudice blinded men’s eyes to the obvious facts that were calling so urgently for calm investiga- tion. got up at the British Man’s Pedigree. No one who is familiar with the anatomy of man and the apes can refuse to admit that no hypothesis other than that of close kinship affords a reasonable or credible explanation of the extraordinarily exact identity of structure that obtains in most parts of the bodies of man and the gorilla. To deny the validity of this evidence of near kinship is tantamount to a confession of the utter uselessness of the facts of NO. 2239, VOL. 90] comparative anatomy as indications of genetic relation- ships, and a reversion to the obscurantism of the dark ages of biology. But if anyone still harbours an honest doubt in the face of this overwhelming testimony from mere structure, the reactions of the blood will confirm the teaching of anatomy; and the suscepti- bility of the anthropoid apes to the infection of human diseases, from which other apes and mammals in general are immune, should complete and clinch the proof for all who are willing to be convinced. Nor can anyone who, with an open mind, applies similar tests to the gibbon refuse to admit that it is a true, if very primitive, anthropoid ape, nearly related to the common ancestor of man, the gorilla, and the chimpanzee. Moreover, its structure reveals indubit- able evidence of its derivation from some primitive Old World or catarrhine monkey akin to the ancestor of the langur, the sacred monkey of India. It is equally certain that the catarrhine apes were derived from some primitive platyrrhine ape, the other, less modified, descendants of which we recognise in the South American monkeys of the present day; and that the common ancestor of all these primates was a lemuroid nearly alin to the curious litie spectral tarsier, which still haunts the forests of Borneo, Java, and the neighbouring islands, and awakens in the minds of the peoples of those lands a superstitious dread—a sort of instinctive horror at the sight of the ghost-like representative of their first primate ancestor. This much of man’s pedigree will, I think, be admitted by the great majority of zoologists who are familiar with the facts; but I believe we can push the line of ancestry still further back, beyond the most primitive primate into Haeckel’s suborder Meno- typhla, which most zoologists regard as constituting two families of insectivora. I need not stop to give the evidence for this opinion, for most of the data and arguments in support of it have recently been sum- marised most excellently by Dr. W. K. Gregory.® This group includes the Oriental. tree-shrews and the African jumping-shrews. The latter (Macrosceli- didze), living in the original South African home of the mammalia, present extraordinarily primitive features linking them by close bonds of affinity to the marsupials. The tree-shrews (Tupaiidz), however, which range from India to Java, while presenting very definite evidence of kinship to their humble African cousins, also display in the structure of their bodies positive evidence of relationship to the stem of the aristocratic primate phylum. Quite apart from the striking similarities produced by identical habits and habitats, there are many structural identities in the tree-shrews and lemuroids, not directly associated with such habits, which can be interpreted only as evidences of affinity. The Neopallium and its Relation to the Ability of Learning by Experience. Having now sketched the broad lines of man’s pedigree right back to the most primitive mammals, let us next consider what were the outstanding factors that determined the course of his ancestors’ progres- sive evolution. The class mammalia, to which man belongs, is distinguished in structure from all other vertebrates mainly by the size and high development of the brain, and, as regards the behaviour of its members, by the fact that they are able, in immeasurably greater degree than all other animals, not excluding even birds, to profit by individual experience. |The behaviour of most, or perhaps it would be more correct to say all, animals, however complex and nicely adapted to their 5 ‘The Orders of Mammals,” IQIO, Pp. 321. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. xxvii., SEPTEMBER 26, 1912 | NATURE V2 circumstances it may seem, is essentially instinctive ; and the main problem we have to solve, in attempting to explain the emergence of the distinctive attributes of the creature which in greater measure than any other has succeeded in subordinating its instincts to reason, is the means by which it has become possible for the effects of individual experience to be brought to bear upon conduct. ; The ability to learn by experience necessarily implies the development, somewhere in the brain, of a some- thing which can act not only as a receptive organ for impressions of the senses and a means for securing that their influence will find expression in modifying behaviour, but also serve in a sense as a recording apparatus for storing such impressions, so that they miay be revived in memory at some future time in association with other impressions received simul- taneously, the state of consciousness they evoked, and the response they called forth. Such an organ of associative memory is actually found in the brain of mammals. It is the cortical area to which eleven years ago I[ applied the term “neo- pallium.”* Into it pathways lead from all the sense organs; and each of its territories, which receives a definite kind of impression, visual, acoustic, tactile, or any other, is linked by the most intimate bonds with all the others. In spite of the disapproval of the psychologists, we can indeed regard this neopallium as fulfilling all the conditions of the sensortum com- mune, Which Aristotle and many generations of philosophers have sought for twenty centuries; for it is unquestionably a ‘‘unitary organ the physical pro- cesses of which might be regarded as corresponding to the unity of consciousness” (Wm. MacDougall). Nothing that happens in this area in the course of its enormous expansion and differentiation in the higher mammals materially affects this fundamental purpose of the neopallium, which continues to remain a unifying organ that acts as a whole, though each part is favourably placed to receive and transmit to the rest its special quota to the sum-total of what we may call the materials of conscious life. The consciousness which resides, so to speak, in this neopallium, and is fed by the continual stream of sensory impressions pouring into it and awakening memories of past sensations, can express itself directly in the behaviour of the animal through the inter- mediation of a part of the neopallium itself, the so- called motor area, which is not only kept in intimate relation with the muscles, tendons, and skin by sensory impressions, but controls the voluntary re- sponses of the muscles of the opposite side of the body. The Differentiation of Mammals and the Effects of Specialisation. The possession of this higher type of brain enor- mously widened the scope for the conscious and in- telligent adaptation of the animal to varying surround- ings; and in the exercise of this newly acquired ability to learn from individual experience, and so appreciate the possibilities of fresh sources of food supply and new modes of life, the way was opened for an infinite series of adaptations to varying environments, entail- ing structural modifications in which the enhanced plasticity of the new type of animal found expression. Nature tried innumerable experiments with the new type of brain almost as soon as the humble Therapsid- like mammal felt the impetus of its new-found power of adaptation. In turn, the Prototherian and Meta- therian types of brain were tried before the more adapt- able scheme of the Eutherian brain was evolved. 6 ‘The Natural Subdivision of the Cerebral Hemisphere,” Jou. Anat. and Phiys., vol. xxxv., 1901, p 43t; Arris and Gale Lectures on the Evolution of the Brain, Zazcet, January 15, 1910, p. 153. NO. 2239, VOL. 90] ! of foot, The new breed of intelligent creatures rapidly spread from their South African home throughout the whole world, and exploited every mode of livelihood. The power of adaptation to the particular kind of life each group chose to pursue soon came to be expressed in a bewildering variety of specialisations in structure, some for living on the earth or burrowing in it, others for living in trees or even for flight; others, again, for an aquatic existence. Some mammals became fleet and developed limbs specially adapted to enhance their powers of rapid movement. They at- tained an early pre-eminence, and were qgble to grow to large dimensions in the slow-moving world at the dawn of the age of mammals. Others developed limbs specially adapted for swift attack and habits of stealth, | successfully to prey upon their defenceless relatives. Most of these groups attained the immediate success | that often follows upon early specialisation; but they also paid the inevitable penalty. They became defi- nitely committed to one particular kind of life; and in so doing they had sacrificed their primitive simpli- city and plasticity of structure, and in great measure their adaptability to new conditions. The retention of primitive characters. which so many writers upon bio- logical subjects, and especially upon anthropology, assume to be a sign of degradation, is not really an indication of lowliness. We should rather look | upon high specialisation of limbs and the narrowing of i § § | agility. the manner of living to one particular groove as con- fessions of weakness, the renunciation of the wider life for one that is sharply circumscribed. The stock from which man eventually emerged played a very humble réle for long ages after many other mammalian orders had waxed great and strong. But the race is not always to the swift, and the lowly group of mammals which took advantage of its in- significance to develop its powers evenly and very gradually, without sacrificing in narrow specialisation any of its possibilities of future achievement, eventually gave birth to the dominant and most intelligent of all living creatures. The tree-shrews are small squirrel-like animals which feed on ‘‘insects and fruit, which they usually seek in trees, but also occasionally on the ground. When feeding they often sit on their haunches, hold- | ing the food, after the manner of squirrels, in their forepaws.”’? They are of ‘lively disposition and great ”8 These vivacious, large-brained little insec- tivores, linked by manifold bonds of relationship to some of the lowliest and most primitive mammals, present in the structure of their skull, teeth, and limbs undoubted evidence of a kinship, remote though none the less sure, with their compatriots the Malaysian lemurs; and it is singularly fortunate for us in this inquiry that side by side there should have been pre- served from the remote Eocene times, and possibly earlier still, these insectivores, which had almost become primates, and a little primitive lemuroid, the spectral tarsier, which had only just assumed the char- acters of the primate stock, when nature fixed their types and preserved them throughout the ages, with relatively slight change, for us to study at the present day. Thus we are able to investigate the influence of an | arboreal mode of life in stimulating the progressive development of a primitive mammal, and to appreciate precisely what changes were necessary to convert the lively, agile Ptilocercus-like ancestor of the primates into a real primate. In the forerunners of the mammalia the cerebral hemisphere was predominantly olfactory in function; and even when the true mammal emerged, and all the 7 Flower and Lydekker, ‘‘ Mammals, Living and Extinct,” 1891. 618 8 W. K. Gregory, of. c7t., p. 260, and pp. 279, 280. 122 other senses received due representation in the neopal- lium, the animal’s behaviour was still influenced to a much greater extent by smell impressions than by those of the other senses. This was due not only to the fact that the sense of smell had already installed its instruments in, and taken firm possession of, the cerebral hemisphere long before the advent in this dominant part of the brain of any adequate representation of the other senses, but also, and chiefly, because to a small land-grubbing animal the guidance of smell impressions, whether in the search for food or as a means of recognition of friends or enemies, was much more serviceable than all the other senses. ‘Thus the small creature’s mental life was lived essentially in an atmosphere of odours, and every object in the outside world was judged primarily and predominantly by its smell; the senses of touch, vision, and hearing were merely auxiliary to the compelling influence of smell. Once such a creature left the solid earth and took to an arboreal life all this was changed, for away from the ground the guidance of the olfactory sense lost much of its usefulness. Life amidst the branches of trees limits the usefulness of olfactory organs, but it is favourable to the high development of vision, touch, and hearing. Moreover, it demands an agility and quickness of movement that necessitates an efficient motor cortex to control and co-ordinate such actions as an arboreal mode of life demands (and secures, by the survival only of those so fitted), and also a well-developed muscular sensibility to enable such acts to be carried out with precision and quick- ness. In the struggle for existence, therefore, all arboreal mammals, such as the tree-shrews, suffer a marked diminution of their olfactory apparatus, and develop a considerable neopallium, in which relatively large areas are given up to visual, tactile, acoustic, kinzsthetic, and motor functions, as well as to the purpose of providing a mechanism for mutually blend- ing in consciousness the effects of the impressions pouring in through the avenues of these senses. Thus a more equable balance of the representation of the senses is brought about in the large brain of the arboreal animal; and its mode of life encourages and makes indispensable the acquisition of agility. More- over, these modifications do not interfere with the primitive characters of limb and body. These small arboreal creatures were thus free to develop their brains and maintain all the plasticity of a generalised struc- ture, which eventually enabled them to go far in the process of adaptation to almost any circumstances that presented themselves. Amongst the members of this group, as in all the other mammalian phyla, the potency of the forces of natural selection was immensely enhanced by the fact that the inquisitiveness of an animal which can learn by experience, i.c., is endowed with intelligence, was leading these plastic insectivores into all kinds of situations which were favourable for the operation of selection. Various members of the group became specialised in different ways. Of such _ specialised strains the one of chief interest to us is that in which the sense of vision became especially sharpened. The Origin of Primates. Towards the close of the Cretaceous period some small arboreal shrew-like creature tool another step in advance, which was fraught with the most far- reaching consequences; for it marked the birth of the primates and the definite branching off from the other mammals of the line of man’s ancestry. A noteworthy further reduction in the size of the olfactory parts of the brain, such as is seen in that of NO. 2239, VOL. go] NATURE [SEPTEMBER 26, 1912 Tarsius,? quite emancipated the creature from the dominating influence of olfactory impressions, the sway of which was already shaken, but not quite overcome, when its tupaioid ancestor took to an arboreal life. | This change was associated with an enormous develop- | ment of the visual cortex in the neopallium, which not only increased in extent so as far to exceed that of Tupaia, but also became more highly specialised in structure. Thus, in the primitive primate, vision entirely usurped the controlling place once occupied by smell; but the significance of this change is not to be measured merely as the substitution of one sense for another. The visual area of cortex, unlike the | olfactory, is part of the neopallium, and when its importance thus became enhanced the whole of the neopallium felt the influence of the changed condi- tions. The sense of touch also shared in the effects, for tactile impressions and the related kinzesthetic sensibility, the importance of which to an agile tree- living animal is obvious, assist vision in the conscious appreciation of the nature and the various properties of the things seen, and in learning to perform agile actions which are guided by vision. An arboreal life also added to the importance of the sense of hearing; and the cortical representation of this sense exhibits a noteworthy increase in the pri- mates, the significance of which it would be difficult to exaggerate in the later stages, when the simian are giving place to the distinctively human character- istics. The high specialisation of the sense of sight awakened in the creature the curiosity to examine the objects around it with closer minuteness, and supplied guidance to the hands in executing more precise and more skilled movements than the tree-shrew attempts. Such habits not only tended to develop the motor cortex itself, trained the tactile and lxinazesthetic senses, and linked up their cortical areas in bonds of more intimate associations with the visual cortex, but they stimulated the process of specialisation within or alongside the motor cortex of a mechanism for regu- lating the action of that cortex itself—an organ of attention which co-ordinated the activities of the whole neopallium so as the more efficiently to regulate the various centres controlling the muscles of the whole body. In this way not only is the guidance of all the senses secured, but the way is opened for all the muscles of the body to act harmoniously so as to permit the concentration of their action for the per- formance at one moment of some delicate and finely adjusted movement. In some such way as this there was evolved from the motor area itself, in the form of an outgrowth placed at first immediately in front of it, a formation, which attains much larger dimensions and a more pronounced specialisation of structure in the primates than in any other order; it is the germ of that great prefrontal area of the human brain which is said to be “concerned with attention and the general orderly co-ordination of psychic processes,’’ *° and as such is, in far greater measure than any other part of the brain, deserving of being regarded as the seat of the higher mental faculties and the crowning glory and distine- tion of the human fabric. [By means of lantern slides representing Dr. Scharff’s convincing elucidation of the modifications of the land connections during Tertiary times, a demonstration was given of the wanderings of the primates, which the facts of palzontology and comparative anatomy demand ; the object being to direct attention to the fact 9 “On the Morphology of the Brain in the Mammalia, with Special Reference to that of the Lemurs, Recent and Extinct,” Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond., second series ; Zoology, vol. viii., Part ro, February. 1903. 10 J, S. Bolton ‘‘ The Functions of the Frontal Lobes,” Braz, 1903. SEPTEMBER 26, 1912| NATURE 123 that at each stage in the migrations of man’s ances- tors, menotyphlous, prosimian, platyrrhine, catarrhine and anthropoid, the unprogressive members remained somewhere in the neighbourhood of the home of their immediate ancestors, and that those which wandered into new surroundings had to struggle for their foot- ing, and as the result of this striving attained a higher rank. Other slides were shown to demonstrate the fact that in this series of primates there was a steady develop- ment of the brain— expansion and differentiation of the visual, tactile and auditory centres, and development of the meeting territory between them; a marked growth and specialisation of the motor centres, and the power of skilled movements, especially of the hands and fingers; and a regular expansion of the prefrontal area—along the lines marked out once for all when the first primate was formed from some menotyphlous progenitor. | Thus the outstanding feature in the gradual evolu- tion of the primate brain is a steady growth and differentiation of precisely those cortical areas which took on an enhanced importance in the earliest primates. So far in this address I have been delving into the extremely remote, rather than the nearer, ancestry of man, because I believe the germs of his intellectual preeminence were sown at the very dawn of the Yertiary period, when the first anaptomorphid began to rely upon vision rather than smell as its guiding sense. In all the succeeding ages since that remote time the fuller cultivation of the means of profiting by experience, which the tarsioid had adopted, led to the steady upward progression of the primates. From time to time many individuals, finding them- selves amidst surroundings which were thoroughly congenial and called for no effort, lagged behind; and in Tarsius and the lemurs, the New World monkeys, the Old World monkeys, and the anthro- poids, not to mention the extinct forms, we find pre- served a series of these laggards which have turned aside from the highway which led to man’s estate. The primates at first were a small and humble folk, who led a quite unobtrusive and safe life in the branches of trees, taking small part in the fierce com- petition for size and supremacy that was being waged upon the earth beneath them by their carnivorous, ungulate, and other brethren. But all the time they were cultivating that equable development of all their senses and limbs, and that special development of the more intellectually useful faculties of the mind which, in the long run, were to make them the progenitors of the dominant mammal—the mammal which was to obtain the supremacy over all others, while still re- taining much of the primitive structure of limb that his competitors had sacrificed. It is important, then, to keep in mind that the retention of primitive char- acters is often to be looked upon as a token that their possessor has not been compelled to turn aside from the straight path and adopt protective specialisations, but has been able to preserve some of his primitive- ness and the plasticity associated with it, precisely because he has not succumbed or fallen away in the struggle for supremacy. It is the wider triumph of the individual who specialises late, after benefiting by the many-sided experience of early life, over him who in youth becomes tied to one narrow calling. In many respects man retains more of the primitive characteristics, for example, in his hands, than his nearest simian relatives; and in the supreme race of mankind many traits, such as abundance of hair, persist to suggest pithecoid affinities, which have been lost by the more specialised negro and other races. Those anthropologists who use the retention of primitive features in the Nordic European as an argu- NO. 2239, VOL. 90] ment to exalt the negro to equality with him are neglecting the clear teaching of comparative anatomy, that the persistence of primitive traits is often a sign of strength rather than of weakness. This factor runs through the history of the whole animal kingdom.** Man is the ultimate product of that line of ancestry which was never compelled to turn aside and adopt protective specialisation either of structure or mode of life, which would be fatal to its plasticity and power of further development. Having now examined the nature of the factors that have made a primate from an insectivore and have transformed a tarsioid prosimian into an ape, let us turn next to consider how man himself was fashioned. The Origin of Man. It is the last stage in the evolution of man that has always excited chief interest and has been the subject of much speculation, as the addresses of my predecessors in this presidency bear ample witness. These discussions usually resolve themselves into the consideration of such questions as whether it was the growth of the brain, the acquisition of the power of speech, or the assumption of the erect attitude that came first and made the ape into a human being. The case for the erect attitude was ably put before the Association in the address delivered to this section by Dr. Munro in 1893. He argued that the liberation of the hands and the cultivation of their skill lay at the root of man’s mental supremacy. If the erect attitude is to explain all, why did not the gibbon become a man in Miocene times? The whole of my argument has aimed at demonstrating that the steady growth and specialisation of the brain has been the fundamental factor in leading man’s ancestors step by step right upward from the lowly insectivore status, nay, further, through every earlier phase in the evolution of mammals—for man’s brain represents the consummation of precisely those factors which throughout the vertebrata have brought their possessors to the crest of the wave of progress. But such advances as the assumption of the erect attitude are brought about simply because the brain has made skilled movements of the hands possible and of definite use in the struggle for existence : yet once such a stage has been attained the very act of liberating the hands for the performance of more delicate movements opens the way for a further advance in brain development to make the most of the more favourable conditions and the greater potentialities of the hands. It is a fact beyond dispute that the diver- gent specialisation of the human limbs, one pair for progression, and the other for pre- hension and the more delicately adjusted skilled action, has played a large part in preparing the way for the emergence of the distinctively human characteristics; but it would be a fatal mistake un- duly to magnify the influence of these developments. The most primitive living primate, the spectral tarsier, frequently assumes the erect attitude, -and uses its hands for prehension rather than progression in many of its acts, and many other lemurs, such as the In- drisinaze of Madagascar, can and do walk erect. In the remote Oligocene, a catarrhine ape, nearly akin to the ancestors of the Indian sacred monkey, Semnopithecus, became definitely specialised in struc- ture in adaptation for the assumption of the erect attitude; and this type of early anthropoid has per- sisted with relatively slight modifications in the gib- bon of the present day. But if the earliest gibbons were already able to wall upright, how is it, one might ask, that they did not begin to use their hands, thus freed from the work of progression on the earth, for skilled work, and at once before men? The 11 “The Brain in the Edentata,”’ Trans. Linn. Soc., 1899. IGarart NATURE [SEPTEMBER 26, 1912 obvious reason is that the brain had not yet attained a sufficiently high stage of development to provide a sufficient amount of useful skilled work, apart from the tree-climbing, for these competent hands to do. The ape is tied down absolutely to his experience, and has only a very limited ability to anticipate the results even of relatively simple actions, because so large a proportion of his neopallium is under the dominating influence of the senses. Without a fuller appreciation of the consequences of its actions than the gibbon is capable of, the animal is not competent to make the fullest use of the skill it undoubtedly possesses. What is implied in acquir- ing this fuller appreciation of the meaning of events taking place around the animal? The state of con- sciousness awakened by a simple sensory stimulation is not merely an appreciation of the physical proper- ties of the object that supplies the stimulus: the object simply serves to bring to consciousness the results of experience of similar or contrasted stimu- lations in the past, as well as the feelings aroused by or associated with them, and the acts such feelings excited. This mental enrichment of a mere sensation so that it acquires a very precise and complex mean- ing is possible only because the individual has this extensive experience to fall back upon; and the faculty of acquiring such experience implies the possession of large neopallial areas for recording, so to speak, these sensation-factors and the feelings asso- ciated with them. The ‘meaning’ which each creature can attach to a sensory impression presum- ably depends, not on its experience only, but more especially upon the neopallial provision in its brain for recording the fruits of such experience. Judged by this standard, the human brain bears ample witness, in the expansion of the great temporo- parietal area, which so obviously has been evolved from the regions into which visual, auditory, and tactile impulses are poured, to the perfection of the physical counterpart of the enrichment of mental structure, which is the fundamental characteristic of the human mind. The second factor that came into operation in the evolution of the human brain is merely the culmina- tion of a process which has been steadily advancing throughout the primates: I refer to the high state of perfection of the cortical regulation of skilled move- ments, many of which are acquired by each indi- vidual in response to a compelling instinct that forces every normal human being to work out his own salva- tion by perpetually striving to acquire such manual dexterity. This brings us to the consideration of the nature of the factors that have led to the wide differ- entiation of man from the gorilla. Why is it that these two primates, structurally so similar and derived simultaneously from common parents, should have become separated by such an enormous chasm, so far as their mental abilities are concerned? There can be no doubt that this process of dif- ferentiation is of the same nature as those which led one branch of the Eocene tarsioids to become monkeys while the other remained prosimiz; advanced one group of primitive monkeys to the catarrhine status, while the rest remained platyr- rhine: and converted one division of the Old World apes into anthropoids, while the others retained their old status. truism, the conclusion is suggested that the changes which have taken place in the brain to convert an ape into man are of the same nature as, and may be looked upon merely as a continuation of, those processes of evolution which we have been examining in the lowlier members of the primate series. Jt was WO. 2239, VOL. 90] Put into this form as an obvious |! not the adoption of the erect attitude or the invention of articulate language that made man from an ape, but the gradual perfecting of the brain and the slow upbuilding of the mental structure, of which erect- ness of carriage and speech are some of the incidental manifestations. The ability to perform skilled movements is con- ducive to a marked enrichment of the mind’s strue- ture and the high development of the neopallium, which is the material expression of that enrichment. There are several reasons why this should be so. The mere process of learning to execute any act of skill necessarily involves the cultivation, not only of the muscles which produce the movement, and the cortical area which excites the actions of these muscles, but in even greater measure the sensory mechanisms in the neopallium which are receiving impressions from the skin, the muscles, and the eyes, to control the movements at the moment, and inci- dentally are educating these cortical areas, stimu- lating their growth, and enriching the mental struc- ture with new elements of experience. Out of the experience gained in constantly performing acts of skill, the knowledge of cause and effect is eventually acquired. ‘Thus the high specialisation of the motor area, which made complicated actions possible, and the great expansion of the temporo-parietal area, which enabled the ape-man to realise the ‘“‘meaning”” of events occurring around it, reacted one upon the other, so that the creature came to understand that a particular act would entail certain consequences. In other words, it gradually acquired the faculty of shaping its conduct in anticipation of results. Long ages ago, possibly in the Miocene, the ances- tors common to man, the gorilla, and the chimpanzee became separated into groups, and the different con- ditions to which they became exposed after thev parted company were in the main responsible for the contrasts in their fate. In one group the distinctively primate process of growth and specialisation of the brain, which had been going on in their ancestors for many thousands, even millions, of years, reached a stage when the more venturesome members of the group, stimulated perhaps by some local failure of the customary food, or maybe led forth by a curiosity bred of their growing realisation of the possibilities of the unknown world beyond the trees which hitherto had been their home, were impelled to issue forth from their forests, and seek new sources of food and new surroundings on hill and plain, wherever they could obtain the sustenance they needed. The other group, perhaps because they happened to be more favourably situated or attuned to their surroundings, living in a land of plenty which encouraged indolence in habit and stagnation of effort and growth, were free from this glorious unrest, and remained apes, continuing to lead very much the same kind of life (as gorillas and chimpanzees) as their ancestors had been living since the Miocene or even earlier times. That both of these unenter- prising relatives of man happen to live in the forests of tropical Africa has always seemed to me to be a strong argument in favour of Darwin’s view that Africa was the original home of the first creatures definitely committed to the human career; for while man was evolved amidst the strife with adverse con- ditions, the ancestors of the gorilla and chimpanzee gave up the struggle for mental supremacy simply because they were satisfied with their circumstances; and it is more likely than not that they did not change their habitat. The erect attitude, infinitely more ancient than man himself, is not the real cause of man’s emergence from the simian stage; but it is one of the factors SEPTEMBER 26, I912| NATURE 125 ‘made use of by the expanding brain as a prop still further to extend its growing dominion, and by fixing and establishing in a more decided way this instrument of man’s further progress. In learning to execute movements of a degree of delicacy and precision to which no ape could ever attain, and the primitive ape-man could only attempt once his arm was completely emancipated from the necessity of being an instrument of pro- gression, that cortical area which seemed to serve | for the phenomena of attention became enhanced in importance. Hence the prefrontal region, where the activities of the cortex as a whole are, as it were, focussed and regulated, began to grow until eventually it became the most distinctive characteristic of the human brain, gradually filling out the front of the cranium and producing the distinctively human forehead. In the diminutive prefrontal area of Pithecanthropus,” and to a less marked degree, Neanderthal. man,'* we see illustrations of lower human types, bearing the impress of their lowly state in receding foreheads and great brow ridges. However large the brain may be in Homo primi- genius, his small prefrontal region, if we accept Boule and Anthony’s statements, is sufficient evidence of his lowly state of intelligence and reason for his failure in the competition with the rest of mankind. The growth in intelligence and in the powers of discrimination no doubt led to a definite cultivation of the zsthetic sense, which, operating through sexual selection, brought about a gradual refinement of the features, added grace to the general build of the body, and demolished the greater part of its hairy covering. It also led to an intensification of the sexual distinctions, especially by developing in the female localised deposits of fatty tissue, not found in the apes, which produced profound alterations in the general form of the body. Right-handedness. To one who considers what precisely it means to fix the attention and attempt the performance of some delicately adjusted and precise action it must be evident that one hand only can be usefully employed in executing the consciously skilled part in any given movement. The other hand, like the rest of the muscles of the whole body, can be only auxiliary to it, assisting, under the influence of attention, either passively or actively, in steadying the body or helping the dominant hand. Moreover, it is clear that if one hand is constantly employed for doing the more skilled work, it will learn to perform it more precisely and more successfully than either would if both were trained, in spite of what ambidextral enthusiasts may say. Hence it happened that when nature was fashioning man the forces of natural selection made one hand more apt to perform skilled movements than the other. Why precisely it was the right hand that was chosen in the majority of mankind we do not know, though scores of anatomists and others are ready with explanations. But probably some slight mechanical advantage in the circumstances of the limb, or perhaps even some factor affecting the motor area of the left side of the brain that controls its movements, may have inclined the balance in favour of the right arm; and the forces of heredity have continued to perpetuate a tendency long ago imprinted in man’s structure when first he became human. The fact that a certain proportion of mankind is 12 Fug. Dubois, ‘‘ Remarks unon the Brain-cast of Pithecanthropus,” Proc. Fourth Internat. Cong. Zoo]., August, 1898, published Camb., 1899, p. 8r. 1% Boule and Anthony, “ L'encéphale de l'homme fossile de la Chapelle- aux-Saints,” L'Anthropologic, tome xxii., No. 2, 1911, p. 50. NO. 2239, VOL. 90] ra left-handed, and that such a tendency is transmitted to some only of the descendants of a left-handed i | person, might perhaps suggest that one half of man- erectness it liberated the hand to become the chief | kind was originally left-handed and the other right- handed, and that the former condition was recessive in the Mendelian or that some infinitesimal advantage may have accrued to the right-handed part of the original community, which in time of stress spared them in preference to left-handed individuals ; but the whole problem of why right-handedness should be much more common than left-handedness is still quite obscure. The superiority of one hand is as old as mankind, and is one of the factors incidental to the evolution of man. It is easily comprehensible why one hand should become more expert than the other, as I have ‘at- tempted to show; and the fact remains that it is the right hand, controlled by the left cerebral hemisphere, which is specially favoured in this respect. This heightened educability of the (left) motor centre (for the right hand) has an important influence upon the ad- joining areas of the left motor cortex. When the ape- man attained a sufficient degree of intelligence to wish to communicate with his fellows other than by mere instinctive emotional cries and grimaces, such as all social groups of animals employ, the more cunning right hand would naturally play an important part in such gestures and signs; and, although the muscles of both sides of the face would be called into action in such movements of the features as were intended to convey information to another (and not merely to express the personal feelings of the individual), such bilateral movements would certainly be controlled by the left side of the brain, because it was already more highly educated. sense, The Origin of Speech. [This argument was elaborated to explain the origin of speech. The increasing ability to perform actions demanding skill and delicacy received a great impetus when the hands were liberated for the exclusive cul- tivation of such skill: this perfection of cerebral con- trol over muscular actions made it possible for the ape-man to learn to imitate the sounds around him, for the act of learning is a training not only of the motor centres and the muscles concerned, but also of the attention, and the benefits that accrued from educating the hands added to the power of controlling other muscles, such as those concerned with articulate speech. The usefulness of such power of imitating sounds could be fully realised in primitive man, not only because he had developed the parts of the brain which made the acquisition of such skill possible, but also because he had acquired, in virtue of the development of other cortical areas, the ability to realise the sig- nificance and learn the meaning of the sounds heard.] I do not propose to discuss the tremendous impetus that the invention of speech must have given to human progress and intellectual development, in enabling the knowledge acquired by each individual to become the property of the community and be handed on to future generations, as well as by supply- ing in words the very symbols and the indispensable elements of the higher mental processes. We are apt to forget the immensity of the heritage that has come down to us from former generations of man, until we begin dimly to realise that for the vast majority of mankind almost the sum-total of their mental activities consists of imitation or acquiring and using the common stock of beliefs. For this accumulation of knowledge and its transmission to our generation we are almost wholly indebted to the use of speech. In our forgetfulness of these facts 126 NATURE [SEPTEMBER 26, 1912 we marvel at the apparent dulness of early man in being content to use the most roughly chipped flints for many thousands of years before he learned to polish them, and eventually to employ materials better suited for the manufacture of implements and weapons. But when we consider how slowly and laboriously primitive man acquired new ideas, and how such ideas—even those which seem childishly simple and obvious to us— were treasured as priceless possessions and handed on from tribe to tribe, it becomes increasingly difficult to believe in the possibility of the independent evolution of similar customs and inventions of any degree of complexity. The hypothesis of the “‘fundamental similarity of the working of the human mind” is no more potent to’explain the identity of customs in widely different parts of the world, the distribution of megalithic monuments, or the first appearance of metals in America, than it is to destroy our belief that one man, and one only, originally conceived the idea of the mechanical use to which steam could be applied, or that the electric battery was not independently evolved in each of the countries where it is now in use. In these discursive remarks I have attempted to deal with old problems in the light of newly acquired evidence; to emphasise the undoubted fact that the evolution of the primates and the emergence of the distinctively human type of intelligence are to be explained primarily by a steady growth and specialisation of certain parts of the brain; that such a development could have occurred only in the mammialia, because they are the only plastic class of animals with a true organ of intelligence; that an arboreal mode of life started man’s ancestors on the way to pre-eminence, for it gave them the agility, and the specialisation of the higher parts of the brain incidental to such a life gave them the seeing eye, and in course of time also the understanding ear; and that all the rest followed in the train of this high development of vision working on a brain which controlled ever-increasingly agile limbs. If, in pursuing these objects, I may have seemed to wander far from the beaten paths of anthropology, as it is usually understood in this section, and perhaps encroached upon the domains of the Zoological Sec- tion, my aim has been to demonstrate that the solution of these problems of human origins, which have frequently engaged the attention of the Anthro- pological Section, is not to be sought merely in com- parisons of man and the anthropoid apes. Man has emerged not by the sudden intrusion of some new element into the ape’s physical structure or the fabric of his mind, but by the culmination of those processes which have been operating in the same way in a long line of ancestors ever since the beginning of the Tertiary period. ; If I have made this general conception clear to vou, however clumsily I have marshalled the evidence and with whatever crudities of psychological statement it may be marred, I shall feel that this address has served some useful purpose. UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE. ‘ AMONG the honorary degrees to be conferred by the University of Leeds on October 3, in connection with the visit of the Iron and Steel Institute, are :—LL.D. on the president of the institute, Mr. Arthur Cooper, and degrees of D.Sc. on Sir Robert Hadfield, past- president, Mr. J. E. Stead, and M. Adolph Greiner, vice-presidents, and the president of the Society of German TIronmasters. ; NO. 2239, VOL. 90] AMONG the public lectures to be delivered in con- nection with the opening of the new session at Uni- versity College, London, we notice the following :— Faculty of Arts.—October 3, amulets, Prof. Flinders Petrie; October 4, the philosophy of Shadworth Hodg- son, Prof. G. Dawes Hicks; October 5, general phonetics, D. Jones; October 9, introduction to com- parative psychology, Carveth Read. Faculty of Science.—October 4, Joseph Dalton Hooker, Prof. F. W. Oliver. Faculty of Engineering.—October 9, the sources of energy available to man, Prof. J. A. Fleming. : In connection with the Faculty of Engineering of the East London College, one of the constituent col- leges of the University of London, a special course of lectures on the management of public electric supply undertakings has been arranged. The lec- tures will be given by Mr. A. Hugh Seabrook, and will commence on Monday evening, October 14. It is hoped by this means to arouse the interest of electrical engineers and others in the practical working of modern electrical undertakings. The principal of the college will be pleased to provide particulars of the fees for these lectures, and also of other special courses in connection with the engineering faculty of the college. Ir is unusual to find astronomy and meteorology among the subjects of courses of lectures arranged by a local education committee. We are glad to see that the Manchester Education Committee is an exception to the rule, and that such lectures are being given at the Municipal School of Technology. Mr. WG: Jenkins is delivering a course of twenty-six lectures on descriptive astronomy in the Godlee Observatory, of which he is curator, dealing with the descriptive and popular aspect of astronomy; a course of twelve lec- tures on elementary meteorology, supplementary to those on descriptive astronomy, demonstrations to be given at the Meteorological Station, established in the garden adjacent to the Municipal Secondary School; and a course of twenty-six lectures on astronomical observations and the use of the Nautical Almanack for students familiar with the elements of astronomy. Tue Newcastle Section, the Society of Chemical In- dustry, and the Armstrong College are this winter arranging courses of evening lectures on_ special chapters in applied chemistry, which, it is anticipated, will prove specially interesting to those chemists and engineers already engaged in the industries. To in- augurate the scheme a special fund is being raised, which has already received liberal support from the principal manufacturers in the district. Two courses of five lectures each have been arranged for this. winter, for which the committee has secured the ser- vices of well-known specialists. The first course is one on coal-gas manufacture and the carbonisation of coal, by Dr. Harold G. Colman, of London, and the second on metallography, by Dr. Desch, of Glasgow University. The first course will commence on October 16, and continue at fortnightly intervals; the second course is to commence on January 28, 1913. Tue East Ham Technical College begins its seventh session this month. Being situated in a district largely devoted to chemical industries, it endeavours to provide instruction suitable to the locality. The chemical de- partment, which has been reconstructed during the vacation, comprises two lecture rooms, an inorganic laboratory, with bench accommodation for sixty-four students, an organic laboratory of similar dimensions, specially arranged for technological work, two smaller organic laboratories, and a research laboratory. 202 Ios stele Price 6s. | and deals in a brief manner | tions, not perhaps vital, but intended for a large and general class of readers, viz., the members of farm households. The subject matter is divided into fifty-two chapters, with many ques- incidental to suc- The book contains advice on the general arrangements of farm build- ings, the care and feeding of the cow, butter- and cheese-making, mill-testing, and the treatment of the common diseases of cattle. In perusing this book one cannot help feeling that much of the space occupied by minor issues might well have been devoted, with much advantage, to a more detailed treatment of farm operations; for instance, the mixing of limewash is given as much cess and comfort in farming. | prominence as the discussion of feeding rations. | The book is well illustrated and might possibly conduce to a better understanding of farm and | dairy work. (3) Prof. Eriksson’s work will be welcomed by agriculturists and horticulturists as a valuable contribution to our literature on the subject. It | is intended, primarily, as a practical guide for planters and to enable them to recognise, prevent and battle with diseases often occurring in prac- tice. Bacterial and fungal diseases of common | farm and garden crops are admirably described and preventive and remedial measures are treated in detail. A special chapter deals with unexplored diseases, whilst a useful appendix of diseases, arranged according to the host plant, is included. TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOGRAPHY. (1) The Land of Goshen and the Exodus. By Sir Hanbury Brown, K.C.M.G. Second edition. Pp. 92+2 maps. (London: Edward Stanford, RGA) PBK BSo salen (2) Rambles in the Pyrenees and the Adjacent Districts, Gascony, Pays de Foix and Roussillon. By F. Hamilton Jackson. Pp. xii+419. (Lon- don: John Murray, 1912.) Price 215. net. (3) The Oxford Country. Its Attractions Associations described by several authors. lected and arranged by R. T. Ginther. xvi+319. (London: John Murray, Price 7s. 6d. net. (4) Man and his Conquest of Nature. By Dr. M. 1. Newbigin. Pp. viii+183. (London: A. and C, Black, 1912.) Price 2s. (Black’s School Geography Series.) (1) IR HANBURY BROWN takes the oppor- J tunity of this second edition of his study of the journey of the Israelites from Egypt to deal with some of the criticisms met with by the first edition. The subject is one which has re- ceived attention from a number of writers in and Col- Pp. IgI2.) 132 NATO TEE [OCTOBER 3, 1912 various aspects, such as the direction of the exact route followed, and the explanation of the various events which preceded and accompanied the jour- ney, and bear on their face in the original narrative an appearance of the supernatural; for some of these natural explanations are afforded, as in the case of the passage over the Red Sea, without imposing any strain upon the received text. The short volume carries the journey as far as Elim, and the discussion is illustrated with two maps, which are noteworthy as indicating the author’s . view of the further northward extension of the Arabian Gulf at the time of the Exodus. (2) Mr. Hamilton Jackson has produced a beauti- ful volume on a fascinating region. He deals with the Pyrenean lands from a general descriptive point of view, but his main interest, which is that of architecture, obtains the greatest share of atten- tion, not only in his text, but more especially in the fine illustrations which come both from his own pen and from photographs by Mr. J. C. Ashton, which are excellent, and excellently repro- duced. The French Pyrenean country is one of which travellers from this country know less than it deserves. Some of its monuments of antiquity, such as the city of Carcasonne and the church of St. Bertrand de Comminges, are unsurpassed in interest elsewhere in Europe, and of these and many others the author supplies full descriptions. (3) It was a happy idea to bring together a collection, by various authors, of articles which have appeared from time to time in The Oxford Magazine and elsewhere, on the country neigh- bouring to Oxford, its geology, natural history, archeology, and the like. The territory, within a radius (let us say) of twenty miles of Oxford, is one which includes a remarkable variety of types of English rural scenery, such as the fresh charm of the Thames above Oxford and its more mature beauties below, the bolder scenery of the hills south of White Horse Vale, or the curious fen-like expanse of Otmoor. This country suc- ceeds in exerting its charm over a good proportion of the sons of Oxford, among whom many well- known names appear as authors in this volume. Among writers who discuss scientific studies of one sort or another may be mentioned Prof. Poulton, Prof. Warde Fowler, Dr. Aplin, and Mr. Claridge Druce; while no less notable are the names of those who deal with other aspects of the country. The volume has been excellently arranged by Mr. R. T. Giinther, who contributes a chapter on the Rollright Stones. (4) Dr. Newbigin has already in her “Modern Geography ” shown herself to be a student of that subject along the lines indicated chiefly by the name of “human geography,” NO. 2240, VOL. 90] an important department which is receiving continually grow- ing attention as an educational topic. In the present volume she deals mainly with the economic aspect in this department, showing how certain regions are suited, whether well or ill, by their climatic and physical conditions, for the cultiva- tion of plants of economic value; how the distribu- tion of minerals affects human settlement, and also how the products of the sea have done so. She deals skilfully with the inter-relation of these considerations in their effect upon the density of settlement and upon conditions of life. The book is suited for teachers and more advanced students ; it has none of the less attractive characteristics of the school-book. OUR BOOKSHELF. Ueber die Kinwirkung von Wasser und Natron- lauge auf Baumwollecellulose. By Dr. Ing. Michael Robinoff. Pp. ii+94. (Berlin : Gebriider Borntraeger, 1912.) Price 3.60 marks. Tuts is an account of investigations of cotton cellulose in regard chiefly to constitutional modi- fications determined by treatment with water, and with alkaline solutions (NaOH) under widely varied conditions of action. The author’s work further confirms the diagnostic value of the reac- tions of cellulose with cupric oxide (alkaline solution), viz., (a) the reaction of combination, or fixation of CuO; (b) reduction. These have been brought into prominence by Prof. C. G. Schwalbe, and are adopted, together with a special terminology, by a number of workers in Germany. The quantitative results are expressed as coefficients in terms of Cu per cent. cellulose, but under descriptive terms, such as ““Cellulosezahl,” ‘‘INorrigierte Cellulosezahl,” which are not happily selected. The results recorded are of considerable em- pirical value, and the author keeps with evident intention to a strictly empirical interpretation, particularly pointing out the bearings of the con- stitutional modifications resulting from the action of water at temperatures 100° to 150° C., dilute solutions of sodium hydrate (1-5 per cent. NaOH) at similar temperatures, more concentrated solu- tions in the cold (mercerisation reactions), upon the various treatments of cellulose textiles inci- dental to “bleaching ” and lustre-finishing. By means of the careful systematic application of the reactions in question, he is enabled to establish constitutional modifications of cottom cellulose resulting from treatments of such feeble chemical intensity as (1) contact with highly dilute acids in the cold, and (2) the papermakers’ beating processes, in the convincing form of self- consistent numbers. He is thus able to confirm the general statements in the leading text-books, that cellulose responds to all and any chemical treatment, however feeble, by constitutional changes, and, as a particular case, that the beat- ing preparation of the fibrous celluloses is in effect a hydration process. OCTOBER 3, 1912] NATURE oy The Main Drainage of Towns. By F. -Noel Taylor. Pp. xi+313; illustrated. London: Charles Griffin and Co., Ltd., 1912.) Price 12s. 6d. net. Despite the fact that this book is entitled “Main Drainage of Towns,” the author has attempted the almost impossible task of dealing, in the course of 295 pages, not only with matters strictly pertain- ing to main drainage work, but also with ques- tions of house drainage, the theoretical side of sewage disposal, sewage disposal works, &c. It is therefore scarcely surprising to find that the author has not been’ successful in his treat- ment of the whole of the above subjects, particu- larly as throughout the work there is unmistakable evidence of the lack of that careful revision of the text so essential to the production of a scientific work of value. In justice to the author, it. should be stated that he has collected a great deal of useful information in regard to main drainage work, together with a large number of plans, tables, &c., which must have entailed considerable labour. On the other hand, the value of the book is very seriously impaired by the careless way in which it is written, the errors in composition being in many Cases so serious as to render the meaning of the text obscure. Careful perusal of the chapters relating to the theory of sewage disposal, sewage disposal works, &c., clearly indicates that the author would have been well advised to have left this part of the subject alone, especially in view of the various excellent text-books already available on the sub- ject of sewage purification. The book contains sufficient material for the production of a useful work on the subject of main drainage providing the matter is carefully edited, but as published it certainly cannot be recommended. 1B ANG F LEDDRERS TO THE BDIMOR. [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of Nature. No notice is taken of anonymous communications.] A Tribe of White Eskimos. CONSIDERABLE interest has been aroused by the announcement made by M. Vilhjalmar Stefansson (see Nature of August 22, p. 644), communicated to the Press through Reuter on September to, that he had discovered a tribe—or, to be more accurate, thir- teen tribes—of white Eskimos living in the neigh- bourhood of Coronation Gulf and Victoria Island. It is stated that ten of these tribes had never heard of white people—other than themselves. Conse- quently, it cannot be assumed that this fair com- plexion is derived from the intercourse, so frequent in recent times, between Eskimos and the men _ of whaling ships. The telegraphed account states that “M.. Stefansson believes the white Eskimos are descendants of the colony which set out from Nor- way to Greenland some time after the discovery of that island. Ethnologically, the white Eskimos bear not a single trace of the Mongolian type, differing in the shape of the skull and general features, colour NO. 2240, VOL. 90] | printed in Europe in 1658. of eyes, and texture of hair, which in many cases is red. They. spoke Eskimo, though . the . explorer thought he detected some Norse words. They prob- ably numbered two thousand. Many of them had perfectly blue eyes and blonde eyebrows.” It is, of course, quite possible that a newspaper correspondent may have given a very free rendering of the statements made to him by M. Stefansson. But, in any case, it is important to bear in mind that a description of a race of fair-complexioned Eskimos, living on the shores of Davis Straits, was This account occurs in De Poincy’s ‘Histoire Naturelle & Morale des Iles Antilles de 1’Amérique,” which was.. published at Rotterdam in that year, and contains .a chapter (xviii.) incorporating the narrative of Nicolas Tunes, captain of a Flushing vessel, just returned from Davis Straits at the time when De. Poincy was occupied with a description of the narwhal—a subject which led him into a long digression on the hunters of the northern narwhal. De Poincy indicates the locality in question in the following terms, here trans- lated from his somewhat archaic French :—‘‘ The captain, from whom we have received this narrative, having set out from Zealand at the end of the spring of 1656, with the intention of discovering.some new source Of trade in those northern lands, arrived at the end of June in Davis Straits, whence, having entered a river which begins at 64° 10’ N. lat., he sailed to the seventy-second degree, where the land about to be described is situated.” A very full description is given of the natives, but only the following sentences need be quoted here :— “As regards the inhabitants, our travellers report having seen two kinds, who live together on the most friendly terms. Of these, one kind is described as very tall, well-built, of rather fair complexion, and very swift of foot. The others are very much smaller, of an olive complexion, and_tolerably well-propor- tioned, except that their legs are short and _ thick. The former kind delight in hunting, for which they are suited by their agility and natural disposition, whereas the latter occupy themselves in fishing. All of them have very white, compact teeth, black hair, animated eves, and the features of the face so well made that they present no notable deformity. More- over, they are all so vigorous and of such a strong constitution that several of them who have passed their hundredth vear are still lively and robust.” In the small, olive-complexioned, short-legged people here described, there is no difficulty in recog- nising true Eskimos. Those of the tall, compara- tively fair type may easily have been the descendants of the Norse colonists, intermingled, it may be, with Eskimos. It is believed by many—for example, by Dr. Nansen (‘‘In Northern Mists,’ London, 1911, vol. ii., p- 103)—that the early Norsemen in Green- land were not exterminated by the Eskimos, but were gradually absorbed by them through successive inter- marriages. Admitting this, it would seem that the fusion of the two races was still only partial in 1656. Tunes and his comrades speak of black hair as common to both types, but that need not mean much. If black hair was not common among tenth- century Norsemen, there would haye been no distinc- tion in Harald’s designation of haar-fager. However, the point is that an expedition of ine year 1656 reported a tall, light-complexioned caste of natives living on the shores of Davis Straits at the same time as others of genuine Eskimo type. It is quite possible that the former, still retaining their individuality, may have migrated westward to Victoria Land. _ Davin MacRitcuie. 4 Archibald Place, Edinburgh, September 23. NATURE [OcToBzR 3, 1912 Antiquity of Neolithic Man. Tue letter of Mr. J. Sinel, in Nature of September 19, on the submerged forest bed in Jersey, deals with several questions of great interest in relation to the submerged forest on the south-western coast of Wales. I hope to publish shortly an account of this forest-bed (so far as it is seen in Pembrokeshire) and the deposits associated with it, but in the meantime I may state that I have found worked flints—flakes and cores— in two localities on the Pembrokeshire coast in posi- tions which correspond with that of the stratum of blue clay below the forest-bed at St. Heliers. These flints were clearly worked by men who inhabited the woodland, now submerged, before the trees fell into decay and formed the peaty mass of trunks, branches, leaves, &c., overlying the true root-bed of the ‘‘sub- merged forest.” One locality near Amroth, in Car- marthen Bay, yielded cores and flakes in abundance; the circumstances indicate the existence of a chipping- floor or implement-factory on this part of the sub- merged land-surface, which now, during spring tides, is covered by not less than 20 ft. of water. In the patch of submerged forest recently exposed at Fresh- water West, in southern Pembrokeshire (see Nature, March 28, 1912), a few small flint implements were also found. Both at Amroth and Freshwater West the flints occurred below the peaty layer in a thin blue slime or clayey silt, which rests in turn upon clayey rubble largely composed of material derived from older super- ficial deposits. There is evidence that the forest trees in Pembrokeshire are rooted either in unquestionable glacial Boulder Clay or in a clayey drift allied to the glacial deposits. There appears, therefore, an in- teresting agreement in the character of the substratum of the submerged forest in Jersey and on the Pem- brokeshire coast, and the agreement further extends to the composition of the peat. All the plants (with others) mentioned by Mr. Sinel occur in the peat near Amroth and the remains of beetles are fairly common. A point of difference, which may be more apparent than real, between the two localities, is the occurrence, according to Mr. Sinel, of blue ‘‘ marine” clay below the peat at St. Heliers. In Pembrokeshire the blue slime, whence the flints were obtained, has vielded no evidence of marine origin; it appears rather to resemble an old marsh silt which developed into swampy soil, but it is quite possibly only the estuarine fringe of a marine clay which is now wholly submerged. The deposits, it may be, would be similar if compared at corresponding levels. The geological horizon of the worked flints of the Pembrokeshire submerged land-surface appears iden- tical with that of the Neolithic implements from St. Heliers. One of the most important questions that arises is whether these implements are so distinctively Neolithic in character as to exclude the possibility that they may belong to an earlier period. Two imple- ments from the Pembrokeshire submerged forest were submitted to Mr. Reginald Smith, of the British Museum, but they were not found sufficiently char- acteristic in form to be dated according to modern detailed classifications of implements. The term ‘Neolithic ” is frequently applied to any surface finds of implements which are unabraded and not obviously of the familiar heavy Palzolithic forms. But while on the one hand many so-called ‘‘ Neolithic” implements belong to the later prehistoric ages of Bronze and Tron, on the other hand some surface sites yield implements closely resembling Late Palzeo- lithic types: This is so, for instance, in South Pem- brokeshire, where recently I have obtained from several chipping-floors on the high ground bordering the coast a number of small implements, amongst NO. 2240, VOL. 90] which Mr. Reginald Smith has recognised several scrapers, probably of Late Paleolithic (Aurignacian) types. But some of these early forms occur on sites which have yielded also typical Neolithic tools (with ground edges) and pottery, and, moreover, it is not yet possible to show that they are older than the sub- merged forest. I join with Mr. Sinel in expressing the hope that other records of implements from the submerged forest may be obtained, but further.I should like to suggest that it is of great importance that all finds should be compared with the series of implements in our national collections in order that their age may be definitely ascertained. A. L. Leacu. Giltar, Shooter’s Hill, London. Human Jaw of Palzolithic Age from Kent’s Cavern. Pror. A. Keiru, in discussing the paper read at Dundee by Prof. Boyd Dawkins for Dr. Duckworth on the fragment of a jaw of Paleolithic age from Kent’s Cavern, is reported by The Times io have said that ‘‘ the whole thing was ridiculous and was not even scientific, for the specimen had not been shown in the position in which it had been found.” The specimen in question is in the museum of the Torquay Natural History Society. Its position has been defined in the late Mr. W. Pengelly’s reports to the British Association, and more particularly in his Cavern Note-boolk and Diary, which are at present, with all his other records of Kent’s Cavern, in the possession of his elder daughter, Mrs. Louis Maxwell. By the kindness of Mrs. Maxwell, I have had the opportunity of examining the diary, and have also had a look at the specimen now in its place in the museum. The actual record of the fragment is as follows :—‘‘ Thursday, January 3 [1867]. To the Cavern. The objects found to-day were as below :— “No. 1930. In granular stalagmite. 7th Parallel, including part of a Human Jaw, a Flint Flake, a well- rolled Flint pebble from which a chip had been broken.” In the British Association’s Third Cavern Report, 1867, the further fact is stated, viz. that the object was found “‘about 30 feet from the Northern Entrance to the Cavern and deeply imbedded in Granular Stalag- mite 20 inches thick.” The position of the jaw in the cavern is thus ascer- tainable to a few feet, and its depth in the stalag- mite to a few inches. But it tells its own tale. It is practically a specimen of the characteristic granular stalagmite, which seems to have been of Palzolithic age throughout. Pengelly mentions {Fifth Report) how cave bear, hyzena, and rhinoceros were met with not only in the granular stalagmitie floor, but quite at its upper surface (Trans. Devon Assoc., v., XvVi., p-. 250). Indeed, Pengelly records the occurrence of a tooth of rhinoceros found in another part of the cavern (No. 4090, found May 27, 1869), ‘‘ which was not only in quite the upper part of the stalagmite, but instead of being completely covered, projected above its sur- face’ (Trans Devon Assoc., vol. xvi., p. 207). Having known Kent’s Cavern long before the British Association exploration, and having been in- structed therein by Mr. Pengelly for cave research elsewhere, I trust you will-permit me to bear this testimony to the accuracy and detail of Pengelly’s Kent’s Cavern records. I may mention that in 1884 Pengelly collected the whole of the sixteen Kent’s Cavern reports in a single paper to the Devonshire Association. Not only is this paper much more convenient for reference than the reports scattered over sixteen years of the British Association, but occasional notes review the early OcTOBER 3, 1912] NATURE 135 evidence. For instance, with reference to the jaw under discussion Pengelly adds the remark, “ Nothing of the kind was subsequently ek wed in or under the Granular Stalagmite” (loc. cit., p. ZN A. R. Hunt. Torquay, September 16. Mr. Hunt is under a misapprehension regarding my criticism of Prof. Boyd Dawkins’s communication at the Anthropological Section of the British Asso- ciation at Dundee. In making the important an- nouncement that the remains of Neanderthal man had been discovered in England, Prof. Dawkins exhibited merely a rough sketch of a fragment of a human jaw —not the actual specimen itself. So far as the sketch went it showed none of the usual Neanderthal char- acters. Further, he was unable to say from which stratum of the floor of Kent’s Cavern the original specimen had been derived. My criticism of ‘‘ridicu- lous’? and ‘‘unscientific’’ applies merely to the fact that the meeting was asked to accept the discovery of Neanderthal man in England on a specimen which was absent and of uncertain origin. From Mr. Hunt’s communication it is clear that the exact origin of the specimen could have been ascertained. I firmly believe that the remains of Neanderthal man will be discovered in England—it may be that Dr. Duck- worth is right regarding the specimen from Kent’s Cavern—but the discovery cannot be accepted unless the evidence is produced. A. KerrH. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCHES ON VARIATIONS IN THE COLOURING OF LEPIDOPTERA.* pris is a very comprehensive treatise by Dr. Pictet, a former treatise by whom on a cognate subject was reviewed in NaTuRE in 1905 (vol. Ixxii., p. 632). It begins with a résumé of previous researches by various authors, classified under several heads, and proceeds to describe the author’s own researches and the conclusions he draws from them. Many of the details are highly interesting, and his observations upon them are of much weight. Lepidoptera, Dr. Pictet tells us, with few excep- tions, vary in only two directions, melanism and albinism; the law laid down by Oberthur may be thus summed up: Any part of the wing of a butterfly can become separately darker or lighter than it is normally; in the former case, whatever its colour (except green) it can darken sufficiently to become brown, and even of so deep a brown as to have the appearance of blackness, leading in all the parts so darkened to melanism; in the latter case these same parts can become lighter, sufficiently to become tawny (fauve), yellow, and even of a yellow so pale as to appear white, lead- ing, in like manner, to albinism. The dark markings of the wing can spread or be displaced, or merge in neighbouring parts, or mask them more or less completely, or they can contract, become partly effaced, or even disappear, 1 “Recherches Expérimentales sur les Mécanismes du Mélanisme et l’Albinisme chez les Lépidoptéres.”’ By Dr. Arnold Pictet. Mémoires de la Société de Physique et d'Histoire naturelle de Genéve, vol. xxxvii- Pp. ae plates. (Genéve: George & Cie.; Paris: G, Fischbacher, aqgr2. NO. 2240, VOL. 90] giving place to the light markings of the ground colour (fond). In other cases certain markings may become darker, and others lighter, or the general colour may become darker or lighter with- out altering the pattern. Opposite exciting causes, e.g. heat and cold, may produce the same result, this being caused, not by the special quality of the abnormal factor, but by the fact of the passing of the individual from a normal environment to that which does not suit it. Among the exciting causes M. Pictet includes, but apparently with some doubt, electricity and mechanical vibration (trépidation)—the last, I believe, has been abandoned. As regards the mechanism of variation, this has its principal seat in the scales, all of which, whether red, yellow, white, brown, or black, as well as the blue and violet ones, are striated on the surface so as to be capable of displaying the optical colours, and most of which are more or less filled with pigment in a granular form. The optical effect is related to the quantity of pigment in the scale, the intensity of the iridescence grow- ing in inverse proportion to the pigment. In many cases the basal part of a scale is less filled with pigment than the distal part. Where the colours of the wing are light, the scales generally contain less pigment than where the colours are darker. There are, however, white pigment scales, as in the Pierids. There are various ways in which melanism may be caused :—(1) The contained pigment may be greater in quantity; (2) it may be more strongly oxidised, which darkens it; (3) where there are both light and dark scales the latter may increase in number; (4) the scales may become so numerous as to overlap each other, and thus reinforce the darkness; (5) the scales may be enlarged, which increases the overlapping; (6) dark hairs may increase in number—like the scales, these are susceptible of change in their colouring matter; (7) one face of the wing may appear darker if, owing to the small quantity of pigment in its scales, the darker opposite face of the wing shows. Converse considerations apply to the causation of albinism; as regards (5), a very frequent cause, the scales may so diminish in size that instead of overlapping they scarcely touch, and leave empty spaces; they may diminish in size on both sides of the wing, which thus becomes transparent. (6): They may curl up at the sides, producing similar consequences to those numbered (4) and (5). There is a very interesting chapter on cases where the optical and the pigmentary effects are combined. Green in the Pierids is not caused by green pigment, but by a mixture of yellow and black scales having reflets bleus; and in V. io the violet and green is caused by red and yellow scales mixed with white scales having reflets bleus. The cause of variation may be generally stated thus. An individual which in the course of its ontogeny makes less pigment than its congeners, albinises ; inversely, it melanises if it makes more pigment than is normal; the quantity of pigment 1610 NATURE [OCTOBER 3, 1912 is much more important than chemical modifica- tion of it. The author states that his researches confirm in some measure a fact which seems general among animals, viz. that melanism is a sign of vigour and health; albinism, on the contrary, of the enfeebling of the organism. In melanism we have great abundance of pigment, increase in the size of scales and sometimes in their number, usually greater size, the females generally with voluminous abdomen, full of eggs; among Bombyces a great increase in pilosity. In albin- ism, on the “other hand, we have the opposite state of things; the scales also frequently de- formed, curled, and atrophied, the wings often failing to dev clop, the abdomen slender, with few eggs or none; in the Bombyces little pilosity. The author refers to Standfuss’s hypothesis that this enfeebling may begin in the larva, and to his own experiments supporting this. Caterpillars ill nourished, having been supplied with leaves they could ill bite into, produced imagines struck with albinism, supporting the view that albinism is a sort of anemia of the organism. These modifica- tions increase in succeeding generations subjected to similar conditions, but at the end of four genera- tions the caterpillars adjust themselves to the leaves they found difficult, and then recover their vigour, size, and habitual colour. There are certain characters which exposure to abnormal conditions does not seem able to modify, such characters as are common to a group or genus, for instance, the discoidal spot of L. quercus, and the discoidal V. of Ocneria dispar. Dr. Pictet’s valuable researches certainly cannot be considered to exhaust the subject of the cause of variation in the colouring of lepidoptera. In the case of seasonally dimorphic species, for example, experiments seem to have shown that the difference in colouring is dependent more on the differential life habit of the spring and summer emergences than on mere exposure to enyiron- ment or change of environment. With many lepidoptera long duration in the pupal stage, such as is produced by a low temperature, usually causes darkness, but in A. lJevana cooling the summer pupa for many months results in an imago so much brighter than the nearly black imago which comes from a pupal life in a summer tem- perature of five or six days that it looks quite a different species. F. MERRIFIELD. THE SENSITIVENESS OF-SELENIUM TO LIGHT OF DIFFERENT COLOURS. ~OME curious facts about the behaviour of W the selenium cell are mentioned in a recent paper by A. H. Pfund.! The possibility of using these cells for ordinary photometric processes has often been discussed, but there are céztain irregu- larities in their behaviour which set a limit to their usefulness. One obvious difficulty lies in the fact that the rays of light to which the eye is most sensitive 1 Phys. Review, xxxiv., No. 5, May, 1yr2. NO. 2240, VOL. 90] are not necessarily those which have the most effect on selenium. Pfund brings this out by re- producing—what has seldom been published before—a curve showing the distribution ‘of sensitiveness of this material throughout the spectrum of a Nernst filament. The energy- maximum in this spectrum lies far out in the infra-red; the maximum luminosity to the eye (at moderate illuminations) is situated in the yellow-green. The maximum. sensitiveness of selenium, however, is located in the red, and the shape of the curve is also distinctly different from the luminosity curve for the eye, so that incon- sistent results would evidently be obtained if one tried to compare the light from various illumin- ants (having radically different energy-curves) by means of the selenium cell. But it may be men- tioned that, according to a recent number of The Illuminating Engineer, such cells have a possible sphere for purely comparative measurements of one and the same illuminant; for example, they have been used for studying the fluctuations in daylight and the variation in illumination in the course of an eclipse. Perhaps the most curious point brought out in these researches is the dependence of the maxi- mum sensitiveness of the selenium cell on the intensity of the stimulus.. With a very bright light the maximum is in the red, near 07 p. But as the illumination is weakened, this maxi- mum becomes less definite, and ultimately, in a feeble light, another maximum point, situated about 0°57», appears. Ruhmer makes two kinds of selenium cells. The “hard” type is most sensitive to strong light, but relatively insensitive to feeble stimuli, and has its maximum in the red. The “soft”? type, on the contrary, is most sensitive to weak light, and has its maximum in the green. This explains. the discrepancies between earlier observers, some of whom found selenium to be most sensitive to yellow. light, while others thought that red had most effect. Now the interesting point to observe here is that this behaviour of the selenium cell is curi- ously similar to that of the eye. It is a well- authenticated fact, demonstrated many years ago by Sir Wm. Abney, that whereas at strong illuminations the maximum luminosity occurs near 0°58 in the yellow, in weak light it shifts to the green, probably near 051-053 p. This is known as the Purkinje effect. In very feeble light the eye seems almost insensitive to red, while green and blues appear an uncanny light grey. Formerly this singular effect was ascribed to a struggle for predominance between the minute light-perceptive organs on the retina known as the “rod:’ and “cones.” But, accord- ing to a later theory, this is not necessarily so, for the accentuation of the red end of the spec- trum with increasing stimuli is characteristic of all photo-chemical processes. At all events the similarity between the eye and the selenium cell in this respect is very suggestive. At first’ sight this complicated be- haviour of selenium would seem unfavourable to OcTOBER 3, 1912| NATURE 137 its extended use in photometry. But in a sense it appears fortunate, since it suggests that one might Conceivably prepare selenium in such a way as to follow out almost exactly the behaviour of the eye as regards the perception of luminous energy. Tue typhoon which recently visited Japan, isolated Tokyo telegraphically from September 22 to 24, and carried widespread devastation, is said to have been the severest experienced in half a century. Accounts so far are meagre, but according to reports already received the loss of life and damage to property afloat and on shore are appalling. The storm appears to have been most violent in the middle of the south coast. Typhoons are revolving storms of tropical origin that may occur in Far Eastern seas—the North Pacific or the China Seas—during any month of the year. In Japan and its neighbourhood they are, as a rule, confined to the months of June to September inclusive, and are most frequent in September. In general, all tropical revolving storms follow a para- bolic track. The typhoons that visit Japan in Sep- tember usually originate in the Pacific south-eastward of Formosa, move N.W. by W., recurve when abreast of that island, and then take the direction of the Japan Sea. Algué divides the tracks of typhoons in the Far East into two classes—those of the Pacific, which do not cross the meridian of 124 E., and those of the China Sea. A typhoon is said to travel rapidly when its rate of motion exceeds twelve nautical miles an hour; if its rate of motion be less than six miles an hour it is said to travel slowly. The September typhoons come under the former category. DurinG the recent meeting at Geneva of the four- teenth International Congress of Prehistoric Anthro- pology and Archeology, an important piece of work was carried out by the Committee for the Unification of Anthropometric Measurements. The committee (or commission) included representatives of most of the European countries, as well as of the United States of America, and the number amounted to about thirty. Dr. Duckworth (of the Cambridge Anthropological Laboratory) was one of the three secretaries appointed to prepare a report of the pro- ceedings. The secretaries made out a report, which was adopted at the final meeting of the commission, and was confirmed at the concluding meeting of the congress. The official report will be published in French, but it is’ intended to issue translations in English and in German simultaneously, if possible, with the official version. The illustrations are to be uniform in all three publications. Dr. Duckworth is at present engaged (for the third year in succession) upon excavations at Gibraltar, but he will be pleased to give further information as to the above-mentioned report after his return to England early this month. Communications should be addressed to the Anthro- pological Laboratory, New Museums, Cambridge. A CONFERENCE of members of the Museums Asso- ciation and of others interested in similar work will be held on the afternoon of Thursday, November 7, NO. 2240, VOL. 90] | at the Manchester Museum, for the purpose of dis- cussing subjects of common interest to those concerned in the work of museums, art galleries, and kindred institutions. Tue Huxley lecture will be delivered at Charing Cross Hospital Medical College on Thursday, October 31, by Prof. Simon Flexner, of the New York Rocke- feller Institute, on ‘‘ Recent Advances in Science in relation to Practical Medicine.” On the same day the extensive new laboratories of public health and bac- teriology, recently formed by the school and taken over by the University of London as the public health and bacteriological departments of King’s College, will be formally opened and handed over to the University. On the suggestion of Mr. Mark Sykes, M.P., Sir Tatton Sykes has kindly sent for exhibition in the Hull Museum the objects of prehistoric date in his possession. These include the contents of the famous Duggleby Howe burial mound, which contained flint and bone weapons and implements of exceptional in- terest; a prehistoric jet necklace containing several hundred beads; a fine series of prehistoric implements in flint, sandstone, bronze, &c., and some earthenware vases taken from British burials on the Yorkshire Wolds. THE extensive collection of east Yorkshire and north Lincolnshire diatoms, made by the late R. H. Philip, of Hull, also the specimens which have been figured and described in the well-known work by Mills and Philip, together with his microscope, a fine collection of microscopical slides (including several made by Robt. Harrison, a former Hull microscopist), and his scientific books, have been presented by Mrs. Philip and family to the Hull Museum. The collection of slides contains more than 3000 specimens, and among the books are such important works as ‘‘ Diatomées Marines de France,’ by MM. H. et M. Peragallo; ‘‘A Treatise on the Diatomacee,’ by Van Heurck; “Diatomacee Germaniz,”’ by H. von Schonfeldt; ‘British Desmidiacez,”” by W. West, and numerous other volumes dealing with microscopy. Tue British Fire Prevention Committee opened its autumn session on September 25 with two important series of official fire tests, namely, (1) a series of twenty tests with ordinary celluloid kinematograph films versus a non-inflammable celluloid film; and (2) an extensive series of some twenty-five fire tests as to the possibility of extinguishing petrol fires, celluloid fires, and similar outbreaks by the applica- tion of chemical foam. Reports upon the tests, which were witnessed by representatives of about thirty Government departments and other institutions, will be published by the committee later. Tue next meeting of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science is to be held at Mel- bourne in the University, from January 7 to 14, 1913, under the presidency of Prof. T. W. E. David, C.M.G., F.R.S., Sydney. The presidents of the various sec- tions are as follows :—A, Astronomy, Mathematics, and | Physics, Prof. H. S. Carslaw, Sydney; B, Chemistry, 138 NATURE [OcToBER 3, 1912 Prof. C. Fawsitt, Sydney; C, Geology and Mineralogy, Mr. W. Howchin, Adelaide; D, Biology, Prof. H. B. Kirk, Wellington, N.Z.; E, Geography and History, Hon. Thos. M‘Kenzie, Wellington, .N.Z.; F, Ethnology and Anthropology, Dr. W.. Ramsay-Smith, Adelaide; Gr, Social and Statistical Science, Mr. R. M. Johnston, Hobart; G2, Agriculture, Mr. F. B. Guthrie, Department of Agriculture, N.S.W.; Subsection, Veterinary Science, Prof. Douglas Stewart, Sydney; H, Engineering and Architecture, Colonel W. L. Ver- non, Sydney; I, Sanitary Science and Hvgiene, Dr. T. H. A. Valintine, Wellington, N.Z.; J, Mental Science and Education, Sir J. Winthrop Hackett, K.C.M.G., Perth, W.A. In addition to the meetings of the sections, arrangements are in progress for evening lectures and entertainments, and for excur- sions to places of interest. Full particulars can be obtained from the permanent hon. secretary, Mr. J. H. Maiden, Botanic Gardens, Sydney. The hon. treasurer for the Melbourne meeting is Mr. G. H. Knibbs, C.M.G., Melbourne, and the general secretary Dr. T. S. Hall, University, Melbourne. Dr. W. E. Garrortu has recently presented to the University of Leeds and placed in the geological de- partment a large case containing specimens which show the structures of numerous seams of coal from Yorkshire, Lancashire, Staffordshire, and Australia. The lower part of the case contains coal-balls, or bullions, which are found in the Halifax Hard Bed of Yorkshire and its equivalent, the Bullion Mine, in Lancashire. The coal-balls are simply masses of vegetable material which were impregnated with calcium carbonate while the tissues were still in a fresh condition, and so preserved during the subse- quent changes which the surrounding vegetable matter underwent in the process of its conversion into coal. Many of the microscopic sections of these coal-balls are of an extraordinary size, measuring 8 in. by 6 in., and show the structure of the plants most beautifully. The centre of the case is occupied by a series of models illustrating the structure of Lepidostrolius, the “fruit ’’ of Lepidodendron and its allies, showing the position of the megasporangia and microsporangia. Perhaps the most interesting sections are those from coal seams in which explosions have occurred, such as those from No. 3 Bank Pit, Atherton, near Bolton. These were prepared with the view of ascertaining whether any connection could be traced between the microscopic structure of the coal and the character of the coal dust, and were the first sections to be prepared for that purpose. The whole of the sections were made by the Lomax Palzobotanical Co., Bolton, and the case was exhibited at the Franco-British Exhibition. In L’Anthropologie for June-July-August, MM. C. Maska, H. Obermaier, and H. Breuil describe a remarkable discovery of an ivory statuette of a mammoth found near the village of Prerau, not far from the battlefield of Austerlitz. This site has already supplied a vast number of remains of extinct animals and flint implements of the palzeolithic period. The present figure measures 116 mm. in length and 96 mm. in breadth. It represents the animal with full details | NO. 2240, VOL. 90] of head and trunk. It is referred to the Salutrian Age, and is thus much older than the carvings of the animal in the flat from La Madelaine, Combarelles, Font-le-Gaume, and Pindal in Spain, of which draw- ings for the purpose of comparison are supplied in, the article. This is the finest representation hitherto found of this great beast which flourished for ages in the steppes and prairies of ancient Europe, and was hunted for food by its early races. Tue National Geographic Magazine for July devotes one of its usual well-illustrated articles to an explora- tion of the little-known parts of Panama by Mr. H. Pitter. The Guaymies, one of the aboriginal tribes, who were formerly under the influence of Roman Catholic missionaries, have now reverted to their ancient customs and manner of life. Among the Suna- Cunis, while some of the men have visited the United States and Nova Scotia, and have thus acquired some degree of culture, primitive habits are perpetuated among the women, who have not as yet been allowed a glimpse of the outer world. The article, as a whole, gives an instructive picture of the gradual acquire- ment of a new phase of culture in its varied forms. In the report of the Warrington Museum for the year ending June 30, the director and librarian re- cords some progress in all departments, but no change in the programme, of that institution. In an article on type-specimens, published in the August number of The Victorian Naturalist (vol. xxix., p. 59), Mr. F. Chapman proposes the new term ““tectotype’ for specimens, fragmentary or otherwise, selected to illustrate the external or internal micro- scopic characters of a species or genus. Such a speci- men may be the section of a tooth, a flake of a shell, a slice of a foraminifer, or a preparation from a fossilised leaf. Pror. W. L. McAtTEE commences a long article in the Proceedings of the Philadelphia Academy for June on the experimental method of testing the efficiency of warning and cryptic coloration in pro- tecting animals from their enemies by the statement that the theories on this subject long preceded any knowledge of the food-preferences of insectivorous species sufficient to justify such speculations. At the conclusion he states that the behaviour of animals in captivity, as regards food, does not afford trustworthy indications of what they would do in the wild state when offered similar food, thereby showing that the results of such experiments do not indicate the parts the animals might play in natural selection. He therefore urges that the time expended in making such experiments might be better employed in collect- ing trustworthy data in regard to the food-habits of animals in the wild condition, as ‘“‘the result would be truth, not imaginative inferences from abnormal behaviour.” Ir is a well-known fact that in certain aquatic hemipterous insects belonging to the genera Zaitha and Serphus, the females—in Europe, Japan, the West Indies, and America~are in the habit of attaching their eggs to the backs of their apparently unwilling OcToBER 3, 1912] NATURE 39 partners, in such a manner as to form a complete coating. According to an article by Prof. J. F. Abbott in the September number of The American Naturalist, a somewhat analogous, although more remarkable, instance of abnormal ‘“‘nursery arrangements’ occurs in the case of a North American hemipterous insect (Rhamphocorixa balanodis) belonging to the family Corixidz, which is related to the Notonectidz, as re- presented by the well-known ‘water-boatman.”’ In Igio it was observed that many of the crayfish (Cam- barus immunis) near Colombia, Mo., were more or less completely coated with the eggs of this insect, each egg being imbedded in a small cup fixed to the shell of the crayfish. Each crayfish carried hundreds of eggs, and as each female Rhampho- corixa lays comparatively few, several insects must have cooperated in investing the crayfish. It is suggested that the coating of eggs renders the cray- fish less conspicuous than in its ordinary condition, just as crabs carrying colonies of algas, sponges, or sea-anemones probably profit in some manner by the investiture. WE have received from Dr. Friedrich Ké6nig, of Krailling-Planegg, near Munich, a small pamphlet on the reconstruction of extinct vertebrate animals, with photographs of models which he has prepared in accordance with the principles he explains. He em- phasises especially the important aid afforded by the new kinematograph films of wild animals in motion, and points out how much less hypothetical are restora- tions made with our present knowledge than those which were attempted some years ago. His pamphlet forms an interesting summary of the whole subject, its problems and difficulties, with full references to all the important literature. Among his own restora- tions that of Diplodocus is particularly striking, for he has tried to avoid the appearance of a sleek pachy- derm by assuming the presence of a series of glands beneath the skin, which give the dorsal region of the body a segmented aspect. In the September number of The American Journal of Science Prof. Roy L. Moodie publishes a detailed description of the remains of Eobatrachus agilis from the Upper Jurassic of Wyoming, U.S.A., and confirms the opinion of the late Prof. O. C. Marsh that they represent a true anourous amphibian. Prof. Moodie finds that the bones are closely similar to those of a modern toad, and he comments on the great interest of the discovery of so highly specialised an animal in rocks so ancient as those of the Jurassic period. He overlooks the fact, however, that a well-preserved skeleton of a frog, Palaeobatrachus gaudryi, is already known from the Upper Jurassic of northern Spain (L. M. Vidal, Mem. Real Acad. Ciencias de Barcelona, vol. iv., No. 18, 1902). Tue Rev. M. Saderra Masé, the student of the Philippine earthquakes, finds that most of the earthquakes in southern Luzon originate along three great fractures, two of which lie to the east and west of the island, and are roughly parallel to the coast-lines, while the third, and most important, traverses the Taal volcano (the seat of the disastrous eruption of 1911), and runs in a north-north-easterly NO. 2240, VOL. 90] well-known | direction, passing some miles to the east of Manila. The earthquakes which originate in the south-western part of this line are characterised by relatively long duration and rather slow undulations of large ampli- tude, while those which proceed from the north- eastern part of the fracture are more dangerous, owing to the rapidity of their vibrations. It is in the latter part of the fracture that the destructive earthquakes of Manila have for the most part originated. Aux the available space in Symons’s Meteorological Magazine for September is devoted by Dr. Mill to an account and preliminary map of the distribution of rain in East Anglia on August 26 and 27, which was altogether unprecedented for a cyclonic storm in that part of Great Britain. The relation of the track of the depression to the rain area was similar to that of the great Irish fall of August 24-26, 1905 (* British Rainfall,” pp. [110]-[114]). On the morning of August 26 the Daily Weather Report issued by the Meteoro- logical Office showed a depression off the North Fore- land; by 6 p.m. it had moved northwards and deepened off the most easterly part of the Norfollx coast, and during the night turned to the right, across the North Sea. The storm seems to have been central close to Nor- wich, and the area of torrential rain lay in the north- east of Norfolk. The more important facts relating to the heavy rainfall are given in letters from several of Dr. Mill’s staff of observers. Among these Mr. J. H. Willis, of Norwich, took the trouble to read his gauge twelve times between 4 a.m. of August 26 and 4 a.m. of August 27; he recorded 6°32 in. in the twelve hours to 4 p.m. of August 26, and a further inch exactly in the following twelve hours. Only o704 in. fell between 4 and 9g a.m. on August 27, making 736 in. in twenty-nine hours. Although the twenty-four hours in question do not count as a “ rain- fall day”’ (twenty-fours ending at g a.m.), and the amount does not compare with other falls, it has not been surpassed in the British Isles on more than two or three occasions. The remarkable amount of 8°09 in. was recorded at Brundall, five miles east of Nor- wich, for the two days. Dr. Mill computes that the county of Norfolk, with an area of 2044 square miles, had a general rainfall of probably 488 in., which would be equivalent to twice as much water as is contained in Windermere, the largest of the English lakes. Tue Journal of the Franklin Institute for Septem- ber contains an account of some experiments on the electrical precipitation of solid and liquid matter sus- pended in gases by Mr. W. W. Strong, of the depart- ment of industrial research of the University of Pitts- burg. The suspended matter was obtained by blowing lime dust or the smoke produced by burning soft coal or the spray from a nozzle through which alcohol, ether, or toluol was forced, into the space between an earthed electrode and one connected to six different types of high-tension apparatus. The experiments show that the problem of precipitating smoke is iden- tical with that of removing dust, and that the coronal discharge is much more effective than the brush dis- charge, especially with large velocities of the gas con- taining the suspended particles. With this type of 140 NATURE [OcToBER 3, 1912 discharge the size of the precipitating chamber may be materially reduced. The currents due to secondary ionisation appear to play a more important part in the process than has been ‘supposed. ionic In an interesting note in the Gazzetta chimica italiana (vol. xlii., ii., 85) by F. Calzolari, the relation- ship between solubility and electro-affinity is discussed with especial reference to the chlorates and_per- chlorates of the alkali-metals, potassium, rubidium, and caesium. According to the electrochemical theory of Abegg and Bodlander, the solubility should diminish, in the case of these salts, as the atomic weight of the metal increases, so that the solubility of the rubidium salts should be intermediate between the solubilities of those of potassium and caesium; actually, however, it was found that at 20° the solu- bility of the czesium salts is intermediate between those of the potassium and rubidium compounds, whilst, owing to the crossing of the solubility curves at higher temperatures, the order of the arrangement is entirely different at different temperatures. The case is apparently similar with the nitrates. The solubility of these salts, which has been cited in favour of the theory of electro-affinity, is in reality not in accord with it. The Biochemical Journal, vol. vi., part 3, contains an important paper by Messrs. E. S. Edie, W. H. Evans, B. Moore, G. C. E. Simpson, and A. Webster from the laboratories of biochemistry and_ tropical medicine of the University of Liverpool, on the ques- tion of the cause and curative treatment of beri-beri and polyneuritis. An alcoholic extract of ordinary yeast, after removal of the alcohol at a low tempera- ture, is extremely active in curing the convulsions and lameness of birds suffering from polyneuritis. An organic base, to which the name torulin has been given, has been isolated from this extract; its nitrate has apparently the composition, C,H,,O,N,HNO,, forms feathery crystals, and is not precipitated by basic lead acetate, although thrown down by phospho- tungstic acid. The alcoholic yeast extract loses its activity on warming, and the active substance is apparently easily destroyed by heat. Experiments are in progress to ascertain whether birds can fully main- tain their weight and activity on a diet of polished rice, which ordinarily produces neuritis, when taken in conjunction with small doses of torulin; or whether it will only prevent the onset of convulsions or nervous changes without being able to maintain full nutrition. The Builder for September 27 gives some interesting particulars of ancient iron beams in India. At the Black Padoga of Orissa, Kanarak, there are some very large forged iron beams; the two largest mem- bers, as described by Mr. H. G. Graves, of Calcutta, are 35 ft. long by 8 in. square, and 25'5 ft. long by II in. square. The broken end of one of them indi- cates that the method of construction was by the welding up of billets. The age of the temple has been placed by some as early as the ninth, and by others as late as the thirteenth, century. Examination indi- cates that the small blooms were of 3 to 4 lb. in: weight; in some places the blooms appear to have been welded together in strings to form short bars, which in turn were welded into place. No special NO. 2240, VOL. 90] care seems to have been taken to make the blooms break joint. The beams are nearly all of uniform size, and square in. section from end to end. The designers do not appear to have understood the advan- tage of making the depth of the beam greater than the width. The beams could have been of but little structural value, although they constitute interesting examples of smiths’ work. COMMENTING on Sir W. H. White’s address at the recent International Mathematical Congress, Engineer- ing for September 27 states that it is not a little remarkable how little information mathematics is able to give us as to the strength of any engineering structure. In many cases, the service which mathe- matics renders is to furnish laws of comparison by which, without knowing. the actual limits of the stresses, we can conclude that a strueture which has successfully met certain conditions may be used as a basis for designing another similar structure, larger or smaller, to meet similar conditions. Perhaps the greatest service that mathematics can render to the engineer is in directing the course of a series of experiments and in analysing the results observed. There is unquestionably an immense mass of data uselessly pigeon-holed in the archives of manufactur- ing firms simply and solely because their technical staff are insufficiently equipped with mathematical knowledge to analyse these records effectively, and the art of the engineer and the profits of the manu- facturer suffer in consequence. Messrs. JOHN BARTHOLOMEW AND Co., of the Geographical Institute, Edinburgh, have published two additional sheets to their ‘“‘half-inch to mile” map of Scotland. One sheet deals with Berwick and Haddington, the other with Inverness and Spey. The familiar greens and browns associated with this ex- cellent series of reduced survey maps serve admirably to bring out the build of the country depicted, and the points of the compass arranged to show the magnetic variation, with the annual decrease of the variation indicated, is a commendable feature which will be of great assistance to tourists using the map with a compass. ‘The price of the sheet on paper is 1s. 6d., and on cloth 2s. SEVERAL additions have recently been made to the “Home University Library of Modern Knowlege” and to ‘The People’s Books.” Messrs. Williams and Norgate have added to the former series, among other volumes, the following books: ‘‘The Human Body,” by Prof. Arthur Keith, “Electricity,” by Prof. Gisbert Kapp, and ‘“‘The Making of the Earth,” by, Prof. J. W. Gregory, F-R.S. Do “dhe People’s Books’’ Messrs. T. C. and E. C. Jack have added, with others, the following volumes: ‘‘ The Evolution of Living Organisms,” by Mr. E. S. Good- rich, F.R.S.; “ Embryology,” by Dr. Gerald Leigh- ton; ‘‘Practical Astronomy,” by Mr. Hector Mac- pherson, Jun.; and ‘‘ Aviation,” by Mr. S. F. Walker. It may be hoped that the recent rapid growth of scientific literature for the general reader is an indica- tion of a fuller understanding of the important part which science must take in the work and development of modern States. ae OCTOBER 3, 1912] NATURE 141 OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. ASTRONOMICAL OCCURRENCES FOR OCTOBER :— Oct. 3. 18h. om. Mercury in superior conjunction with the Sun. 4. gh. 25m. Neptune in conjunction with the Moon (Neptune 5° 46’ S.). g. 3h. om. Uranus stationary. o. 2h. om. Sun eclipsed, invisible at Green- wich. * 4, Ith. 36m. Mercury in conjunction with the Moon (Mercury 1° 35’ N.). », 17h. tom. Mars in conjunction with the Moon (Mars 1° 44’ N.). 12. 4h. 6m. Venus in conjunction with the Moon (Venus 2° 52’ N.). 13- 6h. 51m. Mercury in conjunction with Mars (Mercury 0° 11’ S.). 14. 6h. 15m. Jupiter in conjunction with the Moon (Jupiter 5° 2’ N.). 17. 22h. 4om. Uranus in conjunction with the Moon (Uranus 4° 35’ N.). 1g. 6h. om. Neptune at quadrature to the Sun. 9 2. 2th.om. Uranus at quadrature to the Sun. 7. 23h. 9m. Saturn in conjunction with the Moon (Saturn 6° 26’ S.). 31. 5h. 12m. Neptune in conjunction with the Moon (Neptune 5° 43’ S.). GaLe’s CoMET 1912a.—Dr. Ebell’s elements and an extended ephemeris for comet 1912a appear in No. 4602 of the Astronomische Nachrichten. Ephemeris 12h. (M.T. Berlin). 1912 a (true) 6 (true) log x log A h. m. 5 , Oct. 3 15 24:0. ... — 313453 5 15 286 ... —I 107 98616 ... 0'0301 7 lS S27) eon See 7%! 9 15 30°5 . +3 20°2 9 8653 ... 00454 II 15 40°0 ... +5 27°5 13 15 43°71 +7 29°6 ... 9°8740 ... 0:0600 The calculated magnitude remains about 50 until the middle of October, so that given a good clear horizon the comet should not be a difficult object for field glasses, or even the naked eye; during the cur- rent week it should be looked for almost due west. On October 5, at about 7.30 p.m., it will lie about half- way between 8 Libre and a Serpentis, and will form the apex of an isosceles triangle, having the base, a Coronz Arcturus, about two-thirds the length of the side. Its apparent path lies nearly along the line joining 8 Librz to a point one-third the distance from a to € Serpentis, a point which it will pass on October 11. As may be seen from the ephemeris, the comet’s distance from the sun increases after October 5, and its distance from the earth is also increasing, so that it will not become any brighter; at perihelion passage, October 5, it will be some 67°5 million miles from the sun, and 994 million from the earth, while on October 13 these distances will be 695 and 106°7 million miles respectively. The orbit of this comet is peculiar by reason of its great inclination, 82°, to the ecliptic. EPHEMERIS FOR TuTTLE’s Comet.—In No. 4602 of the Astronomische Nachrichten, M. N. Militevié gives an ephemeris for Tuttle’s comet, based on the elements, uncorrected for perturbations, published in No. 3552 of the same journal. According to this ephemeris, the comet should now be high up in Ursa Major (October 6, a=8h. 36m., 5=+76° 19’), and should travel southwards to e=1o0h. 8m., §=70° 24°7’ on October 31. Its calculated distances from the sun and earth on October 6 are 153 and 123 millions of miles respectively. Discovered by Méchain in 1790, this comet was rediscovered by Tuttle in 1858, and, NO. 2240, VOL. 90] having a period of about 13°7 years, was seen again in 1871, 1885, and May, 1899, so that it should pass perihelion some time early next year. THE LatiTubE OF THE KHEDIVIAL OBSERVATORY AT HeLtwan.—Some interesting facts concerning latitude determinations are brought to light in a paper pub- lished by Messrs. Wade and Knox Shaw in Bulletin No. 6 of the Khedivial Observatory, Helwan. The observations discussed were made (1) because observa- tions made in September, 1908, gave a value for the latitude 3" lower than that formerly accepted, and (2) because the observations at other geodetic stations suggested a night-to-night variation, possibly due to some atmospheric variation such as the shifting of the refractive zenith. They were also intended to show whether any abnormal variation of latitude tools place from month to month. The instruments and observations are fully dis- cussed, Talcott’s method having been employed, and the final value for the latitude of the geodetic pillar is given as 29° 25’ 31°82” N.. +011”. The authors conclude that there is no very definite evidence for a night-to-night variation, but there seems to be a variation from month to month; thus August, rrr, shows the largest residual, +092", from the mean value, although the probable error of the determina- tion is small. August, 1910, also gave an abnormal value, and during the period July, 1910, to August, 1911, the mean latitude actually varied from 316" tong 2a Tue MANCHESTER ASTRONOMICAL SociETy.—The re- port of this society shows that a vigorous interest in astronomy is exhibited in the Manchester district, an interest which would be welcome in other centres. The membership for 1910-11 was 128, as compared with 98 in 1903-4, and the average attendance at the meetings was 72. Many interesting papers were read and discussed, the lecturers including Father Cortie and Mr. T. Thorp. On alternate Wednesdays the Godlee Observatory is open to members for practical work. FORTHCOMING BOOKS OF SCIENCE. AGRICULTURE. A. and C. Black.—Ranching in the Canadian West, A. B. Stock. Blackie and Son, Ltd.— Woman’s Place in Rural Economy, translated from the French of Paul de Vuyst. C. Griffin and Co., Ltd.—A Manual of Practical Agricultural Bacterio- logy, Prof. F. Lohnis, translated by W. Stevenson and J. H. Smith, illustrated: The Laboratory Book of Dairy Analysis, H. D. Richmond, new edition, illustrated. T. Werner Laurie, Ltd.—Farm_ Dairy- ing, L. Rose Longmans and Co.—English Farm- ing Past and Present, R. E. Prothero.. Macmillan and Co., Ltd.—The Beginner in Poultry, C. S. Valentine, illustrated; Sheep Farming, J. A. Craig and F. R. Marshall; Forage Crops -for the South, S. M. Tracy. illustrated. John Murray.—Practical Agricultural Chemistry, Dr. S. J. N. Auld and D. R. Edwardes-Ker, illustrated. John Wiley and Sons (New York).—Dairy Technology, Prof. C. Larsen and W. White. ANTHROPOLOGY. The Cambridge University Press—The Civiliza- tion of Ancient Mexico, L. Spence. Gustav Fischer (Jena).—Der Derfflinger Htigel bei Kalbsrieth (Grossherzogtum Sachsen), A. Moller. Macmillan and Co., Ltd.—The Golden Bough: a Study in Magic and Religion, Prof. J. G. Frazer, third edition, revised and enlarged: Part vi., The Scapegoat; 142 NATURE [OcTOBER 3, 1912 Part vii., Balder the Beautiful; Marriage Ceremonies in Morocco, Prof. E. Westermarck; The Pagan Tribes of Borneo: a Description of their Physical, Moral and Intellectual Condition, with some Dis- cussion of their Ethnic Relations, Dr. C. Hose and Dr. W. M‘Dougall, F.R.S., 2 vols., Seeley, Service and Co., Ltd.—Among Cannibals: the Experiences, Impressions, and Adven- tures during a Thirty Years’ Sojourn among the Boloki and other Congo Tribes, with a Description of their Curious Customs, Habits, and Religion, J. H. Weeks, illustrated. Bio.Locy. Edward Arnold.—The Life of an Elephant, Sir S. Eardley-Wilmot, K.C.I.E., illustrated. AS Vand 1G: Black.—First Principles of Evolution, Dr. S. Herbert, illustrated; Coarse Fishing, H. T. Shering- ham, illustrated; Life-history and Habits of the Salmon, Sea-trout, Trout, and other Freshwater Fish, P. D. Malloch, new edition, illustrated; Peeps at Nature, edited by Rev. C. A. Hall: British Ferns, Club-mosses, and Horse-tails, D. Ferguson, illus- trated; Natural History of the Garden, W. P. Westell, illustrated. Blackie and Son, Ltd.—Plant Diseases, Dr. W. F. Bruck, translated. Edited by Prof. J. R. Ainsworth Davis. The Cambridge Uni- versity Press.—The Genus Iris, W. R. Dykes, illus- trated; Makers of British Botany, Prof. F. W. Oliver; The Vegetation of the Peak District, Dr. C. E. Moss; Herbals, Dr. Agnes Arber, illustrated ; Cassell _and Co., Ltd.—British Birds’ Nests: How, Where, and When to Find and Identify Them, R. Kearton, new edition, illustrated; The Charm of the Hills, S. Gordon, illustrated; Insect Workers, W.-J. Claxton, illustrated. J. M. Dent and Sons, Ltd.—Plant Geography, Prof. G. S. Boulger: A. C. Fifield—The Nature of Woman, J. L. Tayler, with a supplementary chapter on Landmarks in the Subject, containing an article ‘“Woman,” by W. C. Roscoe; The Forest Farm: Tales of the Austrian Tyrol, P. Rosegger, with a biographical sketch by Dr. J. Petersen, an apprecia- tion by M. E. King, a photograph of Rosegger, and a sketch of his forest home; The Soul of a Gardener, H. M. Waithman. Gustav Fischer (Jena).—Vorlesungen iber technische Mycologie, Dr. F. Fuhrmann; Richtlinien des Entwicklungs- und Vererbungsproblems, Dr. A. Greil, Zweiter Teil: Anpassung und Variabilitat, Ererbung und Erwerbung, Geschlechtsbestimmung (Entwicklungs- und Vererbungstheorien); Die Gattung Hedera, F. Tobler, illustrated. R. Friedlinder. und Sohn (Berlin).—Etudes de Lépidoptérologie comparée, C. Oberthiir, Fasc. vi., illustrated; Katalog der pala- arktischen Hemipteren, B. Oshanin (Heteroptera, Homoptera-Auchenorhyncha und Psylloidea); Résul- tats des Campagnes Scientifiques d’Albert I., Prince de Monaco, Fasc. xxxv., Poissons des camp. 1901-10, E. Zugmayer, illustrated; Fasc. xxxvi., Géphyriens des camp. 18q8-1910, G. P. Sluiter, — with coloured plate; Das Tierreich, edited by F. E. Schulze: Lief. 34, Amathusiidae, H. Stichel; Lief. 35, Rhabdocoela, L. v. Graff; Lief. 36, Pteropoda, J. J. Tesch; Verhandlungen des V. Internationalen Ornithologen-Kongress, Berlin, 1910, edited by H. Shalow, illustrated; Zoologischer Jahresbericht fiir 1911; Chromotaxia seu Nomenclator Colorum Poly- glottus ad usum Botanicorum et Zoologorum, Prof. P. A. Saceardo, new edition, illustrated; Die Fauna der Deutschen-Kolonien, Reihe v., Heft 3, Drs. ‘G. Aulmann and W. La Baume, illustrated; Ornis Romaniae, Die Vogelwelt Rumaniens, R. v. Dom- NO. 2240, VOL. 90| illustrated. | Congo | browski; Die sanitarisch-pathologische Bedeutung der Insecten u. verwandten Gliedertiere, namentlich als Krankheitserreger u. Krankheitsiibertrager, Prof. E. A. Goeldi, illustrated; Die Planarien des Baikal- Sees (Trieladen), Prof. A. Korshieff, illustrated; Die Birkhtihner Russlands, Bastarde und Varietaten, T. Lorenz, 4 parts, illustrated. W. Heffer and Sons, Ltd. (Cambridge).—British Violets: a Mono- graph, Mrs. E. S. Gregory, illustrated. Henry Holt and Co. (New York).—The Living Plant, Prof. W. F. Ganong, illustrated. T. C. and E. C. Jacki— Present-day Gardening, edited by R. H. Pearson: Tulips, Rev. J. Jacob; The Rock Garden, R. Farrer ; Dahlias, G. Gordon, each illustrated; The Science of Life, Prof. W. D. Henderson; Animal Life, Prof. E. W. MacBride, F-R:S.; Bacteriology, ~Dr- W. E. C. Dickson; Darwin, Prof. W. Garstang. C. H. Kelly.—British Fern Varieties, F. G. Heath, illustrated ; Nature’s Nursery Tales, S. N. Sedgwick, illustrated. Longmans and Co.—South African Snakes and their Venom, and how to Treat Snake Bite, F. W. Fitzsimons, new edition, illustrated; A Text-book of Practical Bacteriology and Micro- biology, Dr. A. Besson, translated from the fifth French edition, and adapted by Prof. H. J. Hutchens. Maemillan and Co., Ltd.—A Treatise on Embryo- logy, edited by W. Heape, F.R.S.: Vol. i., Inverte- brata, Prof. E. W. MacBride, F.R.S., illustrated ; Physiological Plant Anatomy, Prof. G. Haberlandt, translated by J. M. F. Drummond, _ illustrated ; The Cotton Plant in Egypt: Studies in Gene- tics and Physiology, W. L. Balls, illustrated; The Marine Mammals in the Anatomical Museum of the University of Edinburgh, Part i., Cetacea, Part ii., Sirenia, Part iii., Pinnipedia, Sir Wm. Turner, K.C.B., F.R-S., illustrated;) In- jurious Insects: How to Recognise and Control Them, Prof. W. C. O’Kane, illustrated; Trees in Winter, Prof. A. B. Blakeslee, illustrated. John Murray.—The Big Game of Central and Western China El: F. Wallace, illustrated.—Problems of Life and Reproduction, Prof. M. MHar- tog, illustrated. George Routledge and _ Sons, Ltd.—The Theory of Evolution in the Light of Facts, K. Frank, with a chapter Ant Guests and Termite Guests by P. Was- mann, translated from the German by C. T. Druery, illustrated; The Dry-fly Man’s Hand- book: a Complete Manual, including The Fisher- on E. man’s Entomology, The Making and Management of a Fishery, F. M. Halford, illustrated; The Gardener’s Dictionary, edited by A. Hemsley and J. Fraser, illustrated; The Entomologist’s Log-book, A. G. Scorer. The University Tutorial Press, Ltd,— Text-book of Botany, J. M. Lowson, adapted to Indian requirements by Mrs. J. C. Willis; School Gardening, A. Hosking; Nature Study, Dr. J. Rennie, adapted to South African requirements by Dr. G. Rattray. Witherby and Co.—The Home-life of the Terns or Sea-swallows, W. Bickerton, illus- trated. CHEMISTRY. Edward Arnold.—The Principles of Applied Electro- chemistry, Dr. A. J. Allmand, illustrated; Organic Chemistry for Advanced Students, Prof. J. B. Cohen, F.R.S., Part ii. A. and C. Black.—Chemical Analysis, Qualitative and Quantitative, G. G. Gardiner, Vol. i. Blackie and Son, Ltd.—Exercises in Gas Analysis, Prof. H. Franzen, trans- lated by Dr. T. Callan. J. and_A. Churchill.— General and Industrial Inorganic Chemistry, Prof. E. Molinari, 2 vols., dealing with Organic Chem- istry, translated by T. H. Pope, illustrated; The OcToBER 3, I912| NATURE 143 Preparation of Organic Compounds, E. de Barnett, illustrated; On Alkaloids, Dr. T. A. Henry; Bloxam’s Chemistry, Organic and Inorganic, new edition, with experiments, A. .G. Bloxam and S. J. Lewis; A History of Chemistry from the Earliest Times to the Present Day, the late Prof. C. Brown, edited by H. H. Brown, illustrated. Constable and Co., Ltd.—Problems in Physical Chemistry, with Practical Applications, Dr. E. B. R. Prideaux; The Chemistry of the Iron and Steel Industry, O. F. Hudson, with a chapter on Corrosion by G. D. Bengough; The Chemistry of the Oil Industry, J. E. Southcombe. R. Friedlander und Sohn (Berlin).— Chemisches Zentralblatt, Generalregister 1897-1911, edited by I. Bloch, 2 parts. Gauthier-Villars (Paris). —Legons de Chimie, Gautier and Charpy, new edition; Cours d’Analyse de 1’Ecole Polytechnique, C. Jordan, Tome ii., new edition; Cours d’Analyse de la Faculté des Sciences de Paris, S. Goursat, Tome iii.; Cours élémentaire de Chimie et de minéralogie, Istrati. C. Griffin and Co., Ltd.—A Text-book on Trade Waste Waters, their Nature and Disposal, Drs. H. M. Wilson and H. T..Calvert; A Treatise on Chemical Analysis, with Special Reference to Clays, Glasses, Minerals, and the Silicate Industries, Dr. J. W. Mellor, vol. i., illustrated; A Manual on the Examination of Fuel, J. H. Coste and E. R. Andrews, illustrated; The Elements of Chemical Engineering, Dr. J. Grossmann, new edition, illus- trated. Harper and Brothers——Elements and Elec- trons, Sir W.. Ramsay, K.C.B., F.R.S. Crosby Lockwood and Son.—Industrial and Manufacturing Chemistry—Organic, Dr. G. Martin and _ others, illustrated. Longmans and Co.—Modern Inorganic Chemistry, Dr. J. W. Mellor. Seeley, Service and Co., Ltd.—The Wonders of Modern Chemistry, Dr. J. C. Philip, illustrated. Julius Springer (Berlin).— Praktikum der Elektrochemie, Prof. illustrated; Chemische Untersuchungsmethoden fiir Eisenhittenlaboratorien, A. Vita and Dr. C. Massenez. The University Tutorial Press, Ltd.— Qualitative Determination of Organic Compounds, Barry | F. Fischer, | by N. Martin; The Design of Simple Steel Bridges, P. O. G. Usborne; A Primer of the Internal Com- bustion Engine, H. E. Wimperis; The Una-flow Steam Engine, Prof. J. Stumpf; The Elements of Structural Design, H.R. Thayer. C. Griffin and Co., Ltd.—The Principles and Design of Reinforced Con- crete, R. Coulson and R. Coulson, Jun.; A Treatise on the Gas Turbine: Theory, Construction, and the Working Results of Two Machines in Actual Use, H. Holzwarth, with additional tests for the English edition, translated by A. P. Chalkley, illustrated; A Treatise on Petroleum and its Products, Sir B. Redwood, 3 vols., new edition; A Treatise on Mine Surveying, B. H. Brough, revised by Prof. S. W. Price, new edition, illustrated; Practical Coal-mining, G. L. Kerr, new edition. Crosby Lockwood and Son.—Aviation Pocket Book, containing the Theory and Design of the Aéro- plane, Structural Material, Examples of Actual Machines, Meteorological Data, Military Information, Signalling, &c., R. B. Matthews, illustrated; Petrol Air Gas: a Practical Handbook on the Installation and Working of Air Gas Lighting Systems for Country Houses, H. O’Connor, new edition, illustrated; The Theory and Practice of Land and Mining Surveying as Applied to Collieries and other Mines, G. L. Les- ton, illustrated. Longmans and Co.—‘ Water Supply” and * Drainage”’ Systematised and Simplified, C. E. Housden. George Routledge and Sons, Ltd.—The Control of Water for Power Irrigation and Town Water-supply Purposes, P. a M. Parker, illustrated. Seeley, Service and Co., Lid.—The Romance of Sub- marine Engineering, T. W. Corbin, illustrated. Julius Springer (Berlin).—Die Entropie-Diagramme der Verbrennungsmotoren einschliesslich der Gas- turbine, Prof. P. Ostertag, illustrated; Die Kallcula- tion in Metallgewerbe und Maschinenbau, E. Pieschel, illustrated. The University Tutorial Press, Ltd.— Electrical Engineering (Continuous Currents), W. T. Maccall. Whittaker and Co.—Design of Alternating- | current Machinery, J. R. Barr and R. D. Archibald, J. W. Shepherd; Senior Volumetric Analysis, H. W. | Bausor. John Wiley and Sons (New York).—A Handbook of Sugar Analysis, Dr. C. A. Browne; | Sugar Tables for Laboratory Use, arranged by Dr. C. A. Browne; Explosives: a Synoptic and Critical Treatment of the Literature of the Subject as Gathered from Various Sources, Dr. H. Brunswig, translated and annotated by Dr. C. E. Munroe and A. L. Kibler; General Chemistry of the Enzymes, Prof. H. Euler, translated from the revised and enlarged German edition by T. H. Pope; The Qualitative Analysis of Medicinal Preparations, H. C. Fuller; Analysis of Paint and Varnish Pro- ducts, Dr. C. D. Holley: ENGINEERING. Edward Arnold.cSteam Boilers and Boiler Acces- sories, W. Inchley, illustrated; Petrol Engine Con- selected and struction and Drawing, W. E. Dommett, illustrated; | Winding Engines and Winding Appliances : Design and Economical Working, G. McCulloch and T. C. Futers, illustrated. Single-phase Motors, F. Creedy; Spanish-English— English-Spanish Dictionary of Railway Terms, A. Garcia; Foundations and Fixing of Machinery, F. H. Davies; Boiler Explosions, Collapses and Mishaps, E. J. Rimmer; New Steam Tables, C. A. M. Smith and A. G. Warren; Switches and Switchgear, R. Elder, translated by Dr. C. Kinzbrunner; The Pro- perties and Design of Reinforced Concrete, translated and abridged from the French Government reports NO. 2240, VOL. 90] their | Constable and Co., Ltd.— | illustrated. John —Sfteam Economy Abraham, _ translated Wiley and Sons (New York). in the Sugar Factory, K. from. the’ German edition by E. J. Bayle; Bituminous Surfaces and Bituminous Pavements, Prof. A. H. Blanchard; Text-book on Highway Engineering, Prof. A. H. Blanchard; Structural Details of Hip and Valley Rafters, C. T. Bishop; Applied Mechanics, Profs. C. E. Fuller and W. A. Johnston, vol. i., Theory of Statics and Kinetics, including a Discussion of Graph- ical Methods of Solving Problems in Statics, with Applications, vol. ii., Strength of Materials; Elements of Heating and Ventilation, Prof. A. M. Greene, Jun.; Elements of Heat Power Engineering, Profs. CC: FE. Hirschfeld and W. N. Barnard: Steam Engineering, W. R. King; Elements of Hydraulics, M. Merriman; Electrical Engineering, the University of Minnesota, vol. iii., Alternators, Swnchronous Motors, and Rotary Converters; Electric Furnaces in the Tron and Steel Industry, W. Rodenhauser and I- Schoenawa, authorised translation by C. H. Vom Baur; Treatise on the Design and Construction of Roofs, Prof. N. Ricker; Design of Electrical Machinery, W. T. Ryan, 3 vols. GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL. Edward Arnold.—Boyd Alexander’s Last Journey, with a Memoir, H. Alexander, illustrated. A. and C. Black.—Picturesque Nepal, P. Brown, illustrated. The Cambridge University Press.—The Duab of Turkestan, W. R. Rickmers, illustrated; Map Projections, A. R. Hinks; A History of Geographical Discovery in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries, E. Heawood, 144 NATURE. [OcTOBER 3, I912 illustrated (Cambridge Geographical Series); Forfar- shire, E. S. Valentine; Linlithgowshire, T. S. Muir; Middlesex, G. F. Bosworth; Herefordshire, A. G. Bradley; Lincolnshire, Dr. E. M. Sympson (Cam- bridge County Geographies). Constable and Co., Ltd.—The Land of Zinj, Captain C. H. Stigand; The Karakorum and Western Himalaya: an Account of the Expedition of H.R.H. Prince Luigi Amedeo of Savoy, Duke of the Abruzzi, Dr. Filippo de Filippi, 2 vols., illustrated. Longmans and Co.—Alpine Studies, Rev. W. A. B. Coolidge, illustrated. Mac- millan and Co., Ltd.—From Pole to Pole, Dr. Sven Hedin, illustrated; The Adventures of an Elephant Hunter, J. Sutherland, illustrated; Troy: a Study in Homeric Geography, Dr. W. Leaf, illustrated. John Murray.—The Conquest of the South Pole, Capt. Roald Amundsen, 2 vols., illustrated; Through Meso- potamia and Turkestan in Disguise, E. B. Soane; In Northern Labrador, W. B. Cabot, illustrated. T. Fisher Unwin.—Vhrough Shén-kan: The Account of the Clark Expedition in North China, 1908-9, R. S. Clark and de C. Sowerby, edited by Major C. H. Chepmell, illustrated; Papua, or British New Guinea, J. H. P. Murray, illustrated; The Wilderness of the North Pacific Coast Islands: Hunting and Explora- tion in Vancouver, Queen Charlotte, Montague, and Admiralty Islands, C. Sheldon, illustrated; Yosemite Trails : Camp and Pack-train in the Yosemite Region of the Sierra Nevada, J. S. Chase, illustrated. GEOLOGY. Edward Arnold.—The Geology of Soils and Sub- strata, H. B. Woodward, F.R.S. A. and C. Black.— Peeps at Nature, edited by Rev. C. A. Hall; Romance of the Rocks, Rev. C. A. Hall, illustrated. C. Griffin and Co., Ltd.—A Text-book of Geology, arranged to Cover the whole Geological Course in Mining Schools and Colleges, Prof. J. Park, illustrated; The Earth: its Beginning and Life-history, A. T. Swaine, illus- trated. Harper and Brothers.—The Age of the Earth, A. Holmes. T. C. and E. C. Jack.—Geology, Prof. T. G. Bonney, F.R.S. John Murray.—Volcanoes : their Structure and Significance, Prof. T. G. Bonney, F.R.S., new edition, illustrated. John Wiley and Sons (New York).—Determinative Mineralogy, Prof. J. V. Lewis; Building Stones and Clay Products, Prof. H. Ries. MaTHEMATICAL AND PHysicaL SCIENCE. A. and C. Black.—Practical Physics, A. McLean, vol. i., illustrated. Blackie and Son, Ltd.—Elec- tricity and its Practical Applications, Prof. M. Mac- lean. The Cambridge University Press.—Analytical Geometry : a First Course, C. O. Tuckey and W. A. Nayler; The ‘‘ Method” of Archimedes, recently Dis- covered by Heiberg, a Supplement to The Works of Archimedes, 1897, edited by Sir T. L. Heath, K.C.B., F.R.S.; The Collected Mathematical Papers of James Joseph Sylvester, F.R.S., vol. iv. (1882-1807), edited, with a portrait and biographical notice, by Dr. H. F. Baker; Matrices and Determinoids, Dr. C. E. Cullis, vol i.; Staties, including Hvdrostatics and the Elements of the Theory of Elasticity, Prof. H. Lamb, F.R.S.; Collected Papers in Physics and Engineering, by Prof. J. Thomson, F.R.S., selected and arranged with unpublished material and brief annotations by Sir, |; Warmorn, Secsmks:,viebeandin |e Thomson; British Association Reports, edited by Dr. R. T. Glazebrook, C.B., F.R.S. Cassell’ and Co.,, Litd-— Electricity in the Service of Man, Dr. R. M. Walmsley, vol. ii., section i., illustrated. Christophers.— Examples in Elementary Trigonometry, F. Charles and NO. 2240, VOL. 90] | Mensuration, J. Harris and P. E. Herrick. W. Sutton; Progressive Exercises in Arithmetic and Constable | and Co., Ltd.—A Text-book of Physics, H. E. Hurst and R. T. Lattey, 3 vols.—i., Dynamics and Heat, | ii., Light and Sound, iii., Magnetism and Electricity ; Electricity in Mines, W. A. Patchell. R. Friedlander und Sohn (Berlin).—Wegweiser fur die Gravitations- forschung, A. Haussler. Gauthier-Villars (Paris).— Cours de Géométrie infinitésimale, E. F. Demartres, illustrated; Tables de Logarithmes de 4-8-12 décimales et nombres correspondants avec 12-13 chiffres, A. Guillemin; Legons sur les singu- larités des fonctions analytiques, P. Dienes, illus- trated; Lecons sur les équations intégrales et les équations intégro-différentialles, V. Volterra; Optique physique, Prof. Wood. C. Griffin and Co., Ltd.—A Text-book of Physics: Electricity and Magnetism, Prof. J. H. Poynting, F.R.S., and Sir J. J. Thomson, F.R.S., in 2 vols., illustrated; Electrical Photometry and Illumination, Prof. H. Bohle, illustrated. Harper and Brothers.—The Ways of the Planets, M. E. Mar- tin. JT. C. and E. C. Jack.—Light, according to Modern Science, Dr. P. Phillips; Weather Science, | R. G. K. Lempfert; Sir William Huggins and Spec- troscopic Astronomy, E. W. Maunder. Longmans and Co.—The Teaching of Algebra (including the Elements of Trigonometry), Dr. T. P. Nunn; Exercises in Algebra (including Trigonometry), Dr. T. P. Nunn; Researches in Colour Vision and the Trichromatic Theory, Sir W. de W. Abney, K.C.B., F.R.S.; An Introduction to the Mathematical Theory of Attraction, | Dr. F. A. Tarleton, vol. ii.; An introduction to Mathe- matical Physics, Dr. R. A. Houstoun; Practical Geo- metry and Graphics, Prof. D. A. Low. Methuen and Co., Ltd.—A Handbook of Physics, W. H. White, illustrated. John Murray.—The Science of Illumina- tion, Dr. L. Bloch, translated by W. C. Clinton; The Interpretation of Radium, F. Soddy, F.R.S., new edition, illustrated. Seeley, Service and Co., Ltd.— The Wonders of Electricity, C. R. Gibson, illustrated. The S.P.C.K.—Radium and _ Radio-activity, A. T. Cameron, illustrated. Julius Springer (Berlin).—Ein- fuhrung in der Mathematik fur Biologen und Chemiker, Prof. L. Michaelis, illustrated; Elektrische Energieversorgung landlicher Bezirke, W. Reisser; Tabellen der Luftgewichte y?, der Druckaquivalente 8? und der Gravitation g., Dr. S. Riefler; Beitrag zur Theorie und Untersuchung der Ferrarismessgerate, E. Wirz, illustrated. The University Tutorial Press, Ltd.—Mathematical Physics, C. W. C. Barlow, vol. i., Magnetism and Electricity; Algebra for Matricu- lation, A. G. Cracknell; Junior Geometry, A. G. Cracknell; Additional Exercises in Junior Arithmetic ; Preliminary Arithmetic, edited by A. Barraclough; KKey to the Tutorial Algebra, F. Rosenberg. John Wiley and Sons (New. York).—Construetive Text-book of Practical Mathematics, H. W. Marsh; Text-boolk of Mechanics, Prof. L. A. Martin, Jun., vol. iv., Applied Statics; Elements of Plane Trigonometry, Dr. R. E. Moritz; Essentials of Electricity, W. H. Timbie; Heat for Technical and Industrial Students, J. A. Randall. : Mepicar ScreNcr. Edward Arnold.—-Malingering, Sir J. Collie. Bail- liére, Tindall and Cox.—Aids to Public Health, Dr. D. Sommerville; Food Inspector’s Encyclopaedia, A. H. Walker; Veterinary Toxicology, Dr. G. D. Lander. A. and C. Black.—A Short Manual of Diseases of the Nervous System, E. Bramwell, Part i., Method of Examination of the Nervous System, the Significance of Important Physical Signs and Symptoms, Part ii., The Diseases of the Nervous System, illustrated ; Diseases and Injuries of the Eye, Dr. W. G. Svm, OcTOBER 3, 1912] NATURE 145 illustrated; Post-mortem Technique Pathology, Dr. J. Miller, illustrated.—The Cambridge University Press.—Bibliography of Medicine and re- lated Sciences (Bio-chemistry, Biology, Cytology, &c.). J. and A. Churchill.—Digestion and Metabolism, the Physiological and Pathological Chemistry of Nutrition, Dr. A. E. Taylor; Meat “Hygiene, with special con- sideration of Ante-mortem and Post-mortem Inspection of Food-producing Animals, Dr. R. Edelmann, trans- lated by J. R. Mohler and A. Eichhorn, illustrated ; On Alcoholism, Dr. F. Hare; On Fatty Foods, their Prac- tical Examination, E. R. Bolton and C. Revis, illus- trated. Constable and Co., Ltd.—Cancer of the Breast Clinically Observed, the late C. H. Leaf. Gustav Fischer (Jena).—Versuche zur Immunisierung gegen Trypanosomen, H. Braun and E. Teichmann ; Jahresbericht ber die Ergebnisse der Tuberkulose- forschung 1911, Dr. F. Kohler ; Medizinisch-biologische 1 amilienforschungen innerhalb eines 2232-képfigen Bauerngeschlechts in Schweden (Provinz Blekinge), Dr. H. ‘Lundborg, text and atlas, illustrated; Lehrbuch der Zahnkrankheiten, Dr. B. Mayrhofer, illustrated ; Die Rezeptsammlung des Scribonius Largus, Dr. W. Schonack ; Zur Morpholcgie der Nierensekretion unter phy siologischen und pathologischen Bedingungen, Dr. T. Suzulki, illustrated; Verhandlungen der Deutschen Otologischen Gesellschaft auf der xxi. Versammlung in Hannover am 23 und 24 Mai, 1912, edited by Dr. R. Panse, illustrated. C. Griffin and Co., Ltd.— A Handbook of Hygiene, Lt.-Col. A. M. Davies and Col. Melville, new edition, illustrated; A Medical and Surgical Help: for Shipmasters and Officers in the Merchant Navy, W. J. Smith, new edition by Dr. A. Chaplin, illustrated; Clinical Medicine, Dr. J. S. Bury, edited by Drs. J. S. Bury and A. Ramsbottom, illustrated. T. C. and E. C. Jack.—Hynotism, Dr. A. Hutchison. H. K. Lewis.—Ionisation, Dr. H. L. Jones; A Short Account of the Royal Society of Medi- cine, S Paget; Medical Electricity : a Practical Hand- book for Students and Practitioners, Dr. H. L. Jones, new edition, illustrated. Macmillan and Co., Ltd.— Human Physiology, Prof. L. Luciani, translated by F. A. Welby, edited by Dr. M. Camis, in four volumes, illustrated, vol ii.; Diseases of the Liver, Gall-Bladder and Bile-Ducts, Dr. H. D. Rolleston, new edition, illus- trated ; The Care of the Body, Prof. R. S. Woodworth; The Kallikak Family: a Study in Heredity, H. H. Goddard, - illustrated; Stuttering and Lisping, Dr. EW. Scripture, illustrated. Julius Springer (Berlin). —Lehrbuch der Muskel- und Gelenkmechanik, Prot. H. Strasser, ii. Band., Spezieller Teili., illustrated. The University .Tutorial Press, Ltd.—Physical Training and Hygiene for Certificated Students.. T. Fisher Unwin.—Hypnotism and Disease: a Plea for Rational Psychotherapy, Dr. H. C. Miller. METALLURGY. 3. Griffin and Co., Ltd.—The Mineralogy of the Rae Metals : a Handbook for Prospectors, E. Cahen and W. O. Wootton; The Sampling and Assay of the Precious Metals: ‘Comprising Gold, Silver and Platinum, in Ores, Bullion and Products, E. A. Smith, illustrated; The Microscopic Analysis of Metals in Theory and Practice, F. Osmond and J. E. Stead, F.R.S., with’a chapter on the Metallography of the Deformation of Iron and Steel, and an Appendix on the Theory of the Iron-Carbon System, revised, cor- rected and re-written by L. P. Sidney. TECHNOLOGY. Edward Arnold.—Electroplating, W. R. Barclay and C. H. Hainsworth, illustrated. Cassell and Co., Ltd. —Cassell’s Reinforced Concrete, edited by B. E. Jones, NO. 2240, VOL. 90] and Practical | illustrated; Wireless Telegraphy : and How to Make the Apparatus, edited by the Editor of Work, illus- trated; Motor-cars and Their Story, F. A. Talbot, illustrated. Constable and Co., Ltd.—Materials used in Sizing, W. F. A. Ermen; Seasonal Trades, A. Freeman; Mineral. and Aerated W atersoeG als Mitchell ; "Testing of Electricz il Machinery J. H. More- croft and F. ‘W. Hehre; The Practical Mechanic’s Handbook, F. E.- Smith; Bells. Telephones, &c., J. B. Redfern and J. Savin; Toll Telephone Practice, J. B. Theiss and-G. A. Joy. C. Griffin and Co., Ltd.— Briquetting : Coal, Shale, &c., Ores, Furnace Products, Metal Swarf, &c., G. Franke, translated and edited by F. Lantsberry, 2 vols., illustrated; A Handbook: for Buyers and Sellers in the Cotton Trade, we B. Heylin ; Painters’ Colours, Oils, and Var nishes, H. Hurst, revised by N. Heaton, new edition, saceeea Crosby Lockwood and Son.—Stone Quarrying and the Pre- paration of Stone for the Market, A. Greenwell and Dr. J. V. Elsden; The Art of Modern Fretcutting, J. Makinson, illustrated. Longmans and Co.—Ad- vanced Textile Design, W. Watson; Textile Design and Colour Elementary Weaves and Figured Fabrics, W. Watson. George Routledge and Sons, Ltd.—The Broadway Textbooks of Technology, edited by G. U. Yule and C. Hamilton, illustrated, Introductory Volume on Organisation and Teaching; Preliminary Technical Course, First Year; Building Construction, First Year; Geometry for Builders, First Year ; Science for Builders, First Year; Machine Construction, First Year; Mechanics for Engineers, First Year; Practical Mathematics and Geometry, First Year; Mechanics for Textile Students, First Year; Safety Lamps and Test- ing for Mine Gases; Elementary Electrical Engineer- ing, First Year; Telephotography, C. F. Lan-Davis, illustrated. The University Tutorial Press, Ltd.— Manual Training, A. H. Jenkins. Whittaker and Co. —The Baudét Printing Telegraph System, H. W. Pendry, illustrated; Magneto and Electric Ignition, W. Hibbert, illustrated; Wireless Telegraphy and Tele- phony, W. J. White, illustrated; Practical Sheet and Plate Metal Work, E. A. Atkins: MISCELLANEOUS. Edward Arnold.—Questions of the Day in Philo- sophy and Psychology, Dr. H. L. Stewart. A. and C. Black.—Forged Egyptian Antiquities, T. G. Walke- ling, illustrated. Blackie and Son, Ltd.—Safety in Coal Mines, Prof. D. Burns; Tillage, Trade, and In- vention, G. T. Warner. R. Friedlinder und Sohn (Berlin).—Jade, a Study of Chinese Archaeology and Religion, B. Laufer, illustrated. C. Griffin and Co., Ltd.—The Official Year-Book of the Scientific and Learned Societies of Great Britain and Ireland, compiled from Official Sources, twenty-eighth, annual issue. Harper and Brothers.—Rough Stone Monuments and their Builders, T. E. Peet. Henry Holt and Co. (New York).—Leading American Inventors, G. Iles, illus- trated. T. C. and E. C. Jack.—Psychology, Dr. H. J. Watt; The Meaning of Philosophy, Prof. A. E. Tay- lor; Kant’s Philosophy, A. D. Lindsay. Longmans and Co.—The Aviation World Who’s Who and Indus- trial Directory, third issue, 1912; Introduction to Ex- perimental Education, Dr. R. R. Rusk. Macmillan and Co., Ltd.—Statistics, the late Sir Robert Giffen, edited by H. Higgs, C.B. Methuen and Co., Ltd.— The Ancient History of the Near East from the Earliest Period to the Persian Invasion of Greece, H. R. Hall, illustrated; Survivals and Tendencies : being Sundry Sociological Interpretations and Fore- casts, V. V. Branford; The Malthusian Limit: a Theory of a Possible Static Condition for the Human Race, E. Isaacson. Seeley, Service and Co., Ltd.— Heroes of Science, C. R. Gibson, illustrated. 146 NATURE [OcToBER 3, 1912 CLIMATOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. VALUABLE instalment has been added to the long series of meteorological observations taken at the Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford, by the publica- tion of a volume containing the results for the five years 1906-1910. In its main features the volume is arranged on the same lines as before, the principal exceptions being the omission of (1) the readings of the underground platinum-resistance thermometers, which will be dealt with in a separate paper, and (2) the results obtained from the photographic recording instruments, but the records are continued at present. The tables exhibit very clearly the mean daily, monthly, and annual results for the various elements. The wind velocity is deduced with the old factor 3, but to reduce this to the new factor 2°2 it is only necessary to multiply the quantities by 07733. From a special table prepared by Dr. Rambaut for the thirty years 1881-1910, the mean yearly horizontal motion of the air is 108,000 miles; it shows an apparent periodic annual variation, with an amplitude of about 38 miles an hour, the maximum occurring in March and the minimum in September. The report recently issued by the Survey Depart- ment of Egypt upon the rains of the Nile basin and the flood of 1910 claims that the decade which has just passed ranks as the most important in the study of the Nile from the hydrographical and meteoro- logical points of view. The investigations during that period are chiefly due to the instigation and personal efforts of Sir W. Garstin and to the discussion of his data by various men of science. Among the principal results of this work are :—(1) A proper appreciation of the enormous loss of water in marshy regions. (2) The regulating effect of the trough wherever a rapid tributary joins a more sluggish one. (3) A more precise knowledge of the relative parts played by the different tributaries. (4) The importance of the contribution returned to the river from underground sources. During 1910 there was a general or partial failure of rain in the first half of the year, but during the critical months, July to September, there was heavy rain in Abyssinia and round the Bahr el Jebel, and this condition persisted into the last quarter. The low stage preceding the flood was very satisfac- tory and water was plentiful. The flood started well in April, but was subject subsequently to several fluctuations; from November 1 the fall was rapid, but the river remained above its normal level. In our ‘“Notes’’ column of April 25 we made a brief reference to a report on the climate of Tripoli by Dr. Philip Eredia, based on direct observations between 1892 and 1911. He has now supplemented that useful paper by one on the diurnal range of temperature, based on readings of a self-recording thermometer since September, 1905 (Rendiconti R. Accad. Lincei, July, 1912). The tables contain, inter alia, ten-day and monthly means for every even hour (2h., 4h., &c.). These show that the highest mean values occur about 2h. p.m., and differ little from those at other hours near that time, except in the decades of the extreme months; the lowest readings generally occur near sunrise, as is usually the case. The mean daily extremes occur early in February (114° C.) and about the middle of August (26°5°), giving a mean range of 15° C., which differs little from that of the coastal towns of southern Italy. The peculiarities exhibited by the hourly means in the various months are well shown by thermo-isopleths. We have received Nos. 7-9 of the Finldndische hydro graphisch-biologische Untersuchungen in the gulfs of Bothnia and Finland and the northern part of the Baltic Sea during the years 1900-1910. These very valuable observations and results, including sea- NO. 2240, VOL. 90] temperature at various depths, salinity, wind direc- tion and force, and other data at lightships, light- houses, and other fixed stations, as well as during expeditions to sea, have been discussed by Dr. Rolf Witting, director of the investigations, and trans- lated into German by Mrs. Ellen Witting. The prin- cipal results are also shown graphically by a number of coloured plates. We note that the author is of opinion that more importance should be given to detailed observations at fixed stations in supplement- ing the observations made in the open sea than has hitherto been the case. The discussion covers too wide a range to allow of our entering into further details here, but we may mention that one of the chapters contains an interesting historical account of the development of our knowledge of the hydro- graphy of the Baltic prior to the commencement of the international exploration of the ocean. THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION AT DUNDEE. SECTION I. PHYSIOLOGY. OpeninG AppREss BY LEONARD Hitt, M.B., F.R.S., PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. Lasr year the distinguished president of this section raised us to the contemplation of the workings of the soul. I ask you to accompany me in the consideration of nothing higher than a stuffy room. Everyone thinks that he suffers in an ill-ventilated room owing to some change in the chemical quality of the air, be it want of oxygen, or excess of carbon dioxide, the addition of some exhaled organic poison, or the destruction of some subtle property by passage of the air over steam-coils, or other heating or conducting apparatus. We hear of “devitalised”’ or ‘‘dead”’ air, and of “tinned” or “potted”’ air of the battleship. The good effects of open-air treatment, sea and moun- tain air, are no less generally ascribed to the chemical purity of the air. In reality the health-giving proper- ties are those of temperature, light, movement, and relative moisture of the surrounding atmosphere, and leaving on one side those gross chemical impurities which arise in mines and in some manufacturing pro- cesses, and the question of bacterial infection, the alterations in chemical composition of the air in build- ings where people crowd together and suffer from the effects of ill-ventilation have nothing to do with the causation of these effects. Satisfied with the maintenance of a _ specious standard of chemical purity, the public has acquiesced in the elevation of sky-scrapers and the sinking of cavernous places of business. Many have thus become cave-dwellers, confined for most of their waking and sleeping hours in windless places, artificially lit, monotonously warmed. The sun is cut off by the shadow of tall buildings and by smoke—the sun, the energiser of the world, the giver of all things which bring joy to the heart of man, the fitting object of worship of our forefathers. The ventilating and heating engineer hitherto has followed a great illusion in thinking that the main objects to be attained in our dwellings and places of business are chemical purity of the air and a uniform draughtless summer temperature. Life is the reaction of the living substance to the ceaseless play of the environment. Biotic energy arises from the transformation of those other forms of energy—heat, light, sound, &c.—which beat upon the transformer—the living substance (B. Moore). Thus, when all the avenues of sense are closed, the central nervous system is no longer aroused and con- OcTOBER 3, 1912] NATURE 147 sciousness lapses. The boy paralysed in almost all his avenues of sense fell asleep whenever his remaining eye was closed. The patient who lost one labyrinth by disease, and, to escape unendurable vertigo, had the other removed by operation, was quite unable to guide his movements or realise his position in the dark. Rising from bed one night, he collapsed on the floor and remained there helpless until succour arrived. A sense organ is not stimulated unless there is a change of rate in the transference of energy; and this to be effectual must occur in most cases with con- siderable quickness. If a weak agent is to stimulate, its application must be abrupt (Sherrington). Thus the slow changes of barometric pressure on the body- surface originate no skin sensations, though such changes of pressure if applied suddenly, are much above the threshold value for touch. A touch excited by constant mechanical pressure of slight intensity fades quickly below the threshold of sensation. Thus the almost unbearable discomfort which a child feels on putting on for the first time a ‘‘natural’’ wool vest fades away, and is no longer noticed with continual wear. Thomas a Beckett soon must have become oblivious to his hair-shirt, and even to its harbingers. It is not the wind which God tempers to the shorn lamb, but the skin of the lamb to the wind. The inflow of sensations keeps us active and alive and all the organs working in their appointed functions. The cutaneous sensations are of the highest importance. The salt and sand of wind-driven sea air particularly act on the skin and through it brace the whole body. The changing play of wind, of light, cold, and warmth stimulate the activity and health of mind and body. Monotony of sedentary occupation and of an over- warm still atmosphere endured for long working hours destroys vigour and happiness and brings about the atrophy of disuse. We hear a great deal of the degeneration of the race brought about by city life, but observation shows us that a drayman, navvy, or policeman can live in London, or other big city, strong and vigorous, and no less so than in the country. The brain-worker, too, can keep himself perfectly fit if his hours of sedentary employment are not too long and he balances these by open-air exer- cise. The horses stabled, worked, and fed in London are as fine as any in the world; they do not live in windless rooms heated by radiators. The hardy men of the north were evolved to stand the vagaries of climate—cold and warmth—a starved or full belly have been their changing lot. The full belly and the warm sun have expanded them in lazy comfort; the cold and the starvation have braced them to action. Modern civilisation has withdrawn many of us from the struggle with the rigours of nature : we seek for and mostly obtain the comfort of a full belly and expand all the time in the warm atmosphere afforded us by clothes, wind-protected dwellings, and artificial heat—particularly so in the winter, when the health of the business man deteriorates. Cold is not comfortable, neither is hunger; therefore we are ‘cd to ascribe many of our ills to exposure to cold, and seek to make ourselves strong by what is termed good living. I maintain that the bracing effect of cold is of supreme importance to health and happiness, that we become soft and flabby and less resistant to the attacks of infecting bacteria in the winter, not because of the cold, but because of our excessive pre- cautions to preserve ourselves from cold; that the prime cause of “cold” or ‘“‘chill’’ is not really ex- posure to cold, but to the overheated and confined air of rooms, factories, and meeting-places. Seven hundred and eleven survivors were saved from the Titanic after hours of exposure to cold. Many were insufficiently clad and others wet to the skin. Only NO. 2240, VOL. 90] one died after reaching the Carpathia, and he three hours after being picked up. Those who died perished from actual cooling ot the body. Exposure to cold did not cayse in the survivors the diseases commonly attributed to cold. Conditions of city and factory life diminish the physical and nervous energy, and reduce many from the vigorous health and perfectness of bodily functions which a wild animal possesses to a more secure, but poorer and far less happy, form of existence. The ill- chosen diet, the monotony and sedentary nature of daily work, the windless uniformity of atmosphere, above all, the neglect of vigorous muscular exercise in the open air and exposure to the winds and light of heaven—all these, together with the difficulties in the way of living a normal sexual life, go to make the pale, undeveloped, neurotic, and joyless citizen. Nurture in unnatural surroundings, not nature’s birth- mark, moulds the criminal and the wastrel. The environment of childhood and youth is at fault rather than the stock; the children who are taken away and trained to be sailors, those sent to agricultural pursuits in the Colonies, those who become soldiers, mav develop a physique and bodilv health and vigour in striking contrast to their brothers who become clerks, shop assistants, and compositors. Too much stress cannot be put on the importance of muscular exercise in regard to health, beauty, and happiness. Each muscle fills with blood as it relaxes, and expels this blood on past the venous valves during contraction. Each muscle, together with the venous valves, forms a pump to the circulatory system. It is the function of the heart to deliver the blood to the capillaries, and the function of the muscles—visceral, respiratory, and skeletal—to bring it back to the heart. The circulation is contrived for a_ restless mobile animal; every vessel is arranged so _ that muscular movement furthers the flow of blood. The pressure of the blood in the veins and arteries under the influence of gravity varies with every change of posture. The respiratory pump, too, has a pro- found influence on the circulation. Active exercise, such as is taken in a game of football, entails endless changes of posture, varying compressive actions—one with another struggling in the rough and tumble of the game—forcible contractions and relaxations of the muscles, and a vastly increased pulmonary ventila- tion; at the same time the heart’s action is accelerated and augmented and the arterial supply controlled by the vasomotor system. The influence of gravity, which tends to cause the fluids of the body to sink into the lower parts, is counteracted; the liver is rhvthmically squeezed like a sponge by the powerful respiratory movements, which not only pump the blood through the abdominal viscera but thoroughly mas- sage these organs, and kneading these with the omentum clean the peritoneal cavity and prevent con- stipation. At the same time the surplus food meta- bolic products, such as sugar and fat, stored in the liver, are consumed in the production of energy, and the organs swept with a rapid stream of blood con- taining other products of muscular metabolism which are necessary to the interrelation of chemical action. The output of energy is increased very greatly; a resting man may expend two thousand calories per diem: one bicycling hard for most of the day expended eight thousand calories. of which only four thousand was covered by the food eaten. Such figures show how fat is taken off from the body by exercise, for the other four thousand calories comes from the consumption of surplus food products stored in the tissues. While resting a man breathes some 7 litres of air, and uses 300 c.c. of oxygen per minute, against 140 litres and 3000 c.c. while doing very hard labour. The call of the muscles for oxygen r48 NATURE . [OcTOBER 3, 1912 through such waste products as lactic acid impels the formation of red corpuscles: and hamoglobin. ‘The products of muscular metabolism in other ways: not yet fully defined modify the metabolism of the whole body. Exposure to cold, cold baths, and cold winds has a like effect, accelerating the heart and increasing the heat production, the activity of the muscles, the out- put of energy, the pulmonary ventilation, and. intake of oxygen and food. In contrast with the soft pot- bellied, over-fed city man the hard, wiry fisherman trained to endurance has no superfluity of fat or tissue fluid. His blood volume has a high relative value in proportion to the mass of his body.. His superficial veins are confined between a taut skin and muscles, hard as ina racehorse trained to perfection. Thus the adequacy of the cutaneous circulation and loss of heat by radiation rather than by sweating is assured. His fat is of a higher melting point, hardened by exposure to cold. In him less blood is derived to other parts, such as adipose tissue, skin, and viscera. He uses up the oxygen in the arterial blood more completely and with greater efficiency ; for the output of each unit of energy his heart has to circulate much -less blood (Kreogh); his blood is sent in full volume by the well- balanced activity of his vasomotor system to the moving parts. Owing to the perfect coordination of his muscles, trained to the work, and the efficient action of his skin and cutaneous circulation—the radiator of the body—he performs the worl: with far greater economy and less fatigue. The untrained man may obtain 12 per cent. of his energy output as work, against 30 per cent., or perhaps even 50 per cent., obtained by the trained athlete. Hence the failure and risk suffered by the city man who rushes straight from his office to climb the Alps. On the other hand, the energetic man of business or brain worker is kept by his work in a state of nervous tension. He considers alternative lines of action, but scarcely moves. He may be intensely excited, but the natural muscular response does not follow. His heart is accelerated and his blood pressure raised, but neither muscular movements and accompanying changes of posture, nor the respiratory pump materially aid the circulation.” The activity of his brain demands a rapid flow of blood, and his heart has to do the circulatory work, as he sits still or stands at his desk, against the influence of gravity. Hence a high blood pressure is maintained for long periods at atime by vaso- constriction of the arteries in the lower parts of the body and increased action of the heart; hence, per- haps, arise those degenerative changes in the circu- latory system which affect some men tireless in their mental activity. We know that the bench-worker, who stands on one leg for long hours a day, may suffer from degeneration and varicosity of the veins in that leg. Long-continued high arterial pressure, with systolic and diastolic pressures approximately the same, entails a stretched arterial wall, and this must impede the circulation in the vaso-vasorum, the flow of tissue lymph in, and nutrition of, the wall. Since his sedentary occupation reduces the metabolism and heat production of his body very greatly, the business man requires a warmer atmosphere to work in. If the atmosphere is too warm it reduces his metabolism and pulmonary ventilation still further; thus he works in a vicious’ circle. Exhausting work causes: the consumption of certain active principles, for example, adrenin, and the reparation of those must be from the food. To acquire certain of the rarer principles expended in the manifestation of nervous energy more food may have to be eaten by the sedentary worker than can be digested and metabolised. His digestive organs lack the kneading and> massage, the rapid circulation and oxidation of foodstuffs. which ‘is given NO. 2240, VOL. 90] { | by muscular:exercise: Hence arise the digestive and metabolic ailments so.common to brain workers. Mr. Robert Milne informs me that of the thousands of children who have passed through Barnardo’s Homes—there are gooo in the homes at any one time —not one after entering the institution and passing under its regimen and the care of his father, Dr. Milne, has developed appendicitis. Daily exercise and play, adequate rest, a regular, simple diet have en- sured their immunity from this infection. It pays to keep.a horse healthy and efficient; it no less pays to keep men healthy. I recently investigated the case of clerks employed in a great place of business, whose working hours are from 9 to 6 on three days, and 7 to g on the other three days of each week, and working such overtime, they make 11. to 21. a week; these clerks worked in a confined space—forty or fifty of them in 8200 cubic feet, lit: with thirty electric lamps, cramped for room, and overheated in warm summer days. It is not with the chemical purity of the air of such an office that fault is to be found, for fans and large openings ensured this sufficiently. These clerks suffered from their long hours of mono- tonous and sedentary occupation, and from the arti- ficial light, and the windless, overwarm and moist atmosphere. Many a girl cashier has worked from 8 to 8.30, andon Saturdays from 8 to 10, and then has had to balance her books and leave perhaps after mid- night on Sunday morning. Her office is away in the background—confined, windless, artificially lit. The Shops Act has given a little relief from these hours. What, I ask, is the use of the State spending a million a year on sanatoria and tuberculin dispen- saries, when those very conditions of work continue which lesson the immunity and increase the infection of the workers? The jute industry in this town of Dundee is carried out almost wholly by female and bov labour. ‘The average wages for women are below 12s. in eight pro- cesses, and above 12s., but under 18s., for the re- maining five processes.’’ The infant mortality has been more than 170 per 1000. The Social Union of Dundee reported in r905 that of 885 children born to 240 working mothers no fewer than 520, or 59 per cent., died—and almost all of them were under five years of age. The life of these mothers was divided between the jute factory and the one-roomed tene- ment. Looking such conditions squarely in the face, I say it would be more humane for the State to legalise the exposure of every other new-born infant on the hillside rather than allow children to be slowly done to death. The conditions, as given in the report, contravene those rights of motherhood which the meanest wild animal can claim. Isolation hospitals, sputum-pots, and anti-spitting regulations will not stamp out tuberculosis. Such means are like shutting the door of the stable when the horse has escaped. Fligge has shown that tubercle bacilli are spread by the droplets of saliva which are carried out as an invisible spray when we speak, sing. cough, sneeze. Sputum-pots cannot con- trol this. The saliva of cases of phthisis may teem with the bacilli. The tuberculin reaction tests carried out by Hamburger and Monti in Vienna show that 94 per cent. of all children aged eleven to fourteen have been infected with tubercle. In most the in- fection is a mere temporary indisposition. T believe that the conditions of exhausting worl, and amuse- ment in confined and overheated atmospheres, together with ill-regulated feeding, determine largely whether the infection, which almost: none can escape. become serious or not. Karl Pearson suggests that the death statistics afford no proof of the utilitv of sanatoria or tuberculin dispensaries, for during the very years in which such treatment has been in vogue, the fall in OcTOBER 3, 1912] NATURE 149 the mortality from tuberculosis has become less rela- tively to the fall in general mortality. He opines that the race is gradually becoming immune to tubercle, and hence the declination in the mortality curve is becoming flattened out—that nature is paramount as the determinant of tuberculosis, not nurture. From a statistical inquiry into the incidence of tuberculosis in husband and wife and parent and child, Pearson concludes that exposure to infection as in married couples is of little importance, while inborn immunity or diathesis is a chief determinant. Admitting the value of his critical inquiries and the importance of diathesis, I would point out that in the last few years the rush and excitement of modern city life has in- creased, together with the confinement of workers to sedentary occupations in artificially lit, warm, wind- less atmospheres. The same conditions pertain to places of amusement, eating-houses, tube railways, &e. Central ~ heating, - gas-radiators, and other con- trivances are now displacing the old open fire and chimney. This change greatly improves the economical consumption of coal and the light and cleanliness of the atmosphere. But in so far as it promotes monotonous, windless, warm atmospheres, it is wholly against the health and vigour of the nation. The open fire and wide chimney ensure ventilation, the indraw- ing of cold outside air, streaky air—restless currents at different temperatures, which strike the sensory nerves in the skin and prevent monotony and weariness of spirit. By the old open fires we were heated with radiant heat. The air in the rooms was drawn in cool and varied in temperature. The radiator and hot-air system give us a deadly uniformly heated air—the very conditions we find most unsupportable on a close summer’s day. In Labrador and Newfoundland, Dr. Wakefield tells me, the mortality of the fisherfollx from tube-culosis is very heavy. It is generally acknowledged to be four per tooo of the population per annum, against 152 for England and Wales. Some of the Lab-ador doctors tallx of seven and even eight per rooo in certain districts. The general death-rate is a low one. The fishermen fish off shore, work for many hours a day in the fishing season, and live with their families on shore in one-roomed shanties. These shanties are built of wood, the crannies are ‘“‘stogged’’ with moss, and the windows nailed up, so that ventilation is very im- perfect. They are heated by stoves and kept at a very high temperature, e.g., 80° F. Outside in the winter the temperature may be 30 degrees below freezing. The women stay inside the shanties almost all their time, and the tuberculosis rate is somewhat higher in them. The main food is white bread, tea stewed in the pot till black, fish occasionally, a little margarine and molasses. The fish is boiled and the water thrown away. Game has become scarce in recent years; old, dark-coloured flour—spoken of with disfavour—has been replaced by white flour. In consequence of this diet beri-beri has become rife to a most serious extent, and the hospitals are full of cases. Martin Flack and I have found by our feeding experiments that rats, mice, and pigeons cannot be maintained on white bread and water, but can live on wholemeal, or on white bread in which we incorporate an extract of the sharps and bran in sufficient amount. Recent work has shown the vilal importance of certain active principles present in the outer layers of wheat, rice, &c., and in milk, meat, &c., which are destroyed by heating to 120° C. A diet of white bread or polished rice and tinned food sterilised by heat is the cause of beri-beri. The metabolism is endangered by the artificial methods of treating foods now in vogue. As to the prevalency of tuberculosis in Labrador, we have to consider the intermarriage, the bad diet, the over-rigorous work NO. 2240, VOL. 90] of the fishermen, the overheating of, and infection in, the shanties. Dr. Wakefield has slept with four other travellers in a shanty with father, mother, and ten children. In some there is scarce room on the floor to lie down. ‘The shanties are heated with a stove on which pots boil all the time; water runs down the windows. The patients are ignorant, and spit every- where, on bed, floor, and walls. In the schools the heat and smell are most marked to one coming in from the outside air. In one school 50 cubie feet per child is the allowance of space. The children are eating all day long, and are kept in close hot confinement. They suffer very badly from decay of the teeth. Whole families are swept off with tuberculosis, and the child who leaves home early may escape, while the rest of a family dies. Here, then, we have people living in the wildest and least populated of lands with the purest atmo- sphere suffering from all those ill-results which are found in the worst city. slums—tuberculosis, beri- beri, and decayed teeth. The bad diet probably impels the people to conserve their body heat and live in the over-warm, confined atmosphere, just as our pigeons fed on white bread sit, with their feathers out, huddled together to keep each other warm. The metabolism, circulation, respiration, and expansion of the lung are all reduced. The warm, moist atmosphere lessens the evaporation from the _ respiratory tract, and therefore the transudation of tissue lymph and activity of the ciliated epithelium. The unex- panded parts of the lung are not swept with blood. Everything favours a lodgment of the bacilli, and lessens the defences on which immunity depends. In the mouth, too, the immune properties of the saliva are neutralised by the continual presence of food, and the temperature of the mouth is kept at a high level, which favours bacterial growth. Lieutenant Siem in- forms me that recently in Northern Norway there has been the same notable increase in tuberculosis. The old cottage fireplaces with wide chimneys have been replaced with American stoves. In olden days most of the heat went up the chimney, and the people were warmed by radiant heat. Now the room is heated to a uniform moist heat. The Norwegians nail up the windows and never open them during the winter. At Lofoten, the great fishing centre, motor-boats have replaced the old open sailing and row boats. The cabin in the motor-boat is very confined, covered in with watertight deck, heated by the engine, crowded with six or eight workers. When in harbour the fishermen used to occupy ill-fitted shanties, through which the wind blew freely; now, to save rent, they sleep in the motor-boat cabins. Here, again, we have massive infection, and the reduction of the defensive mechanisms by the influence of the warm, moist atmosphere. The Norwegian fishermen feed on brown bread, boiled fish, salt mutton, niargarine, and drink, when in money, beer and schnapps; there is no gross de- ficiency in diet, as in Labrador, and beri-beri “does not attack them. They return home to their villages and longshore fishing when the season is over. The one new condition which is common to the two districts is confinement in stove-heated, windless atmospheres. In old days the men were crowded together, but in open boats or in draughty shanties, and had nothing but little cooking-stoves. The conditions of great cities tend to confine the worker in the office all way, and to the heated atmo- sphere of club, cinema show, or music hall in- the evening. The height of houses prevents the town dweller from being blown upon by the wind, and, missing the exhilarating stimulus of the cool, moving air, he repels the dull uniformity of existence by tobacco 150 NATURE [OcTOBER 3, 1912 and by alcohol, or by indulgence in food, e.g., sweets, which are everywhere to his hand, and by the nervous excitement of business and amusement. He works, he eats, and is amused in warm, windless atmospheres, and suffers from a feeble circulation, a shallow respira- tion, a disordered digestion, and a slow rate of metabolism. Many of the employments of modern days are de- testuble in their long hours of confinement and monotony. Men go up and down in a lift all day, and girls in the bloom of youth are set down in tobacco stalls in underground stations, and their health and beauty there fade while even the blow-flies are free to bask in the sun. In factories the operatives feed machines, or reproduce the same small piece of an article day after day. There is no art, or change; no pleasure in contrivance and accomplishment. The miner, the fisherman, even the sewer-man, face diffi- culties, changing risks, and are developed as men of character and strength. Contrast the sailor with the steward on a steamer, the drayman outside with the clerk inside who checks the goods delivered at some city office, the butcher and the tailor, the seamstress and the market woman, and one sees the enormous difference which a confined occupation makes. Monotonous sedentary employment makes for un- happiness because the inherited functional needs of the human body are neglected, and education—when the outside field of interest is narrowed—intensifies the sensitivity to the bodily conditions. The sensations arising within the body—proprioceptive sensations— come to have too large a share in consciousness in comparison with exteroceptive. In place of considering the lilies how they grow, or musing on the beauty and motions of the heavenly bodies, the sedentary worker in the smoke-befouled atmosphere, with the limited activity and horizon of an office and a disturbed diges- tion, tends to become confined to the inward considera- tion of his own viscera and their motions. Many of the educated daughters of the well-to-do are no less confined at home; they are the flotsam and jetsam cast up from the tide in which all others struggle for existence—their lives are no_ less monotonous than the sweated sempstress or clerk. They become filled with ‘‘vapours’’ and some seek excitement not at the cannon’s mouth but in breaking windows, playing with fire, and hunger strikes. The dull monotony of idle social functions, shopping and amusement no less than that of sedentary work and an asexual life, impels to a simulated struggle—a theatrical performance, the parts of which are studied from the historical romances of revolution. Each man, woman, and child in the world must find the wherewithal for living, food, raiment, warmth, and housing, or must die or get some other to find it for him. It seems to me as if the world is conducted as if ten men were on an island—a microcosm—and five sought for the necessaries of life, hunted for food, built shelters and fires, made clothes of skins, while the other five strung necklaces of shells, made loin- cloths of butterfly wings, gambled with ientickie: bones, drew comic pictures in the sand, or carved out of clay frightening demons, and so beguiled from the first five the larger share of their wealth. In this land of factories, while the many are confined to mean streets and wretched houses, possessing no sufficiency of baths and clean clothing, and are ill-fed, they work all day long, not to fashion for themselves befter houses and clothing, but to make those unnecessaries such as “the fluff’? of women’s s apparel, and a thousand trifles which relieve the monotony of the idle and bemuse their own minds. The discovery of radium and its disintegration as a source of energy has enabled the physicist to extend Lord Kelvin’s estimate of the world’s age from some NO. 2240, VOL. 90] thirty to a thousand million years. Arthur Keith does not hesitate to give a million of these years to man’s evolution. Karl Pearson speaks of hundreds of thou- sands of years. The form of the human slxull, the brain capacity of man, his skill as evidenced by stone implements and cave ‘drawings of animals in action, was the same tens of thousands of years ago as now, For ages primitive man lived as a wild animal in tropical climes, discovered how to make fire, clothe himself in skins, build shelters, and so enable himself to wander over the temperate and arctic zones. Finally, in the last few score of years, he has made houses draughtless with glass windows, fitted them with stoves and radiators, and every lxind of device to protect himself from cold, while he occupies himself in the sedentary pursuits and amusements of a city life. How much better, to those who know the boundless horizon of life, to be a frontiersman and enjoy the struggle, with body hardened, perfectly fit, attuned to nature, than to be a cashier condemned to the occupation of a sunless, windless pay-box. The city child, however, nurtured and educated in confinement, knows not the largeness and wonders of Nature, is used to the streets with their ceaseless movement and romantic play of artificial light after dark, and does not need the com- miseration of the country mouse any more than the beetle who lives in the dark and animated burrows of his heap. But while outdoor work disciplines the body of the countryman into health, the town man needs the conscious attention and acquired educated control of his life to give him any full measure of health and happiness. Experimental evidence is strongly in favour of my argument that the chemical purity of the air is of no importance. Analyses show that the oxygen in the worst-ventilated school-room, chapel, or theatre is never lessened by more than 1 per cent. of an atmosphere; the ventilation through chink and cranny, chimney, door, and window, and the porous brick wall, suffices to prevent a greater diminution. So long as there is present a partial pressure of oxygen “sufficient to change the haemoglobin of the venous blood into oxy- hemoglobin there can arise no lack of oxygen. At sea-level the pressure of oxygen in the pulmonary alveolar air is about 100 mm. Hg. Exposed to only half this pressure the haemoglobin is more than 80 per cent. saturated with oxygen In noted health-resorts of the Swiss mountains the barometer stands at such a height that the concentra- tion of oxygen is far less than in the more ventilated room. On the high plateau of the Andes there are great cities: Potosi with a hundred thousand in- habitants is at 4,165 metres, and the partial pressure of oxygen there is about 13 per cent. of an atmosphere in place of 71 per cent. at sea-level; railways and mines have been worked up to altitudes of 14,000 to 15,000 feet. At Potosi girls dance half the night, and toreadors display their skill in the ring. On the slopes of the Himalayas shepherds take their flocks to altitudes of 18,000 feet. No disturbance is felt by the inhabitants or those who reach these great altitudes slowly and by easy stages. The only disability to a normal man is diminished power for severe exertion, but a greater risk arises from want of oxygen to cases of heart disease, pneumonia, and in chloroform anzs- thesia at these high altitudes. The newcomer who is carried by the railway in a few hours to the top of Pike’s Peak or the Andes may suffer severely from mountain sickness, especially on exertion, and the cause of this is want of oxygen. Acclimatisation is brought about in a few days’ time. The pulmonary ventilation increases, the bronchial tubes dilate, th > circulation becomes more rapid. The increased pul monary ventilation lowers the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the blood and pulmonary air, and this con- OcTOBER 3, 1912] NATURE 151 tributes to the maintenance of an adequate partial pressure of oxygen. Haldane and Douglas say that the percentage of red corpuscles and total quantity of the hazmeglobin increases, and maintain that the oxygen is actively secreted by the lung into the blood, but the CO method by which their determinations have been made has not met with unqualified acceptance. lf waste products, which arise from oxygen want, alter the combining power of hemoglobin, this altera- | tion may not persist in shed blood; for these products may disappear when the blood is exposed to air. Owing to the combining power of haemoglobin the respiratory exchange and metabolism of an animal within wide limits are independent of the partial pres- sure of oxygen. On the other hand, the process of combustion is dependent not on the pressure, but on the percentage of oxygen. Thus the -aeroplanist may be- come seized with altitude sickness from oxygen want, while his gas engine continues to carry him to loftier heights. The partial pressure of oxygen in a mine at a depth of 3000 feet is considerably higher than at sea-level, and if the percentage is reduced to 17, while the firing of fire-damp and coal-dust is impossible, there need be in the alveolar air of the lungs no lower pressure of oxygen than at sea-level. Thus the simplest method of preventing explosions in coal mines is that proposed by J. Harger, viz., to ventilate them with air contain- ing 17 per cent. of oxygen.* There is little doubt that all the great mine-explosions have been caused by the enforcement of a high degree ot chemical purity of the air. In the old days when ventilation was bad there were no great dust explosions. Mr. W. H. Chambers, generai manager of the Cadeby mine, where the recent disastrous explosion occurred, with the authority of his great and long practical experience of fiery mines, told me that the spontaneous combustion of coal and the danger of explosion can be wholly met by adequate diminution in ventilation. The fires can be choked out while the miners can still breathe and work. The Coal Mines Regulation Act enforces that a place shall not be in a fit state for working or passing therein, if the air contains either less than 19 per cent. of oxygen, or more than 1} per cent. of carbon dioxide. A mine liable to spontaneous combustion of coal may be exempted from this regulation by order of the Secretary of State. The regulations impel the provision of such a ven- tilation current that the percentage of oxygen is suffi- cient for the spread of dust explosions along the intake airways, with the disastrous results so frequently re- corded. If the mine were ventilated with air containing 17 per cent. of oxygen in sufficient volume to keep the miners cool and fresh, not only would explosions be prevented, but the mines could be safely worked and illuminated with electricity, and miners’ nystagmus prevented, for this is due to the dim light of the safety lamp. The problem possibly may be solved by purify- ing and cooling the return air, and mixing and cir- culating this with a sufficiency of fresh air. Owing to the fact that the percentage of CO, is the usual test of ventilation and that only a very few parts per 10,000 in excess of fresh air are permitted by the English Factory Acts, it is generally supposed that CO, is a poison, and that any considerable excess has a deleterious effect on the human body. No sup- position could be further from the truth. The percentage of CO, in the worst ventilated room does not rise above o'5 per cent., or at the outside 1 per cent. It is impossible that any excess of CO, should enter into our bodies when we breathe such air, for whatever the percentage of CO, in the atmo- sphere may be, that in the pulmonary air is kept 1 Trans. Inst. of, Mining Engineers, 1912. NO. 2240, VOL. 90] | of carrying out efficient work. constant at about 5 to 6 per cent. of an atmosphere— by the action of the respiratory centre. It is the con- centration of CO, which rules the respiratory centre, and to such purpose as to keep the concentration both in the lungs and in the blood uniform (Haldane); the only result from breathing air containing 075 to 1 per cent. of CO, is an inappreciable increase in the ventila+ tion of the lungs. The very same thing happens when we take gentle exercise and produce more CO, in our bodies. At each breath we rebreathe into our lungs the air in the nose and large air-tubes (the dead-space air), and about one-third of the air which is breathed in by a man at rest in dead-space air. Thus, no man breathes in pure outside air into his lungs. When a child goes to sleep with its head partly buried under the bedclothes, and in a cradle confined by curtains, he rebreathes the expired air to a still greater extent, and so with all animals that snuggle together for warmth’s sake. Not only the new-born babe sleeping against its mother’s breast, but pigs in a sty, young rabbits, rats, and mice clustered together in their nests, young chicks under the brooding hen, all alike breathe a far higher percentage than that allowed by the Factory Acts. To rebreathe one’s own breath is a natural and inevitable performance, and to breathe some of the air exhaled by another is the common lot of men who, like animals, have to crowd together and hus- band their heat in fighting the inclemency of the weather. In the Albion Brewery we analysed on _ three different days the air of the room where the CO, generated in the vats is compressed and bottled as liquid carbonic acid. We found from 014 to 0°93 per cent. of CO, in the atmosphere of that room. The men who were filling the cylinders and turning the taps on and off to allow escape of air must often breathe more than this. The men engaged in this occupation worked twelve-hour shifts, having their meals in the room. Some had followed the same employment for eighteen years, and without detriment to their health. It is only when the higher concen- trations of CO, are breathed, such as 3 to 4 per cent. of an atmosphere, that the respiration is increased, so that it is noticeable to the resting individual; but per- centages over 1 per cent. diminish the power to do muscular work, for the excess of CO, produced by the work adds its effect to that of the excess in the air, and the difficulty of coordinating the breathing to the work in hand is increased. Haldane and Priestley found that with a pressure of 2 per cent. of an atmosphere of CO, in the inspired air the pulmonary ventilation of a man at rest was increased 50 per cent., with 3 per cent. about 100 per cent., with 4 per cent. about 200 per cent., with 5 per cent. about 300 per cent., and with 6 per cent. about 500 per cent. With the last, panting is severe, while with 3 per cent. it is unnoticed until muscular work is done, when the panting is increased 100 per cent. more than usual. With more than 6 per cent. the distress is very great, and headache, flushing, and sweating occur. Divers who work in diving dress and men who work in compressed-air caissons constantly do heavy and continuous labour in concentrations of CO. higher than r per cent. of an atmosphere, and so long as the CO, is kept below 2 to 3 per cent. they are capable In the case of workers in compressed air it is important to bear in mind that the effect of the CO. on the breathing depends on the partial pressure and not on the percentage of this gas in the air breathed. By a series of observations made on rats ,confined he NATURE [OcroBER 3, 1912 in cages fitted with small, ill-ventilated sleeping- chambers, we have found that the temperature and humidity of the air—not the percentage of carbon dioxide or oxygen—determines whether the animals stay inside the sle eping-room or come outside. When the air is cold, they like to stay inside, even when the carbon divxide rises to 4 to 5 per cent. of an atmo- sphere. When the sleeping-chamber is made too hot and moist they come outside. The sanitarian-says it is necessary to keep the CO, below o’or per cent., so that the organic poisons may not collect to a harmful extent. The evil smell of crowded rooms is accepted as unequivocal evidence of the existence of such. He pays much attention to this and little or none to the heat and moisture of the air. ‘he smell arises from the secretions of the skin, soiled clothes, &c. The smell is only sensed by and excites disgust in one who comes to it from the out- side air. He who is inside and helps to make the “fugg”’ is both wholly unaware of, and unaffected by it. Flugge points out, with justice, that while we naturally avoid any smell that excites disgust and puts us off our appetite, yet the offensive quality of the smell does not prove its poisonous nature. For the smell of the trade or food of one man may be horrible and loathsome to another not used to such. The sight of a slaughterer and the smell of dead meat may be loathly to the sensitive poet, but the slaughterer is none the less healthy. The clang and jar of an engineer’s workshop may be unendurable to a highly-strung artist or author, but the artificers miss the stoppage of the noisy clatter. The stench of glue-works, fried-fish shops, soap and bone-manure works, middens, sewers, become as nothing to those engaged in such, and the lives of the workers are in no wise shortened by the stench they endure. The nose ceases to respond to the uniformity of the impulse, and the stench clearly does not betoken in any of these cases the existence of a chemical organic poison. On. descending into a sewer, after the first ten minutes the nose ceases to smell the stench; the air therein is usually found to be far freer from bac- teria than the air in a schoolroom or tenement. If we turn to foodstuffs we recognise that the smell of alcohol and of Stilton or Camembert cheese is hor- rible to a child, while the smell of putrid fish—the meal of the Siberian native—excites no less disgust in an epicure, who welcomes the cheese. Among the hardiest and healthiest of men are the North Sea fishermen, who sleep in the cabins of trawlers reeking with fish and oil, and for the sake of warmth shut themselves up until the lamp may go out from want of oxygen. The stench of such surroundings may effectually put the sensitive, untrained brain worker off his appetite, but the robust health of the fisher- man proves that this effect is nervous in origin, and not due to a chemical organic poison in the air. Ventilation cannot get rid of the source of a smell, while it may easily distribute the evil smell through a house. As Pettenkofer says, if there is a dung- he: ap in a room, it must be removed. It is no good trying to blow away the smell. Fliizge and his school bring convincing evidence to show that a stuffy atmosphere i is stuffy owing to heat stagnation, and that the smell has nothing to do with the origin of the discomfort felt by those who endure it. The inhabitants of reeking hovels in the country do not suffer from chronic ill-health, unless want of nourishment, open-air exercise, or ‘sleep come into play. Town workers who take no exercise in the fresh air are pale, anaemic, listless. Sheltered by houses they are far less exposed to winds, and live day and night in a warm, confined atmosphere. The widespread belief in the presence of organic poisons in the expired air is mainly based on the state- NO. 2240, VOL. 90] ments of Brown Sequard and D’Arsenval, statements wholly unsubstantiated by the most trustworthy workers in Europe and America. These statements have done very great mischief to the cause of hygiene, for they led ventilating engineers and the public to seek after chemical purity, and neglect the attainment of adequate coolness and movement of the air. 1t was stated that the condensation water obtained from expired air is poisonous when injected into animals. The evidence on which this statement is based is not only not worthy of credence but is absurd, e.g. con- densation water has been injected into a mouse in a quantity equivalent to injecting 5 kilogrammes into a man weighing 60 kilogranmmeey No proper controls were carried out. It is recognised now that any dis- tilled water contaminated by bacterial products may have a toxic effect. Flack and I have for fourteen weeks kept guinea-pigs and rats confined together in a box and poorly ventilated, so that they breathed air containing o'5 to ro per cent. of CO,. The guinea-pigs proved wholly free from anaphylactic shock on injecting rats’ serum. Therefore they were not sensitised by breathing the exhaled breath of the rats for many weeks, and we are certain that no foreign protein substance is absorbed in this way. It has been proved by others, and by us, that animals so confined do well so long as they are well fed and their cages kept clean, light, cool, and dry. It is wholly untrue that they are ‘poisoned by breathing each other’s breath. The only danger arises from droplet con- tagion in cases of infective disease. To study the relative effect of the temperature and chemical purity of the atmosphere, I constructed a small experimental chamber of wood fitted with large glass observation windows and rendered airtight. On one side of the chamber were fixed two small electric heaters, and a tin containing water was placed on these in order to saturate the air with water vapour. On another side of the chamber was placed a large radiator through which cold water could be circulated when required, so as to cool the chamber, In the roof were fixed three electric fans, one big and two small, by means of which the air of the chamber could be stirred. The chamber held approximately 3 cm. of air. In one class of experiments we shut within the chamber seven or eight students for about half an hour, and observed the effect of the confined atmosphere upon them. We kept them until the CO, reached 3 to 4 per cent., and the oxygen had fallen to 17 to 16 per cent. The wet-bulb temperature rose meanwhile to about 80° to 85° F., and the dry-bulb a degree or two higher. The students went in chatting and laughing, isp by and by, as the temperature rose, they ceased to tallk and their faces became flushed and moist. To relieve the monotony of the experiment we have watched them trying to light a cigarette, and, puzzled by their matches going out. borrowing others, only in vain. They had not sensed the diminution of oxygen, which fell below 17 per cent. Their breathing was deepened by the high. percentage of CO,, but no headache occurred in any of them from the short exposure. Their discomfort was relieved to an asfonishing extent by putting on the electric fans placed in the roof. Whilst the air was kept stirred the students were not affected by the oppressive atmo- sphere. They begged for the fans to be put on when wes were cut off. The same old stale air containing 3 to 4 per cent. CO, and 16 to 17 per cent. O, was So hirled, but the movement of the air gave relief, because the air was So° to 85° F. (wet bulb), while the air enmeshed in their clothes in contact with their skin was 98° to 99° F. (wet bulb). .If we outside breathed through a tube the air in the chamber we felt none of the discomfort which was being experi- enced by those shut up inside. Similarly, if one of OcToBER 3, 1912] NATURE 153 those in the chamber breathed through a tube the pure air outside he was not relieved. R. A. Rowlands and H. B. Walker carried out a large number of observations in the chamber, each acting as subject in turn. They recorded the effect on the respiratory ventila- tion and on the pulse rate, both when resting and when working. The work consisted in pulling a 20-kilo. weight about 1 metre high by means of a pulley and rope. In some of the experiments the exhaled carbonic acid was absorbed, and in others carbonic acid was put into the chamber. The subjects inside could not tell when the gas was introduced, not even if the percentage were suddenly raised by 2. The introduc- tion of this amount of the gas made no sensible differ- ence to them, but increased their pulmonary ventila- tion. In every one of the experiments they suffered from the heat, and the putting on of the fans gave great relief, and in particular diminished the pulse rate during and after the working periods. The relief became much greater when cold water was circulated through the radiator and the temperature of the chamber lowered 10° F. The subjects wore only a vest, pants, and shoes in most of these experiments. When they wore their ordinary clothing the effect on the frequency of the pulse was more marked and the discomfort from heat and moisture much greater. I have made observations on men dressed in the Fleuss rescue apparatus for use in mines, and exposed in a chamber to 120° F. dry bulb and 95° F. wet bulb. The skin temperature rises to the rectal temperature and the pulse is greatly accelerated—e.g. to 150—and there arises danger of heat stroke. The conditions are greatly relieved by interposing on the inspiratory tube of the apparatus a cooler filled with carbonic acid snow. The cool inspired air lowers the frequency of the heart and makes it possible for the men to do some work at 95° F. wet bulb, and to endure this temperature for two hours. The observations made by Pembrey and Collis on the weaving-mill operatives at Darwen show that the skin of the face may be 4° to 13° F. higher in the mill when the wet bulb is 71° F. than at home when the wet-bulb temperature is about 55° F. The tend- ency of the warm, humid atmosphere of the mill is to establish a more uniform temperature of the body as a whole (surface and deep temperatures) and to throw a tax upon the power of accommodation as indicated by the rapid pulse and low blood-pressure. The mill workers are wet with the steam blown into the sheds, their clothes and bodies are moist, and the long hours of exposure to such uncomfortable conditions are most deleterious to physical vigour and happiness. The operatives asked that they might be allowed to “work without steam-injectors and with diminished ventilation, so that the mill rooms became saturated with moisture evaporated from the bodies of the operatives. The old regulations, while forbidding more than 6 parts in 10,000 CO,, put no limit to the wet-bulb temperature, and this often became excessive on hot summer days. The operatives were quite right. Less ventilation and a lower wet bulb is far better than ample ventilation and a high wet bulb. The permissible limit of CO, has now been raised to II parts in 19,000, and the wet-bulb temperature is to be controlled within reasonable limits. The efficiency of workers in mills, mines, tunnels, stoke-holes, &c., is vastly increased by the provision of a sufficient draught of cool and relatively dry air, so as to prevent overtaxing of the heat-regulating mechanism... Mr. F. Green informs me that by means of forced draught the stokehole of an Orient steamer NO. 2240, VOL. 90] is rendered the coolest place when the ship is in the tropics. The electric fan has vastly improved the conditions of the worker in the tropics. 1 would suggest that each clerk should have a fan just as much as a lamp on his desk. It will pay the employer to supply fans. In the modern battleship men are confined very largely to places artificially lit and ventilated by air driven in by fans through ventilating-shafts. | The heat and moisture derived from the bodies of the men, from the engines, from cooking-ranges, &c., lead to a high degree of relative moisture, and thus all parts of the ironwork inside are coated with granulated cork to hold the condensed moisture and prevent dripping. The air smells with the manifold smells of oil, cook- ing, human bodies, &c., and the fresh air driven in by fans through the metal conduits takes up the smell of these, and is spoken of by the officers with disparage- ment as “‘tinned”’ or ‘‘potted”’ air. This air is heated when required by being made to pass over radiators. Many of the officers’ cabins and offices for ‘clerks, typewriters, &c., in the centre of a battleship, have no portholes, and are only lit and ventilated by artificial means. ‘The steel nature of the structure prevents the diffusion of air which takes place so freely through the brick walls of a*house. The men in their sleep- ing quarters are very closely confined, and as the openings of the air-conduits are placed in the roof between the hammocks, the mén next to such open- ings receive a cold draught and are likely to shut the openings. To sleep in a warm moist “ fugg” would not much matter if the men were actively engaged for many hours of the day on deck and there exposed to the open air and the rigours of sea and weather. In the modern warship most of the crew work for many hours under deck, and some of’ the men may scarcely come on deck for weeks or even months. Considering the conditions which pertain, it seems to be of the utmost’ importance that all the men in a_ battleship should be inspected at short intervals by the medical officers so that cases of tuberculosis may be weeded out in their incipiency. The men of every rating should do deck drill for some part of every day. In the Norwegian navy every man, cooks and all, must do gymnastic drill on deck once a day. In the case of our navy, with voluntary service, the men should welcome this in their own interest. In a destroyer visited by me twelve men occupied quarters containing about 1700 cubic feet of air. There was a stove with iron pipe for chimney, from which fumes of combustion must leak when in use, and a fan which would not work. When the men are shut down the moisture is such that boots, &c., go mouldy, and the water drips off the structure. The cooling éffect of the sea-water washing over the steel shell of the boat is beneficial in keeping down the temperature in these confined and ill-ventilated quar- ters. On the manceuvring platform in the engine- room the wet-bulb temperature reaches a very high degree owing to the slight escape of steam round the turbines. Commander Domvile was kind enough to send me the wet and dry bulb temperatures taken there on a number of days. The wet bulb was found to be never below 80° F., sometimes reaching 95° and even 98° F. It is impossible for officers to work at these temperatures without straining the _heat- regulating mechanism of the body and diminishing their health and working capacity. If such wet-bulb temperatures are unavoidable, means should be pro- vided, such as fans, which would alleviate the discom- fort and fatigue caused thereby. A supply of com- pressed air fitted with a nozzle might be arranged and used occasionally to douche the body with cool air. I have tried this plan and found it very effectual, 154 NATURE [OcToBER 3, 1912 and can recommend the compressed-air bath as the substitute for a bracing cold wind. The suitability of the clothing is of the greatest importance, not only to.the comfort but to the effi- ciency of man as a working machine, e.g. power of soldiers to march. On a still day the body is con- fined by the clothes as if by a chamber of stagnant air, for the air is enclosed in the meshes of the clothes and the layer in contact with the skin becomes heated to body temperature and saturated with moisture. The observations of Pembrey show that himself and four soldiers, marching in drill order gn a moderately warm day, lost more water and retained more water in their clothes than on another similar day when they worked with no jacket on. The average figures were loss of moisture 1600, against 1200 grms., and water retained in clothes 254, against 109 grms. With no jacket the pulse was, on the average, increased 28 against 41 in drill order, and rectal temperature 1° against 15° F. The taking off of the jacket or throwing open of the jacket and vest very greatly increase the physiological economy ofa march. It is absurd that on a hot summer day Boy Scouts should march with coloured scarves knotted round their necks. Nothing should be worn for ornament or smartness which increases the diffi- culty of keeping down the body temperature. The power to march and the efficiency of an army depend on prevention of heart stagnation and avoidance of fatigue of the heart. I conclude, then, that all the efforts of the heating and ventilating engineer should be directed towards cooling the air in crowded places and cooling the bodies of the people by setting the air in motion by means of fans. In a crowded room the air confined between the bodies and clothes of the people is almost warmed up to body temperature and saturated with moisture, so that cooling of the body by radiation, convection and evaporation becomes reduced to a minimum. The strain on the heat-regulating mechanism tells on the heart. The pulse is accelerated, the blood is sent in increased volume to the skin, and circulates there in far greater volume, while less goes through the viscera and brain. As the surface temperature rises, the cutaneous vessels dilate, the veins become filled, the arteries may be- come small in volume, and the blood-pressure low, the heart is fatigued by the extra work thrown upon it. The influence of the heat stagnation is shown by the great acceleration of the pulse when work is done, and the slower rate at which the pulse returns to its former rate on resting. The imereased percentage of carbonic acid and diminution of oxygen which has been found to exist in badly ventilated churches, schools, theatres, bar- racks, is such that it can have no effect upon the incidence of respiratory disease and higher death- rate which statistical evidence has shown to exist among persons living in crowded and unventilated rooms. The, conditions of temperature, moisture, and windless atmosphere in such places primarily diminish the heat loss, and secondarily the heat production, i.e., the activity of the occupants, to- gether with total volume of air breathed, oxygen taken in and food eaten. The whole metabolism of the body is thus run at a lower plane. and the nervous system and tone of the body is unstimulated by the monotonous, warm, and motionless air. If hard work has to be done it is done under conditions of strain. The number of pathogenic organisms is in- creased in such places, and these two conditions run together—diminished immunity and increased mass influence of infecting bacteria. The volume of blood passing through, and of water NO. 2240, VOL. 90; vapour evaporated from, the respiratory mucous membrane must. have a great influence on the mechanisms which protect this tract from bacterial infection. While too wet an atmosphere lessens evaporation, a hot dry atmosphere dries up the mucous membrane. As the immunising powers de- pend on the passage of blood plasma into the tissue spaces, it is clear that a proper degree of moisture is important. The temperature, too, must have a great influence on the scavenger activity of the ciliated epithelium and leucocytes in the mucous membrane of the nose. In the warm moist atmosphere of a crowded place the infection from spray, sneezed, coughed, or spoken out, is enormous. On passing out from such an atmosphere into cold moist air the respiratory mucous membrane of the nose is suddenly chilled, the blood- vessels constricted, and the defensive mechanism of cilia and leucocyte checked. Hence the prevalence of colds in the winter. In the summer the infection is far less. We are far more exposed to moving air, and the sudden transition from a warm to a cold atmosphere does not occur. I believe that infec- tion is largely determined by (1) the mass influence of the infecting agent; (2) the shallow breathing and diminished evaporation from, and flow of tissue lymph through, the respiratory tract, in warm, moist confined air. Colds are not caught by exposure to cold per se, as is shown by the experience of Arctic explorers, sailors, shipwrecked passengers, &c. We have very great inherent powers of withstand- ing exposure to cold. The bodily mechanisms be- come trained and set to maintain the body heat by habitual exposure to open-air life. The risk lies in overheating our dwellings and overclothing our bodies, so that the mechanisms engaged in resisting infection become enfeebled, and no longer able to meet the sudden transition from the warm atmosphere of our rooms to the chill outside air of winter. The dark and gloomy days of winter confine us within doors, and, by reducing our activity and exposure “> open air, depress the metabolism; the influenc Vey smoke and fog, gloom of house and streets, cave: Ju. places of business and dark dwellings, intensify th - depression. The immunity to a cold after an infec- tion Jasts but a short while, and when children re- turn, after the summer holidays, to school and damp chill autumn days, infection runs around. The his- tory of hospital gangrene and its abolition by the aseptic methods of Lister—likewise the history of insect-borne disease—show the great importance of cleanliness in crowded and much occupied rooms. The essentials required of any good system of ventilating” are then (1) movement, coolness, proper degree of relative moisture of the air; (2) reduction of the mass influence of pathogenic bacteria. The chemical purity of the air is of very minor importance, and will be adequately insured by attendance to the essentials. As the prevention of spray (saliva) infection by ventilation is impossible in crowded places, it behoves us to maintain our immunity at a high level. We may seek to diminish the spray output of those in- fected with colds by teaching them to cough, sneeze, and talls with a handlserchief held in front of the mouth, or to stay at home until the acute stage is past. In all these matters nurture is of the greatest im- portance, as well as nature. A man is born with phy- sical and mental capacities small or great, with inherited characteristics, with more or less immunity to certain | diseases, with a tendency to longevity of life or the opposite, but his comfort and happiness in life, the ' small or full development of his physical and mental capacities, his immunity and his longevity of life, are undoubtedly determined to a vast extent by nurture. OcTOBER 3, 1912] NATURE 155 By nurture—I use the word in its widest sense to include all the defensive methods of sanitary science— piague, yellow fever, malaria, sleeping-sickness, cholera, hospital gangrene, &c., can be prevented by eliminating the infecting cause; smallpox and typhoid by this means, and also by vaccination; and most of the other ills which flesh is supposed to be heir to can be kept from troubling by approximating to the rules of life which a wild animal has to follow in the matter of a simple, and often spare diet, hard exercise, and exposure to the open air. There is nothing more fallacious than the supposi- tion commonly held that over-feeding and _ over- coddling indoors promotes health. The two together derange the natural functions of the body. He who seeks to save his life will lose it. The body of a new-born babe is a glorious and per- fect machine, the heritage of millions of years of evo- lution. ““ Not in entire forgetfulness, And not in utter nakedness, But trailing clouds of glory do we come. Shades of the prison house begin to close Upon the growing Boy.” The ill-conditioned body, anzemic complexion and undersized muscles, or the fat and gross habit, the decay of the teeth, the disordered digestion, the nervous irritability and unhappiness are the result of ‘ Nurture ’’—not Nature. In institutions children may be disciplined to vigorous health. After leaving school they are set adrift to face monotonous work in confined places, amusement in music-halls and cinema shows in place of manly exercise in the open air, injudicious diet, alcohol, and tobacco—everything which the trainer of an athlete would repel. “* And custom lie upon him with a weight Heavy as frost, and deep almost as life.” UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE. SHLFFIELD.—The council of the University of Shef- field has made the following appointments :—(1) Dr. H. R. Dean, to the Joseph Hunter chair of pathology, in succession to Prof. J. M. Beattie, who has been appointed to the chair of bacteriology in the Univer- sity of Liverpool. Dr. Dean is at present assistant bacteriologist to the Lister Institute of Preventive Medicine. (2) Mr. Leonard Southerns, to the post of junior lecturer and demonstrator in physics, vice Dr. J. Robinson, resigned. Mr. Southerns is at present chief assistant at the Eskdalemuir Observatory, N.B. The council received the resignation of Prof. F. W. Hardwick of the professorship of mining, owing to his retirement from active work. Prof. Hardwick has been on the staff since October, 1891. A course of fifteen lectures on Indian sociology will be delivered at East London College (University of London), Mile End Road, E., by Mr. T. C. Hodson (late of the Indian Civil Service), on Wednesdays at 5-30, commencing October 23. The lectures are open to the public without fee. Dr. A. N. Wuireneap, F.R.S., University reader in geometry, will deliver at University College, Lon- don, a non-technical course of lectures on ‘The General Ideas of the Science of Geometry” during the first two terms of the session. The course will begin on Tuesday, October 8, at 5 p.m. THE opening of the session at Edinburgh University will see the inauguration of the new scheme for engineering degrees by which the full resources of the University and the Heriot-Watt College are NO. 2240, VOL. 90] utilised for the first time to enable students to specialise in the three departments of civil, mechanical, and electrical engineering. A REUTER message from Cape Town states that in view of the fact that there is no precedent for the Sovereign’s holding office in any university of the Empire, the King has resigned the Chancellorship of the Cape University with which his Majesty was in- vested on the occasion of his visit to South Africa in tgot as Duke of Cornwall. The Duke of Connaught has accepted nomination to the Chancellorship in succession to the King. ANNOUNCEMENT is made of two courses of post- graduate lectures to be delivered at University Col- lege (University of London), by Prof. J. A. Fleming, F.R.S. (Pender professor of electrical engineering). One course, on ‘Electromagnetic Waves and the Theory of Electrons,” will be delivered on Wednes- days at 5 p.m., beginning Wednesday, November 6, and the other, on ‘Electric Wave Wireless Tele- graphy,” will begin on Wednesday, January 22, 1913. At the University of Bristol, the calendar of which for the session 1912-13 has been received, the bachelor’s degree can be taken in engineering, both by day and evening students. The final part of the curriculum may be in civil, mechanical, electrical, or motor-car engineering. At Bristol also, it is interest- ing to note, the Senate of the University is authorised to confer a testamur in social study and in journalism —a further indication of the desire of the modern university to assist directly every kind of professional worl. THE best criterion of the vitality of a university is the record of its members’ contributions to know- ledge. The magnitude of such a list cannot, of course, be taken as a measure of the importance of the original work accomplished, but it indicates the activity of the various departments of the university to which the list refers, and shows that attention is not being concentrated unduly upon examination standards. A list of memoirs, papers, &c., published during the years 1909-1912 by members of the teach- ing staff, scholars and fellows, research students, and others connected with the University of Glasgow has just been received, and it provides convincing evidence of the large amount of literary and scientific work published by members of the University. The uniform distribution of these products through all departments should be a particular cause of gratification to the principal. Tue needs of students of anvlied science receive increasing attention year by year from university authorities in different parts of the country. The new calendar of Armstrong College, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, one of the constituent colleges of the University of Durham, shows that here, for example, students, in addition to being able to obtain the degree of bachelor of science in pure science, may, if they prefer, offer instead one of seven branches of applied science. Degrees may, in fact, be obtained in agriculture, mechanical and marine engineering, electrical engineering, civil engineering, naval architecture, mining, or metallurgy. The calendar shows, too, that the active cooperation of engineering and shipbuilding firms in the district has been secured. Many manu- facturers have promised to cooperate with the college by receiving pupils in the several departments of their works and in their drawing offices, and by permitting them to devote themselves exclusively during two or three sessions to their college studies. THE prospectus for the session 1912-13 of the day and evening college for men and women at the South- Western Polytechnic, Chelsea, serves excellently to- 156 NATURE. [OcTOBER 3, 1912 illustrate the very complete provision for higher educa- tion provided by the. London polytechnic institutions. In both the day and evening classes at. Chelsea students can prepare for degrees at the University of London under favourable conditions. In the day col- lege those students who enter for technical instruction should have received previously, the prospectus points out, a sound English education and should have acquired an elementary knowledge of mathematics, and, if possible, of physics ail chemistry. The courses are arranged to occupy three years. On enter- ing the student states whether he wishes to be trained as a mechanical or electrical engineer, or asaconsult- | ing or industrial chemist. In any of these cases he will find mapped out for him a complete course of study, involving laboratory instruction and instruction in the workshops. Students, having completed a three | Wild Flowers as They Grow. Photographed in Colour direct from Nature. By H. Essenhigh Corke, with descriptive text by G. Clarke Nuttall. Fourth series. Pp. viiit+300. (London: Cassell and Co., Ltd.) 5s. net. Mind and its Disorders. By Dr. W. H. D. Stod-: dart. Second edition. Pp. xvi+518. (London : H..K. Lewis:) 12s. 6d. net. South America: Observations and Impressions. By. James, Bryce. Pp. xxv+611, (London: Macmillan and €o., Ltd.) 8s. 6d. net. Greelx Sculpture: One Hundred Illustrations. By Jj. Warrack.. Pp. xxx+plates. (Edinburgh: G: Schulze and Co.) 3s. 6d. net. Twelve Moons. By F. A. Bardswell. Pp. 91. | (London: Elkin Matthews.) 2s. 6d. net. Radnorshire. By L. Davies. Pp. xi+156. (Cam- bridge University Press.) 1s. 6d. «(Cambridge years’ course, should be in a position to obtain situa- | tions, in many cases without payment of premium, in important industrial firms. Similarly in the even- ing classes, instruction is provided in a wide range of scientific, technological, and other subjects. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. Paris. Academy of Sciences, September 23.—M. A. Grandi- dier in the chair—E. L. Bouvier: Caridinopsis chevalieri, and the genera of the Atyidez peculiar to tropical Africa.—Henri Douvillé: The Orbitolines and their connections.—A. Verschafiel ; The earthquake of the right of September 14-15, 1912. An account of the plienomena observed at the Observatory of Abbadia.—Claude and Driencourt: The orthostathme- scope or intrument for observing the passage through the zenith of the alignment of two stars on the celes- tial sphere—Th. De Donder: The invariants of the caleulus of variations ——N. Lusin: The absolute con- vergence of trigonometric series.—F. Briner and E. L. Durand: The conditions of formation of nitrous and nitric acids starting from the oxides of nitrogen and water; application of the law of mass action. Nitric oxide was compressed with solutions of nitric acid of varying concentrations; a general account of the changes noted is given, full details being reserved for a later paper.—Félix Robin: The crystallisation of metals by annealing. The metals examined included tin, lead, zinc, aluminium, copper, and iron. The grain developed by annealing was studied by etching with suitable liquids and microscopic examination.— H. Jumelle and H. Perrier de la Bathe: The cabbage palm of Madagascar.—M. Chaillot: The biology and anatomy of Labiates with subterranean stolons.—A. Desmouliére : The antigenic bodies in the Wassermann reaction. An account of the effects of the addition of cholesterol to the alcoholic extract of syphilitic liver. The sensibility and keeping powers are increased.— Maurice Piettre: The influence of some chemical com- pounds on the artificial melanines. BOOKS RECEIVED. The Simple Carbohydrates and the Glucosides. By Dr. E. F. Armstrong. Second edition. Pp. viii+171. (London: Longmans, Green and Co.) 5s. net. (Monographs on. Biochemistry.) Oxidations and Reductions in the Animal Body. By Dr. H. D. Dakin. Pp. viii+135. (London: Long- mans, Green and Co.) 4s. (Monographs on _ Bio- chemistry.) The Teratology of Fishes. Pp. xvii+74+xxvi plates. (Glasgow: and Sons.) 15s. net. NO. 2240, VOL. 90| By Dr. J. F. Gemmill. J. MacLehose BooksiReceived ., Ltd., rgt2.) Price ros. net NO. 2244, VOL. 90| t.—Comb of Bombus agrorwm, showing pollen-pockets in the sides of the bunches of | | Supreme, | occupied with egg-laying. account of a particularly interesting group of insects. Buttel- Reepen (Biol. Centralbl., 1903), drawing upon information con- tributed by many other naturalists, among whom Mr. Sladen is named, has traced the ascent step by step, from the solitary bees to the complex com- munities of the honey-bees. In the sim- plest bee families the life of all the in- dividuals is short, and the mother dies without ever seeing her progeny. Then we pass to bees the females of which regularly outlast the winter; the cells are collected into some kind of comb, and the nest is guarded. In the humble- bees there is a further advance; the labour of the mother is now shared by parthenogenetic workers, though these are only seen during the flowering season, and perish before winter. The climax is reached in what we illogically but conveniently call the honey-bees (the humble-bees also are collectors and storers of honey); of these the hive-bee is the most familiar example. Heremmune workers persist from year to year, and become the mother (now called the queen-bee) to a captive, and incessantly If the humble-bees had not been carefully studied we could only have guessed at the stages by which the elaborate polity of the hive has been, or may have been, attained. being degraded Fic. 2.—Eygs, larva and pupz of Boméus terrest, slightly enlarged. From “ The Humble-Bee.”’ The last news is that Mr. Sladen is joining the staff of the Central Experimental Farm at Ottawa. We wish him all success in his new sphere, and hope that he will not be too much occupied by his work in Canada to give a thought now and then to the Hymenoptera. i. CoM: OcTOBER 31, 1912] THE UNVEILING OF A STATUE OF PRIESTLEY AT BIRSTALL. HE merits of Joseph Priestley—theologian, philosopher, . social reformer, and man of science—were recognised by some at least of his contemporaries. He was on terms of friendship with such men as Franklin, Wedgwood, Watt, and Banks, and he enjoyed the patronage and companionship of Lord Shelburne. In 1766 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society, and seven years later the Copley medal was awarded to him. To many of his fellow-countrymen, on the other hand, Priestley was but a violent and obstinate schismatic, intent only on undermining the estab- lished order of things. It was indeed the in- tolerant and cruel expression of this view by the Birmingham mob that led him to emigrate to the United States in the sixty-second year of his age. Such clouds, however, as once obscured Priest- ley’s fair fame have now entirely passed away, and the services which he rendered to the national life, whether as a pioneer of chemical science or as an “honest heretic,’ are everywhere recog- nised. Public memorials of the man and his work have been erected in Birmingham, Warrington, and Leeds, and recently another has been added to the number. For the citizens of Birstall, in the West Riding, where Priestley was born in 1733, have combined, with praiseworthy public spirit and enthusiasm, to erect a statue of their eminent townsman. This latest memorial was unveiled on October 12 by Sir Edward Thorpe, whose ready pen has materially contributed to a just appreciation of Priestley’s character and work by this generation. The ceremony was performed in presence of a large and distinguished company, and general satisfaction was expressed at the manner in which the scheme for commemorating Birstall’s most famous son had been brought to a successful issue. After the unveiling ceremony, the company adjourned to the Temperance Hall, where an address was delivered by Sir Edward Thorpe. In an illuminating review of Priestley’s life and the various factors that shaped his career, emphasis was laid on the influence of his early environment. From his sixth year onward Priestley was en- trusted to the care of his aunt, Mrs. Keighley, a worthy, intelligent, and broad-minded woman, to whose house the cultured people of the neighbour- hood were wont to resort. For a time ill-health prevented the boy attending school with regularity, and to a large extent he had to make his way to knowledge unaided. These circumstances, co- operating with his natural keenness and diligence, developed in young Priestley that mental activity and independence which later were characteristic of his attitude towards theological, philosophical, political, and social questions. After a suitable training Priestley entered the ministry, and worked successively at Needham, Nantwich, and Warrington. It was not until he went to Leeds in 1767 that he began those NO. 2244, VOL. 90] NATURE | without previous training, ow 25 chemical investigations on which his fame chiefly rests. It is indeed remarkable, as Sir Edward Thorpe pointed out, that a man like Priestley, with domestic utensils for his apparatus and tallow candles for his source of heat, should have made the great discoveries in pneumatic chemistry with which his name is associated. Miss Darlington. The Priestley Statue at Birstall. Sculptor : It was, however, during his seven years at Calne, in Wiltshire, under the patronage of Lord Shelburne, that Priestley’s best experimental work was done. It must be admitted that he did not at all realise the true significance of his in- vestigations. The -discovery of oxygen was destined to revolutionise chemical science, and yet Priestley himself, to the end of his days, NATURE [OcTOBER 31, 1912 254 clung to the antiquated conceptions which his own experiments had really overthrown. In this con- nection Sir Edward Thorpe has emphasised the striking contrast between Priestley the social, political, and theological reformer, always in advance of his time, and Priestley the conserva- tive and orthodox man of science. Sir Edward holds that, great as was Priestley’s merit as an experimentalist, a greater claim to our regard rests on his struggles and sufferings in the cause of liberty. Unpopularity and even persecution were his lot during his later years in England, and it is to Priestley’s everlasting credit that he did not allow these untoward circum- stances to disturb his serene and genial temper. In paying tribute to such a man—one whom Frederic Harrison has described as “the hero of the eighteenth century ”—the citizens of Birstall have done honour to themselves. Gas THE PROPOSED MEMORIAL TO LORD LISTER. MEETING AT THE Mansion HOUuSE. ies may be said that the life of a great man needs no permanent memorial from his contem- poraries, and to some extent this is true. Poets, men of letters, and philosophers speak to pos- terity in their writings, statesmen and warriors have their deeds recorded in history, artists, sculptors, and architects have erected their own monuments which everyone may see. Yet even to them their fellow-men delight to raise some special token of their admiration. But there are others whose work is of a less public character, less obvious to the ordinary observer, and less easily understood, but which often has a more important effect upon the welfare of the world. Of such are the men of science, whose atmosphere is different from that of their fellow-men, and who occupy the edita doctrina sapientum templa serena. It is fitting that some permanent memorial should from year to year recall the names of such and remind those who come after of what it is that they have accomplished. The great meeting which, under the auspices of the venerable Lord Mayor, himself a member of the medical profession, assembled at the Mansion House last week to sanction the project for raising a memorial, or rather some memorials, to Lord Lister, will, we are confident, meet with the approval of everyone, in all parts of the world. The names of those who attended the meeting and those who sent messages of regret at being un- able to do so, indicate how wide is the sympathy that it has aroused. Statesmen, ecclesiastics, soldiers, representatives of science and of medi- cine, of the City companies, of hospitals, and of the general public were all enthusiastic in their commendation of the scheme. Such evidence reminds us that Lister’s work was not merely one which revolutionised surgical practice, and was thus instrumental in saving his fellow-creatures from premature death and unnecessary suffering, and enabled the art of surgery to advance NO. 2244, VOL. 90] by leaps and bounds to a degree undreamt of before; but that its scientific value alone is so great as to justify his being placed amongst the most distinguished men of this or any other age. The Lord Chancellor, in the unavoidable absence of the Prime Minister, paid an eloquent tribute to Lister’s pre-eminence and to the far-reaching effects of his doctrines; yet the man in the street has but little notion of the benefits he has derived from them; he has perhaps learned the two words “antiseptic system,” but they convey no meaning to him; and he does not appreciate the dangers which have been averted and the sorrows pre- vented for him and those who are dearest to him. It is for these that a speaking memorial should be raised, and it is from these, if they can be made to understand its meaning, that we feel sure an appeal for the necessary funds will not be made in vain. A very influential committee has been formed of representatives of all classes in the United Kingdom and the Colonies and of Ambassadors and Ministers of foreign countries, and in their opinion it is fitting that whatever is done should partake not only of a national, but an international character. This committee, after careful con- sideration, submitted a scheme to the Mansion House meeting, which met with cordial approval. The Dean of Westminster, who is a warm sympathiser with it, desired that Lord Lister’s ashes should find their final resting-place in West- minster Abbey, but owing to his own very strict injunctions concerning his funeral, this could not be carried out. It is proposed, therefore, that a medal- lion with a suitable inscription should be placed in the north aisle near those of Darwin and other eminent men of science that cluster round the monument of Newton, Westminster Abbey is an international institution, and it is certain that this proposal will not appeal to Englishmen alone. It is also thought that everyone will be in favour of the erection of a sculptured monument, not a mere statue, but something which will direct atten- tion to the nature of his achievements, in some prominent place in London which every citizen and every visitor cannot fail to see and to observe. But it was felt that a memorial of a still more international character was desirable, and for that the committee recommended something which would combine the merits of the Nobel Prize and those of the Carnegie Trust. Under the proposed scheme the trustees of the fund would be able to devote the interest of it at their discretion either to the promotion of research bearing upon the progress of surgery, or as awards in recognition of notable advances in this science. Naturally these awards would be open to men of all nations, and this is as it should be, for Lister’s work was not in any sense insular; its beneficent effects are felt in every part of the inhabited world. We think that the decisions of the committee: are wise and will meet with general approval. It is needless to say that in order to carry them out a large sum of money will be required. We are happy to hear that already several generous donations have been made, and we have great OcTOBER 31, 1912] NATURE 4:5)5) confidence that the appeal will be widely responded to. We would point out that it is not only the large gifts of the wealthy that are sought, though they are no doubt essential to the success of the scheme, but also the smaller tributes of esteem, the thank-offerings of those who recognise that every household in the land is a debtor to the great man who has passed from among'st us. Donations should be sent to the treasurers of the Lister Memorial Fund, Royal Society, Burling- ton House, W. M. LECOQ DE BOISBAUDRAN.} ee the death of M. Lecoq de Boisbaudran, which took place in May of the present vear, there passed from the field of activity one of the most brilliant and energetic of French investigators. Lecoq de Boisbaudran was an amateur in the true sense of the word, and he had the faculty of con- centrating the whole of his energy upon the question of the moment. He was born in Cognac in 1838. His parents were of noble family in Poitou, but their circumstances prevented his receiving more than an ordinary education. While a young man, he studied mathematics under his uncle, who had been a student at l’Ecole Polytechnique, but his interest quickly became absorbed in the science of chemistry; he eventually succeeded in gaining an entrance to the laboratory of Wiirtz at l’Kcole de Médecine, and it was here that he made the discovery of the element gallium. Among his earlier contributions to science are papers on gravitation, meteorological phenomena, and also upon matters connected with agriculture ; but physical chemistry and spectroscopy received the greater share of his attention. The probable existence of gallium had been foretold by Mendeléeff, who had proposed the name eka- aluminium, but to Lecoq de Boisbaudran belongs ithe honour of the discovery and the isolation of the element. In the field of spectroscopic research his name may be classed with those of Kirchhoff, Bunsen, Sir G. G. Stokes, and Sir William Crookes, as one of the founders of the science of spectro- chemistry. His “ Spectres Lumineux,” published in 1874, was one of the most perfect works on spectro- scopy at that time, and it possesses considerable value even at the present day; although limited to the visible region, the drawings are marvellously exact, and in the index wave-lengths of all the lines in the fifty-six spectra shown are given in Angstrom units to one place of decimals; the labour in- volved in the work was enormous. At the time when Lecog de Boisbaudran was in the prime of his scientific activity, the chemistry of the rare earths was receiving considerable attention, Cléve of Upsala, Marignac, Demarcay, Crookes and others were hard at work in that very interesting field of research, and he devoted himself with all the energy of his nature to the 1 An article from the pen of M. G. Urhain upon the life and work of Lecoq de Boisbaudran appeared in the Reoue Générale des Sciences for September 15, and to that the present writer is indebted for several particulars not otherwise available. NO. 2244, VOL. 90] work; during the period from 1880 to 1900 his communications to the Academy appeared in almost every issue of the Comptes rendus. He was successful in discovering and isolating the elements samarium and dysprosium, and he very completely investigated the body now known as gadolinium, which had been provisionally named Y a by Marignac. In his earlier investigations he depended largely upon the indications given by the spark spectrum, produced by passing an alternating spark between electrodes immersed in a solution of the salts, and also upon the absorption spectrum of the solution ; the spectra of didymium, erbium, holmium, &c., were very fully examined by this latter method. At the time when the work of Sir William Crookes upon the kathode phosphorescence spectrum of the rare earths was published, he made the observation that if the condensed spark from one electrode was allowed to strike upon the surface of a liquid containing a rare earth salt, there was produced, just where the discharge _ struck, a faint luminous spot, which, when exam- ined with a spectroscope of low power, gave rise to a series of faintly luminous bands, closely resembling the phosphorescent bands of Crookes; this he called the reversal spectrum, and the method of investigation was largely used by him in his speculations upon the constitution of the yttria earths. His conclusions in this particular were in direct opposition to those of Crookes, who, as the result of an extended series of observations on the brilliant bands produced by kathode phos- phorescence, had suggested that the element yttrium was composed of a number of very closely allied bodies, which he termed meta-elements, each producing a distinct phosphorescent spectrum. M. de Boisbaudran, on the other hand, held the opinion that yttria, when perfectly pure, did not phosphoresce under kathode rays, and that the bands observed by Crookes were due to impurities contained in the yttria. The origin of the band-producing earths is by no means clear even at the present day, but the fact remains that although much work has been since done upon the element yttria, no one has succeeded in producing the non-phosphorescing material of Lecoq de Boisbaudran. It is a great misfortune that the numerous researches of Lecog de Boisbaudran, particularly those referring to the rare earths, have not been collected together and published in complete form; there are probably few of the rare earth elements about which some observation could not be found under his name; but, scattered as they are in isolated papers, they are in large measure lost, and probably many of his original observations will have to be re-made by his successors. This, unfortunately, was characteristic of the man. His method was to work and publish almost simultaneously; so engrossed was he in his work that he cared little for public recognition. The cross of the Legion of Honour was conferred upon him for his discovery of the element gallium, but he never officially received the Order. 256 NATURE [OcToBER 31, 1912 He was awarded the Bordin prize in 1872, and was made correspondent of the chemical section in 1878. He received the Davy Medal of the Royal Society in 1879, and the Lacaze prize in 1880. He died, after a painful illness, on May 28, at the age of seventy-four years. J. H. GarpIner. NOTES. In our issue of April 18 last (vol. Ixxxix., p. 172) the announcement was madé of the appointment of a Royal Commission to inquire into and report upon the natural resources of the Empire. On that occa- sion it was not possible to give the names of the Commissioners, but we are now able to say that the Commissioners originally appointed were as follows :— Lord Inchcape, Sir Edgar Vincent, K.C.M.G., Lieut.-Colonel Sir C. J. Owens, Sir H. Rider Hag- gard, Mr. T. Garnett, Mr. W. Lorimer, the Hon. G. E. Foster, Mr. D. Campbell, Sir Joseph G. Ward, Bart., Sir David Pieter de Villiers Graaf, Bart., and the Hon. E. R. Bowring. Some changes have taken place in the composition of the Commission since it was appointed, but neither originally nor now, so far as we can find, does the Commission include a single member prominently associated with some branch of scientific knowledge. This is the more surprising because it may be remembered that in March last, a month before the Royal Commission was appointed, the British Science Guild issued a report prepared by one of its committees, under the chairmanship of Sir William Ramsay, K.C.B., F.R.S., on the question of the conservation of natural sources of energy. The British Science Guild committee was composed almost entirely of expert men of science, who had given particular attention to the study of the questions with which the Royal Commission is dealing; and it is greatly to be deplored that one or more of their number, or other representatives of pure or applied science, have not been appointed members of the Commission. Tue recent publication of the “Life and Scientific Work” of Prof. Tait, of Edinburgh, reviewed in Nature of July 13, 1911, has reawakened a desire on the part of his many old students and friends to have a worthy memorial of the ‘t great natural philosopher.” The proposal is to found a second chair of natural philosophy in Edinburgh, to be called the Tait chair, and a strong appeal for contributions towards an endowment fund has been issued by a representative committee. Accompanying the appeal there is a fine tribute on Tait and his work, from the pen of Prof. Peddie, of Dundee, one of Tait’s former assistants. There is also an interesting statement on the need of a second chair, in which Prof. MacGregor shows that, in comparison with other universities which have approximately the same number of students, the University of Edinburgh is far behind as regards the numerical strength of its teaching staff in experimental and mathematical physics. As early as 1872, Tait himself, in an article in Macmillan’s Magazine, lamented the understaffing of the Scottish universities, giving it as his opinion that there should be ‘a pro- NO. 2244, VOL. 90| fessor of applied mathematics in each, and a professor of experimental physics, in place of the present solitary professor of the enormous subject of natural philo- sophy.”’ This is the ideal which the committee has set before it, and for the realisation of which it has appealed to a wide public. In the days of his activity Tait was a frequent and much-valued con- tributor to the columns of Nature, and in the interests of the higher development of physical and mathe- matical science, we have much pleasure in directing the attention of our readers to this great and worthy object. The honorary treasurer of the fund is Sir George M. Paul, 16 St. Andrews Square, Edinburgh. Tue dinner given by the Fishmongers’ Company on October 24 to a distinguished company, ‘‘to meet the President of the Royal Society,’’ may well be taken as an indication of the esteem in which scientific work is held by a great City company. The assembly invited included representatives of numerous branches of science, among whom were many members of the Royal Society. The following scientific societies, for instance, were represented :—The Royal Horticultural Society, the British Science Guild, the Society of Antiquaries, the Royal Astronomical Society, the In- stitution of Civil Engineers, the Linnean Society, the Geological Society, the Royal Microscopical Society, the Chemical Society, the Entomological Society, and the Surveyors’ Institution. Sir Archibald Geikie, in responding to the toast of ““The Learned Societies,” proposed by the Prime Warden, said that the City guilds have played an important part in the history of London. ‘The learned societies, too, have had close relations with the City companies. The Clothworkers’ Company has had two distinguished masters who have been presidents of the Royal Society—Samuel Pepys and Lord Kelvin. The City guilds, too, have shown great diligence in the application of their funds for educational and scientific purposes. An account of certain red bands observed by Profs. Breuil and Sollas in Bacon’s Hole, on the Gower peninsula, and apparently of prehistoric origin, ap- peared in Nature of October 17 (p. 195). According to The Cambria Daily Leader of October 18, the markings were made by a Mumbles boatman eighteen years ago, and were produced with a brush having red paint upon it, which was part of the salvage from the wreck of a Norwegian barque. Several other ex- planations have since been put forward, and are referred to in a short article in Tuesday’s Times. Whether the markings are of ancient or modern origin does not appear yet to have been decided definitely, but the position of the question is shown by the following extract from The Times article :—‘‘When they ob- served the marks the first question which presented itself to Prof. Breuil and Prof. Sollas was: ‘ Are they ancient or modern?’ Prof. Breuil, having wetted the surface, attempted to remove the paint by vigorous rubbing; not succeeding in this, he concluded they were ancient. Prof. Sollas closely examined the wall to see whether the paint was covered by stalactite, and convinced himself that it was. To reassure himself on this point Prof. Sollas has lately revisited the cave. He was able with a hammer and chisel to detach a OcTOBER 31, 1912] fragment of the painted surface from a projecting corner. This affords an excellent section through the deposits, revealing a layer of the red paint, which covers an older layer of stalactite, and is itself covered by a later layer, in some places as much as two milli- metres thick. There can be no doubt that Prof. Breuil and Prof. Sollas were scrupulously exact in their ob- servations, and as the marks resemble in general character the accepted paintings of Upper Palzeolithic age, and in particular some red bands at the extremity of the great gallery in Foul de Gaume, they were amply justified—whatever the final verdict may be— in assigning the paintings of Bacon Hole to an ancient period.” THE next meeting of the Geologists’ Association will be devoted to a conversazione, which will be held to-morrow (November 1), in the library of University College, Gower Street, W.C. Tue Royal Academy of Sciences of Naples is offer- ing a prize of 20l. for researches on the alge of the Bay of Naples preferably from the biological point of view. The essays, which are to be sent in by June 30, 1913, are not returned to the authors. Tue death is announced of Prof. Paul Segond, professor of surgery in the Paris Faculty of Medicine, at the age of sixty-one years. Prof. Segond was formerly chief surgeon at the Salpétriére Hospital, and assisted in the preparation of the “ Dictionary of Medicine and Practical Surgery.” The Kew Bulletin announces that Mr. I. H. Burkill, Reporter on Economic Products to the Government of India, and curator of the Industrial Section of the India Museum, Calcutta, has been appointed by the Secretary of State for the Colonies director of the Botanic Gardens, Singapore, in succession to Mr. H. N. Ridley, C.M.G., F.R.S., retired. Ir is reported in the Revue Scientifique that, out of the fund raised for the recent centenary celebration of the establishment of Avogadro’s law, the Turin Academy of Sciences will found a prize of 1500 lire and a gold medal for the best critical, historical, or experimental work on the discoveries resulting from the law. The prize will be awarded on December 31, IgT4. Tue Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine is arranging to send an expedition to Jamaica and the West Indies. The Colonial Office is cooperating with the school in this expedition, which, it is interesting to note, is the twenty-ninth made by the Liverpool authorities. The various expeditions have cost some 30,000l., but on its work as a whole the school has spent more than 100,000l., nearly all of which has been raised by voluntary effort. Ar the annual meeting of the Cambridge Philo- sophical Society, held on October 28, the following were elected for the session 1912-13 :—President, the Master of Christ’s (Dr. A. E. Shipley); Vice-Presi- ‘dents, Prof. Hopkinson, Prof. Wood, and Prof. Pope; Treasurer, Prof. Hobson; Secretaries, Mr. A. Wood, Mr. F. A. Potts, and Mr. G. H. Hardy; New Members NO. 2244, VOL. 90] NATURE 2 Fl / n of the Council, Dr. Marshall, Mr. G. R. Mines, Rev. Dr. Barnes, and Mr. F. J. M. Stratton. Ar the statutory meeting of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, held on October 28, the office-bearers for the ensuing year were elected, as follows :—President, Sir William Turner, K.C.B., F.R.S.; Vice-Presidents, Dr. J. Horne, F.R.S., Dr. J. Burgess, Prof. T. Hudson Beare, Prof. F. O. Bower, F.R.S., Sir Thomas R. Fraser, F.R.S., and Dr. B. N. Peach, F.R.S.; General Secretary, Dr. C. G. Knott; Secretaries to Ordinary Meetings, Dr. R. Kidston, F.R.S., and Prof. Geen Plaice Fisheries of the North Sea ....... . 283 The Plastic Art of Paleolithic Man ...... . 283 NOLES) | iss... a cu Seale Me tiee ft, bros, hy Cale Ieee Our Astronomical Column :— AeNew Comet; 1912012, 2 yo ain=) (A. coool oe Gale’s Gomet 19127) 2)» at ne ee Schanmasse’s Comet. 19120) = (44 ca.) 2) eee zno Siandialss., «lees Su) Ane Gia. ee Variability of Solar Radiation... . 288 Opening of the New Laboratories of Bacteriology and Public Health of King’s College, London . 289 Problems in Infection and its Control ..... . 289 Meteorology in Scotland . : Roms st OD The Fourteenth International Congress of Anthro- pology and Prehistoric Archeology .... . 290 The Scientific Theory and Outstanding Problems of Wireless Telegraphy. By Prof. J. A. Fleming, BRS. (eth Diagram.) laces i) © Oe University and Educational Intelligence ..... 207 Societies;and Academies) 9). 2 2.9 -)- 2.) cememeezon Books Received . wept hte ARs) ci ial ara Dianyiof Societies: {05/274 Se. cele oS Editorial and Publishing Offices : MACMILLAN & CO., Lrtp., ST. MARTIN’S STREET, LONDON, W.C. Advertisements and business letters to be addressed to the Publishers. Editorial Communications to the Editor. Telegraphic Address: Puusts, Lonpon. ,Lelephone Number: GERRARD 8830. EC ee A WEEKLY ILLUSTRATED JOURNALTOR SCIENCE: “To the solid ground Of Nature trusts the mind which builds for aye.’’—WorpswortTH. Wheatstone’s Compound Gyroscope PACKED IN CABINET CASE. Simple Cyroscopes from 10/6 Telegrams : ‘‘ Newtobar London.” Established Over 200 Years. Illustrated Price List of Gyroscopes to be had post free from - NEWTON & CO., Opticians to H.M. King Ceorge V. 72 WIGMORE STREET, LONDON, w. ce It is the Key to Success in Photography. Who can expect to excel who does not understand how to use the diaphragm, the swing back, the rising front, focussing scale, &c., &c.? All such questions are lucidly and simply explained in " PHOTOGRAPHIC LENSES : A SIMPLE TREATISE.” 359 pages, 44 plates, numerous diagrams and illustrations, cloth bound. R. & J. BECK, Ltd.. 68. CORNHILL, *7 London, E.cC. | “Public School”’ | Meteorological | PRICE SIXPENCE R eserved. [All Rights REYNOLDS & BRANSON, Ltd., | Manufacturers of Chemical and Physical Apparatus. GOLD MEDALS:—LONDON, 1908. ALLAHABAD, 1911, GRAND PRIX, TURIN, 1911. 2 MEDALS, YORK, 1912, ‘*RYSTOS” ELECTROSCOPE. a This Electroscope, with paraffin ‘insulator, remains charged for about THE a day, and has been used with the greatest satisfaction in many secondary A customer states that the batch of two schools for the last ten years. dozen, obtained two years previously, in efficient condition during that time. has remained (a) Price with attachment for two Wires and to movable for cleaning the glasses... As ce | (0) Ditto, with two glass tubes for showing the leak- | ‘age caused by a radio-active gas.. “0° oi Sieteach. (c) Ditto, with transparent scale, lecturer’s pattern, for projection of image of gold leaf and scale by. means of a lantern... on cf a9 sed) 14 COMMERCIAL STREET, LEEDS. Pine- : 5/- each. - "@/G each. The Set of Instruments forms a simple complete Climatological Station at a moderate price. A Pamphlet describing this Set, and Price List, “ Meteorological Instruments,” wil? be sent post free to any address. NEGRETTI & ZAMBRA Holborn Viaduct, London, E.C. ; 45 Cornhill, E.C.; and 122 Regent Street, W. CX NAT ORE [Novas eRe 14, ome UNIVERSITY OF LONDON. NOTICE IS HEREBY GIVEN that the Senate will shortly proceed to elect Examiners in the following subjects for the year 1913-14 — HIGHER EXAMINATIONS FOR MEDICAL DEGREES. EXAMINERSHIPS. PRESENT EXAMINERS. ‘Sidney Philip Phillips, Esq., M.D, F.R.C.P. Humpbry Davy Rolleston, Esq., M.A., Four in Medicine a M.D., B.C., F-R.C.P. W. B. Warrington, Esq., M.D., Ch.B., F.R.C.P. Vacant. Frécéric F. Burghard, Esq., M.D., M.S., F.R.C.S. Raymond Johnson, Esq., M.B., Biss Four in Surgery F.R.C:S. Henry Betham Robinson, Esq., M.D., S;, E-R.C.S. Vacant, Medicine { William A. Brend, Esq., M.A., M.B., B.Sc. « | Vacant. { John William Henry Eyre, Esq., M.D., 5 M-S., D.P.H. Vacant. FIRST EXAMINATION AND SECOND EXAMINATION PART I., FOR MEDICAL DEGREES. (Candidates for these Examinerships should be experienced in Teaching Medical Students.) { Vacant. "| Vacant. { James Ernest Marsh, Esq-, M.A., F.R.S. “| Vacart. { George Wi tie Clarkson Kaye, Esq., D.Sc., \ vacant. SECOND EXAMINATION PART II., Two in Forensic and Hygiene Two in State Medicine Two in General Biology Two in Chemistry Two in Physies FOR MEDICAL DEGREES. { Prof. A. Melville Paterson, M.D., M.S., Two in Anatomy Be F.R.C.S \ Vacant. Two in Pharmacology 3 Vacant | Joseph Barcroft, Esq., B.Sc., “| Vacant. Two in Physiology M.A,, F.R.S. The Examiners above named are re-eligible, and intend to offer them- selves for re-election. Full particulars of the remuneration of each Examineiship can be obtained on application to the Principal. N.B.—Attention is drawn to the provision of Statute 124, whereby the Senate is required, if practicable, to appoint at least one Examiner who is not a Teacher of the University. Candidates must send in their names to the Principal, with any attes- tation of their qualifications they may think desirable, on or hefore MONDAY, DECEMBER 16th. (Itis particularly desired by the Senate that no application of any kind be made to its individual Members.) If testimonials are submitted, three copies at least of each should be sent. Original testimonials should not be forwarded in any case. more than one Examinership is applied for, a separate complete applica- tion, with copies of testimonials, tf any, miust be forwarded in respect of each. University of London, South Kensington, S.W., November, 1912. By Order of the Senate, HENRY A. MIERS, Principal. PRIFYSGOL CYMRU. UNIVERSITY OF WALES. MATRICULATION EXAMINATIONS. Appointments will shortly be made to Examinerships now vacant for the Matriculation Examinations in June and September, 1913, in the following subjects :— Latin. French. History. Chemistry. Mathematics. Botany. Welsh. Particulars may be obtained from the REGiIsTRAR, University Registry, Cathays Park, Cardiff, to whom applications for the appointments should be sent not later than Monday, December 2, 1912. NATIONAL HEALTH SOCIETY. LECTURE by PROFESSOR METCHNIKOFF (of the Pasteur Institute, Paris), on FRIDAY, NOVEMBER 29, 4.30 p.m., in the Lecture Theatre of the Royal Society of Medictne, 1 Wimpole Street, W. Subject :—‘‘ The Warfare against Tubercle.” For particulars, apply SecreTaRy, National Health Society, 53 Berners Street, W. Original Plaster Model for Sale, 8 ft. high, price £100. See illus- tration in NaTuRE, October 31.—Apply Miss DARLINGTON, 12 Kent Road, Harrogate. If LE CTURES, SESSION 1912-13. FIRST COURSE. ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. ALBEMARLE STREET, PICCADILLY, W. PROFESSOR SIR JAMES DEWAR, LL.D., Ph.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., will deliver a Course of Six Lectures (adapted to a Juvenile Auditory), experimentally illustrated. on ‘‘Curistmas Lecture EPILoGuEs.” “ Atcuemy,” Saturday, December 28, 1912, at 3 o'clock; Tuesday, December 31; ‘*‘ Licut.” Thursday, ““CLoups,” Saturday, January 4; ‘*‘ METEORITES,” “Frozen Wor.ps,” Thursday, January 9. Subscription (for Non-Members) to this Course, One Guinea (Children under sixteen, Half-a-Guinea); to all the Courses in the Season, Two Guineas. Tickets may now be obtained at the Office of the Institution. INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. FounbDEp 1877. INCORPORATED BY Royat CHARTER, 1885. The next INTERMEDIATE EXAMINATION will commence on TUESDAY, DECEMBER 31, 1912. FINAL EXAMINATIONS in (a) Mineral Chemistry, (4) Metallurgical Chemistry, (c) Physical Chemistry, (a) Organic Chemistry, and (e) The Chemi:try of Food and Drugs, &c., will commence on MONDAY, DECEMBER 350, 1912, or on MONDAY, January 6, 1913 The List of Candidates will be closed on TUESDAY, NOVEMBER 26, 1gt2. Forms of application and further particulars can be obtained from the ReGIsTRAR, Institute of Chemistry, 30 Bloomsbury Square, London. W.C. The Regulations for the Admission of Students, Associates, and Fellows, Gratis. Examination Papers: 1908-09 (2 years), 6d. ; 1910, 6d. 3 1911, 6d. “A List of Official Chemical Appointments.” Fourth Edition, now ready, 2s. (post free, 2s. 3d.). APPOINTMENTS REGISTER.—A Register of Fellows and Associates cf the Institute of Chemistry who are seeking appointments is kept at the Offices of the Institute. Applications for the services of professional chemists should be forwarded to the Registrar, stating the requirements. CITY OF BIRMINGHAM EDOCATION COMMITTEE. LECTURER IN ELECTRICAL AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERING. Applications are invited for the post of Lecturer in Electrical and Mechanical Engineering at the Aston Technical School. Commencing salary, £160 per annum. Full particulars will be forwarded on application to Mr. Geo. MELLor, Secretary, Municipal Technical School, Suffolk Street, Birmingham. The last day tor sending in application is November 25, 1912. JNO. ARTHUR PALMER Secretary of Education. ‘* ATOMs,’ January 2, 1913; Tuesday, January 7; November 4, 1912. UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF NORTH WALES, BANGOR. (4 Constituent College of the University of Wates.) The post of PROFESSOR of AGRICULTURE and ORGANISING SECRETARY of the AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENT is now vecant. Salary, £500 and residence. Applications, with testimonials, will be received up to and including December 2, 1912, by the undersigned, who will furnish full information. JOHN EDWARD LLOYD, M.A., Bangor, Secretary and Registrar. October 21 1012 ST. BARTHOLOMEW’S HOSPITAL AND COLLEGE. DEMONSTRATOR OF CHEMISTRY. Applications are invited for the post of DEMONSTRATOR OF CHEMISTRY. Particulars of duties and emoluments may be obtajned from the under- signed, to whom all applications must be sent before November 30, 1912. November 8, 1912. T. W. SHORE, Dean. TWO SURVEYORS wanted immediately to accompany a Geological Expedition to map a large area on the coast of Peru, healthy district ; preference given to men with foreign experience; knowledge of Spanish an advantage. Good salaries offered ; board, accommodation, and return passages provided.— Adgress “* T. H.,"’ c/o STREET'S, 30 Cornbill, E.C. ENTOMOLOGIST. Entomologist required for position under Colonial Government. Salary £250 to £200 a year, with free quarters and passage. Write giving full particulars, ‘*‘T.Y.,’ c/o J. W. Vickers & Co., Lrov., 5 Nicholas Lane, E.C INNIS Tas 301 THURSDAY, NOVEMBER 14, 1912. ELECTRONS AND THE EEECTRO- MAGNETIC FIELD. Electromagnetic Radiation the Mechanical Reactions arising from it. Being an Adams Prize Essay in the University of Cambridge. By Dr. G. A. Schott. Pp. xxii+330. (Cam- bridge: University Press, 1912.) Price 18s. net. ROF. SCHOTT’S original essay is, in this book, supplemented by a series of valuable appendices, which amply justify the delay in its publication. The work is deductive in plan; its foundations are the electromagnetic equations of Maxwell and Hertz, together with the Larmor- Lorentz expression for the mechanical force on a moving charge. The “retarded potentials” of the electromagnetic field are transformed so as to yield Schott’s solutions, in the form of ‘modified Fourier integrals,’ and most of the calculations are performed from these as starting point. They lead simply, and with considerable mathematical rigour, to many results obtained by other writers; in particular, the “point laws” of Liénard and Wiechert are deduced, and are used to illustrate the general features of the electromagnetic field in a number of special cases. The exact calculations, however, are more readily executed with Schctt’s expressions, and various simple cases of motion of electrons are thus dealt with, as, e.g., uniform or uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion. | Periodic motions, such as uniform circular motion of a single electron, or of a ring of electrons, are also discussed. More complex cases, like pseudo- | Peaodic or aperiodic motions, cannot be solved completely, but the distant field is approximated to. | Specially interesting are the problems relating to the pulse theory of the X-rays, and the precessional ‘motion of a ring of electrons, as applied to Ritz’s theory of the Zeeman effect. The velocities of the electrons are not restricted to be less than the velocity of light, chiefly because the mathematical expressions require no such con- dition (though the work is far simpler in the restricted case). It is pointed out that no experi- mental evidence, either way, has been brought to ‘settle the question of the possibility of velocities exceeding that of light; if the Lorentz mass- formula were universally true, indeed, the question would be decided in the negative, but this formula has been verified (by Bucherer) only for velocities considerably less than that of light. Moreover, the theory of relativity, which is based on this formula and has proved useful in explaining aberration phenomena and the behaviour of moving optical systems, neglects the loss of energy NO. 2246, VOL. 90] and by radiation from accelerated charges; this, how- ever, becomes very important for velocities approaching that of light. In the appendices several theorems are proved which lead up to an interesting dis- cussion of the possible mechanical explanations of the electron. It is shown that the Lorentz de- formable electron is more easily explained mechani- cally than the electrons of Abraham and others, as it only requires an invariable hydrostatic pressure of the «ether over its surface to enable it to subsist. This pressure is estimated (p. 269)-as ro” atmospheres. Moreover, the mass-formula for such an electron is practically the only one which can be applied in the mathematical theory of the mechanical forces and the radiation. For the mathematician the book abounds in problems and suggestions of interest and importance; especially does it clearly display the need for the cooperation of the pure analyst in the study of the summation and convergence of the difficult series and integrals which occur in its investigations. The physicist will, perhaps, ; find it rather tedious to unearth the physical con- clusions (which are pointed out from time to time in the course of the work) from the mass of com- plicated mathematics in which these remarks are involved. The great value of the book would have been increased uf the physical bearing of the results had been summarised in an extra chapter; this is done to a slight extent in the preface. A greater number of numerical calculations would also have been advantageous in giving a clearer grasp of the results, but the great labour required for such an undertaking sufficiently explains the omission. THE LAND AND ITS LORE: (1) Common Land and Inclosure. By Prof. E. C. K. Gonner. Pp. xxx+461+5 maps. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1912.) Price 12s. net. (2) Byways in British Archaeology. By Walter Johnson. Pp. xii+529. (Cambridge: Univer- sity Press, 1912.) Price ros. 6d. net. (1) CIENTIFIC studies of the history of land- holding have a peculiar importance at the present moment, when legislative innovations in ownership are so widely mooted on a priori grounds. By supplying valid inductions from the past, science here, as in other spheres, provides the statesman with a solid foundation for political principles, and a sure test for fallacious schemes. The entire history of English agriculture, so far as it is connected with national progress and advance in civilisation, is bound up with “com- mon” and inclosure, and the passage from the M eae 302 NATURE | NOVEMBER 14, 1912 former to the latter. The land question, it is not too much to say, cannot be begun to be understood until this relation has been worked out. “Common ” in early times was “in entire con- trast to the ideas associated with it in the present day. Its existence now is taken as denoting the claims, somewhat vague and precarious, of the public as against those holding the land and engaged in its cultivation. But this finds no sanction ina time when . . . common was a result of a claim to land, and formed a necessary con- dition of its proper management. . . . The early rights of common were anything . . . rather than a general claim on the part of the public. . Lhe common right was an essential part of agriculture, and it was only as, owing to changes in circum- stances, this became less apparent, that casual profits and gains and the so-called rights of the poor, these latter being in many instances a tres- pass and not a right, came to be important.” Thus Prof. Gonner defines his subject. The history of the method of common and of the gradual progress of inclosure occupies two-thirds of the volume. The rest is devoted to the effects of the evolutionary change. Inclosure is part of “a wider economic movement.” Its “beneficial effect on farming is undoubted . . . particularly in the increased utilisation of what is, after all, the distinctive agricultural wealth of England, rich grazing and dairy lands.” Of particular import- ance is its connection with “the change whereby agriculture, from being a means of subsistence to particular families, had become a source of wealth to the nation.” It is particularly interesting to the sociologist to note that rural population “did not vary with inclosure, and that this movement was not, at any rate, the main cause of the increase in poor relief expenditure.” Prof. Gonner has written an invaluable study, which is final, and should become a classic. No sociologist and no statesman can afford to ignore it. (2) The author of “Folk Memory ” devotes 400 pages to answering the question: In what ways may the church-fabric be regarded as the social centre of early English life? There is abundance of original and controverted matters, such as round towers, the author’s judg- ment is eminently reasonable. For he treats these radiating paths of folklore—they are this rather than byways—from a wide sociological outlook. In “The Folklore of the Cardinal Points,” and “The Labour’d Ox,” he treats new ground. “The Cult of the Horse” is an interesting compilation of paleontological data and early English horse- lore. The “White Horse,” and what amounts still to a tabu against eating horseflesh, receive NO. 2246, VOL. 90] observation, in illumination. Mr. Johnson believes that folk- memory is on the wane, since ‘“‘the printed book and the daily newspaper . . . remove the need for its lawful exercise.” It would be more scientific, perhaps, to regard the ultra-popular reactions to these modern influences as being them- selves a new stage of folk-thinking and folk- memory. A. E. CRAWLEY. ENGINEERING HANDBOOKS. (1) Reference Book for Statical Calculations (Rapid Statics), Force-diagrams for Frame- works, Tables, Instructions for Statical Calcu- ae | lations, €>c., for all Classes of Building and — Engineering. By Francis Ruff. Pp. 136; illustrated. Vol. i. (London: Constable and — Cor, td’, Tors) sebricers- net. (2) Les Nomogrammes de I'Ingémeur. By Ricardo Seco de la Garza. Avec.une Préface de Maurice d’Ocagne. Pp. xii+195+85 plates. (Paris: Gauthier-Villars, 1912.) Price 12 francs. (3) Laboratory Instruction Sheets in Elementary Applied Mechanics.’ By Prof. A. Morley and W. Inchley. Pp. v+50. (London: Longmans, Green and Co., 1912.) Price 1s. 3d. net. (4) A Handbook on the Gas Engine. Comprising a Practical Treatise on Internal Combustion Engines. By Herman Halder. Translated _ from the German and Edited by W. M. Huskis-— son. Pp. xii+317. (London: Crosby Lock- wood and Son, 1911.) Price 18s. net. (5) Concrete Costs. Tables and Recommenda- tions for Estimating the Time and Cost of — Labour Operations in Concrete Constructions and for Introducing Economical Methods of By Dr. Frederick W. Taylor First edition. Pp. —s Management. and Stanford E. Thompson. xxii+ 709. (New York: John Wiley and Sons; London: Chapman and Hall, Ltd., 1912.) Price 21s. net. (1) HE usual graphical methods for deter- mining the stresses in framed structures form the subject of this little book. With the exceptions of the wind pressure on roof trusses, the load on a framework column, and pressure upon retaining walls, the structures are subjected to. symmetrical loads concentrated at the joints. Each form of roof, bridge truss, girder, or canti- lever occupies a separate page, together with its reciprocal figure, the construction of the force polygons being described on the opposite sheet. There are some thirty examples of the usual forms of truss, covering the ordinary cases that occur in engineering practice. The method adopted of forming the reciprocal figures loses much by the ’ notation employed, and is far less satisfactory — NOVEMBER 14, 1912| NATURE 393 than Bow’s notation, in which the spaces between the members of a structure are designated by a letter or numeral. The concluding third of the book contains a short dissertation on reinforced concrete (in which the ratio of the moduli of elasticity of steel to concrete is taken at the low value of 10), and this is followed by tables usually found in engineers’ handbooks on the geometrical properties of structural shapes, such as moments of inertia. There are many blemishes due to im- perfect translation, and we find such expressions as “1o-fold security” for “factor of safety of ten.” The translation does not extend to weights and measures, which are in the metric system. (2) The preface to this volume is, for the most part, a reprint of remarks made by M. Maurice d’Ocagne, Ingénieur en chef des Ponts et Chaussées, at the Fourth International Congress of Mathematicians, in Rome, 1908. In this paper he defines the word ‘“nomogramme,” which is probably new to most English mathematicians, the nearest English equivalent being an abacus, known as an instrument for performing calcula- tions by balls sliding on wires, which are still employed in Russia, China, and Japan. M. d’Ocagne has brought forward this system of graphical calculation by published researches extending over twenty-five years, and _ the author of this work employs the method for solving problems in military engineering, though many of the examples are of wider applica- tion, and are of extended use in the solution of equations of three or four (or more) variables. The interest in the work would therefore lie chiefly in the method as such, the particular applications of the method to the solution of equations used by the military engineer being of secondary import- ance, though, as a handbook for rapid calculation within the limits of the chosen field of utility, it would certainly serve a useful purpose to many. The reader will doubtless find himself constructing nomogrammes to suit particular problems of his own, and thus the work before us is extremely suggestive, and a fruitful stimulus to the use of a graphical method of varied application. There are eighty-five nomogrammes in the work, each on a separate sheet and consisting for the most part of straight lines wpon which divisions are marked. A loose celluloid sheet marked off in rectangular coordinates is provided for laying upon the nomogramme, and upon placing it in such a position that the known values of the variables in the equation are cut by the lines, the value of the unknown variable may be ascertained by intersection upon the scale provided for that variable. Thus, for example, the solution of plane triangles may be taken as being a problem of NO. 2246, VOL. go] general application. Given the two sides and in- cluded angle, the opposite side (a) may be found directly by the application of the rectangular co- ordinates to the nomogramme; in other words, the equation a2=b2+c2—2ab cos A may be solved for all values of b, c and A. Besides the usual problems in mensuration, the safe loads on columns for given values of the ratio of length to least radius of gyration for various materials, the bending of beams, stresses in roof trusses and bridges and numerous other problems may be solved without calculation. The printing of the scales on the nomogrammes leaves much to be desired, but the work as a whole is a most interest- ing contribution to graphical methods of solution. (3) This little book is made up of twenty-five single perforated sheets bearing upon each a con- cise description of a simple laboratory experiment in applied mechanics with an illustration of the apparatus. The experiments are of the usual kind for the elementary mechanical laboratory and com- prise statics, efficiency of lifting machines and friction, forces in braced structures, moduli of elasticity, spring vibrations, pendulum, and others. Prof. Morley states that they are selected from in- struction sheets used in his laboratory, and may be usefully employed in conjunction with his text- books on elementary applied mechanics. However opinions may differ concerning the expediency of giving a student cut-and-dried directions concern- ing his laboratory work and leaving little to his own judgment and talent, those who favour this plan of instruction will find all that they desire in these well-arranged experiments. It saves much time and needless explanation on the part of the demonstrator to have the experiments written out, and as these are selected by experienced teachers they should prove useful in the elementary laboratory. (4) This work contains a mass of constructional detail on the gas engine which should find favour with engineers and draughtsmen engaged in the design of such motors. It represents the results of much practical experience, and on the part of both the author and translator it shows a very care- ful scrutiny of the best engineering practice. The thermodynamics of the subject is somewhat neglected, but this omission is counterbalanced by the exhaustive treatment of the forces developed by the engine’ when running. The effect of the inertia of the reciprocating parts, turning moment diagrams for calculating fly-wheel masses, and balancing, are discussed with the view of assisting the draughtsman in his design, and the effects of various combinations of cylinders receive more attention than usual in works of this kind. Minute details are set forth with painstaking care, and NATURE [ NOVEMBER 14, I912 there is no part of the anatomy of the engine which has not a place in the work. Metric measures have been converted by the translator, but the tabulated dimensions of Continental engines have been re- tained in millimetres in parallel columns. (5) The cost of mixing and laying concrete is essentially governed by local circumstances, and it would be unsafe to generalise from isolated results, however carefully they may have been collected. The authors have been at great pains to collect information based upon work done in the United States, and no doubt with due allowance for the difference in the cost of labour and materials and the varying rate of output of work, much of their conclusions would be applicable to other conditions and places. But the work is not wholly confined to questions of cost, for it contains much valuable, if incidental, information concerning the making of concrete in bulk, form of moulds, reinforcement for ferro-concrete and other matters pertaining to construction in this material. It is to be regretted that so much prominence was given to costs, though the title of the work very clearly points to this as the dominant feature. Nevertheless, with due allowances, as a reference book there is much in it for the architect and engineer, and it is eminently satisfying to know that the figures were obtained by close application and systematic study of construction work for many years. UR BOOKSHELF. Manual Training Woodwork Exercises Treated Mathematically. A Scheme for Linking up Practical Mathematics with Woodwork; in- cluding a Complete Course of Mensuration. By EF. E. Drury. Pp. xi-{215. (London: G: Bell and Sons, Ltd., 1912.) Price 2s. 6d. As is indicated by the title, the author’s object in preparing this volume has been to show how practical mathematics may be linked up with woodwork in the form of mensuration, &c. The book is intended for use in preparatory day trade schools, some secondary schools, and in evening continuation and technical courses of an elemen- tary character. It is stated that the work of calculation is intended to be an application of the principles received in lecture and experimental classes, but it will be seen that these may, in a large measure, be imparted by the woodwork teacher if he has a generous allowance of time. With this end in view, the book contains a very good systematic course in mensuration, elementary algebra, and the construction and properties of simple graphs; the application of these principles to the course of woodwork exercises provided is clear and good, and the book should be very useful to manual instructors who are expected to train boys both in practical mathematics and woodwork. As to the desirability of adopting this course NO. 2246, VOL. 90] there may be difference of opinion, especially with reference to evening schools, where the time per- mitted for actual work in the wood shop is very limited. Any reason which may be advanced for bracketing together woodwork and mathematics may equally well be applied to other branches of practice, with a consequent multiplication of the number of classes in practical mathematics carried on in the same building, each no doubt selecting those portions which appear to suit the particular trade involved. It is fairly obvious that such a plan—already adopted in some _ institutions— cannot fail ultimately to lower mathematical standards. The author has been successful in carrying out his views in the beok, and, if it be regarded as a further means of interesting students in the woodwork shop in their work in classes under the supervision of mathematical teachers, it can be highly commended. The woodwork examples are good, and the book is well and clearly illustrated. By Angel Angel Compendio Elemental de Zoologia. Gallardo. Pp. 360. (Buenos Aires: Estrada y Cia, 1912.) Pror. Ancri GaLtarpo has prepared a useful elementary text-book of zoology, specially adapted for the Argentine Republic. After an introduction contrasting organisms and inorganic things, com- paring plants and animals, describing cells and tissues, and the early stages of development, dis- cussing the factors of evolution and other gener- alities, the author passes to a rapid survey of the animal kingdom. The book is very clearly and tersely written, with numerous illustrations, for the most part admirable. In the classification adopted, “Tipo vii., Lofostomas,” includes the three classes—Rotifers, Bryozoa, and Brachio- pods—characterised by the tentacular apparatus at the mouth. Still more doubtful is “Tipo viii., Gusanos,” which includes Annelids and Plathel- minthes, characterised by having trochosphere larve. Twelve Moons. By Frances A. Bardswell. Pp. go. (London: Elkin Mathews, 1912.) Price Psod. Net. In twelve short sections devoted to the respective months of the year, the author expresses pretty | sentiments upon the changing beauties of the countryside. She loves the poetry of nature; and her words will awaken sympathetic response in readers who are content to contemplate the surface of things. The old proverb “ February Fill-dyke ” leads her to say: ‘“‘To brim the ponds and flood the waterways is the mission of the month.” As a matter of fact, the average rainfall of February in England as a whole is less than that of either January, August, October, November or Decem- ber, though there are local differences. Possibly the explanation of the proverb is not that ‘“deluges of rain” actually fallin February, but that the water- courses begin to fill up during that month as the ‘result of the rise of the water-table due to the rainfall of preceding months. NOVEMBER 14, 1912| NATURE 320 LEDLERS TO THE EDITOR. |The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of Nature. No notice is taken of anonymous communications.] Radium and Earth History. lr would appear that radium has landed geologists and biologists in a difficulty greater than that trom which it was hoped it would deliver them. There is radium in the earth, and radium in disintegrating | gives out heat. Therefore a once molten globe will cool down more slowly than if it contained no such independent source of heat. Lord Kelvin’s calcula- tions were made on the supposition that there was no source of heat except what the earth possessed as a molten globe. Hence we are at liberty to extend the time that has elapsed since the earth became the pos- sible theatre of geological change to 500,000,000, I,000,000,000, Or even more, years ago. given us a blank cheque on the bank of time. So far so good. But when the actual calculations | were made as to how much the radium known to exist in the outer shell of the earth would effect its cooling, this was found to be too great. fact, raise the temperature of the earth the fraction of a degree annually. Two suggestions in the way of explaining the diffi- culty have been made by Prof. Joly in his ‘‘ Radio- activity and Geology.’’ We do not think that either will bear the test of careful examination. It is only the outer shell of the earth that can be examined for radium, and though there appears to be no diminution with depth, there may be less, or none, in the lower parts. If, then, we have to spread the heating effects of the radium of the outer shell over the whole earth, it will obviously be insufficient to raise its temperature. The only possible result of its disintegration will be a retardation of its cooling to an indefinite extent, which is what is wanted. This is the first suggestion. The second, admitting that the proportion of radium in the interior may be the same as at the surface, avails itself of the fact that vast masses cf the central earth may be thermally isolated for immense periods of time. The rise in temperature of such parts—due to their radium—need not, then, affect the rocky crust. In the course of prolonged ages, however, such in- ternal reservoirs of heat might, so to speak, over- flow. Great rushes of heat might reduce the outer shell to a molten state, and inaugurate a new geo- logical era. To quote Prof. Joly :— “With an interest almost amounting to anxiety, geologists will watch the development of researches which may result in timing the strata and the phases of evolutionary advance; and may even—going still further back—give us reason to see in the dis- crepancy between denudation and radio-active methods, glimpses of past zons, beyond that day of regenera- tion which at once ushered in our era of life, and, for all that went before, was ‘a sleep and a forgetting.’”’ But let us look at these interesting suggestions a little more closely. If the radium contents of the outer shell were spent in heating the whole earth— or any considerable portion of it beyond the shell con- taining it—then we might suppose it just sufficient to retard its cooling indefinitely. But as the temperature of the earth increases with depth, we cannot suppose | that any of the radium-generated heat of the outer | It must all be spent in heat- | Therefore, according to calcula- | tion, this outer shell should be rising in temperature. ' shell passes downwards. ing its own mass. NO. 2246, VOL. 90] Radium has | It would, in | | There seems to be no escape from this conclusion. And this applies also—and even more forcibly—to the second explanation. For with an interior rising in temperature it is still more difficult to imagine any of the radium-generated heat of the outer shell passing downwards. The radium heat of the crust must all be spent on itself. Even this does not express the full extent of the difficulty. The theory of the radio-active elements is that they have their periods in which they lose half their substance. The period of radium is 1760 years, and that of uranium 5,000,000,000 years. Now, since we know of no source whereby the supply of uranium in the earth is replenished, we must suppose that there was twice as much uranium 5000 million years ago as there is to-day. And whatever length of time we go back we must suppose there was more uranium, and hence a greater heating effect, than there is to-day. A molten globe could not begin to cool until the radium contents of its outer shell were | less than that of the earth to-day. The moon presents another difficulty. Our satellite | is generally held to be a bit of the earth thrown off some fifty-six million years ago. It was then molten, | and the drag of the tides produced in its molten mass by the earth gradually reduced its rate of rotation. Now it only turns once on its axis in the course of a revolution round the earth. The moon’s radium has not prevented it reaching a stage of cooling far beyond that of the earth. And yet the moon may be supposed to have had the full proportion of radium known to exist in the outer shell of the earth. Yet it has cooled down from a molten state in fifty-six million years in spite of its radium! And it would appear that the earth has done the same, although it has not reached the same stage. For if the moon was molten when it began its separate existence, so must the earth— which gave it birth—have been. And it would appear that there must be more radium in the sun than in the earth. For helium, the product of the disintegration of radium, was discovered spectro- scopically in the sun years before it was known on earth. It must surely, therefore, exist there in much | larger quantities. Hence the sun should be getting hotter at a greater rate than the earth. The difficulties introduced by radium into earth history are greater than that which it was hoped it would remove. G. W. Burman. The Moon and Poisonous Fish. May I ask for a little space in your columns to inquire if any of your readers can give any informa- tion as to the origin of a belief, very widespread in South Africa, that fish exposed to the influence of moonlight becomes poisonous? I have not yet attempted any experiments to test the truth of the statement, nor have I been able to obtain actual evidence of illness or death following the eating of such fish. The belief is very firmly rooted here among all classes of persons, but no one seems able to say how or when it originated, or on what grounds it is based. One very trustworthy witness told me that he had accidentally left some fresh fish out in the moon- light one night, and that it was quite bad in the morning; he admitted, however, that the closeness of the atmosphere might have occasioned the effect, and, of course, he did not divide the sample so as to keep part of it unexposed. I intend to test the statement experimentally when opportunity offers; meanwhile possibly some of your readers can say whether the belief in this ill-effect of moonlight is found in other localities. E. G. Bryant. Grey Institute, Port Elizabeth, Cape Colony, October 7. 306 Gramophone Experiments. For some time I have been experimenting with the gramophone sound-box, and I came to the conclusion that with a diaphragm nipped firmly between two rubber rings there was a tendency for a vibration from the stylus bar to be cannoned back from the edge so held, and that one did not get a true ring. I made a sound-box as shown below (Figs. 1 and 2) in Fics. 1 and 2.—a is half a split ring connected to the sound box @3 cis the other half of the split ring connected to a by screws dd; the diaphragm e is held in position by an elastic ring / which is secured to sound box by means of the two halves a and ¢; gis the stylus bar. The sound box is protected by patent. which the diaphragm is only held on its edge, and by cutting the front of the box in half it enabled me to mount the diaphragm free from distortion. With this box there is a very marked difference. In a band record one can differentiate each instru- ment more readily. Z Fic, 3.—A connected with tapered arm; Z with horn. Fic. 4.—Showing position of conical reflector. Working on Prof. McKendrick’s experiments, as described in Nature of April 20, 1911, I found that with an enclosed horn machine, as shown in Figs. 3 and 4, by passing the sound waves through about 17 ft. of 2-in. flexible metallic voice tube (the tubes all being inside the cabinet out of sight), all the NO. 2246, VOL. 90] NATURE [ NOVEMBER 14, 1912 noises which he eliminates by the use of peas are done away with, and the sound much increased by not using peas. In addition to this, to augment the sound I place a 2 ft. by 8 in. deep conical reflector with the apex of the cone cut off, leaving a 4-in. opening pointing to horn, as shown in Fig. 4. The result is that a musical effect is produced free from overtones and harsh sounds. ERNEST DE LA RUE. WitH reference to the above interesting communica- tion by Mr. Ernest de la Rue, I have to say that the method he has adopted for fixing the diaphragm of the sound-box is a marked improvement. Mr. de la Rue has kindly sent me a specimen of the sound-box, and it has given me great satisfaction, both as to quality and volume of tone. I have not had the opportunity of hearing the arrangement he has devised tor remoy- ing friction noises, but no doubt it will be satisfactory. 1 am quite pleased with my own method, which gives excellent results, and it is adapted to the older form of gramophone which I use. The tones are sufficiently loud for a room of ordinary dimensions, and the quality, with Mr. de la Rue’s sound-box, is excellent. A witty friend of mine has called my plan the pipe of peace (peas)! J. G. McKenprick. Reported Occurrence of the Dartford Warbler at the Tuskar Light Station. I HAVE recently returned after nine weeks’ residence at the Tuskar Light Station, off the south-east coast of county Wexford, where I have been prosecuting the study of bird-migration. I obtained several in- teresting records, including those of some rare species. To these may be added a highly interesting and at the same time important record of the occurrence of a Dartford warbler. Owing to the sedentary habits of this species its appearance at the Tuskar Rock was quite unexpected, and heretofore the bird was un- kknown in Ireland. This warbler was obtained on October 27, as I am informed by the principal lightkeeper, to whom I owe my cordial thanks for the kind aid he has so often and cheerfully given me in connection with my work on bird-migration. C. J. Patren. The University, Sheffield, November ro. THE CRYSTAL SPACE-LATTICE REVEALED BY RONTGEN RAYS. DNS a visit to Munich at the beginning of August last the writer was deeply interested in some extraordinary photographs which were shown to him by Prof. von Groth, the doyen of the crystallographic world, and professor of mineralogy at the university of that city. They had been obtained by Dr. M. Laue, assisted in the experiments by Herren W. Friedrich and P. Knip- ping, in the laboratory of Prof. A. Sommerfeld in Munich, by passing a narrow cylindrical beam of R6éntgen rays through a crystal of zinc blende, the cubic form of naturally occurring sulphide of zinc, and receiving the transmitted rays upon a photographic plate. They consisted of black spots arranged in a geometrical pattern, in which a square predominated, exactly in accordance with the holohedral cubic symmetry of the space- lattice attributed by crystallographers to zine blende. Prof. von Groth expressed the opinion, in agree- ment with Herr Laue, that owing to the exceed- NOVEMBER 14, 1912| NATURE A 307 ingly short wave length of the R6ntgen rays | (assuming them to be of electromagnetic wave character), they had been able to penetrate the crystal structure and to form an _ interference (diffraction) photograph of the Bravais space- Fic. :-—Diagrammatic representation of Dr. Laue’s apparatus. lattice. This latter is the structural foundation of the more complicated regular point-system accord- ing to which the crystal is homogeneously built up, and the points of which (the point-system) represent the chemical elementary atoms. The space-lattice, in fact, was conceived to play the same function with the short-wave Réntgen rays that the diffraction grating does to the longer electromagnetic waves of light. The details of this work were laid before the Bavarian Academy of Sciences at Munich in two memoirs, on June 8 and July 6 last, and the two memoirs are now duly published in the Sitzungs- berichte of the Academy.! Besides a diagram of the apparatus, which is reproduced in Fig. 1, they are illustrated by reproductions of a dozen of these photographs, one of which is also repro- duced in Fig. 2. There can be no doubt that they are of supreme interest, and that they do in reality afford a visual proof of the modern theory of crystal structure built up by the combined labours of Bravais, Sohncke, Schénflies, von Fedorow, and Barlow. Moreover, they em- phasise in a remarkable manner the importance of the space-lattice, so strongly insisted on from theoretical considerations by Bravais, Lord Kelvin, and von Groth, and from experimental considerations by Miers and the writer. They further confirm the structure assigned to this | binary compound zine sulphide, ZnS, by Pope and Barlow. Incidentally they may form a crucial test of the accuracy of the two rival theories now being discussed as to the nature of X-rays, the corpuscular and the wave theory. l Srtcungsber. der Kon. Bayerischen Akad. der Wiss., Math. Phys. Kl., T1912, 303 and 363. NO. 2246, VOL. 90] Out of an excellent crystal of zinc blende a plate Was Cut a centimetre square and half a millimetre thick, parallel to a cube face (100), that is, per- pendicular to one of the principal cubic crystallo- graphic axes of the crystal (a tetragonal axis of symmetry). The plate was supported in the usual manner on the crystal holder of a goniometer, and precisely adjusted so that a beam of Réntgen | rays one millimetre in diameter impinged perpen- dicularly upon it, after passing first through a series of screens to eliminate secondary radiations from the glass walls of the Réntgen tube. The last screen, which gave the final form to the bundle of rays, was a plate of lead a centimetre thick, pierced by a cylindrical hole 0°75 millimetre in diameter, and fitted with a de- |---- licate means of adjustment so R that the axis of the boring could be brought exactly perpendicular to the crystal plate. The beam of pure Réntgen rays of circular section thus passing through the crystal normally was received, also normally, on a | Schleussner-R6ntgen photographic plate, which was subsequently developed with rodinal. The time of exposure in different experiments varied from one to twenty hours, the whole apparatus being excluded from all ordinary light by a covering box. The positive print, reproduced ices from the negative thus obtained shows a central circular black spot, about half a centi- metre in diameter, surrounded symmetrically by sixteen smaller black spots of about the same intensity, but of elliptical shape (about two millimetres long), arranged in a diagonally in P * oe = » => \ ‘ ¢ " ‘s ‘ _ \ Fit ry ‘ : | Le ae | | . ial qian if ; \ ‘ \ . ee gf ’ | ~ \ é ea ams / ~ - 4 ~= E <= ee Fic. 2.—Photogra;hic effect of passage of Réntgen rays through zinc blende. (diamond-wise) placed square, four spots being on each side of the square and separated from each other by about half a centimetre, the centre of the square being exactly occupied by the large spot already alluded to, which was caused by the 308 NATURE [ NoveMBER 14, 1912 direct rays. Outside the square of spots were others of a fainter character, also arranged with similar cubic symmetry, and there was also a faint square of spots inside the intense square, nearer to the latter than to the large central spot. The tetragonal nature of the axis of symmetry along which the Réntgen rays were travelling through the crystal is most strikingly apparent in the photograph. One recognises at once also the presence of two perpendicular planes of sym- metry in the arrangement of the spots. In fact, the figure corresponds to the holohedral or full symmetry (class 32) of the cubic system, in spite of the fact that zine blende belongs to the hexakis- tetrahedral class 31 (one of the so-called hemi- hedral classes) of cubic symmetry. Now this in- teresting fact affords the most beautiful and perfect proof that it is the space-lattice (Raum- gitter) of the crystal structure which is affording the figure, and that no other property than this space-lattice is concerned. For space-lattices alone always possess holohedral symmetry, and they determine the crystal system and angles and obedience with the law of rational indices. Inter- penetrations, translations, and coincidence-move- ments of space-lattices, which afford those of the sixty-five Sohncke regular point-systems which account for the simpler cases of hemihedrism (types of crystals of lower than holohedral sym- metry), are here obviously not concerned; still more emphatically, if possible, is this true of the 165 yet more complicated point-systems involving mirror-image symmetry made known to us by von Fedorow and Barlow. In other words, it is not the stereographic arrangement of the elementary atoms which is revealed by the photographs, but the underlying space-lattice, which is arrived at by taking the atoms of the same chemical element which are similarly (sameways, identically) situated through- out the whole structure. This may either mean (in very simple cases) taking a similarly situated atom in each chemical molecule, or (more generally) one such atom in a group of molecules. In the case of zinc blende, if Pope and Barlow’s conception of the structure be correct,? only one zinc or sulphur atom in every group of sixteen molecules is thus sameways orientated, thirty-two atoms (sixteen of zine and sixteen of sulphur) going to form the complete, double, regular point- system (each atom being considered as a point, and the sixteen atoms of each element forming a simple regular point-system). In order to be quite clear, the definition of crystal structure may be quoted which was given by Prof. von Groth at the 1904 meeting of the British Association. Mr. Barlow has since ampli- fied the statement so as to include the more com- plicated cases, but as these are not concerned in the case of zinc blende the definition is fully adequate for our purpose. A crystal—considered as indefinitely extended—con- sists of n interpenetrating regular point-systems, each of which is formed from similar atoms; each of these 1t71 and 1178; see particularly Journ. Chem. Soc. Trans., 1907, xci., Fig. 17 on p. 1171 and Fig. 1 on p. 1152. Ter 2246, VOL. 90] point-systems is built up from n interpenetrating space- lattices, each of the latter being formed from similar atoms occupying parallel positions. All the space- lattices of the combined system are geometrically identical or are characterised by the same elementary parallelepipedon. ‘ Now the combined system of zinc blende is prob- ably that of the type 63 of Sohncke, and ga, of Barlow, and in their 1907 memoir, already alluded to, Pope and Barlow describe the probable con- stitution of the crystals of this substance, on the basis of their assumption that the spheres of influence of the zinc and sulphur atoms are approximately equal, the fundamental acting valency of both elements being here considered as dyadic. If the spheres of influence of the zinc and sulphur atoms, or the parallelohedra into which they are compressed when the interstitial spaces are removed in attaining their closest packed arrangement, were quite equal, the sym- metry would be cubic holohedral; but the slight difference in size and the different effect of com- pression on the atoms of the two elements degrades the symmetry into the hexakis-tetra- hedral class 31, next lower in the cubic system. This constitution of the crystals of the simple binary compounds, such as zinc sulphide, does not depend, however, on-Pope and Barlow’s ver- sion of the theory of crystal structure; for the sizes of the spheres of influence of the atoms of the two elements are assumed to be approximately equal, just as is the case when valency is not con- sidered to enter into the problem. It is equally the probable one according to the theory of von Fedorow, based on parallelohedra of cubic and hypohexagonal types, which has led him to the remarkable advance in crystallochemical analysis described by the writer in Nature of July.18 (p- 503); and as the parallelohedron of von Fedorow represents the combined system (that of Pope and Barlow only representing a single atom), its central representative point is a point of the space-lattice itself. The definition of von Groth is thus equally applicable to both versions. Thus we are dealing with a crystal supposed to be constructed of two interpenetrating regular point- systems (type No. 63 of Sohncke), corresponding: to zine and sulphur atoms respectively ; each of these is composed of sixteen interpenetrating space-lattices, each and all formed from one of the two elements only, and composed of atoms of that element occu- pying parallel positions. All the thirty-two space- lattices of the double or combined system are geometrically identical, and are characterised by the same elementary parallelepipedon, a cube in this case of zinc blende. Hence one type of space- lattice characterises the whole crystal, and it is this space-lattice, formed by similar (consisting of the same element) and simularly situated atoms, which has apparently afforded the photograph of spots showing holohedral cubic symmetry. This is equally true whether the structure attributed by Pope and Barlow to zine blende, or a less com- plicated one, be the correct structure. These are the crystallographical facts which ! must be taken into account in any discussion as NOVEMBER 14, 1912] NATURE 309 to the nature of these photographs, which does not appear to have been the case in a letter from Prof. W. H. Bragg, which appeared in Nature of October 24 (p. 219). It would be very interesting if Prof. Bragg would give a revised account of his views after considering these crystallographic data, with which perhaps only a specialist could be expected to be familiar. For it is quite possible that his conclusions may still prove valid when this has been done. But until then judgment must be suspended. In further confirmatory experiments the crystal was adjusted so that the primary Roéntgen rays fell perpendicularly on an octohedral face (111), and subsequently on a rhombic dodecahedral face (110). In the former case the trigonal nature of the symmetry axis along which the rays passed was clearly revealed by three pairs of spots arranged symmetrically to positions 120° apart, while in the latter case the spots indicated the diagonal nature of the axis by being arranged in two pairs only, 180° apart. When the crystal was rotated a few degrees out of exact adjustment, spots of like character still appeared, but no longer symmetrical to the central large spot, affording another confirmation that it is the space-lattice which is responsible for the photographs. In his Becquerel Memorial Lecture to the Chemical Society on October 17, the text of which is just published,? Sir Oliver Lodge referred in the following words to a brief announcement of the important work of Laue and his co-workers which was made by the writer on his return from Munich in September. This, if it be a fact, will have to be recognised as a striking and admirable case of scientific prediction, the various crystalline structures and accuracy of characteristic facets having been indicated by theory long before there was any hope of actually seeing them; so that once more—always assuming that the heralded discovery is substantiated—the theoretical abstraction will haye become concrete and visible. It will now be clear, from the detailed memoirs just published, that the writer’s announcement is fully substantiated. Crystallography thus affords to its sister science Chemistry the first ‘visible proof of the accuracy of Dalton’s atomic theory, and now enters into a new sphere of still greater usefulness. The important work of von Fedorow on crystallochemical analysis, described in the writer’s last communication to Nature (loc. cit.), is based essentially on the assumption of the space- lattice structure of crystals which is now rendered visible to our eyes, for the centres or analogous points of his parallelohedra form either one of the fourteen space-lattices or one of nine simple Sohncke point-systems composed of interpenetrat- ing space-lattices; that work is thereby enhanced in value and placed on an absolutely trustworthy basis. Crystallography has thus become an exact science leading us to a practical knowledge of the hitherto mysterious world where Dalton’s atoms and molecules reign supreme. AE wi. Duron: 3 Journ. Chem. Soc. Trens., October, 1912, CI, 2028. NO. 2246, VOL. 90| GEOPHYSICAL MEMOIRS.1 Be the authority of the Meteorolegical Com- mittee, and under the style and title of Geophysical Memoirs, the publication of a series of investigations has been commenced with the issue of the four “blue-books ” before us. It is evident that a high standard of value is contem- plated; if possible, higher than that of previous “Reports of Investigations in Dynamical and Statistical Meteorology,” which appear in the same section of Meteorological Office publications. We shall look forward with interest to the suc- ceeding memoirs, which represent a genuine attempt to dispel the reproach often cast upon meteorologists as mere collectors of undigested statistics with no real claim to the title of men of science. The subjects of the memoirs already received are quite independent. In No. 1, the Marine Superintendent of the Meteorological Office (Campbell Hepworth, Commander R.N.R.) dis- cusses the effect of the Labrador current upon the surface temperature of the North Atlantic, and of the latter upon air temperature and pressure over the British Isles. It is interesting, in view of the vagaries of the latter within even the last eighteen months, to find it definitely stated that the much- discussed prevalence of ice in the Atlantic is not a cause of cold weather here, but only a sym- ptomatic effect of the cold Labrador current, the meeting of which with the Gulf Stream is held responsible for the notorious fogs off the banks of Newfoundland. The discussion of the data for 1903 to 1907 and for most of rort is illustrated by an interesting series of plates giving mean sea- surface isotherms of the North Atlantic for January, April, July, and October, thermo-isopleths for surface temperature between Florida Straits and Valencia (Ireland), mean annual surface tempera- ture for every 2° square in the North Atlantic, and separate diagrams for each of the years under discussion, giving monthly prevalence of ice in the Atlantic measured by 1° squares in which it was observed, the sea temperature, and the air temperature and pressure for three British coast stations, Sumburgh Head, Shields, and Valencia. The author’s great experience, both at sea and in the office dealing with the mass of observations communicated from ships, renders his views especially worthy of consideration. In No. 2, Mr. W.. H. Dines, the foremost British investigator of the upper air, continues some previous work with discussions of the vertical 1 (1) ‘* The Effect of the Labrador Current upon the Surface Temperature of the North Atlantic, and of the latter upon the Air Temperature and Pressure over the British Isles.” By Commander M. W. C. Hepworth, C.B., Pp. r0+9 plates. Price od. (2) ‘‘Vhe Free Atmosphere in the Region of the British Isles. Further Contributions to the Investigation of the Upper Air, comprising the Vertical ‘Temperature Distribution in the Atmosphere over England, with some remarks on the General and Local Circulation: Abstract of a paper printed in Volume ccxi of the Philosophical Transactions, Series A, and Total and Partial Correlation Coefficients between Sundry Variables of the Upper Air.” By W. H. Dines, F.R.S. Pp. rr-so+plates ro-12. Price ts. (3) “Graphical Construction for the Epicentre of an Earthquake.” By G. W. Walker. Pp. 51-54+plate 13. Price 3d. (4) “‘On the Radiation Records obtained in 1911 at South Kensington, together with a comparison between them and the Corresponding Absolute Observations of Radiation made at Kew Observatory.’ By R. Corless. Pp. 55-61+plate rg. Price 3¢. (London: H.M. Stationery Office and the M ‘teorological Office, 1912). Ae. NATURE [NovEMBER 14, 1912 temperature distribution in the atmosphere over | England, with some remarks on the general and local circulation (this being an abstract of a paper appearing in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society), and with total and partial correla- tion coefficients between sundry variables of the upper air. The main conclusions, as we gather from Dr. Shaw’s preface to this memoir, are that the upper regions of cyclonic areas are colder than those of anti-cyclonic areas, and that the temperature up to the stratosphere varies in the same direction as the pressure at the surface, and that a close relation exists between the five quantities—pressure at ground level, mean tem- perature up to nine kilometres, pressure at nine- kilometre level, height of troposphere, and tem- perature of stratosphere. Illustrations are given of progessive changes in cloud formation. In No. 3, Mr. G. W. Walker, superintendent of Eskdalemuir Observatory, which has become answerable to the Meteorological Office, gives a graphical construction for the epicentre of an earthquake; and in No. 4 Mr. R. Corless, who, as Dr. Shaw’s scientific secretary, is following in the footsteps of such men as Dr. G. C. Simpson and Mr. Ernest Gold, deals with the radiation records obtained in 1911 at South Kensington, together with a comparison between them and the corresponding absolute observations of radia- tion made at Kew Observatory. We need only remark that it would be more satisfactory for some purposes if a more direct comparison could be made than one between a vertical instrument at one station and a total radiation instrument at another station, operated for only part of the time. Mr. Corless himself emphasises this difficulty, but apart from the comparison with Kew, the actual observations are of great interest, and show among other results the inadequacy of the sun- shine instrument as a radiation recorder. W. W. B. THE BIOLOGY OF THE FIG-TREE AND ITS INSECT GUEST.1 V E take advantage of a recent treatise on fig- culture to enlarge and correct what has hitherto been taught about the biology of the fig- tree and its insect guest, Blastophaga. Our new information is drawn from Dr. Ruggero Ravasini’s “Die Feigenbaume Italiens”” (Bern, 1911), which gives the results of a prolonged study made in Italy. The research has been directed by. Prof. A. Tschirch, of Bern; for the detailed observa- tions and experiments we have to thank Dr. Ravasini, who, in addition to his scientific attain- ments, enjoys the advantage of being an Italian, and thereby better able to win the confidence of Italian fig-growers. Fig-cultivators and all biologists who make a special study of the fig- tree will, of course, betake themselves to ‘the original treatise, which is clear, interesting, well- illustrated, and not too lengthy. We shall here 1 “ Die Feigenbiume Italiens und ihre Beziehungen zu einander.’’ By Dr. Ruggero Ravasini, Pp. 174-+-6. (Bern: Max Drechsel, 1911.) Price Ir marks. NO. 2246, VOL. 90| address ourselves to those biologists for whom a less complete exposition will suffice, at least for the moment. The structure and life-history of the fig-tree have been modified by long-continued cultivation ; and in order to simplify the presentation of the facts, we shall first describe the reproductive process in the wild fig-tree, which still maintains itself in Italy, probably also in all fig-growing countries where the ground is not too closely occupied by cultivation. The wild fig-tree is moncecious, its unisexual flowers being collected into mixed inflorescences. In remote ancestors of the figs the head may have taken the usual flattish or convex form. Dorstenia, an allied plant, which is now and then seen in hothouses, bears a crowd of small greenish flowers on a flattened disc about an inch wide. In a fig the edges of the disc close in upon the flowers, and we get a hollow, pear-shaped receptacle lined with minute, crowded, unisexual flowers. The opening is not only narrowed, but further obstructed by outward-pointing scales. During ripening the wall of the receptacle becomes thickened, and the central cavity almost dis- appears. In Dorstenia the small fruits are shot out by the turgidity of the wall; in the figs the wall may become eatable, and promote the dis- persal of the seeds in another fashion. The wild fig-tree bears three different kinds of inflorescence, according to the season of the year. There is a spring inflorescence, bearing male and sterile female flowers; a summer inflorescence, which bears only fertile females; and a wintering inflorescence, which bears only sterile females. Sterility here results from the adaptation of female flowers to the nutrition of fig-wasps (Blastophaga); the sterile flowers are hence called gall-flowers. In the cultivated fruiting fig-tree | sterile pistillate flowers of another kind occur. The process of pollination of the fig by Blasto- phaga is comparatively familiar, but it may be | briefly described here to save the necessity of reference to books. Blastophaga is a small Chalcidid hymenopterous insect. The male is wingless, and the female (which alone passes from one inflorescence to another) winged. In spring, impregnated females issue from the wintering inflorescence and fly to the spring inflorescence. Here they lay eggs in the gall- flowers, one egg to each flower, and from these eggs both male and female flies proceed. When | full grown, the male crawls sluggishly about until he becomes aware of the presence of a female still enclosed within the ovary of a gall-flower. Then he bites a hole in the ovary, passes in the tapering, pointed end of his abdomen, and effects his purpose. Since the male rarely quits the in- florescence, he has no need of wings or eyes; accordingly there are no wings, and the eyes are poorly developed; even the antennze are small and few-jointed; the mandibles, however, and two of the three pairs of legs, are powerful. The winged female after impregnation bites off the top of the ovary, and makes her way into NovEMBER 14, I1912| the central cavity of the spring inflorescence. The staminate flowers, set in a ring round the outlet, are now ripe, and the issuing female gets dusted by their pollen. Then she flies to the im- mature figs of the summer generation (we are still speaking of the wild fig-tree), which contain only female flowers. In her fruitless search for gall-flowers in which to lay her eggs, she pol- linates the female flowers. So many Blastophagas are deceived by appearances that whenever a wild fig-tree is shaken in July or August, swarms of the flies come out of the summer figs. Is it pos- sible that they procure food for themselves there? Ravasini shows that in the wild fig-tree there are only two sets of gall-flowers, one in the win- tering, another in the spring inflorescences. He believes that there are also only two sets of Blastophagas, answering to the two sets of gall- flowers. One female Blastophaga may suffice for an entire inflorescence, so that there is a great superfluity of insects. In October the wintering inflorescences are ready, and the later-hatched Blastophagas of the spring generation enter them to lay their eggs in the gall-flowers. The life-cycle of the insect is thus completed. We must now add a few words about cultivated fig-trees. When men began to plant wild fig-trees in their gardens, they would, of course, propagate them by cuttings. Now cuttings of the wild fig-tree are found to reproduce the characters of the branches from which they were taken. By taking cuttings from branches destined to bear spring in- florescences, trees have been produced in which only the spring inflorescences regularly attain complete maturity; these trees are Caprifigs (goat-figs), which are practically male. In the same way, by using as the parent stock branches which bear summer inflorescences, trees have been produced which are entirely female. Of these two the caprifig alone is capable of harbouring the insect guest during its growth period. Two fig-trees, very different in appearance and function, have thus been developed by the action of man out of the single primitive stock; they are often called’varieties, but Tschirch and Ravasini show that they are really artificially produced sexual forms of one and the same natural species, viz. of the wild fig-tree. One proof is that seeds of the cultivated fig-tree produce either caprifigs or inferior fruiting figs. A further proof is yielded by the fact that the female Blastophaga, when laden with eggs, can only fly a very short dis- tance. Hence we infer that she is adapted to a moncecious fig-tree, in which all the forms of inflorescence are to be found on one tree. The cultivated fig-tree is practically dicecious, and without artificial pollination ripens no seed. Only one moncecious tree is known, which can be regarded as a possible common ancestor of the two interfertile forms, caprifig and fruiting cul- tivated fig; this common ancestor is the wild fig- tree. Fig-cultivators must have become early ac- quainted with the Blastophaga and the effects of NO. 2246, VOL. 90] NATURE B11 its visits, for the female flowers of the fig remain unfertilised if no Blastophaga enters them, and unfertilised female inflorescences (in unimproved fig-trees) fall off prematurely. To prevent such failures, the expedient was successfully tried (ages ago) of fastening to the female trees ripe staminate inflorescences of the wild fig-trees. Blastophagas and pollen were thus supplied together, and the female inflorescences duly ripened. In course of time the inflorescences of the wild fig-tree were replaced by those of the caprifig, which answer the same purpose, and are easily raised on the spot. Thus arose the practice of “caprification,” which is essential to the production of the best keeping or drying figs. The dried figs of commerce, which are all seed- bearing, absolutely require fertilisation by the Blastophaga, and this is most easily secured by caprification. But if only fresh edible fruits are desired, caprification may be dispensed with. By long-continued selection it has been found possible to create varieties in which the unfer- tilised figs do not fall off prematurely, but develop into a valuable fruit. The large, non-seeding, sweet and juicy table-figs of north and mid-Italy require no pollination at all. Ravasini calls this the greatest triumph of fig-culture. We have not explained all that we should like to explain, but enough, we hope, to send some of our readers to “Die Feigenbéume Italiens,” and to make them look out for the further experi- ments which Dr. Ravasini promises. NOTES. THE next meeting of the International Union for Solar Research will be held at Bonn on Friday, August I, 1913, and succeeding days. A REUTER message from Stockholm announces that the Swedish Royal Academy of Sciences has awarded the Nobel prize for physics for t912 to M. Gustaf Dalen, a Swiss engineer, the head of the Stockholm Gas Company, and the prize for chemistry has been divided between Prof. Grignard, of Nancy University, and Prof. Sabatier, of Toulouse University. THE council of the Royal Scottish Geographical Society has resolved to award the Livingstone gold medal to Captain Roald Amundsen and the society’s silver medal to Captain Egnar Mikkelsen, the leader of the Danish expedition to north-eastern Greenland, in recognition of their services to geographical science. WE are glad to learn that the Chilean Government has sent instructions to the Chilean authorities at Easter Island to afford every assistance in their power to the expedition organised and led by Mr. and Mrs. W. Scoresby Routledge. The main object of this carefully planned and well-equipped expedition is to make a topographical and archeological survey of Easter Island, the most remote of Polynesian islands, which is famous for its megalithic monuments, of which visitors to the British Museum have seen examples in the portico. There are many problems of extreme interest concerning the culture of the natives, Oo = i) NATURE [ NOVEMBER 14, 1912 of whom it is said no pure-bred descendants now exist. Mr. Routledge and his colleagues have a most fascinating field for research, and we wish them every success. We regret to notice the death, in his eighty-first year, on November 6, at the University of Virginia, U.S.A., of Prof. J. W. Mallet, F.R.S., professor of chemistry in the University, and joint author, with his father, of the British Association catalogue of earth- quakes. Tue death is announced, at the age of ninety years, of M. Aimé Pagnoul, a French authority on agricul- tural chemistry. In 1869 M. Pagnoul organised the agricultural station of the Pas-de-Calais, of which he was director until 1899; and in 1894 he was elected a correspondant of the Paris Academy of Sciences in the section of rural economy. Tue Decimal Association announces that a large majority of American jewellers has agreed to adopt the metric carat of 200 milligrams as from July 1, 1913. A committee has been formed to promulgate the passage of a law making the metric carat effective throughout the country. It is probable that the adop- tion of this new carat by the jewellers of the United States will hasten its introduction here. THE 159th session of the Royal Society of Arts will be opened on Wednesday evening, November 20, by Lord Sanderson, G.C.B., K.C.M.G., chairman of the council, who will deliver an address and distribute the medals awarded last session. Mr. A. Zimmermann will describe ‘‘ The Manufacture of Sugar from Wood, and its Economic Importance,’ on December 4, and Dr. F. Mollwo Perkin will read a paper on syn- thetic rubber on December 11. In the Colonial Section, Prof.. W..H. Warren will describe ‘The Hardwood Timbers of New South Wales ” on Novem- ber 26. A course of Cantor lectures will also be delivered by Mr. C. R. Darling on ‘Methods of Economising Heat ’’ on Mondays, December 2, 9, and 16. Tue following is a list of those who have been recommended by the president and council of the Royal Society for election into the council for the year 1913 at the anniversary meeting on November 30 :— President, Sir Archibald Geikie, K.C.B.; Treasurer, Sir Alfred B. Kempe; Secretaries, Sir John Bradford, K.C.M.G., Prof. A. Schuster; Foreign Secretary, Dr. D. H. Scott; Other Members of the Council, Lieut.- Col. A. W. Alcock, the Right Hon. A. J. Balfour, Sir William Crookes, O.M., Dr. F. W. Dyson, Prof. W. Gowland, Sir Joseph Larmor, Prof. E. W. Mac- Bride, Mr. W. B. Hardy, Prof. Micaiah J. M. Hill, Sir Ronald Ross, K.C.B., Prof. G. Elliot Smith, Prof. A. Smithells, Dr. J. J. Harris Teall, Prof. Silvanus 122. Thompson, Prof. Sir J. J. Thomson, Sir Philip Watts, K.C.B. TuE Zoological Society of Los Angeles, California, was established in August, 1911, to further the project of starting a collection of wild animals in Griffith Park in that city, and we are glad to learn from the first number of its Proceedings that the idea has NO. 2246, VOL. 90] already taken practical shape. The necessary funds are being raised by private subscription, aided by a substantial grant from the City Council. Judging from the description, the site and climate seem to offer ideal conditions for the exhibition and preservation of animals in extensive ranges, varying in area from fifteen to one hundred and twenty-five acres. To this is to be added a marine aquarium to be placed on the sea-front on the cliffs skirting the base of San Pedro Hill. To zoologists will be especially welcome the announcement that although the animals are to be kept primarily as part of the park system for the pleasure and instruction of the people, a special feature of the institution will be a prosectorial department, where the anatomy and pathology of the dead animals may be investigated. We heartily wish the project all success. A copy of the programme for 1912 of the Société Batave de Philosophie expérimentale de Rotterdam has been received. The gold medal of the society, or its value in money, as the successful candidate may determine, will be awarded to each candidate whose paper on a scientific question proposed by the society is considered most satisfactory by a general meeting of members. The programme includes some forty-five questions to which competitors may address them- selves. The general character of the inquiries pro- posed by the society may be gathered to some extent from the following examples: an anatomical and physiological description of one or more species of a family of plants which up to the present has not been examined satisfactorily in this way; magnetic varia- tions and disturbances; an exact and critical review of our present knowledge of the volcanoes and volcanic phenomena in the East Indies; an experimental re- search into the thermoelectric properties of some metallic alloys, with special reference to the influence of the composition of the alloy; a study of the origin, physiological significance of the green colouring matter in the bodies of certain animals, structure and development of a species of trypanosome, &c. The theses may be written in Dutch, French, German, or English, and should be in the hands of the secretary of the society by February 1, 1914. On November 7, a conference of museum curators and others interested in museum work was held at the Manchester Museum. Mr. H. W. Freston, chairman of the Manchester Museum Standing Committee, pre- sided, and representatives from twenty-eight museums were present. In a paper on pigmy flint implements, Mr. W. H. Sutcliffe, of Rochdale, maintained the opinion that the shouldered type of these implements was used by Neolithic man to form a kind of carding tool, by fixing numbers of them up to the shoulder in a wooden stock, with which the muscle fibres and sinews adhering to skins used for clothing could be teased and loosened after curing, the skin being rendered by this means soft, pliable, and capable of being made into close-fitting garments. The chief opposition to this theory was based on the grounds (1) that no trace of wooden stock had ever been found with pigmy flints; (2) that only a small percentage of the flints showed any signs of wear or usage; (3) that NovEMBER 14, 1912] NATURE oe) the fine sharp points of the majority suggested their use for some such purpose as tattooing. Mr. Sutcliffe replied to these objections as follows :—(1) That, from the analogy of other Neolithic implements, such as hammers and axes, in which the use of a wooden haft was postulated, though traces of such a haft were seldom found, the objection on this ground failed; (2) that in his experience 46 per cent. of the flints were blunted and worn; and (3) they were much more numerous than one would expect tattooing implements to be. Tue Smithsonian Institution has just issued three papers describing further new material collected during the biological survey of the Panama Canal zone, in- cluding new insects, mammals, and birds. This sur- vey was inaugurated in 1910 and carried on for two seasons. Early this year Mr. E. A. Goldman, of the Biological Survey, U.S. Department of Agriculture, went to Panama for the second time and made addi- tional collections of mammals. The collection of natural history specimens, which includes some 800 birds and 595 mammals, indicates that the fauna of eastern Panama is South American in its general characteristics. The new birds of the region have been described by Mr. E. W. Nelson in a pamphlet entitled ‘‘ Descriptions of New Genera, Species, and Subspecies of Birds from Panama, Colombia, and Ecuador.’’ Many of the specimens were collected by Mr. Goldman, who seems to have been the first zoological collector to have penetrated the forests about Mount Pirri and its bordering lowlands. Here many birds and mammals not before known from Panama were taken, a number of which were also new to science. Several species of South American animals appear to reach their northern limit at this point, being unknown in the Canal zone and the adjacent territory, although only about 150 miles distant. Mr. J. R. Malloch, of the Bureau of Entomology, Depart- ment of Agriculture, has written a technical descrip- tion of three new species of Diptera from Panama. The three papers just issued are Publications Nos. 2141 to 2143 in the Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections. A RECENT number of the ‘Annals of Tropical Medi- cine and Parasitology’’ (vol. vi., No. 3) contains a memoir by Drs. J. G. Thomson and J. A. Sinton on the morphology of Trypanosoma gambiense and T. rhodesiense in cultures, with a comparison between the cultural forms and those known to occur in the natural development that takes places in the tsetse-fly (Glossina palpalis). The life-history of these trypano- somes in culture-tubes was found to be similar to that which occurs in the gut of the insect-host. An in- teresting parallel with the natural development was further shown in the fact that the cultures of the trypanosomes quickly lose their infectivity, and after the third day are not infective to rats by intra- peritoneal injection. In the cultures the trypanosomes d> not regain the infectivity which in tsetse-flies they acquire again by passing into the salivary glands of the fly. The authors found no evidence of a sexual cycle, although the so-called ‘‘male” and ‘‘ female” forms are present in the cultures. NO. 2246, VOL. 90] | history. From a small guide-book compiled by Mr. T. Sheppard, we learn that the town of Scunthorpe, Lin- colnshire, situated in the heart of the ironstone dis- trict, possesses a small museum, which is specially devoted to local palzeontology, antiquities, and natural The guide contains illustrations of ironstone fossils, prehistoric implements, and ancient Roman vases. From the report of the Inspector of the Eastern Sea Fisheries for the year ending September 12, it appears that during the period under review not only has the catch been for the most part unsatisfactory— largely owing to bad weather—but that on the Norfolk and Suffolk coast foreign trawlers are alleged to have approached too near the land, while on the Lincoln- shire coast several steam-trawlers are stated to have run the risk of being caught at work within the territorial limit. As complaints are rife—as, for in- stance, at Torbay—with regard to the depletion of fisheries by our own trawlers, it is only justice to our fishermen that they should be adequately , protected from foreign poaching. Tue first volume of the second series of the Memoirs of the American Museum of Natural History com- mences with a description by Prof. H. F. Osborn of the skull of the gigantic theropod dinosaur Tyranno- Saurus vex, from the Upper Cretaceous of Montana, together with notes on the skulls of Allosaurus and the Theropoda in general. The skull of Tyranno- saurus, which is furnished with a formidable armature of teeth of the megalosaurian type, is not only the largest in the theropod order, but, speaking generally, is also the most powerful and massive among reptiles as a whole; this may be verified by the inspection of a cast exhibited in the fossil reptile gallery at the Natural History Museum. A noteworthy feature is the fusion of the vomers into a single diamond-shaped plate, articulating posteriorly by a long style with the pterygoids, since a practically identical structure exists in the ostrich group. As an adaptive modification correlated with the powerful dentition, attention is specially directed to the antero-posterior shortening of the skull and the reduction of the number of pairs of teeth from twenty (in Allosaurus) to sixteen. This abbreviation of the skull is paralleled among modern cats and certain extinct dog-like carnivores. The homology of certain bones of the theropod skull is also discussed. In a second article in the same issue Prof. Osborn describes in detail, with photographic illus- trations, the skin of the iguanodont dinosaur Tracho- don annectans, from the Upper Cretaceous of Wyoming, as preserved in a ‘‘mummified” skeleton. Since reference was made last year in NATURE to a preliminary account of this wonderful specimen, fur- ther notice is unnecessary. We have received four parts of the zoological reports on the collections made by the Duke of Orleans in his Arctic expedition on the Belgica in 1907. (‘‘ Campagne Arctique de 1907." Duc d’Orléans. Bruxelles: C. Bulens, 1911-12.) The Siberian Sea, along the coast of Nova Zembla, has not been much explored, and these handsomely got-up volumes contain many in- 314 NATURE [NOVEMBER 14, 1912 teresting records and descriptions. Dr. Louis Stappers deals with the higher Crustaceans, and attention may be directed to the very fine figures illustrating species of Leptostylis. Prof. Pierre Fauvel reports on the Annelids, of which fifty-two species were collected. It is interesting to notice that only one of these was new, namely Sphaerodorum philippi. It appears that almost all the boreal Annelids are represented through- out the circumpolar area, and it is remarkable that some occur so far south as the Azores, the Mediter- ranean, and the Indian Ocean. The Bryozoa are dis- cussed by O. Nordgaard, who reports the occurrence of sixty species in the Kara Sea alone. From a single station twenty-seven species were obtained, and the abundance of superb specimens of Reticulipora (Diastopora) intricaria is a conspicuous feature in many places. It seems that Bryozoa flourish particu- larly well in localities with a rapid current and abundant plankton organisms. The great majority of the species collected by the Belgica are distinctively Arctic, a number are boreal, three are almost cosmo- politan. Dr. Hjalmar Broch reports on the Ccelentera —twenty-six Hydroids, five Alcyonarians, and two sea- anemones. In some cases the occurrence is of great interest as regards the geographical distribution of the species. Thus Eunephthya clavata, reported from the Kara Sea, has also been recorded from the Azores. A report on the structure and development of crown gall, a plant cancer, by Mr. E. F. Smith and Misses N. A. Brown and L. McCulloch, has been issued by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (Bureau of Plant Industry, Bull. 255). The disease attacks a variety of plants, is infectious, and is caused by bacteria, either one polymorphic species, or several closely related species. A full description of the organism, named the B. tumefaciens, and of its cul- tural and biological characters is given. The develop- ment of the disease is regarded as closely simulating what takes place in cancer of man and animals, though metastases do not occur, and, of course, this disease of plants has nothing to do with mammalian cancer. The report is illustrated with no fewer than 109 full- page half-tone plates. From Dr. C. R. Wieland we have received reprints of four papers contributed to The American Journal of Science, containing the results of his further ob- servations on the fossil Cycads, and thus forming a supplement to his great work on ‘‘American Fossil Cycads,”’ published in 1906. In a note on seed struc- ture in the Cycadeoidez (Bennettitales), the author remarks that the seed and embryo of these Mesozoic forms are of the most generalised gymnospermous type, while their retention of pronounced cycado- filicinean features further favours inclusion in the Cycadales; apparently the primitive seed characters of the Cycadeoideze were only slightly obscured by appression in the cone type of fructification, and were by this very appression so much the more surely con- served as to permit free comparison with the ancestral singly-borne leafy seeds of the Palzozoic forms. Another note is devoted to the mature but pigmy flowers of Cycadeoidea Marshiana, and to a discus- NO. 2246, VOL. 90] sion of the probable relationships between Cycadeo- idez, Cycads, Cycadofilices, and Gnetales. A third paper deals with the author’s own examination of certain historic fossil Cycads described by earlier writers; while the fourth contains a general review of the Williamsonia and Cycadeoidea tribe, with special reference to types recently discovered in Europe, and a provisional classification of the forms now known. Tue Patent Office has isued part i. of a ‘Subject List of Works on Mineral Industries’’ (Darling and Son, price 6d.), which shows how much good material is available for public consultation in the library in Chancery Lane, London. In this part the geological sciences and coal mining are included, and mineral industries and practical mining come’ under these heads. The detailed classification adopted prevents the ready discovery of books on a given subject, since several headings may be consulted in vain before the right one is discovered. Rutley’s ‘‘Felsitic Lavas” thus appears under ‘‘Lavas”’ and not also under “Petrology’’; his Brent Tor memoir is found under “Petrology, Igneous Rocks,” and not also under ““Geology, Descriptive, Devonshire.” The division of geology into economic, descriptive, and stratigraphic renders the publications of geological surveys ex- tremely hard to classify. A few repetitions and cross- references are conveniently introduced; but the memoirs on the South Wales coalfield appear under none of the above headings, not even under “*Economic—local—Wales,”’ but only under ‘Coal, Distribution.”” Hardman’s memoir on the Leinster coalfield seems to have no separate mention, and there is no heading ‘‘Carboniferous’’ under ‘‘ Geology, Stratigraphic.” The miner comes off somewhat better, with good lists of works on nitrates, phos- phates, &c.; butafar broader classification, with sub- headings alphabetically arranged, will be of much service to the reader when the list is next revised. THE aggravating contrast between the heavy rain- fall on the rugged eastern highlands of Australia and the arid climate of the rich-soiled plains to the west has led to many projects for the more useful distribu- tion of the water. The most important scheme in New South Wales is that for collecting the winter floods of the Murrumbidgee River for use during the summer by the construction of a vast reservoir with a dam 240 ft. in height. The reservoir will be one of the greatest in the world, as it will hold 33,000,000,000 cubic feet of water, or a greater amount than that contained in Sydney Harbour. The water will be con- ducted by channels, which may amount to 1000 miles in length, and be used for the irrigation of a large area more than 100 miles to the west. The reservoir is in a locality hitherto known as Barren Jack; this is a corruption of an aboriginal name, Burrinjuck, which has been officially adopted. The-New South Wales Government is advertising for applicants for the land which can thus be brought into cultivation, and has issued a pamphlet, by Mr. L. A. B. Wade, the chief engineer for irrigation and drainage, on the | progress of the work. NOVEMBER 14, 1912] NATURE Sis) Tue Mitteilungen from German Protectorates (vol. xxv., part 3, 1912) contain the monthly and yearly summaries of the meteorological observations at stations of the second order, and at the rainfall stations in Togoland (equatorial West Africa) for the year rgit. The summaries have been very carefully prepared by Dr. P. Heidlxe, of the Deutsche Seewarte, and include in the accompanying text much valuable information relating to the climate of that district. It is satisfactory to note that the observers take much’ interest in their work; at many stations they have considerably exceeded what was required of them. No better evidence of the paucity of scientific know- ledge amongst Englishmen supposed to be well edu- cated has ever been afforded than was given in the | House of Commons during the discussion of the Bill for the adoption of the metric system five years ago. A responsible Minister of the Crown then stated that “the metric system had broken down in France,” and the House appears to have believed him. To those whose information on the subject is not up to date, an article by Dr. C. E. Guillaume in the Revue générale des Sciences for October 15 will be of great value. It shows that the other systems have almost entirely disappeared, the only ones at present in use being the Anglo-Saxon, the Russian, and the Japanese, while Japan has recently adopted the decimal system with a view to further reform in the near future. Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa are anxious that the British Empire should adopt the system, and it begins to look as if the Mother Country would be left in sole possession of a system which the average man finds so difficult to remember that he cannot say how many multiples a pound or an ounce is of a grain, or a mile of a yard, or what is the definition of a gallon. Tue Proceedings of the University of Durham Philosophical Society for 1911-12 (vol. iv., Pt. 4) contains the following papers:—The stability of a floating triangular prism, Mr. F. H. Alexander; the effect of soil aération on plant growth, Mr. C. Hunter; chemical reactions taking place at the kathode and anode during the electrolysis of simple salt solutions, Dr. J. H. Patterson; the preparation of benzyl mer- captan, Dr. J. A. Smythe; the preparation of acrylic ester, Dr. F. G. Trobridge; some para derivatives of phenylacetic acid, Mr. S. Robson; analysis of a Florida Clay, Dr. A. A. Hall; and the rate of fermentation as measured by difference of potential, Dr. M. C. Potter. The society includes 171 members, and held 21 meet- ings, at which 26 papers were read, during the session igii-12. The sixth report of the Boulders Committee is printed in the present issue of the Proceedings. Mr. Rogert Extiorr-Cooprr’s presidential address to the Institution of Civil Engineers is largely com- posed of an interesting discussion of the labours of the civil engineer in the oversea dominions of the British Empire. Dealing with the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway in Canada, while there is much to admire in this huge undertaking and its accessories there is one matter which will not find general acca ance in these days of picturesque town-planning, except perhaps from those who think, with Ruskin, NO. 2246, VOL. go] that railways and eestheticism are absolutely irre- concilable. The new townships which have been and are about to be established along the undeveloped lengths of the new line are, as nearly as possible, eight miles apart, centre to centre, and are all on the northern side of the railway. In each town is one main street, named so in every case, 50 ft. wide, and leading up to the precise centre of the station, while there are 60-ft. streets at exactly equal distances apart on a chess-board pattern, completing a perfect square. A few of these perhaps would not affect the traveller much, but, when rtooo miles covering 125 towns of this description are passed, it will take all the sublime diversity of the scenery of the Rocky Mountains to soothe his irritated nerves. Mr. JoHn Murray has published a translation by Mr. W. GC. Clinton of Dr. L. Bloch’s “Science of Illumination,” which was reviewed in these columns on March 7 last (vol. Ixxxix., p. 3). With the consent of the author, Mr. Clinton has made certain altera- tions and additions rendered necessary by the differ- ence between the English and German units and standards, and by the lapse of time. The price of the English edition is 6s. net. Mr. Francis Epwarbs, bookseller, of 83 High Street, Marylebone, London, W., has issued a cata- | logue of the geographical library of Mr. Ernest G. Ravenstein. The catalogue includes some 1197 entries of works which he has for sale. Messrs. Bowes and Bowes, 1 Trinity Street, Cambridge, have published a catalogue of books on pure and applied mathematics which they have on sale. The list deals with mathe- matical histories and dictionaries, mathematical works published before 1700, and works of reference. OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. Tue Brazitian Ecripse, Ocroser 10.—We learn from Mr. J. H. Worthington that his private eclipse camp in Brazil was in the same locality as that of the Greenwich observers, and that rain entirely prevented observations. He further states that it would probably have been necessary to travel at least a thousand miles to escape the rain zone on the day of the eclipse. BorreELty’s Comer 1912c.—Circular No. 137 from the Kiel Centralstelle gives a set of elements and an ephemeris for the comet discovered by M. Borrelly on November 2. From these we see that the comet passed perihelion on October 22, when it was some 103 million miles from the sun, and is now travelling southwards through Hercules towards Aquila; on November 18 it will be about 25 m. east of « Aquilz. The distances from both the sun and the earth are increasing, and consequently the calculated magnitude, now 87, is decreasing. In a letter in The Times of November 13, Mr. W. S. Franks states that the comet was observed on Novem- ber 9 at Mr. F. J. Hanbury’s observatory, Brockhurst, East Grinstead, with the 6-in. equatorial. ‘At 8.10 p.m., November 9, its approximate right ascen- sion was 18h. 37m., and declination 27° 33’ N. It was fairly bright, and estimated as of about seventh magnitude, being easily visible in the finder. It was judged to be about 1’ of arc in diameter, gradually brightening to the centre, but without a nucleus.” Tue Licut-curvE of Nova GEminoruM, No. 2.— The results of about 270 magnitude-observations of Bo NATURE [NOVEMBER 14, 1912 Nova Geminorum, No. 2 (1912), made between March 12 and the end of May, are published and discussed by Herr J. Fischer-Petersen in No. 4608 of the Astro- nomische Nachrichten. The light-curve shows oscilla- tions somewhat similar to those of Nova Perseiin 1go1, but of less amplitude and longer period. The maximum magnitude, 3°8, was reached on March 14, and then there was an abrupt fall, to5°4, on March 16; subsidiary maxima occurred on March 24, 30, April 3 and 9, that on the first-named date being very marked (mag.=4'8). After April 9 the undulations of the curve are very small. Tue Dark SrRucTURES IN THE Mitky Way.—An in- teresting paper full of suggestion as to the structure of the universe is contributed by the Rev. T. E. Espin to No. 4, vol vi., of the Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada. Mr. Espin recalls Caroline Herschel’s idea that a blank region in Scorpio was believed by Sir William Herschel to indicate ‘“something more than a total absence of stars,’ and then, by the examination of other blank regions, he proceeds to show that in all probability there exist in the heavens masses of dark, light-absorbing vapours, which hide from us the light emitted by stars or parts of nebulae in the background. The photographic evidence seems almost irrefutable, it being difficult to explain otherwise such observations of Dr. Kopff’s that “nearly all faint stars have disappeared from the immediate surroundings of these nebula, though they are ten times more numerous, both in the nebulze and far outside.’ But if we suppose the bright nebulz which are shown on our photographs to have margins which are too diffuse to become illuminated, yet dense enough to absorb, the difficulty is removed, and if this absorbing margin, or extension, is pro- jected, by the position of our view-point, on to the main body of the bright nebula, the ‘“‘holes’’ and “lanes” observed in such nebule are similarly ex- plained. A number of beautiful photographs to illus- trate Mr. Espin’s article are reproduced. Dr. Chant also has a paper in the same journal, dealing with nebulze and their forms, and this, too, is illustrated by many interesting reproductions. STELLAR ACTINOMETRY AT THE YERKES OBSERVATORY. —A paper of great importance to astrophysicists and workers in stellar photometry is published by Mr. J. A. Parkhurst in No. 3, vol. xxxvi., of The Astro- physical Journal. For many years Mr. Parkhurst has been working on the relations existing between photo- graphic and visual magnitudes, and has published details of a method whereby both could be measured photographically. He now publishes the results of a much more extended research, and gives both the photographic and visual magnitudes for some 650 stars, down to magnitude 75, in the Potsdam Photo- metric Durchmusterung, from 73° to the pole. The photographic magnitudes were measured from extra- focal images on Seed 27 plates, and the ‘‘visual” from reflector plates taken in the focus on colour- sensitive plates, and with a specially prepared colour- filter; Mr. Parkhurst fully describes the ingenious methods of eliminating or determining the numerous errors inherent to the observations. Then in his cata- logue he gives the colour index of each star and, where possible, the type of spectrum; comparisons with the results obtained by other observers show fair agreement. The relation between spectrum and colour index, using the Harvard classification for the former, is best represented by a straight line, the differences being so slight as not to warrant the introduction of any complex curve to show the relation. There were 1q2 stars in this catalogue bright enough to give spectra which could be classified, and, of these, exactly NO. 2246, VOL. 90] half belong to the types B, to F,, and half to types F, to M; 196, or 40 per cent., are of the A type. At the nearest approach to the galaxy, viz. 10° in R.A. th., each field showed some ten or twelve white stars, while at the greatest distance from it, viz. 44° in R.A. 13h., there were only two or three white stars per field. THE IRON AND STEEL INSTITFUDPE: HE autumn meeting of the Iron and Steel Insti- tute, which was held at Leeds on September 30 and October 1-4, may fairly be described as a “‘ practical man’s” meeting, for although the programme con- tained approximately an equal number of ** practical ” and ‘scientific’? papers, those read and discussed at the meeting belonged entirely to the former class. While this is no doubt satisfactory to a large number of members of the institute who take rather less interest in scientific metallurgy than might fairly be expected of them, it is rather hard on the authors of scientific papers and on those members who were attracted to the meeting by the array of such papers on the programme. It is true that on other occasions the programmes have erred in the opposite direction, and it may be hoped. that at future meetings a judicious blending of both types of papers may be brought up for discussion. Among the papers relating to steel-works practice, the greatest interest and importance attaches to those dealing with the question of the production of sound ingots. Sir Robert Hadfield, F.R.S., who presented papers on a method of producing sound ingots and on a new method of revealing segregation in steel ingots, introduced the subject by referring to the series of alarming rail-fractures which had occurred in America during the exceptionally severe weather of last winter. These failures, and others which occur under less severe conditions, he is inclined to ascribe to unsoundness in the steel ingots from which the rails are rolled. According to the treatment and additions which a steel has received, the resulting ingot may suffer from unsoundness of one of two distinct types; the ingot may be more or less full of cavities or blow-holes of varying size and distribution, and in that case it is a non-settling, non-piping steel in which gases have been liberated during solidification in the mould. On the other hand, by suitable additions of small quantities of silicon or of aluminium, the steel may be rendered “solid”? or ‘“‘settling”’ in the sense that the ingot will be free from blow-holes or small distributed cavities, but it will—in the absence of special treatment —have a deep central cavity or “pipe,” the existence of which results either in the discarding of a large proportion of the finished steel by the rejection of the upper portion of the ingot, or, if the piped portion is not sufficiently discarded, an unsound rail may be rolled from it, possibly with disastrous consequences. In one of his papers Sir Robert Hadfield suggests a method of studying the formation of such pipes by pouring molten copper into the ingot at a certain stage of its solidification. He illustrates this method by coloured sections of ingots thus treated, but in the discussion Dr. J. E. Stead, F.R.S., pointed out that the copper when poured in will partly alloy with the still molten steel, and will then, by its greater density, produce an upward displacement of the remaining liquid steel, so that Hadfield’s pretty method is really only applicable if the copper is introduced immediately after the complete solidification of the steel. Even if introduced earlier, however, the copper makes it pos- sible to trace the order in which the various parts of NOVEMBER 14, I912| NATURE eG] o an ingot have solidified, and even that information is of some importance. Sir Robert Hadfield’s method for producing sound ingots consists in producing solid * piping” steel, and then arranging matters in such a way that the ten- dency to form a pipe is neutralised by a full supply of hot liquid steel from above. This is attained by attaching to the top of the ingot-mould a “feeding head”’ lined with sand; this practically constitutes an upward continuation of the ingot-mould, and when the mould is filled the steel is allowed to rise to some distance into this attachment. The steel in this feeding-head is, however, to be kept molten until the this is attained in Hadfield’s process by covering the surface of the steel first with a thin layer of cupola slag, which serves to protect the metal against both thermal loss and chemical contamination, and then with a layer of charcoal, which is brought into a lively incandescence by the action of a blast of compressed air. The author gives numerous examples and full particulars of results attained in this way, and although in the discussion on this subject doubts were expressed as to the practicability of the process, and to some extent as to its novelty, its efficacy was admitted. Another method intended to serve the same purpose of producing sound ingots was described by Dr. Hans Goldschmidt, who claims for it favourable results with thousands of actual ingots. This method consists in the introduction into the central, fluid part of a partially solidified ingot of a cartridge of “‘thermit.”.. The amount of thermit used is small— about one pound per ton of stecl—so that the heat generated is strictly local and quite negligible. The introduction of the thermit cartridge, which consists of an iron canister pushed down with an iron rod, results in a boiling or frothing up, followed by a settling of the steel in the mould, this shrinkage being made good by the addition of a further small amount of molten steel from the ladle. The author suggests that the thermit reaction taking place near the bottom of the solidifying ingot results in the removal of gas and of entangled slag, but this point of view was not at all appreciated in the discussion; in fact, Dr. Gold- schmidt’s proposals were scarcely taken seriously. Thus Stead suggested that the addition of a smal! amount of aluminium to the steel in the ladle would produce the same effects—a suggestion strongly repudiated by Goldschmidt. In view of the large amount of practical evidence brought forward in the paper, this treatment was a little surprising. In the course of the discussion on these papers, Dr. J. E. Stead described a method introduced by Talbot for the production of sound ingots. In this process the ingots are passed through the ‘cogging mill”’ before their interior portions have become solid, and in this way the wider end of the ingot is compressed and the liquid steel is forced to fill up any shrinkage cavities which might be in course of formation. In principle this process is similar to the Harmet method of compressing steel ingots during their solidification, but if it proves to be practicable to handle and lightly roll ingots consisting of molten steel with a mere external crust of solidified metal, the method may justify the enthusiastic predictions of its sponsor. Talbot’s own account of his procedure, with the statistical data demanded by Hadfield, will, however, be awaited with interest. Among the more scientific papers which were taken as read at the meeting, the most interesting from. the general point of view is that of Benedicks on allotropy in general and that of iron in particular. In this paper the author begins by raising the question whether NO. 2246, VoL. 90] allotropic or polymorphic changes are necessarily sudden, i.e. whether they must occur at one definite temperature or whether they may in certain cases occur continuously over a certain range of tempera- tures. He arrives at the latter conclusion, and ex- presses it by saying that all degrees of mutual solu- bility of the two allotropic modifications in one another are theoretically possible. In the case of a consider- | able mutual solubility an allotropic “transformation point” would cease to exist, but where the solubility is one-sided, the modification ii. being slightly soluble in the modification i., but not vice versa, there EME ihe incht ceoneeeMe alerted, and would be a gradual change upon one side of the trans- | point formation point with a large sudden change at that itself. By means of accurate dilatometric measurements on silver iodide, Benedicks shows that the transformation of this body is of the type just indicated, the curve of dilatation giving the precise shape required on the assumption that the high-tem- perature modification is to some extent soluble in the low-temperature modification at temperatures just | below the transition point, the solubility decreasing | with falling temperature. This accounts for the nega- tive dilatation at room temperatures. When this view is applied to the case of iron, the author considers that the critical point at or near 890° C. is a definite allotropic change-point, but he does not regard beta iron as a separate allotropic form, explaining the existence of the beta range on the basis that gamma iron is soluble in alpha iron to an extent which increases with the temperature until the critical point is reached. Benedicks considers that this view would greatly simplify the metallography of iron, since it would reconcile the three theories now accepted as most probable regarding the nature of martensite. This interesting paper would undoubtedly have given rise to one of those spirited discussions for which this particular subject is noted, and it is a pity that so important a communication should have been passed | over; it may be hoped, however, that it will receive full attention in the discussion by correspondence which forms so interesting a feature of the Journal of the institute. HEREDITY AND EUGENICS. HE third and last number of The Mendel Journal contains an interesting article on the alterna- tive heredity of mental traits, by Dr. Frederick Adams Woods, of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Dr. Woods’s previous studies of heredity as exemplified in Royal families attracted a great deal of attention, and the present short paper based on the same class of material is well worthy of study. He advances the argument that the contrasts shown in the characters of children born of the same parents and brought up in the same environment are evidence for, and not against, the inheritance of mental traits. Those who would insist, as many do, that psychical characters are wholly the expression of the environ- ment will find these contrasts very difficult to explain, but to their opponents who attribute the preponderating influence to heredity they present no difficulties, since the possibility of alternative inheritance has never been disputed. Among the other contents of the number is an article on primitive eugenics, by Mr. E. Torday, in which the eugenical value of the customs of certain central African tribes is pointed out and their good effects described. The American Eugenics Record Office was founded in 1910, and is now well established in a career of useful activity. Among its latest publications is Prof. C. B. Davenport’s ‘t Trait Book”’ (Bulletin No. 6). 318 NATURE | NOVEMBER 14, 1912 The main object of this work is to provide an indexed and classified list of mental and physical traits to assist, by enlarging their vocabularies, the ‘ field-workers ”’ employed by the office in the collection of data for the study of inheritance in man. A decimal system of classification is adopted. Simple numbers denote the primary classes and additional numbers are added to represent successive stages of subdivision ; for example, 4 stands for mental traits, 45 special abilities, 459 special ability for athletics, 4595 for ball playing, and 45954 for golf. The classification does not appear to be always logical; thus after 46 is written ‘‘ egoistic (temperament),’’ and after 4622 ‘‘optimism vs. pes- simism,’’ something different in kind to, and not a subvariety of, egoism. Not only field-workers, but others, even lexicographers, will find in this pamphlet additions to their vocabularies, but it is doubtful whether many will desire to use such words as “‘unanecdoteness’’ or ‘‘unconversationableness.”’ Further, we would question the propriety of contrast- ing ‘‘ludicrousness’’ with ‘‘absence of sense of humour,” as a sense of humour is the faculty which most effectively enables one to avoid being ludicrous. But though these and other criticisms might be made, the work is one of undoubted utility, and will no doubt be greatly improved in future editions. 19s els Io Se INFLUENCE OF GEOGRAPHICAL CON- DITIONS UPON JAPANESE AGRICULTURE. is a paper read recently before the Royal Geo- graphical Society, Miss E. C. Semple discussed, largely on the basis of personal observation, a number of interesting features in the influence of geographical conditions upon Japanese agriculture. Premising that islands, with climates rendered equable by marine influence, and with the further advantage of supplying “the double larder of land and sea,” offer specially favourable conditions for the early development of civilisation, she showed that agriculture in such cir- cumstances quickly becomes intensive owing to the demand of an expanding population upon a cultivable area which, being insular, is not capable of expansion. This condition is particularly marked in Japan, because to its insular character are added other contributing causes, Cultivation and settlement are rare above about 2300 ft. of elevation. Forests and barren high- lands above this height clearly segregate the densely populated valley-settlements, which cling closely to the rivers and streams, where rice, the staple crop, may receive the necessary irrigation. Moreover, it is not merely what may be termed the mechanical facilities for this cultivation which limit its distribution. The generally unfertile character of the soil has also to be taken into account. Miss Semple quoted the present percentage of arable land to the total area of Japan proper as only 14°37, and proceeded to show that so far as statistical data are available, only Finland, Sweden, and Norway show a smaller percentage, and these, unlike Japan, are sparsely populated countries. The reclamation of the unfertile and ill-watered wastes, and the diversification of crops, are beyond the means of the Japanese small- holder, though a few rich farmers or companies have undertaken such work. In dealing with the fertilisation of the soil, Miss Semple adverted to ‘tthe practical absence of stock- raising.”’ It has been sought to attribute this peculiar feature to the principles of the Buddhistic faith, but Miss Semple prefers to find its reason in the scarcity of natural pasturage or fodder-plants. She dealt at some length with the two classes of wet and dry fields characteristic of Tapanese agriculture, together NO. 2246, VOL. 90] | Association with the geographical effect of relief upon their dis- tribution; on the other hand, she showed that the terrace system of cultivation usually associated with mountainous tracts alone is not so in Japan, because the irrigation of the lowland rice-fields also involves it. The raising of the silk-worm is found to be practically confined to inland provinces, and largely to upland farms, where communications are bad, and the natural tendency has been to develop a product of small bull (and therefore easily conveyed) and high proportional value. CHEMISTRY AT THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION. HE Chemical Section may claim a fair share in what has proved to be a record year for the generally, and although the counter attractions of the International Congress had some effect on the attendance of the senior chemists, the section room was better filled than has sometimes been the case of late years. In particular Prof. Divers was greatly missed; for many years there has been no more regular supporter of the Association. Whilst the plan adopted of grouping communica- tions more or less under. four main headings had the result that, as regards quality, the discussions were the best for some years past, this plan has the dis- advantage that it tends to emphasise the very special nature of the subjects considered. The type of paper presented was satisfactory: brief summaries of the field rather than detailed accounts of method and results were the rule, and in consequence the task of the president in keeping to the time table was a light one. The daily Press is apt to criticise the work of the section as too technical, but it must not be forgotten that the problems which chemists are now engaged in studying are essentially of a fundamental character. | Dundee will perhaps be remembered as the ‘origin of life’’ meeting, and though the discussion on this subject was confined to the biologists, both in this discussion and in Prof. Schafer’s address it was admitted that chemical science must be looked to ultimately for light on the problems of life. In acquiring accurate knowledge of the carbo- hydrates, fats and proteins, or of the properties of colloids, or in the study of enzymes and cell activators of all kinds, the chemist has already amassed a greater store of exact knowledge of biological import than is generally realised. Though he is forced at present by their very complexity to surround his con- ceptions in the technicalities of a nomenclature, which to the initiated is unigue in its expressive simplicity, the day is not far distant when a more popular summary. will be possible—indeed, only this year the announcement has been made of the success of nutrition experiments carried out entirely with synthetic food, every ingredient of which can be built up chemically from the elements. The proceedings on Thursday, September 5, opened as customary with the presidential address, which has already appeared in full, the rest of the morning being devoted to physical papers. Prof. H. Marshall described the interaction between thiocarbamide, iodine and sulphur. Mr. A. J. Berry dealt with the distillation of binary mixtures of metals in vacuo, and described experiments showing that copper and cadmium are quantitatively separable by volatilisation of the cadmium, whereas magnesium and cadmium vield a non-homogeneous distillate. The compound MgZn, can be prepared by distilling alloys containing an excess of zinc beyond this composition; the excess of zine volatilises. NovVEMBER 14, I9I2| NATURE ae) Dr. C. H. Desch gave a brief summary of a very full report he has prepared on diffusion in solids, which was in print before the meeting. The final conclusion is that the occurrence of diffusion in metals is established beyond any doubt, but that experiments are still lacking to prove its occurrence in transparent crystals of minerals, salts, or organic substances. The report deals with diffusion in glass, the passage of gases through metals, and particularly with diffusion in solid metals, including cementation and decarburisation of iron. Dr. Holt followed with a paper on the sorption of hydrogen by palladium, in which he described his own recent experimental work. The next paper, by Mr. R. de J. Fleming-Struthers, dealt with nitrogen chloride in relation to photo- chemical inhibition. When nitrogen chloride vapour, mixed with an indifferent gas, is heated, no change is perceptible until the temperature reaches a certain value; then suddenly decomposition begins and appears always to culminate in an explosion. Ex- plosion likewise occurs in an atmosphere of hydrogen, but in this case an interaction sets in, and ammonium chloride is precipitated. When a similar mixture is exposed to the action of light, only very little of the nitrogen chloride is converted into ammonium chloride, showing that practically all the nitrogen chloride is decomposed by light before any hydrogen chloride can be formed. Nitrogen chloride is an inhibitor of combination between chlorine and hydrogen on exposure to light, and is capable of producing a period of inaction comparable to Bunsen and Roscoe’s induction period. Mr. A. Fleck gave an account of a careful chemical examination of Marckwald and Keetman’s statement that thorium and uranium X could not be separated. This has been confirmed, the method chiefly used in the attempted separation being fractional precipita- tion. It was found impossible to alter the concen- tration of the short-lived radio-active element in thorium. Similarly radio-actintum and_ thorium, also thorium B and lead, were found to be two pairs of chemically inseparable elements. A paper by Prof. Stock (Breslau) and Dr. G. E. Gibson on the dissociation of phosphorus vapour may be referred to here, though it was read on the Monday. The authors have determined the pressure temperature curves of phosphorus vapour at various volumes, using quartz apparatus and a new form of quartz membrane manometer devised by Gibson. Up to 700° C. the vapour density. corresponds to the formula P,. Above this, dissociation takes place according to the equation P,=2P,. On the Friday the section joined with the botanists to discuss questions of chemical variation in plants and the nature of plant pigmentation. Dr. J. V. Eyre gave an account of work carried out with Prof. H. E. Armstrong on the enzymes and glucoside of flax. The glucoside linamarin is constantly present in the green plant and in the unripe seed of flax; in consequence, hydrogen cyanide can usually be detected in commercial linseed cake. Ripe seeds are free from cyanide, but since flax flowers during a considerable period, the seeds are | never ripe all at once. In extreme cases the amount of hydrogen cyanide may be sufficient to be harmful, but it is also probable that it is of positive condi- mental value, and that the special value of linseed cake as a cattle food may be due in part to the liberation of minute proportions of hydrogen cyanide. In addition to common flax, a wide variety of Linaceze have been tested; only the white, blue, or red-flowered varieties contain the glucoside, which is entirely absent in all the yellow flowering species examined. Dr. Eyre also gave an account of the NO. 2246, VOL. 90| variations in the flax plant with locality, flax being a plant which rapidly becomes adapted to new con- ditions. Seed taken from a blue flowering crop is commonly stated to give a crop of flax bearing white flowers when raised under different conditions of climate. A number of similar instances of degenera- tion were noted. In the discussion Prof. Bateson expressed the opinion that it should not be difficult to select a type of flax which would breed true for any desired qualities. Probably the commercial seed was impure, so that under changed conditions a previously minor constituent of the mixture was un- duly favoured. This would account for much of the variation mentioned. Prof. Armstrong gave an account of the variation of glucoside and enzyme in Lotus corniculatus, which has been studied over a wide area. The glucoside of this plant contains hydrogen cyanide, and is prob- ably identical with that present in flax. Whereas in 1910 plants collected near Reading contained the glucoside, it was, as a rule, missing from plants gathered in other localities. During 1911 cyanide was found uniformly present in plants from different parts of England, but it was frequently absent in specimens from the west of Scotland and from Norway. Variation in the age or habit of the plant or in the nature of the soil had no effect on the presence of cyanide. The glucoside was always accompanied by the appropriate enzyme, whereas in the allied species L. major neither enzyme nor gluco- side ever occur. This paper was very fully discussed by Prof. Bateson and the botanists present, and it was regarded as a significant case of chemical varia- tion in plants which requires further study. A joint paper on the biochemistry of plant pig- mentation by Prof. F. Keeble and Dr. E. F. Armstrong was read by the latter, who gave a general summary of the subject from the chemical side, supplementing that contained in the presidential address to the botanists. It is probable that the soluble sap pigments of plants are formed by the action of an oxydase on a colourless chromogen, which has first to be liberated by the appropriate enzyme from its combination with glucose. It is possible that amino-acids or other protein degrada- tion products take part in the interaction, and that this variable factor accounts for the differences in shade. Methods were described which enable the exact localisation of the oxydases in plant tissues, either macro- or micro-chemically, without any far- reaching breakdown of the cellular structure taking place. It has been possible to show in the clearest manner possible that the localisation of these oxydases in plants agrees closely with that of the colour. Oxydases, according to current theory, are supposed to consist of two constituents—a peroxydase and an organic peroxide. Normally the occurrence of the latter is rare, but the authors produced evidence to show that it increases in amount when a plant is kept in the dark. After such treatment it can be detected in plants from which it was formerly absent. The amount of peroxydase is also increased during the night. These observations give a clue to some of the phenomena of periodicity in life. Attention was also directed to the chemical identi- fication and study of the inhibiting factors in plants and animals to which Mendelians attach so much importance. Besides the oxydases measured by the authors’ | methods, evidence is obtained that others are present in plants which may or may not be different. Such become prominent when the plant is wounded or treated with chloroform, with the result that browning or blackening takes place. Evidence is being accu- NATURE [| NOVEMBER 14, 1912 mulated as to the nature of oxydases, more particu- larly whether they are to be regarded as enzymes. A further contribution from the Reading laboratory by Mr. W. N. Jones dealt with the distribution of oxydases in white flowers. Many white flowers con- tain a chromogen which becomes coloured (brown) when acted upon by an oxydase or peroxydase. _ tion and subsequent hydrolysis. The | author considers that this chromogen is probably not | identical with that responsible for the colour in the flower of coloured varieties of the same species. The chromogen may be associated with oxydase or with peroxydase only, or it may be altogether lacking from the flower. It is possible to extract this chromogen after destroying the oxydase by boiling, and use the solution as a test for oxydase in the same way as benzidine. A paper by Mr. A. Compton gave a summary of Prof. Bertrand’s investigation of the action of enzymes on the complex glucoside vicianin, a con- stituent of Vicia angustifolia, a rare species of tare. On Monday, September 9, the section divided, the physical chemists taking part in a joint discussion with Section A, opened by Dr. F. A. Lindemann, with a paper on the atomic heat of solids. This is reported more appropriately in the proceedings of Section A. The organic chemists devoted the morning entirely to the subject of carbohydrates. It is a remarkable fact that in spite of the great importance of the sugars as foodstuffs and the part they play in plant and animal economy, cur knowledge of them is still of the scantiest. The complexity of the sugar molecule and the experimental difficulties which beset the worker in this field render progress but slow, and any researches, even if they be of the type classed by scoffers as compound making, will be of the utmost value if they serve in any way to indicate new methods of attacking the subject or lead to greater certainty of the knowledge of chemical structure. The problems of the sugars are certainly quite as comple: as those of the proteins; their solution must be accom- plished before any real attack is made on the origin of life. Three communications were received from the St. Andrews laboratory. The first, by Prof. Irvine and Mr. A. Hynd, dealt with synthetic aminoglucosides. Aminoglucose, or glucosamine, as it is usually called, constitutes the simple unit which, when polymerised. forms chitin, the horny constituent of the shell of the lobster, and which occurs in place of cellulose in the cell walls of many of the lowly organisms. Hitherto the properties of glucosamine have been but little investigated. Some of the experimental difficulties have been overcome now by the use of bromotriacetyl- glucosamine, which enters into reaction with widely different types of hydroxy compounds. The 2-amino- glucosides thus obtained correspond with amino derivatives of the natural glucosides, which exist in such diversity in plants. Many of the synthetic sub- stances are not simple amino compounds, but their nitrogen atom is associated with the contiguous oxygen atom to form a four-membered betaine ring: they are thus brought into relation with the betaines of plants. Others, again, particularly those in which a benzene grouping is present. do not show this peculiarity of ring formation. This paper gave rise to a full discussion. In the following paper, by Prof. Irvine and Miss B. M. Patterson, an account was given of the experi- mental study of the constitution of mannitol tri- acetone. It is impossible to arrest the condensation of mannitol with acetone at intermediate stages, but by carefully regulated hydrolysis the acetone molecules can be removed in stages. The constitution of the intermediate compounds was determined by methyla- NO. 2246, VoL. 90] _ lated glucoses. The acetone residue is shown to be attached through oxygen to two con- tiguous carbon atoms, but the order in which the acetone residues were removed was quite unexpected. It is impossible to discuss the problem without enter- ing into complex stereochemical considerations, but as a result of the work and the methods used in it, a deeper insight has been gained into the sugar molecule than had previously been the case. The third paper, by Prof. Irvine and Dr. J. P. Scott, dealt with the rotatory powers of partially methy- By applying stereochemical con- siderations based on the optical rotatory power of the isomeric glucoses and_ glucosides, configuration formulae for the « and 8 isomerides have been deduced which are in agreement with those previously sug- gested by E. F. Armstrong. Certain regularities in the rotatory power of the a and 8 forms of the partially methylated glucoses were pointed out: these conform to the rule postulated by Hudson. Dr. W. S. Mills described a simple method of pre- paring acetyliodoglucose, a compound which has in the meantime been prepared by Fischer in another way. By the action of copper hydride on this, a crystalline compound has been obtained which is con- sidered to be the acetyl derivative of a diglucose, in which, however, the two molecules are united through carbon, and not through oxygen as in the natural sugars. Dr. Harden followed with a summary of the know- ledge of hexose phosphate, which, as his researches have shown, plays so important a part in the pheno- menon of alcoholic fermentation. Dr. Harden dis- cussed the equations which have been suggested to explain the action of the phosphate during fermenta- tion: he was inclined to accept that which involves the rupture of glucose into two three-carbon com- pounds, one of which is further broken down into carbon dioxide and alcohol, whilst the other unites with a similar compound from a second molecule of sugar to form hexose phosphate. The sitting concluded with a paper on nomen- clature by Dr. E. F. Armstrong. It is suggested to number the six carbon atoms in glucose thus :— 6 5 4 3 2 T CH,OH.CH(OH).CH(OH).CH(OH).CH(OH).CHO, instead of using Greek letters as at present. This avoids the confusion arising from the common use of a and 8 to indicate isomerism in the groups attached to the asymmetric carbon atom in position r. Prof. Irvine concurred in this suggestion. Attention was also directed to the uncertainty introduced in the nomenclature of optically active compounds by using the prefixes d and 1, sometimes to denote the sense of the rotation and sometimes to denote the relationship in configuration to d-glucose. The greater part of Tuesday’s proceedings were devoted to papers dealing with subjects of import- ance to organic chemists—namely, the migration of groups and the laws of substitution in the benzene ring. The methods by which chemists are wont to deter- mine the structure of a compound and the precise position in it of certain groups all depend on the displacement of this group by another at some stage of the investigation. It is important to know that such substitution takes place in a simple manner, and that the new group is not introduced in some altogether different position. Unfortunately for our theories, it was found by Walden some few years backs that in the case of optically active compounds such rearrangement is the rule rather than the exception. In consequence, when some new compound is ob- tained from an optically active substance, it is fre- NovVEMBER 14, 1912] NATURE 321 quently impossible to say whether the substance formed is the desired compound or its mirror image. The mechanism of such interactions has been fully studied by E. Fischer in Berlin and A. McKenzie in London, and it was appropriate that the latter should give a concise though clear and logical summary of the question, which is generally spoken of as the Walden rearrangement, before the section. A con- siderable discussion ensued. Dr. Lowry followed with a paper dealing with a closely allied subject, that of isomeric change, and more especially with those taking place in solutions of the crystalline amide and piperidide of camphor- carboxylic acid. This case is of exceptional com- plexity, since the experimental measurements show that three distinct isomeric changes take place, and that a condition of equilibrium is established ulti- mately between four distinct isomerides. The equa- tions for consecutive unimolecular changes of this type were described at length, as well as the curves representing change, and they were afterwards dis- cussed by Prof. Soddy and others. The second part of Dr. Lowry’s communication dealt with the use of certain models to explain Barlow and Pope’s theory of molecular structure based on valency conceptions. A very fluent account was given of a difficult subject, which was closely followed by those present. The next two papers, by Prof. K. J. P. Orton, of Bangor, and Prof. Holleman transferred attention to the laws of substitution in the benzene series. Prof. Holleman’s status in this field is well known, and the section was fortunate in having his coopera- tion throughout the meeting. Prof. Orton dealt with the conversion of chloro-, bromo-, and nitro-amino- benzenes into the carbon substituted anilines and anilides, giving a detailed account of his recent work. Prof. Holleman described work carried out in con- junction with Mr. J. P. Wibaut on the nitration of the chlorotoluenes. He indicated the number of iso- merides formed in the various cases, and showed both how to calculate approximately their proportions and how well these figures agreed with those deter- mined experimentally by the laborious separation of the constituents of the mixture. A brief communication by Dr. J. K. Wood, who acted as local secretary for the section, was of con- siderable interest. Leucine and similar amphoteric substances are in reality internal salts, the acidic and basic groups neutralising each other. When an acid or base is added, the internal salt is broken up and a true salt formed with the added acid or base. In the case of an optically active substance it should be possible to determine the rotation when the whole of the internal salt has just been broken up, and so calculate the acidic and basic constants of the ampho- teric substance. Leucine is lavorotatory in aqueous solution, but on the addition of hydrochloric acid the solution becomes increasingly dextrorotatory. When about 1°34 equivalents of acid have been added, the effect of further addition is much smaller, and there is a sharp bend of the curve at this point correspond- ing with the complete disappearance of the internal salt. Equally sharp results could not be obtained with sodium hydroxide, owing to racemisation being caused by the alkali. ; The method can be used at all events qualitatively to measure the strength of the added acids; the weaker the acid the more concentrated it must be to break up the internal salt. By working with a common acid, various amphoteric substances may be compared. j Owing to the shortness of time, CeeR:? NO. 2246, VOL. 90] Prof. Marshall gave a very brief account of the two papers standing in his name. The action of bromine on strychnine has been investigated with the object of preparing a dibromo compound as described by some authors, but this does not appear to exist. The second paper dealt with pentaerythritol tetranitrate. The final communication on phototropy was de- livered by the president, who showed specimens of phototropic compounds obtained in the course of in- vestigations on salicylidene amines. Of a large number of such compounds examined, fourteen have been found to exhibit phototropy distinctly—that is, they change in colour on exposure to light. In studying the influence of temperature on the pheno- menon, it has been found that while some are photo- tropic at temperatures up to their melting points, others have a limiting temperature, above which they are not phototropic, whilst in two cases compounds which are not phototropic at the ordinary temperature show this property below zero centigrade. The explanation of phototropy is still outstanding ; it has been considered in turn as due to intra- molecular rearrangement, stereoisomerism and poly- morphism. Another problem is the nature of the energy evolved when the darker-coloured phototrope in the absence of solar energy, or possibly also when under solar influence, returns to the lighter form: this remains for future investigation. A novel and successful feature of the meeting on its less severe side was the sectional supper held on the Saturday. IB. IRS fk THE DIFFUSION OF EDUCATION AND KNOWLEDGE. HE educational status of a nation consists in the amount of literacy, number of teachers, and number of persons in its primary and secondary schools, and in its colleges and universities, relative to population. The status of knowledge may be indi- cated by the number of books, periodicals, and news- papers relative to population. This knowledge may take two forms, one gained through books, the other through periodicals and newspapers. One is know- ledge in general; the other consists more in current information. : The question may be asked, if a community or country leads another in literacy, diffusion of educa- tion and knowledge; if, relative to its population, it has more pupils in school, more teachers, more students in colleges and universities, more books in its libraries to read, and more periodicals and news- papers to peruse, is not this country or community, as a whole, very probably better educated and more intelligent than the other country or community? While there are exceptions due to special conditions, we are disposed to answer this question in the affirma- tive. Table I. indicates in a general way the diffusion of education and knowledge in some leading countries. Column 1 gives the relative amount of illiteracy among army and navy recruits. As these are mostly adults, they probably represent best the real amount of illiteracy. Column 6 gives the number of publica- tions (relative to population) in the list of the Smith- sonian Institution in Washington. These publications are of the highest class, including journals issued by learned societies and governmental institutions. Examining Table I., it will be seen that Switzer- land is much in advance of all the other countries in general diffusion of education and knowledge, and 1 Krom a paper on “‘ Mentality of Nations in Connection with Patho- Social Conditiors,” by Arthur Macdonald, in Te Ofen Court for August. B22 NATURE [NOVEMBER 14, 1912 Russia is last. Italy also is very low in these respects. France shows a high degree (next to Switzerland) of diffusion in university education (81) and newspaper information (251). Germany shows the lowest degree of illiteracy and publishes the largest number of books, but not relative to its population. Denmark issues the largest number of books relative to population. The United States, compared with European nations, is next to highest (Switzerland) in number of news- papers issued, but next to lowest (Russia) in number of university students enrolled and books produced, relative to population. Since we are disposed often to estimate countries as to their mental status or literary production with- out reference to their population, we will compare the countries in Table I. according to the absolute number of books, periodicals, and newspapers pub- Denmark, which is behind France, Great Britain, and the Netherlands. There is no further correspondence of these three highly literate countries in the other educational columns. In brief, there appears to be but little necessary relation in these countries between degrees of educa- tion and amount of literary production. Thus, Italy, with its great illiteracy, stands very high in univer- sity education. This is interesting in connection with the fact that Italy is doing some of the best work in sociology, which is suggestive in connection with the further fact that she stands next to the highest in production of sociological works. The United States has a large percentage of illiteracy, vet ranks highest in percentage of popula- tion enrolled in schools, but has the smallest number of university students. It has next to the largest lished, as given in columns 7, 8, and o. number of newspapers, but produces next to the 7 9 TaBLe I Education Knowledge and information | Smithsonian | Number of Number of list : | | x Smithsonian Country Namiber of 1B es of university Number oh books pub- | Number of | Number of | Jee a list : 1908 ES ee Bee ie hin students eee lished per | publications | ° books eRe Number of DED ieee | ce a in| per 10,000 | P&™ aie aon 100,000 per million | published ey (ae publications CCT ELS all ASCuOCrS, population | PoPwation population | population y (1904) (1904) Column Goo § ota. cce || I 2 3 | 4 5 6 | 7. 8 9 Belgium ... 833) 12°2 68 2 28 | 48 | 2763 209 (1908) 354 Denmark Cae” “shang hene 207 1370 |} — 84 135 42 | 3519 220 (1908) 112 Erancedey.5 misscke eee 346! 14:2) | SI 251 28 42 | 8799 9877 (1908) 1723 Germany... ees hoattrese 4) 170 65 nas 49 39 We Sey 7000 (1907) 2390 Great Britain and Ireland Too! D750) || 56 | 98 22 45 9821 4400 (1905) 2038 Italy bar aoa acod oat kere Sr | 77 60 21 24 6918 2067 (1904) 834 Netherlands 210. | I50 | 72 132 56 36 3258 760 (1906) 207 Russia Ssh) cca) co ||, “fanaKey | 4°5° 16 8 — 3 23852 2229 (1905) 515 Siwitzenland ai) |e. uleco| 9 186 178 275 116 90 4256 1005 (1907) 351 United States... | 380" 19°7 20 260 fe) _— | 9254 21320 (1908) —, | | 1 1904. 2 1897. 3 1903. 4 1895. 5 1907: in 1907, 39 per cent. of males and 27 per cent. of all persons (9 years of age and ‘more) were able to read. 6 In white male population 21 to 24 years of age in 1900. As to largest number of books the rank is Germany, Russia, Great Britain, United States, France, Italy, Switzerland, &c. As to number of newspapers and periodicals, United States is unique, publishing twice as many as France (next in rank), and from three to ten times as many as some of the other countries. As to the Smithsonian list of publications, the rank is Germany, Great Britain, France, Italy, Russia, Belgium, Switzerland, &c. lf we take the extremely illiterate countries, as Russia, Italy, and Belgium, we find a correspondingly low percentage of the population enrolled in the public schools and a relatively low percentage of newspapers published. But when we come to the number of university students enrolled, the correspondence fails as to Italy and Belgium, which have, relative to population, a larger number of university students than Germany or Great Britain. As to the number of books published relative to population, the correspond- ence fails in the case of Belgium, which produces as many books as France (column 5), relative to its popu- lation. As to the Smithsonian list of publications, the correspondence fails in the case of Belgium, which is next to the highest (column 6). If, now, the countries distinctly the least illiterate, as Germany, Switzerland, and Denmark, are com- pared in respect to enrolment in schools or primary education, the correspondence fails in the case of NO. 2246, VOL. 90] smallest number of books. Russia, about which data are more difficult to obtain, stands lowest in all respects relative to its population. : Different countries naturally do not classify books in the same way, and sometimes one country will include under one head publications that other nations would place under another subject, and hence results given in Table IJ. must be taken in a general way. In order to render the table more trustworthy, we have included two or more subjects under one head. For instance, under “History,” both ‘‘ Biography” and “Geography”; under “Literature,” ‘ Poetry,” “Fiction,” and ‘“‘Drama,” and under ‘ Religion,” “Theology.”’ ‘Fiction’ is both put by itself and also combined with ‘ Literature.” A few headings could not be classified nor combined with others and were omitted, so that the table is not complete, but the percentage for each subject given is, of course, not affected. It may be interesting to note the kind of books some countries prefer, as shown in Table II. Thus, France publishes relatively more medical works (10'5) than any other nation here mentioned. Italy is second (76) and Germany third (5°8) in this subject. Belgium publishes relatively the most law books, Den- mark the fewest. United States, Denmark, and Ger- many lead in religious works. Denmark and France excel in literature, and Germany and Italy in educa- tional worlss, and France in books on military science. NOVEMBER 14, I912| NATURE B23 Taste I].—Book Production—Per Cent. for Each Subject. Country 1g08 Medicine | Law | ae | Religion | History | Sociology | Literature iducas | Art Science Military: Fiction | | SCIE) Belgium ... SET. yo 26 38 134 8-6 173 B55, | (62 70 Tesh — Denmark 3°7 Dal 2 g'6 — — 232 Bt 22) 97 — a= France ros, | 63 Dr 73 758) 64 22°0 114 ez 4°5 3°9 — Germany... ... 5:8 | rorol 2°3 84 90 100! 19°5 13°8 29 5 4/ 2°3 Taye United Kingdom) 371 2°6 — 95° 139 67 IS4 674 — 11°8 — 2°6 Italy St eee 76 4°9 2°8 4°4 1270 67 I4'I 131 26 53° 19 63 Netherlands ... a3) | Sud} = || we _ Sre} -- 93 iyogte — — Russia oo 46 ZI — 6°S gio — 10'2 79 — 5 _- | = United States... 36 9°9 19 88 14°7 59 13°3 | 4°5 2°5 Sea -- | 16'0 1 Law and political science. Although correspondence between mental and patho- social conditions, or concomitant relations, does not necessarily indicate causal connection, yet it is in- teresting to note a few instances. In general, those countries which have the greatest illiteracy, as Italy, Belgium, and France, show the highest percentage of murder. They also have a high percentage of still- births, death-rate, and death-rate under one year of age. Two of these countries, where the illiteracy is more pronounced, as in Italy and Belgium, show a low rate of suicide and divorce. On the other hand, the least illiterate countries, as Germany, Switzerland, and Denmark, have a high rate of suicides. UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE. BirMINGHAM.—The chair of midwifery recently vacated by Dr. Edward Malins has been filled by the appointment thereto of Dr. Thomas Wilson, who has previously held the post of lecturer in this subject. CampripGe.—Prof. R. C. Punnett has been selected by the Prime Minister and Mr. A. J. Balfour as the first Arthur Balfour professor of genetics. A prize of 5o0l. out of the Gordon Wigan Fund will be awarded at the end of the Easter term, 1913, for a research in chemistry, of sufficient merit, carried out in the University of Cambridge. The research may be in any branch of chemistry. The dissertation, with the details of the research, must be sent to the professor of chemistry not later than June 13, 1913. The current number of The Reporter contains re- vised schedules of the special examination in geo- graphy for the ordinary degree, and for the examina- tion for the diploma in geography. It also contains the list of subjects for the special examination in military subjects for next year. Oxrorp.—On November 19 Convocation will be asked to assent to a decree providing that a plot of land on the south side of the University Park, and another plot at the north-west angle of the park, be assigned for the purposes respectively of a chemical and an engineering laboratory. It is possible that the proposals will meet with opposition, as many members of the University are averse from further encroach- ments on the space available for recreation. At a later date statutes will be submitted to Congregation amending the present constitution (1) of the Hebdo- madal Council by abolishing the existing division into ‘“Orders”’ of its elected members, and (2) of Con- gregation, by abolishing the present qualification of residence, and enacting that in future Congregation shall consist of the teaching and administrative elements in the University and colleges. Another pro- posed statute provides, in certain circumstances, for a poll of Convocation to be kept open for three days. NO. 2246, VOL. 90] 2 Religion and philosophy. % Science and technology. 4 Belles lettres. It is thought that the second at least of these pro- posals, i.e. that relating to Congregation, will be resisted. The election to a fellowship at All Souls’ College of a graduate distinguished in mathematics or natural science is a rare occurrence, hence it is specially worthy of record that Mr. D. B. Somervell, of Mag- dalen College, one of the latest elected fellows of All Souls’, obtained honours in mathematical moderations in 1908, and first-class honours in chemistry in 1911. The new Pharmacological Laboratory was formally opened on November 9g in the presence of the Vice- Chancellor and a large assemblage of Oxford medical graduates. The history of the department was briefly recounted by Sir William Osler, Regius professor of medicine, and an address on ‘‘The New Pharma- cology’? was delivered by the Reader, Dr. J. A. Gunn. Space for the new laboratory has been found by the insertion of a floor in the rooms on the west front of the museum formerly occupied by the Rad- cliffe Library. Of the two stories thus formed, the upper is devoted to pharmacology, the lower is shared between the Hope department of entomology and the department of mineralogy. Lieut.-Cot. W. W. O. Brvertpce, D.S.O., Royal Army Medical Corps, has been appointed professor of hygiene at the Royal Army Medical College, Gros- venor Road, S.W., in succession to Brevet-Col. C. H. Melville. WE learn from Science that Mr. T. W. Todd, at present lecturer in anatomy at Victoria University of Manchester, has been appointed Henry Willson Payne professor of anatomy in the medical department of Western Reserve University in the United States. Prof. Todd will talke up his new duties in December. Tue sum of 10,000l., free of Government duties, has been bequeathed by the late Misses Mary, Hannah, and Helen Dalgety and Mrs. Isabella Dalgety, or Wilson, to the University of Edinburgh for the founda- tion and endowment of bursaries not exceeding 5ol. for two years and prizes in the law faculty of the University. A MEETING of the governors of the South-Eastern | Agricultural College, Wye, was held under the chair- manship of Lord Ashcombe, at Caxton House, on Monday, November 11. The governors considered the proposed establishment of a fruit research plantation in the south-eastern district, and decided to accept the responsibility of administering such a plantation with the aid of the grant of s5ool. offered by the Board of Agriculture. Tue countil of the City and Guilds of London Insti- tute has conferred the fellowship of the institute upon Mr. A. Chatterton and Mr. W. D. B. Duddell, F.R.S. This distinction is extended to those students who 324 NATURE [| NOVEMBER 14, 1912 have obtained the associateship of the institute, and spent at least five years in actual practice, and by original and valuable research work or otherwise have contributed to the advancement of the industry in which they are engaged. RecENTLY the faculty of medicine of the University of Giessin conferred the honorary degree of doctor of medicine upon Ernst Leitz, Junior, the junior partner of the celebrated optical firm, E. Leitz, of Wetzlar, and 18 Bloomsbury Square, London. It is only a little more than a year since the University of Mar- burg honoured the senior partner of the same firm by conferring upon him the degree of doctor of philo- sophy. It must begratifying to the firm that its services towards science are so highly appreciated and recognised. A JOINT conference on the Montessori system of education, arranged by the Child Study Society (Lon- don) and the Montessori Society of the United King- dom, will be held at the Royal Sanitary Institute, Buckingham Palace Road, S.W., on Saturday, Novem- ber 16. The chair will be taken at 3 p.m. by the Hon. Sir John A. Cockburn, K.C.M.G. The conference will be preceded on Friday, November 15, at 7.30 p.m., by a lecture by Madame Pujol-Segalas (of Paris) on “Maria Montessori’s Method and _ Self-education.” Mr. R. Blair, education officer of the London County Council, will preside. Tue following lectures for advanced students of the University and others interested in the subjects are announced in The London University Gazette. A course of six lectures on ‘‘ Methods of Illumination as applied to Microscopy,” at Charing Cross Hospital Medical School, Chandos Street, W.C., by Mr. J. E. Barnard, at 5 p.m. on Thursdays, beginning on November 14; and a course of three lectures, on “Recent Work in Experimental Embryology,” in the Zoological Lecture Room of University College, by Dr. J. W. Jenkinson, on Fridays, November 20, December 6 and 13, 1912, at 5 p.m. Admission to the lectures is free, without ticket. Mr. A. G. Warren has been appointed a lecturer in the engineering faculty of the University of Hong Kong. He was a lecturer in the East London College, and has been head of the engineering department of the Aston Manor Technical School, Birmingham, for the last eighteen months. In July last Prof. C. A. M. Smith (of the East London College) was appointed to the Tai Koo chair of engineering in that University, and immediately proceeded to the Far East to take up his new duties. The Hong Kong University opened its doors to students in October, 1912, and, although the equipment of the engineering department had not then been commenced, there were thirty-five engineer- ing students who passed the entrance examination, and who now form the first-year engineers of the latest British university. It is interesting to record the fact that these Chinese engineering students have come from many different parts, and include some from Straits Settlements, Canton, and Foochow. Various changes are proposed in the regulations for the examinations for certain junior appointments in the Civil Service. The age limits for the appoint- ments being eighteen to nineteen and a half years, they are as a rule competed for by candidates from secondary schools. Certain subjects in the examina- tion are compulsory; while the optional subjects are divided into two classes, the papers in one being of a lower standard than those in the other, and conse- quently receiving only half the marks of the higher papers. At present, papers of lower standard are set NO. 2246, VOL. go] in mathematics, French, German, Latin, Greek, Eng- lish history, chemistry, and physics; and higher papers are set in mathematics, French, German, Latin, Greek, English and European history, chemistry, and physics. It is proposed in 1914 to set a lower paper in European history in addition to the subjects named above, and no longer to set higher papers in history, chemistry, and physics. It is clear that the proposed change will operate unfavourably against schools where two classical languages are not taught, and against candidates whose abilities are scientific rather than linguistic. We are glad to notice that the Education Committee of the London County Council has passed a resolution to this effect, which is being sent to the Civil Service Commissioners for their consideration. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. LONDON. Royal Anthropological Institute, November 12.—Dr. A. P. Maudslay, president, in the chair.—R. W. Williamson : The Mekeo people of New Guinea. Mr. Williamson gave an account of the Mekeo modes of courtship and ceremony of marriage. For the former, love charms and philtres are extensively used, and the rising sun is appealed to for help. The negotiations for the marriage involve substantial gifts by the boy’s family to that of the girl, including ornaments, &c., which are presented at the time of the negotiations, and pigs, which the girl’s relatives afterwards secure by means of a mock hostile raid upon the boy’s clan. The author also described some of their ceremonial dances, which he believed to have an origin in an imitation of the dancing movements during the court- ing season of the goura pigeon, and elaborate cere- monial performances, at which much coveted decora- tions are bestowed upon warriors who have slain an enemy in battle; also their funeral and mourning ceremonies, the former of which includes a comic feast and a game of ‘‘bob-apple ’’—the apple being the leg of a pig or kangaroo. Paris. Academy of Sciences, November 4. M. Lippmann in the chair.—G. Bigourdan ; The International Time Con- ference. The first meeting was held at Paris on October 15, and was attended by the representatives of fifteen Governments. The work was subdivided amongst four subcommittees, and a detailed account is given of their conclusions and suggestions.—Paul Appell: The theorem of the last Jacobi multiplier con- nected with the formula of Ostrogradsky or Green.— L. Maquenne and E. Demoussy: The determination of respiratory coefficients. A discussion of the relations between the apparent and true respiratory coefficients when determined in a fixed volume of air.—W. Kilian and Ch. Pussenot: The age of the shining schists of the Franco-Italian Alps. There is a brealx in these strata, a portion being Mesozoic and another part Tertiary. These two portions are probably _ strati- graphically discordant.—Kr. Birkeland: The origin of planets and their satellites. From experimental con- siderations the author has been led to the view that in solar systems in course of evolution there exist forces of electromagnetic origin of the same order of magnitude as that of gravitation. The retrograde revolution of the recently discovered moons of Jupiter and Saturn is in accordance with this view.—MM. Fayet and Schaumasse: The elliptic elements of the 1912b comet (Schaumasse comet) : its identity with the Tuttle comet.—P. Idrac : Spectroscopic observations of the Gale comet (1912) made at the Meudon Observa- NOVEMBER 7, I912]| NATURE 325.5 tory. The photographs showed the usual comet spec- trum, with hydrocarbon and cyanogen lines.—M. Borrelly ; The discovery and observation of the comet 1gi2c, made at the Observatory of Marseilles. The comet is of 95 magnitude, 2’ in extent, round, with a nucleus and without a tail. Its positions are given for two observations on November 2.—Michel Plan- cherel; The problems of Cantor and of Dubois- Reymond in the Legendre theory of series of poly- nomials.—G. Ribaud ; The spectrum of magnetic rota- tion of bromine. The Righi effect has been studied with more powerful magnetic fields, up to 24,000 Gauss. The re-establishment of the light observed longitudinally in the magnetic field cannot be attri- buted to a Zeeman effect; all the absorption lines of bromine show the phenomenon of magnetic rotatory polarisation, on condition that for any given line a suitable vapour pressure is chosen. The appearance of the magnetic rotatory spectrum changes completely when the pressure is altered.—Léon and Eugéne Bloch ; The ionisation of gases by the Schumann rays. Ordinary sources of ultra-violet light placed in air emit a considerable proportion of rays sufficiently re- frangible to be partially absorbed by quartz, and brass is very sensitive to the photoelectric effect of these rays.—Georges Meslin: Thermoelectric couples.—A. Leduc : A new method for determining the ratio of the two specific heats of a gas. This is a modification of the Laplace method, and has the advantage of requiring no other instrument than a good balance and thermometer. A large globe of not less than three litres capacity is filled with the gas at 0° C., and accurately weighed. It is then placed in a bath at a known temperature, the tap momentarily opened, and the mass of gas remaining in the globe determined by weighing. The theory and limits of accuracy of the method are worked out in the paper.—Henri Stassano : The opposed actions of the magnetic field on the electrical conductivity of rarefied gases as a function of the value of the field and the degree of vacuum.— M. Lelarge : A cause of explosion of tubes containing a compressed mixture of air and hydrogen. While measuring the pressure and density of some com- pressed hydrogen, an explosion occurred in which two workmen were killed. The author has investigated the conditions under which such an explosion may take place, and draws some practical conclusions from his experiments with a view to avoid such explosions in future.—J. Couyat: A meteorite from Hedjaz, Arabia. A full chemical and mineralogical analysis of the meteorite is given.—Paul Vuillemin: Periodic variation in specific characters. Studies of the flowers of Phlox subulata.—A, Petit: The non-fixation of phosphoric acid by an acid forest soil.—L. Lindet : The conditions of combination of calcium and phos- phorus in the casein of milk. About one-half of the phosphorus contained in casein precipitated from mill by rennet is in the condition of calcium phosphate, but the other half is in organic combination as a phosvhate. Only three-fifths of the calcium is com- bined with phosphoric acid, the remainder saturating the free acidity of the casein.—Marcel Mirande: The existence of cyanogenetic principles in Centaurea crocodylium and Tinantia fugax.—A. Desmouliére : The antigen in the Wassermann reaction. A new method of preparation of the antigen is given possess- ing greater delicacy than the original Wassermann preparation.—Louis Boutan: Observations relating to the vocal manifestations of an anthropoid ape, Hylo- bates leucogenys. The sounds emitted by this ape are classified. They differ from a language, properly so-called, in that they are not produced by education, and hence represent nothing conventional, and are simply spontaneous sounds. NO. 2246, VOL. 90] BOOKS RECEIVED. The Botany of Iceland. Edited by Dr. L. K. Rosenvinge and Dr. E. Warming. Part i., The Marine Algal Vegetation. By Dr. H. Jénsson. Pp. vi+ 186. (Copenhagen: J. Frimodt; London: J. Wheldon and Co.) Handworterbuch der Naturwissenschatten. Edited by E. Korschelt and others. Lief. 19-22. (Jena: G. Fischer). Each 2.50 marks. The Cochin Tribes and Castes. By L. K. A. Krishna lyer. Vol. ii. Pp. xxiii+504. (Madras: Higginbotham and Co.; London: Luzac and Co.) Through Shén-Kan. The Account of the Clark Expedition in North China, 1908-9. By R. S. Clark and A. de C. Sowerby. Edited by Major C. H. Chep- mell. Pp. iiit247. (London: T. Fisher Unwin.) 25s. net. The Origin of Civilisation and the Primitive Condi- tion of Man. By the Right Hon. Lord Avebury. Seventh edition. Pp. xxviiit+454. (London: Long- mans and Co.) 7s. 6d. net. The “ Newest’’ Navigation Altitude and Azimuth Tables. By Lieut. R. de Aquino. Second edition. Pp. xlix+176+New Altitude Tables pp. v*+36*. (London: ‘J. D. Potter.) tos. 6d. net. Lehrbuch der Grundwasser- und Quellenkunde. By K. Keilhack. Pp. xi+545. (Berlin: Gebriider Born- traeger.) 20 marks. Matematica Dilettevole e Curiosa. By I. Ghersi. Pp. vilit+730. (Milano: U. Hoepli.) 9.50 lire. Trattato di Chimico-Fisica. By Prof. H. C. Jones. Translated by Dr. M. Giua. Pp. xx+6rr. (Milano: U. Hoepli.) 12 lire. Geology of New Zealand. By Prof. P. Marshall. Pp. viiit218+map. (Wellington: J. Mackay.) The Spiritual Interpretation of Nature. By Prof. J. Y. Simpson. Pp. xv+383. (London: Hodder and Stoughton.) 6s. net. The Feet of the Furtive. By C. G. D. Roberts. 277. (London: Ward, Lock and Co., Ltd.) 6s. Michigan Bird Life. By Prof. W. B. Barrows. Pp. xiv+822+70 plates. (East Lansing, Mich. : Michigan Agricultural College.) The Childhood of Animals. By Dr. P. C. Mitchell. Pp. xiv+269. (London: W. Heinemann.) tos. net. Herpetologia Europza. By Dr. E: Schreiber: Zweite Auflage. Pp. x+960. (Jena: G. Fischer.) 30 marks. General Report on the Operations of the Survey of India during the Survey Year 1910-11. Prepared under the direction of Col. S. G. Burrard. Pp. vi+ 29+12 plates. (Calcutta: Surveyor-General of India.) Fatty Foods: their Practical Examination. By E.R. Bolton and C. Revis. Pp. x+371. (London: J. and A. Churchill.) tos. 6d. net. Key to Hall’s School Algebra. Pp. Part. Byala Grenville. Pp. 317. (London: Macmillan and Co., etds) ose Die Mutationen in der Erblichkeitslehre. By Prof. H. de Vries. Pp. 42. (Berlin: Gebriider Born- traeger.) 1.60 marks. Sleeping Sickness. By Dr. F. M. Sandwith. Pp. v+56. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd.) 4d. Questions of the Day in Philosophy and Psychology. By Dr. H.-L. Stewart. Pp. x+284. (London: E. Arnold.) tos. 6d. net. Les Aciers au Nickel et leurs Applications 4 1’Horlo- gerie. By -€. E. Guillaume: Pp. 54. (Paris: Gauthier-Villars.) 2 francs. Canada Department of Mines. Mines Branch. Report on the Utilization of Peat Fuel for the Produc- tion of Power. By B. F. Haanel. Pp. xiii+145. (Ottawa: Government Printing Bureau.) 326 NATURE [NovEMBER 14, I912 A Primer of the Internal Combustion Engine. By H. E. Wimperis. Pp. xiii+143. (London: Con- stable and Co., Ltd.) 2s. 6d. net. The Nature of Woman. By J. L. Tayler. Pp. 186. (London: A. C. Fifield.) 3s. 6d. net. A New Geometry. Part i. By S. Barnard and J. M. Child. Pp. xii+224. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd.) 1s. 6d. By H. S. Redgrove. Experimental Mensuration. Heinemann.) 2s. 6d. Pp. xvii+328. (London: W. net. The Flowing Road. Adventuring on the Great Rivers of South America. By C. Whitney. Pp. 3109. (London: W. Heinemann.) t12s. 6d. net. Aéroplanes in Gusts. Soaring Flight and the By S. “L. Walkden. Pp. Stability of Aéroplanes. and F.: N. Spon, xv+188+4 plates. (London: E. Ltd.) 7s. 6d. net. Cambridge County Geographies :—Forfarshire. By E. S. Valentine. Pp. viiit160+2 maps. (Cam- bridge University Press.) 1s. 6d. Modern Inorganic Chemistry. By Dr. J. W. Mellor. Pp. xx+871. (London: Longmans and Co.) 7s. 6d. The Soul of Golf. By P. A. Vaile. Pp. xiii+356. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd.) 6s. net. Electricity and its Practical Applications. By Prof. M. Maclean. Pp. xiv+492. (London: Blackie and Son, Ltd.) 10s. 6d. net. A Course of Physics, Practical and Theoretical. By Dr. C. H. Draper. Pp. xi+413. (London: Blackie and Son, Ltd.) 4s. 6d. net. An Introduction to the Geology of New South Wales. By C. A. Stissmilch. Pp. xii+ (Syd- ney: W. A. Gullick.) 5s. Lehrbuch der Optik. By Prof. P. Drude. Dritte erweiterte Auflage. Edited by Prof. E. Gehrcke. Pp. xvit 548. (Leipzig : S. Hirzel.) 12 marks. Elements and Electrons. By Sir W. Ramsay. Pp. ix+173- (London: Harper and Bros.) 2s. 6d. net. Rough Stone Monuments and their Builders. By T. E. Peet. Pp. xii+172. (London: Harper and Bros.) 2s. 6d. net. DIARY OF SOCIETIES. THURSDAY, NoveMBER 14. Royat Society, at 4.30.—The Development of a Parasite of Earth- worms: J. Ww Cropper.—Further Contribution to the Study of the Inheritance of Hoariness in Stocks (Matthiola) : Edith R. Saunders.—The Influence of Temperature on the Absorption of Water by Seeds of Hordeunt vulgare in Relation to the ‘Temperature Coefficient of Chemical Change: Prof. A. J. Brown and F. P. Worley.—Note on Merlia normani and the ‘‘ Monticuliporas’”’: R. Kirkpatrick.—The Chemical Action of Bacillus cloacae (Jordan) on Citric and Malic Acids in the Presence and Absence of Oxygen: J. Thompson.—The Origin and Destiny of Cholesterol in the Animal Organism. X. The Excretion of Cholesterol by Man, when Fed on Various Diets: G. W. Ellis and J. A. Gardner.— The Comparative Anatomy and Affinities of the Araucarineae: Prof. R. Boyd Thomson. INSTITUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS, at (W. Duddell.)—Presentation of Premiums. ConCRETE INSTITUTE, at 7.30.—Presidential Address: E. P. Wells. MATHEMATICAL Society, at 5.30. — Annual General Meeting. — Presi- dential Address on Recent Advances in the Theory of Surfaces: H. F. Baker.—Some Properties of Cubic Surfaces: A. B. Grieve.—The Determination of the Summability of a Function by means of its Fourier Constants: W. H. Young.—Groups of Linear Substitutions of Finite Order which Possess Quadratic Invariants: W. Burnside.—The Irre- ducibility of Legendre’s Polynomials: J. B. Holt.-—The Representation of a Summable Function by means of a Series of Finite Polynomials : E. W. Hobson.—Theory of Functions of Real Vectors: E. Cunningham. FRIDAY, NoveMBER 15. Rovat GEOGRAPHICAL Society, at 8.45.—The Norwegian South Polar Expedition : Capt. Roald Amundsen. MONDAY, November 18. RT TELIAN SOCIETY, ‘at 8.—The Activity of Willing : icks. 8.—Address by the President Prof. G. Dawes TUESDAY, November 109. RovaL SratisticaL Society, at 5.—Still-births in Relation to Infantile Mort: lity : Dr. Dudfield. ILLUMINATING ENGINEERING Society, at 8.—Ancient Forms of Lamps: J. W . Johnston. A New Illumination Photometer: Haydn T. Harrison. —Some Simple Colour Boxes: W. C. Clinton.—Photography in Illumina- ting Engineering: J. S. Dow and V. H. Mackinney. NO. 2246, VOL. 90] INSTITUTION OF CiviL. ENGINEERS, at 8.—Further Discussion: The Con- struction of the New Dock at Methil: B. H. Blyth, Jun.—Alterations and Improvements of the Port Talbot Docks and Railway during the Last Decade: W. Cleaver. WEDNESDAY, NOVEMBER 20. Rovat METEOROLOGICAL SociETy, at 7.30.—The Unprecedented East Anglian Rainfall of August 26, 1912: Dr. H. R. Mill.—A Three-yeac Period in Rainfall: A..P. Jenkin. GeoLocicat Society, at 8.—lhe Hafslo Lake and the Solvorn Valley (Norway): H. W. Monckton.—The Genus Aulophyllum : 5S. Smith. Royat Microscopicat Society, at 8.—British Euchytreids. IV. The Genus Henlea: Rev. Hilderic Friend.—Saccammina Psammosphoera (North Sea 2): E. Heron-Allen and Arthur Earland. EnTomo.ocicat Society, at 8. Roya Sociery or Arts, at 8.—First Ordinary Meeting.—The Opening Address of the One Hundred and Fifty-ninth Session of the Society will be delivered by Lord Sanderson, G.C.B., K.C.M.G. THURSDAY, NoveMeeEr 21. Royat Socrety, at 4.30-—Probable Papers: An Investigation of the Spectrum of lonium: A. S. Russell and R. Rossi.—(1) A Note on the Ab- sorption of 6 Rays ; (2) The Similarity in Nature of X and Primary y Rays: J. A. Gray.—The Spectra of Fluorescent Réntgen Radiations: J. C. Chapman.—Optical Investigation of Solidified Gases. II- The Crystallo- graphic Properties of Hydrogen and Oxygen: W. Wahl. —An Electric Furnace for Experiments zz vacuo at Temperatures up to 1500 C. : R. E. Slade.—An Inyestigation of the Dissociation-Pressures and Melting Points of the System Copper, Cuprous Oxide: R. E. Slade and F. D. Farrow.—N ote on the Capacity Coefficient of Spheres: Dr. A. Russell. INSTITUTION OF MINING AND METALLURGY, at 8. FRIDAY, NovkEMBER 22. INSTITUTION OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Vapour-Compression Refrigerating Machines: J. Wemyss Anderson.—A Contribution to the Theory of Refrigerating Machines: Dr. J. H. Grindley. PuysicaL Society, ‘at 5.—(1) The Law of Plastic Flow of a Ductile Material; (2) Kinematograph Illustrations of the Torsion and{Breaking. of Large Specimens: C. E. Larard.—A Column Testing Machine: Prof. E. G, Coker. CONTENTS. PAGE Electrons and the Electro-magnetic Field. . 301 The Land and Its Lore. By A. E. Crawley . 301 Engineering Handbooks =) cmemen.) -) -) =) ieiemens ees OursBookshelf .. 2... Geen cls) cos Letters to the Editor :— Radium and Earth History.—G. W. Bulman . 305. The Moon and Poisonous Fish.—E. G. Bryant 305 Gramophone Experiments. — (Z//ustvated).—Ernest de la Rue; Prof. J. G. McKendrick, F.R.S. . 306. Reported Occurrence of the Dartford Warbler at the Tuskar Light Station.—Prof. C. J. Patten . . . 306 The Crystal Space- -lattice Revealed De Rontgen Rays. (/dlustr ae) By Dr. A. E. H. Tutton, TERS Gere oct Racy ANT e 306. Geophysical Memoirs. By W.W. B. 309. The Biology of the Ee. cee and Its Insect Guest, iC RCA CRM oS neatec ta OG Notes .. . 0 Gee ce So Our Astronomical Column :— The Brazilian Eclipse, October 10 ........ Borrelly’s Comet 1912¢ . . a) The Light-curve of Nova Geminorum, No. 2/2 The Dark Structures in the Milky Way ... . Stellar Actinometry at the Yerkes Cee ee The Iron and Steel Institute . . «op 2) EO Heredity and Eugenics. ByE, H. j S. : Influence of Geographical Conditions upon Japan- ese Agriculture. . Chemistry at the British Association. * By EY Bae 318 The Diffusion of Education and ata By 310: 315. 325 Arthur Macdonald _ . o As eee University and Educational Intelligence Pepe ote Societies: and Academies 3 .).)-.5 ©. + i » alle ene BooksrReceived . - . i)-) citvcrwet vita) oro) nace Diarysof Societies .~ 2.03) 409) eee ee ee Editorial and Publishing Offices: MACMILLAN & CO., Lrtp., ST. MARTIN’S STREET, LONDON, W.C. Advertisements and business letters to be addressed to the Publishers. Editorial Communications to the Editor. Telegraphic Address: Puusis, LONDON. Telephone Number: GERRARD 8830. A WEEKLY ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL OF SCIENC “To the solid ground F m a} Musevs } No. 2247, VOL. 90] 9 y XS SILVER & BRONZE MEDALS, YORK, 1912. & O - v SOLE AUTHORISED MAKERS OF NEW MODEL STROUD & RENDELL SCIENCE LANTERNS. ASTRONOMICAL Lee pHue Rent TELESCOPE. body, sliding baseboard, two Complete with 34 in. object superior objectives, plane glass, 2 eyepieces, finder, &c., is moved by a knob causing the rays to be reflected upwards for the projection of objects in a_ horizontal plane, condensers 4} in. diam., prism with silvered back which can be used at ‘*C,” or aS an erecting prism in mount ‘D,” lime-light burner, slide carrier. Price complete in travelling case, without reversible adjustable table ‘ B,” Ditto, ditto, with ‘Phcemx” Arc Lamp... 206 cs sexed Queda Reversible adjustable table ‘‘ B" for supporting apparatus, extra The ‘‘College” Lantern, without adjustable table, with silvered mirror ‘‘ A,” which on altazimuth stand. Complete, £15 oon “I CROMD ARS lime-light burner complete 7 Ditto, ditto, with “Phoenix” arc lamp... cp e sn £) Ls Slit and prism for spectrum with support, for either lantern... 1 \ Polariser and analyser ... ae a s 53. oy By Royal Warrant to H.M. the Kin a Catalogues post free. Optical Lanterns and Accessory Apparatus, 223 pages. 72 WIGMORE STREET, LONDON, Ww. Abridged List of Chemical Apparatus and Chemicals, 44 pages. Established over 200 Years Telegrams: ‘ Newtotar, London. Mechanical Models for teaching Building and Machine Construction. 14 COMMERCIAL STREET, LEEDS. Jon J. GRIFFIN & sus. 3 KEMBLE STREET, ‘Public School” KINGSWAY, LONDON, w.c. Set of Meteorological MAKERS OF PHYSICAL APPARATUS. | Jystruments forms “So | See” WO a simple complete Climatological Station at a moderate price. SMALL DIRECT VISION SPECTROSCOPE. With Plain Slit, 22/- With Adjustable Slit, 27/6 A Pamphlet describing this Set, and Price List, ‘Meteorological Instiuments,” will be sent post free to any address. NEGRETTI & ZAMBRA Holborn Viaduct, London, E.C. ; 45 Cornhill, E.C.; and 122 Regent Street, W. RAINBAND SPEGTROSGOPE, 45/- Write for Lists on Electric Furnaces, Pyrometry, Gc., &c. CXxX NATURE [NOVEMBER 21, I912 UNIVERSITY OF LONDON. NOTICE IS HEREBY GIVEN that the Senate will shortly proceed to elect Examiners in the following subjects for the year 1913-14 — HIGHER EXAMINATIONS FOR MEDICAL DEGREES. PRESENT EXAMINERS. Sidney Philip Phillips, Esq., F.R.C.P. Humphry Davy Rolleston, Esq., M.A., x | MiD.,.B-C:, F-R'C:P: W. KR CP. EXAMINERSHIPS. M.D., Four in Medicine S B. Warrington, Esq., M.D., Ch.B., Vacant. Frédéric F. Burghard, Esq., M.D., M.S., F.R.C.S. Raymond Johnson, Esq., M.B., B.S., F.R.C.S. M.D., Four in Surgery : | Henry Betham Robinson, Esq., M.S., F.R.C.S. Vacant. Medicine { William A. Brend, Esq., M.A., M.B., B.Sc. -.. | Vacant. John William Henry Eyre, Esq., M.D., 93 fs M.S., D.P.H. \ vacant. FIRST EXAMINATION AND SECOND EXAMINATION PART I., FOR MEDICAL DEGREES. (Candidates for these Examinerships should be experienced in Teaching Medical Students.) { Vacant. ~ | Vacant. { James Ernest Marsh, Esq., M.A., F-R.S. “| Vacant. | George William Clarkson Kaye, Esq., at D.Sc., B.A. \ vacant. SECOND EXAMINATION PART II., FOR MEDICAL DEGREES. [ Prof. A. Melville Paterson, M.D., M.S., Two in Forensic and Hygtene Two in State Medicine Two in General Biology Two in Chemistry Two in Physics Two in Anatomy O00 F.R.C.S. \ vacant. Two in Pharmacology Ace { Sele Two in Physiology ee { qeseee Barrel: Esq-, B.Sc., M.A., F.R.S. The Examiners above named are re-eligible, and intend to offer them- selves for re-election. Full particulars of the remuneration of each Examinership can be obtained on application to the Principal. N.B.—Attention is drawn to the provision of Statute 124, whereby the Senate is required, if practicable, to appoint at least one Examiner who is not a Teacher of the University. Candidates must send in their names to the Principal, with any attes- tation of their qualifications they may think desirable, on or before MONDAY, DECEMBER i6th. (Itis particularly desired by the Senate that no application of any kind be made to its individual Members.) be If Sor, a separate contplete applica- , must be forwarded in respect ‘S n one Examinership is a copies of testimonials, tf University of London, South Kensington, S.W., November, 1912. By Order of the Senate, HENRY A. MIERS, Principal. BEDFORD COLLEGE FOR WOMEN (UNIVERSITY OF LONDON), YORK PLACE, BAKER STREET, LONDON, W. DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY TRAINING. Head of the Department—Miss Sara Mevuuisu, M.A, The Course, to which Students are admitted in January and October, includes full preparation for the Examinations for the Teaching Diplomas granted by the Universities of London and Cambridge. Applications for Entrance Scholarships, Grants, &c., for the Course beginning January, 1913, should be sent to the Head of the Department not later than December 4. UNIVERSITY OF LONDON. An Advanced Course of Three Lectures on ‘‘RECENT WORK IN EXPERIMENTAL Empryotocy” will be delivered by Mr. J. W. JENKINSON, M.A., D.Sc., in the Zoological Lecture Room of University College, Gower Street, W.C., on Fridays, November 29, December 6 and 13, 1912, at 5 p.m. Admission free, without ticket. P. J. HARTOG, Academic Registrar. —EE——Ee eee eee Wanted, Junior Assistant Entomologist to carry out field experiments and assist in laboratory, Should have some knowledge of plant pests and the setting up of specimens. Com- mencing salary £75 per annum.—Apply by letter “‘ Box No. 202,” c/o Street's, 8 Serle Street, W.C. BIRKBECK COLLEGE, BREAMS BUILDINGS, CHANCERY LANE, E.C. Principal: G. Armitage-Smith, M.A., D.Lit. COURSES OF STUDY (Day and Evening) for the Degrees of the UNIVERSITY OF LONDON in the FACULTIES OF SCIENCE & ARTS (PASS AND HONOURS) under RECOGNISED TEACHERS of the University. SCIENCE.—Chemistry, Physies, Mathematics (Pure and Applied), Botany, Zoology, Geology and Mineralogy. ARTS.—Latin, Greek, English, French, German, Italian, History, Geography, Logie, Economies, Mathematies (Pure and Applied). Evening Courses for the Degrees in Economics and Law. { Day: Science, £17 10s.; Arts, £10 10s. \ Evening: Science, Arts, or Economics, £5 5s. POST-GRADUATE AND RESEARCH WORK. Particulars on application to the Secretary. SOUTH-WESTERN POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE, MANRESA ROAD, CHELSEA, S.W. Day Courses under recognised Teachers in Preparation for London University Degrees in Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, in Chemistry, Physics and Natural Science; and Technical Courses arranged to extend over Three Years and Prepare for Engineering, Electrical, Chemical and Metallurgical Professions. Session Fee, £15. Evening Courses in all Departments :— Mathematics—*J. Lister, A.R.C.S., T. G. Strain, B.A. ; Physics— *S. Skinner, M.A., *L. Lownps, B.Sc., Ph.D., *F. W. Jorvan, B.Sc. ; Chemistry—*J. B. Coteman, A.R.C.S., *J. C. Crocker, M.A., D.Sc, and *F. H. Lowe, M.Sc ; Botany—*H. B. Lacey, S. E. CHANDLER, D.Sc., and *W. Rusuton, A.R.C.S., D.I.C. ; Geology—*A. J. Masten, F.G.S., F.L.S.; Human Physiology—E. L. Kennaway, M.A., M.D. ; Zoology—*J. T. CunnincHam, M.A.; Engineering—*W. CAMPBELL Houston, B.Sc., A.M.I.C.E., *V. C. Davies, B.Sc., and H. AUGHTIE 3 Electrical Engineering—*A. J. Maxower, M.A., *B. H. Morpny, and U. A. Oscuwa tp, B.A. *Recognised Teacher of the University of London. Prospectus from the SECRETARY, post free, 4d. ; at the Office, rd. Telephone : 899 Western. SIDNEY SKINNER, M.A., Principal. CITY OF LONDON COLLEGE. ACTING IN CONJUNCTION WITH THE LONDON CHAMBER OF COMMERCE. WHITE ST., and ROPEMAKER S8T., MOORFIELDS, E.C, (Near Moorgate and Liverpool Street Stations). PRINCIPAL: SIDNEY HUMPHRIES, B.A., LL.B. (Cantab.) SESSIONAL FEES EVENING CLASSES in SCIENCE. Well-equipped LABORATORIES for Practical Work in CHEMISTRY, BOTANY, GEOLOGY. Special Courses for Conjoint Board, Pharmaceutical and other examin- ations. Classes are also held in all Commercial Subjects, in Languages, and Literature. Art Studio. All Classes are open to both sexes. DAY SCHOOL OF COMMERCE. Preparation fora COMMERCIAL or BUSINESS career. Prospectuses, and all other information, gratis on application. DAVID SAVAGE, Secretary. — O00 Ore ww CHEMICAL SOCIETY RESEARCH FUND. A Meeting cf the Research Fund Committee will be held in December next. Applications for grants, to be made on forms which can be obtained from the Assistant Secretary, must be received on or before Monday, December 2, 1012. All persons who received grants in December, rorr, or in December of any previous year, whose accounts have not been declared closed by the Council, are reminded that reports must be in the hands of the Hon. Secretaries not later than Monday, December 2. The Council wish to draw attention to the fact that the income arising from the donation of the Worshipful Company of Goldsmiths is to be more or less especially devoted to the encouragement of research in inorganic and metallurgical chemistry. Furthermore, that the income due to the sum accruing from the Perkin Memo-ial Fund is to be applied to investigations relating to problems connected with the coal-tar and allied industries. Deane al MISS M. S. GRATTON (Nat. Sci. Tripos, Girton College, Cambridge) gives lessons orally or by correspondence in Botany, Chemistry, Physics, Physiology, Mathematics, &c. Preparation for University and Local Examinations.—12 Lupus Street, Westminster, S.W. INDE Ok eJes 327 THURSDAY, NOVEMBER 21, 1g12. THE MECHANISTIC CONCEPTION OF LIEBE. The Mechanistic Conception of Life. Biological Essays by Dr. Jacques Loeb. Pp. vi+ 232. (Chicago, Illinois: University. of Chicago Press; London: Cambridge University. Press, n.d.) Price 6s. net. HIS book deals for the most part with facts derived from the author’s own experimental work. The facts are set forth in a manner easily to be understood, in a.series of essays, most of which have already appeared in print, and the general nature of which can be inferred from their titles, viz., the significance of tropisms for psycho- logy; the comparative physiology of the central nervous system; pattern adaptation of fishes; physiological morphology; the nature of fertilisa- tion; the nature of formative stimulation; the pre- vention of death by fertilisation; the réle of salts in the preservation of life; the influence of en- vironment on animals. That these diverse sub- jects are closely interwoven and that the facts which are cited point to a definite conclusion re- garding the nature of life is demonstrated in the first-essay, which gives the title to the work, and it will be best to confine attention mainly to that one, since it would require more space than the Editor could fairly be expected to place at my disposal to deal at any length, and in the manner it deserves, with each individual paper of the series. The results at which Prof. Loeb has arrived are best expressed, wherever possible, in his own words—they are, indeed, stated so clearly and concisely that it would be superfluous to attemnt to set them forth in other language than that which he has himself employed. In connection with phenomena characteristic of life, he begins by pointing out that the first attempt to reduce such a phenomenon—that of the production of animal heat—to physico-chemical terms was made as long ago as 1780 by Lavoisier and Laplace, an attempt which has now been successfully converted into accomplishment. As the author remarks, this work touches the core of the problem of life, since “oxidations form a part, if not the basis, of all life phenomena in higher organisms.’”’ With regard to the so-called “riddle of life,” Prof. Loeb of necessity admits that we are not yet able to give an answer to the question as to how life originated on the earth. Whilst leaning towards the idea of Arrhenius that life germs may _be driven through space by radiation-pressure, he NO. 2247, VOL. 90] _ delian theory. emphasises the necessity of attempting the “other problem ”—that, namely, of producing living matter artificially. The kind of living matter that he expects to be thus produced is that which con- stitutes nuclear substance. For the nucleins have the peculiarity of acting on ferments for their own synthesis, and thus reproducing themselves. Who- ever claims to have succeeded in making living matter from inanimate will have to prove that he has succeeded in producing nuclear material which acts in this way. “ Nobody has thus far succeeded in this, although nothing warrants us in taking it for granted that the task is beyond the power of science.” Regarding fertilisation of the egg, it is shown that only a short while ago this was. still “shrouded in that mystery which to-day surrounds the origin of life in general,” but the problem is to-day reduced to physico-chemical terms, since activation is determined by chemical or even by mere physical agencies. Discussing the question of the nature of life and death, “which occupies the interest of the layman perhaps more than any other problem,’’ the author remarks that ‘“‘we can well understand that humanity did not wait for experimental biology to furnish an answer. The answer assumed the anthropomorphic form characteristic of all explana- tions of nature in the prescientific period. Life was assumed to begin with the entrance of a ‘‘life- principle into the body. . . . Death was assumed to be due to the departure of this ‘ life-principle.’”’ Scientifically, however, individual life “begins with the acceleration of oxidation in the egg,” and “ends with the cessation of oxidation in the body.” The problem of the beginning and end of individual life is thus physico-chemically clear, and the doc- trine of a “‘life-principle ” must be abandoned. Dealing with the subject of heredity, an in- | teresting account is given of the discovery of the sex chromosomes and their relation to the Men- Whilst admitting that science has yet to determine the chemical substances in the chromosomes which are responsible for hereditary transmission of qualities and the mechanism by | which they act, the author shows that a com- mencement has already been made, since it is known that for the formation of a certain black pigment transmitted through the male element, the cooperation of tyrosin and tyrosinase are re- quired, and the chromosome must carry sub- stances which determine the formation of these. “While until twelve years ago the field of heredity was the stamping ground for the rhetorician and _metaphysician, it is to-day perhaps the most’ exact and rationalistic part of biology.” Thus the pheno- mena of fertilisation and heredity, which “are N 228 NATURE [ NOVEMBER 21, I912 specific for living organisms and without analogues in inanimate nature,’ are both shown to be sus- ceptible of a physico-chemical analysis. The question of adaptation is next dealt with. “Tn the answer to this question, the metaphysician finds an opportunity to put above purely chemical and physical processes something specific which is characteristic of life only.’’ But the phenomena of adaptation only cause apparent difficulties be- cause “‘we rarely or never become aware of the numerous faultily constructed organisms which appear in nature.” “The number of species exist- ing to-day is only an infinitely small fraction of those which can, and possibly do, originate,” but which “cannot live and reproduce.” ‘“‘ Dishar- monies and faulty attempts in nature are the rule, the harmonically developed systems the rare ex- ception. But, since we only perceive the latter, we gain the erroneous impression that the “‘ adapta- tion of the parts to the plan of the whole’’ is a general and_ specific characteristic of animate nature.” “ Nobody doubts that the durable chemi- cal elements are only the product of blind forces. There is no reason for considering otherwise the durable systems in living nature.” Lastly, the author discusses the question whether what he terms the ‘contents of life’? or “inner life’’ (psychical life)—‘our wishes and hopes, disappointments and sufferings ’’—are also amenable to a physico-chemical analysis. In spite of the gulf which separates us to-day from such an aim, he believes that it is attainable. “As long as a life-phenomenon has not yet found a physico- chemical explanation, it usually appears inexplic- able.” But that in the case of one’s inner life such an explanation is possible is shown by the fact that we are able to explain the phenomena of animal tropisms, which are cases of simple mani- festations of animal instinct and will, on a physico- chemical basis. Thus, to take as an example the tendency of certain animals—some of them by no means low in the scale of organisation—to be at- tracted to a source of light. This appears to be explicable by the law of Bunsen and Roscoe for photochemical effects in inanimate nature, which states that within wide limits the effect equals the product of the intensity of light into the duration of illumination; although the direct measurements in regard to the applicability of the law to animal heliotropism have still to be made. “But we may already safely state that the apparent ‘will’ or instinct of these animals resolves itself into a modi- fication of the action of the muscles under the action of light; and for the metaphysical term “will” we may in these instances safely substitute the chemical term ‘photochemical action of light.’ ”’ NO. 2247, VOL. 90] But the point will naturally be raised: “If we are only chemical mechanisms, how can there be an ethics for us?’’ The answer is that our in- stincts are the root of our ethics, and that these instincts are hereditary. The mother loves and cares for her children, not because metaphysicians | had the idea that this was desirable, but because the instinct of taking care of the young is in- herited. We seek and enjoy the fellowship of human beings because we have a hereditary im- pulse so todo. ‘‘ Not only is the mechanistic con- ception of life compatible with ethics: it seems the only conception of life which can lead to an understanding of the source of ethics.”’ The above quotations will suffice to show that, with regard to the nature of living processes, Prof. Loeb speaks with no uncertain sound, and it would be well for biologists of the arm-chair and rostrum variety to bear in mind that he also | speaks with the authority of personal experimenta- tion and first-hand observation. E. A. SCHAFER. THE FRENCH ARTHURIAN ROMANCES. The Vulgate Version of the Arthurian Romances. Edited from manuscripts in the British Museum by H. Oskar Sommer. Vol. i., “Lestoire del Saint Graal.’’ Pp. xxxii+296. (1909.) Vol. ii., “Testoire de Merlin.” Pp. 446. (1908.) Vol. iil., “Le Livre de Lancelot del Lac.” Part i. Pp. ii+430. (z910.) Vol. iv., ditto. Part ii. Pp. 399. (1911.) Vol. v., ditto. Part iii. Pp. 474. (1912.) (Washington: Carnegie Institu- tion.) HESE sumptuous volumes are priceless gifts to the world of scholarship by the Carnegie Institution of Washington. No one knows better than the erudite editor, whose studies of the sources available are well known, “both from a physical and from a pecuniary point of view, that no single scholar was equal to the task of producing a critical text of the vulgate cycle, even if he devoted the better part of his life to the work, and that it could be achieved, within a measurable space of time, only by the united efforts of many, all working on a common basis.” What the editor has accomplished, single- handed as he tells us, is the erection of a “funda- mental structure” in the form of a “reliable printed edition of a manuscript which contained the whole cycle, and was provided with all the essentials for comparison and reference ’’ (vol. i., pref. iii., iv.). That the transcript he presents us with may be depended on is well assured by the modus operandi used. The preparation of the transcript for press fully occupied the author’s time for three years and seven months. “I have NOVEMBER 21, 1912] NATURE aie) read every line of the printed text five times, three times with the original manuscript, once with my transcript, and finally without either” (ib.). For checking his reading of the original manuscript, he “constructed a sliding indicator with a cardboard ruler covered with soft leather, a strong ribbon of sillx attached to a small leather- bag for the reception of a lead-weight, and a clip to be attached to the stand on which the manu- script was placed; this was easily moveable from line to line, and just as easily transferable from column to column and from leaf to leaf” (pref. XXVIli.). In his introduction (vol. i.) the editor gives an outline of his studies of the vulgate cycle, as the French version of the Arthurian prose-romances is called. That version “represents the ultimate stage in a process of welding heterogeneous ele- ments into a not very harmonious whole” (pref. vii.). In other words, the version is the furthest removed, barring still later modifications, from the original sources. Even between that version and the older strata of the Welsh Mabinogion and their Irish analogues is a great gulf fixed, and the latter again are now well proven to be late Celtic versions of pre-Celtic traditions. The French romances throw very little light on the ultimate sources. On the other hand, the evi- dence of deliberate adaptation to medieval condi- tions is in these volumes most apparent. The Welsh and Irish extant sources are downright pagan productions, with very little to show that we are indebted for them to Christian ecclesi- astics. The French version is, or once was, popular Christian theological literature. The core of the typical tale of the conception and birth of an illustrious child of an unknown father and a king’s wife or daughter appears in the Welsh and Irish versions as something separate from any moral considerations, and while it may reflect a state of society far removed from ours, it seems fairly clear that such tales were not originally intended to represent actual human relationships and con- ditions, but were rather symbolical representations of phenomena. We must come down to the vulgate cycle to find in such legends the element of sin. The editor has clearly discerned the essen- tial change which ensued in the character of the legends when he remarks: “Syr Lancelot, the title-hero of the huge romance of that name, has no prototype in Celtic literature” (pref. viii.). He is simply a Frenchman of the twelfth century. One cannot compare the groups of legends referred to without being deeply impressed with the com- parative worthlessness of the French romances as guides to prehistoric cults, customs, and manners. NO. 2247, VOL. 90] As French literature, the materials must, of course, be seriously treated. The editor, in justly claiming recognition for the noble work he has done, expresses himself here and there rather un- fortunately. “T shall be glad if I have succeeded in pointing out the path on which others after me may advance to success, for then I shall have done more than any scholar has achieved before me in these studies” (pref. v.). “Scholars of various nationalities have devoted much time and effort during the last seventy years to the study of the origin and growth of the Arthurian romances, but the results of their labours are comparatively in- significant, and have done little to open up this vast tract of romantic literature ”’ (pref. iii.). In penning such sentences, the editor must have discarded his “sliding indicator.’’ Conscious of the soundness of his weapon—his excellent transcript—and his intimate knowledge of the subject, he appears rather eager for a free all- round fight. He announces that his study of the manuscripts concerned has led him to “results considerably at variance with what has hitherto been accepted as probable and correct ” (pref. vii.). He asserts that the matiere de Bre- taigne, although undoubtedly the fountain-head of many episodes and adventures in Arthurian romance, has exercised an infinitesimal, if any divect, influence on the several branches of the vulgate cycle (ib.). He does not believe that Walter Map had anything to do with the French prose-romances (pref. xi., note). As transcribers form an absolutely indispensable class, we have learnt to tolerate almost anything they are pleased to say. To supply others with excellent texts, with never a chance to preach a sermon from them, would have been very hard lines indeed. JouNn GRIFFITH. GEOGRAPHICAL TEXT-BOOKS GUIDES. (1) A First Book of General Geography. C. Wallis. Pp. viii+151. (London: millan and Co., Ltd., 1912.) Price 1s. (First Books of Science.) (2) Maps: How they are made; how to read AND By B. Mac- 6d. them. By Prof. H. N. Dickson. Pp. 66. (London: G. W. Bacon and Co., Ltd, 1912.) Price 6d. (3) Black’s Modern Guide Edited by Gordon Home. plates. (London: A. Price ts. (4) Les Alpes de Provence: Guide du Touriste, du Naturaliste et de l’Archéologue. By G. Tardieu. Pp. vi+310. (Paris: Masson et Cie., 1912.) Price 4.50 francs. to Harrogate. Pp. 128+ 12 coloured and C. Black, 1912.) 330 x NATURE [NOVEMBER 21, 1912 (5) Regional Geography: the World. By J. B. Reynolds. Pp. vii+360. (London: A. and C. Black, 1912.) Price 3s. 6d. (6) Libya Italica: Terreni ed Acque, Vita e Colture della Nuova Colonia. By P. Vinassa de Regny. Pp. xv+214. (Milano: Ulrico Hoepli, 1913.) Price 7.50 lire. (x) R. WALLIS rightly begins his elementary general geography with a note about pictures, plans and maps, and estab- lishes a connection between them so as to show the pupil how certain features appear (for instance) on a photograph and on a map respectively, and how a map is for some purposes a clearer repre- sentation than a picture if rightly interpreted. The book generally is on a regional basis, and the usual connection is established between climatic and other phy’ cal conditions, economic and natural products, and the life of man. The whole is clear and simple, and not overloaded with detail. There are some good maps among the illustrations. (2) There can no longer exist any excuse for ignorance in the matter of map-reading and map- construction when so convenient and cheap a book on the subject as Prof. Dickson’s is accessible. It is so well produced, and, above all, so fully illustrated, that its cheapness is especially a matter for remark, while the simple explanation | of scales and conventional signs of the various methods of representing relief and so forth are admirable. Incidentally we find a few useful explanations of certain terms in physical geography which are not infrequently misused, and there is also some indication as to the general inferences which can be drawn from a good map as to the nature of a country. Thus, there are some inter- esting paragraphs on lines of communication, with illustrations of typical routes for various types of conveyance across a given piece of country. (3) The feature of Messrs. Black’s new guide to Harrogate and its neighbourhood is that of an alphabetical places, so far as concerns the environment of Harrogate, and to some extent under subjects as regards the place itself. This undoubtedly adds to ease of reference. The volume is of convenient size and light; it is also well mapped. The appreciation, or otherwise, of the three-colour illustrations may be a matter of taste. (4) The guide under notice to the Alps of Provence is chiefly to be commended for the prominence and greater space than usual which are given to a general dissertation on the physical, geological and other natural features of the region. Apart from this, both the printing and illustrations reach a standard in advance of many guide-books printed abroad which have come under our notice. NO. 2247, VOL. 90] arrangement under names of | (5) Miss Reynolds’s ‘‘ Regional Geography of the World” will probably be of greatest service as a topographical introduction to the regional system of geographical teaching which is now so widely applied. The general regional con- clusions are deferred to the end and are disposed of briefly, though Miss Reynolds points out that it is optional to the teacher to take them at the beginning, and probably many will do so. Topo- graphy and economic products receive specially careful attention throughout the book. The maps are not always carefully printed and occasionally are difficult to read, while those given to illustrate political features of the European countries and elsewhere are old-fashioned and scarcely worth their space in the volume. (6) The production of a volume dealing with Tripoli under the name of “Italian Libya,” and bearing the date of next year, is an example of publishing enterprise not untinged with humour ; | but the book itself is a thorough geographical study of the region. The morphology and topo- | graphy are first dealt with, and later the climate, hydrography, vegetation and other natural features are successively outlined, with appro- priate bibliographies, tables and illustrations, the last in ample numbers. There is a particularly clear geological map in colour, worked out by the author. OUR BOOKSHELF. Customs of the World. A Popular Account of the Customs, Rites, and Ceremonies of Men and Women of all Countries. Edited by W. Hutchinson. Part i. (London: Hutchinson and Co., 1912.) Tuis is the third division of the valuable series of works on popular anthropology which we owe to the enterprise of Messrs. Hutchinson. Part 1., which is now before us, sufficiently indicates the scope of the publication. Dr. Haddon supplies a useful general introduc- tion, in which he illustrates the importance of the subject. Custom he defines to be unwritten law. It depends primarily on the environment, that is, the conditions under which each group, the customs of which are being examined, secures its livelihood. The geographical control, while it is more marked among races the culture of which is of the primi- _ tive type, tends, with advance in civilisation, to become more or less negligible, but is never entirely lost. Generally speaking, some of the most primitive customs are those of a magical nature, intended to secure the most elementary needs of humanity, such as the periodical growth of plants or animals used for food, the causation of rain or sunshine, and so on. With the more complete organisation of the group we reach those customs which represent the influence of the col- lective emotion of its members, such as rites of initiation, birth, marriage, and death, all of nt NOVEMBER 21, 1912] NATURE 3 ios) which are social, not individual. Combined with these comes the growth of totemism and the re- cognition of emotions which we class indiscrimin- ately as religious. The first part of the work is devoted to an account of the customs in Melanesia, contributed by Mr. R. W. Williamson. Needless to say, this instalment is illustrated by a fine series of photographs. The work, as a whole, if it does not make all its readers anthropologists, is admirably designed to excite popular interest in a most fascinating science. Grundriss der Biochemie fiir Studierende und Aerste. By Prof. Carl Oppenheimer. Pp. vii+399. (Leipzig: Georg Thieme, 1912.) Price 9 marks. Tue title of Prof. Oppenheimer’s book is some- what misleading. One expects to learn something tundamental about the chemistry of living organisms, but the subject matter is mainly con- cerned with the chemistry of mammalian func- tions. The book is divided into two sections. The first consists of a description of chemical substances. As such it comprises a synopsis of organic chemistry with references to the biological source and significance of the substances described. The second section contains a brief outline of the chemical processes concerned in mammalian physiology. The scope of this book indicates that it is in- tended for medical students preparing for their examination in physiology. The compressed de- scriptions render the reading dull, and at the same time the amount of information is not sufh- cient to make the book useful for reference pur- poses. Bearing these points in mind there is no doubt that the author has accomplished his pur- pose. There is a clear, short statement concerning the chemical properties of the different compounds found in the body, a description of enzyme action, and an outline of the chemical processes concerned in the activity of the body. A knowledge of the facts described would enable a student to pass any ordinary examination in physiological chemistry. rae Legends of our Little Brothers: Fairy Lore of Bird and Beast. By Lilian Gask. Pp. 268. (London: G. Harrap and Co., n.d.) Price 3s. Gd. net THESE stories, retold from the folk-lore of many lands, will inspire sympathetic interest in animal life in the young readers for whom they are written. From every point of view they are far better than the grotesque tales often supposed to be suitable for children. They tell of self-sacrifice, right relations of man to the creatures around him, the blessing of pity, the wrong of wanton killing, the suffering caused by thoughtlessness, the origin of the totem as the bond of union between men, and many like matters. We have read the stories with interest, and congratulate the author upon her rendering of them. As a gift-book the collection merits wide distribution. NO. 2247, VOL. 90] EETLERS TO RHE EDITOR: |The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of Nature. No notice is taken of anonymous communications.] The Investigation of Flint. THE remarkable body which we know as “flint” was, in the early history of mankind in this part of the world, as important, relatively to the general conditions of life, as the metal ‘‘iron” is at the pre- sent day. In order to interpret correctly the signifi- cance of fractured flints—whether as due to man’s | agency or to other causes—and also in order to infer from the glaze, polish, colour, opacity, or other features of a humanly worked flint what are the geological and other physical conditions to which it has been subjected, very definite and accurate know- ledge of flint, only to be arrived at by careful quanti- tative investigation, such as the skilled physicist and chemist can bring to bear, is necessary. Yet the entire scientific world is in a remarkable state of ignorance with regard to flint. Flint has been neglected by the geologist, minera- logist, chemist, and physicist for reasons which are not very obvious. At the present moment there is great need for a thorough study of flint, a study which no one man can undertake and carry through. At the same time, it is possible for an individual to indicate what are the lines of investigation which seem to be those which should be followed, and I venture to make the attempt. (1) First, as to the history and nature of “flint.” By the word ‘flint’? we understand the black-looking siliceous nodules which occur in the upper chalk of this country, and have been broken up and variously altered and re-deposited in the Tertiary and Quater- nary strata. Any investigation of ‘‘flint’’ as thus understood must include an inquiry into the history and nature of ‘“‘chert,’’ and of those flint-like con- cretions which occur in both Tertiary and Mesozoic strata. The history and the structure of agate must also be compared with those of flint, since geodes of agate are not only also composed of silex, but have many properties in common with flints. It will be further necessary to distinguish and account for the varieties of flint which are known to occur in the chalk. Thus we have in the chalk of the south of England not only nodular flints disposed in distinct beds or horizons of stratification, but we have also tabular flint formed in fissures which traverse obliquely or vertically many feet of thickness of chalk strata. We have also local varieties of chalk-flints, some darker and greener when thin splinters are examined, others yellower, and. others of a bluish tendency. Others, again, are somewhat grey and opaque. Some Lincolnshire flint appears to differ in this way from Brandon flint. Such differ- ences are also to be observed in the flints of different horizons in one and the same chalk-pit. Some observers call those flints which, after frac- ture, tend to develop a bluish glaze ‘‘ chalcedonic”’; but there are nodules which superficially lool like ‘““flints’’ to be found in association with ordinary black flints in the chalk of the south of England, which are apparently true chalcedony throughout, nearly transparent and colourless, with a bluish cloud in the depths. These almost invariably are oblong nodules embedding a sponge, and form beautiful objects when cut and polished. Often they contain (even when in the chalk) small quantities of iron, which produce in the transparent chalcedonic sub- stance striking patches of red and brown colour. 22 33 2 NATURE [| NovEMBER 21, 1912 Cavities occur in chalk flints as in the agate of the geodes of igneous rock, and rock crystal, as well as botryoidal chalcedony, is often found lining the cavi- ties of the flints as of the agate geodes. Occasion- ally crystals of iron sulphide occur in chalk flints. We require some definite classification and recogni- tion of the varieties of chalk flint and their probable significance. The hardness, fracture, density, and especially the elasticity of each kind of flint must be measured and stated. (2) As to the origin and formation of flint, our knowledge seems to be very little further advanced than it was fifty years ago. The microscopic examina- tion of thin sections of flint has not been applied to many varieties of flint, and, so far as I can ascertain, possible methods of staining thin sections and of applying light, heat, and chemical agents to the detec- tion of structure and differentiation in the substance of thin sections of flint, examined with the micro- scope, have not been thoroughly and extensively used. It appears to be held that the normal challk-flint consists of extremely minute crystals of silica, cemented by opaline silica, and that the white cortex which every chalk-flint possesses is due to the removal of the opaline cementing colloid silica from the cortical region by solution. One would like to know more about this as the outcome of experiment. What is the solvent? Re-deposited flints in Pleistocene gravels are often opaque (‘‘decomposed,” it has been called) right through, and in some cases are pulverulent. How has this been brought about? Broken flints (flint implements) in Pleistocene gravels sometimes show a curious basket-work of white bands crossing and interlaced on a black ground. Is this white pattern a pre-existent structure developed by the action of a solvent? Can such a change be produced experi- mentally ? There is no general agreement as to the mode of origin of the flints in the chalk. It is clear from the existence of tabular flint in vertical and oblique fissures traversing great thicknesses of chalk. that the flint was deposited in cavities formed after the solidification of the chalk. It is also probable that ithe silica deposited is the opaline or colloid silica of the spicules and shells of marine organisms mixed up with calcareous particles in the original chalk ooze, and dissolved out of it by percolating water containing some solvent—but what? What are the circumstances which have determined (1) the solution of the colloid silica of spicules, and (2) its deposition in the form of cavity-filling masses consisting of minute crystals cemented by colloid silica? The cavities in which the nodular flints were formed were probably once filled by organic lumps and débris, but it is questionable whether the organic matter attracted the silica and determined its deposi- tion (although we know this occurs in the silicification of tree-trunks in the sea), since flint is deposited freely in the tabular form in the upper chalk, in vertical fissures containing no organic residues. In what respects (one would like to inquire) is the mode of deposition of challx-flint similar to, and different from, that of chert on the one hand and of geode-agate on the other? The solubility of the colloid silica of organic skeletons requires investigation. The silica deposited as agate in trap-rocks had probably’ a different origin from that of flint. : (3) Apart from these questions as to the intimate structure of flint, its varieties, and its origin in the chalk, there are certain more direct and simple physical investigations of flint which are necessary, and would heln us in distinguishing varieties of flint, and perhaps throw light on other questions. They certainly would render it possible for archzologists NO. 2247, VOL. 90] | to speak of facts and not merely make guesses as to the causes of the fracturing of flints found in Pleis- tocene, Pliocene, and other ‘lertiary deposits. The most important of these inquiries are (1) as to. the porosity ot flint, and (2) as to the fracture of flint by blows, by pressure, by heat, and by cold. The two inquiries are closely related. It is well kknown that an agate geode is porous, and will absorb a large quantity of water containing colouring matters. in solution. Our chalk flints are also highly porous and absorbent of water. But, so far as | can ascer- tain, this property has never been investigated quan- titatively. It should be determined experimentally in the case of normal black flint from the chalk (and in varieties of it and in allied bodies). We require to. know— (1) What is the difference in the specific gravity of flint fresh from the chalk, and of carefully dried flint, from which all freeiwater has been removed by non-destructive methods of desiccation ? (2) What is the maximum amount of water which such a specimen of dried flint can be made to absorb? We could thus get the coefficient of absorption of water by flint at various pressures and temperatures, also of flint lying naturally in the chalk, as compared with flint when lying on the surface and under various other conditions. (3) Other facts as to this porosity could be accu- rately determined, as, for instance, in what way it is related to structure. Coloured substances might be forced into the pores, as also chemical solvents, and microscopic examination of thin sections made with very high powers. The investigation of fracture is closely related to the foregoing. The most familiar and certain cause of the fracture of flint is a blow with a hammer wielded by a man. Many archeologists are (I have found) not aware that according to the character of the blow given flint may be broken with a practically flat surface of fracture, or, on the other hand, with what is called ‘‘a conchoidal fracture.” The flint- knappers of Brandon break the large masses of flint removed from the chalk into blocks of convenient size by heavy blows given with what they call “a quartering hammer.’’ The surfaces of fracture so obtained are not ‘‘conchoidal.” A heavy blow in a direction perpendicular to the surface gives this plane fracture. The lighter knapping hammer gives the kind of blow which produces a conchoidal fracture, and the flint workers can produce complete cones of flint at pleasure by giving the needful kind of blow. The exact quantitative features of the weight, velocity, and direction of this blow must be determined experimentally, as also must those of the “ quarter- ing ”’ or plane-fracture blow. Apparatus to determine these features could be devised. It would then be possible to investigate the exact measurable char- acters of the conchoidal fracture or ‘‘cone” or ‘“dome”’ of percussion, and to compare it in different varieties of flint. It would be very important to determine whether ‘‘saturated wet flint’” has the same fractural indices as “dry” flint—whether the one frac- tures with conchoidal form as easily as the other, &c., &c. Then we could arrive at an answer to the question, “What weight and velocity of blow were necessary to produce the fracture (whether conchoidal or plane) exhibited by a given piece of flint?’’ And so it would be possible to arrive at a certainty as to whether the fractures which give shape to some supposed human flint implements could have been produced by the inter-concussion of flint nodules driven by the waves of the sea. But in this investigation the very important fact would be exactly and quantitatively determined that NOVEMBER 21, I912]| NATURE 2142 III the vibration tending to set up a conchoidal fracture may produce a “flaw”’ when the blow causing it was not of sufficient power to cause an actual tracture, and the subsequent history of such “‘ flaws’’ would be experimentally studied. 1 have found that one of the most certain ways of obtaining a fine *‘dome of per- cussion’”’ in black challk-flint is to strike a ‘‘ staccato” blow with a light hammer. No fracture results, but subsequent “‘tapping’’ with a heavier hammer causes the flint to yield along the dome-like plane of ‘flaw ” set up by the first blow. The fracture of flint by blows due to other agents than man has been rarely observed. At a few points on the sea-coast large flint pebbles may be picked up with one, or even six or seven, irregularly placed con- choidal fractures of the size of a _ haricot bean at most. Observations of the fracture of flint by torrents or by heavy wave-action are not forth- coming. The delicate pitting and granulation of the surface of flint-pebbles on the seashore is due to the action of the sea-waves causing the pebbles to knock against one another, and is a very different thing from large and uniformly “directed” fracture. Leaving for a moment the question of the fracture of flint under graduated pressure, we must cite the action of cold and of heat in fracturing flint as demanding careful and quantitative investigation. There is no doubt that in this country the greatest “breaker of flint’? is frost. In the Egyptian desert a chert-like substance allied to flint is constantly fractured by the heat of the sun. It is most important to determine whether ‘‘wet’’ and ‘‘dry”’ flint are equally subject to fracture by cold and also by heat. Has the water absorbed by porous flint any important part in its thermal fracture? The artificial fracturing of flint by the heat of camp-fires is well known as a mere fact. But the very curious structure of flint revealed by it has never been investigated. I do not know whether anyone else has ever deter- mined the simple fact experimentally that sudden exposure to cold will cause flint to fracture—to “fly,” as the expression is in the case of glass. But last July Sir James Dewar kindly placed some large flakes of Brandon flint (prepared by the flint-knappers for breaking into gun-flints), which I brought to his laboratory, into liquid air in my presence. An exten- sive fracture of peculiar form, its edge having a deeply undulated margin like that of an oak-leaf, was the result. Obviously the whole subject of the fracture of flint by cold and by heat requires experimental investigation, and must yield results of great import- ance. I am not in a position to carry out this in- vestigation myself, nor have I the necessary training in such determinations. My hope is that some physicist may be attracted by the subject. An important point which I should wish to deter- mine as bearing on the appearances presented by broken flints in Tertiary strata and gravels is whether frost can, in any circumstances, produce a conchoidal fracture in flint. It seems to me not improbable that a flint may by natural (i.e. non-human) blows, or a single blow—insufficient to break it—have acquired conchoidal ‘‘ flaws,” or a single conchoidal flaw, which would be developed as a conchoidal “ fracture’? when the flint was caused to break by sudden frost. We do not even know whether “suddenness” is an element in the causation by lowered temperature of the fracture of flint. The flints on the surface of chalk downs and in many of our later gravels are one and all broken into irregular angular fragments. This is probably correctly attributed to frost, but it would be possible to gain more precise information as to the conditions and determining causes of that fracture. ‘she exact temperature at which, under NO. 2247, VOL. 90] / . Dat . varying conditions, fracture occurs and the possible extent and form of frost-fractures could be determined. The same is true with regard to the fracture of flint by heat. The investigation of pressure as causing fracture of flint can be accurately investigated. What kind of fractures can be produced by pressure? And what lind of pressure can produce fracture? We have been asked to accept the statement that the pressure of sandy strata overlying flints can fracture them. By many this is considered an impossibility. We are then told of some mysterious kind of rolling or sliding pressure as producing such effects. Its action should be experimentally demonstrated. Lastly, in regard to fracture, there seems to be a possibility that vibrations produced by very slight blows may, in special circumstances (such as great cold or heat or dryness), start large fractures in an elastic body like flint. The possibility requires experi- mental investigation. There remain yet to be mentioned some other matters for experimental investigation in regard to flints. The acquirement of green, of yellow, brown, and rich red, as well as of black colora- tion, both deeply and _ superficially, by flint nodules and pebbles when deposited in ‘Tertiary strata is one of these. This subject is part of the general subject of the porosity of flint. It has an important bearing on the study of the flint imple- ments found in gravels. Of, more peculiar import- ance is the classification of the different states of polish which broken flints, whether implements or not, present in different gravels. And with this has to be associated the study of the chemical and mole- cular changes of the surface of broken flints, and their curious laminar and vermicular sculpturing. Further, the deposition upon those broken surfaces of chemical material requires precise investigation. The ‘“olaze’’ of the fragments of bone and teeth in the bone-bed at the base of the Red Crag is usually attri- buted to the deposition on them of phosphate of lime. It is not certain that this is a correct conclusion. Is the peculiar glaze of most of the broken flints from that deposit due to chemical action, or are all the glazes supposed to be present on broken flints really only different degrees of sand polish effected by wind or by water? The wonderful flints found in small number in the Savernake gravel, which look as though they had just received a wet coat of spirit varnish, have never yet been satisfactorily dealt with. Some geologists have supposed that they owe their appearance to a chemical glaze deposited on them. But microscopical sections are absolutely contradictory of that view. Their wonderfully brilliant surface is almost certainly a water-made sand-polish. But one would like to see such polishing of an irregular surface of flint produced experimentally. And it would be important to know what were the conditions at work at Savernake to produce this polish on small Acheul- lian flint implements, as well as on unbroken flint pebbles of large size, and upon one and not all the surfaces of irregular fragments. A detailed knowledge of the causes >f colour and colour patterns, and of the glazing and polishing of flint implements, would enable prehistorians to give a more complete account of the historical vicissitudes of this and that implement than is at present possible. The most urgently needed of the investigations above suggested appears to me to be the experimental and quantitative determination of the causes and condi- tions of the different kinds of fracture of which flint is susceptible. E. Ray LANKESTER. November o. 334 NATURE [| NOVEMBER 21, I9I2 The Making of a Rostro-carinate Flint Implement. By the courtesy of Sir Hercules Read, K.C.B., I have now been able to exhibit in the case at the British Museum containing the sub-Red Crag rostro- carinate implements a specimen which I have myself flaked, using an ordinary flint pebble as a hammer- stone, into this definite and peculiar form. It was only after a very careful and prolonged study of one of the sub-Crag implements that I was able to recognise the plan upon which the ancient men had worked, and, after many failures, to produce a true rostro-carinate type. I found it to be necessary to select a potato-shaped nodule of flint, and to detach a flake from one end of it, and in such a manner as to produce the ventral plane (Fig. 1). Then, having by this means got a flaking surface, I was able to remove flakes on either side of this surface and to produce the typical “keel” or carina (Fig. 2). I may say that unless the nodule of flint is held in a particular manner when being struck the flakes detached will not be taken off at the required angle, and no ‘keel’ will be formed. When this “keel” is produced the flint must be undercut or cleared at the point X (Fig. 3) to form the actual overhanging ‘‘ beak.” This is a very difficult task, as if a careless blow is given the end of the implement is broken off, and it is useless, a fact continually impressed upon one when making these rostro-carinate specimens. The only means of avoiding the necessity for undercutting is to detach the primary flake of such a concave shape that the mecessary overhang is produced (Fig. 4). i Fig 2. turetian “of Hows Gtorm He Keck” Careful flaking will then give the “keel,” and the rostro-carinate implement be complete. I find it is sometimes necessary to detach flakes from the dorsal as well as the ventral surface to get the required form, and an examination of the sub- Crag specimens shows that their makers were occa- sionally compelled to adopt this method. It was also noticed that some of the sub-Crag pieces when held with the ‘‘bealk’? towards one exhibited a curious one-sided appearance, which puzzled me greatly for some time. I was also very surprised to find the specimens of my own manufacture also showed this same pecu- liarity. I have now found that this is due to the fact that flakes of unequal size and thickness are taken off from the two sides respectively when forming the “Iseel,”” which causes one side to get more hollowed out than the other, and the asymmetrical appearance to be produced. I hope this description of the rostro-carinate flints will convince archzologists that we are dealing with a very complex type of implement, and that such a highly specialised tool cannot very well have been produced by unguided, haphazard natural forces. J. Rem Morr. 12 St. Edmund’s Road, Ipswich, November 8. On an Apparent Fallacy in the Statistical Treatment of ‘‘Antedating’’ in the Inheritance of Pathological Conditions. TuE problem of the ‘“‘antedating”’ of family diseases is one of very great interest, and is likely to be more studied in the near future than ever it has been in NO. 2247, VOL. 90] the past. The idea of antedating, 1.e. the appearance of an hereditary disease at an earlier age in the off- spring than in the parent has been referred to by Darwin, and has no doubt been considered by others before him. Quite recently, studying the subject on insanity, Dr. F. W. Mott speaks of antedating or anticipation as ‘‘nature’s method of eliminating un- sound elements in a stock” (‘‘ Problems in Eugenics,” papers communicated to the First International Eugenics Congress, 1912, p. 426). ; I am unable to follow Dr. Mott’s proof of the case for antedating in insanity. It appears to me to depend upon a statistical fallacy, but this apparent fallacy may not be real, and I should like more light on the matter. This is peculiarly desirable, because I under- stand further evidence in favour of antedating is soon forthcoming for other diseases, and will follow much the same lines of reasoning: Let us consider the whole of one generation of affected persons at any time in the community, and let n, represent the number who develop the disease at age s, then the generation is represented by— ee My 1045 Wb tomate IT yy SAE Possibly some of these groups will not appear at all, but that is of little importance for our present purpose. Let us make the assumptions (1) that there is no antedating at all; (2) that there is no inheritance of age of onset; thus each individual reproduces the popu- lation of the affected reduced in the ratio of p to 1. Then the family of any affected person, whatever the age at which he developed the disease, would represent on the average the distribution— PN, PM, Pilla - » « Pilz . . » PMyxo° The sum of such families would give precisely the age distribution at onset of the preceding generation. Now let us suppose that for any reason certain of the groups of the first generation do not produce offspring at all, or only in reduced numbers. Say that g, only of the 7, are able to reproduce their kind; then of the older generation, limited to parents, the distribution will be— Foto HQ y+ 7otlot - - . HOget --- but the younger generation will be— PQot Qt ~~ + +9st =~ + Figo) (%o+Mm+ a 0s +I, 22 - +7209); i.e. the relative proportions will remain absolutely the same. The average age at onset and the frequency dis- tribution of the older generation, that of the parents, will be entirely different from that of the offspring, and will depend wholly on what values we give to the q’s. If frequency curves be formed of the two generations they will differ substantially from each other. This difference is not a result or a demonstration of any physiological principle of antedating, but is solely due to the fact that those who develop the disease at different ages are not equally likely to marry and become parents. A quite striking instance of the fallacy, if it be such, would be to consider the antedating of ‘‘violent deaths.’’ Fully a quarter such deaths in males, nearly a half in females, occur before the age of twenty years. Consider now the parents and offspring who die from violent deaths; clearly there would be no representative of death from violence under twenty in the parent generation, and we should have a most marked case of antedating, because the offspring generation would contain all the infantile deaths from violence. In the case of insanity, is the man or woman who develops insanity at an early age as likely to become + 9100721009 ‘NOVEMBER 21, 1912] NATURE 335 a parent as one who develops it at a-later age? I think there is not a doubt as to the answer to be given; those who become insane before twenty-five, even if they recover, are far less likely to become parents than those who become insane at late ages— many, indeed, of them, considering the high death- rate of the insane, will die before they could become parents of large families. Now Dr. Mott took 508 pairs of parents and offspring, ‘“‘collected from the records of 464 insane parents whose 500 insane off- spring had also been resident in the County Council Asylums,” and ascertained the age of first attack. As at present advised, it seems to me that his data must indicate a most marked antedating of disease in the offspring, but an antedating which is wholly spurious. There is, I think, a further gricvous fallacy involved in this method of considering the problem; but before discussing that I should like to see if my criticism of this method of,approaching the problem of antedating can be met. Kart PEarson. Biometric Laboratory, University College, London, November 11. Is the Earth Shrinking? I HAVE carefully looked at this question from every point of view which presented itself to me, and doubt very much whether any direct evidence will ever be forthcoming on this subject, unless it should one day be established that the changes of magnetic declination are associated with a slight difference of rotation between the core of the earth and its crust, for such a movement would have to be explained by a difference of rate of contraction between the two. The foldings and crackings of the earth’s surface have been attributed to variations in the rate of cool- ing of the earth. Thus whenever this rate is acceler- ated, the surface cools faster than the core, and should crack like a drying ball of clay; whenever the cooling rate is diminishing, as assumed by Lord Kelvin, the core should shrink faster than the skin, like a drying apple, and folding should occur. But to my mind, as recently explained in ‘‘ Unity in Nature,” such effects would be entirely masked by such foldings and crack- ings as are slowly progressing even to-day, for the sediment which is being constantly deposited on the floors of the oceans must cause the underlying strata to grow warmer and to expand in every direction, resulting in slight local risings, which are most marked near the mouths of large rivers, and in distant bulgings and foldings of the weakest lines of the earth’s crust, which are the mountain ranges. On the other hand, the gradual wearing away of the surfaces of the con- tinents and mountain ranges must cause the underlying strata to cool, to shrink, and to crack. This sugges- tion would certainly more than account for all the foldings, faults, and cracks to be found in the earth’s crust, even if a considerable allowance be made for those cases in which the expansions and contractions occur in the same direction, and partly balance each other. C. E. STRoMEYER. “‘Lancefield,”’ West Didsbury, November 7. THE HARDNESS OF COINS. ARDNESS is a word which is used in various senses. In dealing with metals, it sometimes means the cutting or scratching hard- ness, but is more often defined briefly as the resistance to permanent deformation, a property which is of great importance to all users of metals. It is this kind of hardness with which those NO. 2247, VOL. 90] ‘a rough approximation. engaged in minting are chiefly concerned. When a blank is struck in a coining press, the metal is compressed and at the same time forced to flow into the recesses of the dies, and the ease with which this can be done depends on the amount of resistance offered by the metal to a force momentarily applied and tending to deform it. The hardness should therefore be measured by the effects of a sudden blow, and falling-weight machines, such as Shore’s scleroscope, offer a ready means of doing this. The hardness numbers given below are sclero- scope readings, about which it may be said that a piece of metal giving a higher reading is cer- tainly harder than a piece of similar metal giving a lower reading, but that the readings cannot be taken as proportional to the hardness, except as It cannot be admitted, for example, that a specimen with a hardness number of 40 is exactly twice as hard as one with a hardness number of 20. The application of hardness tests to the coins of the realm has resulted in some curious and in- teresting data being obtained.! It is found, naturally enough, that the blow of a coining press does not raise soft metal to a state of maximum hardness. A sovereign blank after annealing has a surface hardness of 25°5, and this is raised to 50-53 on being struck in an ordinary press, the maximum hardness of standard gold being about 76. Silver coins of similar size are hardened to much the same extent; but while sixpences, for example, have a hardness number of about 50, florins are only 37. These are the hardnesses of the “table” or flat portions of the coins, but the raised portions of the designs are much softer, especially the highest parts of large thick coins in high relief. Thus in George V. florins the centre of the effigy has a hardness of only 31, that of the annealed blank from which the coin is struck being 275. Such coins will evidently wear very differently from coins made in low relief, such as the modern French coins, in which the surface hardness is higher and more uniform. The hardness of the surface of coins, however, differs widely from that of the interior. The force of the blow seems to be expended chiefly on the surface layers. When these are carefully removed, the hardness of the underlying metal is found to be considerably less. The hardness rapidly falls off with depth, and near the centre even sixpences are almost as soft as annealed silver. Old worn coins are similarly soft. It is clear, therefore, that a freshly-minted coin has a hard skin and a soft core, and that after the removal of the skin by wear, the loss of weight in circulation will proceed very much as though the coin had been annealed before it was issued. That this is a matter of some importance is illus- trated by the fact that the loss by wear of the coinage, which falls on the State, amounts to 30,0001. per annum for gold, and somewhat more for silver. Annealing, one of the oldest processes prac- 1 Memorandum on ‘‘ The Hardness of Coins,” 42nd Annual Report of the Deputy Master of the Mint, ror1, pp. 107-112. A NATURE [ NOVEMBER 21, 1912 tised in the arts, has had a surprisingly small share of the attention which has been paid to metals by numerous observers in recent times. Experiments made at the Mint? with coins and coinage alloys gave such remarkable results that the experiments were extended to pure metals, and have enabled a fairly complete account of the Fic. 1.—Structure of pure gold after being rolled, 11. course of events in annealing to be clearly stated for the first time. It appears, from a large number of observations, that at comparatively low temperatures metals and alloys, hardened by roll- ing or hammering, are in an unstable condition, and undergo a gradual change to the soft state. The old standard silver and gold trial plates, for Fic. 2.—The same rapidly heated to 200° and quenched at once. X15. example, have in the course of centuries, at the ordinary temperature, become almost completely softened, while lead appears to soften below the ordinary temperature. As the temperature rises the change is hastened, and a critical range is o rhe Annealing of Coinage Alloys,” Journal of the Institute of Metals, September, 1912. NO. 2247, VOL. 90] passed through, varying in extent for different metals, below which annealing is too slow for prac- tical purposes, while above it metals and alloys revert from the hard to the soft state almost in- stantaneously. During the critical range, the time required for annealing undergoes a significant re- duction with each slight increment in the tempera- ture, while above and below the critical range, the change in the time is small even with great differ- ences of temperature. Pari passu with softening, recrystallisation takes place, not by diffusion, but by a change in the orientation of molecules in situ, as predicted by Dr. Beilby. When the softening is instan- taneous, recrystallisation is almost, if not equally, instantaneous. Thus, for example, pure gold, which can be annealed ift a few days in boiling water, softens at once at 200°, and the large primary distorted crystals (Fig. 1) break up simul- taneously into smaller irregular ones (Fig. 2). The gradual growth of crystals, which has been studied by Ewing and Rosenhain and by others, takes place subsequently without much further softening. T. K. Rose. INTERNATIONALE, CONGRESS FOR GENERAL AND MEDICAL RADIOLOGY. ee sixth meeting of the above congress was held this year at Prague, and was attended by a large number of scientific workers. This society has now a membership of 600, and em- braces workers of many nationalities. The open- ing meeting took place in the Landes-Museum on October 3, and was attended by more than 2000 people. At this meeting addresses were given by Prof. Stoklasa, of Prague, who is president this year, and by Prof. Becquerel, of Paris. At the subsequent meetings of the congress, no fewer than 130 papers were read on physical, biological, and medical subjects. Among the excursions made by the members was one to the uranium mines of St. Joachimstal, from which most of the radium in use has been obtained. The president chose for the subject of his address the action of the rays from radioactive bodies, and of ultraviolet light, on animal and plant organisms. In the first part of his speech he gave a short account of the development of our knowledge of the connection between electricity and life processes during the last two hundred years. He gave next a summary of the results of the last few years of the action of radium rays, and of ultraviolet light, on living organisms. The germination of seeds, and the development of fungi, flowers, and leaves, may be accelerated under certain conditions by these radiations, whilst, under other conditions, these processes may be entirely arrested. An intense source of a-rays from radium, for instance, has a destructive action on plant and animal organisms, while a weak source has a stimulating effect. The action of the more penetrating f-rays is similar to that of the ultraviolet rays of short wave length. These latter rays have a chemical action on the a _ * NATURE 337 mycoplasms of bacteria and the protoplasms of plant and animal cells. The president then gave an account of experi- ments of his own, in which he has shown that, under the action of the rays from radium emana- tion dissolved in water, seeds may germinate from two to three times as rapidly as they do in ordinary water. In other experiments he has shown also that, by acting on carbon dioxide and nascent hydrogen in the presence of ultraviolet light, a photosynthesis is effected resulting in the forma- tion of formaldehyde, and this body itself, in the presence of potash, condenses to form a sugar. Further results indicate that photosynthesis in chlorophyll cells, and in nature generally, is due entirely to the action of ultraviolet light, or of the radiations from radioactive bodies. Chorophyll, indeed, owes its properties to the fact that it is the medium through which these radiations act on the cells. Carbohydrates are produced in nature by the action of ultraviolet light on carbon dioxide and water, and, without this synthesis, all life in any form would be impossible. Throughout his address Prof. Stoklasa em- phasised the need of biologists and of physiologists for a better understanding of the newer develop- ments in experimental physics. A. S. R. SLEEPING SICKNESS IN THE KATANGA.! HE brochure referred to below contains the results of an investigation undertaken by the author into the distribution and other prob- lems of sleeping sickness in the Katanga. His object is to consider the question from a general point of view and to collate the results of two years of work in the northern part of the province. He wishes to prove that “methodical work on the spot is the sole means of combating the evil in each district.” If the differences presented by the districts “are lost sight of in attempting to put in practice measures prescribed in ignorance of the actual conditions, only negative, though costly, results can be obtained.” With these ob- jects in view, the author sets forth his observa- tions upon the Katanga, its geography, commerce, and people, and upon the special problems of sleeping sickness in that country, such as the origin and progress of the disease, its diagnosis, treatment, and natural course, the distribution and occurrence of the transmitting fly, Glossina palpalis, and the results of administrative efforts to cope with the evil. His descriptions are supple- mented by nine maps and a number of excellent photographs. The author’s attitude is mainly that of an independent observer offering gratuitous advice to the Belgian administration of the Congo; hence, doubtless, his choice of the French language for publishing his results. His foremost conclu- sion is that “the first thing to do is to publish the truth in Belgium”; the next, that as a necessary preliminary to efficacious measures, the zones of 1 “Ya Maladie du Sommeil au Katanga.” By F. O. Stohr (Oxon.) Pp. 83, with maps and illustrations. (London: Constable and Co., Ltd., 1912.) Price 4s. net NO. 2247, VOL. 90] Glossina palpalis and sleeping sickness should be delimited accurately; and his third, that when the country has been carefully surveyed from this point of view the problem becomes administrative rather than medical. ‘For medical men the most simple and radical system of conquering the dis- ease-is to remove the people from the proximity of G. palpalis; it is for the administration to decide how far this is practicable.” He is strongly against the treatment of the infected natives in isolation-camps, which he considers to be of little use, while difficult and costly. NOTES. Tue King has approved of the awards this year, by the president and council of the Royal Society, of a Royal medal to Prof. W. M. Hicks, F.R.S., for his researches in mathematical physics and investiga- tions on the theory of spectroscopy, and a Royal medal to Prof. G. Elliot Smith, F.R.S., for his researches on the comparative anatomy of the brain. The fol- lowing awards have also been made by the president and council:—The Copley medal to Prof. Felix Klein, For.Mem.R.S., of Géttingen, for his researches in mathematics; the Rumford medal to Prof. H. Kamerlingh Onnes, of Leyden, for his re- searches at low temperatures; the Davy medal to Prof. Otto Wallach, of Géttingen, for his researches on the chemistry of the essential oils and the cyclo- olefines; the Darwin medal to Dr. Francis Darwin, F.R.S., for his work in conjunction with Charles Darwin, and for his researches in vegetable physio- logy; the Buchanan medal to Colonel William C. Gorgas, of the United States Army, for his sanitary administration of the works of the Panama Canal; the Hughes medal to Mr. William Duddell, F.R.S., for his investigations into technical electricity. Ar the annual general meeting of the London Mathematical Society, held on November 14, the fol- lowing were elected officers and council for the ensuing session :—President, A. E. H. Love, F.R.S.; Vice- Presidents, H. F. Baker, F.R.S., and J. E. Campbell, F.R.S.; Treasurer, Sir Joseph Larmor, M.P., F.R.S.; Secretaries, J. H. Grace, F.R.S., and T. J. VA. Bromwich, F.R.S.; Other Members of the Council, W. Burnside, F.R.S., A. L. Dixon, F.R.S., Ne G: Pilon, FVR-S.,, fj) H. Jeans; FuR.S-; EB: W. Hobson, F.R.S., J. E. Littlewood, H. M. Macdonald, F.R.S., P. A. MacMahon, F.R.S., H. W. Richmond, F.R.S., and A. E. Western. At the anniversary meeting of the Mineralogical Society, held on November 12, the following officers and members of council were elected :—President, Dr. A. E. H. Tutton, F.R.S.; Vice-Presidents, Prof. H. L. Bowman, Dr. A. Hutchinson; Treasurer, Sir William P. Beale, Bart., K.C., M.P.; General Secre- tary, Dr. G. T. Prior, F.R.S.; Foreign Secretary, Prof. W. W. Watts, F.R.S.; Editor of the Journal, Mr. L. J. Spencer; Members of Council, Mr. T. V. Barker, Mr. W. Barlow, F.R.S., Mr. F. H. Butler, Mr. T. Crook, Mr. J. P. De Castro, Rev. J. M. Gor- don, Sir Thomas H. Holland, K.C.I.E., F.R.S., Mr. NATURE [NOVEMBER 21, 1912 B. Kitto, Prof. A. Liversidge, F.R.S., Dr. R. Pearce, Dr. G. F. H. Smith, and Mr. H. H. Thomas. WE offer our congratulations to The Electrical Review upon the celebration of its fortieth anniversary. The first number of our contemporary was issued on November 15, 1872, and the current issue bears the date exactly forty years later. From the first number The Electrical Review has represented the best in- terests of the electrical profession, and has adapted itself to the great changes which have taken place during the period of its existence. How remarkable have been the developments of electrical science and engineering may be judged from a complimen- tary message which Sir William Preece sends to our contemporary. The prominent electrical industries in 1872 were electroplating and the electric telegraph. The Society of Telegraph Engineers (later to become the Institution of Electrical Engineers) was founded in that year, which was also the year of birth of Mr. W. Duddell, F.R.S., who now occupies the presi- dential chair of the institution. “‘The life of The Electrical Review,” says Sir William, ‘tis a history of the life of the electrical industry.” The journal has established an important position as the organ of the practical electrician and manufacturer, and we have no doubt it will continue on its successful career for many years to come. WE notice with regret the anouncement of the death on November 19, in his ninety-seventh year, of Mr. W. B. Tegetmeier, formerly a frequent contributor to Nature, and whose name is well known to many naturalists. We print the following particulars of his career from an obituary notice in Wednesday’s Times :—Mr. Tegetmeier was destined for the medical profession, and studied at University College, and though he did not qualify, the knowledge of ‘anatomy and physiology which he acquired was of great ser- vice to him as a practical breeder and writer on poultry, pigeons, and general natural history subjects. He was a recognised authority in all that concerned pigeon racing, and his article on ‘‘ Utilisation of Homing Pigeons” in Nature of February 4, 1892, is of permanent value. In 1855 he was introduced by Yarrell to Darwin, whom he supplied with a good deal of material in the shape of skulls and skeletons, and for whom he carried out many experiments in breeding. Mr. Tegetmeier’s reputation as a breeder and fancier caused him to be chosen as judge at principal shows and secured his appointment as poultry editor of The Field, a position which he held for more than forty years, retiring only in 1907. During this period he also contributed largely to the natural history columns of the paper, and for many years supplied the leading ‘articles for The Queen. He became a Fellow of the Zoological Society in 1866, and was made an honorary Fellow in 1905; his membership of the British Ornithologists’ Union dates from 1873, and he was a frequent exhibitor at the meetings of the society and of the British Ornithologists’ Club. In 1854 he pub- lished ‘* Profitable Poultry,’’ and in 1856 edited a serial issue of Wingfield and Johnson’s ‘‘ Poultry Book,” which seems to have formed the basis for his own “Poultry Book” in 1867; this was a great advance NO. 2247, VOL. 90] on any previous work on the subject, and a second edition was called for in 1873. Besides some smaller books on poultry, pigeons, and economics, Mr. Teget- meier published ‘‘ Pheasants” in 1873, and, with Colonel Sutherland, a book on horses and mule- breeding in 1895; he also edited and enlarged Blyth’s articles on the cranes, and revised R. B. Morris’s “British Game Birds’? and F. O. Morris’s ‘‘ Nests and Eggs of British Birds’’; and contributed the article on poultry to the ninth edition of the “Encyclopedia Britannica.” The funeral will be at the Marylebone Cemetery, Finchley, on Saturday, at 2 o'clock. DurtnG the session of the International Congress of Prehistoric Anthropology and Archeology, held at Monaco in 1906, a committee was appointed to secure uniformity of craniometric and cephalometric measure- ments. This aspect of the subject having been finally settled, the congress at a subsequent meeting at Geneva in 1912 adopted similar measures for the unification of anthropological measurements of the living subject. A translation of the rules thus adopted has been issued by one of its members, Dr. W. H. Duckworth, from the Anthropological Laboratory at Cambridge. The rules now authoritatively adopted define the position of the subject under examination and the classification of the measurements now ap- proved. To these are added a general caution that no person should undertake work of this kind without undergoing a preliminary course of instruction, and a recommendation that anthropologists should append complete lists of measurements to their publications. The committee is to be congratulated on a scheme which will promote uniformity of measurement both of the living subject and of prehistoric remains dis- covered in the course of excavations. Tue Research Defence Society has issued (through Messrs. Macmillan and Co., Ltd.), at the modest price of 4d., an excellent pamphlet of fifty-six pages on sleeping sickness, by. Dr. F. M. Sandwith. The author, after giving a brief historical account of the disease, describes fully the progress and present posi- tion of our knowledge with regard to the trypano- somiases of animals and human beings in Africa, both in their clinical aspect and from the point of view of their etiology and causation. The problems that still require solution, and their practical bearing on administrative measures having as their object the prevention and control of these diseases, are set forth concisely and clearly. This little work should be extremely useful to those. especially who, without an expert knowledge of these matters, are confronted with them in the performance of their official duties. At the same time, it furnishes a most striking example of the all-importance of experiments on living animals in order to obtain the knowledge necessary to combat effectually the most terrible of all plagues afflicting both men and animals in our African dependencies. In addition to interesting matter in the text, a recent number of Country Life contains an ex- quisite coloured plate of a dew-spangled web of the garden spider (Epeira diadema) and its owner. NOVEMBER 21, 1912] NATURE 339 Accorpinc to the fifth annual report of the | American Bison Society, the herds of bison in the United States and Canada continue to show a gratify- ing ineréase, the total number of animals known to exist in the country at the date of the report being 2760, against 1310 four years previously. In the report of the Horniman Museum and Library for 1911 it is stated that considerable progress has been made in the arrangement of the collections. A large decrease in attendance is attributed to the hot summer of the year under review. In a footnote | reference is made to the opening of the new building | in January last. The Field of November 9 contains a photograph of | a ‘nest,’ or sleeping-platform, built high up in a | tree adjacent to the ape-house by an orang-utan which | escaped from captivity in the Zoological Gardens on | the evening of Sunday, November 3. The ape prob- | ably intended to pass the night on the platform, but, | either from fear of the keepers, or on account of the situation being too cold, changed his mind, and re- | turned to the building. WE have to acknowledge the receipt of a copy of a | new and revised edition of Dr. Egid Schreiber’s well- known “ Herpetologia Europzea,” which includes de- scriptions of all the species of amphibians and reptiles hitherto recorded from Europe. The present edition, published, like its predecessor, by G. Fischer, of Jena, forms a bulky volume of 960 pages, and is illustrated by a large number of text-figures, the price being 3os. It is of special importance on account of con- taining full notices of the varieties which have been described in the case of certain species. Another valuable feature is formed by the tables of the geo- graphical ranges of all the species given near the end of the volume. THE economic importance—either beneficial or in- jurious—of the various species forms the keynote in Prof. W. B. Barrows’s “Michigan Bird-life,” a fully illustrated volume of 822 pages, published by the Agri- cultural College of the State to which it refers. The volume is the outcome of ten years’ labour, and appears thoroughly exhaustive, so far as the present state of knowledge goes. The seventy full plates have been prepared from specially selected photographs taken by a former student of the college. The author confirms previous statements with regard to the ap- parent extermination of the passenger pigeon, re- marking that the last wild specimen known in the United States, so far as ascertained, was killed in September, 1898, in Mayne County, Michigan. The author is of opinion that the clearing of forests and the general opening-up of the country are largely responsible for the extinction of the species, the result of this being that ‘‘the birds were driven from one place to another, and gradually compelled to nest further and further to the north, and under conditions successively less and less favourable, so that eventually the larger part of the great flocks consisted of old birds, which, through stress of weather and persecu- tion, abandoned their nesting-places and failed to rear | 27,000 square miles a year. | miles of cotton-producing area remain unaffected, but any considerable number of young.” NO. 2247, VOL. 90| Tue Glacial flora and fauna of the Grand Duchy of | Baden have been investigated by Dr. P. Stark (Berichte d. Naturforsch. Ges., Freiburg, Band xix., Heft 2), who has made a most painstaking study of the Glacial deposits in this area. The botanical portion of the worl: includes not only the flowering plants, but also the mosses, and not merely the relatively large remains such as stems and leaves, but such minutiz as pollen, spores, and fragments of epidermis. This careful study is of special interest from the ecological point of view, since it contains numerous contributions to the | knowledge of moorland, alpine, and arctic vegetation during Glacial and post-Glacial times. The author shows commendable caution in the matter of inferring marked changes of climate from the succession of plant remains in the ‘Glacial’ and ‘‘inter-Glacial”’ peat deposits, and lays stress on the need for taking into account ecological conditions other than varia- tions in temperature in an attempt to explain the differences in the vegetation of the superpcsed beds. THe Mexican cotton-bell weevil (Anthonomus grandis) has spread so rapidly in the southern States of America during recent years as to become the most serious pest with which cotton-growers have to contend. A detailed report on this insect and its ravages has been published by the Bureau of Entomo- logy, U.S. Department of Agriculture (Bulletin 114), with twenty-two plates and thirty-four text-figures. An exhaustive account is given of the investigations carried on since 1895, the chief contents of previous publications on the boll-weevil being incorporated in this important memoir. The area infested by this pest has increased from 1400 square miles in 1892 to no fewer than 271,000 square miles in 1911, the average rate of spread during the last six years having been At present 400,000 square the alarming rate of spread has led to the adoption of energetic measures for the repression of the weevil. The report is largely devoted to elaborate descriptions of the life-history, dissemination, and hibernation of the insect. Under the heading ‘natural control,” the compilers describe the effects of temperature and other climatic conditions upon the weevil, the fungus and -bacterial diseases (unfortunately very few and sporadic) to which it is subject, and the extent to which it is kept down by parasitic and predatory insect enemies and by birds. Finally, they enumerate the various methods of repression which have been tried; the most successful is that of destroying the weevils in autumn by uprooting and either ploughing- in or burning the cotton-plants. Tue first sheets of The Geophysical Journal for 1912 (second year) have reached us. This journal forms part of ‘‘The British Meteorological and Magnetical Year Book,’ issued by the Meteorological Office. It gives, as before, daily values for the meteorological and geophysical elements observed at three observa- tories—Kew, Valencia, and Eskdalemuir—and includes, inter alia, solar radiation, seismology, atmospheric electricity, and terrestrial magnetism (see NATURE, April 25). The new issue contains additional tables giving the results of the exploration of the free atmo- 340 NATURE [NOVEMBER 21, 1912 sphere over the British Isles by means of kites and balloons. All the units employed are based on the C.G.S. system. Pror. H. F. Rem has suggested that the initial steps in the movement which gives rise to a great earthquake might be detected by the gradual dis- placement of a series of pillars erected along a line at | right angles to a growing fault. foreseeing the occurrence of an earthquake has been suggested by Dr. C. Davison in a recent paper (Ger- land’s Beitrage zur Geophysik, vol. xii., 1912, pp. 9-15). The method depends on the distribution of the preliminary shocks in time and space. In the case of the Mino-Owari (Japan) earthquake of 1891, it is shown that there was a marked increase in frequency of these shocks along and near the line of the fault- scarp during the four years before the earthquake. During the two years before it, the centres of the earthquakes embraced the whole region of the fault- system, clinging closely to the principal fault-lines. Before the great displacement which causes an earth- quake can take place, the small obstacles to slipping must first be removed. The slips by which these obstacles are removed give rise to the preliminary shocks. The effective resistance to displacement thus becomes equalised throughout the whole fault, so that the main displacement occurs with great rapidity throughout its entire extent. It follows, therefore, that when a fault is being outlined by the epicentres of a number of slight shocks, it is probable that a great displacement throughout the region so outlined will occur after an interval which, as in the case of the Mino-Owari earthquake, may amount to a couple of years. For the detection of minor fluctuations of atmo- spheric pressure, differentiated from the general barometric changes, a microbarograph was designed some time ago by Dr. W. N. Shaw and Mr. W. H. Dines, and was referred to in these columns (NATURE, vol. Ixxi., December 29, 1904, p. 216). Dr. Yoshida, of Tokyo, claims to have made some improvements in this instrument, and Prof. Fujiwhara, of the Cen- tral Meteorological Observatory, Tokyo, has developed a dynamical and adiabatic theory in connection there- with. The apparatus consists essentially of an air chamber, connected by tubes with a cylindrical vessel containing oil, in which floats a bell-jar. The latter rises and falls with the variations of atmospheric pressure, and an attached pen records the re- sults on a_ revolving cylinder. capillary tube serves to damp the effect of the larger and slower movements, only the .smaller and more rapid variations being noted. Prof. Fujiwhara gives a series of equations based on his theory in the A Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan (xxxi., | No. 9, 1912). He concludes that the dimensions and mass of the apparatus itself constitute an unavoidable source of error when the barometric variations are extremely rapid. To secure the best results he recom- mends that the apparatus be small, and the bell-jar and its attachments of the lightest material, e.g. aluminium. NO. 2247, VOL. 90| Another method of | WHEN a liquid jet breaks into drops in the air it is well known that the drops become positively, the air negatively, charged. This effect is utilised in | Kelvin’s water-dropper as a means of generating elec- tric charges, and in electrical measurements in the atmosphere to bring the instrument used to the same potential as the air at a point. The exact nature of the process by which the charges are produced is, however, unknown. The recent work of Dr. von Bernoldk, of the University of Heidelberg, which appears in the Annalen der Physik for October, indi- cates that the production of the charge is intimately connected with the formation of very small secondary drops which accompany the primary drops. If the number of secondary drops formed is increased by producing large primary drops rapidly from a tube the lower end of which is widened, the total amount of charge produced is considerably increased. Tue Electrical Review for November 8 devotes three articles to the openings which China offers to engineers generally and to engineering manufacturers in particular. The latter are strongly urged to send out at once capable engineers as agents in order to grasp an opportunity which will pass rapidly away. One of the articles is by Prof. C. A. M. Smith, of the University of Hong Kong, and deals with the foundation and the aims of that University. From the statement of Sir F. D. Lugard, the Governor of Hong Kong, it appears that in the first instance engineering and medicine are to be the principal applied sciences taught there, while an arts course will afford an opportunity to Chinese students of making themselves well acquainted with English. A | dispatch from the Viceroy of Canton to the chief officials of the Chinese Government under him is quoted by Prof. Smith, and from it we gather that considerable anxiety has been caused in China by the evil results which in some cases have followed the residence in Europe or America of Chinese students under conditions of freedom, to which they are quite unaccustomed in their own country. The new Uni- versity will in all probability intercept this stream of students to foreign countries within the next few years. The drawing and plan in Prof. Smith’s article indicate that the University buildings cover an area of 50,000 square feet, and occupy a fine site on a hill overlooking the harbour. A SECOND edition of Mr. J. P. Johnson’s ‘ Pre- historic Period in South Africa’? has been published by Messrs. Longmans, Green and Co. The first edition was reviewed in the issue of Nature for August 10, 1911 (vol. Ixxxvii., p. 183). The most important addition to the new edition is an appendix by Mr. Kennard, entitled ‘‘The Sequence of the Stone Implements in the Lower Thames Valley.”” In addition, Mr. Johnson has been able, as a consequence of the nublication by Dr. Peringuey of the material in the Capetown Museum, to extend the scope of the book to the Coast Middens. In the 1912 volume of the Transactions of the Leicester Literary and Philosophical Society, which also contains the report of the council and annual NOVEMBER 21, 1912| NATURE 341 reports of the sections, the only two papers are con- cerned with literary subjects. The report of the coun- cil contains an announcement that the society has decided to publish a book on the Trias by Mr. T. O. Boswérth, a member of the geological section of the society, which should be of great assistance to students of the geology of the county. A WELL-ARRANGED and excellently illustrated cata- logue of their electrical specialities has been received from Messrs. F. Darton and Co., 142 St. John Street, Clerkenwell, E.C. Special attention may be directed to the large number of designs of small electric motors and dynamos this firm is able to supply. In addition, the catalogue gives particulars of a great variety of electrical appliances and accessories. OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. Tue IpENTITY OF SCHAUMASSE’S AND TUTTLE’S Comets (1912b).—Using new observations made by M. Schaumasse, and extending over the period October 18 to November 1, MM. Fayet and Schaumasse have derived a set of elements for comet 1912b which, when compared with the elements for Tuttle’s comet, taking into account the approximate perturbations of Jupiter during the period 1900-01, show that the comets are undoubtedly identical. The comet is now too low to be observed in these latitudes, its positions for Novem- ber 21 and 23 being a=11h. 43m., 3=—37° 147’, and a=1th. 50 m., 5=—39° 68, respectively. (Astro- nomische Nachrichten, No. 4612.) BorreELLy’s Comer 1912c.—A number of observa- tions of comet 1g12c are published in No. 4612 of the Astronomische Nachrichten, where elements and an ephemeris, extending to December 9, are also given. An observation made at the Bergedorf Observatory on November 3 gave the magnitude as 75, and showed that the comet was a round nebulous body with a nucleus but no tail; other observations made between November 3 and 6 gave the magnitude as 9'5, while the calculated magnitude for November 7 was 83. Dr. Kobold’s ephemeris gives the following posi- tions :-— Ephemeris 12h. Berlin M.T. 1912 a 6 19t2 a 6 h. m. . h. m. , 7 Noy. 21...19 30°2...+11 50°r | Nov. 29...19 53°1...+4 40°2 23...19 36°5...4+ 9 49°9 | Dec. 1...19 57°9...+3 I1°6 25..-19 42°4...+ 7 58°7 3.-.-20 2°5...+1 49°4 27.--19 47°9...+ 6 15°7 5...20 6°9...+0 33°1 It will be seen that between November 22 and 27 the comet apparently travels along a line nearly parallel to, and about 3m. west of, that joining y, , and 8 Aquilz; its calculated magnitude is now 9g’, and sinks to 9°5 by December 1. OBSERVATIONS OF GaALE’s CoMET 1912a.—A number of observations, and some excellent photographs, taken by M. Quénisset at Juvisy, of comet 1912a are pub- lished in the November number of L’Astronomie. On October 16 the principal tail (p.a.=65°) extended beyond the edge of the plate, and was at least 6° in length. The secondary tail (p.a.=138°) was strongly curved towards the south, having the appearance of a cock’s spur, and was 1° long; the successive photo- graphs, October 6 to 16, showed that the angle between these two tails was increasing by nearly 1° | per day. A third tail, near to and north of the prin- | cipal, was photographed on October 14, and showed | a marked dislocation at a distance of 33' from the head. Several good spectra were secured with the Baume- Pluvinel prismatic camera, and will be reduced at NO. 2247, VOL. 90] M. de la Baume-Pluvinel’s laboratory. They show a strong continuous spectrum, in which the usual cometary bands are shown as well-marked condensa- tions, and the spectrum somewhat resembles that of Brooks’s comet (1911c) at the end of October, 1911. On November 1 the comet was still just visible to the naked eye, and photographs showed the principal tail to be 6° long with extremely undulating borders; the angle (86°) between the two tails had still further increased to the extent of 13° since October 16. Other observations of this comet are published in No. 4612 of the Astronomische Nachrichten. NEBUL2 AND CLUSTERS PHOTOGRAPHED WITH THE Crosstey Rervector.—Lick Observatory Bulletin No. 219 contains descriptions of 132 nebulz and star clusters that have been photographed with the Cross- ley reflector. The descriptions in many cases are extremely interesting, and are written by Dr. H. D. Curtis, who states that the modern photographic studies of nebular structure show that the visual observations made in the past are almost valueless, in comparison, even when made with powerful instru- ments by skilful observers. For example, in the case of N.G.C. 83, the catalogue gives thirteen nebulz in this region, while in reality there are at least fifty small nebulz and nebulous stars. One or two examples must serve to illustrate the importance of the present publication. N.G.C. 1300 shows a two-branched spiral, 6’ long, where the whorls start from the extremities of straight extensions on each side of the nucleus. Nova Aurigeze on November 16, 1901, Nova Geminorum on April 23, 1903, and Nova Lacerte on September 13, 1912, showed no traces of nebulosity, although long exposures were given in each case. With two hours’ exposure the stars of Presepe show no signs of being nebulous. N.G.C. 5921 is a very interesting spiral, with a strong oval nucleus 1°8’ long, crossed by a straight lane of matter. N.G.C. 6960 is a wonderful object, more than “7° in length, made up of bright filaments like the ‘‘ Net- work’ nebula. N.G.C. 6914 is a very irregular diffuse nebulosity about a’ across. The neighbouring stars, BD. + 41°3731 and 3737, are surrounded by bright nebulosity not noted in the N.G.C., although that around the second star is brighter than N.G.C. 6914. CAPTAIN AMUNDSEN’S JOURNEY: TO IETS, KOO Mah IXOWIE APTAIN ROALD AMUNDSEN communicated the results of his journey to the south pole at a meeting of the Royal Geographical Society on November £5, in the Queen’s Hall. His expedition “landed”’ on the ice-barrier in the Bay of Whales, which, he observes, was charted by Ross in 1841; it is therefore to be considered, not as a casual forma- tion of the ice, but as a permanent feature, owing its existence to shallow banks or to land beneath the ice but above sea-level. This view was confirmed by the | discovery, on landing, of a surface broken by steep hills and ridges, instead of one approximately level and unbroken. The work of the expedition in laying depéts for the march to the south pole was completed in April, 1911, and it may be said at once that it was thoroughly successful, for when we follow Captain Amundsen on the journey itself it would appear (how- ever thickly he glosses its dangers) to have been carried through with less difficulty than any of a similar character preceding it, so far as concerned food sunnlv, the health of the party, and the condition of the sledge-dogs; there is here no tale of suffering from hunger or exhaustion, and on the return march from 86° S., the party had not even to go on fixed 342 NATURE [NOVEMBER 21, 1912 rations. One remarks, among other wise provisions, the practice of setting up lines of signs across the line of march for some distance on either side of some of the depéts, so that if, on the return, a deviation had been made, the depéts could still have been found. During the depét-laying journeys a minimum tem- perature of —50° IF. was observed. The expedition was extraordinarily favoured by the weather conditions. During the year of the sojourn in the south only two moderate storms were encoun- tered; otherwise the wind was mostly light and easterly. During five months temperatures below —56° F. were observed, and on August 13 —742° F. was recorded. These low temperatures delayed the cluded several communications of considerable import- ance. The attendances throughout were good, and if, in the first half of the meeting, the discussions were a little below the customary standard, this was due to lack of time rather than to lack of interest, and was more than counterbalanced in the second part of the meeting, when the problems of Mediterranean archeology and the President’s views on the origin and distribution of megalithic monuments gave rise to animated interchanges of opinion. In any detailed review of the papers presented to | the section it would be necessary, on more grounds than one, to give a prominent place to the two com- | munications by Prof. Anthony, of Paris, who attended start for the pole, and even occasioned a false start | and an enforced return early in September. It was not until October 20 that settled weather justified the journey being finally undertaken. In 83° S. high mountains—1o,000 to 15,000 ft.— were observed to the south-west (the travellers’ course lying due south). These probably belong to the South Victoria land range, and were found to be met, about 86° S., 163° W., by a much lower range trending east and north-east. The junction of the ice-barrier and the land was reached on November 17 in 85° S., 165° W. No very grave difficulties were encountered in ascending to the polar plateau between the great peaks of the above range. The greatest height, attained on December 6, was 10,750 ft., from which the plateau was found to continue flat to 88° 25’ S., and thence to slope slightly down. Progress was easy, and even leisurely. Beautiful weather was ex- perienced; the region seemed to be one of constant calm, and even the absolutely plain surface of snow strengthened this impression. At the latitude last mentioned the last good azimuth observation was obtained. On December 14 and 15 close observations eave the latitude as 89° 55’. On December 16 the camp was removed the remaining distance to the pole, and observations were taken hourly by four men through twenty-four hours. The plateau was given the name of King Haakon VII. So far as concerns the Antarctic land-mass, the main seographical importance of the expedition seems | to lie in the observations of the great mountain-range mentioned above, which, with clear weather on the return journey, was observed from 88° S., where it was lost on the horizon, to the junction-point in 86° S., and has been given the name of Queen Maud. But three of the party, including Lieut. Prestrud, who did not accompany the southward expedition, carried out topographical work in the vicinity of the Bay of Whales, and east of it as far as Scott’s King Edward Land, while Captain Nilsen, in the course of cruising which extended from Buenos Aires on one hand to Africa on the other, made oceanographical observa- tions at sixty stations, and by navigating the Fram to a point further south than any known vessel had reached before, set the crown on the fame of that ship in polar exnloration. ANTHROPOLOGY AT THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION. Nan the unfortunate overlapping L in the dates of the meetings of the Association and the International Congress of Prehistoric Archzeology at Geneva, which seemed likely at one time to affect seriously the attendance of anthropo- logists at Dundee, the proceedings of Section H (Anthropology), which met this year under the presi- dency of Prof. G. Elliot Smith, F.R.S., were, if any- | hanging, in which injuries received by | of man. the meeting as the distinguished guest of the section. These dealt respectively with the suprasylvian oper- culum in primates with especial reference to man, and the brain of La Quina man, one of the earliest and the finest of the brains of Palzeolithic man yet known, and now described for the first time. With these two papers must be included Prof. Keith’s exhibit of the brain of Gibraltar man, the three forming a group pendant to the President’s address, and affording further evidence in support of his conclusions as to the evolution of the human brain, and in particular of the association areas. Other communications also dealt with early types Dr. Duckworth’s description of the fragment of a human jaw of Paleolithic age found in Kent’s | Cavern, Torquay, in 1867, but previously undescribed, | in the absence of the author was appropriately pre- sented to the section by Prof. Boyd Dawkins, who was a member of the committee appointed to explore Kent’s Cavern which recorded the discovery in a report presented to the Association at the Dundee meeting in 1867. On anatomical grounds, Dr. Duck- worth considers the jaw to belong to the Neanderthal type. Dr. Ewart gave an account of an important find of human remains in a raised beach at Gullane, the skeletons being described by Prof. Keith. When the results of this discovery are published in full, they will be found to have an important bearing upon the prehistory of the Scottish area. In the discussion which followed the reading of the paper, Prof. Bryce stated that, in his opinion, the skeletons found in association with the very early types of Neolithic implements represented the earliest type of man yet discovered in Scotland, antedating the men whose remains have been found in the cairns of Tiree. Other papers dealing with the physical side of the study of man were Dr. Duckworth’s contributions to Sudanese anthropometry based upon measurements made in the south-eastern Sudan by Dr. Atkey; Dr. Wood Jones’s papers on the lesions caused by judicial criminals executed in Egypt in Roman times were contrasted with those received in modern instances, and on the ancient and modern Nubas, in which he suggested an origin for the foreign immigrants into Nubia in the early Christian era whose remains have been dis- covered by the Archeological Survey of Nubia; Mr. D. E. Derry’s description of a macrocephalous skull from Egypt; and a highly interesting paper by Mr. thing, of even greater interest than usual, and in- | NO. 2247, VOL. 90] L. Taylor on the Bontoc Igorots now exhibited at Earl’s Court, based upon measurements which sug- gest that these people may not be of such unmixed Indonesian stock as has usually been supposed. Two organised discussions were largely attended and aroused much interest. The discussion on the ethnological aspects of Scottish folklore was opened by | Mr. Crooke with a paper on customs connected with the Scottish calendar, followed by Mr. Hartland. with a paper on folklore as an element in history. Canon J. A. McCulloch, after a reference to features in NOVEMBER 21, 1912| NATURE 343 Scottish folklore common to other countries, con- trasted the form taken by the fairy belief in the High- lands and the Lowlands, and Mr. Brodie-Innes, in a paper covering a wide range of fact and theory, adduced data for distinguishing Celtic, Saxon, and Scandinavian elements in Scottish beliefs and prac- tices. Miss Burne urged the importance of the collec- tion of evidence, especially in border counties, before it should be too late. It would be unfair to attempt to summarise in a few words the arguments put forward by Prof. Elliot Smith in opening the discussion on megalithic monu- ments and their builders in support of his views that this form of sepulchral monument originated in Egypt at about the time of the first utilisation of copper implements, and spread thence as a religious idea to the remaining parts of the world in which megalithic monuments are found. Mr. Peet, in a paper which, in the absence of the author, was presented to the section by the President, while assigning a single origin at some one centre to these monuments, ascribed their distribution to a racial migration. These views were sharply criticised in the discussion which followed, strong exception being taken to a theory which derived the round form of megalithic monu- ment from the square Egyptian tomb. Among the speakers were Prof. Boyd Dawkins, Prof. Ridgeway, Prof. Myres, and Prof. Bryce. Communications dealing with the archeology of Egypt and the Sudan were numerous. Prof. Petrie described his excavations during the last season on an early dynastic cemetery near the village of Tarkharn, thirty-five miles south of Cairo, which in his opinion is the earliest site as yet discovered so far north. Mr. Quibell described the excavation of second and third dynasty tombs at Sakkara, which led to the re- discovery of the tomb of Hesy and revealed a style of mural decoration previously unknown. Prof. Elliot Smith gave the results of his examination of the bodies found in these excavations, carrying back the evidence for an alien population in Egypt to the second dynasty. One of the bodies examined showed an attempt at mummification. This is the earliest evidence for this method of preserving the body which has yet been discovered. He also described the work of the Boston Museum and Harvard University ex- pedition in Egypt from material provided by Prof. Reisner, who is in charge. Mr. Ogilvie gave an account of Prof. Reisner’s work under the Archzo- logical Survey of Nubia, and showed slides of his own sketches, recently made, of the ruins of the temples at Philae, which are shortly to be submerged by the irrigation works. It would be difficult to praise too highly Mr. R. Mond’s coloured slides of the Theban tombs excavated by Mr. Alan Gardner, which were greatly admired, both for their exquisite beauty and their value as accurate records of the objects discovered. ‘ An important communication by Mr. H. S. Well- come described for the first time the result of two years’ work on a site containing remains of primitive Ethiopian races in the southern Sudan, from which he has obtained a large quantity of implements, pottery, ornaments, and other Ethiopian and Egyptian: objects, ranging in date from the neolithic age to the Ptolemaic period. Dr. Derry discussed the phenomenon of the red pigment found on ancient bones,.and came to the conclusion that in the Nubian and Egyptian examples it was due to a red pigment applied to the grave wrappings and afforded no evidence of mutilation after death. The interest in the problems of Mediterranean archeology shown by the members of the Association who attend this section has been so marked in the NO. 2247, VOL. 90] past that it was gratifying to find this subject again becoming prominent in the proceedings. Mr. Wace gave an account of the excavations carried out by himself and Mr. Thompson in tombs and a tumulus belonging to the early Iron age at Halos in Achaia Phthiotis, which contained “geometric” pottery, bronze fibula, and swords, knives, and long spears of iron. Prof. Ridgeway described a group of bronze and iron javelins found together in Caria, and now in his possession, which illustrate the overlapping of the use of bronzé and iron. Prof. J. L. Myres pre- sented the report of the Committee on Archzological and Ethnological Investigations in Crete, which con- tained a further instalment of Dr. Duckworth’s report on the measurements made when he _ visited the island some years ago on _ behalf of the committee. Dr. Ashby gave an account of recent excavations of the prehistoric monu- ments of Malta, Gozo, and Sardinia, which was in part a supplement to the discussion on megalithic monuments from the point of view of the evidence furnished by these islands. The papers dealing with the archeology of Britain were few in number, but of considerable interest. Mr. Willoughby Gardner described the excavation of an interesting hill fort in Parch-y-Meirch Wood, near Abergele. The fort was evidently British in origin, but showed signs of three occupations, one being by the Romans. Miss Leslie-Paterson exhibited a series of pigmy flints from the Dee Valley, the first examples of the actual implements to be found north of the Forth, and the Rev. Father Blundell presented the report of the Committee on the Artificial Islands in the Lochs of the Highlands of Scotland. The com- mittee, which was appointed at the Sheffield meeting, has now completed two years’ work; a considerable number of these islands has been recorded, and much interest in them has been aroused locally. Papers by Mr. Marett on a Neolithic cemetery on the islet of La Motte, in Jersey, and by Dr. Irving on further investigations on a prehistoric site in the Valley of the Stort were presented to the section, but, in the absence of the authors, were not discussed. Two important technological points were raised by Dr. Rivers, the first being the disappearance of useful arts, and the second ‘‘conventionalisation”’ in art. In regard to the former, he entered a caution against over-hasty conclusions as to the character and extent of a primitive culture, by pointing out that it was possible, as he had found in Melanesia, for a useful art to die out of everyday life and leave no trace of its existence in the technology of the people by whom it had been practised. In the second of his papers, to explain the problem which is not completely solved on any of the current theories of the development of decorative art, namely how it comes about that a realistic representation should become a geometrical figure, he offered the hypothesis that in the clash of cultures of two races with different art motives and forms there may result the retention of the motive from one side and of the form from the other. In | another branch of the study of primitive art, Dr. C. S. Myers’s phonograph records of Sarawak music were greatly appreciated by a large audience. Among other ethnographical papers, mention must be made of Mr. Amaury Talbot’s description of tribes of the West and Central Sudan with numerous illus- trations of racial types, implements, and ornaments, Mr. MacRitchie’s paper on the magic drum of the northern races, and Miss E. B. Lindsay’s paper on an undescribed totem post of stone from British Columbia. In conclusion, two statements made to the section may be placed on record. Dr. George Bryce sent a 344 NATURE [NOVEMBER 21, 19i2 report on the first eighteen months’ work of the ethno- graphical department of the Geological Survey of Canada, which, it will be remembered, was a direct outcome of the visit of this Association to Winnipeg in 1g09, and Dr. Hrdli¢ka, in a letter from Siberia addressed to the President, announced that he had discovered in north-eastern Asia living representatives of the ancient race which gave North America its Indians. BIRD NOTES. ie an article on the food of nestling birds published in the Journal of the Board of Agriculture for September, 1912, Mr. W. E. Collinge commences by referring to the fact that in the early stages of life birds daily consume more than their own weight of food. It is also mentioned that since nearly all birds except pigeons feed their young upon an animal diet, and that the nesting season occurs when insects are most abundant, the value of birds as insect-destroyers is self-apparent. In Witherby’s British Birds for October an instance of one cuckoo laying in the nest of a marsh-warbler and of a second in that of a rock-pipit are recorded. Only about five instances of a similar event have been previously recorded in the case of each species. To The Zoologist for October Mr. Harvie Brown contributes the first part of an article on the past and present distribution of the fulmar petrel on both sides of the Atlantic, and its recent spread in northern Britain. For about a century naturalists were content with the name Strix flammea for the barn-owl. The late Prof. Newton proposed to replace the generic name by Aluco, but this usage was recently stated by Mr. G. M. Mathews to be invalid. In No. 4 of The Austral Avian Record, after referring to a couple of alternative generic designations, the same writer brings forward the name Flammea vulgaris as one to which no objection can be taken. It seems a pity to try to displace a name which has become almost a household word. This replacement of long-accepted names of British birds by others of earlier date forms the subject of an editorial article in the September number of The Scottish Naturalist, where it is re- marked that ‘“‘though our sympathies are strongly in favour of the British Association’s rules, yet we are willing to view the present situation in a liberal spirit. There must, however, be concessions, and we regard it as essential that a number of time-honoured names must be conserved.” In the above-mentioned issue of The Scottish Naturalist, Mr. Eagle Clarke describes, with an illus- tration, a male hybrid between an eider drake and a wild duck, which was shot early in 1912 in the Ork- neys. What appears to have been a fellow-hybrid was seen on the Pentland Skerries in the following May. No other instance of a similar hybrid appears to be on record. We are indebted to Mr. W. Junk, of Berlin, for a copv of a sale catalogue of ornithological literature. 1s ie REPORT OF THE METEOROLOGICAL COMMITTEE. TRE report of the Meteorological Committee for the year ended March 31, 1912, shows that several important matters were dealt with during that period, e.g. the reconsideration of the relations with the Post Office as regards weather telegraphy, the in- corporation in the official network of stations which NO. 2247, VOL. 90] had previously sent their observations to the Royal Meteorological Society, the publication of results of various classes of observations, and the revision of rules under which the increasing number of tele- graphic reports from health resorts can be accepted for communication to the Press. The present capabilities of international and wire- less weather telegraphy are well illustrated by the frontispiece synoptic chart for April 1 of the distribu- tion of weather phenomena over a large part of the northern hemisphere compiled from data _ received within ten days of the date of the chart. One great advantage has been conceded by the Post Office at the request of H.M. Treasury in allowing priority of trans- mission to certain classes of meteorological telegrams and to storm warnings; but very much still remains to be effected in the way of facilitating the telegraphic distribution of forecasts to all parts of the United Kingdom by some financial arrangement by which the Meteorological Office would be placed on a better footing in carrying out its important public work than that accorded to a “ private person.” The percentage of complete success and the sum of successes (complete and partial) of the 8h. 30m. p.m. forecasts for the year 1911 were both higher than in any year since 1879, when the present service of daily forecasts was inaugurated. The ‘further outlook” frequently appended to the forecasts for twenty- four hours has also been remarkably successful. Want of space precludes special mention here of the octal work carried on in other departments of the office. THE METALS IN ANTIQUITY. (| ee? Huxley memorial lecture was given by Prof. W. Gowland, F-R.S., on Tuesday, November 19, at the Royal Anthropological Institute, the subject being ‘‘The Metals in Antiquity.” After pointing out the sources whence our knowledge of the use of metals by man in prehistoric and protohistoric times was derived, the lecturer gave an account of the primi- tive metallurgy of copper, tin, gold, lead, silver, and iron, the conditions under which they were extracted from their ores, and the localities in which they were first obtained. The origin of the smelting furnace was traced to the camp fire, in which, if by chance a lump of ore either of copper carbonate, tin-stone, or brown iron ore or hematite, had been one of the ring of stones surrounding the camp or domestic fire and had acci- dentally become embedded in its embers, it would undoubtedly be reduced to metal. The metals which occur—native copper, gold, and iron—were undoubtedly the first to be known to man in the localities in which they occurred, but until the art of smelting metals had been invented, the dis- covery and use of the native metals was insufficient to affect to any great extent the old Stone age culture. Gold, although doubtless the first metal to be known in many localities owing to its wide distribution in the sands of rivers, was useless for any practical purpose. Copper, however, or an alloy of the metal with tin, antimony, or arsenic, was extracted from ores at a very remote period, and it or its alloys was the first to be applied to practical use. In fact, the first metal to be obtained by primitive man by smelting copper ores depended on their composition, and in the locali- ties where tin did not occur it was a more or less impure copper. The extraction of gold from its ores on a large scale in the earliest times was attributed to the Sudan NOVEMBER 21, 1912] NATURE 345 district of Egypt, and the primitive tools and methods employed at the mines were described. Egypt was also noted for having produced the first mining map in the world, a map showing a gold mining region of the time of Seti I. or Rameses II. (1350 to 1330 B.C.). The influence of silver and lead on the development of primitive culture was shown to be insignificant, the latter metal only becoming of importance during the supremacy of the Romans, in connection with their elaborate systems for the supply and distribution of water and in the construction of baths. As regards iron, the belief that the first iron gener- ally known to man was either of meteoric origin or telluric native iron was not supported by any sub- stantial evidence. Nor was such origin necessary, as iron ores are so easily reducible that they can be converted into metallic iron in an ordinary charcoal fire. They are, in fact, reduced to metal at a con- siderably lower temperature than the ores of copper. The earliest iron smelting in Europe was traced to the upper waters of the Danubian tributaries, the ancient Noricum, but in still earlier times iron was extracted from its ores in the region on the south-east of the Euxine, in Ferghana and other localities in Asia. In Africa, so far as metallurgical evidence may be depended on, the extraction of iron from its ores was carried on at a remote date. That this early African iron smelting was known in Egypt is well shown by a bas-relief on a stone now in the Egyptian collection in Florence. THE BORDERLAND BETWEEN ELEC- TRICITY AND OTHER SCIENCES} 4 ee are applications of electricity that give work to many men, applications which employ much plant and apparatus, and on which large sums of money are spent, about which we have heard very little or nothing in the institution. Again, we hear little, if anything, about what is occurring on what I may term the borderland between electricity and the other sciences. In this borderland or fringe a large number of scientific workers are quietly at worl, and what is to-day a laboratory experiment may to-morrow form the basis of a large industry. Finally, we should have an opportunity of discussing the many details in the design and operation of electrical plant and apparatus, the importance of which cannot be over- estimated. Wireless Telegraphy and Telephony.—Correspond- ing to each spark at the transmitter of a wireless telegraphy plant, a train of oscillations is received, and these trains of oscillations are rectified by the detector, and in general are passed through a tele- phone as an indicator. At each spark a click is heard in the telephone, so that with 600 sparks a second the diaphragm is attracted 600 times, producing a some- what musical note. Herein lies one of the great advantages of high- spark frequency. There seems no doubt that the combination of the human ear and a telephone is much more sensitive for high-frequency notes than for low. In some tests I have made, using an alternating current to determine the minimum power re- quired to produce an audible signal in a telephone receiver at different frequencies, I found in one case that the power was reduced from 430 micro-micro- watts at 300 frequency to 7°7 micro-microwatts at 900 frequency. At higher frequencies it increased again. _1 From the presidential address delivered to: the Institution of Electrical Engineers on November 14 by Mr. W. Dnddell, F.R.S. NO. 2247, VOL. 90] Due to atmospheric causes, there is generally audible in the telephone receiver clicks and noises commonly spoken of as atmospherics or strays. With high- spark frequencies the human ear easily distinguishes the musical note from these atmospherics; this enables the operators to read through a large amount of extraneous interference. The elimination or com- pensation of these atmospherics is one of the most important outstanding problems in wireless telegraphy. When operating with continuous waves practically no note is heard in the receiver telephone unless the currents are chopped up into rapidly recurring groups of waves either at the transmitter (tone sender) or at the receiving end (ticker). In order to make a permanent record of the signals, and to allow of high-speed working, the rectified cur- rent from the detector may be passed through a galvanometer or a relay, and here we come to one of the difficult problems which requires solution, namely the construction of a relay or recording instrument Which will make a record of the very small received currents at high speeds. The Einthoven or string galvanometer, which is at present used for this pur- pose, is delicate and gives a photographic record. Although the difficulties may be minimised, I do not feel at this moment that the photographic method of recording, with the attendant chemicals, and the necessity of handling moist slip, can be looked upon as the final solution from the point of view of commer- cial telegraphy. The problem of constructing a relay for this purpose is a very difficult one. The mean current strength of the signals, after rectification by a high-resistance detector, is of the order of 4; to ;4, of a microampere, and the amount of power available to work the in- strument is only of the order of a few micro-micro- watts. For high-speed reception the number of con- tacts to be made and broken per second may be any- thing up to fiftv. The problem before our instrument- makers is to construct a relay or recorder which will operate with a power not exceeding a few micro- microwatts at the rate of fifty signals per second. Of the sister science, namely wireless telephony, there is not so much to relate. A certain amount of progress has been made, but the details of the methods used have not been made public. The principle is simple. Given continuous oscillations or a spark frequency above the limits of audibility, you may vary the antenna current, and hence the radiation by means of a microphone, in the same way as-.a con- tinuous current is varied by the microphone in ordinary telephony. As the radiation varies accord- ing to the modulation of the current by the voice the received current will be varied in the same manner and the voice will be reproduced. The difficulties are mainly in the transmitter. First, we require a per- fectly steady source of continuous oscillations, and secondly a microphone capable of modulating the large powers required to transmit any distance. Over short distances of a few miles there are no difficulties. It is only when we come to distances of fifty to 100 miles that the engineering problems become troublesome. In view of the progress that is being made in the high-frequency alternator, and of how much more easy it is to modify the power given out by an alternator, it will not be surprising if, as soon as high-frequency alternators are in use, wireless telephony over com- paratively long distance becomes a working possibility. Electrochemistry and Electrometallurgy. — The amount of power installed for chemical and metall- urgical purposes is very large indeed. Exact data are wanting, but it seems probable that the power em- ployed in these processes in Norwav and at Niagara may already reach 1,000,000 kw. One of the neces- 346 NATURE [| NOVEMBER 21, 1912 sities of our industry, namely copper, is largely purified by electrical means. Aluminium, calcium carbide, carborundum, sodium, and potassium are wholly pre- pared electrically. The only hydroelectric stations of any size that have been built in this country are used for electrochemical purposes. The production of aluminium alone at Loch Leven absorbs some 30,000 kw. The production of disinfectants electrolytically is being worked on a small scale. In Poplar the forma- tion of a solution of chlorine in water by means of electrolysis is in practical use. Although one cannot anticipate very large powers being required for this purpose, yet if the demand for electrolytic disinfec- tants all over the country was the same as in Poplar, it would require about 2,000,000 units per annum, all of which could be supplied at such times as would help to level up the load curve. Electromedical apparatus.—The design of induction coils for the production of X-rays has advanced a long way of late years, and some of the latest pieces of apparatus for the production of the discharge through the X-ray tube involve considerable ingenuity and engineering design. The discharge must be un- directional and at a high pressure, say, 50,000 volts or more. One method to obtain this is to step up by means of an E.H.T. transformer and to rectify the secondary current. Another method of working to obtain practically instantaneous photographs consists in switching the primary of the transformer straight on to the direct-current mains, when the current rush instantly blows the fuses. This interruption of the current produces one powerful discharge on the secondary, which, passing through the X-ray tube, suffices for the photograph. I do not know how the supply companies view this method of operation, be- cause the rush of current must be pretty considerable, as the apparatus is not constructed on a particularly small scale. The transformer weighs about half a ton. Electricity and Chemistry—We are all of us acquainted with the brush discharge, yet how much do we know of its mechanism? In our high-tension machinery we are mainly occupied with trying to get rid of it and its injurious effects. Yet it has its uses. Nearly all the information in our proceedings deals with the negative question, namely how to avoid it. Now the brush discharge has a peculiar property of producing that modification of oxygen known as ozone, which is without doubt a strong. sterilising agent, and which may in the future have considerable applications. A modification of the conditions of the production of the discharge will cause the formation of oxides of nitrogen instead of oxides of oxygen. Oxides of nitrogen are of great commercial import- ance, and their production by electrical means will probably be one of the most important industrial applications of electricity. Already in Norway between 100,000 and 120,000 kw. are employed working day and night for this purpose, and it is stated that this power will shortly be in- creased to nearly 250,000 kw. The main object of fixing the atmospheric nitrogen is to form a substance to replace Chile saltpetre. The demand for this is yearly growing at an increasing rate. Last year about 125,000 tons of nitrate were im- ported into this country. To produce the equivalent amount of fixed nitrogen per annum would, on the basis of Norwegian plants, require about 150,000 kw. At the moment I believe that the cost of electrical power is-the chief stumbling-block to the introduction of the manufacture on a large scale in this country. Electricity and Sound.—I do not know of many researches on the efficiency of the telephone receiver, yet the question is really a practical one and of con- NO. 2247, VOL. 90] siderable importance. Lhe telephone receiver may be looked upon as an alternating-current motor. It receives electrical energy, which it converts into the mechanical form in the motion of its diaphragm, which energy is transmitted to the air as sound waves. There is no special difficulty in measuring the electrical energy supplied to the telephone receiver to a moderate degree of accuracy. The amount of this energy that is transmitted to the diaphragm is much more difficult to estimate. The real difficulty is the determination of the amount of energy of the sound waves. If we possessed any apparatus by means of which we could measure energy of sound waves we could not only determine the efficiency of the telephone receiver, but the apparatus would have many other useful applications. It is curious to think that up to the present we have no unit or standard of sound. We cannot specify its strength or intensity. Even the comparison of two sounds by the ear is very inaccurate; nowhere near as accurate as the comparison of two lights by means of the eye. This want of standards and methods of measurement is, I believe, one of the causes that has retarded progress in the science of sound. Can electricity, the hand- maid of all the other sciences, help in this direction? Electricity and Radiation—Much worl: is- quietly going on, of which we in the institution hear nothing, to try to unravel completely the mechanism of the transfer of electricity through gases. There is much to be hoped for along these lines. The elaborate glass apparatus, the vacuum tubes, the mercury, the liquid air, &c., which are being used in the research make the experiments look most unpromising from the practical engineer’s point of view. Yet some pro- gress is being made in electric lighting by means of the passage of electricity through gases. Many mem- bers will remember the vacuum tube, 176 ft. long, which was used to light the courtyard of the Savoy Hotel. That tube, I believe, contained nitrogen, and according to the tests of Prof. Fleming, gave an efficiency of 056 candle per watt. About a year ago I saw a tube, not such a long tube, filled with the rare gas neon, obtained from the residues in the manufacture of liquid air. This tube gave a most beautiful rose-coloured light. If this rare gas were obtainable in sufficient quantities we might have a rival to the flame arc. JI may mention in passing that tubes containing neon are now commercially obtainable, and are claimed, in the larger sizes, to have an efficiency as high as two candle-power per watt. Further researches on the borderland between electricity and radiation will no doubt provide us with still more efficient sources of light. We are at present very far from any practical means of converting the energy of radiation directly into electrical energy, although on a small scale this con- version really takes place in many photoelectric ar- rangements. For instance, the action of the light on the liquid potassium sodium alloy has been shown by Prof. Fleming to produce a voltage as high as 06 volt when the liquid alloy and a platinum plate are enclosed in a hiehly exhausted tube, and the liquid alloy is illuminated strongly. There seems little doubt that the current that is generated in this case is produced from the energy of the light that is absorbed. The effects so far obtained are extremely small. At the most only a few microamperes are obtainable with verv strong illumination. Nevertheless, this property of sensitiveness to light, though at the moment it has no practical applications, may at any time be found to fill some useful purpose and make another case illustrating how observations that are one day on the borderland of science may shortly afterwards be of practical use in engineering. NOVEMBER 21, I912| NATURE 347 When it is remembered that the water-power in Norway alone is estimated to produce several million kilowatts, it is evidently better, for the present at any rate, for engineers to utilise the solar radiation by harnessing the waterfalls rather than by attempting to build radiation traps in the Sahara. UNIVERSITY STUDENTS IN STATE-AIDED INSTITUTIONS OF ENGLAND AND WALES. N article on the budgets of certain universities and university colleges, based on the reports for the year 1g10-11 from universities and university col- leges in Great Britain in receipt of grants from the Board of Education, was published in the issue of Nature for August 15 last. These reports also contain a great deal of information concerning the number of students in the various colleges, their ages, the sub- jects they are studying, and so on; and we have abstracted the subjoined facts from them and the introductory statement signed by the President of the Board of Education. Before summarising the statistics under these head- ings, it is well to point out that the numbers which follow concern the following English universities :— Birmingham, Bristol, Durham (Armstrong College), Leeds, Liverpool, Manchester, Sheffield, London (in- cluding University College, King’s College, Bedford College, School of Economics, and East London Col- lege), and also the University Colleges at Nottingham, Reading, and Southampton. The University of Wales includes the University Colleges of Aberystwyth, Bangor, and Cardiff. Certain other constituent colleges of universities are in receipt of aid under ‘“‘The Statement of Grants available from the Board of Education in Aid of Technological and Professional Work in Universities in England and Wales.” These institutions are twelve in number, nine being medical schools attached to hospitals in London. They are all schools of the Uni- versity of London. One, the Newcastle College of Medicine, is a constituent college of the University of Durham, while the two remaining, namely, Manches- ter Municipal School of Technology and the Bristol Merchant Venturers’ College, make provision for the faculties of technology and engineering respectively in the universities to which they are attached. NUMBER OF FULL-TIME STUDENTS, IQI0-I1. England Wales Degree students :— Training college 1459 ioe 451 Others is 3512 ‘a3 702 Totaly s-. Hc ane ses 4971 se 1153 Non-graduate (diploma) students :— Training college 729 baa — Others see 1100 sas 105 Total 55 1829 105 Post-graduate students 477 vhs Others =a 628 58 Motalere “a 7905 : 1391 Number OF Part-TIME STUDENTS, 1910-11. Day. England Wales Degree see 12: 254 Bs II Non-graduate (diploma) 112 ees 4 Post-graduate a 809 fe is Others me =o) 2097, ; 286 Evening. Degree se 2 ne : 494 = Non-graduate (diploma) ... 810 — Post-graduate ce +3 173 = Others 7298 — Total - 12937 316 NO. 2247, VOL. 90] if | detailed comparison In addition, there were in England 277 evening students studying for matriculation and nine such students in Wales. The number of full-time students in England during the year 1910-11 was 7905, as compared with 8174 in the previous year. This apparent drop of 269 is, how- ever, more than accounted for by the stricter classifica- tion adopted. A number of students taking post- graduate and special courses have this year been clsssified as part-time students. The number of full- time degree and diploma students, on the other hand, increased by 150, and the real increase was larger since the figures for the earlier year included 78 en- gineering students at the Bristol Merchant Venturers’ College who were included in the returns for Bristol University, but have this year been shown separately. The establishment of a somewhat higher criterion and the consequent exclusion of a certain number of students who simply attend a certain number of lec- tures render it somewhat difficult to make any of the figures for part-time students with those for the previous year, but it seems safe to say that the apparent reduction in the total number of part-time students is more than accounted for by the reduction in the number of ‘ Other” students, many of whom could scarcely be regarded as serious students, and have consequently been excluded altogether. On the other hand, the number of part- time students taking degree, diploma, or post-graduate courses showed marked increase. It follows that the reduction in the total number of all kinds of students is not to be taken as implying any diminution in the number of genuine students; on the contrary, there is good reason to think that the number of such students is on the increase. In support of this view it may be pointed out that the total number of post- graduate students has increased since the previous year by more than 200. In Wales there has been a small increase in the total number of full-time students; on the other hand, there has been a drop in the number of part-time day students. AGE at ADMISSION OF FULL-TIME STUDENTS. Eng'and Wales Number admitted during 1910-11 3587 465 | Percentage under 17 38 39 Percentage 17-18 120 144 Percentage 18-19 ... a one, SKC) nee gue Percentage above 19 60°3 50°5 NuMBER OF FULL-TIME STUDENTS IN THE VARIOUS FACULTIES, IQIO-II. England Wales Arts 3b 3410 936 Pure science aa 200 soo HBS 360 254 Medicine 2580 2 Engineering 1015 43 Technology ... 735 22 Agriculture ... BS 162 63 Other departments 203 one It To make the above summary more explicit, it should be pointed out that under “ Arts,”’ fine art, music, law, commerce, teachers’ diploma, and economics are in- cluded; ‘Engineering’ covers naval architecture ; “Technology ” comprises also mining, metallurgy, and architecture; and ‘‘ Agriculture’ embraces horticulture and dairy-work. 448 NATURE UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE. CamBripGe.—Mr. N. Cunliffe, of Trinity College, has been appointed to the office of assistant to the superintendent of the museum of zoology for one year as from October 1. The Board of Agricultural Studies reports that the number of students receiving instruction in the School ot Agriculture continues to increase. This term 117 names are on the books, as compared with 106, 100, and Sr in the corresponding terms of the last three years. It is hoped that the new building will be ready for occupation in October, 1913. The rooms lately vacated by the Forestry Department are now used for the advisory work subsidised by the Develop- ment Commissioners. In addition to the University farm, possession of How House Farm for the purposes of the Plant Breeding Institute was taken on Sep- tember 30. The farm belongs to Trinity College, and consists of 146 acres of arable land and 67 of pasture. The soil survey of the eastern counties is in active progress. The analytical work on the soils of Nor- folk, Cambridgeshire, Isle of Ely, and Huntingdon- shire is completed, and that of Bedfordshire, Suffolk, and Northamptonshire is well in hand. Oxrorp.—On November 19 the decree assigning a plot of land on the south side of the University park for an extension of the chemical department was pro- posed by the president of Magdalen, opposed by Prof. Oman, and carried in Convocation by 175 to 106. In the same Convocation, a decree assigning a plot at the north-west corner of the park for the erection of an engineering laboratory, also proposed by the presi- dent of Magdalen, was supported by Prof. Jenkin, opposed by the rector of Exeter, and rejected by 234 to 81. The vote may be taken, not as showing any ill-will on the part of the University to the subject of engineering, but as the expression of a pretty general opinion that a more suitable site than that suggested could be found for the proposed laboratory. Tue Right Hon. Sir Albert Spicer, Bart., M.P., will distribute the prizes and certificates at the Borough Polytechnic Institute, Borough Road, London, S.E., on Monday, December 2, at 8 p.m. It is proposed to establish at the Huddersfield Tech- nical College a library relating to the woollen and worsted industries, to include (1) pamphlets, books, and printed matter of all kinds, and (2) pictures and other illustrations dealing with the rise and growth of the industries, their present position and possible further developments. An appeal is made, therefore, for gifts of books, &c., and for donations of money with which to purchase necessary additions to the library not otherwise obtainable. Any contributions may be sent to the secretary, Technical College, Huddersfield. In her lecture on November 15 to the London Child Study Society on Maria Montessori’s method and self- education, Madame Pujol-Ségalas urged that from different points of view Froebel and Montessori per- ceive the same necessity for taking ‘‘nature as a guide’’ in the endeavour to create conditions favour- able to the child’s development. Attempts, she said, have been made in Europe and America to apply natural and rational methods in practical teaching, but the teachers experience difficulties from a deformation of the child’s mind which has previously taken place. Such deformation does not take place in the houses administered under the Montessori system, because the training is as a rule individual instead of being con- NO. 2247, VOL. 90] [ NOVEMBER 21, 1912 stantly collective, and because it leaves room for the free expansion of the growing life. The aim of the system is to show how it is possible to stop making slaves of our pupils, intellectually and morally. Mon- tessori schools are laboratories of experimental psycho- logy in the truest sense. Practical difficulties in the application of the method vary together with qualities of races, classes, persons, and age. In order to serve the children we must have faith in human nature, and give it an opportunity of rising up to its highest present ideal, so that realising it, it may conceive new ones, higher still, ever progressing, and thus ful- filling its destiny. AN interesting point made in the preface to the recently published calendar of the University College of North Wales for the session 1912-13 is that to the establishment of the college all classes of the com- munity contributed their aid with remarkable unanimity. Never before, in so short a period, had so many persons, either in England or in Wales, sub- scribed towards a movement for the promotion of higher education. The subscription list was opened at a meeting held in Chester on January 23, 1883, when seven gentlemen subscribed 1oool. each. In twelve_ months the list had risen to upwards of 30,000l., the total number of subscribers being nearly 8000. A large proportion of this amount was given in small sums, much of it as the result of a house-to-house canvass in the rural parts of North Wales. More than 12501. was contributed by the quarrymen of the Pen- rhyn and Dinorwic Quarries, who undertook the entire work of collection, appointing collectors for each “gallery” in the quarry and contributing each monthly pay-day a fixed sum out of their earnings. In view of this local enthusiasm for higher education, it is not surprising that there should have been a progressive increase in the number of students year by year. At the beginning of the session 1884-5, the total number of students was fifty-eight, while the session 1911-12 opened with 338 students, three-quarters of whom were from North Wales. In the issue of Science for October 25 last, Prof. Rudolf Tombo, Junior, of Columbia University, con- tributes an article on the geographical distribution of the student body of a number of American universi- ties and colleges. Among other matters of interest, Prof. Tombo deals with the number of foreign students at American institutions of higher learning. Thirty- seven American universities and colleges together attracted no fewer than 1782 foreigners during the academic year 1910-11, exclusive of the attendance at summer courses. Of these students from other coun- tries, Canada sent 344, China 330, Japan 197, Mexico 193, Turkey (in Europe and Asia) 84, India 73, British Isles 72, Cuba 62, Germany 48, Russia 48, and Aus- tralia 47. When the foreign clientéle of twenty-one of the leading American universities is compared with that of the twenty-one German universities, America is seen to be far behind Germany in attracting foreign students to its institutions of higher learning. During the winter session of 1910-11 the German universities were attended by no fewer than 4672 foreign students, as against 1576 foreigners at the American universities mentioned. The German universities draw 4046 students from other European countries, 398 from North and South America, 203 from Asia, 20 from Africa, and 5 from Australasia, while the American universities attract 478 students from North American countries outside of the United States, 112 from South America, 318 from Europe, 587 from Asia, 32 from Africa, and 49 from Australasia; in other words, the American universities lead in every continent with the exception of Europe. NOVEMBER 21, I912]| NATURE 349 Tue Imperial Education Conference, at its meeting last year, recommended that there should be appointed in connection with that conference an advisory com- mittee consisting of the accredited agents in London of the several Governments concerned, together with representatives of the Colonial Office, the India Office, the Board of Education, the Scotch Education Depart- ment, and the Irish Office. The functions of the committee as recommended by the conference were to be to keep itself acquainted with the progress of any courses of action that the conference had recom- mended, to facilitate that progress when necessary by communicating with the Governments concerned, and to consider such proposals as might be submitted for the agenda of any future meetings of the confer- ence. The following representatives have been nominated by the various Governments and depart- ments concerned to serve on the committee :—Mr. L. A. Selby-Bigge, C.B., Board of Education; Dr. H. Frank Heath, C.B., Board of Education; Sir John Struthers, K.C.B., Scotch Education Department; Dr. W. J. M. Starkie, Irish Government; Sir H. W. Just, K.C.M.G., Colonial Office (Dominions Division); Mr. J. F. N. Green, Colonial Office (Crown Colonies) ; Sir Theodore Morison, K.C.I.E., India Office; the Right Hon. Lord Strathcona and Mount Royal, G.C.M.G., G.C.V.O., Dominion of Canada; the Right Hon. Sir G. H. Reid, P.C., G-C.M.G., Com- monwealth of Australia; the Hon. Thomas Mackenzie, Dominion of New Zealand; Mr. T. Slingsby Night- ingale, Union of South Africa; Mr. T. A. Coghlan, New South Wales; the Hon. Sir John Taverner, Vic- toria; Major Sir Thomas Robinson, Queensland; the Hon. A. A. Kirkpatrick, South Australia; Mr. Cyril Jackson, Western Australia; the Hon. Sir John McCall, Tasmania. The Board of Education has placed at the disposal of the committee the services of Mr. W. W. Fornell, Assistant Director of Special Inquiries and Reports, to act as honorary secretary. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. LONDON. Royal Society, November 7.—Sir Archibald Geikie, K.C.B., president, in the chair.—Louis V. King : The scattering and absorption of light in gaseous media, with applications to the intensity of sky radiation. The analysis of the present investigations seems to support the view that, at levels above Mount Wilson, molecular scattering is sufficient to account completely both for attenuation of solar radiation and for the intensity and quality of sky radiation. Even at sea- level the effect of ‘atmospheric dust” can be taken into account in a simple manner in formule for absorption and scattering.—Dr. P. E. Shaw: A standard measuring machine.—E. M. Stubbs and Dr. E. B. R. Prideaux : A spectro-photometric comparison of the emissivity of solid and liquid gold at high tem- peratures with that of a full radiator. (1) The emis- sivity of solid and liquid gold at high temperatures, relative to the emissivity of a full radiator at the same temperatures, has been measured throughout the visible spectrum. (2) A sharp discontinuity in the emissivity takes place at the melting point, the liquid gold | emitting more strongly than the solid in the red and yellow, and less in the extreme blue. The shape of the ‘relative emissivity” curves is quite different in the two cases. (3) The curve of “relative emissivity” of solid gold at high temperatures is similar to that of absorptivity at low temperatures as determined from reflectivity measurements; whether it is identical, in which case the temperature coefficient of the absorp- tivity would be nil, could not be absolutely determined, owing to the change of structure which a polished NO. 2247, VOL. 90] surface undergoes on heating. (4) No temperature coefficient of “relative emissivity’’ could be detected for the liquid metal through a range of more than 100°. (5) ‘Black body’’ temperatures of solid and liquid gold at the melting point have been calculated. (6) It has been shown that the general equation ex- pressing the radiation of a selective radiator is of the form Ev=/(a, T)c-%e-e2/a7, which in the case of gold and other metals cannot be reduced to the form of Wien’s equation for a full radiator with changed values of the constants.—C. Smith ; Optical properties of substances at the critical point.—Hon. R. J. Strutt: Absorption of helium and other gases under the electric discharge. Attempts to repeat Berthelot’s absorption of helium by carbon disulphide under the influence of the silent discharge have given absolutely negative results. Helium is slightly absorbed by phosphorus under electric dis- charge, though in much less quantity than nitrogen or hydrogen. The absorption in the former case is regarded as mechanical, in the latter as chemical.— F. W. Aston: The discharge between concentric cylinders in gases at low pressures. (1) The relations between pressure, voltage, and the length of the Crookes dark space in the discharge between concen- tric cylinders take much the same form as those in the discharge between parallel planes. (2) Curvature of the surface of the kathode appears to have no influence upon the rate of alteration of the length of the dark space with change of current density, so long as the latter is measured at the surface of the kathode. (3) Ceteris faribus, the length of the dark space is greater for a convex cylindrical surface than a plane, and for a plane than a concave one.—F. W. Aston: The influ- ence of the nature of the kathode on the length of the Crookes dark space. (1) The relations between the values of pressure, voltage, current, and the length of the dark space are determined for plane kathodes of many different materials, and found to satisfy the same form of equations as those previously given for aluminium, the constants varying considerably. (2) Roughness of the kathode surface does not appear to affect the discharge, if the dimensions of the irregu- larities are small compared with the length of the dark space. (3) The length of the dark space is shown, in the cases examined, to be greatest for silver and least for magnesium, the metals following the same order as in the case of the kathode fall. (4) The rate of change of length of the dark space with change of current density at the surface of the kathode seems much the same for all kathodes. (5) Difficulties in the way of arriving at a satisfactory explanation of these and other data connected with the dark space are indicated and shortly discussed.—A. Campbell: The determination of the absolute unit of resistance by alternating-current methods.—A. Mallock: Some un- classified properties of solids and liquids. This paper suggests that many qualities of solids and liquids, which, although well known and commonly recog- | nised, are not classified (qualities, for instance, such as ductility and malleability), may be explained by reference to the relations of the limits of the principal elasticities of the substances. A real homogeneous isotropic substance, whether solid or liquid, offers two distinct kinds of resistance to deformation, viz., resist- ance to alteration of volume and resistance to shear. There are also two ‘distinct and different limits to each of these kinds of deformation—limits which cannot be exceeded without causing rupture or permanent altera- tion of the substance. When a strain involves both shear and alteration of volume, the behaviour and properties of the strained material depend to a great extent on whether the limit of shear or the limit of 350 NATURE | NOVEMBER 21, 1912 volume alteration is the first to be overcome.—Sir | Sterility being thus ensured and external \V. de W. Abney : Trichromatie theory of colour vision. The measurement of fatigue of the retina. November 14.—Sir Archibald Geilxie, I.C.B., presi- dent, in the chair.—J. W. Cropper: The development of a parasite of earthworms. \ Vacant. | George William Clarkson Kaye, Esq., Two in Physics eon D.Sc., B.A Vacant. SECOND EXAMINATION PART II., FOR MEDICAL DEGREES. { Prof. A. Melville Paterson, M.D., M.S., Two in Anatomy 4 ReGS: "2 \ Vacant. Two in Physiology ont, { eee Pete ane The Examiners above named are re-eligible, and intend to offer them- selves for re-election. Full particulars of the remuneration of each Examinership can be obtained on application to the Principal. N.B.—Attention is drawn to the provision of Statute 124, whereby the Senate is required, if practicable, to appoint at least one Examiner who is not a Teacher of the University. Candidates must send in their names to the Principal, with any attes- tation of their qualifications they may think desirable, on or before MONDAY, DECEMBER 16th. (Itis particularly desired by the Senate that no application of any kind be made to its individual Members.) LT) testimonials are subsmttted, three copies at least of each should be sent. Original testimonials should not be forwarded in any case. If more than one Exaninership is applied for, a separate coniplete applica- tion, with copies of testimonials, tf any, must be forwarded in respect of each. University of London, South Kensington, S.W., November, 1912. By Order of the Senate, HENRY A. MIERS, Principal. GOVERNMENT GRANT FOR SCIEN- TIFIC INVESTIGATIONS.—Applications for the year 1913 must be received at the offices of the Royal Society not later than January x next, and must be made upon printed forms to be obtained from the Clerk to the Government Grant Committee, Royal Society, Burlington House, London, W. ROYAL HOLLOWAY COLLEGE. ENGLEFIELD GREEN, SURREY. (University of London). The Governors will award, early in December, three Post-Graduate Studentships for research or advanced work open to Graduates of the College. Applications should be made not later than December 2 to the PRINCIPAL, from whom full particulars may be obtained, THE MURDOCH TRUST. For the benefit of INDIGENT BACHELORS and WIDOWERS of good character, over 55 years of age, who have done ‘‘something” in the way of promoting or helping some branch of Science. Donations or Pensions may be granted to persons who comply with these conditions. For particulars apply to Messrs. J. & J. TURNBULL, W.S., 58 Frederick Street, Edinburgh. SWINEY LECTURES ON GEOLOGY, IQI2-13. UNDER THE DIRECTION 9F THE TRUSTEES of THE BRITISH MUSEUM. A Course of Twelve Lectures on ‘‘ THE ReEcorp oF LIFE as REVEALED IN THE Rocks” will be delivered by T. J. JEHU, M.A., M.D., F.R/S.E., in the Lecture Theatre of the Victoria and Albert Museum, South Ken- sington (by permission of the Board of Education), on Mondays, Thursdays and Saturdays, at 3 p.m., from Saturday, December 7, to Saturday, December 21 (inclusive), and from Saturday, January 4, to Monday, January 13 (inclusive). The Lectures will be illustrated by Lantern Slides. Admission FREE. Entrance in Exhibition Road. By Order of the Trustees, L. FLETCHER, Director. British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell Road, London, 8.W. ————— CHEMICAL SOCIETY RESEARCH FUND. A Meeting cf the Research Fund Committee will be held in December next. Applications for grants, to be made on forms which can be obtained from the Assistant Secretary, must be received on or before Monday, December 2, 1912. All persons who received grants in December, ro11, or in December of any previous year, whose accounts have not been declared closed by the Council, are reminded that reports must be in the hands of the Hon. Secretaries not later than Monday, December 2. The Council wish to draw attention to the fact that the income arising from the donation of the Worshipful Company of Goldsmiths is to be more or less especially devoted to the encouragement of research in inorganic and metallurgical chemistry. Furthermore, that the income due to the sum accruing from the Perkin Memorial Fund is to be applied to investigations relating to problems connected with the coal-tar and allied industries. ESSEX EDUCATION COMMITTEE. EAST ANGLIAN INSTITUTE OF AGRICULTURE, CHELMSFORD. CHIEF ANALYST AND LECTURER IN AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. : WANTED, AN ANALYST AND LECTURER IN AGRICUL- TURAL CHEMISTRY, to take charge of the Agricultural Analytical Work of the Institute, and to lecture to Students of the Winter School of Agriculture. Preference will be given to candidates who have had expe- rience in Agricultural Analysis, and advisory work among farmers. Commencing salary, £200 per annum, Applications must be made in accordance with the printed Application Form, which can be obtained from me, the undersigned, and must be sent in duly filled up, accompanied with copies of three testimonials, so as to arrive by December 4, 1912, at the latest. A. MALINS SMITH, Principal. East Anglian Institute of Agriculture, Chelmsford, November 15, 1912. THE SOUTH AFRICAN SCHOOL OF MINES AND TECHNCLOGY, JOHANNESBURG. WANTED, an ASSISTANT LECTURER and DEMONSTRATOR in NATURAL PHILOSOPHY and PHYSICS. Commencing salary 4300 per annum. Engagement one year certain ; thereafter three months’ notice either side. Commence duties Johannesburg early March. Allow- ance for travelling expenses, £37 10s. Half salary during voyage out. Mostly day work, but some evening class work. Applications and testi- monials, which should be in duplicate where possible, will be received until Thursday, December 12, by CHALMERS GUTHRIE & Co., LtD., g Idol Lane, London, E.C. Appointment to be fixed early January. MISS M. S. GRATTON (Nat. Sci. Tripos, Girton College, Cambridge) gives lessons orally or by correspondence in Botany, Chemistry, Physics, Physiology, Mathematics, &c. Preparation for University and Local Examinations.—r2 Lupus Street, Westminster, S.W. PRIESTLEY MEMORIAL STATUE.— Original Plaster Model for Sale, 8 ft. high, price 4100. See illus- tration in Nature, October 31.—Apply FRANCES DARLINGTON, Sculptor, Harrogate. As SECRETARY or ASSISTANT to a scientific man : expert at Chemistry, Analysis, Botany (including the cryptogamia), Microscopy : good at general natural history, capable of carrying out research. Has contributed papers to several scientific societies. Box 52, c/o Watuze. MISS EVERETT, M.A. (Cambridge Math. | Tripos), Catalogue Referee, Royal Society, undertakes Indexing, Trans- lating, Summarising, Typing, &c.—6 Milbourne Lane, Esher, Surrey. FOR SALE.—Magnificent collection of worked flints (Palzolithic), splendid specimens.—Apply ‘‘ No. 2248, Nature Office. aed | Toy ee 6 eh trae one NGAI SGT Jes 353 THURSDAY, NOVEMBER 28, 1912. SCIENTIFIC WORTHIES. XXXIX.—Pror. JuLtes Henri Poincare, For.Mem.R.S. that the subject of an article in our series of Scientific Worthies has had to be referred to in the past tense; and we deplore that such should be the case now. Many men of science continued to make important additions to the monument of natural knowledge long after contemporary con- tributors to this series had paid tribute to their achievements, and fortunately some are still with A testimony to good and faithful work has its interest vastly increased when it can be accom- panied by the thought that past performances may be equalled, or even excelled, by future accomplish- ments. This satisfaction is denied us when Finis has to be written against a man’s work; and though the coral-rock represented by it may be strong and beautiful, it lacks those qualities of activity and growth which were once manifest on its summit and are essential attributes of the scientific spirit. A great man of science builds not so much for his own generation as for the generations which follow him. As M. Berthelot once said.:—“ If each of us adds something to the common domain in the field of science, of art, of morali‘v, it is because a long series of generations have lived, worked, thought, and suffered before us.’* Wor to-day and to-morrow M. caré not only opened new fields, but pointed us. workers of the way to discovery by those who follow him. Mathematics, physics, astronomy, philo- sophy, and other domains of intellectual ac- tivity have all been extended and illuminated by his genius. The search for truth was for him a passion, and all his work was animated by it. His ‘Science and Hypothesis” represents an examination into the solidity of the foundations upon which scientific reasoning is based. To the superficial reader the work may appear icono- clastic, but many of the images it destroys should never be set up in the temple of scientific belief ; and if they cannot stand before the strong rays of relentless logic, science is better without them. For in nature “Beauty is truth, truth beauty; that is all Ye know on earth, and all ye need to know.” That such a brilliant and original thinker as Poin- | world-wide regret. It would take several articles | to do justice to his work and scholarship, but we must here limit ourselves to appreciative mention of a few prominent points of a remarkable career. M. Poincaré was born at Nancy on April 29, | 1854, and commenced his studies at the Lycée T has only happened on one or two occasions | | analytical there. He afterwards nassed successively through Ecole Polytechnique ’Ecole nationale supérieure des Mines, receiving his doctor’s degree in mathematical sciences from the University of Paris in 1879. He then began his career as in- structor in mathematical analysis at the University of Caen, from which position he was called in 1881 and | to occupy the chair of physical and experimental | mechanics at the Sorbonne (University of Paris). | Later he occupied the chair of mathematical physics, and, after the death of M. Tisserand, he passed to that of mathematical astronomy and celestial mechanics. M. Poincaré was elected a member of the Paris Academy of Sciences in 1887, and a member of the French Academy in 1908. He was president of the Academy of Sciences in 1906, and of the Bureau des Longitudes in 1899 and 1909. He was also an honorary member of most of the leading scientific societies of the world, and received honorary degrees from the Universities of Oxford, Cambridge, Glasgow, Christiania, Steckholm, and Brussels. In 1g01 the first award of the Sylvester medal of the Royal Society was made to him in recognition of his many and important contributions to mathematical science. The first volume of a series entitled “ Savants du Jour,” published in 1909 by Messrs. Gauthier- Villars, of Paris, is devoted to M. Poincaré, and it contains a list of more than four hundred of his publications relating to mathematical analysis, and mechanics, mathe- matical physics, and philosophy of science. But the value of Poincaré’s not to be estimated merely by although that unusually large; wasted words trifles, and shortest notes, like those of Hermite, are always worth the of his was very wide; arithmetic, probability, function- theory, dynamics, mathematical physics are all in- debted to him for results of interest and often Finally, he had, in celestial work is its bulk, is he never or wrote on his attention. Again, range topics of the greatest importance. | the highest degree, the gift of literary style; few M. Poincaré should have died, on July 17 last, at | che relatively early age of fifty-eight is a cause of NO. 2248, VOL. 90] of his scientific compatriots can rival him in direct- ness, simplicity, and grace. There is a story that Clifford, during a walk with a friend, made him understand the gist of Abel’s theorem; it is easy to imagine Poincaré, in similar circumstances, suc- O 304, NATURE [NovEeMBER 28, 1912 cessfully expounding the nature of the Fuchsian functions. Many must be able to recall the delight with which they read those famous memoirs in the early volumes of the Acta Mathematica, and the eagerness with which they turned to each new | part, in the hope of finding more of this enchant- ing causerie. Few formule, and short ones at that; just a succession of brief, almost conversa- | tional, sentences opening up a new and vast domain in which even such a subject as elliptic modular functions took a place like that of reciprocants in the general theory of differeritial invariants; new vistas and new problems presenting themselves on | every side. It is easy enough to trace the lineage of the automorphic functions. Immediately sug- gested by Fuchs’s work on differential equations, and actually a generalisation of modular functions, they are historically the outcome of Gauss’s memoir on the hypergeometric series, and Riemann’s paper on the P-function. To say this is no detraction from Poincaré’s merits : the fact is that, like Lejeune-Dirichlet, he won many of his highest triumphs by his extraordinary power of seizing the main points of an existent theory, simplifying it by an appropriate analysis, and then extending it beyond all expectation. Compare, for instance, the present positions of the theories of modular functions of Fuchsian functions. In the former, apart from further application to arith- metic and the like, the one main problem that still remains is to find out, if possible, the arithmetical characters of all the sub-groups of the modular group; in the latter there are difficulties at the outset, arising from the fact that in certain families of Fuchsian groups there are conditions of in- equality which involve troublesome relations connecting the constants of the generating sub- stitutions. In this and in other matters Poincaré did not go into detail: but he pointed out the way for others by his distribution of the functions into families, and by his geometrical method with its non-Euclidean interpretation. Perhaps crowning result of his werk in this direction is his theorem that the coordinates of any point on an algebraic curve can be expressed as one-valued Iuchsian functions of a parameter. This is analo- gous to the representation of a point on a circle by (sin@, cos 6), and is to be distinguished from the Puiseux-Weierstrass element of the curve. A more definite example of Poincaré’s power of dealing with a classical problem is afforded by his work on rotating fluid masses. Long ago it was shown by Jacobi that an ellipsoid of three un- NO. 2248, VOL. 90] and representation of an | equal axes was a possible figure of relative equi- librium: but it was reserved for Poincaré to take up the problem afresh, and develop the solution into what may fairly be called (apart from details) its final and definite form. He shows the exist- ence of whole families of figures of equilibrium, including as particular cases those already known; | gives analytical criteria for stability; and proves the | that when, by varying the parameter that gener- ates a particular family, we pass from stability to instability, the critical surface is one of “bifur- cation,” that is, it simultaneously belongs to two distinct families. In some respects this is analo- gous to the way in which a curve /(x, y, »)=0, by variation of , acquires a double point, and then alters what may be called its connectivity; and without pressing the analogy, Poincaré’s here seem typical of what happens, with regard to stability, in the variation of dynamical systems. The value and originality of these researches was recognised by Sir G. H. Darwin in his address to the Royal Astronomical Society, when its gold medal was presented to Poincaré (eb. 9, 1900). in any case, results The contributions of Poincaré to celestial mechanics not only brought life to a subject which showed signs of becoming’ stale, but undoubtedly opened up a fresh line of in- vestigation. Starting with an idea due to G. W. Hill, who, in his turn, was indebted to Euler, he brought the whole range of his great knowledge and power of analysis to bear on a problem which has baffled the ingenuity of mathematicians for more than two hundred years. That he did not succeed in solving it, either in the old or the modern sense, is no criticism on his achievements ; it is sufficient to say that he opened the way and explored a new region by routes which may ulti- mately lead to the final goal—a demonstration of the stability or instability of the solar system. His investigations on the general problem of three bodies are principally contained in the three volumes entitled “Les Méthodes Nouvelles de la Mécanique Céleste,” which form a_ natural sequence to the earlier prize essay of 1889. The foundation of the work is the now well-known periodic solution of a set of differential equations. Hill had developed one such solution arising in the motion of the moon round the earth; Poincaré considers periodic solutions of any class of differ- ential equations, examining their general pro- perties and the conditions for their existence. He then takes up the special properties of the equa- tions of dynamics and, descending still further new NovEMBER 28, 1912] NATURE S55) into details, the applications to the problem of three bodies and to restricted cases of this problem. No general method for finding the solutions, nor for discovering the full number of them, is obtained, but these needs are being supplied by the researches of Darwin, Moulton and others into the possible orbits which may be described in various circumstances. The periodic orbit only represents a particular solution of the equations of motion. obtains a general solution within a limited range of the arbitrary constants by considering those differing slightly from the periodic solution. this connection arise the “characteristic expon- ents”? which may be somewhat loosely taken to give the various periods present in the general solution. These exponents form the bridge which enables him to enter into such questions as the existence of integrals, the analytic forms of possible solutions and the convergence or diver- gence of the series thus formed. His proof that there cannot exist any algebraic or transcendental integral of the problem of three bodies (under a restriction as to the magnitude of the masses) beyond those known is an important advance on Bruns’ result—that no new algebraic integral exists, although the latter is true for any values of the masses. Not less important is his examination of the older methods from the logical point of view. His presentation of these is nearly always fresh and novel; he is rarely content with previous methods of arriving at the results. This change is perhaps necessary, for he has a different object in view; nevertheless, the reading of them frequently gives the impression that Poincaré simply took the premises and the conclusions and found it less difficult to work out the latter from the former in his own way than to go fully into the author’s work. Perhaps the most startling result was his discovery that the majority of the series which have been used to calculate the positions of the bodies of the solar system are divergent. This fact, of course, required an examination into the reasons why the divergent series gave sufficiently accurate results: hence arose the theory of asymptotic series now applied to the representation of many functions. The crux of the problem is the divergent series. The functions are only represented in the numerical sense by series, and we do not know their limits. Can we argue one way or the other as to the stability of the system? In other words, is the ultimate divergence peculiar to the functions, or NO. 2248, VOL. 90] Poincaré In is it merely due to our inability to obtain expres- sions from which a conclusion can be deduced? The question remains unanswered. Gylden be- lieved that he had overcome the difficulty, but Poincaré has shown that it still exists. Whilst the greater part of Poincaré’s researches are thus confined to the logical side of the prob- lems in celestial mechanics, we have occasional papers in which he developed methods useful for actual calculation, in addition to those chapters of the ““Méthodes Nouvelles ” which are devoted to this part of the subject. Amongst them may be mentioned one on the lunar theory, in which he developed a method with rectangular coordin- ates which appears to be of value for obtaining algebraic expressions for the coordinates of the moon. There are also two papers dealing with librations in planetary systems which open a way to the more extensive treatment of this complex subject. They have received less notice on account of their narrower range of application; they are incorporated with other matter in his “Lecons de Mécanique Céleste.” The recently published volume on cosmogony is of a different nature. It is chiefly a presentation, given originally in a course of lectures, of the works and theories of others, but he does not hesitate to express his own opinions as to their importance in a discussion of the evolution of solar and stellar systems. A pure mathematician might be pardoned for doubting whether the world, as a whole, bene- fited by Poincaré’s appointment to a chair of mathematical physics. The redactions of his early lectures on electricity and optics have to be read with a certain amount of reserve; he is not yet sure of his ground, and is assimilating the ideas of others. It is difficult to conjecture what he might have done if he had been able to follow up his original bent, which was undoubtedly pure analysis; it would certainly have been something very great. On the other hand, he popularised the Maxwellian theory of electricity, and ultimately mastered it, as well as more recent developments, | so that he was able to make contributions to the And even in a bare outline, such as this, of his best theory of electrons and that of diffraction. work, we ought not to pass over his masterly papers on potential and similar subjects, which form the bridge, so to speak, between Neumann and Fredholm. Poincaré did not disdain to write for a popular Sisal et l’Hypothése” has deservedly had a wide circulation, and affords a audience. Science 356 good view of the author’s personality. With all his genius, Poincaré was an orthodox thinker by nature; in the case of non-Euclidean geometry, which he fully appreciated, his criticisms are acute and valuable; sceptical attitude towards Cantor’s theory of transfinite numbers is amusing, his but not altogether surprising, and is perhaps the only instance of his shutting his eyes to a great mathematical discovery. Kelvin’s long opposition to the electromagnetic theory of light is another illustration of the same sort of thing. To give a just estimate of the value of the researches of Henri Poincaré is not possible at the present time, nor is it necessary. The almost immediate recognition they obtained, the increas- ing impression of their fundamental importance, and the numbers of students who have followed and expanded the ideas which he laid down with so sure a hand are the best testimony of their worth. We do not know what further contribu- tions he would have made to mathematical science, had he lived, but we do know that what he achieved gives him a permanent place in the history of the subject. THE) PY SIGS OL REE) WiINIVDR SE. By Prof., W. (Leipzig and Berlin: Lehrbuch der kosmischen Physik. Trabert. Pp. x+662. B. G. Teubner, 1911.) HE primary justification of a treatise on cosmical physics is to be sought in the principle that economy of communication is of the very essence of science. The author of such a book cannot hope to deal so competently with the individual subjects as the experts to whose writings he must have recourse for his own know- ledge, but his work will be a real contribution to the progress of science if he succeeds in imparting unity to his treatment of subjects which have been developed by different workers, each more or less superficial in his knowledge and appreciation of the work of those outside his own branch. Judged from this point of view Prof. Trabert’s book is It has been developed according to a definite and well-ordered scheme. successful. A natural impulse is to compare the book with the masterly treatise with the same title which Arrhenius published ten years ago. The principal difference between the two works is in size and The older book covers 1000 pages, of which about 400 are devoted to meteorology; the new one contains 650 pages, of which only about 100 can be spared for meteorology. Arrhenius starts with the ‘‘ Physik des Himmels,’’ the stars, order. the sun, the planets, and proceeds from that to the NO. 2248, VOL. 90] NATURE [| NOVEMBER 28, 1912 “Physik der Erde,” the form and constitution of the earth and the sea, the tides and the ocean currents. He deals finally with the ‘‘ Physik der Atmosphire,”’ meteorology, atmospheric elec- tricity, and terrestrial magnetism. Trabert begins with an introductory chapter on the fundamental ideas of the physical concept of the universe. He then deals in order with the form of the earth and its place in the universe, the phenomena of motion —the motion of the sun, the stars and the earth, and tidal and earthquake phenomena, the pro- cesses of radiation, with especial reference to the earth’s atmosphere, the exchange and transform- ation of energy, and finally with the development of the universe. Position, motion, energy, result, may be taken to represent briefly the order adopted. A feature of the book is the care with which the historical development of the principal methods and ideas has been treated, and the retrospective chapters at the end of each section are especially interesting. Thus in the first section the deter- mination of the distances of the sun and moon is traced from its earliest beginnings with Aristarchus and Hipparchus, down to the first exact measure- ments by Lacaille and Lalande, and the results of Newcomb and Gill. In the second section the different arguments for the rotation of the earth are set forth, including the observed deflection of the wind towards the right; we may commend to those who are sceptical of the effect of the earth’s rotation upon motion along the surface the account, on p. 129, of the effect produced on the Hamburg-Harburg railway prior to 1877. In the account of seiches which is given in this section, no mention is made of the work of Chrystal and Wedderburn, and in dealing with star-streams no reference is made to Schwarzschild’s hypothesis and the later developments. Such omissions, 1f they stood alone, might be regarded as incidental to the character of the book, but they indicate a lack of appreciation of recent developments which becomes astonishing when one finds no direct re- ference to the most important development of Prof. Trabert’s own subject in recent years, 1.e., the discovery of the stratosphere and its explana- tion, with the concurrent development of our knowledge of atmospheric radiation and dynamical meteorology. Apart from this blemish the book appears to be excellent. The use of mathematical formulz has been avoided as much as possible, but wherever a mathematical demonstration affords the simplest and readiest proof of a result or is necessary for the strict development of the subject, the author has not hesitated to use it; frequently, however, he has given the general outlines of the reasoning in the text, and added the formal proof as a footnote. NOVEMBER 28, 1912] The chief characteristic of the book is the broad view of the subject which the author has taken, and it is no doubt due to his desire to give an unbiassed treatment that he has dealt so sparingly with meteorology. That appears to have been an error of judgment, but the result is preferable to a book overloaded with unnecessary details. E. GOoup. FOODSTUFES. (1) The Chemistry of Breadmaking. By James Grant. Pp. viiit+224. (London: Edward Arneld, 1912.) Price 5s. net. (2) Cocoa and Chocolate: Their Chemistry and Manufacture. By R. Whymper. Pp. xi+ 327. (London: J. and A. Churchill, 1912.) Price 15s. net. {3) Cocoa: Its Cultivation and Preparation. By W. H. Johnson. Pp. ix+186. (Imperial Institute Handbooks.) (London: John Murray, TOD.) Meacice 5s. net. (4) Foods: Their Origin, Composition and Manu- facture. By Dr. William Tibbles. Pp. viti+ g50. (London: Bailliére, Tindall and Cox, 1912.) Price 18s. net. (1) R. GRANT’S preface implies that he set out to write a book suitable for the use of persons actually engaged in bread- | making, who have not had a scientific education and yet are desirous of knowing something about chemistry, physics and mycology in their relation to this industry. The book therefore covers a good deal more ground than is indicated by its title. Mr. Grant, in fact, attempts too much in the space at his disposal. As a result his descrip- tions are often so condensed and so full of un- explained scientific and technical terms as to be difficult reading to the special class of students indicated in his preface, even if they take his advice and study it “in conjunction with some simple text-books on chemistry, physics, mech- anics, and the elements of biology and botany.” To students who have had some training in science or are studying breadmaking under a competent teacher at a trade school, the book will be quite useful, giving, as it does, a concise and trustworthy account of the whole subject. It is to be hoped that students using the book will not acquire Mr, Grant’s habit of assigning unusual meaning’s to well-known words. Such a direction as “dry, desiccate and weigh” is a little puzzling when the word “desiccate”’ is taken in its ordinary sense. (2) Mr. Whymper is a cocoa enthusiast, and the introduction to his book has about it faint suggestions of the mural literature so copiously devoted to this “grateful and refreshing beverage.” NO, 2248, VOL. 90] NALORE | | | requirements of the plant. He divides his subject-matter into three parts, dealing first with the botany and cultivation of the plant and the preparation of the beans, then with the manufacture of cocoa preparations, including | chocolate, and lastly with the chemistry of cocoa. Though nearly everything that Mr. Whymper says in the first of these three parts is sound, this portion of the book, merely on account of its | brevity, is scarcely up to the standard of the other parts. Thus, under preparation there is no refer- ence to the fact that much of the Gold Coast cocoa is marketed in an unfermented condition, nor is it stated that some manufacturers in the United Kingdom prefer “unwashed” cocoa, alieging that it is of better flavour than the washed article. The statement that “claying”’ cocoa provides an additional protection against mould and fungoid growths may be true, but, in view of the fact that this practice easily degenerates into mere “weighting ’ of cocoa, it should have been mentioned that many manufacturers prefer cocoa that has not been “clayed.” Mr. Whymper’s main object, however, is to dis- cuss the manufacture and the chemistry of cocoa, and these sections of the book are very well done. The manufacturing processes are described clearly and concisely, and the changes in composition occurring at each stage of manufacture are care- fully and thoroughly discussed. Analysts who have to deal with cocoa and its products will be grateful for the comprehensive and critical survey of the chemistry of cocoa provided in the third section. The book is well produced and the illus- trations of plantation scenes and of machinery are very good. (3) Most of the books on the cultivation of cocoa that have appeared so far have been written with a bias in favour of the practice of some par- ticular area. Mr. Johnson escapes the temptation to err in this direction for the reason that, although his experience has been acquired chiefly in the Gold Coast, he has also had the opportunity of investigating cocoa cultivation in San Thomé, Ceylon, and the British West Indies, and has thus seen the industry carried on under widely different conditions. In discussing such important matters as the selection of a site and the formation of a plantation, he first states the climatic and soil The planter, using these data as a guide, is thus placed in the position of being able to select or modify methods to suit his local conditions, instead of being asked to | follow blindly some particular practice, which gives | good results elsewhere. The preparation of cocoa for the market, and especially such fundamental matters as fermentation, washing, and “claying,” are very well discussed, not only from the planters’ 358 NATURE. [ NOVEMBER 28, I912 point of view, but also from the more important one of the requirements of different markets. Two chapters are devoted to diseases and pests affect- ing the plant, and the appropriate preventive or remedial treatment for each is indicated. The volume is the second in the series of “Imperial | Institute Handbooks,” prepared with special refer- ence to the requirements of British West Africa. It should prove especially useful in the Gold Coast, where cocoa is now the principal article of export. (4) Dr. Tibbles’s ‘book is divided into five sections. The first deals with the nature, characters, and classification of the constituents of foods, and, though much condensed, serves to give a clear idea of the remarkable complexity of food, when considered in terms of the chemical compounds forming it. The second section covers foodstuffs of animal origin, meat and meat pre- parations, game, fish, cheese, butter, and other materials of this class being considered in turn. The commercial sources of each product, its manu- facture and composition, and the characters which distinguish sound from unsound material are dis- cussed, and notes are added regarding the advan- tages or disadvantages of each product as a food. The third section deals in like manner with foods obtained from plants. In the last two sections spices and condiments and beverages are discussed, the latter including tea, coffee and cocoa, as well as malt liquors and spirits. The chemist who uses this book will find some of the data which especially concern him rather antiquated, and some of the statements so con- densed as to be not strictly accurate. These and other defects of the same kind are, however, relatively unimportant in a book like this, which brings together for the first time a mass of care- fully selected and classified information concern- ing foodstuffs. Dr. Tibbles is to be congratulated both on the courage which led him to undertake this task and the success with which he has achieved it. POPULAR AND ECONOMIC ZOOLOGY. (1) Le Zebre. Studio Zoologico Popolare. Dr. Achille Griffini. trated. 4 lire. (2) La Péche au TECHNICAL, By Pp. xxviii+298; illus- (Milano: Ulrico Hoepli, 1913.) Price Bord de la Jouenne et J.-H. Perreau. J.-B. Bailliére et Fils, 1912.) Price 4 francs. (3) Bees shown to the Children. By Ellison Hawks. Pp. xii+120; illustrated. (London and Edinburgh: T. C. and E. C. Jack.) Price 6d. net. (The “Shown to the Children” Series. ) NO. 2248, VOL. 90] Mer. By -Lucien Rpg tie (anise 2Se | | } | | | { | | (4) A Hand-list of British Birds. With an account of the distribution of each species in the British Isles and abroad. By Ernst Hartert, F. C. R. Jourdain, N. F. Ticehurst and H. F. Witherby- Pp. xii+237. (London: Witherby and Co., 1912.) Price 7s. 6d: net: | (5) Liverpool Marine Biology Committee = L.M.B.C. Memoirs on Typical British Marine Plants and Animals. Edited by Dr. W. A. Herdman, FRiS/ 1. xexe Buccinum (the Whelk.) By Dr. Wm. J. Dakin. Pp. viii+ 115+8 plates. (London: Williams and Nor- gate, 1912.) Price 4s. 6d. (6) Das Tierreich. 31 Lieferung: Ostracoda. By G. W. Miller. Pp. xxxiii+434. (Berlin: R- Friedlander und Sohn, 1912.) Price 32 marks. HOSE interested in zebras and quaggas will find an excellent account of these animals in Dr. Griffini’s little book (1), which is one of ’ | the series of useful manuals edited and issued by Ulrico Hoepli, of Milan. That he has thoroughly grasped the conclusions of the most trustworthy recent authorities is shown by his discussion and rejection of the claim that the existing striped Equide can be logically entitled Hippotigris, by his adoption of the view that four, and only four, species, namely, Equus grevyi, EB. zebra, EB. foar and E, quagga, the latter including as subspecies all the so-called burchelli forms, can be admitted, by his summary of the evidence supporting the cela- tive significance of the coloration, and of the evidence favouring the view that the pale, and not the dark, bands are in reality the “stripes.’” Writing as an expounder rather than as am original researcher, Dr. Griffini is, of course, aware that his classification and synonymy of the locaf races of E. quagga must be regarded as tentative instead of final; but, considering the difficulties of the question, his attempts at its settlement, although not above criticism, do credit to his perspicacity. We have only one serious fault to find with the book. It has no index. In the place where the index should be is a complete list of the author’s contributions to zoology, which show that his time has been mainly devoted to the study of systematic entomology. Perhaps it is to the training thus acquired that is to be attributed his masterly handling of the subject-matter of this volume. Shore-fishing in all its branches, from the find- ing of cockles in the mud, the extraction of congers and crabs from rock-clefts, and the capture of mackerel with spinner or net, to the more refined art of fly-fishing, is fully dealt with in “La Péche au Bord de la Mer” (2), one of the volumes con- stituting the “Bibliotheque des connaissances utiles.” If translated into English, the bool: NOVEMBER 28, 1912] NATURE ae) ought to have a ready sale on this side of the Channel, because the marine and _ estuarine animals it describes and illustrates are those with which all shore collectors and amateur fishermen are familiar. To these the book may be recom- mended without reserve. (3) The gift of writing science for children is much rarer than is usually supposed. If it can be acquired, Mr. Ellison Hawks has much to learn in the use and disuse of words and in the handling of subject matter before he can hope to qualify for a place in the small band of authors endowed with the gift. Apart from this defect and a few of less moment, his book on bees is quite good in its way, and holds all about the structure, habits, and practical keeping of honey-bees that the ordinary layman is likely to want. Not without misgivings on the score of the probable suppression or transference of long- cherished and familiar names did we look through the new “Hand-list of British Birds,” by Messrs. Hartert, Jourdain, Ticehurst and Witherby (4). That our fears were justified in a measure is shown by the appearance of some strange, often uncouth, terms, like borin for hortensis for the garden warbler, by the transference of musicus from the song thrush to the redwing, and by a most dis- concerting shuffling of the names of our owls. The barn owl, for example, so familiar as Strix flammea, is now Tyto alba, its generic name Strix going to the tawny owl and its specific name flammea to the short-eared owl! We are forced to admit, however, that until systematic zoologists agree on the question of exempting certain names from the law of priority, con- scientious compilers of catalogues are compelled to put itin force. On the other hand, we welcome the suppression of many generic names, and re- joice that the blackbird is still a Turdus, that the rook finds a place in Corvus, and that the kestrel, gyrfalcon and merlin are associated with the peregrine under Falco. The volume, which deals with distribution and migration as well as with names, is useful and carefully compiled, and will have to be seriously reckoned with by all writers on British birds, despite the protests to which its nomenclature is sure to give rise. (5) In Mr. Dakin’s memoir on the whelk (Buccinum) zoological students will find an admir- able and well-illustrated treatise on the anatomy of this common gastropod, supplemented by brief accounts of its embryology, distribution and economics. (6) Like all the volumes of “Das Tierreich” which deal with obscure groups, Dr. Miiller’s monograph of the Ostracoda is a colossal piece of work. More than nine hundred species of these NO. 2248, VOL. 90] minute Entomostraca are tabulated and classified. It will give a fresh impulse to the study of the group, but cannot be regarded as final, since some- thing like six hundred named species have to be set aside, through no fault of the author, as dubiae. What a benefit it would be to the study of such orders as this if specialists would abandon for a time the description of new species and seriously address themselves to the task of classifying properly those that have already been described ! Ro IB: OUR BOOKSHELF. Biologische und morphologische Untersuchungen tiber Wasser- und Sumpfgewdchse. By Prof. H. Glick. Dritter Teil:—Die Uferflora. Pp. xxxiv+644+vili plates. (Jena: Gustav Fischer, 1911.) Price 33 marks. Pror. Gitck has produced a portentous volume on the riparian flora, forming the third instalment of his work on water and swamp plants. Frankly, we do not find justification for the 600 or more pages of his book, and we fancy most readers who have been in the habit of using their eyes when observing or collecting plants will find but little to reward them for the trouble of its perusal. There are many examples, often of very moder- ate interest, adduced to illustrate the fact that submerged forms are apt to differ from the terres- trial representatives of a given species. Here and there, however, interesting observations are re- corded, e.g., the very different water and land forms of Veronica Beccabunga. The author claims many new “forms,” e.g., Veronica Beccabunga forma submersa, Gliick. Many of these are already known, though pos- sibly not recorded, nor even dignified with a Latin name. Species undergo fission, as they are apt to do in the hands of those who concentrate attention on variable forms. It is, however, fair to say that many of these rest on the authority of other writers before Gliick, but it would have been of more general interest had the claims to specific or even mutational rank been experimentally settled. No doubt a work of this kind possesses some value, but, as it appears to us, it excellently illus- trates the truth of the saying that the secret of dullness lies in the attempt to write all one knows. Prof. Glick gives the impression (perhaps un- justly) that he has written all he knows about his subject, and certainly he has jotted down a good deal that is already very familiar to others. The Teratology of Fishes. Gemmill. Pp. gow: James Price 15s. net. Dr. GEMMILL’S memoir is mainly a very complete and well-illustrated account of the structure of ‘the major abnormalities, or double, triple, and By Dr. James F. XVii+73+xxvi plates. (Glas- MacLehose and Sons, 1912.) NATURE [NovEMBER 28, 1912 cyclopean monstrosities, in salmon and _ trout. The author tells us that the bony fishes are speci- ally important for the study of teratological varia- tion; oviparity and the abundance of eggs ensure plentiful material at all stages for observation and experiment, and although the major types rarely live after the yolk has been absorbed, at this time nearly all the organs, except the bony skeleton, have attained their adult form and relations. Double monsters, and especially those that are double at the anterior end, are so numerous and variable that they require detailed classification, and in his arrangement Dr. Gemmill differs from his predecessors by taking into consideration the internal structure. In addition to the chapters on the major ab- normalities, which form a valuable original con- tribution to vertebrate teratology, there is one on minor abnormalities, which aims at facilitating the task of the future worker by introducing him to the literature of the subject, and should be very useful for this purpose. Claes Uber die krankhaften Erbanlagen des Mannes. By F. Lenz. Pp. iv+170. (Jena: G. Fischer, 1912.) Price 4.50 marks. THIS is an interesting discussion of the inheritance of hemophilia and other sex-limited conditions in man and animals, and their bearing on the deter- mination of sex. In the case of haemophilia the author believes that an affected man never trans- mits the disease, even through his daughters to his grandsons, and supposes that this is due to non-viability of spermatozoa bearing the factor for the affection. This conclusion is difficult to accept when hemophilia pedigrees are compared with those of other sex-limited affections. He also concludes that the apparent abnormalities of the sex-ratio in affected families, and the excess of affected members over unaffected, are likewise due to incompleteness in the records. In_ his examination of sex-limited inheritance in general the author has read widely, but sometimes mis- understands those whose writings he discusses. His hypothesis of the mode of inheritance and of sex-determination seems to differ more in form than in substance from previously suggested factorial schemes. The work as a whole is one more illustration of the fact that for the solution of the problem further investigation is needed rather than discussion of what is already known. New ‘‘ Contour ’’ Wall Map of the Mediterranean Lands. 40x76 inches. Scale 1: 4,067,712, or 64°2 miles to one inch. (London: G. W. Bacon and Co., Ltd.) Price 16s. Tuis is an effective wall map which will be useful for class purposes. Two editions—with and without Jand names—are available. The map in- cludes all the countries which at any time formed part of the Roman Empire, and both ancient and modern names are given, when these are shown. It is somewhat a disadvantage that the scheme of colouring to show land relief is not that usually adopted, and the blue stippling used to indicate NO. 2248, VOL. 90] areas with less than ten inches of rainfall can be seen only by a person standing near the map. The map is constructed on a secant conical pro- jection, and it may be obtained on cloth, with rollers, and varnished; or on cloth cut to fold. Leather Chemists’ Pocket-Book. A Short Com- pendium of Analytical Methods. Edited by Prof H. R. Procter, assisted by Edmund Stiasny and Harold Brumwell. Pp. xiv+223. (London: E. and F. N. Spon, Ltd., 1912.) Pnicess. net. Tuts handy little volume is intended as an adjunct to the “Leather Industries Laboratory Book,” by Prof. Procter, which was published in 1908. The pocket-book is based upon the manuscript labora- tory sheets, giving the course of analysis essential to the practical student, in use in the authors’ laboratory in the University of Leeds. The book should be particularly useful to students in evening classes studying the science and technology of the leather trades. LETTERS: TOTRHE EDITOR: [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. | Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of Nature. No notice is taken of anonymous communications.| X-rays and Crystals. In his discussion of Dr. Laue’s diagrams Dr. Tutton (NarurE, November 14, p. 309) invites me to consider their physical aspects in the light of the crystallo- graphical details which he supplies. - The rule which I gave in a previous letter to NATURE (October 24, p. 219), and which Dr. Tutton has in mind, is independent of all but the simplest facts of crystallography. It gives a numerical method of finding the positions of the spots on the diagrams, and its effect is merely to show that the positions of the spots give no information concerning the wave-length of the incident radiation. In a paper read recently before the Cambridge Philosophical Society my son has given a theory which makes it possible to calculate the positions of the spots for all dispositions of crystal and photographic plate. It accounts also for the form of the spots and other details, and amongst other things it explains my numerical rule. It is based on the idea that any plane within the crystal which is ‘“‘rich’’ in atoms can be looked on as a reflecting plane; the positions of the spots can then be calculated by the reflection laws in the ordinary way. In this extended treatment the facts of crystallography are of importance, but it would take too long to discuss the matter in a letter. I should like to refer to one other point. Dr. Tutton suggests that the new experiment may possibly dis- tinguish between the wave and the corpuscular theories of the X-rays. This is no doubt true in one sense. If the experiment helps to prove X-rays and light to be of the same nature, then such a theory as that of the “neutral pair’’ is quite inadequate to bear the burden of explaining the facts of all radiation. On the other hand, the properties of X-rays point clearly to a quasi-corpuscular theory, and certain properties of light can be similarly interpreted. The problem NoveEMBER 28, 1912] NATURE 361 then becomes, it seems to me, not to decide between two theories of X-rays, but to find, as I have said elsewhere, one theory which possesses the capacities of both. W. H. Brace. Worked Flints obtained from ‘‘ the 25-foot Raised Beach’’ near Holywood, co. Down. Tue 25-foot raised beach is well marked all round the northern and eastern coast of Ireland, and is also recognisable. on the opposite coast of England and in the Isle of Man. This post-Tertiary beach is contemporaneous with the Upper Estuarine Clays of the Belfast sections,1 and is certainly not later than early Neolithic. At different times worked flints have been obtained from this beach, notably from Larne, co. Antrim, and have been discussed, but no clue to their date or dates has been found. I have lately had the opportunity of carefully examining the section See 5 So 9° Wee ation |. Ircctirm Sentice , oley, Pos fo ES 2. Onlginad Jirrty and fran edly S4i/ /-6" 3 Raised Bench goto tnd Stud 7° 4 bertdn clay Jo S- fod Triassic Snuds7one. (Fig. 1 and 2) near Holywood, co. Down. From a 350-ft. exposure 683 worked flints were obtained. Description. Per cent. Notes. Scrapers Concave 70 | Chipped on non-bulbous Convex 17 - 29°6 face only. 4 Le Moustier Straight 76 type. Knives “ Parrot-beaked™® 21°6 Allwithtang. Worked on £39} non-bulbous face only. Straight 8o | 20 percent. with shoulder (Les Eyzies). Simple 110 20°0 85 per cent. showing cen- flakes tral ridge. Punches, adzes, chisels, celts, cores, borers, microliths, about 4 per cent. each class, No polished specimen was obtained, and all were ot Paleolithic form, generally chipped on one face only. From the surface of the Boulder Clay specimens were obtained which had been subject to rolling before settlement of the land took place. Eight specimens 1 Praeger, Proc. Roy. Irish Acad., vol. iv., 1897. NO. 2248, VOL. 90] showed re-chipping. Three prickers made from the ulna of deer were found. I submit that, considering the evidence of late Palzolithic work in Scotland in a similar horizon, the geological evidence, and the form and working of the flints found in this beach, they should be described as Mesolithic. Henry Home. Bellevue, Holywood, co. Down. Note on the Upper Partials of a Tuning-fork. It is well known that a smoked dropping plate can be used to find the pitch of a fork if the value of g is known, and the method is described in most of the text-books on sound. But so far as the writer is aware no attention has been directed to the fact that the existence of some of the upper partials can also be demonstrated with it and their frequency obtained. The method is simpler and more convincing to a student than the method of using resonators. DGRAGa Ce trae ee ee { j ae | See eae = Le Eg eee Oe ae L As an example the traces of the fundamental and the first two upper partials are shown in the diagram, which is a copy of the photograph of the traces on the dropping plate. The fundamental frequency of the fork used was 29'5, and the frequency of the first two upper partials should be (see Barton, ‘ Text-book of Sound,” §211) 185 and 518, while the numbers ob- tained from a single observation were 184 and 512 respectively. No attempt was made to obtain other partials, but doubtless the next two could have beer obtained. F. H. Parker. Woolwich Polytechnic, November 9. The March of Science. In a school text-book, published in 1846 at Phil- adelphia, from which I was instructed in 1848—it was a geography, but contained five lessons in astronomy—is the following information about the sun :— ‘In former times, it was supposed that the sun was a great ball of fire. Many learned men, however, | are of opinion that it is a world like our own, con- taining continents, oceans, mountains, and plains. “Tt is supposed that the rays of light which illu. mine the Solar System, proceed from an atmosphere, or air, of a peculiar nature, that surrounds the sun. The rays of the sun are called solar rays. ‘“When mingled with the atmosphere on the surface of the globe, it is thought that these rays produce | the warmth and animation which render the earth | habitable. ‘This appears probable, from the fact that the sum- mits of high mountains are always covered with ice and snow, while at their base, and in the valleys. the heat is oppressive. If heat proceeded from the sun, as from a body of fire, the higher we ascend from the surface of the earth, the greater the heat would become.” As I was only seven years old at the time I studied the book, the information did me no harm. E. S. Brookline, Mass., U.S., November 9. NATURE [NovEMBER 28, 1912 262 FOREST CULTIVATION IN GROPIGAT REGIONS. HE author of this book has done well to restrict it to the sylviculture of tropical forests instead of attempting the wide subject of Fic. 1.—Arid zone deciduous forest in the Sudan; Acacia Verek trees. From ‘‘ Sylviculture in the Tropics.” forestry, of which, however, sylviculture is the most important branch. His definition of sylvi- culture is ‘the art of applying the knowledge of the requirements of different trees, in tending and regenerating existing woods, or in rearing fresh woodland crops and in working them to the best advantage of the forest owner,” so that it is the cultivation of forest crops in distinction to arbori- culture, which is the cultivation of individual trees. The personal experience which has fitted Mr. Broun to write about tropical sylviculture has been gained only in India, Ceylon and the Sudan, the countries in which he has served as a Government forest officer, and this has to be remembered, because the kinds of forest of which he treats are only to be found in those countries. In his preface, however, he expresses the hope that what he has written may not be found to disagree with the experience in other tropical regions. It might perhaps have been better to have called his book “Tropical Sylviculture in India, Ceylon and the Sudan,” and so to have avoided the more general but somewhat misleading name actually adopted. The chapter on soil is a general one, but that on climate applies strictly to the belt of the earth’s surface contained between the two tropics. In this belt the zones of forest vegetation naturally differ according to the greater or less dampness, so that the five of which he treats vary from the desert zone,’’ where the average annual rainfall is under 4 in., to the “wet zone,” where it is above 75 inches. The Sudan forests, a good idea of some of which is given by the picture here repro- duced, come chiefly into the arid zone (rainfall 4-16 in.), while those of India and Ceylon are “é Broun. Pp. xviii+-309. Price 8s. 6d. net. 1 “Sylyiculture in the Tropics." By A. F London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1912 ) NO. 2248, VOL. 90] distributed in all the zones, the most important one for valuable forests being the ‘‘ moist zone ’ (40-75 in.), illustrated at p. 23 by a picture of a Ceylon Mimusops forest. It is a pity that there is no picture of a forest of the Indian teak. Perhaps the most interesting chap- ter in the book, at any rate for the forester, is chapter viii, which treats. of natural regeneration, and describes the reproduction of forest by natural means as distinct from artificial. Works of planting and sowing are, it is true, very fully described, but in the vast areas which have to be treated in most tropical regions it must be on natural reproduction chiefly that a forester has to depend to ensure continuance of forest growth and continued improvement instead of deterioration. Mr. Broun describes how most tropical forests which have been taken under scientific manage- ment have previously suffered during centuries of ill-usage, so that every effort has to be made to restore them to what is called a “normal” con- Fic. 2.—Moist zone evergreen forest in Ceylon; (/inusops hexandra in foreground. From ‘‘ Sylviculture in the Trop.cs.” dition, fit for regular systematic working tending to the production of a permanent and regular annual yield. NovEMBER 28, 1912| NATURE 363 The question of works for the protection of forest from fire naturally has to be carefully gone into, and Mr. Broun’s chapter on this subject is interesting and instructive, as also is the last chapter, in which the measures necessary for the fixation of unstable soils, whether of blown sand or of precipitous slopes, are described. The book is illustrated by excellent wood-cuts, as well as by photographic reproductions of forest scenes, and these have chiefly come from Ceylon, representing a more or less wet country, or the Sudan, representing a dry one. We should have liked to see more reference to Indian experience and practice, for although no doubt the efforts of experienced foresters like Mr. Broun have done a great deal for Ceylon and the Sudan, the far greater and longer-continued work in India must now be certainly placed in the forefront of tropical forest experience. The book is very well printed, illustrated and bound, though rather too heavy for a forester’s wallet; and it contains a large amount of valuable and most interesting information which should make it a useful guide to foresters, especially in those countries which are chiefly referred to. DR. RAMSAY H. TRAQUAIR, F.R.S. \ JE regret to record the death of Dr. R. H. Traquair, F.R.S., of Edinburgh, which occurred early in the morning of November 22 after a long period of failing health. Born at Rhynd, Perthshire, on July 30, 1840, Dr. Traquair received his early education in Edinburgh, and at the age of seventeen became a student of medicine in the University of that city. In 1862 he gradu- ated as M.D., and was awarded a gold medal for his thesis on the asymmetry of the flat-fishes, which was published four years later in the Trans- actions of the Linnean Society. He had studied medicine, not with a view to medical practice, but merely because this course seemed most likely to afford him an opportunity of gratifying an early ambition to devote his life to biological science, which had attracted him since childhood. After obtaining his degree, Dr. Traquair accord- ingly remained at the University as prosector to Prof. Goodsir, and from 1863 to 1866 he was demonstrator of anatomy. After serving for a few months as professor of natural history in the Royal’ Agricultural College, Cirencester, he removed to Dublin in 1867 as professor of zoology in the newly founded Royal College of Science. Finally, in 1873, he was appointed keeper of the natural history collections in the Museum of Science and Art (now the Royal Scottish Museum) in Edin- burgh, where he remained until his retirement in 1906. Though interested from the first in all branches of natural history, Dr. Traquair soon began to devote most of his energy to the study of fossil fishes, which became the absorbing pursuit of his long and active life. While still a boy he had found part of a Palzoniscid fish in an ironstone nodule on the beach at Wardie, near Edinburgh, NO. 2248, VOL. 90] and the impossibility of interpreting what he saw, even with the aid of the standard works of the time, led him to begin the long series of researches which have revolutionised our knowledge of Paleozoic fishes and thrown light on some of the most fundamental problems of ichthyology. Beginning in this manner with material which he had himself collected, Dr. Traquair worked out in detail the osteology of several Carboniferous fishes, and with these he compared the imperfectly known fishes from the Scottish Old Red Sandstone. The first important result of these researches was reached in 1877, when he published the pre- liminary part of his “Monograph on the Ganoid Fishes of the British Carboniferous Formations ” in the Paleontographical Society’s volume for that year. He showed that the Palzoniscide and Platysomide, which had until then been compared with the existing Lepidosteus, were really primitive Chondrostean fishes closely related to the modern sturgeons. He thus proved that the nature of the scaly covering of fishes was of little importance in classification compared with that assigned to it by Agassiz; and he was the first to point out the more fundamental characters of the internal skele- ton which have subsequently been recognised as unfailing guides to a natural classification. In short, he made it possible to distinguish between the phenomena of parallelism or convergence, and the marks of natural affinity in the early fishes. While studying the Paleoniscide, Dr. Traquair also devoted much attention to the Crossopterygian and Dipnoan fishes, and published many exact descriptions of their osteology. He showed that the Devonian Dipterus and Phaneropleuron were closely related to the existing Ceratodus, while his interpretations of Crossopterygian skulls now prove increasingly important for comparison with the newly discovered skulls of the early Labyrintho- donts. In his later years, Dr. Traquair made another important contribution to our knowledge of fishes by his numerous descriptions of the Upper Silurian Ostracodermi discovered by the Geological Survey in southern Scotland. He demonstrated that the armour-plates of such genera as Pteraspis and Cephalaspis are formed by the fusion of simple granules of shagreen with each other and with hard tissue developed in a deeper layer of the skin. He thus proved the truth of the theory of the origin of the vertebrate exoskeleton, which had already been formulated from the study of comparative morphology. Apart from the successive instalments of his palzontographical monograph, Dr. Traquair’s last work was his memoir on the Wealden fishes of Bernissart, Belgium, published in to11 by the Royal Museum of Natural History, Brussels. This was to him a new subject, and involved much labour for several years, but it was eventually pro- duced with his usual thoroughness, and will long remain a standard work of reference. Dr. Traquair was an artist as well as a natural- ist, and he made a large proportion of the beauti- tul drawings which illustrate his published works. NATURE ‘ [NovEMBER 28, 1912 3°4 His numerous restored figures of the fishes he described are especially important, combining artistic style with the most minute accuracy, and left incomplete wherever there is the least doubt as to structure. Both in writing and in drawing, indeed, he always aimed at such precision that his publications were often delayed for a long period by hesitation, and his correspondents were accus- tomed to regard his dilatory methods with im- patience. Even so unique a fossil as the Lower Devonian Palzeospondylus was in his possession upwards of ten years before he ventured upon its description, and he only published an account of it when specimens seemed likely to fall into less competent hands. Dr. Traquair was, in fact, a genuine student, anxious only to make sure of the truth, and a large circle of friends will mourn the loss of one whose kindly spirit endeared him to all who came in close contact with him. Dr. Traquair was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1881, and received the honorary degree of LL.D. from the University of Edinburgh in 1893. He was awarded the MacDougall-Brisbane medal of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and also the Lyell medal of the Geological Society of Lon- don, in 1901, and a Royal medal of the Royal Society of London in 1907. A list of his writings and an excellent portrait of him accompany a biographical notice published in The Geological Magazine for June, 1909. fe Ss AWS VE SLR BY V [LLAM FORSELL KIRBY, whose death on November 20 we regret to announce, was the eldest of the five sons of Samuel Kirby, banker, of High Street, Leicester. He was born at Leicester, January 14, 1844. When a boy of seven Kirby was taken to London, and saw the British Museum and Gould’s collection of humming birds, and, while still very young, when the family moved to a house two or three miles from Leicester, his mother suggested that he should collect butterflies, and thus aroused his first interest in entomology. Kirby was privately educated by tutors. He always believed that exclusion from the life and experiences of a public school was a permanent disadvantage to him. Samuel Kirby died in 1854, and the family moved to Burgess Hill and to Brighton (1857-60). Kirby, although still quite a boy, joined the Brigh- ton and Sussex Natural History Society, and began to publish notes in The Entomologist’s Weekly Intelligencer. He went to London in 1860, joined the Entomological Society in 1861, and soon became acquainted with all its leading members—with Westwood, Hewitson, Stainton, Knaggs, and Perceval Wright. In 1866 he married Johanna Maria Kappel, daughter of J. W. Kappel, of Hilden, near Diisseldorf. Kirby interested herself in all her husband’s work, helping him in every possible way, and her death in 1903 darkened the last years of his life. From 1867 to 1879 Kirby was an assistant in | NO. 2248, VOL. 90] Their only child, now | W. Egmont Kirby, M.D., was born in 1867. Mrs. | the museum of the Royal Dublin Society, after- wards the National Museum of Science and Art. On the death of Frederick Smith, in 1879, he moved to London, and entered the zoological de- | partment of the British Museum. It is impossible on the present occasion to do ' more than allude to the series of volumes by which | G:C:V.0: W. F. Kirby helped to stimulate and spread an interest in natural history. Among the numerous works which he wrote for the student of insect systematics special mention must be made of the “Synonymic Catalogue of Diurnal Lepidoptera ” (1871). Few books have done more for their sub- ject than this careful and accurate work, which was suggested to the author by the sight of H. W. Bates’s MS. lists. Between 1869 and 1884 Kirby wrote the reports on Lepidoptera, and later on the greater part of the insects for the ‘“‘ Zoological Record ”—a work for which he was specially qualified by his wide knowledge of languages. Kirby’s publications also deal with Scandinavian and Finnish folklore, a subject which deeply interested him. He was for a time one of the hon. secretaries of the Entomo- logical Society, and was honoured by foreign scien- tific societies. He was ever ready to put his great | knowledge at the disposal of other workers. E. BB: NOTES. THE anniversary meeting of the Royal Society for the election of council and officers will be held on Saturday next, November 30, at 4 o’clock p.m. There will be no meeting of the society to-day. Fut particulars of the meeting, held at the Man- sion House on October 23 last, to consider the whole question of the nronosed memorial to Lord Lister were given in an article in the issue of Nature for October 31 (vol. xc., p. 254). The meeting unanimously decided that the most suitable form of memorial would be :— (x) A tablet with medallion and inscription in West- minster Abbey; (2) the erection of a monument in a public place in London; (3) the establishment of an International Lister Memorial Fund for the advance- ment of surgery, from which either grants in aid of researches bearing on surgery, or awards in recogni- tion of distinguished contributions to surgical science, should be made, irrespective of nationality. To carry out these proposals a large sum of money will be required, and the executive committee is appealing for donations to all persons who wish to pay a tribute to the memory of a great man of science and a great surgeon. Before the issue of this appeal subscriptions had been received amounting to something like 27o00l., and we notice that the first list of donations includes 5ool. each from Lord Iveagh and Mr. W. F. D. Smith, 250l. from Mr. Otto Beit, 100 guineas each from Lord Northcliffe and Sir James Whitehead, Bart., and tool. each from the Duke of Bedford, K.G., Sir Ernest Cassell, G.C.B., Sir W. Watson Cheyne, - Bart., F.R.S., and Lord Rothschild, It is proposed to form committees in the provinces, in the dependencies of the Empire, and in NoveMBER 28, 1912] NATURE 305 foreign countries, to take such steps as are necessary in order to coordinate the collection of subscriptions. Donations may be sent to the ‘‘Treasurers of the Lister Memorial Fund, Royal Society, Burlington House, W.’’ Cheques should be made payable to “The Lister Memorial Fund,’’ and crossed * Bank of England, Western Branch.” Reporrs of an earth-shoclk at Sunninghill, Ascot, and other places at about 9 a.m. on November 19 were published in several London daily papers last week. In reply to an inquiry as to whether the alleged shock had been recorded at Kew, Dr. C. Chree, F.R.S., superintendent of the Kew Observatory, writes :-— “The Kew seismic and magnetic records have been examined with the view of seeing whether there were any indications of seismic move- ments which could be associated with tremors and sounds recently reported from other parts of the London basin. There were, especially on November 1g—though not at 9 a.m.—several tiny movements of the type which Prof. Milne now accepts as seismic provided they occur simultaneously at two or more stations. But the only movement that would natur- ally be accepted as seismic without such confirmation is one on the afternoon of November 19. Its begin- ning and end are open to considerable uncertainty owing to the presence of movements which may or may not be seismic. The movements shown extend from th. 57m. to 3h. 46m. p.m., with short inter- ludes. The undoubtedly seismic movements extend from about 2h. 4gom. to 3h. om. p.m. There are two maxima of movement, the larger ro mm. (0'55”) about 2h. 44m:, the smaller o- mm. about 2h. 56m. Owing to the long natural period of oscillation of the seismograph boom, the instrument is scarcely designed to show local short- period tremors of very small amplitude.” CaBLEGRAMS received last week from Kingston, Jamaica, tell of a hurricane that had been experienced in that island which caused serious damage in the western part of it. The storm began on November 15 and continued with increasing fury for several days. The following telegram, received from the Governor of Jamaica, was read in the House of Commons on November 25 :—‘‘ Parishes of St. James’s, Hanover, and Westmoreland suffered from two periods hurricane intensity Sunday, 17, and Monday, 18; all bananas in these parishes totally destroyed, bread-fruit, coconuts, and ground provisions seriously damaged, and native food supply crippled. Conditions of a similar kind to that of eastern parishes after 1903. Hurricane flooded gullies, destroyed houses recklessly placed in them; loss of life ‘Montego Bay about 40; about 15 reported elsewhere; other casualties not extensive; canefields Westmoreland harried by wind, but will recover to a large extent for crop; some in St. James’s damaged by flood débris; some sugar works destroyed, new factories stood well; as usual, destruction of flimsy and decayed tenements Savanna-la-Mar, Lucea, and country.” The storm, doubless, was of the revolving type, and the centre probably passed considerably to the south and west of Jamaica. West India hurricanes are very rare in November, authentic records of such NO. 2248, VOL. 90] occurrences numbering fewer than a score in this month during the last 300 years. October and November storms keen. as a-rule, well over to the western side of the ocean throughout their track, from their first appearance between the sixtieth and cightieth meri- dians of west longitude, until they disappear, while proceeding north-eastward between Newfoundland and the eightieth meridians. Ir is announced that Mr. Austen Chamberlain has received 48,0001. towards the 100,000l. which he is raising for the London School of Tropical Medicine. Tue Ricur Hon. Eart Forrescur has consented to accept the office of president of the twenty-eighth congress of the Royal Sanitary Institute, to be held at Exeter on July 7-12, 1913. A LecTurRE, entitled ‘‘ Birdland through the Bioscope, | in Colour,” will be delivered by Mr. Oliver G. Pile in the new building of the Young Men’s Christian Asso- ciation, Tottenham Court Road, W.C., on Wednesday, December 4, at 8 p.m. We learn from The Chemist and Druggist that Prof. P. Sabatier, professor of chemistry at the Toulouse faculty of sciences, has decided to give his portion of the Nobel prize to the Toulouse Institute of Chemistry for the purpose of defraying the cost of new buildings for the institute. WE are requested to state that a biography of the late Victoria Lady Welby is in course of preparation. If is hoped that her friends and correspondents may be willing to assist by placing such letters as they may possess at the disposal of her family The greatest care will be taken of the letters, and they will be returned to their respective owners intact at the earliest possible date. The letters should be sent to Sir Charles Welby, Bart., C.B., Denton Manor, Grantham. Tue death is announced by Reuter’s Paris corre- spondent of M. Charles Bourseul, one of the eariiest workers in telephony, at eighty-three years of age. M. Bourseul’s suggestions» for the electrical trans- mission of speech were acknowledged by Dr. Graham Bell and Mr. Edison more than thirty years ago, and the following extract from Prof. Cajori’s ‘‘ History of Physics”? describes them :—‘‘ The earliest record of a theoretical telephone was contained in Du Moncel’s ‘Exposé des Applications,’ Paris, 1854, when Charles Bourseul, a French telegraphist, conceived a plan of transmitting speech by electricity.. The author says, “Suppose a man speaks near a movable disc suffi- ciently flexible to lose none of the vibrations of the voice; that this dise alternately makes and breaks the current from a battery, you may have at a distance another disc which will simultaneously execute the same vibrations.’ Bourseul did not work out his ideas to a practical end.” ACCORDING to an announcement in a recent number of the Zeitschrift fiir Beleuchtungswesen, an illu- minating engineering society has now been formed in Germany. There are therefore now three such societies in existence, the society in the United States (formed in 1906), the society in London (formed in 360 NATURE [NovEMBER 28, 1912 1909), and the German society, formed this year, the constitution of which will doubtless be modelled on those of the other existing bodies. For some time there has been a need for a body capable of dealing authoritatively with illumination, photometry, standards of light, &c., in Germany, and the Reichs- anstalt has been entrusted with the formation of the new society. A provisional committee has been formed, Prof. Warburg and Dr. E. Liebenthal being respectively chairman and secretary, and Herr Dett- mar, representing the Verband deutscher Elektro- techniker, and Dr. Bunte, representing the Verein von Gas- und Wasserfachmanner, are also giving their assistance. The first ordinary meeting is to be held next February, when it is expected that Prof. Otto Lummer will deliver an address. EnciisH students of megalithic monuments in Cornwall will be interested in an article contributed to the Bulletins et Mémoires de la Société d’Anthro- pologie de Paris (vi. series, Nos. 1-2, 1912) by MM. Edouard and Paul Jeanselme under the title of ‘“Inventaire descriptif et Mensurations des Principaux Monuments Mégalithiques de la Cornouailles,’’ in which we have a series of careful measurements, descriptions, and drawings of rude stone monuments like the Logan Stone, the Cromlech of Zennor, the Lanyon and Mulfra Quoits, the Nine Maidens, and the Nineteen Merry Maidens, with other remains of the same kind in the Cornish peninsula. The writers remark that while these monuments are now care- fully protected from destruction, atmospheric erosion is still carrying on the work of disintegration. Tue Bulletins et Mémoires de la Société d’Anthro- pologie de Paris (vi. series, Nos. 1-2) for 1912 are largely devoted to the question of steatopygy among the races of the Mediterranean area in ancient and modern times. As is well known, broad-hipped figures of this type have been discovered in France dating from the Magdalenian, Solutrian, and pos- sibly from the Mousterian periods. A description of prehistoric images of the obese class is here given by Dr. Félix Regnault; and Dr. Atgier describes similar examples in modern times from south and south-east Africa and among existing Parisian women. Dr. Regnault discusses the differences between this type and the well-known Bushman or “ Hottentot Venus.”’ The question is of considerable importance to anthropologists, as it may imply a connection be- tween the races of South Africa and those of the AE gean. In The American Museum Journal for October Mr. V. Stefansson makes a powerful appeal for the pro- tection of the new Eskimo tribes from pauperisation by a system of quarantine which will limit the en- trance of conditions of civilisation into the territory occupied by them. He gives a melancholy account of the ravages of measles and other diseases introduced by sailors visiting their coast. The introduction of permanent houses in lieu of snow huts and tents has led to the growth of tuberculosis among them. Foreign dress has exercised a similar effect, and begging has increased under a system of ill-regulated NO. 2248, VOL. 90] doles. In the same issue of the journal Mr. Clark Wissler attempts to give a tentative summary of Mr. Stefansson’s recent discoveries, and of the possibilities of the introduction of European blood among the Eskimo. Tue sixth annual report, by Dr. Houston, on the results of the chemical and bacteriological examina- tion of the London waters for the twelve months ended March 31, 1912, has recently been issued. It contains full details of the analyses made, and Dr. Houston expresses the reassuring opinion that seven years’ work on the London water question has con- vinced him that to a progressively increasing extent the Water Board is securing the reasonable “safety "’ of the metropolitan water supply. Tue Education Committee of the Agricultural Department of the County Council for the County Palatine of Lancaster has issued a report on milk tests and records carried out during 1o1r (Farmers’ Bulletin No. 23). It strongly urges all owners of milking herds to weigh and test the milk and keep accurate records, so that unsatisfactory animals may be weeded out and the general standard of the herds raised. All that is necessary is a balance with bucket, which need not cost more than 30s., and the weighing need not be done more than one day per fortnight. In the twenty-first report of the Board of Health on leprosy in New South-Wales for the year 1911, Dr. Ashburton Thompson summarises the cases of the year, and also gives a return of the number of persons who have been found suffering from the disease in this colony since 1883. Details of recent cases are given, and in emphasising the remarkable improvement which may talse place in cases of leprosy without any special treatment whatever, he remarks : “T have so often seen similar improvement in similar circumstances that I am tempted to say that it is often enough to look steadily at a person who is suffering from leprosy to bring about some improve- ment, and often a marked improvement, in his general state, and even in some of the stigmata of his disease.” A review of recent research into the causal organism of the disease is included in the report. In The American Naturalist for November Mr. A. L. Hagedoorn points out the essential difference in the nature of the colouring of tricoloured dogs and tricoloured guinea-pigs and cats. The former are never irregularly blotched with black and yellow after the fashion obtaining in the two latter, but are essentially either black and tan, or sable blotched with white. Some tricoloured dogs, such as fox- terriers, are black and tan blotched with white; others, like most hounds, sable; while yet others, such as collies, may be either black and tan or sable blotched with white. A dog with a yellow blotch on the back and a yellow foot appears unknown. It is not easy to understand in what sense the author employs the term “ sable.” Tue Seismological Society of America is doing use- ful work in encouraging the detailed study of the NovEMBER 28, 1912] NATURE 367 principal earthauake regions of the continent. The last number of the Bulletin (vol. ii., No. 3) contains the first of a series of papers on the earthquakes of Haiti. In this, Mr. J. Scherer examines the distribu- tion of the great shocks which have occurred since the discovery of the island. He finds that their central areas oscillate along three great depressed zones, the more important being the northern depres- sion from the Bay of Samana past Cap Haitien, and the southern depression passing in a parallel direction close to Port au Prince and connecting the deep ocean basin to the south of San Domingo with the well- known Bartlett Deep. Though these two zones are separated by not more than eighty miles, it is remark- able that an earthquake of the northern zone, which ruins towns so completely that they have to be re- built on other sites, may pass almost unfelt along the southern band. THE important problem of seasonal forecasts is being attacked from various points of view. Dr. Waller has applied the method of correlation in deal- ing with the Indian monsoon; Hildebrandsson has discussed the influence of the ‘‘centres of action’’; Dr. Lockyer has considered the barometric see-saw in the southern hemisphere. In a paper published in 1909 Dr. Arctowski discussed the sequence of the variations of mean temperature and the changes from year to year in the positions of relatively warm and cold areas, and reached several interesting conclusions. He now discusses in the Prac Matematyczno- Fizycznych, tome xxi., the corresponding changes in atmospheric pressure in the United States. The re- sults which he obtains do not appear to be definite enough to be suitable for practical application, although he states that the variations of pressure from the normal can be calculated several months in advance. The charts, on which his conclusions are based, are given for the years 1888, 1889, 1890, 1907, and 1908 only, and do not appear to furnish sufficient evidence either for or against his contention. He gives also a table showing that the departures from normal of pressure in North America are opposite to those in Iceland, but as the values are given for only thirteen selected years during the period 1876-1900, the table can scarcely be taken as proof of his statement that the see-saw is “incontestablement plus caractéristique ” than that found by Lockyer for Cordoba and Bombay. In order to determine the quantity of manganese, phosphorus, silicon, or sulphur in iron or steel, a certain precipitate is formed, and the weight of this multiplied by a certain factor in each case will give the percentage, if 1 gramme of metal is used for the analysis. A simple table then, in which the weight of precipitate is the argument, is all that is needed to enable the analyst to read the result, and this, it would be thought, any analyst would prepare for him- self if he had much work of the kind to do. In order to help him, however, Messrs. E. B. Atkinson and Co., of Hull, have provided an instrument like a large wall aneroid, with a radial index which can be turned round, and behind this are arranged the figures of the table. The range is limited to precipitates ranging in weight from to to 49 milligrammes by NO. 2248, VOL. 90] units. Taking, for instance, a precipitate of Mn,O, weighing 0039 (gramme?), he will find that the manganese is present in the proportion of 2°S09 per cent. It is true these figures are printed very small and upside down, but they are there, and they are embellished with a bevelled edge plate glass front and a g-inch back of wood stained red, and a spun brass rim. The instrument is called the Ebur calculator. A PAPER On experimental investigations of the main- tenance of vibrations, by C. V. Raman, has just been published as Bulletin No. 6 of the Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science. This account of original work is divided into six sections. Of these the first deals with a new form of Melde’s experiment, in which, by placing the prongs of the fork inclined to the string, the vibrations characteristic of the trans- verse and longitudinal forms of the experiment are simultaneously maintained. The two vibrations were also produced at right angles to each other, and so: yielded the Lissajou’s figures for the octave. The second section is on small motions at the nodes of a vibrating string observed stroboscopically. The third section treats the amplitude and phase of oscillations maintained by forces of double frequency. Records of the motions are obtained by a beam of light falling on the string and then reflected in turn by (1) a fixed mirror, and (2) a mirror fixed on the prong of the tuning-fork. The fourth section deals with vibration. curves maintained by a variable spring. This is shown to occur for the longitudinal form of Melde’s experi- ment, when the period of the force is 3n times that of the string, where nm is any integer. The fifth section is on the maintenance of compound vibrations by a simple harmonic force. The possibility of this follows from the previous section, and its experi- mental realisation is here described. The sixth section deals with transitional modes of vibration under variable spring. The bulletin contains twelve illus- trative plates, representing in all thirty-seven photo- graphic reproductions of the curves obtained and of the disposition of the apparatus employed. The whole forms a welcome addition to our knowledge of such vibrations and their special maintenance. SoME remarks on the subject of photography by artificial light were contributed by Mr. J. S. Dow at the meeting of the Illuminating Engineering Society on November 19. A number of photographs of light- ing installations, some including figures of people, were exhibited, and it was explained that a photo- metric judgment of the ‘‘surface-brightness” of objects in the field of view proved a useful method of estimating the exposure. A good photograph should show both the objects in the room and the sources of light without halation, and this demands very careful exposure and development. Allusion was made to the difficulties of taking ‘‘snap-shots”’ by artificial light. This seems just possible by the light of such illu- minants as the Moore tube, but is at present scarcely feasible in the case of most installations using in- candescent electric lamps. The introduction of a very much faster plate may, however, enable even this to be done. 368 NATORE [NovEMBER 28, 1912 Tue Noyember issue of The Journal of Physical Chemistry contains papers by Mr. F. F. Fitzgerald on the electrical conductance of solutions in methylamine and ethylamine and on the fluidity of ammania, methy]- amine, and sulphur dioxide, and the fluidity of certain solutions in these solvents. The former paper is re- markable for a series of curves of molecular conduct- ance of potassium iodide and silver nitrate in methyl- amine, in which a maximum is reached in concen- trated solutions, in addition to the usual maximum at infinite dilution; in the cases now recorded the two maxima are separated by a very strongly developed minimum, which is most pronounced at the higher temperatures. In ethylamine, a weaker ionising sol- vent, the maxima in concentrated solutions are equally pronounced, but the dilutions studied were not suffi- cient to reach the minimum, and the final maximum representing complete ionisation was quite inaccessible. These phenomena, which have been noted in several instances by Franklin and others, and probably depend on the autolytic conductivity of the salt in the more concentrated solutions, are of considerable importance in studying the theory of electrolytic conductivity. A copy has reached us of the current number of Merck’s ‘‘Annual Report’? upon recent advances in pharmaceutical chemistry and therapeutics. As former readers of the report will know, it emanates from the well-known Darmstadt chemical works, and aims at giving in an impartial manner new informa- tion likely to be of use to medical men and pharma- cists. Only those drugs are discussed which have been introduced into therapeutics as a result of scien- tific research; ‘‘secret remedies’’ and_ scientifically questionable preparations are excluded so far as pos- sible. The special articles upon groups of drugs, which are a feature of the work, are this year devoted to the glycerophosphates and to the digitalis glucosides and allied drugs. The first article is a good summary of our present knowledge of the salts of glycero- phosphoric acid and their medical applications. In the second, the history, chemistry, and pharmacology of the complicated digitalin group are treated at con- siderable length, the article running to a hundred pages, and including what appears to be an exhaustive bibliography of the subject. Of the general sections, those on the cacodylates, salvarsan, sera and antigens, the hypnotic action of adalin, bromural, and veronal, and on the use of sterilised kaolin in the treatment of dysentery and cholera, are specially worthy of note. The report is quite up to the standard of former issues, and as a record of new therapeutic prepara- tions and of new uses for drugs already lnown, will be found very useful. 22 Prof. A. H. Gib- In Engineering for November gives a brief sum- son, of University College, Dundee, mary of the results of experimental work on the resist- ance to the flow of air through pipes. From experi- ments made by Dr. J. H. Grindley and himself, it annears that any formula of the usual form— 2¢m only applies if the coefficient f is varied, not only with 2248, VOL. 90| the physical condition of the interior surface of the pipe, but with its diameter, with the mean velocity of flow, with the mean pressure, and with the tempera- ture of the air. Prof. Gibson proposes a new formula which he has tested against a large number of results by different experimenters. The practical form of the formula for cast- or wrought-iron pipes laid under normal conditions as regards jointing, &c., and for air at a temperature of about 65° F., is— joe -1yn] 000000125 z ] GEunee b. per sq. in. dp= Here d and / are the pipe diameter and length re- spectively in feet, p is the mean absolute pressure of the air in the pipe in Ib. per sq. in., and v is the velocity in feet per second; n has values as fol- lows :— Diameter, inches 8 5 7 9 12 n 1783) 1:8t 79 1:78) Stee The fotmula gives the drop in pressure with a high degree of accuracy. It may be rendered applicable to other temperatures by introduction of a coefficient K, the value of which depends on the values of n and of the temperature; a table of values of K is given from which it appears that at 32° F. K is o'980 when n is 128, and is 1052 when m is 185. At 180° F. K is ro6r when n is 1°28, and is 0'865 when n is r85. K is unity for all values of n at 65° F. OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. ASTRONOMICAL OCCURRENCES FOR DECEMBER :— Dec, 2. 18h. 55m. Mercury in conjunction with Jupiter (Mercury 0° 35/ S.). 7. toh. 12m. Mars in conjunction with the Moon (Mars 4° 2’ N.). 8. zh. 7m. Mercury in conjunction with the Moon (Mercury 6° 11’ N.). »» Ith. om. Mercury in inferior conjunction with the Sun. », 20h. 55m. Jupiter in conjunction with the Moon (Jupiter 5° 7’ N.). 11. 14h. 46m. Venus in conjunction with the Moon (Venus 2° 42’ N.). », 18h. 17m. Uranus in conjunction with the Moon (Uranus 4° 15' N.). 13. 3h. 38m. Venus in conjunction with Uranus (Venus 1° 36’ S.). 18. Sh. om. Jupiter in conjunction with the Sun. 5, 9h. om. Mercury stationary. 21. toh. 29m. Saturn in conjunction with the Moon (Saturn 6° 12’ S.). » 16h. 45m. Sun enters Sign of Capricornus. Winter commences. 25. 4h. 24m. Neptune in conjunction with the Moon (Neptune 5° 25’ S.). 27. 2th. om. Mercury at greatest elongation W. of the Sun. 31. 14h. om. Earth nearest the Sun. Tue Sorar Motion ReLatIvELY TO THE INTER- STELLAR ABSORBING Meprum.—In Monthly Notices, No. 9, vol. Ixxii., Prof. W. H. Pickering has a note suggesting that the interstellar light-absor bing medium may consist of material, gaseous molecules, rather than being simply the ether, and should demonstrate NOVEMBER 28, 1912] NATURE 369 any existing drift of the zther relatively to the sun. The existence of such molecules in space may be accounted for by their continual expulsion from the sun and stars, and it is obvious that, if the ether is at all capable of offering any resistance to the passage of such materials, the molecules would even- tually take up the motion of the zther relative to the sun. Then to determine the motion of the resisting medium would be, in any case, to determine the rela- tive motion of the ather. Owing to their very small density comets would be the most likely celestial bodies to indicate the existence of the resisting medium. Assuming that the majority of comets really have elliptic orbits, and are therefore following the sun through space, the effect of a resisting medium would be to drag their aphelia to the rear of the sun, i.e. towards the anti-apex of the sun’s path. As bright comets probably owe their conspicuous- ness to the fact that they are surrounded by enormous, verv tenuous envelopes of gaseous material, the re- sisting action should be more evident on them, and on plotting the aphelia of a number of comets Prof. Pickering finds that this is the case. The aphelia of the brighter elliptical comets do appear to concen- trate in a particular region of the sky, and this anti- apex in regard to the resisting medium coincides pretty closely with the solar anti-apex. There are some inconsistencies still to be accounted for, but on the whole it would appear that these cometary aphelia are draoged to the rearward of the sun, thus indicat- ing a drift of the resisting medium, and therefore of | the ther, in regard to the sun. OBSERVATIONS OF ComeTs.—The Comptes rendus for November 11 (No. 20) contain reports, from many observatories, of observations of comets 1912b (Tut- tle’s) and 1912c (Borrelly’s). M. Borrelly states that on November 3 the nucleus of his comet appeared to be asymmetrically placed in the coma, while M. Coggia on November 4 and 8 could detect no definite nucleus but only a gradual brightening towards the centre; in this he is confirmed by M. Esmiol, of the Mar- seilles Observatory. Generally the comet is reported as a round nebulosity, with a very indistinct or no nucleus, and no tail; during the early part of the month the magnitude was about 9 or 10, and accord- ing to the ephemeris it is now about two-thirds as bright, and will continue to decrease. METEOROLOGY AT THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION. HE leading feature of meteorological interest in the proceedings at Dundee was the joint dis- cussion with Section M, Agriculture, on the applica- tion of meteorological information to agricultural practice. Dr. Shaw said that the annual loss to this country through unfavourable weather might be put at 20,000,000l., and as forecasts must ultimately be fore- casts for the whole globe, the amount of the loss some portion of which meteorologists aimed at saving for the British Empire far exceeded the estimate men- tioned. But apart from forecasts, which aimed at saving by preventive precautions, there was probably much to be done in increasing efficiency by the application of our present knowledge of climate. In this connection the meteorologist wished to learn from the agriculturist if he could make use of meteoro- logical statistics, and in what form he wished the statistics to be presented to him. There were, more- over, certain questions the answers to which would render possible considerable economies, and perhaps save the aspiring farmer many disastrous experiences. NO. 2248, VOL. 90] Such questions were: ‘What is the effect of climate on crops?’ *‘ What deviations from the normal values of the meteorological elements constitute a good or bad farmer’s year?”’ Mr. R. H. Hooker had made some progress towards providing an answer to the first question in his paper on correlation between weather and crops, and he himself had investigated the relation between autumn rainfall and yield of wheat. Recently also Unstead had reached interesting conclusions in connection with the world’s wheat crop, the polar limit of which depended upon the accumu- lated temperature and the duration of daylight in the summer months. Mr. Watt communicated some results which he had obtained for the connection between rainfall and tem- perature, and the yield of crops in Forfarshire. He found that a dry June and July were favourable to the potato crop, and warmth during that period was also desirable. For oats, however, a cool June was decidedly favourable. Dr. E. J. Russell spoke of the effect of climate on plant life by direct action on the plant itself, and indirectly through its action on the quality and texture of the soil. Heavy rain washed out the nitrates in the soil, while hot dry weather and frost conserved them. At the end of the summer of ig11 the soil contained 34 times the usual amount of nitrates, but the heavy rains of the succeeding autumn and winter washed out nine-tenths of them. Mr. R. M. Barrington, speaking as a practical farmer, testified to the great utility of local observa- tions in conjunction with the reports of the Meteoro- logical Office, and expressed the opinion that meteoro- logy ought to be taught to every budding farmer. On the Tuesday morning Prof. Turner gave an account of his investigation of periodicities in earth- quake phenomena. He found evidence of a real period of about 15 months and indications of a period of 11°76 months, which was also found in the rainfall at Greenwich. He communicated also a paper by Mr. J. I. Craig, in which the author showed that Schuster’s method of the periodogram and the method of correlation were practically identical. Mr. E. M. Wedderburn gave an account of his investigations of the temperature conditions in the Madiisee in Pomerania and in Loch Earn. In both cases the temperature changes were found to be oscillatory and capable of explanation on the assump- tion that the motion of the water in the lake was in opposite directions above and below the level of maximum rate of change of density. Miss White read two papers on the results for wind and temperature obtained at the upper air station at Glossop Moor during 1908, Igo9. She found that the average velocity of the wind changed from 5’0 m.p.s. (metres per second) at ground level (335 m.), to 118 m.p.s. at tooo m., and to 136 m.p.s. at 2000 m. above mean sea-level. The velocities at all heights were greater in winter than in summer, and greater also for occasions when the surface pressure was below the average than for occasions when it was above. The rate of increase of velocity was greater for westerly than for easterly winds. At the surface it was approximately the same, 5 m.p.s. in both cases, but at 2000 m. altitude the velocity was 16 m.p.s. for westerly winds compared with 12 m.p.s. for easterly. On the average, the theoretical value of the gradient wind calculated from the pressure distribution was reached by the actual wid at an altitude of 650 m., or 300 m. above ground level. In the second paper on temperature, the rate of fall with height was found to diminish from 85° C. per km. near the surface to 43° C. per km. at 370 NATURE [NovEMBER 28, 1912 2000 m. altitude. The height at which the mean annual temperature is 0° C. was found to be about 2100 m. The temperatures in the upper air were higher, both in winter and in summer, over regions of high pressure than over regions of low pressure. Both papers contained much valuable and interest- ing information, and Prof. Petavel expressed the hope that they would be utilised by aviators. The probable conditions in the upper air could be forecasted from the surface conditions by using the average values given by Miss White. The report of the joint committee on the investiga- tion of the upper air contains the results obtained at Mungret College, Limerick, during the past year, from which it appears that the height of the strato- sphere over Ireland is very nearly the same as it is over England and the Continent. In speaking on the report, Rev. W. O’Leary, S.J., who has conducted the work at Mungret College, expressed the desire felt by those engaged in this work for definite instruc- tions as to the type of weather in which ascents might be made with a fair chance of the balloon and instruments being recovered. A grant of 501. was made to the committee for the extension of the work during 1912-13, when it is hoped that ascents will be made over the North Atlantic. EDUCATION AT THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION. pe presidential address was devoted to the con- sideration of the progress made in the develop- ment of an objective standard in education. It was therefore a departure from the type of address with which this section has been opened, and as such it marks a distinct stage in the evolution of the science of education. Prof. Adams’s statement was distin- guished by its moderation. He realises the difficulties, but is not unhopeful of their being overcome. Whether the psychologists will be quite happy about his state- ment that education has captured their subject is not quite certain, but, much as education owes to psycho- logy, there can be little doubt that psychology is vastly in the debt of education. But we are only at the beginning of the scientific study of the problem of education, which, by reason of its special aims and restricted field, must ultimately acquire that definite- ness which we recognise as belonging to the older sciences represented in the British Association. Most closely connected with the subject of the presi- dential address was the meeting devoted to the psychological processes underlying reading and writ- ing. A sectional committee had reported upon the subject and arranged for papers to be read. Mr. F. Smith dealt with the process as it takes place in the practised reader, and Mr. Dumville with the learner. Mr. Dumville’s paper was in the main a defence of the so-called “‘ Look and say” method of teaching to read —the method, that is to say, which deals with whole words first, leaying their analysis to the time when the learner has realised the meaningful character of the printed page and is anxious to get at it. The natural tendency to analysis comes out in the effort to deal with new word-forms, and the teacher may profit- ably act as guide. Miss Foxley’s experiments had led her to the same conclusions as those reached by Mr. Dumville. | Dr. Brown and Dr. Rusk followed with accounts of movement in writing. The pedagogical consequences of these analyses were not, however, discussed. Friday’s meeting was devoted to the burning ques- tion of the relation of the school to future vocation. NO. 2248, VOL. 90] Mr. J. W. Peck, until recently clerk to the Edinburgh School Board, gave a lucid account of the way in which his authority attempted to meet the vocational call in the evening continuation schools of the city. Out of the 17,000 follx between fourteen and eighteen years of age, 12,000 were actually reached by their scheme—a purely voluntary one, as they have not put into operation the compulsory powers vested in them by the Act of 1908. The freedom of choice left to the pupils produced a want of balance in thelr work; the subjects having a directly utilitarian value were unduly favoured. Thus only 2} per cent. took courses in civics, and only ro per cent. pursued English studies. Mr. Peck favoured some form of compulsion, as only in that way would they reach the outstanding 5000, and a reasonable curriculum be ensured. Mr. Holland showed us some of the difficulties of relating education to vocation, at any rate in the day school. The division of labour was so minute in his own dis- trict that a man might spend his working life on making the ninety-fifth part of a shoe. How exactly the difficulty was to be overcome Mr. Holland was not quite clear, although he was convinced that school work should, and could, be made more meaningful to the pupils. Miss Faithfull spoke with conviction against allow- ing education to be determined by vocation. Her plea was for a liberal education in the old-fashioned sense of that word. She would deny that a training could be both liberal and vocational. Her voice was, how- ever, a solitary one. Miss Burstall, of the Manchester High School, was wholeheartedly in favour of giving a vocational turn to the education of girls. She had worked in that direction in her own school with un- qualified success. School was no longer a bore to girls who had at one time chafed under the exercises which seemed to lead nowhere. Mr. Reid spoke of the question from the point of view of the engineer, and Mr. Ferguson told the section of the successful effort to “‘liberalise’’ the vocation of cardboard-box malsers in the Bourneville works. An interesting review of the present position of mathematical teaching was opened by Dr. T. P. Nunn, followed by Drs. Pinkerton and Milne, and Mr. Eggar. The first three speakers were at one in their defence of the attempt to humanise school mathematics, even at the expense of dexterity in dealing with complex mathematical expressions—at any rate, in the initial stages. Mr. Eggar voiced a doubt as to the position in geometry, and Prof. Silvanus Thompson supported him in saying that reformers had often gone too far —further than Prof. Perry himself ever intended. Both Prof. Thompson and Principal Griffiths felt that a definite mathematical quality had been wealened or lost in the abandonment of Euclid, and that this loss would continue until some adequate substitute had been found. Scotch experience in the matter of leaving certifi- cates was described by Mr. Strong and Mr. Donne, and the Scotch Education Department was attacked by Principal Sir J. Donaldson, who in a previous dis- cussion had advocated individual liberty in the matter of spelling. The section received various reports from committees on (1) school books and eyesight, (2) the curriculum and organisation of industrial and Poor Law schools, and (3) the overlapping between school and university. It is hoped that the ‘books and eyesight ’’ report will be circulated very widely amongst education authorities. It is clear, too, that there is much that needs amend- ing in our industrial schools, especially perhaps in those which are run on the subscriptions of the charit- able, and are therefore less directly under public | control. NovEMBER 28, 1912 | NATURE 371 MINUTE LIFE ON OUR SEA-BEACHES.! thinking of a suitable subject on which to N I address you this evening, it naturally occurred to me that the fellows of the Linnean Society and their friends include both botanists and zoologists, and are all of them, I hope, good field naturalists, who delight in worl: in the open. So I have decided to talk about Fic. 1.—A Lancashire mussel skear. what I am coming to regard as a somewhat neglected field of investigation, namely the minute life of our ordinary sea-beaches and the changes which that life undergoes throughout the year. Many biologists are inclined to regard an ordinary sandy beach as a very uninteresting collecting ground, where, they would say, there arebut few living things to be found—per- haps some burrowing worms, such as Arenicola, some heart-shaped urchins, like Echinocardium, some lamellibranch molluscs, Solen, Mya and the cockles, and that is about all that most collectors would bring back from such a beach; and we have all heard fishery experts exclaiming at the poverty of such coasts in eloquent words. ‘Oh, the barren, barren shores which might be culti- vated so richly!” is the burden of their cry. There is some truth in it. But if I am able to show that they are not so barren as is supposed, that only makes it the more likely that the beaches might be cultivated with advantage for the benefit of man. The amount of living things, both plants and animals, that can grow or may be reared in suit- able localities between tide marks is astonishing. Let me show you a few photographs exhibiting life in profusion, both in its natural wild state and also under artificial cultivation, as examples of characteristic views on our coasts. Some show patches of the littoral zone near low tide mark, with in some cases huge colonies of the fleshy Fis coral Aleyonium, and numbers of sea-anemones, of worm-tubes, and of zoophytes; in other cases masses of the larger algze, Fucus and Laminaria; and then again some have the molluscs, Patella, Purpura, and Littorina, covering almost every available inch of the ground. Other more rocky shores, such as Bradda Head at the south end of the Isle of Man, have the stone so closely infested with 1 An address given at the Linnean Society's Reception on October 31 by Prof. W. A. Herdman, F.R.S. NO. 2248, VOL. 90] Balanus, the acorn-shell, that for hundreds of yards it looks at low tide, from a distance, as if a broad, uninterrupted horizontal band of white had _ been painted on the rock, and on going close up to such a cliff one sees that for many yards in succession it is difficult to find a spot of exposed stone on which to put a finger. Then, as an example of what could be done by cultivation, even of the rudest kind, we may look at these photographs of the mussel skears on some parts of the coast of Lancashire (see Fig. 1), where the shellfish soon become so closely crowded that, unless thinned out, they prevent each other’s growth by their mutual pressure. These organisms, however, are all large, common, and well known, while what I desire to bring before you as a neglected field is the presence of minute and little-known organisms which appear in profusion in some localities, at any rate on certain occasions, and are prob- ably of enormous importance in_ their influence on the life of larger forms, both on the shore and at sea. Probably many, if not all, seashores would show the phenomena I wish to refer to, but the beach which I take as my example is that at Port Erin, in the Isle of Man, where between two rocky sides there is a flat expanse of sand with the usual barren appearance, and the usual bur- rowing annelids and molluscs. The sandy beach has a steeper slope in its upper part, and at the base of this, not very far below high- water mark, and just where the damper, flatter, and less stony part of the sand commences, there are found from time to time throughout the greater part of the year larger or smaller greenish-brown patches, sometimes yards in extent, such as most naturalists would declare at a glance to be caused by 2.—Sand-grainsand Amphidinium from the beach, Fic. 3.—tare of Fig. 2 under high- power magnification. Low-power. accumulations of diatoms—and diatoms we at Port Erin at first supposed them to be. But one day last year on collecting a sample and putting it under the microscope I was astonished to find that the deposit was composed of an enormous quantity of minute, active, flagellate, yellow organisms, evidently belonging to the Dinoflagellata, and related to Peridinium (see Figs. 2 and 3). 27 O/ 2 NATURE [NovEMBER 28, 1912 This organism proved on further investigation to be Amphidinium operculatum, Clap. and Lachm., which had never before been found in British seas, and very rarely anywhere else. And yet here it was . 7 ipl g “ph e \ SOA 1a Fic. 4.—Wavicula digito-radiata. in vast amount for weeks at a time*; and I am inclined to think it may be abundant on other beaches also. Several naturalists have told me since I men- tioned this matter to the Linnean Society last year that they are convinced that they have previously seen Amphidinium patches on the shore, and had taken them for diatoms. But one of the most extraordinary points about the occurrence of this little Dinoflagellate is that it seems to alternate in time on the beach with almost pure cultures of certain common diatoms, such as Navicula amphisbaena, Bory, and N. digito-radiata, Greg. (see Figs. 4 and 5). During 1911 the history of these coloured patches on Port Erin beach was as follows :— April 7 to May 1.—Amphidinium and a_ few diatoms (Navicula). June 3 to July 22.—Diatoms (some Navicula, others Pleuro- sigma). September 9 and 10.—Amphidinium in abund- ance ; diatoms absent. September 16 to 18.—Diatoms (Navicula). October 2 to 26.—Amphidinium in abundance; diatoms absent. 28 to November 1.—No Amphidinium present. November 2.._Amphidinium (three small patches). During the remainder of the winter no patches were found, but by the beginning of April Amphi- dinium had reappeared in force and monopolised the beach for a couple of weeks. It was then replaced « See Journ. Linn. Soc., vol. xxxii., No. 21 NO. 2248, VOL. 90] October ; October, rorr. 4 ; en - S&S be Sed Bae Fic. 5.—WNavicula anphisbaena (?). Fic. 6.—Copepod zoo-plankton from summer gatherings. I owe all the photomicrographs to the skill of my friend Mr. Edwia Thompson. by diatoms for a few days, and in the latter part of April, 1912, the alternation took place no fewer than four times, ending with a couple of weeks in May, when neither organism was present. Amphidinium reappeared on May 15, and was present more or less during the greater part of the summer, except in the drier intervals of July and August, when it was absent. From September 14 onwards it has again been present in larger or smaller patches, and | have examined living samples sent from Port Erin, up to the last day of October; but, curiously enough, the indi- viduals in these recent gatherings differ considerably in shape, size, and some other minor points from the Amphidinium operculatum we had been examining in such quantity at Port Erin during the previous year. I am not of opinion as yet that this difference indicates more than a form of the same species—possibly seasonal or due to age or nutrition, or some other environmental influence ; and the variation does not affect the broad phenomenon of , the striking alternation of the two very : ee different kinds of organisms, diatoms and =, Dinoflagellates, in vast quantity. Although k it may not be possible yet to give any —= detailed explanation, the facts seem to point to the probability that the cause of the phenomenon is a physiological one, and that the explanation may consist in showing that each organism in turn in its metabolism exhausts or alters some essential constituent of the environ- ment, so as to prevent its own continued existence, in quantity, at that spot, but leaves the ground suitable, or even favourable, to the physiological needs of the other set of competing organisms. Fic. 7.—Diatom phyto-plankton from spring gatherings. Possibly we have a similar phenomenon on a more extended scale in the well-known seasonal variations of the plankton of the open sea, where during spring and summer the main constituent groups of organisms are Diatoms, Dinoflagellates, and Copepoda, succeed- ing one another in that order. (Figs. 6 and 7 show NovEMBER 28, 1912| NATURE 373 a spring phytoplankton and a summer zooplankton gathering.) Prof. Benjamin Moore has recently found * a noteworthy change in the chemical reaction of the sea water round our coasts at different seasons of the year, no doubt in co-relation with the develop- ment of the plankton organisms. In spring (April) the water, not only on the shore, but out at sea, is acid to phenolphthalein, while in summer (August) it is dis- tinctly alkaline to the same indicator. This change signifies an enormous conversion of carbon in the in- organic into carbon in organic form, a turn-over of colossal extent amounting to between 20,000 and 30,000 tons of carbon per cubic mile of sea water, or, if we think of the carbon as being in the bodies of living organisms, then the weight of these organisms will amount to about ten times that quantity of carbon in the cubic mile—or, if we imagine it occupying the deepest part of the Irish Channel, say, 300,000 tons of organisms per strip of water ten miles long by one mile broad and eighty-eight fathoms deep, all supplied with their necessary carbon from the carbon dioxide present in the sea water in spring. Thus we can be led on from the simple observation of minute organisms on the beach to some of the greatest problems in the metabolism of the ocean; but the naturalist investigator need not necessarily venture out to sea in his quest. There is plenty. of useful work to be dome on the beach in carefully examining with the microscope the various deposits, such as sand and mud, found between tide marks, not once for all, but periodically, so as to determine the nature of the minute animals and plants, their relative abundance, and their variations, seasonal or otherwise, in quantity and character throughout the year. We know that some of these organisms, although individually insignificant, may exist in such quantities as to discolour the sands or the sea water, and even give rise to plagues amongst shellfish and other more directly valuable animals. Invasions of this kind, due to Dinoflagellata closely allied to our Amphidinium, are known to have appeared in America and in Australia, and possibly elsewhere. It is work: worthy of the best endeavours of some of the younger botanists and zoologists of the Linnean Society, who have ready access to the coast, to try to extend our kxnowledge of the range and life conditions of some of those remarkable organisms—organisms which not only present scientific problems to the field naturalist, the cytologist, the experimental biologist, and bio- chemist, but, moreover, may well, from their vast numbers and sudden changes, have a profound effect upon the metabolism of the ocean, and so upon the prosperity of sea-fisheries. THE UNIVERSITY OF BRISTOL IN RELATION TO AGRICULTURE. ‘7 HE University of Bristol, the youngest of our universities, has made it evident that it intends to play an active part in the development of agricul- tural education and research. Some two years ago the University associated with itself the Royal Agri- cultural College, Cirencester, for purposes of higher education in agriculture, and arrangements for the granting of degrees in that subject are now being completed. : The Board of Agriculture and Fisheries has recently notified its intention of making an annual grant of 500. to the college to enable it to provide for research on questions relating to forestry for the west of England area. * Ir. the course of a Percy-Sladen Trust research upon the nutrition of marine animals, the detailed results of which will be published at an early dale. NO. 2248, VOL. 90] The University has also recently associated with itself the National Fruit and Cider Institute, which was established at Long Ashton, near Bristol, in 1903, to carry on investigations on fruit culture and cider- making. This institution has been supported since its establishment by annual grants from the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, the county councils of Devon, Gloucester, Hereford, Monmouth, Somer- set, and Worcester, and the Bath and West of England Agricultural Society. Its association with the University is the result of an offer on the part of the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries to the latter of an annual grant approximating to 25001. to pro- vide for the establishment of one of the agricultural research institutions contemplated by the Board in connection with the grant from the Development Fund available for the promotion of agricultural research. The special subject of research allotted to Bristol is that of fruit-growing, including the practical treat- ment of plant diseases. The offer of the Board was conditional on the National Fruit and Cider Institute being made the centre at which the work was to be carried on. In connection with the scheme a capital expenditure of 10,0001. has been estimated to be neces- sary. Of this sum the Development Commissioners intimated their willingness to provide 50 per cent., provided that the remaining half was raised locally. Largely owing to the efforts of the Rt. Hon. Henry Hobhouse, chairman of the Somerset County Council, the necessary money has been subscribed. The ex- penditure is required for the purchase of land and the erection and equipment of laboratories and other buildings at Long Ashton. A department of agricul- tural and horticultural research has thus been created, Mr. B. T. P. Barker, director of the National Fruit and Cider Institute, being appointed head of the department and professor of agricultural biology in the University. Towards the upkeep of the depart- ment the University is contributing an annual sum of 30ol., the income of a gift from the late Lord Winter- stoke for the purpose of agricultural research; and the income from other sources, including county council grants, is about 15ool. ‘ The department of chemistry in the University is also taking part in the work. In the biochemical laboratory, investigations on the tannins of cider are proceeding in connection with the fruit research work. A special grant from the Development Fund for the continuation of investigations on the chemistry of Cheddar cheese, which have been carried out during the past two years by Dr. Nierenstein, has been promised. This work was begun in the first place at the request of the Somerset County Council, a grant for the purpose being given by that body. The Board of Agriculture and Fisheries also pro- poses to make the University the centre for a group of the western counties in connection with its scheme for the provision of technical advice to farmers. The group will probably include Gloucester, Hereford, Somerset, Wiltshire, and Worcester, and possibly one or two other adjoining counties for special purposes. An annual sum of toool. is provided by the Board for this work. Under this scheme investigations on problems of local agricultural importance will be undertaken. In this connection reference may be made to the work on the ‘‘teart”’ or scouring land of Somerset, which has already been conducted by Mr. C. T. Gimingham for the past two years. The following appointments to the staff of the Department of Agricultural and Horticultural Re- search have already been made:—Mr. A. H. Lees as plant pathologist, Mr. C. T. Gimingham as agri- cultural chemist, and Mr. Otto Grove, for some time assistant to Dr. Alf. Jérgensen, of Copenhagen, as . 1 NATURE [NOVEMBER 28, 1912 cenologist. A mycologist will be appointed in due course. In the biochemical laboratory Mr. Arthur Gealxe has been appointed research assistant to Dr. Nierenstein for the investigations on the chemistry of Cheddar cheese, and Mr. C. W. Spiers research assistant for the cider tannins investigation. UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE. CambBrIDGE.—The council of St. John’s College has offered to the University 5ool. as a contribution to the equipment of the Solar Physics Observatory on its installation in Cambridge. The special board for biology and geology has adjudged the Walsingham medal for r912 to E. D. Adrian, for his essay entitled, ‘‘On the Transmission of Subnormal Disturbances in Normal and in Incom- pletely Recovered Nerve.” The Walsingham medal for 1913 is to be awarded for an essay embodying the results of original research on any botanical, geological, or zoological subject, zoology being understood to include animal morphology and physiology. Kk. R. Lewin has, with the approval of the Vice- Chancellor, been appointed assistant to the Quick professor of biology, in succession to Mr. C. Strick- Jand, who has resigned the post. The General Board of Studies has appointed W. B. Hardy a University lecturer in physiology from January 1, 1913, until September 30, 1917. N. Cunliffe has been appointed to the studentship in medical entomology lately held by G. Merriman. Tt is proposed to confer the degree of Master of Arts, honoris causa, upon Sir Arthur Thomas Quiller- Couch, King Edward VII. professor of English litera- ture, and upon Dr. John Read, assistant to the professor of chemistry. OxrorD.—On November 26 the preamble of the statute abolishing the existing division into orders of the elected members of council was moved in Con- gregation by Prof. Geldart, and supported by the warden of Keble. It was opposed by Prof. Gotch and Mr. Ball, and rejected by 87 to 105. The statute will probably be reintroduced in another form. At the same meeting of Congregation the preamble of a statute amending the constitution of Congrega- tion by abolishing the qualification of residence, and providing that in future that body shall consist only of the teaching and administrative elements in the University and colleges, was moved by Prof. Geldart, and, in spite of the opposition offered by the master of Balliol and Mr. Ball (by the latter on the ground that it provided for the safeguarding of vested in- terests), was carried by 100 to 79. An objection felt in many quarters to this enactment is based on the fact that it will disfranchise such persons as those graduates engaged in scientific or other research who do not happen to be employed in teaching or adminis- tration within the University. It is understood that no amendment to admit such persons will be possible under the preamble as now carried. Tue office of Vice-Chancellor of the University of Sheffield, vacant through the retirement of Sir Charles Eliot, has been accepted by Mr. H. A. L. Fisher, fellow and tutor of New College, Oxford. AmonG the bequests of Mrs. A. M. Jones (widow of Prof. Tom Jones, of Manchester, surgeon), who died on October 30, are 1oool. to the Victoria Univer- sity, Manchester, in augmentation of the endowment of the Prof. Tom Jones memorial scholarship, and NO. 2248, VOL. 90| | sool. to the University College of Wales, Aberystwith, as an endowment for promoting the study of surgery. Ar the annual meeting of the court of governors of | the University of Wales on November 22 a resolution, moved by Sir Isambard Owen, that steps be taken to secure representation in Parliament for the Welsh University was carried by seventeen votes to twelve. | In moving his resolution, Sir Isambard said that if university representation is to be continued there is no doubt that the younger universities will all be agitat- ing for privileges with the older universities, and there is a danger that Parliament will pool these younger universities with only one representative for each group. He held that it is necessary that the Welsh University should not be pooled with, say, Birmingham or Bristol, because the Welsh University is national and possesses distinct interests. THE governing body of the Imperial College of Science and Technology has decided to combine all the mathematical work of the Imperial College, and of its integral parts, viz. the Royal College of Science, the Royal School of Mines, and the City and Guilds (Engineering) College, into one department, and to place the supervision of this department under a chiet professor of mathematics. A special joint committee of the governing body and of the delegacy of the City and Guilds College has now been constituted in con- nection with the selection of a suitable individual for appointment to the chair. It is the intention of the governing body to make the appointment from a date during the current session, so as to enable the new organisation to be perfected before October next, when the work of session 1913-14 begins. THE proceedings at the congress of the fifty-three universities of the Empire, which took place in London last July, were described in articles published in the issues of NarurE for June 13 and July 1 last (vol. Ixxxix., pp. 385 and 477). The ofhicial record of the proceedings has now been published for the con- gress by the University of London Press, Messrs. Hodder and Stoughton, London, as a volume of 464 pages, the price of which is tos. net. If the congress meets, as proposed, at recurring intervals of five years, reports such as that now available will serve excellently to record the steps in the future develop- ment of university ideals. Not only are the papers read at the congress by experts on university educa- tion included, but the speeches made at the various meetings are also reported. Tue calendar for the session 1912-13 of University College, London, which is now available, is full of interesting particulars of the manifold activities of this important constituent college of the University of London. ‘The list of original papers and other publica- tions from the various departments of the college, since the dean’s report in the preceding calendar, runs to sixteen pages, and an examination of it shows that each faculty recognises fully the vital importance of research work. It is worthy of note that the new chemical laboratories have been begun, and will be ready in about a year’s time. The equipment of the faculty of medical sciences has been improved by the provision of the new pharmacology laboratories by Mr. Carnegie. These laboratories will shortly be opened. The total number of students in the college during the session 1911-12 was 1679—1031 men and 645 women. Engaged in post-graduate and research work there were 286 men and 117 women. ‘The faculty of science was chosen by 175 men and 135 women, and engineering was taken up by 104 men. Tue Department of Agriculture and Technical In- struction for Ireland has arranged that a limited number of scholarships and of teacherships-in-training, NovEMBER 28, 1912] IAT Tere 300 tenable at the Royal College of Science, Dublin, shall be offered for competition among Irish students of science and technology in 1913. ‘Lhe scholarships are of the value of 5ol/. per annum, and, in addition, entitle the holder to free instruction during the asso- ciate course. A teachership-in-training has similar advantages except that the maintenance allowance is 21s. per week for the session of about forty weeks. Candidates must be not less than sixteen nor more than thirty years of age on June 1, 1913, and will have to satisfy the Department as to their knowledge of English and of one other of the languages—Greek, Latin, Irish, French, or German. The competition will be confined to mathematics, experimental science, and drawing. Applications for admission to the examination must be made not later than April 30, 1913, on forms copies of which may be obtained upon application to the Secretary, Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction. for Ireland, Upper Merrion Street, Dublin, or to the Registrar, Royal College of Science, Upper Merrion Street, Dublin. j SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. Lonpbon. Paysical Society, November 8.—Prof. A. Schuster, F.R.S., president, in the chair.—H. R. Nettleton: A method of measuring the Thomson effect. The dis- tribution of temperature down a conductor conveying an electric current and at the same time moving uniformly through two fixed temperature sources is investigated. The effect of the Thomson heat on the distribution is exactly: similar to the effect of a small impressed velocity. This result was applied to mer- cury to measure the Thomson effect by comparing the alteration of temperature A@, at a point near the middle of the gradient caused by reversing a current of C amperes with the alteration of temperature AQ, at the same point due to a flow of mercury of m grams per second. Without any approximation as to emis- sivity loss or magnitude of Joulian heat, 2Co/ms= Aé,/A0@,, where s is the specific heat of mercury and co the specific heat of electricity. Working with currents of from 4 to 9 amperes and with flows of different magnitudes—but never exceeding 1 cm. per hour— consistent values of o were obtained, the value at 61° C. being —1°52x10-° calories per degree Centi- grade per coulomb. The thermo-junctions, which were of iron and constantan, were fused through the glass tubes with inappreciable distortion—F. W. Jordan: An improved Joule radiometer and its applica- tions. The first part relates to improvements made in order to convert the original Joule convection appa- ratus into an instrument for the exact measurement of small steady rates of evolution or absorption of heat. These improvements consisted in (1) replacing the badly conducting glass enclosure and cardboard partition by others made of brass and copper; (2) re- placing the uncertain and variable magnetic control of the movement of the vane in Joule’s apparatus by the elastic control of a quartz fibre; (3) shaping the channels, in which the vanes moved, so that the angular deflection of the vanes was proportional to the rate of evolution of heat; (4) reducing the size, so that uniform temperatures of its various parts could be maintained by (5) placing the radiometer within a concentric brass tube to exclude all extraneous heat excepting that which might be directed through aper- tures in its side towards the radiometer. The sensi- bility of the instrument was measured and found to be equal to 052 mm. per microwatt, as measured on a scale at a distance of one metre from the mirror. NO. 2248, VOL. 90] Thus the instrument may be used for the measure- ment of feeble oscillating currents. To convert the apparatus into an instrument for the measurement of radiant heat it is suggested that the radiant heat be directed through a small rock salt or fluorite window in the side of a compartment on to a thin blackened metal disc supported centrally. Its use for the quick measurement of the heat given out by radium is also suggested. The second part relates to a suggested method of measuring the Thomson effect with this radiometer. The method hinges on an experiment described by the author in Nature, May 18, 1911.— Miss A. Somers: Note on the attainment of a steady state when heat diffuses along a moving cylinder. The paper dealt with the case of a column of mercury moving with uniform speed between two fixed tem- perature sources. The differential equation for the temperature within the column was stated and its solu- tion given, and it was shown how the time of attain- ment of a steady state could be obtained from the latter. Dr. S. W. J. Smith: Thermomagnetic study of steel. Thermomagnetic measurements make it in- creasingly evident that the magnetic properties of steels are frequently those of mixtures of magnetic substances, each possessing characteristic properties, which contribute in a comparatively definite way to the properties of the material as a whole. In the case of a simple ferromagnetic substance, magnetising fields can be found in which the permeability variation with temperature is small except in the neighbourhood of the critical temperature. In such fields there is a marked peak in the permeability temperature curve for the substance. The explanation of this peak sug- gests that the phenomenon should be found common to all ferromagnetic substances. The paper shows that it is exhibited by the carbide of iron (cementite) in annealed carbon steels. Mineralogical Society, Noyember 12.—Anniversary meet- ing.—Dr. A. E. H. Tutton, F.R.S., president, in the chair.—Prof. W. J. Lewis: Ilmenite from the Lengen- bach Quarry. Imbedded in the dolomite was found a minute crystal, irregular in habit, showing the forms IIO, 101, 100, I12, III, 275. The best readings were obtained from pairs of faces of ror and between them and faces of a prism, the corresponding angles being found to be 64° 47' and 57° 33’ respectively.—Prof. W. J. Lewis: Multiple twin of cassiterite. Three- fold twinning is well and regularly developed on opposite sides of the crystal, which consists of two main portions with twin axes all in one plane, and the triplets so formed are connected together in a somewhat irregular way. Further, some of the in- dividuals are twinned along pyramid faces inclined to the general plane, so that the back of the crystal is unlike the front.—Arthur Russell: An account of the minerals found in the Virtuous Lady Mine, near Tavistock. The following species were met with :— Chalybite, in pseudomorphs after fluor and barytes, termed respectively ‘“‘boxes’’ and “‘slippers’’ by the miners; marcasite in sheaf-like aggregates; mispickel in two modifications; anatase, on one crystal of which was found a small crystal of brookite, the only one seen ky the author from this locality—Dr. A. Hutchinson: Some graphical methods in crystallo- graphy and crystal optics. Diagrams of expressions involving sines, such as sin E=Ssin V, are much sim- plified by taking log sines for coordinates, the result being a series of parallel straight lines.—Dr. A. Hutchinson and W. Campbell Smith: Labradorite from St. John Point, co. Down. The large fresh crystals of felspar, which occur in a basaltic dyke, have physical characters—specific gravity 2°706, extinction on oto and oor —23° and —11° respectively, refractive 376 NATURE [NOVEMBER 28, Ig1I2 indices @ 15598, 8 175648, y 15694—which agree closely with the position of the felspar in the. plagio- clase series given by its chemical composition, which is approximately represented by the formula 33Ab5O0ro2An.—Dr. G. F. H. Smith: Apparatus for preparing thin sections of rocks. A description was given of the apparatus recently made for the Mineral Department of the British Museum.—Russell F. Gwinnell; Calcite crystals from a water tank. The crystals, which were deposited during the dry summer of 1g11 from water derived from a spring -in the marlstone of Belton Park, near Grantham, Lincs., averaged o'r mm. in greatest diameter, and showed the unusual unit rhombohedron form 1011. Zoological Society, November 12.—Dr. A. Smith Woodward, F.R.S., vice-president, in the chair.— H. R. Hogg: Some Falkland Island spiders. The paper was based on a small collection of spiders formed by Mr. Rupert Vallentin during a two years’ stay in the Falkland Islands. Of some of the species there were a fair number of specimens, but they comprised only six species of spiders and one of the allied suborder Opilio. The species were all ap- parently new, but the genera were all to be found either in Patagonia, Tierra del Fuego, or the islands about Cape Horn. The ancestors of the spiders might all have been transported aérially at an early period, and therefore afforded no evidence for or against a former land-connection, but in the event of the latter there should be many more species. The Opilio might have been conveyed under the bark of floating trees.—G. A. Boulenger: Descriptions of three new fishes discovered by Dr. Spurrell in the vicinity of Bibianaha, near Dunkwa, Gold Coast, and presented by him to the British Museum.—Dr. H. Lyster Jameson and Dr. William Nicoll: Some parasites of the scoter duck (Oedemia nigra), and their relation to the pearl-inducing trematode in the edible mussel (Mytilus edulis)—F. F. Laidlaw: Dragon-flies from Borneo belonging to the subfamily Corduliina, and to the genera Disparoneura and Amphicnemis of the subfamily Agrioninaz, with an account of a number of new species. Royal Meteorological Society, November 20.-——Dr. H. N. Dickson, president, in the chair.—Dr. H. R. Mill; The unprecedented rainfall in East Anglia on August 26 last. The rain commenced in London be- tween 1 and 2 a.m. on August 26, but the hour of commencement grew later towards the northward, rain not beginning to fall in Lincolnshire until after 7 a.m. The intensity of the fall increased rapidly over the whole area, the maximum being reached in a fall of 4 in. in four hours from 11 a.m. in the neighbourhood of Norwich. In the central area the rain fell without intermission for more than twenty hours, and at some points probably for twenty-four. The distribution of the rain was somewhat remark- able. There were two foci of maximum fall, both in Norfolk: the northern central south of Cromer with more than 750 in.; the larger central east of Norfollk culminating in about twenty square miles with more than 8 in. of rain in the twenty-four hours. About 1940 square miles in Norfollk and Suffolk had more than 4 in. of rain; the area with more than 2 in. of rain was at least 5800 square miles. ‘The general rainfall of each of the counties was cal- culated for this day, and also for the various river- basins, and it appeared that during the twenty-four hours as much water was deposited on the land as would fall in normal circumstances in two or three months. Several very heavy falls of rain in one or two days which had been recorded in different parts of the country were considered, and it was shown that NO. 2248, VOL. 90] although more than 8 in. had fallen at Seathwaite, in the Lake district, on more than one occasion as the result of one or two days’ rain, there was no instance of so large an area having more than 6 in. of rain in two days as occurred in East Anglia on August 26. A. P. Jenkin A three-year period in rainfall. CAMBRIDGE. Philosophical Society, October 28.—Dr. Duckworth in the chair.—Dr. Duckworth: Anthropometric data col- lected by Prof. Stanley Gardiner in the Maldive Islands. The anthropometric data collected by Prof. J. Stanley Gardiner during his expedition to the Maldive Islands and Minikoi relate to sixty-nine indi- viduals. Analysis of the data shows that the islanders are very variable as regards their physical develop- ment. The men of Minikoi are on the whole more variable than the rest. They are shorter and their heads are rounder than is the case elsewhere. Addu Atoll, the most southern islet, is in contrast with Minikoi in this respect. The highest caste in Male has the greatest stature and the largest head-dimen- sions. High caste seems to be associated with a broader nose, though this relation is contrary to ex- pectation. No trace of a genuine pygmy element can be detected in any of the groups measured. Three main sources of immigration into the Maldives and Minikoi are considered briefly—R. H. Compton; Pre- liminary note on the inheritance of self-sterility in Reseda odorata. As discovered by Charles Darwin, certain individuals of mignonette are self-fertile, others self-sterile. Breeding experiments, though as yet in- complete, indicate that self-fertility is a Mendelian character, behaving as a simple dominant to self- sterility.—J. Gray: The effects of hypertonic solutions upon the eggs of Echinus. It was shown that the abnormalities which are invariably found in the first segmentation division of the hybrid Echinus acutus Q9xE. esculentus 3 can be induced in the normally fertilised eggs of E. acutus by treatment with hyper- tonic sea-water after fertilisation; similar solutions, however, do not affect the normally fertilised eggs of E. esculentus to anything like the same extent, such eggs being practically normal. On these results was based an explanation of the fact that whereas the eggs of E. acutus 9x E. esculentus G show irregular mitoses, those of the reverse cross are normal.—G. R. Mines; Pulsus alternans. Paris. Academy of Sciences, November 18.—M. Lippmann in the chair.—E.-L. Bouvier: Dugastella marocana, a new primitive shrimp of the family of the Atyidez. A representative of a new fresh-water genus found in Morocco; it corresponds most closely to the Califor- nian Syncaris.—M. Imbeaux was elected a _ corre- spondant for the section of rural economy, in the place of the late M. Arloing.—Paul Montel: Some general- isations of the theorems of M. Picard.—Th. de Donder : The invariants of the calculus of variations. M. Lémeray: The principle of relativity and the law of variation of central forces. The Jaw of variation with the square of the distance for the action between heavy points at rest may be deduced as a necessary consequence of the principle of relativity.—Ch. Feéry : A dead-heat galvanometer with a moving needle. Each pole of the magnet is suspended. between two pairs of flat bobbins so close together as to constitute practically one solenoid. The sensibility of a galvano- meter mounted in this way was 1 mm. deflection at one metre for a current of 8x 1o-1° ampere; the resist- ance of the four bobbins in series being 2 ohms, and the time of oscillation fifteen seconds.—G. Denigés and L. Chelle:.A new reagent for free and combined NovEMBER 28, 1912| NAIURE 377 chlorine and bromine. Details are given of the appli- cation of a method described in a previous note, based on the use of fuchsine decolorised with sulphuric acid. Dealing with such small quantities of bromine as are found in ‘certain natural waters, the method can be applied quantitatively; it is more delicate and rapid than the methods in current use.—J. B. Senderens and Jean Aboulenc: The ethereal salts derived from the cyclanols and the acids of the fatty series. Starting with the six lower members of ‘the fatty acids and the alcohols cyclohexanol and _ the three isomeric methylcyclohexanols, twenty-four esters have been prepared by the catalytic method described in an earlier paper. The physical properties of these esters are tabulated.—Jacques Duclaux; The specific heat of bodies at low tempera- tures. It is known that the specific heat of most substances diminishes rapidly at low temperatures; the author discusses the hypothesis that this reduction of specific heat is due to increasing polymerisation.— Daniel Berthelot and Henri Gaudechon; The photolysis of saccharose by the ultra-violet rays. A study of the effect of the wave-length of the ultra-violet light on the chemical changes produced.—R. Fosse: The trans- formation of an alcohol into the sulphide of peroxide by the action of sulphuretted hydrogen and of hydrogen peroxide.—J. Tchougaeff and B. Orelkine: Some com- plex compounds of platinous chloride with amino- acetal.—R. de Litardiére: The formation of hetero- typical chromosomes in Polypodium vulgare.—Maurice Durandard; The combined influence of temperature and of the medium on the development of Mucor Rouxit.—Mare Bridel; The presence of gentiopicrin in Swertia perennis. The biochemical examination has shown that this. plant contains a _ glucoside hydrolysable by emulsin; this glucoside has been isolated in a pure state and identified with gentio- picrin.—J. Wolff: The biochemical function of the peroxydases in the transformation of orcin into orcein. —Pierre Bonnier: The late awakening of the bulbar centres. The bulbar nervous centres in newly born children often require stimulation to start their action. This defect can be remedied by a very slight cauterisa- tion of the nasal mucous membrane. Several success- ful cases of the application of this treatment are cited. —Jules Amar: the laws of work; experiments on filing. A study of the work. expended by a man during the operation of filing brass, with a statement of the best conditions for the maximum yield for given expenditure of muscular effort—Charles Nicolle, A Conor, and E. Conseil: Intravenous inoculation of dead typhoid bacilli in man. The treatment is marked by the absence of any reaction or local pain, and by the production in the system of a notable amount of the tyvhoid antibody.—Auguste Lumiére and Jean Chevrotier : The polyvalence of the anti-typhoid sera.— A. Marie and Léon MacAulifie : The study and measure- ment of too French tramps.—De Montessus de Ballore: An earthquake of epirogenic origin probable in the neighbourhood of Michigan and Wisconsin.— M. Bourée: The vertical migration of bathypelagic animals. ° BOOKS RECEIVED. The Note-books of Samuel Butler. ranged and edited by H. F. Jones. (London: A. C. Fifield.) 6s. net. Annuaire pour l’An 1913. Publié par le Bureau des Longitudes. Pp. vi+707, &c. (Paris: Gauthier- Villars.) 2.50 francs net. Memoirs of the Geological Survey. England and Wales. Explanation of Sheet 359. The Geology of the Lizard and Meneage. By Dr. J. S. Flett and NO. 2248, VOL. 90| Selections, ar- Pp. xii+438. WP evils, detnibe Pp. viii+280. (London: H.M. Stationery Stanford, Ltd., and others.) 5s. By Prof. P. G. Stiles. Office; E. Nutritional Physiology. Pp. 271. (Philadelphia and London: W. B. Saunders Co.) 6s. net. Plant Geography. By Prof. G. S. Boulger. Pp. viii+ 136. (London: J. M. Dent and Sons, Ltd.) Is. net. University of London. University College. Calendar Session 1912-13. Pp. clxxiii+574. (London: Taylor and Francis.) ; Report on the Enquiry to bring Technical Institu- tions into Closer Touch and more Practical Relations with the Employers of Labour in India. By Lieut.- Col. E. H. de V. Atkinson and T. S. Dawson. Pp. v+ioo. (Calcutta: Superintendent Government Printing, India.) 1s. Les Actualités Médicales. Le Radium: son Emploi dans le Traitement du Cancer des Angiomes, Chéloides, Tuberculoses Locales et d’Autres Affec- tions. By L. Wickham and P. Degrais. Pp. 96. (Paris: J. B. Bailliére et Fils.) 1.50 francs. How to Attract and Protect Wild Birds. By M. Hiesemann. Translated by E. S. Buchheim. Third edition. Pp. roo. (London: Witherby and Co.) 1s. 6d. net. : ; Handworterbuch der by E. Korschelt and others. G. Fischer.) 2.50 marks each. ’ Catalogue of the Serial Publications possessed by the Geological Commission of Cape Colohy, the Royal Observatory, the Royal Society of South Africa, the South African Association. for the Advancement of Science, the South African Museum, and the South African Public Library. With an Appendix containing a List of the Serials in the Bolus Herbarium of the South African College. Pp. 54. (Cape Town: South African Public Library.) La Théorie de 1|’Aviation. Edited (Jena : Naturwissenschaften. ietweg 24 25. Son application a 1’Aéro- planes Bye baGastoun sb pae git eet (baris)) aiyele: Vivien.) 1.50 francs. Les Aéronefs sans Chutes. By A. R:macle. Pp. 89. (Paris: F. L. Vivien.) «1 franc. Science from an Easy Chair. By S’r Ray Lan- kester. A second series. Pp. xiii+412. (London: Adlard and Son.) 6s. 6d. net. The Star Calendar for 1913, with Revolving Chart. By Mrs. H. P. Hawkins. (London: Simpkin and Co., Ltd.) 1s. net. The Star Sheet Almanac for 1913. By Mrs. H. P. Hawkins. (London: Simpkin and Co., Ltd.) 6d. net. Practical Physics. By A. McLean. Pp. xi+ 402. (Ldndon: A. and C. Black.) 7s. 6d. net. Metalwork and Enamelling. By H. Maryon. Pp. xili+327. (London: Chapman and Hall, Ltd.) 7s. 6d. net. A New Algebra. By S. Barnard and J. M. Child. Part i. Pp. viiit182. Parts ii. and iii. Pp. viii+ 149-340. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd.) 1s. 6d. each. A Dictiomary of Applied Chemistry. By Sir E. Thorpe and others. Vol. iii. Revised and enlarged edition. » Pp. viii+789. (London: Longmans and Co.) 45s. net. Questions on Newth’s Inorganic Chemistry. By Prof. G. D. Timmons. Pp. 64. (London: Long- mans and Co.) Is. net. Practical Measurements in Radio-activity. By Drs. W. Makower and H. Geiger. Pp. ix+151. (Lon- don: Longmans and Co.) 5s. net. An Introduction to Mathematical Physics. By Dr. 378 NATURE [NovEMBER 28, 1912 . A. Houstoun. Pp. ix+199. (London: Longmans and Co.) 6s. net. Yorkshire Type Ammonities. Edited by S. S. Buck- man. Part viii. (London: W. Wesley and Son.) The People’s Books :—Hypnotism and Self-Educa- tion. By Dr. A. M. Hutchinson. Pp. 92. The Structure of the Earth. By Dr. T. G. Bonney. Pp. 94. Weather Science. By R. G. K. Lempfert. Pp. 94 Navigation. By W. Hall. By A University Woman. Pp. 94. Marriage and Motherhood. -By H. S. Davidson. Pp. 94. (Lon- don and Edinburgh: T. C. and E. C. Jack.) 6d. net each. Congress of the Universities of the Empire, 1912. Pp. 96. The Baby. Report of Proceedings. Edited by Dr. A. Hill. Pp. xlii+ 464. (London : Hodder and Stoughton.) tos. net Primeval Man. By A. H. Quiggin. Pp. 140. (London: Macdonald and Evans.) ts. 6d. net. Sentinel Hours. By Prof. E. E. Speight. Pp. viii+261+plates. (London: A. and C. Black.) 2s. The South Pole. By R. Amundsen. Translated by A G. Chater. Vol i., pp. xxxv+392+map. Vol. ii., pp- X+449+maps. (London: J. Murray.) Two vols., 2 guineas net. A History of Geographical Discovery in the Seven- teenth and Eighteenth Centuries. By E. Heawood. Pp. xii+475. (Cambridge University Press.) 12s. 6d. net. Karakoram and Western Himalaya, 1909. An Account of the Expedition of H.R.H. Prince Luigi Amedeo of Savoy, Duke of the Abruzzi. By F. de Filippi. Pp: xvii+469+plates, and volume of Plates and Maps. (London: Constable and Co., Ltd.) Two vols., 63s. net. The Beginner’s Guide to the Microscope. By C. E. Heath. Pp. 119. (London: P. Marshall and Co.) Is. net. Herbals: their Origin and Evolution. By A. Arber (Mrs. E. A. Newell Arber). Pp. xviiit+253. (Cam- bridge University Press.) 10s. 6d. ‘net. An Elementary Treatise on Coordinate Geometry of Three Dimensions. By Dr. R. J. T. Bell. Pp. xviii+ 381. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd.) ros. net. Mixed Metals or Metallic Alloys. By A. H. Hiorns. Third edition. Pp. xx+469. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd.) 6s. DIARY OF SOCIETIES. THURSDAY, November 28. INSTITUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Farthed v. Unearthed Neutrals on Alternating Current Systems: J. S. Peck. Concrete InstITUTE. at 7.30.—Bills of Quantities for Reinforced Concrete Work : John M. Theobald. SATURDAY, NoveMeBER 30. Essex Frevn Crop (atthe Essex Museum, Stratford), at 6.—Some Letters from the Rev. Wm. Derham, Rector of Upminster, Essex, to Dacre Barrett. of Belhus, Essex (1704-1710) Communicated, with Remarks, by T. Barrett- Lennard. —The Mycetozoa: Miss Gulielma Lister. MONDAY, DECEMBER 2. R6NTGEN Society, at 8.15. Rowe Society or Arts, at 8.—Methods of Economising Heat: C. R. arling. Society oF Cuemicat InpustRY, at 8.—New Apparatus for the Examina- tion of Mine Air: L. A. Leyy.—Slate Bed Treatment of Sewage: W. J. Dibdin. ARISTOTELIAN SOCIETY, at 8.Purpose and Evolution: A. Lynch. RoyaL GEoGRAPHICAL Society, at 8.30.—Geographical Results of the Abor Expedition: A. Bentinck and Capt. Beauchamp Duff Society of ENGINEERS, at 8.—TVhe Deflection of Reinforced Concrete Beams: P. J. Waldram. TUESDAY, DECEMBER 3. InsTiturion oF Civit ENGINEERS, at 8.—Further Discussion: Mech- anical Handling of Coal for British Locomotives: C. J. B. Cooke.— Paper: Vhe Vibration of Rifle Barrels : F. Carnegie. ILLUMINATING ENGINEERING SOCIETY. at 8.—Modern Methods of Indirect Lighting : Their Advantagesand Merits: F. W. Willcox and H. C. Wheat. WEDNESDAY, DECEMBER 4. ovens Society or Arrs, at 8.—The Manufacture of Sugar from Wood, and its Economic Importance : A. Zimmermann, NO. 2248, VOL. 90] Gro.ocicat Society, at 8.—The Lower Palzozoic Rocks of th» Cautley District. Dr. J. E. Marr.—(1) The Trilobite Fauna of the Comley Breccia Bed se propetire) (2) Two Species of Paradoxides from Neves Castle (Shropshire): E. S. Cobbold. uae Society oF pee ANaLysTSs, at 8.—The Value of the Guaiacum Test for Bloodstains: H. S. Shrewsbury.—The Detection of Adulteration in Linseed Oil: G. D. Elsdon and H. Hawley.- The Determination of Nitrates and Nitrites in Sewage Effluents: A. Higginson.—The Estima- tion of Citric Acid and its Separation from Tartaric and Succinic Acids: L. Gowing-Scopes. ENTOMOLOGICAL Society, at 8. THURSDAY, DECEMBER 5. Royat Society, at 4.30.—Probable Papers: Physiological Observations made on Pike’s Peak. Colorado, with Special Reference to Adaptation to Low Barometric Pressures: C. G. Douglas, Dr. J. S. Haldane, Y. Hender- son and E. C. Schneider.—Notes on the Life History of 77ypanosoma gambiense, with a Brief Reference to the Cycles of 77ypanosoma nanum and Trypanosoma pecorum in Glossina palpalis: Muriel Robertson. —A Gregarine Steinina votundata, nov. sp., present in the Mid-gut of Bird Fleas of the Genus Ceratophyllus : Dr, Te H. Ashworth and Dr, T. Rettie.—(1) The Size of the Aorta in Warm-blooded Animals and its Relationship to the Body Weight and to the Surface Area expressed in a Formula ; (2) The Size of the Trachea in Warm-blooded Animals and its Relationship to the Weight, the Surface Area, the Blood Volume and the Size of the Aorta: Prof. G. Dreyer, W. Ray, and E. W. A. Walker.— Studies of the Processes operative in Solutions. The Conversion of Ammonic Cyanate into Urea, especially as Influenced by Alcohols: E. E. Walker.—(1) The Hydrolysis of Cane Sugar by Dilute Acids; (2) The Hydrolysis of Cane Sugar by Sulphuric Acid, with a Note on Improve- ments in Polarimetic Apparatus 3 (3) The Hydrolysis of Methylic Acetate by Acids: F. P. Worley.—The Nature of Hydrolytic Process : Dr. H. E. Armstrong and F. P. Worley.—The Direct Production of Characteristic Réntgen Radiations by Kathode Particles; Dr. R. T. Beatty.—The Penetrating Power of the y Rays from Radium C: A. S. Russell.—The Photo-electric Behaviour of lron in the Active and Passive State: Dr. H. S. Allen. —A Determination of the Radiation Constant: H. B. Keene. Linnean Society, at 8.—Notes on Two Orchids New to East Sussex, and on several Rarer Species of (rchidacee: E. J. Bedford.—The Hebridean Diagona described as ‘‘ Syntethys,”’ and other Exhibits from the Cruise of the S.Y. Runa in 1912: Prof. W. A. Herdman.—Nature Camera Work, an Attempt to Combine Photography with Drawing in Body-colour: Miss Maud Umfreville Clarke.—Coluured Drawings of South African Plants : Miss RUSS Uetay No Ww. LESS ployed in researches has been so increased in delicacy that it is possible to obtain average measurements over very small distances which approximate, if they cannot reach, to the measure- ment of the strain at a point. . t.—Transparent spur wheels in circularly polarised light. Optical science has, however, provided a very perfect method for investigating the stress at a point, and the mathematical and physical investigations of physicists, among them Neu- mann, Clerk Maxwell, Mesnager and _ Filon, on the temporary double refracting properties of stressed glass have made it possible to enlist the aid of a valuable experimental means of studying internal stresses produced in models of structures and machines. It is not necessary here to show that the stresses in glass of good optical quality agree very closely with the calculated values of the theory of elas- ticity. It is worth while, however, to point out that the apparent neglect of a valuable means of technical research has been due to almost un- avoidable causes, the chief of which have been the great cost and fragility of glass specimens when shaped to forms adapted for investigations, and the necessity of employing very small models to suit the dimensions of the optical appliances available. Some of these difficulties have been removed by | bands or brushes, NO. 2249, VOL. 90| | the substitution for NATURE 393 rlass of one of the nitro-cellu- lose compounds now available. These compounds approach glass in the perfection of their optical properties, and are considerably superior in ducti- lity, and in the ease with which the material can be fashioned into complicated shapes at a fraction of the cost of glass specimens. An example of this is afforded by the accompanying photograph, Fig. 1, a pair toothed wheels of transparent material shaped in a gear-cutting machine in exactly the same way, and as accurately their metal counterparts. They are shown here under somewhat heavy loads; and the con- dition of internal stress is marked by colour fringes, which appear as black bands in the photograph. An important feature of this kind of material is its ability to sustain stresses,of as much as several thousands of pounds per square inch without injury, so that the double refraction produced by the load- ing can be made much more intense than in glass, fractures at very small loads. of of as which usually Fic. 2.—Model of cement briquette in plane polarised light. The comparative rarity and great cost of large Nicol prisms have also restricted optical investiga- tions to very small objects, but, as will be shown, this difficulty has been surmounted, and the size of the specimen illuminated by plane or circularly polarised light may be chosen at pleasure. Although not an essential feature, it may be mentioned that the brilliant colour effects of double refraction may be permanently recorded in a very convenient manner by any of the modern photo- graphic plates now available. In describing in general outline a method of obtaining the stress distribution in a loaded body, it may be useful to recall that a glass or celluloid body under stress causes an incident beam of pee polarised light to divide into two rays, which have different phases at exit, and also have their | planes of vibration in the directions of the principal axes of stress in the body. A stressed object between crossed Nicols, therefore, shows dark and these mark the positions 384 NATURE [DECEMBER 5, 1912 of points in the body corresponding to definite inclinations of the principal axes of stress. If, for example, we take a transparent model of some stressed object, such as a cement briquette, Fig. 2, of the form used by engineers for testing the tensile strength of cements, we can observe the movements of the bands shown on this model as the Nicols are rotated, and can mark the positions of the axes of principal stress at every point in the specimen. A series of positions of the central lines of these isoclinic bands is shown in Fig. 3a for this case, and from these curves we can readily obtain, by graphical or other processes, a map of the lines of principal stress (Fig. 3b) throughout the body. The isoclinic lines are especially valuable for verifying the results of mathematical calculations,! as only small loads need to be employed, thereby avoiding the fracture of costly glass specimens and the possible variation of the physical properties of the material (a) Fic. at high stresses. ever, and in cases where a mathematical solution is not available, it is generally advisable, and it may be necessary, to measure the intensity of the double refraction produced by load. The colour ‘fringes indicating the stress are observed more accurately with circularly polarised light as the isoclinic bands are then absent, and the difference of the principal stresses at a point can be obtained from a colour or a wave-length scale. A direct measure can also be obtained by stressing a simple tension member, set along one direction of principal stress, until the field is reduced to blackness at the point desired. This has the advantage of being a zero method, and is simple to carry out with ordinary mechanical appliances. The problem of determining accurately the principal stresses separately is, in general, one of some difficulty, and a combined method depending on optical and thermo-elastic properties has been 1“ The Investigation of Stresses in a Rectangular Bar by means of Polarised Light.” By L. N. G. Filon, PAi2. Mag., January, 1912. NO. 2249, VOL. 90] suggested,” but in many cases this may be accom- plished fairly accurately by approximate methods, especially where one principal stress is very great compared with the other. In the present instance, the chief interest lies in the distribution of stress at the minimum section, where fracture is intended to take place. The minor principal stress at this section is small everywhere, and vanishes at the ends. Hence, the experimental curve of values of the difference of principal stresses at the section, Fig. 3c, also shows the tensions at the ends accurately, and very nearly so at other points. If this stress curve is integrated and compared with the stress applied, a mean value of the minor principal stress may be determined, and an approximation to the minor principal stress distribution obtained. Even without this we can see that the stress across the section of a cement briquette probably varies very greatly, and that | | the universal method of reckoning the stress i (2) (c) 3-—Model of a cement briquette: (a) Centre lines of isoclinic bands. (4) Linesof principal stress. (c) Approximate stress distribution at the section of fracture. In technical problems, how- , intensity, by dividing the total applied load by | the cross sectional area, is inaccurate and mis- leading. Experiment shows also that models of the standard briquettes of Continental Europe, America and England differ appreciably in their stress distribution curves, and have, in fact, no common basis for the comparison of results.* for examining models of structures and parts of machines it is usually essential to obtain a | field of view in circularly polarised light far beyond the scope of the largest Nicol prisms: and quarter wave plates hitherto constructed. In collaboration with Prof. Silvanus P. Thompson these difficulties have been overcome by the con- struction of polariscopes and quarter-wave plates of a size beyond any immediate requirements.* One of these instruments is shown in cross- 2 The Determination of the Stresses in Springs and other Bodies by Optical and Electrical Methods.” By E. G. Coker, Brit. Assoc., 1912, and Engineering, September 20, 1912. * “The Distribution of Stress at the Minimum Section of a Cement Briquette.”" By E.G. Coker, the International Congress for Testing Materials, New York, 1912. 4 “The Design and Construction of Large Polariscopes.”” By Profs. E. G. Coker and S. P. Thompson, Optical Convention, London, rgr2. DECEMBER 5, 1912] NATURE 385 section by Fig. 4. Light from a bank of lamps, A, is diffused by tissue-paper screens, B, and after- wards reflected from a black glass plate, C, set Fic. 4.—Cross-section of a polariscope for examining models of girders and ships. at the polarising angle. Quarter-wave plates D and E are arranged to produce a circularly polar- ised field in the object space, F, and for demonstra- tion purposes the analyser is con- structed of thin glass plates, G, while a small Nicol prism is used for quantitative. work. This ap- paratus, intended for models of bridge structures and ships, is capable of affording a clear field of view through quarter-wave plates of nearly a yard in length and a foot in depth, but so far no models of this size have been found necessary. Polariscopes of a size adapted to show the whole of a model at one A time appear to be essential for suc- \° cessful work in many instances. as An example of their use is SB afforded by a determination of the distribution of stress in a long thin plate, A, Fig. 5, subjected to pure shear.° A plate of celluloid, 3/16 in. thick and ro in. long, was rigidly clamped at the sides, B, . \ and a maximum pull of about three tons was exerted by a cen- trally disposed weight, W, thereby affording a nearly pure shear over the free portions of the plate. The whole of the sheared area was visible in the field of view of the polariscope, and with the aid of a calibrating tension member the distribution of shear stress was plotted for different lengths 5 “An Optical Determination of the Variation of Stress in a Thin Rectangular Plate subjected to Shear.” By E. G. Coker, Proc. R.S., vol. Ixxxvi, 1912. NO. 2249, VOL. 90| of plate. The mean shear applied was 800 lb. per square inch in all cases, and the results show some interesting peculiarities. Inj a long thin plate the shear stress rises slightly | in value from the centre to near the ends, and | then rapidly falls to a zero value at the extreme edges of the plate. The maxima become more pronounced as the plate is shortened, until a critical length is reached, where the distribution changes to one with a central maximum and ultimately becomes parabolic in character with a large increase of intensity, as the final curve shows. Another field of usefulness which suggests itself is the application of optical science to the design of structural members. If, for example, we take a model eye-bar of a type often used in suspension bridges and the lower chords of pin-connected trusses, we can readily obtain (Fig. 6a) a map of the lines of principal stress for this form, and their general resemblance to those obtained in a hook® at once suggests that across the principal section the stress is very badly distributed. It is apparently very intense at the eye and rapidly decreases until it ultimately changes to com- pression stress at the *outer end of the section. Experiments now partly completed confirm this view, and they also show that another form (Fig. 6b) gives a much better stress distribution wholly tensional across the principal section, as the curves of principal stress indicate. Measured shear Stress in pounds pr square inch. 250 500 750 /000 1250 ~~ — length of Specimen, Inches Fic. 5.—Distribution of stress in a long thin plate subjected to shear. Both forms appear to restrict unduly the lines of stress where the head joins the main member, 6 “The Optical Determination of Stress.” By E. G. Coker, Pil. Mag., 1910. 386 NATURE [DECEMBER 5, 1912 and it is inferred that the head ought to merge more gradually into the main body of the member than is at present the common practice. The applications of optical science may possibly be of use, therefore, in the design of structures and machines, as these examples indicate, especially where new problems arise, such as in the design and construction of aeroplane stays and struts, Fic. 6.—Lines of principal stress in two standard types of eye-bars used in bridge structures. where a poorly designed member adds weight | have been infected without coresponding strength, and may by its | yet only 15 per cent. failure result in a serious loss of life. E. G. COKER. THE WARFARE AGAINST TUBERCU- IELONSIES ROF. METCHNIKOFEF delivered the Lady Priestley Memorial Lecture for 1912-13 under the auspices of the National Health Society at the Royal Society of Medicine on November 29. Sir Crichton Browne presided, and among others present were Sir Thomas Barlow, President of the Royal College of Physicians, Sir Rickman Godlee, President of the Royal College of Sur- geons, Sir Ray Lankester, Sir James Goodhart, Sir Almroth Wright, Sir Lauder Brunton, Dr. and Mrs. Priestley, Sir Edward and Lady Busk, and Mr. and Mrs. Stephen Paget. The subject of the lecture was the campaign against tuberculosis, and subjoined is a summary of Prof. Metchnikoff’s remarks. Although tuberculosis had been regarded by some as contagious, particularly in southern countries, it was a French observer, Villemin, who NO. 2249, VOL. 90] fifty years ago showed that the disease can be transmitted by inoculation. Then in 1881 Robert Koch discovered the causative germ, the tubercle bacillus. Several species, or at least strains, of the tubercle bacillus are known, and _piscian, avian, and mammalian forms are now recognised, and the bacilli of man and of bovine animals also exhibit differences, but the variety peculiar to man is the great source of human tuberculosis. Tuberculosis is a common dis- ease, but does not kill rapidly, and may take months or even years before ending fatally. The bacillus causes the formation in the tissues of cellular nodules, the tubercles, in which large multi-nucleated cells, the “giant ” cells, are present, and perform a defensive function, ingesting and destroying tubercle bacilli, so that in favourable cases the nodules heal and disappear, or become fibrous or calcareous and inert. There is evidence that tubercu- lous infection is exceedingly fre- quent, for the healed or calcareous tubercles are very common at the apex of the lung of those dying from any cause, and can also be demonstrated by applying the Pirquet test. This consists in applying tuberculin to a scarified patch on the skin, which gives rise in tuberculous persons to an inflamed red spot, and go per cent. of the adult European popu- lation is shown in this way to with the tubercle bacillus, die of tuberculosis. Among the Kalmuk Tartars, studied by Prof. Metchni- koff, however, tuberculosis is rare, but this is not due to a natural insusceptibility, for Kalmuk youths residing in towns in Russia for purposes of education contract tuberculosis freely. Attempts to cure tuberculosis by drugs, diet, climate, serum, and tuberculin were discussed, but the conclusion was expressed that, though some of these are helpful, no real remedy or sure treatment for tuberculosis has been found. | Nevertheless, the death-rate from tuberculosis in | large cities, | Copenhagen, such as London, Hamburg, and is steadily declining, and this result Prof. Metchnikoff ascribes to unconscious inocu- lation by infection with mild or benign strains of the tubercle bacillus, which serves to protect against the virulent organism. It is on these lines that Prof. Metchnikoff believes that the stamping out of tuberculosis is to be attempted, viz., the discovery or artificial production of strains of the tubercle bacillus having but slight viru- lence, which, on inoculation in suitable doses, will serve to protect the inoculated against the viru- lent organism. Ro Dae ——— DECEMBER 5, 1912| NATURE 387 REPORT OF THE GOVERNMENT CHEMIST. jie his report! upon the work of the Government Laboratory for the year 1911-12, the Govern- ment Chemist gives a short historical introduction, showing the principal steps in the progress of the department. Che origin of the laboratory dates back to 1843. Its duties at first were mainly concerned with checking the adulteration of tobacco; but subse- quently its scope was extended, and other branches of the executive besides the fiscal departments obtained permission of the Treasury to avail them- selves of its services. Recently, in order to pro- mote the centralisation of Government chemical work, and to place all the departments using the laboratory on the same footing, it was constituted a separate establishment, with the official title of “The Department of the Government Chemist.” There are two branches of the laboratory, namely, the main building, at Clement’s Inn Passage, and a smaller establishment at the Custom House. In the present report the matter has been classi- fied more conveniently than formerly, and in respect of the chief substances examined explana- tory notes are given, showing for what purposes the analyses are undertaken. These modifications make the report so much the more easily under- stood by the non-technical reader. Evidence of the necessity for the kind of analytical control which the laboratory exercises is to be found in plenty in the pages of the report. For example, in the matter of safeguarding the | revenue it was found that the “declarations ” of brewers, on which the assessment of beer-duty is based, were erroneous in 20 per cent. of the cases examined during the year. Also, out of 2608 samples of certain exported spirituous articles on which rebate was claimed, the proportion of alcohol was found to have been wrongly stated by the exporters in 315 instances, and the amount of sugar in 185. In connection with the supervision of foodstuffs, more than a quarter of a million pounds’ weight of tea was condemned as containing sand or being otherwise unfit for consumption. This quantity of tea, it is noted, though apparently large, is small compared with the total amount of tea imported, namely 347 millions of pounds. The rejected tea was allowed to be used free of duty as a source of the alkaloid caffeine. Of the samples of imported butter examined, 30 per cent. were found to con- tain boron preservative, and 13°7 per cent. to have been coloured artificially. Oysters suspected to have caused copper poisoning were proved, on analysis, to contain not only copper, but zinc. A few samples of malt and beer were found to contain an excessive quantity of arsenic, which was gener- ally traced to the fuel used in drying the malt. For many years past analytical work has been done in connection with supervision of dangerous trades by the Home Office. Numerous samples of air from collieries were examined last year for 1 Report of the Government Chemist upon the Work of the Government Laboratory.— Cd. 6363. NO. 2249, VOL. 90| the purposes of the Mines Regulation Bill; and from pottery works where cases of lead poisoning had occurred fifty-six specimens of the glazes in use were taken; these proved to contain lead ranging in amount from 9 to 51 per cent. With few exceptions the whole of the lead present was “soluble” lead—accentuating once more _ the danger which attends the use of this form of lead in pottery glaze. The total number of analyses and examinations made during the year was 195,170, as compared with 186,044 for the preceding year. ANNIVERSARY MEETING OF THE IROVAUE, (SOXCHUBINNG HE anniversary meeting of the Royal Society was held, as usual, on St. Andrew’s Day, | November 30, when the report of the council was presented, the president’s address was read, and the new council, the names of the members of which were given in Nature of November 14 (p. 312) was elected. From the report of the council, we learn that the Government of India has agreed to appoint an additional European assistant in the Indian Meteorological Department, and to maintain the scheme of observations of the upper air for a further period of ten years, unless in the mean- time they prove void of result. The council of the Royal Cornwall Polytechnic Society has informed the Gassiot Committee that it will be necessary, owing to insufficiency of funds, to discontinue Falmouth Observatory at the end of the year. Individual members of the committee have been giving their support to efforts that are being made to secure the necessary financial assistance for that observatory from Government. The attention of the council has been directed to the urgent desirability of installing self-record- ing magnetic instruments at suitable stations in South Africa, as few standard records of ter- restrial magnetism are available for the southern hemisphere; and also to the great need of pro- | viding stations to take part in the observations of tidal disturbance of the solid earth, which are now being inaugurated in Europe and America under the general direction of Dr. Hecker, of Strasburg. The council has transmitted to the Royal Society of South Africa, for its information and for transmission to the South African Govern- ment, the opinion of the Royal Society that pro- vision for installing and attending to permanent magnetographs, giving continuous magnetic re- cords at suitable observatories at different places in South Africa, and also arrangements for ob- servations on tidal deformation of the solid earth, are urgently needed in the international interests of the sciences of terrestrial magnetism and geodesy. Reference was made by the council last year to the provision of new buildings for the Nationa! Physical Laboratory. The estimated cost of these buildings, together with the Wernher Metallurgy 388 NATURE [DECEMBER 5, 1912 building recently erected, was 30,000l., or 35,000!. including equipment. Towards this total the sum of 10,0001. was given by Sir Julius Wernher, and 15,0001. will be provided by the Treasury. Some additional amounts have also been received. For the further sums necessary the laboratory will be dependent on the assistance of other donors. E. W. Hobson. —The Determination of the Nature of a Function from a Knowledge of One of its Derivatives : W. H. Young.—Mersenne’s Primes = J. McDonnell. InstiruTION oF ELEcTRICAL ENGINEERS, at 8.—A Single Phase Motor with Pole Changing Windings: J. S. Nicholson and B. P. Haigh. Roya Society oF Arts, at 4.30.—Delhi, the Metropolis of India: Sir Bradford Leslie, K.C_1.E. y " ConcrETE INSTITUTE, at 7.30.—The Effects on Concrete of Acids, Oils and Fats : Robert Cathcart and Laurence’Gadd. FRIDAY, DECEMBER 13- Royat ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY, at s. CONTENTS. PAGE The Metabolism of Lepidopterous Pupz. By 107 ie Oe ls Cn BMOMBRO oc o 5 StAe Sylvester's Mathematical Papers. By G. B. M. 379 Philosophy of Nature. By A. E. Crawley. .... 380 Our Bookshelf vo ee lets S.C Letters to the Editor :— The Moon and Poisonous Fish.—D. E,. Hutchins 382 What the British Caves might tell us.—W. J. Lewis Abbott . .. syedee Uiemeuece e-em The Application of Optical Methods to Technical Problems of Stress Distribution. (///ustrated.) By Profi. (G. (Coker ene een 3 Ane The Warfare against Tuberculosis. By R. T. H. . 386 Report of the Government Chemist Anniversary Meeting of the Royal Society. . . . 387 INotesii. 3 ed eee cco ee Our Astronomical Column :— Radium in the Chromosphere. . . ....... » 393) Observations: of Jiupiteny si = =" | a) | eee The Discovery of Gale’s Comet, I912a. . . . . . . 394 A Star Calendar :°, ety loenee 394 The Spectroscopic Binary 8 Scorpionis Pts 6 es Medical Research and Public Health .. .... 304 Geography at the British Association . . . 5 ae Physiology at the British Association. By Dr. H. E. oat’, 5... SO SR SOME 25 ae Agriculture at the British Association oe ete The Palctte of the Illuminator from the Seventh | to the End of the Fifteenth Century, By Dr. A. P. Laurie Blt as ig ae eric. 6 pe steleg University and Educational Intelligence. . . . . . 399 Societies and Academies ....:2.... ht. OU Books Received . Pee Me ea cc IDiaryiof ‘Societies’ <2 /.2 -ee le oe ee 404. Editorial and Publishing Offices: MACMILLAN & CO., Ltp., ST. MARTIN’S STREET, LONDON, W.C. Advertisements and business letters to be addressed to the Publishers. Editorial Communications to the Editor. Telegraphic Address: Puusis, LONDON. Telephone Number: GERRARD 8830. A WEEKLY ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL OF “To the solid ground Of NCE trusts the mind eae builds for aye.’’—WoRDSW4RTH. No. 2250, VOL. 99] =. THURSDAY, DECEMBER 12, 1912 Registered as a Newspaper at the General Post Office.) REYNOLDS & BRANSON, Te XMAS PRESENTS (AWARDED GRAND PRIX, TURIN, 1911.) Asi. SPECIAL APPARATUS for Consterdine & Andrews’ “ PRACTICAL ARITHMETIC.” Set ‘SA,” 120 models, £1 LASTING INTEREST. BAROMETERS, THERMOMETERS, FIELD AND OPERA GLASSES, OPTICAL AND (0) MAGIC LANTERNS, MICROSCOPES, &c., Set “ B,” 75 models MEDICAL BATTERIES, VIBRO MASSAGE eras £0 16 6 INSTRUMENTS. (Descriptive List on ~ A catto NEWTON & CO., = ar a, Opticians to H.M. the King, Special Rees for Mackenzie and Forster’s 72 WIGMORE STREET, W. Theoretical & Practical Mechanics & Physics. (2 minutes from Bond Street Station, C.L.R.). Detailed Catalogue on Application. THE “CHEMICAL” WEATHER GLASS, CATALOGUES POST FREE. post free 4/-, is the most interesting instrument for fore- telling changes in the weather. | Scientific Apparatus and Chemicals. Apparatus for Teaching Mechanics, Machine and Building Construction. Also Special Consulting Room for Spectacles, Optical Lanterns. Photographic Apparatus. Pince-nez, &c. ———=_— ST | 14 COMMERCIAL STREET, LEEDS. NEW ‘LONDON’ x MICROSCOPE. THE HANDLE MODEL WITH | 6&8 LARGE BASE. 80 FINISHED IN BLACK ENAMEL. | 86 This new mocel of the London Student's oe Microscope has an extra large and heavy | $9 base, giving it great stability. | @0 It is on the Handle eo Model and the _illus- ce A Recording 2 Barometer of 33 the highest 38 quality and $s ’ best finish. = tration shows its con- oe 80 paciene pattern: Se Accsnisble Presents. 33 & *,4 | e8 The problem of finding really acceptable Gifts at § a can Tyee hp es Christmas time is solved by many of our instru- 83 + B02 2” Object es ments, as— Barographs, Barometers, Binoculars, = OES) 120 | $8 Telescopes, Microscopes, Meteorological Appara- $9 » 804 ¥ Object, 100 | #9 tus, &c., and a 100-page Illustrated List of 38 »» 392A Double 5 “SCIENTIFIC PRESENTS ” 88 Nosepiece 90 “8 will be sent post free on request. - eo (eft) W) tS oe _.'*°|# NEGRETTI & ZAMBRA, No. i . eo focussing substage,ea7.6 | $2 Holborn Viaduct, London, E.C. 38 (as rllustration). oe BRANCHES: gs —— R, &J.BECK, Ltd. | $¢ 45 Cornhill, E.C.; 122 Regent St., W. 3% z : —= DON, E.0, | SedeSedededocecececosese cece cece lececececesececececeoece SS 68 CORNHILL, LONDON, E.C. cl NATURE | DECEMBER 12, 1912 ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. ALBEMARLE STREET, PICCADILLY, W. LECTURES ARRANGEMENTS BEFORE EASTER, 1913. FIRST COURSE (ADAPTED TO A JUVENILE AUDITORY) (Experimentally Illustrated), Professor Str James Dewar, LL.D., F.R.S.—Course of Six Lectures ‘on ‘“‘CuristmAs LecrureE Epirocues”—‘' AtcHEMy,’ Dec. 28; ‘“ Atoms,” Dec. 313 ‘‘Licut,” Jan. 2; ‘‘CrLoups,” Jan. 4; ‘‘ METEOR- ITEs,”’ Jan. 7; ‘‘FRoz—EN Wor-Lps,” Jan. 9, at Three o'clock. COURSES OF LECTURES. Professor Witt1am Bateson, F.R.S.—Six Lectures on ‘‘ THE HERE- DITY OF SEX AND SOME COGNATE Proscems.” On Tuesdays, Jan. 14, 21, 28, Feb. 4, 11, 18, at Three o'clock. Professor H. H. Turner, F.R.S.—Three Lectures on ‘‘ THE Move- MENTS OF THE Stars.” On Tuesdays, Feb. 25, March 4, 11, at Three o'clock. Sreron Gorpon, Esq., F.Z.S.—Two Lectures on ‘“‘ Birnps oF THE HILL Country.” On Thursdays, Jan. 16, 23, at Three o'clock. Professor B. Hopkinson, F.R.S—Two Lectures on ‘‘ RECENT RESEARCH ON THE GAS ENGINE.” On Thursdays, Jan. 30, Feb. 6, at Three o'clock. Sir Stoney Les, D.Litt., LL.D.—Three Lectures on ‘‘ THE Dawn oF Empire IN SHAKESPEARE’S Era.” On Thursdays, Feb. 13, 20, 27, at Three o'clock. W. B. Harpy, Esq.. F.R.S.—Two Lectures on ‘* SuRFACE ENERGY.” On Thursdays, March 6, 13, at Three o’clock. Henry Watrorp Davies, Esq., Mus.Doc., LL.D.—Three Lectures on “Aspects oF Harmony” (with Musical Illustrations). On Saturdays, Jan. 18, 25, Feb. 1, at Three o'clock. Professor Sir J. J. THomson, O.M., LL.D., F.R.S.—Six Lectures cn “THE PROPERTIES AND CONSTITUTION OF THE ATom.” On Saturdays, Feb. 8, 15, 22, March 1, 8, 15, at Three o'clock. Subscription (to Non-Members) to all Courses of Lectures, Two Guineas. Subscription to a Single Course of Lectures, One Guinea, or Half-a-Guinea. Tickets issued daily at the Institution, or sent by post on receipt of Cheque or Post-Office Order. The Fripay EventnG MEErTInNGs will begin on January 17, at 9 p.m., when Protessor Sir J. J. THomson will give a Discourse on ‘‘ FURTHER APPLICATIONS OF THE MetTHOp oF Positive Rays.” Succeeding Discourses will probably be given by Professor J. O. ARNOLD, Mr. G. M. TREVELYAN, SiIR_ JoHN Murray, Professor A. Gray, Mr. S. U. PickerinG, Mr. C, I. R. Witson, Professor THe Hon. R. J. Strutt, Dr. A. E. H. Turton, and other gentlemen. To these Meetings Members and their Friends only are admitted. Members are entitled to attend all Lectures delivered in the Institution, the Libraries, and the Friday Evening Meetings, and their Families are admitted to the Lectures at a reduced charge. Payment: First Year, Ten Guineas; afterwards, Five Guineas a Year; or a composition of Sixty Guineas. Persons desirous of becoming Members are requested to apply to the SECRETARY. THE SIR JOHN CASS TECHNICAL INSTITUTE, JEWRY STREET, ALDGATE, E.C. The following Special Courses of Instruction will be given during the Lent and Summer Terms, 1913 :— CONDUCTION IN GASES AND RADIO-ACTIVITY. By R. S. Wittows, M.A., D.Sc. A Course of Ten Lectures, fully illustrated by experiments, Friday evenings, 7 to 8 p.m., commencing Friday, January 17, 1913. PRODUCER GAS PRACTICE, SOLID FUELS, THE VALUATION OF FUELS, AND THE CONTROL OF FUEL CONSUMPTION. By J. S. S. Brame. A Course of Ten Lectures, Monday evenings, 7 to 8 p.m., commencing Monday, January 13, 1913. TECHNICAL GAS ANALYSIS. By CuHarces A. Keane, D.sc, Pb.D., F.I.C A Course of Practical Work, Wednesday evenings, 7 to 19 p.m., com- mencing Wednesday, April 23, 1913. FUEL ANALYSIS. By J. S. S. BRaME. A Course of Practical Work, Friday evenings, 7 to 10 p m., commencing Friday, April 25, 1913. Detailed Syllabus of the Courses may be had upon application at the Office of the Institute or by letter to the PrinciPaL. THE MURDOCH TRUST. For the benefit of INDIGENT BACHELORS and WIDOWERS of good character, over 55 years of age, who have done “‘something” in the way of promoting or helping some branch of Science. Donations or Pensions may be granted to persons who comply with these conditions, _ For particulars apply to Messrs. J. & J. TURNBULL, W.S., 58 Frederick Street, Edinburgh. IMPERIAL COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, SOUTH KENSINGTON. INCLUDING ROYAL COLLEGE OF SCIENCE, ROYAL SCHOOL OF MINES, CITY AND GUILDS (ENGINEERING) COLLEGE. A Special Advanced Course of about Forty Lectures with practical work rae given by Professor H. M. Lerroy, M.A. (Imperial Entomologist, ndia). The Course is intended for those who already have a general knowledge of Entomology, and who intend to take up Entomology, especially Economic Entomology, at home or abroad. It is especially arranged for those desiring to qualify for posts in agri- cultural and other departments. It will commence on January 16 next. Fees for Laboratory Work, 42 per term or £5 per month for a more extended Course. The lectures are free for those who obtain permission to attend. For further details and for admission to the Course application should be made to the SECRETARY. IMPERIAL COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, SOUTH KENSINGTON. INCLUDING ROYAL COLLEGE OF SCIENCE, ROYAL SCHOOL OF MINES, CITY AND GUILDS (ENGINEERING) COLLEGE. Special Courses of Advanced Lectures will be given, commencing in January next, as follows :— Sulyect. The Pathology of Plants ... Heredity and Mutations Conducted by Professor BLackMAN, M.A., Sc.D., F.L.S. R. Rucsies Gates, M.A., Ph.D. (Lecturer in Biology, St. Thomas's Hospital). The latter course is free to public. 7 For further information as to these and other courses to follow application should be made to the SECRETARY. UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD. DELEGACY FOR FORESTRY. The Delegates propose to appointa RESEARCH OFFICER fora term of two years to investigate Diseases of Tree+, and to commence work on Februarv 1, 1913, or as soon after that date as may be possible. The salary will be £4co a year, and travelling expenses will be paid. The investigations should extend to Diseases of ‘l'rees, whether caused by fungi, insects, or natural conditions generally. Vhe Research Officer should be a Specialist in either Botany or Entomology, and it is desirable that he should have a general knowledge of Forestry. He will work in connection witb the Oxford School of Forestry. Applications, accompanied by not more than three testimonials, will be received by the undersigned up to January 15, 1913. W. SCHLICH; . Secretary to the Delegates for Forestry. 29 Banbury Road, Oxford, December 6, 1912 IMPERIAL OTTOMAN NAVAL SCHOOL, HALKI, CONSTANTINOPLE. A GRADUATE is required to teach advanced Mathematics, Mechanics and Physics, at a salary of 4350 a year. Candidates must have had experience in a good laboratory. The school equipment will provide opportunities for research work. The person appointed should, if possible, take up work in January. Applications, including testimonials, should be sent to Dr. T. P. Nunn, London Day ‘Iraining College, Southampton Row, W.C., who will supply further information. UNIVERSITY OF BIRMINGHAM. APPOINTMENT OF LECTURER IN PHYSIOLOGICAL DEPARTMENT. Applications are invited for the post of LECTURER in PHYSIOLOGY. Stipend £200 per annum. Applications, with testimonials, must be sent ou or before December 30 to the undersigned, from whom further particulars may be obtained. GEO. H. MORLEY, Secretary. ROYAL NAVAL COLLEGE, DARTMOUTH. VACANCY FOR LABORATORY ASSISTANT. Required, for January 13 next, a LABORATORY ASSISTANT, skilled in wood and metal work, and with practical experience in the con- struction of electrical and mechanical apparatus. Remuneration, 490 per annum, rising to £120 by annual increments of £5. Applications, accompanied by copies of recent testimonials, should be made to the HEApMasTeER, Royal Naval College, Dartmouth. ARCHAZOLOGIST REQUIRED to work on CLASSIFICATION of STONE IMPLEMENTS and ANCIENT POTTERY.—Write experience and full particulars to ‘ RIVERE,” c/o Nature, St. Martin's Street, London, W.C. INA TORE 405 THURSDAY, DECEMBER 12, 1912. VEGETATION STUDIES IN THE NEW WORLD. Die Vegetation der Erde. geographischer Monographien. Edited by Prof. A. Engler und Prof. O. Drude. NII., Die Pflanzenwelt der peruanischen Anden in ihren Grundziigen dargestellt. By Prof. A. Weber- bauer. Pp. xii+355. Price 20 marks. XIII., Phytogeographic Survey of North America. A Consideration of the Phytogeography of the North American Continent, including Mexico, Central America, and the West Indies, together with the Evolution of North American Plant Sammlung pflanzen- Distribution. By Prof. J. W. Harshberger. Pp. Ixiiit+790. Price 40 marks. (Leipzig: W. Engelmann, 1011.) HE two last volumes to be added to Drs. Engler and Drude’s series of plant geographical monographs deal with the vegetation of the Peruvian Andes on the one hand, and that of North and Central America and the West Indies on the other. The field in both cases is vast, and Prof. Harshberger’s volume is of considerable bulk. Dr. Weberbauer’s volume can scarcely be considered a worthy successor to the able mono- graph prepared by Dr. Reiche on plant distribu- tion in Chile (vol. viii. of this series, published in 1907), which is all the more a matter of regret since the Peruvian Andine flora is one of particular interest. A good account of the vegetation of this region, in its relation to that of Chile and Argentina in the south and Ecuador to the north, still requires to be written. Both volumes are excellently printed and illus- trated, and by the illustrations alone Dr. Weber- bauer’s book fulfils a certain’ purpose. A work on the flora of the Peruvian Andes labours under the initial disadvantage of dealing with only a portion of a vast tract of connected country stretching from Chimborazo to the Straits of Magellan. Moreover, since Peru lies so much nearer the equator, the vegetation is much less homogeneous in character than is the case in Chile. Four distinct botanical regions are in- cluded in Peru, each of which demands separate treatment, and the affinities of which lie rather in the longitudinal direction—that is to say, with similarly situated regions of countries to the north and south—than in the transverse. These regions are the coast flora; the middle region, often desert in character; the alpine-Andine flora of the western and central Cordillera, and NO. 2250, VOL. 90] the flora of the moist eastern slopes of the Andes. The alpine region may be considered to extend from about 10,000 feet to the limits of vegetation on the western Cordillera, and to include the western slopes of the eastern range. Its flora is in direct continuation with that of northern Argen- tina and Chile, and is remarkably distinct and characteristic, showing very little relationship to that of the lower western slopes, and still less to that which is found as soon as the crest of the eastern Cordillera is crossed. This highly-specialised nature of the high Andine flora was fully appreciated by Weddell, and it would have been tar more valuable had the “Chloris Andina” been continued first, and a generalisation on the Andine flora as a whole followed in due course. Much still requires to be done in the careful study of the extensive col- lections of South American plants in European herbaria, and then another Hooker will be needed to give us a masterly review of the vegetation of the Andes as a whole. The volume under discussion follows the general plan of the series. The physical geo- graphy of the region is first dealt with; then follows a short second part in which the charac- teristics of the different natural orders found in Peru are mentioned, as well as conspicuous genera, &c. In Part iii. the general character and distribution of the vegetation is described, and its zones are indicated and discussed in detail. The inclusion of the flora of the tropical eastern slopes, which is so Brazilian in its affinities and so different from the rest of the vegetation, seems almost out of place in a work on the Peruvian Andes and cannot be rightly understood without careful comparison with the flora of western Brazil. Dr. Weberbauer’s book, taken as a whole, suffers from being more of the nature of an account of his own travels rather than a general treatise. He has travelled far and wide in the Cordillera, and has proved himself to be an ad- | mirable collector; but, valuable as is his work in many respects, it does not appear, from the volume under review, that he has _ thereby constituted himself the proper person to write a comprehensive work on the flora of Peru. The task undertaken by Prof. Harshberger is even more vast than that of Dr. Weberbauer, and the result is the accumulation of an immense amount of material which has often been but poorly digested. German readers are to be congratu- lated on being presented with an extract by Prof. Q 406 NATURE [DECEMBER 12, 1912 Drude of fifty pages, in lieu of the 700 which have to be faced by English-speaking botanists. The main portion of the volume consists of four parts : “History and Literature of the Botanic Works and Explorations of the North American Conti- “Geographic Climatic and Floristic Survey”; “Geologic Evolution, Theoretic Con- siderations and Statistics of the Distribution of North American Plants,’ and ‘North American Phytogeographic Regions, Formations, Associa- tions.” Following the American custom, the author leaves out the normal ‘‘al” ending of adjectives wherever possible, with unpteasant results. The book consists very largely of extracts taken from the many papers mentioned in the voluminous bibliography, and taken with very little discrimi- nation or critical examination. In consequence, there is a sad mixture of good, bad, and in- different. For example, the statement that Vallisneria occurs “in the sea in a tangled mass ”’ off Newfoundland is inserted without comment, when, as is well known, it is a fresh-water plant, and Zostera marina is the plant in question. Many similar examples of the inclusion of erroneous statements from unworthy sources might be given. From the way the volume is pieced together it is not possible to gain any vivid impression of the flora of North America as a whole. There is no broad generalisation based on the informa- tion which has been so laboriously collected, but the subject-matter tends to be broken up into minutiz of detail. As an example of the way in which the book is made up of information somewhat indiscriminately pieced together, it may be mentioned that the author quotes himself by name as the authority for some of his own statements on p. 381. The whole of North America is divided up into zones, sections, regions, areas, formations, &c., and it is not possible to discuss here the accuracy or otherwise of the citations from which the in- formation is built up. As the sources on which the author has drawn for his information are often far from accurate, it is unfortunately not possible to depend very much on the statistics based upon such questionable data. The smaller defects in printing, &c., are not numerous, though it will be noticed, among other nent’; things, that Fig. 26 has been printed upside down. Our chief cause of regret is that this book should have appeared as one of the volumes of Engler and Drude’s series, “Die Vegetation der Erde,” and that it should thereby receive a certain stamp of authority. NO. 2250, VOL. go| SIGNS AND SYMBOLS, EGYPTOLOGY, AND FREEMASONRY. The Signs and Symbols of Primordial Man, being an Explanation of the Religious Doctrines from the Eschatology of the Ancient Egyptians. By Dr. Albert Churchward. Pp. xxili+ 449. (London: Swan Sonnenschein and Co., Ltd., 1g10.) Price 25s. net. HIS is a book well worth reading, difficult to describe, and impossible to criticise. The title would lead one to expect a scientific analysis and classification of ancient signs and symbols, as well as a digest of the religious doc- trines from the eschatology of the ancient Egyptians. The author in his own discursive way deals with an abundance of materials for a truly scientific work, but the best that can be said of the scientific character of the book is that, with ordinary care in dovetailing the materials and exact references to sources, it would have been a useful work of reference. What makes criticism impossible is (1) the author’s wholesale repudiation of all authorities and theories which cross his path, and (2) the fact that the book is dedicated to “All my brother Masons.” ‘The book covers a vast field outside Egypt, but almost every paragraph bears a stamp which may be interpreted: All was once Egyptian, now Masonic. With great erudition and ingenu- ity—and good-humoured pugnacity—facts and theories of all sorts are massed together in no particular order to form what must be charming reading for Freemasons. There is no lock which the author’s key cannot open. There is no other authority on any of the subjects discussed to be allowed to bar the author’s path. He knows and believes; 18°, 30°, and 33° also know and believe ; and everybody else either does not or should not know. To deal with the author’s exploits in the open field of scientific inquiry would be perfectly useless, because at any adverse turn of the argu- ment some Masonic mystery would envelop both the author and the subject, and you would strike a “dead wall of mystery.” Astronomy and orien- tation are discussed in a grandly dogmatic fashion, and most astounding statements are un- accompanied with anything like a scientific demonstration. The title of the book will doubtless attract readers other than Masonic, and they will find, with a multitude of other statements of the same kind, the origin of the pre-Columbian Americans finally accounted for; Mexican crafts in the Medi- terranean laden with Masonic treasures from Egypt; Egyptian priests invading Ireland and Britain; the Ainu of Japan in Egyptian universi- DECEMBER 12, 1912] NATURE 407 lies; Pythagoras going about Egypt begging for crumbs of information withheld from him, but jealously guarded for the benefit of English and American Freemasons; and the North American Indians talking Welsh, an old story. The following citations selected quite at random on adjoining pages illustrate the author’s method. Referring to the epagomenal days of the Egyptian year, the author observes: “The first, third, and fifth of the epagomenal days were considered unlucky. In Free- masonry these numbers have a peculiar signi- ficance, which all M.M.’s understand, and with the common herd of people these days are still considered as unlucky days and numbers. How many know why or the origin of it?’’ (p. 14). How first-rate authorities are “herded ” by our author is shown in his estimate of Dr. Eduard Seler’s work, ‘“‘that he has not succeeded in giving the true decipherment of any of his trans- lations of the various codices of the Mayas, Mexican, and Central American nations that he has attempted to, and until he recognises Egypt as the primordial and origin we are of opinion that he will not’’ (p. 15). Joun GriFFITH. PEDAGOGICS. (1) Education. A First Book. By Prof. Edward L. Thorndike. Pp. ix+292. (New York: The Macmillan Company; London: Maemillan and Co., Ltd., 1912.) (2) L’Education Physique ou Price 6s. net. lV’ Entrainement Complet par la Méthode Naturelle. Exposé et Résultats. By Georges Hébert. Pp. iii+85+ 8 plates. (Paris: Librairie Vuibert, 1912.) (1) J T need scarcely be said that any book on education by Prof. Thorndike will be sug- gestive and helpful; yet it is not quite easy to realise the constituency for which his latest work is specially written. If this first book is meant for students in training for the teaching profes- sion, it seems to contain at once too little and too much. The volume is a simple introduction to the whole theory of education. Rather less than one-seventh of the book concerns the elementary practical situations which usually come into the control of the beginner. Experience shows that practice, unless it is begun before there is some power of reflection, furnishes the best starting point for the future teacher, and a first book for the trainee should therefore concern itself primarily with bringing out the fundamental features of the practical situation. Chapters on the meaning and value of education, the aims and results of educa- tion and the like appear so remote from the problem of the moment that students are apt to be impatient of them. A background of class- NO. 2250, VOL. 90| room experience would, however, give point and meaning to such discussions. On the other hand, if the book is written for those who have already had teaching experience and come up for a fuller theoretical course, one would again have expected a different proportion in the various parts of the book. Indeed, the slightness of all the discussions almost puts this type of reader out of consideration. Prof. Thorn- dike has nevertheless written with his usual clear- ness and charm, and nobody who reads the book can fail to find some new illustration, some new way of putting an old point, or some suggestive phrase which he will treasure, and as to our general quarrel with it, we ought to add that ‘probably no two authorities are agreed as to what is the best way of introducing the future teacher to the study of his profession. (2) The English Board of Education has made up its mind about what is the best method of physical training for school children. All this is written down in an official book which every teacher in training must master. Such a pro- ceeding on the part of the Board has its critics, who are not slow to say that there is no one and only system of physical training, and that more depends on the spirit in which the physical exer- cises are gone through than on the particular movements it embraces. “Teach your boys to walk, to run, to jump, to box, and to swim, and leave those artificial extension movements, which mean nothing, alone!” ‘This is the spirit of M. Hébert’s little book. It is not, of course, written in criticism of our Board of Education; it is just a simple account of the methods applied to the physical training of French sailors and of the re- sults achieved. The author calls it the natural method, because his system is based on just those movements which men are called upon to make in the ordinary course of a life of freedom. Teachers and others who are concerned about physical training will find the work interesting and suggestive. It is abundantly illustrated. We. HXe, (Ce OUR BOOKSHELF. The Significance of Ancient Religions. In relation to Human Evolution and Brain Development. By Dr. E. Noel Reichardt. Pp. xiv+456. (London: George Allen and Co., Ltd., 1912.) Price 12s. 6d. net. Tue nature of this work by Dr. Reichardt can be best indicated by a citation from the introduc- tion: “And the practical value of the study of these religions lies in this, that not only does it acquaint us with the forces that have determined human history and built up human character; it affords us, moreover, the key to all the bewildering NATURE | DECEMBER 12, 1912 problems of modern psychology. For these religions tell us exactly what has taken place in the human brain during this period of develop- ment. The evolutionary process . has added to the human brain a new layer of cells; and it is the progressive development of this new layer of cells, carried on through each successive wave- let, that has given rise to the astounding phen- omena of human history.”’ The reviewer, although familiar with recent research on the cortex of the brain, has failed to identify “the new layer of cells”” mentioned by Dr. Reichardt. It appears from his text that these cells were at first “barred from contact with the outside world by the pre-existing mind organ,” but in the Greeks it appears ‘the new mass of cells entered into relation with the outside world,” giving “them that brilliant power of objective ideation which still glorifies them in our eyes.” The author’s explanation of the evolution of human religions and human faculties has the merit of simplicity and the unfortunate demerit of being founded on imagination rather than on ascertained facts. Michael Heilprin and His Sons. A Biography. By Gustav Pollak. Pp. xvi+540. (New York: Dodd, Mead and Co., 1912.) Price 3.50 dollars net. MicuaEL HEILPRIN was in many ways a remark- able man. A Polish Jew, who, after a short residence in Hungary, betook himself to the United States, he exhibited an extraordinary faculty for accumulating information. The editor of his life states that he read eighteen languages and his memory was stored with tens of thousands of dates. In America he drifted into literary work and became a writer of articles in encyclopedias and journals and a frequent contributor to the Nation. Of his two sons, Louis, the elder, fol- lowed in the footsteps of his father, but Angelo was destined to achieve a wider fame. Born in Hungary, Angelo Heilprin was taken to Philadelphia at the age of three years. He studied for a year in London at the Royal College of Science, and was much impressed by Huxley’s personality and tuition. At first geology claimed his attention, especially invertebrate paleontology, but in later years he became a well-known traveller, visiting Mexico, the Arctic, British Guiana and Alaska. His greatest achievement in this line was his work in Martinique, where his daring ascent of Montagne Pelée within a few days after the great eruption of May, 1902, showed that in addition to his eminence as a scientific investigator he was a man of indomitable energy and dauntless courage. He died at the early age of fifty-four, having apparently overtaxed his strength by con- tinual travel, writing and lecturing. This biography scarcely does justice to its sub- ject, as there is little biographical matter and the book consists mostly of long cuttings from articles in encyclopedias and journals. Angelo Heilprin had an attractive personality and a fine scientific record, of which we get only faint and distant glimpses in this story of his life. NO. 2250, VOL. 90] LETTERS TO THE VEDIT OR: |The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of Nature. No notice is taken of anonymous communications. | The Rise of Temperature Associated with the Melting of Icebergs. In a letter to Narure published in the issue of December 1, ig10, | showed by means of micro- thermograms taken on a trip to Hudson’s Straits that an iceberg melting in salt water produces a rise of temperature. The experiments were performed on the Canadian Government steamship Stanley, and in- dicated that when approaching ice a rise of tempera- ture occurred followed by a rapid fall of temperature a quarter of a mile abeam of the berg. During the past summer | had an opportunity of examining in detail the temperature etlects of ice- bergs. ‘The Canadian Government placed their steam- ship Montcalm at my disposal for the tests, and three weeks were spent through the Straits of Belle Isle. Careful records were made of the temperature effects of icebergs and land. These tests have shown con- clusively that it is the rise of temperature which is the direct action of the melting iceberg, and that when a fall of temperature is observed near ice it is due to the influence of a colder current from the north in which the iceberg is carried. The cooling influence of the ice itself is very small. Cooler currents exist in the main. Arctic current, whether accompanied by ice or not, but the presence of the ice causes a zone of water of higher temperature to accumulate for a considerable distance about it. The icebergs I studied in the Straits of Belle Isle and off the eastern end of the Straits in the Labrador current showed no cooling effect even within a few yards of them. In Fig. 1 I show the isothermal lines about a typical berg off the eastern end of the Straits of Belle Isle. This diagram was obtained by arranging a number of courses for the ship from all sides up to the ice along radii of six miles. As a good example of how icebergs and groups of icebergs affect the water temperature, I show a microthermogram in Fig. 2 taken from the records which were obtained in a westward passage through the Straits of Belle Isle. In every case the approach to ice caused a rise of temperature. The explanation of this iceberg effect which I gave at my Friday evening discourse at the Royal Institu- tion last May was founded on Pettersson’s theory of ice melting in salt water. By this theory, which can easily be verified by a simple experiment, ice melting in salt water produces three currents: (1) a current of sea water cooled by the ice, which sinks downward by gravity; (2) a current of warm sea water moving towards the ice; (3) a current of light fresh water from the ice, which rises and spreads over the surface of the salt water. I at first thought that it was this surface current of fresh water that influenced the microthermometer in the actual sea tests. The fringe of this lighter water would be warmer than the sea water on account of the action of the sun and scattered radiation, which is very strong at sea. The lighter water would retain the heat because it could not mix readily with the sea water. Near the iceberg I considered that a fall of temperature would result from the cooling in- fluence of the surface current of fresher water. My recent tests have shown, however, that an ice- berg melts so slowly that no effect of the dilution can |3-75°C ABEAM [RUS DELLE ISLE j] \275 € ce, | \ ] | | | | ATA NOR i PI AM OVR JOun Habe /2Z hom (pr ton SAm 4hrw Tren DECEMBER 12, I912| NATURE 409 be detected even right beside the berg. I took a number of samples of sea water at different distances from the berg, as well as from places far from ice. stances, and there is no reason to doubt their correct- ness. Their comparison shows no dilution due to the icebergs, which goes to show how quickly the melted Fic. 1.—Isothermal lines around an iceberg. These samples I carefully bottled and brought home te the laboratory, where they were most accurately tested by the electric conductivity method in our (CB BARES Fic. 2.—Microthermogram through the Straits of Belle Isle, showing the rise of temperature caused by ice. physico-chemical department by Dr. McIntosh and Mr. Otto Maass. The tests were carried out at a constant temperature in the most favourable circum- NO. 2250, VOL. 90] water from the berg is mixed with the sea water. Larger variations were found over different parts of the sea than were obtained in the proximity of ice. My tests have shown that an iceberg probably causes only two of the Pettersson currents, t.e. a cold current sinking downwards carrying with it all the melted ice water, and a horizontal surface current of sea water flowing in towards the ice to cause its melting (see Fig. 3). By this means we should expect the sea in the immediate proximity of icebergs to be warmer than further away, because the sea surface —— a WARM CURRENT ——__> = WARM CURRENT = — ® Re *LOLD CURRENT Fic. 3.—Convection currents due to iceberg melting. The fresh water from the melting berg is carried downwards. current is moving inwards towards the berg, and does not share in the normal vertical circulation which tends to keep the sea surface temperature cooler. It is interesting to find that an iceberg causes its own current of warmer water, thus providing for its own destruction. Abundant evidence is at hand to show the melting process going on under the water- line. Dissolved Air. In my observations of icebergs I was greatly struck with the large amount of dissolved air in the ice 410 NATURE [DECEMBER 12, 1912 The white colour of the berg is due to innumerable air bubbles in the ice, and not to snow on the surface. An iceberg is very deceptive in this way. While it looks quite soft, the ice is so hard as to make it diffi- cult to chop with an axe. The ice water which I prepared for drinking on board ship with iceberg ice effervesced like soda-water, merely due to the libera- tion of the air from the melting ice. It is possible that the sudden disappearance of bergs with a loud report is due to their explosion from accumulated air in the interior. One berg which I studied was cast- ing off small pieces, apparently by the pressure of the pent-up air. Effect of Land. While icebergs send the temperature of the sea up, the coast-line sends it down. 1 believe this to be due to the action of the land in turning up the colder under-water. My observations show this effect not only here, but on the English and Irish coasts. Krom the point of view of the safety of our St. Lawrence route, the effect of land is most important. The iceberg causes us very little worry because we have only a very short ice track, but to find means whereby the presence of land can be determined is of the greatest importance. A full account of my experi- ments is being published by the Canadian Department of Marine. H. T. Barnes. McGill University, November 16. The Bending of Long Electric Waves Round the Globe. I HAVE just noticed (very belatedly) that in your reprint of Dr. Fleming’s admirable opening of the British Association discussion of the problems of wire- less telegraphy, there occurs a passage that raises an objection to a certain mathematical result of mine. Dr. Fleming’s opinion in all matters radio-telegraphic is of such great weight that his objection, whether sound or not, is sure to prejudice the fair considera- tion of a hypothesis 1 have based on the mathematical result in question, and since the objection has obtained the wide publicity of your columns while my own account of the matter has not, I trust you will allow me space to comment upon it. Comment seems especially necessary on account of Dr. Fleming’s eloquent advocacy of certain rival hypotheses. Put briefly, the theorem is to the effect. that the velocity of long electric waves through air containing charged ions is greater than the velocity through un- ionised air, and this leads to a hypothesis for explain- ing, among other things, the propagation of electric waves over the convexity of the globe. In forming the electromagnetic equations I took the average dielectric constant of the ionised air to be the same as that of the un-ionised air, following in this respect the example of previous writers on similar problems. It is to this customary assumption that Dr. Flem- ing’s objection applies. In rebutting the objection there are several plain courses. For example, I might recall that the formula I deduced for the increase of velocity may also be obtained from the accepted theory of ‘‘ anomalous ” dispersion—a theory in which the influence of a finite change of the dielectric constant is considered to be negligible. But in the present instance it seems pre- ferable to take another course, and to ask, plainly, Why should the presence of electrified molecules in the number required by my hypothesis affect the di- electric coefficient used in the differential equations? It must be noticed that the concentration of the ions demanded for bending a ray to fit the curve of the earth is of the order 10° ions per c.c., assuming the ions to be molecular in size; and thus the proportion of ions to molecules is of the order 10o-'. It appears to me most unlikely that such a small propor- NO. 2250, VOL. 90] tion of ions can affect the real dielectric coefficient of the medium, especially in view of the fact that there does not seem to be any direct or indirect evidence based on experimental or theoretical knowledge of gases that can be held to support such a view. I may add that | am quite well aware of many real difficulties confronting the hypothesis. I am not now writing in reference to any of those, but wish merely to point out that the objection urged by Dr. Fleming is, so far as I can see, a remotely conjectural one. W. H. Ecctes: University College, Gower Street, W.C., December 2. The Specular Reflection of X-rays. Ir has been shown by Herr Laue and his colleagues that the diffraction patterns which they obtain with X-rays and crystals are naturally explained by assum- ing the existence of very short electromagnetic waves in the radiations from an X-ray bulb, the wave length of which is of the order 10-* cm. The spots of the pattern represent interference maxima of waves dif- tracted by the regularly arranged atoms of the crystal. Now, if this is so, these waves ought to be regularly reflected by a surface which has a sufficiently good polish, the irregularities being small compared with the length 1o-* cm. Such surfaces are provided by the cleavage planes of a crystal, which represent an arrangement of the atoms of the crystal in parallel planes, and the amount by which the centres of atoms are displaced from their proper planes is presumably small compared with atomic dimensions. In accordance with this, the spots in Laue’s crys- tallographs can be shown to be due to partial reflection of the incident beam in sets of parallel planes in the crystal on which the atom centres may be arranged, the simplest of which are the actual cleavage planes of the crystal. This is merely another way of look- ing at the diffraction. This being so, it was sug- gested to me by Mr. C. T. R. Wilson that crystals with very distinct cleavage planes, such as mica, might possibly show strong specular reflection of the rays. On trying the experiment it was found that this was so. A narrow pencil of X-rays, obtained by means of a series of stops, was allowed to fall at an angle of incidence of 80° on a slip of mica about one millimetre thick mounted on thin aluminium. A photographic plate set behind the mica slip showed, when developed, a well-marked reflected spot, as well as one formed by the incident rays traversing the mica and aluminium. Variation of the angle of incidence and of the distance of plate from mica left no doubt that the laws of reflection were obeyed. Only a few minutes’ expo- sure to a small X-ray bulb sufficed to show the effect, whereas Friedrich and Knipping found it necessary to give an exposure of many hours to the plate, using a large water-cooled bulb, in order to obtain the trans- mitted interference pattern. By bending the mica into an arc, the reflected rays can be brought to a line focus. In all cases the photographic plate was shielded by a double envelope of black paper, and in one case with aluminium one millimetre thick. This last cut off the reflected rays considerably. Slips of mica one-tenth of a millimetre thick give as strong a reflection as an infinite thickness, yet the effect is almost certainly not a surface one. Experiments are being made to find the critical thickness of mica at which the re- flecting power begins to diminish as thinner plates are used. The reflection is much stronger as glancing incidence is approached. W. L. Brace. The Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge, December 8. DECEMBER 12, 1912| NATURE 411 The Investigation of Flint. Tue need for a more accurate knowledge of the dynamics of flint, as pointed out by Sir E. Ray Lankester in Nature of November 21, is very obvious. Though not so remarkable as the Savernake polished flints, yet some are to be found in the shingle for some miles both east and west of Brighton. Flints, too, with even more glaze than either of these are met with on the arable land of this district. These I assume got at some time the benefit of the vegetable ash resulting from the burning of weeds, being raked up along with them. Originally they came in the chalk from the North Downs for the use of the crops. A caution may be useful as to what may be expected as the result of frost action. I have watched many of our Wealden sandstones for about twenty years, chiefly because of my study of the honeycomb weather- ing. One wall I guess at least 100 yards long, on the west side of Mount Pleasant Hill, has soil behind it nearly to the top. It shows good dusty weathering along a line about 2 ft. from the pavement at the junction of the second and third courses of stone. There are, however, two very distinct patches, each two or three yards wide, where this is entirely absent. Why is this? Merely, I believe, because the places happen to get extra rain-water from two adjoining trees, and are never dry all the winter. Parts, how- ever, which are wet and dry alternately frequently suffer. Why, I wonder, is it that the small mammilations seen on the squared flints of the churches in the eastern counties are absent in the southern counties? Again, the Norfolk paramoudra deserve more study than they have had hitherto. This year at Seaford 1 found a 2-in. layer of chert at the top of the chalk, which I was told is usual there. The explana- tion seemed to be that rain-water had taken up silica from the overlying sands and gravels. On the west of Cuckmere Haven the chalk cliffs have also remark- able rings of chert, sometimes 6 in. thick, surround- ing each of the numerous pipes seen in the chalk there. These chert cylinders can be seen lying on the shore owing to the erosion by the sea. For a long time these were great puzzles, but their explana- tion was discovered last year by my friend, Mr. Hy. Preston, of Grantham. GrorGE ABBOTT. Tunbridge Wells, November 23. Remarkable Formation of Ice on a Small Pond. Some soil (which is of a heavy nature), being re- quired, had been dug out to a depth of about a foot. The sides and bottom were thus quite irregular. Rain-water lodged in the hole, thus forming the pond, which was about 4 ft. long, 1 ft. 6 in. wide, and 5 in. maximum depth; the major axis was N.E. and S.W., KAI and the upper surface of the ice about 8 in. below the general level of the ground. The ice was first noticed at 0.30 p-m. on Sunday, December 1. Dark sinuous lines about % in. wide and running about parallel to the major axis were plainly visible. These were seen to be due to the water below touching the ice along these lines, while the bands NO. 2250, VOL. 90| (about 23 in. wide) of white between the lines were due to the water not being in contact with the ice at these portions of the under-surface. The water in the pond had gradually percolated away, and had thus left an air space of about 3 in. between itself and the under- surface of the ice between the dark lines. On break- ing the ice and getting a piece out, it was found to have the remarkable cross section shown in the sketch. The ice was quite clean and clear, and the dovetail ribs were well off the bottom of the pond. The ribs were remarkably regular in form and dimensions, and there were about six lines of them running from end to end of the pond. There was no wind, and the frost on the grass near by was crisp, indicating that the temperature was still below 32° F A. S. E. AcCKERMANN. Anthropology at the British Association. { notice in the article on anthropology at the British Association in Nature of November 21 a slight misstatement, which I should be obliged if you would correct. ; The coloured photographs which I showed to the section were taken partly by my friend Mr. Mellor and myself, and the scenes represent different tombs which T excavated in 1903-05. Rosert Monp. Combe Bank, near Sevenoaks, November 25- ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY. |e Sae the last few years a large number of experiments and observations have been made which, instead of solving the central problem of atmospheric electricity, appear to have made it more difficult than ever. It seems desirable, there- fore, that a short statement of the present position should be placed before the large body of physic- ists who have not yet considered this exceedingly interesting subject. Measurements of the electrical conditions of the atmosphere have now been made over the land from north polar regions through the equator to south polar regions, over the centres of the Atlantic and South Indian Oceans, and on Samoa in the Pacific Ocean. Thus the conditions over both land and ocean areas have been investigated, and everywhere it has been found that the air is a conductor and that the potential gradient is practically the same. ‘The result can be expressed in rather a more objective way by stating that the earth has been found to be a negatively charged sphere, of a nearly uniform surface density, surrounded by a conducting atmosphere. This, however, cannot be a complete statement of the case, for by the laws of electrostatics a charge cannot exist within a conductor, and in consequence the charge on the surface of the earth must be transferred more or less quickly to the outside of the conducting atmosphere. In spite of this, the charge on the earth’s surface remains undiminished. Whence, then, comes the negative charge to make this possible? This is the chief problem of atmospheric electricity. To make it clear that the surface of the earth does lose electricity, it will be as well to state the methods used to determine the loss. The | surface of the earth is at a uniform potential, which 412 NATURE [DECEMBER 12, I9I2 for convenience is called zero. If, therefore, a certain area of this is insulated, it can only remain at the potential of the remainder so long as it receives or loses no charge. If it was losing a charge before it was insulated, it can only be kept at zero potential after insulating by supply- ing it with the charge lost. In 1906 C. T. R. Wilson designed an instrument by means of which an insulated plate could be kept at zero potential while exposed to the atmosphere, and the charge which had to be supplied to do this could be measured. The result proved an actual loss of negative electricity. The amount of this loss was found to be equal to that which can be calculated from a knowledge of the potential gradient and the conductivity of the air. Realising that the plate in Wilson’s instrument did not exactly represent a piece of the ground and that measurements at odd times could always be objected to, a method was developed in Simla by which a continuous record could be obtained of the charge necessary to keep at zero potential a large area—17 square metres—which was to all intents and purposes a part of the surface of the ground. This instrument was in use for nearly a month, and registered a continuous loss of negative electricity. These experiments indi- cate clearly that during fine weather negative electricity actually passes from the earth into the air. This disposes of the possibility of the lost charge being renewed uniformly over the whole earth by such processes as the fall of charged dust, friction of the air on the earth’s surface, or the absorption of ions from the air. The loss over the whole earth is equivalent to a constant current of more than 1000 amperes. As this loss takes place from all regions of the earth, subject to normal or fine weather conditions, it would appear that the return current can only exist in regions of disturbed weather, and it is known that in such regions the potential gradient is often reversed and the rain charged. A reversed field certainly causes a flow of nega- tive electricity into the earth, but as the time during which the field is reversed in any one place is only a very small fraction of the time during which it is normal, the flow of electricity would have to be enormous if the loss were made good in this way. detection, and no one has seriously put forward this as a solution of the problem. There is still the possibility that the electricity comes to the earth in the disturbed area as a negative charge on the rain. For many years this was the most favoured theory for the supply of the negative electricity, but in 1908-9 measure- | Sor c | by the Royal Commission on Tuberculosis on the ments were made in Simla which showed that there, at least, the rain carried down more positive than negative electricity. Since then many measurements have been made on the elec- tricity of rain, and now we have before us the results of observations made in _ Porto Rico, Simla, Vienna, Potsdam, Puy-en-Velay and Dublin. In every one of these cases the Simla result is confirmed, and there can be NO. 2250, VOL. 90] Such a large flow could not possibly escape | no doubt now that in all kinds of rain, from the intense rain of thunderstorms to the drizzle of a depression, more positive than negative electricity is brought to the earth. Thus rain, instead of solving our problem, has made it more difficult. It has been suggested that the charge may be returned in the lightning of thunderstorms. Prof. | Schuster has discussed this point in his recent book, ‘‘The Progress of Physics” (p. 150), and comes to the conclusion: “It does not seem to me, judging by present information, that lightning | discharges from cloud to earth can. play an im- portant part in increasing or diminishing the charge of the earth,” and there are other reasons, not mentioned by Prof. Schuster, for coming to the same conclusion. We have now discussed the conditions in dis- turbed areas and -have not found the return current, for neither the reversed field, the precipitation, nor the lightning provides it. Thus the science of atmospheric electricity has come to a deadlock, and there is at present no indications of a way out.! We may sum up the position in the follow- ing statement. A flow of negative electricity takes place from the surface of the whole globe into the atmosphere above it, and this necessitates a | return current of more than 1000 amperes; yet not the slightest indication of any such current has so far been found, and no satisfactory explanation for its absence has been given. GrEorGE C. Simpson. PROF. FRIEDMANN’S TREATMENT OF TUBERCULOSIS. HE announcement of the successful application of any new method of treating tuberculosis must always arouse intense interest and create new hope among those who are suffering from, or waging war against, this disease. For the latest of these, devised by Prof. Friedmann, of Berlin, it appears to be claimed that it acts not only cura- tively in cases where tuberculosis has already com- menced, but prophylactically where there exists a danger of infection to those not already tuber- culous. A large number of cases have been treated in Berlin and Vienna, and it is said that where the disease is not far advanced it is cut short, and that in children as yet unafiected the tissues and organs have been protected against the invading tubercle bacillus. This therapeutic agent appears to be some form or preparation of a non-virulent tubercle bacillus or some bacillus nearly allied which has been deprived of its toxic constituents or products. In view of the outcome of the experiments made immunisation of animals by the use of injections of living tubercle bacilli, it is almost to be desired | that the vaccine is of the nature of a prepared proteid and does not contain any living bacilli, however modified. Judging from the accounts we 1 Prof, Ebert has proposedan explanation, but against it fatal objections have been raised. Those interested might consult the series of articles which appeared in the Physikalische Zeitschrift between March, 1904, and December, 1905. DECEMBER 12, 1912] NATURE 413 have seen of the method, it can scarcely be a modi- fication of the “immune body ” treatment, with which, it is maintained, some success has been attained. It appears more likely that we have to deal with some modification of Calmette and Guerin’s method, in which the bovine tubercle bacillus is cultivated on a glycerinated medium to which a small proportion of ox-bile has been added. Here, after about forty generations of such culture, the bacillus becomes so far modi- fied that when injected intravenously into the bovine animal it is incapable of setting up an active tuberculous process, and so modifies the tissues and especially the wall of the alimentary canal of the treated animal that an ordinary culture of a virulent “bovine” bacillus is no longer able to retain its position in the tissues of the host, and, consequently, is unable to set up any tuberculous process. It is, of course, too early to pronounce any definite opinion, either favourable or adverse, on these various methods. It must be realised that a certain proportion of the cases in which there is tuberculous infection recover without any special treatment; that others recover when supplied with plenty of fresh air, good food, and when the hygienic conditions generally are favourable, and that these agencies are called into play by all who are engaged in the intelligent study and treat- ment of tuberculosis. SIR GEORGE HOWARD DARWIN, K.C.B., F.R.S. *“EORGE DARWIN, whose decease occurred at Cambridge on Saturday, December 7, came, as is well known, of illustrious scientific lineage, having been born in 1845 at Down, the second son of Charles Darwin, author of “The Origin of Species,” and thereby the renovator of the biological sciences. Like many contem- poraries who attained to distinction in scientific pursuits, his school education was gained under the Rey. Charles Pritchard, F.R.S., afterwards Savilian professor of astronomy at Oxford. He went up to Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1864, graduated as second wrangler and second Smith’s prizeman in 1868, the present Lord Moulton being senior; he was elected a fellow of Trinity the same year, and enjoyed the statutory tenure of ten years. In addition to mathematical subjects, he was interested in economic and _ political science, and with a view to practical life was called to the Bar in 1874. About this time he wrote a well-known statistical memoir on the marriage of first cousins, an early example of the present exact investigations in cognate bio- logical domains. Considerations of health, how- ever, prompted his return to Cambridge, where he devoted himself to mathematical science, especially in its astronomical aspects. He had already initiated his most striking contributions to the subject of the evolution of the solar system, especially the moon-earth system, and _ to cosmogony in general, when he was elected to NO. 2250, VOL. 90] the Plumian chair of astronomy and experimental philosophy in 1883. He was re-elected fellow of Trinity, as professor, in 1884, and his marriage~ dates from the same year. If one were asked to name a domain in which the power of mathematical analysis had con- spicuously asserted itself over phenomena ap- parently most complex and fortuitous, the predic- tion of the tides up to their closest details, by procedure now systematised so that it can be applied almost without technical skill, would surely come to mind. The principles of the ap- plication of harmonic analysis to this subject were laid down by Laplace, following up the beginnings established long before by Newton; but it was a far cry from this to actual systematic perform- ance. The outstanding name in this magnificent achievement is that of Lord Kelvin, whose intel- lectual energy kept the subject to the fore, while his inventive genius originated the machines by which calculations too long and laborious for arithmetical processes were reeled off auto- matically. But it is very doubtful whether tidal practice, in which British methods dominate the world, or the refinements of tidal theory, would stand in their present completeness if Kelvin had not enjoyed the good fortune, when he was him- self getting submerged in other problems, of finding a colleague so imbued with the subject, so expert and tenacious amid the complexities of numerical calculation, as George Darwin proved himself to be. His tribute to Lord Kelvin, to whom he dedicated volume i. of his Collected Scientific Papers, which relates to this subject, gave lively pleasure to his master and colleague :— Early in my scientific career it was my good fortune to be brought into close personal relationship with Lord Kelvin. Many visits to Glasgow and to Largs have brought me to look up to him as my master, and I cannot find words to express how much I owe to his friendship and to his inspiration. The practical developments of tidal theory and prediction were published to the world in a series of reports to the British Association, worked out mainly by Darwin, from the year 1883 onward. In 1879 he had broken ground in another direc- tion, entirely fresh. The recognition of lunar tidal friction as a cause of lengthening of the day goes back to Kant. The problem as to how the tidal loss of energy is divided between the earth’s rotation and the lunar orbit had baffled Airy; it had been shown by Purser that the prin- ciples of energy and momentum conjointly can lead to its solution; but it remained for Darwin to develop, by aid of graphical representations which have become classical, most striking infer- ences regarding the remote past history of our satellite. This discovery was the starting point of a series of memoirs in the next subsequent years, which applied similar procedure to the precession of the equinoxes and to other features of the solar system. In the later years of last century, during Lord Kelvin’s meteoric visits to Cambridge to attend the annual meeting's of the Fellows of Peterhouse, 414 NATURE [DECEMBER 12, 1912 and to absorb whatever of scientific interest was going on, he was certain to find his way to Newn- ham Grange, to compare impressions on tidal and cosmical theory and to concert plans for future action. So thoroughly was Darwin from the first immersed in and a partner of Kelvin’s work on these subjects, that the necessary rewriting, for the second edition, of the large section of Thomson and Tait’s “Natural Philosophy” which deals with tides and their cosmical relations, was con- fided entirely to his hands. In 1898 he supplemented this worl: by publish- ing a non-mathematical treatise on the tides and kindred phenomena in the solar system, which was developed from a course of Lowell lectures delivered at Boston, and has taken rank with the semi-popular writings of Helmholtz and Kelvin as a model of what is possible in the exposition of a scientific subject; it has accordingly been translated into many foreign languages. The preparation of a new edition of this book, ex- panded and in part rewritten to include recent developments, was one of the last works of his life. His studies in astronomical evolution necessarily required him to push the history of the motions of the planetary bodies back into the past, far beyond the times for which the usual practical approximations of gravitational astronomy are suitable or valid. To this end he began to apply a process of step-by-step plotting to the determina- tion of orbits in the classical problem of three bodies,—essayed in simpler cases by Lord Kelvin, | but in its adequate use laborious, and demanding skill in arrangement of arithmetical processes; this work culminated in an extensive memoir in “Acta Mathematica” in 1896. The maps of families of orbits there published attracted the attention of other mathematicians. In particular, Poincaré—utilising the general mode of dis- crimination and classification which he had already employed with signal success in Lord Kelvin’s and George Darwin’s problem of the forms pos- sible for fluid rotating planets—pointed out the necessary existence of some intermediate classes that had escaped the analysis. And S. S. Hough, H.M. Astronomer at the Cape, who had in his Cambridge days collaborated with Darwin in tidal theory, followed with a memoir devoted to fuller developments. This fascinating subject con- tinued to occupy Darwin’s attention up to the end of his life; one of his last public appearances in London was to communicate a paper on it to the Royal Astronomical Society. His thorough familiarity with the methods of reducing to mathematical order the tangled data of tidal observation marked out Darwin as a desirable expert guide in the national meteoro- logical service; for much was hoped for meteoro- logy thirty years ago from the practical application of harmonic analysis to the voluminous records of barometer and thermometer. Accordingly the Royal Society, which then had control of the ser- vice, nominated him a member of the Meteoro- logical Council soon after his return. to Cambridge. NO. 2250, VOL. 90] When that Council was rearranged as a Com- mittee under the Treasury a few years ago, he became one of the two representatives whom the Royal Society was requested to nominate to the new body; and he continued to render valuable service in this capacity until the end. The earliest of topographic surveys, the model which other national surveys adopted and im- proved upon, was the Ordnance Survey of the United Kingdom. But the great trigonometrical survey of India, started nearly a century ago, and steadily carried on since that time by officers of the Royal Engineers, is still the most important contribution to the science of the figure of the earth, though the vast geodetic operations in the United States are now following it closely. The gravitational and other complexities incident on surveying among the great mountain masses of the Himalayas early demanded the highest mathe- matical assistance. The problems originally at- tacked in India by Archdeacon Pratt were after- wards virtually taken over by the Royal Society, and its secretary, Sir George Stokes, of Cam- bridge, became from 1864 onwards the adviser and referee of the survey as regards its scientific enterprises. On the retirement of Sir George Stokes, this position fell very largely to Sir George Darwin, whose relations with the India Office. on this and other affairs remained close, and very highly appreciated, throughout the rest of his life. The results of the Indian survey have been of the highest importance for the general science of geodesy, and well-deserved tributes have been paid to them by Helmert, of Berlin, and other chief exponents of the science. It came to be felt that closer cooperation between different countries was essential to practical progress and to co- ordination of the work of overlapping surveys. Accordingly, about fifteen years ago the Inter- national Geodetic Association was established, through scientific and diplomatic influences, to take cognisance of all problems of refined surveys and triangulations, and other investigations re- lating to the form of the earth, in which inter- national cooperation is essential to complete results. Sir George Darwin was appointed by the Foreign Office, on the advice of the Royal Society, as the British representative on this important international body; and its work was henceforth one of the main interests of his life. It came to the turn of England to receive the triennial assembly in the year 1909, and a very successful meeting at London and Cambridge was organised mainly by his care. He was preparing to go to the meeting of the association in Hamburg: last September when his fatal illness supervened. An important public service has been rendered in this country for many years by the Cambridge University Press, through the application of its resources to the publication in definitive collected form of the works of the great men of science whom this nation has produced, thereby sustain- ing the national credit in a way which in other countries is promoted mainly by Government sub- sidy. The collected papers of Sir George Stokes, DECEMBER 12, 1912] NAL IRE 415 Arthur Cayley, James Clerk Maxwell, Kelvin, J. J. Sylvester, J. C. Adams, P. G. Tait, J. Hopkinson, and other men of science have in this way been garnered, and have taken their permanent place among the national possessions. It came as a great gratification to George Darwin when, in 1907, the syndics of the University Press signified to him their desire to become responsible for a collected edition of his scientific memoirs, to be prepared under his own supervision. In May, 1911, the last of the four substantial royal octavo volumes in which his work is thus arranged for future generations was published. In the affairs of the University of which he was an ornament, Sir George Darwin made a sub- stantial mark, though it cannot be said that he possessed the patience in discussion that is some- times a necessary condition to taking share in its administration. But his wide acquaintance and friendships among the statesmen and men of affairs of the time, dating often from undergraduate days, gave him openings for usefulness on a wider plane. Thus at a time when residents were bewailing even more than usual the inadequacy of the re- sources of the University for the great expansion which the scientific progess of the age demanded, it was largely on his initiative that, by a departure from all precedent, an unofficial body was con- stituted in 1899 under the name of the Cambridge University Association, to promote the further endowment of the University by interesting its graduates throughout the Empire in its progress and its more pressing needs. This important body, which was organised under the strong lead of the late Duke of Devonshire, then Chancellor, comprises as active members most of the public men who owe allegiance to Cambridge, and has already by its interest and help powerfully stimulated the expansion of the University into new fields of national work; though it has not yet achieved financial support on anything like the scale to which American seats of learning are accustomed. Another important body in the foundation and development of which Sir George Darwin took an active part is the Cambridge Appointments Board, which, by bringing trained graduates into connection with the leaders of the commerce and industry of the nation, has worked with notable success for their mutual advantage. Sir George Darwin’s last public appearance was as president of the fifth International Congress of Mathematicians, which met at Cambridge on August 22-28 of this year. The time for England to receive the congress having obviously arrived, a movement was initiated at Cambridge, with the concurrence of Oxford mathematicians, to send an invitation to the fourth congress held at Rome in 1908. The proposal was cordially accepted, and Sir George Darwin, as doyen of the mathe- matical school at Cambridge, became chairman of the organising committee, and was subsequently elected by the congress to be their president. Though obviously unwell during part of the meet- ing, he managed to discharge the delicate duties of the chair with conspicuous success, and guided with great verve the deliberations of the final NO. 2250, VOL. 90] Lord | assembly of what turned out to be a most suc- cessful meeting of that important body. But this improvement was only temporary; on their return to Cambridge a month later his friends were most deeply grieved to find that, after some weeks of illness, an exploring operation had strengthened the fears of malignant disease which had not been absent from his own mind for some time. In the previous year there had come to him what he naturally regarded as the crowning honour of a life devoted to scientific pursuits, the | award by the Royal Society in October, 1911, of their highest distinction, the Copley medal for the year. He had himself strongly advocated the claims of his kinsman, Sir Francis Galton, who was the | medallist of the preceding year, unconscious that his own name had been standing on the list for consideration. Galton died within a year of the award, and his life, written by Darwin for the Dictionary of National Biography, appeared last October. The Royal Society has thus the melancholy satisfaction of having been just in time in two successive years in conferring her highest mark of distinction on the achievements of two of her distinguished sons. Ifo WE MR. S. A. SAUNDER. T is with deep regret that we have to record the death, on Sunday night, December 8, of Mr. S. A. Saunder, at sixty years of age. In Mr. Saunder astronomical science has lost a de- voted and conscientious worker who gave himself whole-heartedly to a line of study requiring much ability, and involving immense labour, but offering no prospect of startling results. Mr. Saunder was an assistant master at Wel- lington College. He became a Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1894, and from 1907 to February last he was one of the most active and hard-working of honorary secretaries. A few years ago he was appointed Gresham Professor of Astronomy in the City of London. He gave his last course of lectures (on the tides and tidal fric- tion) early in November, but the fatal illness was then upon him, and it was with great difficulty and pain that he brought the lectures to a conclusion. Mr. Saunder’s scientific work lay especially in the domain of selenography, in which he achieved well-deserved distinction. His paper in the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society for January, 1900, on the determination of seleno- graphic positions and the measurement of lunar photographs, was the first of a series of similar papers. In the fourth paper of the series he gave a first attempt to determine the figure of the moon. In the Memoirs of the R.A.S., vol. 59, he published the results of measures of four negatives taken at Paris by Loewy and Puiseaux, with a catalogue of 1433 measured points on the lunar surface. All the positions were carefully reduced to mean libration, and their places given in rect- angular co-ordinates. A still more extensive work was published in the R.A.S. Memoirs, vol. 60: Results of measures of two Yerkes negatives by Mr. G. W. Ritchey. The catalogue contains 416 NATURE [DECEMBER 12, I912 2885. points, all carefully reduced .by_ Prof. Turner's method, and forming a very valuable contribution to our knowledge of the lunar surface. One object in view in the preparation of these extensive catalogues of lunar details was that they should be the foundation of a standard chart of the moon. Mr. Saunder had carefully studied the subject of lunar nomenclature, and was much impressed with its unsatisfactory state. He pro- posed that in future new names should be added very sparingly, but that objects observed should be referred to by their coordinates in the catalogue or in the chart. Charts of all the central portions of the moon, entirely based on Mr. Saunder’s measures, which he plotted for the purpose, are now in progress and approaching completion. NOTES. Ar the recent annual meeting of the Royal Geo- logical Society of Cornwall the Bolitho gold medal was awarded by the president and council to Mr. Geo. Barrow, for his services to Cornish geology in connection with the re-survey of the west of England. At the suggestion of Prof. Ernst Cohen, the Dutch sculptor, Pier Pander (Rome), has executed a beau- tiful bronze medallion of van’t Hoff. We are re- quested to state that anyone desiring to purchase a copy of it should send (before January 1, 1913) a post- card to Prof. Ernst Cohen, van’t Hoff Laboratorium, University, Utrecht, Holland. The medallion will then be sent by the firm entrusted with the work. If 100 copies are sold the price will be 6.50 marks. The price will be reduced to 5.50 marks if 200 copies can be sold. The medallion has been executed after a portrait relief in marble by Pier Pander. Tue Tokyo Asahi announces the forthcoming forma- tion in Japan of a society for the prevention of tuber- culosis. The initiators are Dr. Baron Takagi, Dr. Baron Sato, and Dr. Kitasato. The preliminary meeting was held on October 29, when an influential committee was appointed to make the necessary arrangements. Good work has been done in the cam- paion against tuberculosis by minor local organisa- tions in Japan, but the formation of the new society is the first serious public attempt to grapple with the disease. It is stated that, although no precise statis- tics are available, the number of persons who fall victims to tuberculosis in Japan may be estimated at no fewer than a million per annum. As the popula- tion of the country is about fifty-one million, this would indicate an annual death-rate of nearly twenty per thousand from the disease. Major E. H. Hits, C.M.G., F.R.S., treasurer of the Royal Astronomical Society, has been appointed honorary director of the Observatory, University of Durham. ; THE next meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science will be held in Cleveland from December 30 next to January 4, 1913. Prof. E. C. Pickering will be the new president. The address by the retiring president, Prof, Charles E. Bessey, on some of the: next steps in botanical NO. 2250, VOL. 90] science, will be delivered on December 30. The sec- tions-among which the business of the meeting. will be distributed, with the name of the retiring president of the section and the subject of his address, are as follows:—Mathematics and Astronomy, ‘The Spectroscopic Determination of Stellar Velocities,” Prof. -Frost; Physics, ‘‘ Unitary Theories in Physics,” Prof. R. A. Millikan; Chemistry, ‘“‘The Chemistry of the Soil,’ Prof. Cameron; Geology and Geography, “Significance of the Pleistocene Molluses,’’ Prof. Shimek; Zoology, “Section F—Is it Worth While?” Prof. Nachtrieb; Botany, ‘‘ The Scope of State Natural Surveys,’ Prof. Newcombe; Anthropology and Psychology, ‘‘ The Study of Man,” Prof. Ladd; Social and Economic Science, ‘‘Comparative Measurements of the Changing Cost of Living,’ Prof. Norton; Education, ‘‘ Educational Diagnosis,” Prof. Thorn- dike; Physiology and Experimental Medicine, “The Function of Individual Cells in Nerve Centres,” Prof. Porter. During the days of the meeting twenty-six American scientific societies will also meet. Tue Melbourne meeting of the Australasian Asso- ciation for the Advancement of Science will be held on January 7-14 next. The president-elect is Prof. T. W. E. David, C.M.G., F.R.S., and the retiring president Prof. Orme Masson, F.R.S. The meeting will be held at the University, which is surrounded by large grounds, and can provide ample accommo- dation. Prof. Baldwin Spencer, C.M.G., F.R.S., who is spending the year as chief protector of aborigines in the Northern Territory, will deliver a lecture on some of the results he has obtained. A joint dis- cussion of several sections will be held on the genus Eucalyptus and its products. A forest league is being formed in the various States, under the auspices of the association, which it is hoped will rouse public opinion to the necessity of preserving forests, especially round the head waters of the rivers. A large number of committees will present reports, and a full pro- gramme of papers is expected. The following are the presidents of sections :—Astronomy, Mathematics, and Physics, Prof. H. Carslaw; Chemistry, Prof. C. Fawsitt; Subsection Pharmacy, Mr. E. F. Church; Geology and Mineralogy, Mr. W. Howchin; Biology, Prof. H. B. Kirk; Geography and History, Hon. | Thos. M’Kenzie; Ethnology and Anthropology, Dr. W. Ramsay-Smith ; Social and Statistical Science, Mr. R. M. Johnston; Agriculture, Mr. F. B. Guthrie; Subsection Veterinary Science, Prof. Douglas Stewart, Engineering and Architecture, Col. W. L. Vernon; Sanitary Science and Hygiene, Dr. T. H. A. Valin- tine; Mental Science and Education, Sir J. Winthrop Hackett. The general secretary for the meeting is Diino bial. SPEAKING at the annual dinner of the Farmers’ Club on Tuesday, Mr. Runciman, president of the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, referred to the assistance which the Development Commissioners propose to give to agricultural research. In the course of his re- marks, he said:—It was not enough merely to adopt a policy of slaughter, scheduling areas, and so forth. They should adopt so far as possible all the. services that science could supply. They must give their re- DECEMBER 12, I912| NATE URE 417 search institutions, universities, and colleges the need- ful to ascertain more and more the’ nature of their most dangerous diseases. He had received permission only that day to announce that one of the schemes he had been enjoining for some months in the country had so far met with the approval of the Development Commissioners that they would shortly recommend to the Treasury a release from the Development Fund of moneys for the following objects: First of all to provide in every one of what were now called the provinces, for the purposes of agricultural education, the services at the headquarters of those provinces of men concerned with advice as to soils, crops, and so forth, but who should be concerned also with live stock; that each one of these men should be an organiser or supervisor, to organise in that province a live stock scheme which would be described in further detail. The Commissioners were also prepared to enable them, with an annual sum, to have engaged in their office a man of the highest class, who could not know everything about every branch of live stock, but, by general knowledge, would be able to give administrators advice which at present they were without. Thirdly, premiums would be provided from the Development Fund for the breeding of heavy horses, Shires, Clydesdales, and Suffollk Punches. Tue annual general meeting of the Royal Agricul- tural Hall, Islington, was held yesterday, December 11, when the report of the council was presented. The total number of governors and members .of the society during the year has been 10,307, as compared with 10,306 in the previous year. About the same number of samples were submitted for analysis by the chemical department of the society as during the preceding twelve months, this being 426. Special reference is made in the reports to Bombay cotton cake containing excessive sand, rice meal composed mainly of rice “‘shudes” (husks), barley meal adul- terated with pea husks, and sharps adulterated with pea husks and containing an excessive amount of sand. Among much other important work done at the Woburn Experimental Farm may be mentioned an interesting series of experiments on varieties of lucerne and on methods of sowing this crop which was carried forward, the best results coming from Russian (Europe) lucerne, and then from Canadian and Provence seed. The plots sown on bare ground were uniformly better than those laid down in a barley crop. There were also trials with different varieties of wheat—including French wheats—and of barley. Progress has been made during the year with the experiments which are being carried out at Woburn for the purpose of demonstrating that by means of jsolation it is possible to rear healthy stock from tuberculous parents. It is hoped that the final report on the experiments will be ready some time next year. The council decided last year to offer the society’s gold medal annually for original research in agriculture. Five essays have been submitted by qualified candi- dates. Wirtu reference to the letters in Nature of Novem- ber 14 and December 5 concerning the moon and poisonous fish, a correspondent writes from Don- NO. 2250, VOL. 90] caster to say that twenty-five years ago he heard many stories from sailors of the ill-effects caused by eating fish which had been exposed to- moonlight. He adds :—‘‘ The probabilities are that the same be- lief was held by the sailors in the early days of emigration to South Africa, and transmitted to the colonists.” Mr. W. F. Denninc believes that the shaking of windows and similar effects experienced at Sunning- hill and the neighbourhood on November 19, as men- tioned in Nature of November 28, p. 365, had their origin in meteoritic explosions. In the course of a letter published in The Westminster Gazette of De- cember 9, he says :—‘‘I have investigated several in- stances of similar kind, and the conclusion has been irresistible that they were induced by fireballs under- going disintegration high in the atmosphere. And in the recent case this explanation is rendered highly probable from the fact that the period from Novem- ber 19 to 23 is well known astronomically for its abundance of detonating fireballs. Messrs. Greg and Herschel attributed a special significance to the period named, and their deductions have been fully cor- roborated by later experiences.” A copy has been received of the fifth annual report (1911-12) presented by the council to the court of governors of the National Museum of Wales. It con- tains an account of the ceremonies in connection with the laying of the foundation-stone of the new building by the King on June 26 last, and much information as to the progress made during the year. The Treasury has agreed to an estimate of 233,o00l. for the erection and furnishing of the new building. The financial position at present is as follows :—Local con- tributions, 42,o0ool.; an equal amount from _ the Treasury, 42,000l.; making the total sum available at present 84,oo0l. This leaves a deficiency of 149,000l., one-half of which will be found by the Government, provided a like amount is forthcoming from other sources. The Treasury has increased its grant to- wards maintenance for the year 1912-13 to 3000l., as compared with 2000]. in the past. The Cardiff Cor- poration has erected a building and has leased it to the museum for a period of five years from July 1 last, at a rental of 130]. per annum, for the purposes of a temporary museum. Expenditure to the amount of 567/. has been incurred in the purchase of specimens during the year, and an appendix of eight pages is devoted to a list of donations of specimens to the museum, A sumMary of the weather during the recent autumn has been issued by the Meteorological Office as com- prised by the results for the period of thirteen weeks ended November 30. The mean temperature for the whole period was below the average over the entire kingdom, the greatest deficiency being 2° in the south- east of England; the deficiency was also considerable in the south-west of England and in the Channel Islands. The autumn rainfall was below the average everywhere except in the east of Scotland, where the excess amounted to 0°83 in. The duration of bright sunshine was below the average over the entire king- dom. At the close of autumn the temperature of the 418 NATURE [DECEMBER 12, I912 soil at the depth of one foot was very generally above the normal, and it was also generally high at the depth of 4ft. The mean temperature of the sea for the closing week was mostly above the average, and was, in general, warmer than in the corresponding period of last year. For the neighbourhood of London the Greenwich observations show that the mean tempera- ture for the autumn was 48°6°, which is 271° below the normal; the mean for September was 474° below the average, and in October the deficiency was 2°2°, whilst in November there was an excess of 03°. The highest shade temperature during the autumn was 69° and the lowest 29°, the latter observed in both October and November. In September there were only four days with the temperature in excess of the average. The aggregate autumn rainfall was 5°49 in., and the rainfall was deficient in each of the three months, being in the aggregate 1°73 in. less than the normal. In all rain fell on thirty-five days. The duration of bright sunshine was 265 hours, which is two hours in excess of the average for the last thirty years. Tue October number of The National Geographic Magazine is devoted to China, and contains, as usual, a splendid collection of illustrations. Canal life is described by Mr. F. H. King, and Lhasa, ‘the most extraordinary city in the world,” by Dr. Shaoching H. Chuan. Of special interest is the article on China’s Treasures, by Mr. F. McCormick, in which he deals with the famous Rock Temples. Of these the most remarkable are the series of Buddhist shrines at Lung Men, in the province of Honan, where the sides of a gorge have been excavated and the walls of the caves ornamented with thousands of figures. The dis- trict of Shensi contains the colossus of Buddha, 56 ft. high. The buried monumental remains throughout the country are of enormous extent. Of these little has been examined, but their importance is illustrated by the remarkable bricks recently found at Peking, and the bells 2000 years old unearthed at Kiangsi, and now said to be in the Forbidden City. To The Field of November 23 Mr. Pocock contri- butes an important summary of statements as to the obliterative effect of the colouring of zebras, the earliest of these being by Sir Francis Galton (1853). It is pointed out that the passages quoted indicate that independent observers have noticed the obliterative nature of the colouring in five distinct members of the group, and it is urged that the same credence must be assigned to these statements as to those of observers who take an opposite view. EVIDENCE is gradually accumulating that the South American family Iniidze, now represented by the fresh- water dolphins of the genera Inia and Pontoporia (to retain a well-known name), was abundant in America during Tertiary times. The latest addition to the list is the new genus and species, Hesperocetus cali- fornicus, established by Prof. True (Smithson. Misc. Collect., vol. Ix., No. 11) on the evidence of an imper- fect lower jaw, with teeth, from the Californian Ter- tiaries. The genus, which is provisionally referred to the Iniidee, is remarkable for the length of the sym- physis of the lower jaw and the large-size of the NO. 2250, VOL. 90] teeth, which recall those of the extinct Delphinodon, classed by the author with the Delphinida. Other extinct Iniidze are Saurodelphis, Pontoplanodes, and Isehyrorhynchus. TuE Codling moth (Carpocapsa pomonella) has lately been the subject of much careful research in the United States. In his admirable memoir on the insect published in 1903 (U.S. Dept. Agric., Bull. Entom., No. 41) Mr. C. B. Simpson referred doubtfully to the possible occurrence of a third brood of the insect in certain American localities. We have now received A. G. Hammar’s “ Life-history Studies on the Cod- ling Moth in Michigan” (ibid., No. 115., part 1, 1912). Statistical studies of the generations during the three years 1909, 1910, and rgri are illustrated by many elaborate tables and curves, derived from observations at various localities in the State. It appears that some of the caterpillars hatched in the spring of one year hibernate and pupate the next spring, as in the usual life-cycle of the insect in our islands. Others pupate in summer, and from the pupze some moths | emerge quickly to lay the eggs of the second brood, while others do not emerge until the next spring. Most of the caterpillars of the second brood hibernate, but a few pupate in autumn, and from a small pro- portion of these pupz moths emerge, to become the parents of a third brood of larvee, all of which must hibernate. Thus it follows that ‘‘The wintering larvz may include larve of the first, second, and third broods. The spring brood of pupze may include pupze of the first, second, and third broods. The spring brood of moths may include moths of the first, second, and third broods'’—a somewhat surprising result. Dr. F. Tosrer has published an important mono- graph of the genus Hedera (‘‘Die Gattung Hedera,” Gustav Fischer, Jena, price 6.50 marks). The author describes two new species of ivy (Hedera himalaica and H. japonica), making six species in all, which are well illustrated by reproductions from photographs. Besides detailed descriptions of the morphology of the genus, the work includes an interesting chapter on the biology and physiology of the ivy, followed by chapters on the history of the genus and its culture as a garden plant; it is to be wished, however, that for the sake of completeness, the author had dealt with the comparative anatomy of the genus—apart from the characteristic star-shaped hairs of the ivy leaf, no microscopic descriptions or figures are given. From Dr. C. J. Chamberlain, of Chicago Univer- sity, we have received reprints of two recent papers on the Cycadacez, continuing his previous studies on this important group of plants, and, like them, pub- lished in The Botanical Gazette. In a paper on the adult cycad trunk, the author describes the structure of the mature stem in species of Zamia, Dioon, and Ceratozamia, and with excellent material at his dis- posal has considerably supplemented the descriptions of earlier writers. The two species of Dio6n studied show growth zones which may or may not correspond to the periods of activity resulting in the formation of the crowns of leaves; one of the species shows a remark- able resemblance in details of stem structure to the DECEMBER 12, 1912 | NATURE Cretaceous fossil genus Cycadeoidea, a member of the extinct family Bennettitales, which was in some respects more primitive than the cycads, and formed a link between this group and the Pteridospermz, or fern-like seed-plants. In a second paper the author describes the development and fertilisation of Cerato- samia mexicana, and notes the curious fact that the normally small and evanescent ventral canal nucleus may enlarge and approach the egg, possibly fertilising it. We have received from Messrs. Flatters and Gar- nett, Ltd., 32 Dover Street, Manchester, a copy of their lantern slide catalogue ‘‘E,” together with specimen slides illustrating a large range of subjects (biology, geology, astronomy, textile fibres and machinery, scenery, &c.). The slides submitted for inspection are remarkably fine reproductions from photographs, and the prices appear very reasonable. Of the series of slides listed in this very comprehen- sive catalogue, those dealing with botanical subjects are the most complete, and these include an extensive set of slides illustrative of plant associations at home and abroad. The list of slides in the section of British plant associations is arranged in accordance with the plan adopted in the recently published standard work on British ecology—‘ Types of British Vegetation,” edited by Mr. A. G. Tansley—and may be warmly commended to teachers and lecturers as the best and most complete set of ecological slides available. One of the most remarkable series of slides offered is that consisting of no fewer than 130 photomicrographs illustrating the development of Pinus sylvestris. AvtHouGH few details of scientific value have been made known about the disastrous Turkish earthquake of August 9 last, Dr. G. Agamennone has been able to draw: some conclusions of interest. The shock, which in places attained the intensity 10 of the Rossi- Forel scale, was strong enough to damage buildings over an area nearly 200 miles long and 125 miles wide, and containing about 20,000,square miles. The epi- centre cannot yet be located with accuracy, but it must have been near the north-west coast of the Sea of Marmora. As more than 3000 persons were killed, the earthquake must rank as one of the most destruc- tive European shocks of the last thirty years. Tue curious phenomenon known in Japan as Inada no goko, or halo in the ricefield, forms the subject of a discussion by Profs. Fuchino and Izu, of the College of Agriculture and Forestry, Kagoshima, in the Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan (October, 1912). In the early morning, when the dew lies on the plants, and the sun is shining, the shadow of the head of a person standing in the fields is sur- rounded by a luminous halo, elliptic in form, its long axis corresponding with that of the body-shadow. As the sun rises higher in the sky and the dew evaporates the halo vanishes, but reappears on sprinkling the ground with water. The authors describe some ex- periments which they carried out with blankets, isolated drops of water, and bottles. They conclude from their experiments that the phenomenon of the halo is caused by the reflected light from the sun- NO. 2250, VOL. 90] images formed on the green blades by the passage of the sun’s rays obliquely through the dewdrops. Estimates of the age of the earth based on the ratio of the amounts of helium and uranium present in the Carboniferous and older rocks have given results of the order 400 to 1500 million years. Esti- mates based on the quantity of sodium brought into the oceans by the rivers of the world and the amount in the ocean at the present time lead to 7o million years. A possible explanation of this discrepancy is offered by Dr. F. C. Brown, of the University of Ithaca, in the October number of Le Radium. He suggests that sodium is itself a radio-active element with a parent which is insoluble in water. The sodium of the soil would then be due to the decom- position of the parent, and that of the ocean to the solution of the sodium in the soil and its transport by rivers. During the earliest periods the soil content being small, the transport to the ocean would be reduced, and the age calculated from the present con- tent of the ocean would be correspondingly increased. Tue Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences for November 19 contains an abstract of a paper on the atomic weight of bromine by Mr. H. C. P. Weber, of the Bureau of Standards, which is about to be published in the bulletin of the Bureau. The method adopted is that of Noyes and Weber, by the direct synthesis of hydrobromic acid, and it was found capable of giving results of high accuracy. The final value obtained on the basis of oxygen 16, hydrogen 100779, iS 79924, as against the International Com- mission value 79°920. Two papers on agriculture are included in the October issue of Science Progress. Dr. J. V. Eyre gives an interesting account of Russian agriculture, in which he presents a picture of a vast territory, of which only a small part is under cultivation; more- over, On account of the poverty and indolence of the peasants the agriculture is of a very low order, arti- ficial manures and agricultural machinery being almost unknown over vast areas of the country. The writer suggests that a few good harvests would prob- ably do more than anything else to enable the im- poverished farmers to carry out the improvements in method with which many of them are already fami- liar as a result of the active work of instruction under- taken by the Government. Dr. Spencer Pickering contributes the first of a series of papers on horticul- tural research, in which he describes the Woburn experiments on the planting of trees. These experi- ments have suggested that rough treatment in plant- ing is often more effective than the careful handling of root fibres, which is usually recognised as correct. Both articles are illustrated by several pages of photo- graphs. THE 1913 issue of ‘‘The Scientists’ Reference Book and Diary,” published by Messrs. James Woolley, Sons, and Co., Ltd., dealers in scientific apparatus, chem- ical reagents, &c., of Manchester, has all the useful characters of the issues of previous years. The student of science will find it very convenient to have together in the- same compact pocket-book a small work of 420 NATURE [DECEMBER 12, 1912 reference containing important constants and facts, and also a diary arranged by Messrs. Charles Letts and Co. The price, bound in leather with gilt edges, is 2s. Messrs. J. anD A. CHURCHILL announce for early publication ‘‘A History of Chemistry, from the Earliest Times till the Present Day,’ by the late Dr. J. Campbell Brown; ‘‘ Notes on Chemical Research : an Account of Certain Conditions which Apply to Original Investigation,” by Mr. W. P. Dreaper; “A Text-book of Anatomy for Nurses,” by Dr. Elizabeth Bundy; and ‘“‘Who’s Who in Science (International), 1913,” edited by Mr. H. H. Stephenson. OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. Tue ANNULAR SoLaR Ec.ipse oF APRIL 17.—Those interested in the phenomena of the annular eclipse which took place in April last will find forty-eight columns of records and discussion in No. 4615 of the Astronomische Nachrichten. Herr Ladislay BeneS describes the observations of contact times, &c., made at the Strassburg Observatory, and, after discussing them, arrives at corrections for the places of the sun and moon; the central line deduced lies between the lines given by the Connaissance des Temps and the Bureau des Longitudes, rather nearer to the latter. The observations made at the Leipzig Observatory are described by several observers, and Herr F. Hayn givesa set ofcurves showing the measured irregulari- ties of the moon’s limb. Prof. Luther brings together a very large number of observations made at various stations in the Rhine province, and derives a central line passing through A=6° 45' 4035” E., @=+51° 25°60, giving a correction of —o’4’ in latitude to the central line published by Prof. Battermann. He also gives a good photograph taken by Herr P. Boh- nen. Prof. Wilkens publishes the results of the Kiel observations, giving the true sun and moon positions for the moment of each observation, and finds the cor- rections published in the American ephemeris were very near the truth. An interesting paper by Drs. Elster and Geitel, deal- ing with the sun’s observed light-curve during the eclipse, appears in the Physikalische Zeitschrift, pp. 852-855. A REMARKABLE SHOWER OF METEORIC STONES.—In No. 203, vol. xxxiv., of The American Journal of Science, Mr. W. M. Foote gives a preliminary account of the shower of meteoric stones which occurred near Holbrook, Navajo County, Arizona, on July 19. Mr. Foote has collected a large mass of evidence which appears to settle the question of authenticity favour- ably. A large meteor was seen to pass over Holbrook at 6.30 p.m. on the date mentioned, and created a loud noise, which lasted for half a minute or more. Numerous stones were seen to fall near Aztec, raising puffs of dust for over a mile of the sandy desert, and subsequently a great number of these stones were found by the local people; the largest found weighed more than 14 lb., while several of about 5 Ib, each were picked up over an elliptical area about three miles long and half a mile broad. The preliminary physical and chemical tests point to an undoubted meteoric origin, and a sample taken trom twelve individual -stones was found to contain 368 per cent. of nickel-iron, with 96°32 per cent. of silica. The principal constituent appears to be enstatite, olivine and monoclinic pyroxene making up the balance; in one section a patch of spinels set in quartz was found. Altogether more than 14,000 stones, weighing, in all, more than 481 lb., were picked up and preserved, NO. 2250, VOL. 90] but of these 8000 weighed less than one gram each; 29 stones had weights ranging from 6665 grams to 1020 grams, and some 6000 ranged between 1000 grams and one gram. Tue Orit oF CoMET 19t0a.—In No. 4605 of the Astronomische Nachrichten M. S. Mello e Simas pub- lishes definitive elements of the orbit of the bright comet 1910a. The author has discussed an enormous number of observations, and sets out in full detail the numerous points he has taken into consideration, finally arriving at the conclusion that the orbit is a parabola with an inclination of 138° 46’ 55°78”, the time of perihelion being 1910, January 17'09464 (M.T. Paris). He also discusses the question of the multiple solutions of problems of cometary orbits, which so confused a number of calculators in endeavouring to find a satisfactory orbit for comet 1910a during the time of its apparition. Tue ‘‘ GazETTE ASTRONOMIQUE. —It is with pleasure that we learn that the Gazette Astronomique, pub- lished by the Antwerp Astronomical Society, is again to appear each month. The gazette fulfils a very useful nurpose in publishing monthly ephemerides and notes for observers, and, also, in popularising astro- nomical subjects. THE NEW PHARMACOLOGICAL LABORA- TORY AT UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LONDON. Wy eteN University College was incorporated in the University of London, a scheme was formed to replace the old laboratories of the medical sciences by more adequate institutes in the south quadrangle. The first part of the plan was completed in 1g09, when the Physiological Institute was opened. A second instalment has been rendered possible by a donation of s5oool. by Mr. Carnegie, and the Phar- macological Institute was opened on Wednesday, December 4, by Sir Thomas Barlow, president of the College of Physicians. It is to be hoped that the third institute, for Anatomy and Anthropology, may follow in due course and complete the buildings for the medical sciences. The new pharmacological laboratory has been built from the plans of Prof. F. M. Simpson, of University College, and occupies an area of 42 ft. by 50 ft. immediately adjoining the physiological building on the east. It contains three complete floors and a mezzanine floor, besides the basement, the actual floor space amounting to about 6000 sq. ft., besides the stairway and passages. The building is lighted on three sides by large windows, which occupy the maximum amount of space permissible under the Building Acts. The ground floor is lined with white glazed brick throughout, and contains a reading- room 24 ft. by 18 ft., and the pharmacological- chemical laboratory, 24 ft. by 30 ft., fitted with two large chemical benches and fume cupboards. It com- municates with an open-air balcony on the south side, which is arranged for investigations on noxious gases. On this floor there are also a balance-room, a darlk- room, and an attendant’s workshop. Between the ground and first floors a mezzanine floor contains lavatories and a hospital-room for animals under observation. ‘The animal houses proper lie behind the building. The first floor contains private rooms for professor and assistant, and two large experimental rooms, 24 ft. by 18 ft. and 24 ft. by 30 ft. respectively. The smaller of these is designed for work with the large kymograph, while the larger is used for smaller movable apparatus. A heavy beam runs through ee ae DECEMBER I2, 1912| NATURE 421 both rooms at a height of 8} ft. from the floor, and serves to support shafting and pulleys, which are set in motion by an electric motor in the larger room. Gas and water pipes also run along this beam, which carries, in addition, wires from an electric clock, and a tube supplying artificial respiration, so that these are all available throughout the laboratory. A floor channel running beneath the beam carries off waste water, and, in addition to wall switches, a numbex of floor plugs are inserted in its neighbourhood to supply light and power where necessary. This labora- tory is fitted up with the ordinary experimental ap- paratus, and with a small centrifuge and incubator for haemolysis work. The second floor contains a small preparation and New Pharmacological Laboratory, University College, London. drug room for use in the lectures and demonstrations and the large lecture-room laboratory. This measures 48 ft. by 25 ft., and is fitted up with lecture desk, blackboards, and projection lantern, and with practical room benches for elementary work in pharmacology. A recess off the lecture-room, 18 ft. by 13 ft., is furnished with three tiers of standing places rising places in the body of the laboratory and stand round and above the demonstration table. In this way it is hoped to be able to correlate the lecture, the practical work, and the demonstrations more closely than is possible when these are all given in different courses and in different rooms. MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS AT THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION. pee presidential address was delivered by Prof. H. L. Callendar at 10 a.m. on Thursday, September 5. This was published in full in Nature of September 5 (p. 19). Wireless Telegraphy. The principal discussion arranged was a joint one with Section G on the scientific theory and outstanding problems of wireless telegraphy; it was opened by Prof, J. A. Fleming. Dr. Fleming had drawn up a list of twenty-four questions to which definite answers are still required. In the short time available to him it was impossible to go _ seriatim through these. After outlining the general methods of signalling now employed, he pointed out that the chief question was how such waves, if they are true Hertzian waves, are propagated a quarter of the way round the earth. The mathematical investigations of Prof. MacDonald, Lord Rayleigh, the late Prof. H. Poincaré, and of Dr. Nicholson seem to have proved that diffraction alone will not account for the phenomenon, even though the waves as used by Marconi have a wave length of nearly four miles. Prof. Sommerfeld had come to the con- clusion that there must be ‘‘surface waves” at the boundary of the earth and atmosphere, and _ that these vary in amplitude inversely as the square root of the distance, and are sufficiently feebly damped in a horizontal direction to be propagated long distances, irrespective of irre- gularities of surface. Another theory has been based by Dr. Eccles upon the ionisation of the atmo- sphere. If the velocity increases with the ionisation, the upper part of a wave may travel faster than that near the surface, and the direc- tion of propagation will be deflected downwards. Closely connected with this is the inhibiting effect of | daylight. Absorption due to ionisation is not sufficient. one above another, from which the spectators look | down directly on the experimental table below. The students are expected to perform the simpler experi- ments in the laboratory, and these will be discussed and elucidated from the lecture table. The more complicated experiments will be done by the demon- strator on the special table in the recess, and when these are in progress the students will leave their NO. 2250, VOL. 90| Refraction owing to varying dielectric constant arising from ionisation may be operative here. Many other problems require elucidation, such as the greatly reduced signalling distance at dawn and dusk, the inequality in north-south and east-west transmission, the theory of directive antenna, and the location of the direction of the arriving waves. In the discussion Dr. W. Eccles directed attention to his paper read before the Royal Society in June last. In order to account for the great difference between _day and night transmission it seems necessary to suppose that there exists in the upper atmosphere a | permanently ionised layer that is not dependent on 422 NATURE [DECEMBER 12, 1912 solar radiation for its maintenance—a suggestion due to Heaviside. This, in conjunction with refraction due to a gradient of ionisation, enables many pheno- mena to be explained without appealing either to diffraction or to absorption in the air or by the earth’s surface. Prof. A. E. Kennelly (of Harvard University) pointed out that partially quantitative observations on the effect of sunrise and sunset on signals received near Boston from the Marconi station at Glace Bay, N.S., indicated that an influence on received signals was projected ahead of the sunrise at the sending station. The effects might be partially explained if the ionisation of sunlight in the upper atmosphere produced a wall or nearly vertical series of ionised strata at the boundary of the daylight illumination with absorption in those strata and some irregular reflection from their faces. Lord Rayleigh thought that there would always be many difficulties so long as we considered the earth a perfect conductor and the air a dielectric. Some seemed to suppose that the following of a wave round the earth was a consequence of the normality of the wave to the surface. That this is not so can be seen at once by realising that the same condition holds in the case of a sound wave. The Sommerfeld theory was probably mathematic- ally right, but a lot of time would be required to form an opinion as to its applicability to the problem. Sommerfeld came to the conclusion that it is the imperfection in the conductivity of the earth which facilitates transmission. This is certainly not in accordance with the first ideas we would come to. He approved of the lines of Dr. Eccles’s investigation, especially in connection with the day and night com- plications. He was specially interested in the differ- ence found to be necessary between the sending and receiving antenna. This seemed to be in contradic- tion to the well-known principle of reciprocity. The explanation may be that for the validity of this principle all the effects must be linear. It is worth while to consider this difference between the two ends. Prof. Macdonald and Dr. Nicholson both empha- sised the certainty of results calculated on the pure diffraction theory, and the insufficiency of that theory, and expressed approval of investigations on the lines which Dr. Eccles took. Dr. Nicholson considered Prof. Sommerfeld’s work to be rigorous so far as it went, but it was not certain that the investigation for a flat interface would apply to the earth. A very small area on the earth’s surface would corre- spond to a very large area on a plane if one solution were mathematically transformed into the other. Prof. A. G. Webster emphasised the importance of the lack of homogeneity of the earth and air. Captain Sankey seemed to despair of recording instruments, because they record everything. Prof. S. P. Thompson directed renewed attention to the pioneer work of Sir Oliver Lodge in 1894. Mr. S. G. Brown mentioned some experiments of his own in 1899. Contributions to the discussion were also made by Prof. Howe, Major Squire, and Prof. F. Baily. In a communicated contribution to the discussion, Prof. A. Sommerfeld emphasised the importance of the surface-waves. He thought that the difference between the day and night effect was due either to the increase of the conductivity of the air or to the upward bending action supposed by Dr. Fleming. He thought that one could not at the same time consider the ionisation a satisfactory explanation of the bending of the waves round the earth in long- distance transmission. One important outcome of the discussion is that a committee of the Association has been formed to deal NO. 2250, VOL. 90] with radio-telegraphic investigations. The committee is without any specific instructions, but its first inquiry will probably be as to what concerted action is possible between investigators on this important subject. General Physics. Prof. S. P. Thompson gave a simple demonstration of the varying depth of the extraordinary image formed by a cleave of unaxial crystal. A block of Iceland spar was rotated so that the entrance and exit faces remained in fixed planes. Of the two images of a small electric light seen through this block, the ordinary image remains ‘fixed; the extra- ordinary revolves round it in a tortuous curve. Lord Rayleigh described some iridescent effects produced by a surface film on glass. These were specially brilliant when the glass was immersed in water, owing to equalisation of the amount of light reflected from the two surfaces. With regard to methods of cleaning, Prof. Webster inquired whether he had tried the well-known use of a gelatine film for removing all traces of dirt. Prof. E. G. Coker described experiments on the flow of mercury in small steel tubes, especially at high velocities, at which the flow may be turbulent. The lowest velocity at which turbulent motion may commence is found to vary inversely as the diameter of the pipe and directly as the viscosity. Dr. J. Gray gave several exhibitions of some spin- ning tops, many of them of new design, which appeared very useful for exhibiting gyrostatic proper- ties. Prof. W. Peddie described an apparatus for in- vestigating the motion in torsional oscillations when viscous and hysteretic effects are present. The ap- paratus enabled a determination to be made of the connection between displacement and time throughout the motion. The author discussed the theoretical char- acter of the results obtained. Dr. S. R. Milner read an interesting paper on the current-potential curves of the oscillating spark. Two induction coils connected in series were actuated by the same mercury break; one of these charged a Leyden jar battery and produced the spark, the other simultaneously discharged through a vacuum tube giving kathode rays which were deviated in two direc- tions at right angles by the magnetic field of the spark current and the electric field of the spark potential-difference. | Photographs of the resultant curves due to single sparks were shown. Dr. W. F. G. Swann described experiments indi- cating that the conductivity of paraffin wax increases with the field when values up to 100,000 volts per centimetre are employed. Prof. W. G. Duffield and Mr. G. E. Collis ex- hibited photographs of a deposit upon the poles of an iron are burning in air. The deposit, which is of a feathery nature, appears to be an oxide of iron. These growths vary from a millimetre to a centi- metre in length; they increase in size by the con- densation of metallic vapour or the vapour of an oxide of iron. A paper by Dr. G. E. Gibson on a new method of determining vapour densities was taken as read in the absence of the author. The quartz manometer employed consists of a bulb of less than 1 c.c. capacity blown on a quartz tube 3 mm. in diameter, and flat- tened at one end so as to form a flexible membrane 1/10 mm. thick. The interior of this membrane is filled with the vapour under investigation, while the exterior is enclosed in a quartz chamber which com- municates with a mercury manometer. A distortion of the membrane caused by a difference in pressure between the interior and the exterior causes a small DECEMBER 12, I912| NATURE quartz plate, which is polished so as to act as a mirror, to undergo a rotation about an axis in the plane of the polished surface. Dr. T. M. Lowry described some very accurate determinations of the optical rotatory power of quartz, in which particular attention was paid to the purity of the quartz, and to obtaining light pure enough to give a clean extinction when reading a rotation of several thousand degrees, and of sufficient intensity to be read with a small half-shadow angle. Prof. R. A. Sampson, in giving a short account of a paper on the calculation of the fields of telescopic object glasses, remarked that the object of long-focus lenses was not to diminish the effects of chromatic aberration, but to do so for the other types of aberra- tion. Prof. D. C. Miller showed a very ingenious and successful instrument for analysing sound vibrations. The membrane set vibrating by the source of sound tilts a mirror mounted on an axle. The essential feature of the instrument is the extreme minuteness of the mirror, which, together with the axle on which it is mounted, does not weigh more than two milli- grams. The light received from the mirror is received by a second mirror continuously rotating round a perpendicular axis. Vibration curves were projected on to a screen, the amplitude being about two feet, and the length shown some twenty feet. The con- stitution of compound notes was thus instantly demonstrated, and in particular the constitution of vowel sounds. In the report of the committee on electrical standards evidence is given of the satisfactory char- acter of the methods which have been established, in a great measure by this committee, for the measure- ment of electrical quantities. The committee rightly considers that the primary objects for which it was appointed have been achieved. It has, however, been reappointed for another year in order to complete the business arrangements connected with the re- publication of the entire set of its reports from 1861 until the present time. In a report of the committee to aid in the work of establishing a solar observatory in Australia, it is reported that the Commonwealth Government ap- pointed a board to inquire and report upon the best site for an observatory within the federal territory at Yass-Canberra. They unanimously selected a site on the summit of a hill some 2500 feet above sea-level, and the Government has instructed Mr. Baracchi to establish a temporary observatory at the selected site, and to determine definitely whether it answers the requirements of modern scientific research, including astrophysics. The telescope is the gift of Mr. James Oddie, of Balarat, who offered it, together with other instruments, for this specific purpose. A 6-inch Grubb refractor, the gift of the trustees of the estate of the late Lord Farnham, is also to be forwarded to Australia. In view of the action now being taken by the Commonwealth Government, there can be no doubt of its intentions in the matter of solar work. Atomic Heat of Solids. The second formal discussion which had been arranged was on the atomic heat of solids. This was opened by Dr. F. A. Lindemann, of Berlin. If the ordinary principles of mechanics are admitted as governing the movements of atoms, equipartition of energy is bound to be attained, and the atomic heat of a solid at constant volume should be exactly 3R. To escape from Rayleigh’s formula for the distribu- tion of energy in the spectrum, Planck has assumed that an oscillator may only emit definite discontinuous quantums of energy, and shows that their magnitude NO. 2250, VOL. 90| 423 is proportional to the frequency; and he develops the formula— 20h I E fe at ee dr? ay KT e -1 where h is a new universal constant 6°55 x 10-7” erg. sec., K=R/N, and » is the frequency. This formula appears to agree with experimental results. From this, on certain assumptions, Einstein has shown that the atomic heat of N atoms should be— a’e* "(es 1)” where a=(Ay)/(KT). This formula is only approximately correct, and fails altogether if one inserts the true frequencies calcu- lated from the reststrahlen, from the compressibility, density and atomic weight, or from the melting point, density and atomic weight. Nernst and Lindemann have empirically modified this formula by adding a second term in which « has half the value in the first, thus corresponding to frequencies an octave below those in the first term. This formula holds accurately for the atomic heat of the metals, diamond, NaCl, KCl, NaBr, and KBr, using the values of v given by the reststrahlen. It follows that the free electrons, if there are any, can only have a very small specific heat, for the atomic heats of conductors and non-conductors may be represented by practically identical curves. Further, it can be shown that ‘‘ Nernst’s theorem” is a conse- quence of the fact that the atomic heats are infinitely small at.the absolute zero. In the discussion, Dr. G. E. Gibson sketched an hypothesis by means of which the difficulty of Planck’s assumption of a discontinuous absorption and emission of energy might be removed. He supposes that the discontinuity is confined solely to the collisions be- tween the molecules with which the resonators are connected, so that during the time between collisions the resonators are subject to the ordinary laws of thermodynamics. Lord Rayleigh was glad that, though the law of equipartition led to his own equation, this had not been so presented as to make it appear that he believed it to apply to all wave lengths. He considered that the difficulty attending the five degrees of freedom of a diatomic gas had not yet been removed satis- factorily. However stiff the molecule is made axially there is still a degree of freedom connected with axial separation of the two atoms. He was extremely interested in the quantum theory; the success it had obtained showed that it should not be given up, although at the same time it seemed to be throwing away most of our dynamical ideas. It implies the extraordinary result that when two molecules meet they may not take up motion because it is too small to be taken up at all! Dr. J. W. Nicholson laid emphasis on the dis- crepancy between Lindemann’s conclusion that the atomic heat of electricity is very small and the usual conclusion from the electronic theory of metals which requires a value for it so large as to be inadmissible. He felt very much in accord with the ideas put for- ward by Dr. Gibson. Prof. Rutherford said that one point appealed to him. Foreigners seem to be content without realising a practical model or mechanism of the processes they assumed to take place. He did not lay great stress on the agreement between the theory and experiment —a double exponential equation can be fitted to almost anything. He was inclined to doubt whether the formula of Nernst and Lindemann was of the right form. 424 NATURE. | DECEMBER 12, 1912 Prof. Bragg emphasised the corpuscular nature of other things, e.g. of X-rays. A number of other speakers also took part. Dr. Lindemann, in his reply, pointed out that Pier and Bjerrum have shown that the molecular heat of the diatomic gases rises above the value 5R/2 at high temperatures, and may be represented by the formula 5R/2+Rf(v,T), where f() is the same formula. as that used for solids. The frequency (v) coincides with the absorption bands in the case of some of the gases with charged ions (HCl, H,O, NH,, &c.). Vhe fact that the molecular heat of hydrogen falls as iow as 3R/2 at the temperature of liquid air is far more difficult to explain even on the assumption of quanta, for the rotation takes place without potential energy in this case, and one would naturally expect the frequency to vary with the temperature, which would lead to a much more gradual diminution of the mole- cular heat than is actually the case. Personally he was doubtful of the validitv of Poincaré’s proof that one must assume a discontinuity to obtain Planck’s formula. He considered it premature to construct a model; it is necessary first to find the conditions which a model must fulfil. The most difficult fact to account for is the large conductivity for heat of crystals at low temperatures where the energy fall may be very small. Models which are based upon electrons being ejected are of no use, as they do not explain why an uncharged diamond atom does not start vibrating when struck by an uncharged helium atom. The agreement between calculation and experiment can scarcely be regarded as fortuitous, for there are no arbitrary constants in the formule. He did not think that the theory of free electrons in metals can’ be retained in its present shape. The calculation of Wiedemann-Franz’s con- stant is based on the assumption that the free elec- trons have the mean kinetic energy of a monatomic gas at the same temperature. Planck’s radiation formula would seem to lead to about one-third of this value, but this would make the thermal conductivity three times too small. It is noteworthy that the elec- tric resistance anpears to be very nearly proportional to the energy content, becoming independent of the temperature at low temperatures. The electric con- ductivity of very pure quicksilver is 100,000 times greater at the temperature of liquid helium than it iSvat ore If one assumes the number of free electrons to be very small, but to contain the energy of a monatomic gas, the electrical conductivity shows that the mean free path must be very large, and one comes into conflict with optical measurements, more particularly with those of Hagen and Rubens. He would be very loathe to accept the theory of corpuscular radiation. All arguments in its favour are valid also for light. The phenomena of interference show that a quantum of light might be 500,000 wave lengths or 25 cm. long. What would become of it if it were cut in two? He believes that Planck’s second hypothesis of con- tinuous absorption and discontinuous emission is able to account for the chief difficulty, viz. that a compara- tively fast electron may be emitted under the influence of comparatively weak radiation. Spectroscopy. A third discussion was opened by Dr. J. W. Nichol- son on series in spectra. The opener gave a general account of the work which has been done in the representation of spectra by formule, and followed with a review of the attempts made to obtain these formule from model atoms. He concluded that the Ritz formula cannot represent the actual facts, and that Hicks’s modification and Whittalser’s formula are NO. 2250, VOL. 90] difficult to interpret physically. A modern theory apparently must build up the atom from electrons and positive electricity—the latter, from work on radio- activity alone, being densely concentrated at the centre of the atom. The electrons must be arranged in rings to avoid excessive radiation (Schott), and the atom is Saturnian. structure can be secured by allowing expansion of electrons, or by a quantum theory, which is prefer- able. It has been shown that it is possible to explain the coronal and nebular spectra by simple ring systems with a quantum theory which implies a definite change of energy when an electron enters or leaves an atom. The spectra of such elements do not exhibit the usual series, but a series in which the cube-roots of the wave lengths differ by a constant amount. This is in accordance with a radiation of energy in discrete amounts proportional to the frequency. The difficulty The necessary permanence of nee a in explaining Balmer’s series is that in dynamical — systems it is the square of the frequency, not the frequency itself, which is a rational function of in- tegers. This difficulty is absent from the model of Ritz; but it is more probable that the origin of spectral series is kinematical (as Rayleigh has suggested) rather than dynamical. A process was sketched bv which a series of lines 2 i= = , (@=const.) 7 — a” can be obtained for an atom with two rings of electrons by simple kinematical principles. If the outer ring contains only one electron the lines are doublets. The infinite number of lines is due to the infinite number of degrees of freedom of the zther. In the discussion, Prof. Kayser said that the first thing is to get a theory—none are quite right. Ritz’s is approximately right, but it cannot be the true one, because it leads to too large a number of components in the Zeeman effect. Hicks lays too much value on the accuracy of the measured wave lengths. We cannot hope to get the true wave length to one- thousandth Angstrém unit. For example, some lines in the iron spectrum are variable, being different at the positive and negative poles. Their character depends upon the conditions—Fabry obtains interfer- ence effects with them, while he himself cannot. In mixtures some calcium lines have a different wave length from those of the pure substance. Prof. Fowler added the name of Halm to those whose formule required recognition. With regard to accuracy, half a tenth-metre error could arise from nebulosity: this can, however, be reduced by altering the conditions. Prof. Peddie suggested the investigation of a more complicated system consisting of a succession of shells of alternate positive and negative character. He pointed out that if you make the atom rotate you” must also take into account the magnetic forces. Lord Rayleigh said that one point that was usually omitted was the difference between the vibration in the atom and that received by the observer. He instanced the case, in sound, of a revolving vibrating cylinder. The observer receives maxima and minima as the cylinder revolves—that is, there are two vibra- tions giving rise to beats. Dr. Duffield discussed the pressure effect as a means for the resolution of a spectrum into series. Photo- graphs were exhibited showing the different behaviour of spectral lines under nressure, thus facilitating their grouping. Prof. Kayser said he doubted if it is a pressure effect. Dr. King had found that in the elec- — ill asi cane tric furnace he gets a double amount, which shows © that other conditions enter into account. He did not think it possible so far to determine series by this DECEMBER 12, I1912| NATURE 425 method, though certain groups are obtained. Just | the same applies to the Zeeman effect. After the discussion, Dr. Duffield also showed photographs of the arc spectrum of nickel under pres- sure. The effects resemble those obtained with the iron arc. Dr. T. M. Lowry explained how he had calibrated a wave-length spectroscope in the infra-red region by aid of the fringes from a lightly-silvered etalon, using a thermopile and galvanometer instead of an eyepiece. Between A8o000 and A1t7,000 the error was not more than 20 to 50 A.U.; thence up to A20,000 the error may have amounted to 1o0 A.U. Prof. McLennan stated that one of his assistants had made measure- ments to A2r,o00. Prof. McLennan gave a brief account of some measurements in his laboratory of the series lines in the arc-spectrum of mercury and on their resolution by an echelon grating. In these ex- periments he found that the best spectrograms were obtained with an ordinary commercial glass Cooper Hewitt mercury lamp provided with a side tube carrying a window made from a plate of crystalline quartz. Radio-activity and Electronics. Mr. James Robinson described his experiments on the photoelectric properties of thin metal films show- ing a discontinuity in the behaviour when the film attains a particular thickness. Prof. Rutherford asked whether this break in the curve implied that the total energy emitted was discontinuous. Prof. McLennan suspected the possibility of a coherer action when the thickness attained a definite limit. In reply to a query by Prof. Millikan, Mr. Robinson stated that the 6-volt electrons obtained corresponded to about the limit capable of producing ionisation. He did not think Prof. McLennan’s suggestion fitted in with the facts. Prof. Millikan summarised his already published experiments on the discharge of ultra-violet light of high-speed electrons, in which far higher velocities were found when a spark is employed from those for a mercury are. Prof. Strutt suggested that what was required was to bridge over the gap between the arc and spark experiments, and indicated that it might be done by gradually altering the pressure of the gas in which the spark took place. Prof. Millikan replied that he had altered the conditions gradationally. He pointed out that only 1 in about 100,000 electrons have the high velocity. He also read a paper on the Jaw of the fall of a drop through air at reduced pressures and a redetermination of e. A law of fall of the form— aga (os 0) fel 5 ee is found to hold so long as 1/a.7. M Salmond, *“ Malta and the Mediterranean Race.” despite the fact that any foreign State interested in the military problems of India must already, by some underground means, have obtained the necessary information. The present book, for the first time, provides a résumé of some of this accumulated material. But the Indian War Office insisted that the MS. should be submitted to their scrutiny before publication. It begins with a short introduction from the pen of that fine soldier Sir H. Smith Dorrien, and passes on to a general description of the border- land, followed by a series of chapters dealing, each in succession, with a group of tribes, begin- ning with those of the Black Mountain and ending with the Wazirs. For each tribe or group of 466 NATURE [DECEMBER 26, 1912 tribes we now have a concise account of their history, customs, and mode of life, a description of their country and the routes by which it can be penetrated, and of the successive expeditions directed against them. Colonel Wylly, who him- self knows the ground, has done the work of con- densing the material with much discretion and ability, and the book, though in the nature of a summary, is written in a graphic and readable style. It does not profess to give detailed refer- ences to the authorities on which it is based, and ~it is unfortunate that at least a bibliography of the most important literature available for study has not been supplied. A fine set of maps and a good index add to the value of the book. Though from its form it is unlikely to become popular with the general reader, it will be indispensable to’ the soldier on duty on the frontier and to the student of military history, while for the geo- grapher and the ethnologist it, for the first time, draws aside the veil which has hitherto concealed a most interesting tract of country and _ tribes which, in spite of their cruelty and fanaticism, possess many admirable qualities. | Now that light has been thrown upon them we may learn how to understand them better and establish more satisfactory relations with them. (3) From its geographical position Malta was necessarily closely connected with that form of eastern Mediterranean culture which finds its most complete presentation in the discoveries made by Sir A. Evans in Crete and by Schliemann at Mycenae and other sites on the mainland of Greece. Hence a monograph summarising the results of the recent important excavations in Malta and a discussion of their relation to those in other parts of the Mediterranean and its border lands will be welcomed by archaeologists. Mr. Bradley has been personally engaged on the work of excava- tion with Dr. Ashby and the local antiquaries, and is thus in a position to undertake such a task. In r910 a prehistoric well tomb was discovered between Attard and Citta Vecchia, where, beneath an upper Punic stratum, human bones mixed witha deep red pigment were found associated with pottery of an early type. About the same time, Prof. Tagliaferro discovered a series of ossiferous caves at Bur Meghez, between Valetta and Hagiar Kim, in which numerous interments, also accompanied by primitive pottery, were unearthed. Perhaps most important of all is the discovery of the Hypo- geum at Hal Safflieni, near the head of the Great Harbour. This important megalithic monument consists of two stories, the lower apparently used as a place of storage, being provided with bin- like structures, while above is a sanctuary which seems to have been concealed from public view by a curtain. Mr. Bradley gives a valuable account, accompanied by excellent photographs, of these interesting remains and of the pottery and other objects recovered from them. His theory that the dolmen originated in a cave burial and his survey of the prehistoric pottery deserve attention. But he has not been content with describing NO. 2252, VOL. 90] these remains and tracing their analogues in the adjoining regions. The real object of his book, he tells us, is to portray the psychological charac- teristics of the pre-Aryan population of Europe with a view to explain how a race so highly gifted as the Cretan monuments show it to have been fell almost without a struggle before the Aryan invaders. This is a problem which is obviously only indirectly connected with the archaeology of Malta, though some sside-lights useful for its solution may ultimately be derived from the dis- coveries in that island. But it raises a series of complicated questions, such as the Egyptian, Babylonian, or Phoenician influences in the eastern Mediterranean, the origin of megalithic monu- ments throughout the world, and so on, for the solution of which he can scarcely claim to possess the necessary qualifications. Such an inquiry is probably much too serious to be undertaken by any single scholar at the present time, and we mvst be content with a series of monographs dealing with the varied phases of this widespread culture before any comprehensive treatment of the subject as a whole comes to be possible. NEW HYDROGEN SPECTRA. a 1896 Prof. E. C. Pickering discovered a series of lines in the spectrum of the star ¢ Puppis which has been attributed to hydrogen in consequence of numerical relationship to the Balmer series ordinarily observed in laboratory experiments. From analogy with other spectra, Rydberg further calculated the positions of lines which would constitute the Principal series of hydrogen, and the first line, at 4687°88, has been identified with a line appearing in stars of the fifth type. The ¢ Puppis lines have since been observed in the spectra of a few other stars, and because they had not been found in the terrestrial spectrum of hydrogen, even under the most promis- ing conditions, they have commonly been con- sidered to represent a modified form of hydrogen which could only be produced at very high tem- peratures. Hence, Sir Norman Lockyer gave the name “proto-hydrogen” to the gas which pro- duces the lines in question, while others have called it ‘““cosmic” hydrogen. A further contribution to our knowledge of the spectrum of hydrogen was communicated to the Royal Astronomical Society on December 13 by Mr. A. Fowler, who has succeeded in produc- ing four lines of the Principal series, three of the ¢ Puppis series, and three lines of an ultra-violet series which has not previously been suspected. The new lines were obtained by passing a strong condensed discharge through an ordinary Plicker tube containing a mixture of hydrogen and helium, and it is remarkable that it was not found possible to produce them from hydrogen alone, under apparently identical conditions. At low pressures the lines appeared in the bulbs, close to the junc- tions with the capillary tube, and were then sharply defined. At higher pressures the lines of the Prin- cipal and new series were very bright and broad | DECEMBER 26, 1912] NATURE 467 in the capillary tube, but the € Puppis lines were not observed. The positions of the observed lines of the Principal series are 4685'98, 2733°34, 2385°47, and 2252°88, all of which are slightly more refrangible than the wave-lengths calculated by Rydberg. Using oscillation frequencies in vacuo, the lines are represented by the equation 109675 (m +0'999606)” where m has the values 1, 2, 3, 4. The wave- length of the first line sufficiently justifies its identification with the high-level line 4685°90 in the chromosphere (Lockyer), the nebular line 4685°73 (Wright), the Orion star line 4685°4 (Pickering), and probably also with 4688 of the bright line stars. The new ultra-violet series includes strong lines at 3203°30, 2511°31, and 2306'20, which may be connected by the equation m= 487640 — 109675 (m-+0'499506)” where m has the values 2, 3, 4. The limit is identical with that of the Principal series, and the new lines are provisionally regarded as form- ing a second Principal series. Hydrogen is appar- ently unique in having two Principal series so related. It has so far only been possible to identify three members of the ¢ Puppis- series, their approximate wave-lengths being 5410°5, 4541°3, and 4200°3. The investigation is regarded as giving another indication of the probability that there are no special kinds of matter in celestial bodies, and that most ot the celestial spectra are reproducible in laboratory experiments. n=48763'5— PELLAGRA. eS announcement, a few weeks ago, that pel- lagra has been found in the British Islands is of no slight importance. For, if half-a-dozen genuine cases have been found, we may be fairly sure that many hundreds are waiting to be found. In the United States, it is only five years since Dr. Babcock and Dr. Watson directed general attention to the presence of this disease in their country. We now have clear evidence that pel- lagra has been found in no fewer than thirty-five States; and several thousands of cases have already been found and noted. In the final stage, the central nervous system is affected, and the patient is apt to become insane; it is possible, therefore, that many cases will be found, by diligent examination, among the inmates asylums. Still, we have no reason to believe that pellagra has ever been, or will ever be, so heavy on this country as on Italy. Out of the admirable work done by the Pel- lagra Commission (1909) came Dr. Sambon’s theory that the disease is one of the insect-borne infections, and that the infecting agent is Simulium, one of the “midges.” It is a not im- probable corollary, with some direct evidence in its favour, that the organism of pellagra is a NO. 2252, VOL. 90] of | protozoon, similar in nature to the protozoon of malaria. Against this theory, based on long and laborious study of the districts where pellagra lies heaviest on the people, there is the old theory that the disease is due to the eating of unwhole- some maize: that some bacterial change in the maize causes it to act as a slow poison. Perhaps, ina few years, these opposed theories, which now seem utterly irreconcilable, may be brought nearer together by a new series of observations, at | some level which is not yet in sight. Meanwhile, in the general opinion of experts, the old theory— that bad maize, ipso facto, induces pellagra—is losing ground. One is reminded of the old theory that the eating of the manioc-root was the cause of the African sleeping-sickness; and one is tempted to think that the maize-theory of pellagra will have the same fate. Certainly, if a notable number of cases of the disease be found in this country, the maize-theory will become even harder to hold. The earliest full account, in our language, of the disease is probably the paper by Dr. Sand- with (Brit. Med. Ass. Edinburgh meeting, 1898). His study of pellagra in Lower Egypt is well known to all pathologists. For the facts about pellagra in the United States we have Dr. Niles’s recent book, “Pellagra: an American Problem ” (Saunders, Philadelphia, 1912), and, with much other literature, two important papers in the Transactions of the Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene (January, 1912), by Dr. Stannus and Dr. Sandwith, with a discussion, in which Dr. Sambon and Dr. Chalmers took part. The re- ference to pellagra in the British Islands is British Medical Journal, October 26, 1912. It is fairly certain that careful collective inves- tigation will bring to light many cases of pellagra in this country, and the experts will perhaps be enabled thereby to set aside the “maize theory,” and all modified forms of that theory, and to class | the disease with malaria, yellow fever, and sleep- ing sickness. Still, it is not impossible that the maize theory and the Simulium theory may, by further study of the facts of the incidence and geographical distribution of the disease, be found less hostile to each other than they appear to be | at the present time. NOTES. We heartily welcome the new Society for the Pro- motion of Nature Reserves. Its objects, as officially stated, are as follows:—(1) To collect and collate information as to areas of land in the United King- dom which retain their primitive conditions and con- tain rare and local species liable to extinction owing to building, drainage, and disafforestation, or in con- sequence of the cupidity of collectors. All such in- formation to be treated as strictly confidential. (2) To prepare a scheme showing which areas should be secured. (3) To obtain these areas and hand them over to the National Trust under such conditions as may be necessary. (4) Yo preserve for posterity as a 468 NATURE [DECEMBER 26, 1912 national possession some part at least of our native land, its fauna, flora, and geological features. (5) To encourage the love of nature and to educate public opinion to a better knowledge of the value of nature- studv. The president is the Right Hon. J. W. Lowther, M.P., the hon. secretaries are Mr. W. R. Ogilvie-Grant and the Hon. F. R. Henley. The temporary address of the society is the Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, S.W. There is no sub- scription. The principle of centralising the various efforts already instituted in this country towards the preservation of its ‘‘ natural monuments” has for some time past been advocated in these columns. The mechanism by which reservation is to be effected has already been put into operation by the acquisition of Blakeney Point in Norfolk. The highly successful scheme which has been worked in Prussia for some eight years is, we may note, governmental, and has a special commissioner, Dr. Conwentz, the pioneer of the movement, at its head. It seems to us that some such close connection with the national execu- tive is essential for the full success of any society, however strong. Ar the Dundee meeting of the British Association in September last the president of the Zoological Sec- tion, Dr. P. Chalmers Mitchell, F.R.S., took as the subject of his address, ‘‘The Preservation of Fauna.” At the close of the meeting the general committee passed on to the council, for consideration, a resolu- tion, which has now been adopted in the following terms :—‘‘That the British Association for the Ad- vancement of Science deplores the rapid destruction of fauna and flora throughout the world, and regards it as an urgent duty that steps should be taken, by the formation of suitably placed reserves, or other- wise, to secure the preservation of examples of all Species of animals and plants, irrespective of their economic or sporting value, except in cases where it has been clearly proved that the preservation of par- ticular organisms, even in restricted numbers and places, is a menace to human welfare.” Tue news of the death of Mr. Henry de Mosenthal, which occurred on December 18, at sixty-two years of age, will be deeply regretted by those numerous friends and technologists with whom his long associa- tion with the well-known firm of Nobels brought him into relationship. Mr. de Mosenthal had acted as technical secretary since the formation of the Dynamite Trust Company in 1886, but his association with Nobels goes back some years earlier. Mr. de Mosenthal be- came a member of the Society of Chemical Industry in 1888, and two years later he was elected a fellow of the Chemical Society. He contributed to the publica- tions of each, and the series of three papers on observations on cotton and nitrated cotton appearing in the Journal of the former society in 1904, 1907, and 1911 record a large number of valuable deter- minations of the physical properties of these bodies, especially in solution. In the first contribution he demonstrated that the cuticle of the cotton fibre is | extremely porous, that rows of pores and stomata may be observed on the surface under oblique illumina- tion. NO. 2252, VOL. 90] cotton fibre exhibited no capillary action, which is contrary to the commonly accepted view, but that severai fibres must be in contact before the well-known capillary action became manifest. Tue Paris Société d’Encouragement has received a legacy of 4oool., bequeathed to it by the late M. Osmond. Tue silver medal of the Zoological Society has been conferred on Major J. Stevenson-Hamilton, Game Warden of the Transvaal, in recognition of his valu- able services in connection with the King’s African collection. WE learn from The Times that a new cancer insti- tute has been established at the Brompton Cancer Hospital, at a cost of some 60001. The importance of X-rays and other electrical methods in the treatment of malignant disease is now fully recognised, and the institute has in its possession an excellent equipment for this branch of therapeutics. Tue director of the Science Museum, South Ken- sington, informs us that a temporary collection at the museum in illustration of the history of aéronautics and some of the scientific researches which are applied in the design, construction, and use of aéroplanes will be open to the public from December 23 until the end of January. Tue eighty-first annual meeting of the British Medical Association will be held in Brighton next July. The president’s address will be delivered on July 22, and the sections will meet on the three follow- ing days. Dr. W. A. Hollis, consulting physician, Sussex County Hospital, is the president-elect. The address in medicine will be delivered by Prof. G. R. Murray, physician to the Royal Infirmary, Man- chester, on July 23. The address in surgery will be delivered by Sir Berkeley Moynihan, professor of | clinical surgery in the University of Leeds, on July 24. The popular lecture will be delivered by Mr. E. J. Spitta on the evening of July 25. . The scientific busi- ness of the meeting will be conducted in fifteen sec- tions, which will meet on July 23 to 25. These sections, with their presidents, are as follows :—Bacteriology and Pathology, Dr. J. W. H. Eyre; Dermatology, Dr. J. H. Sequeira; Diseases of Children, including orthopzedus, Dr. G. F. Still; Electro-therapeutics, Mr. W. D. Butcher; Gynaecology and Obstetrics, Mr. R. Sanderson; Laryngology, Rhinology, and Otology, Mr. A. Je Hutchison ; Medical Sociology, Dr. R. J. Ryle; Medicine, Dr. E. Hobhouse; Navy and Army, and Ambulance, Colonel James Turton, V.D.; Neurology and Psychological Medicine, Dr. J. Taylor; Ophthalmology, Mr. T. H. Bickerton; Phar- macology, Therapeutics, and Dietetics, Dr. W. H. Hale; State Medicine, Dr. E. W. Hope; Surgery, Mr. W. T. Thomas; Tropical Medicine, Lieut.-Colonel | Sir William Leishman, F.R.S. Tue report of the council of the Scottish Meteoro- logical Society, adopted at the annual general meet- ing on December 10, shows that during the past twelve months the society’s system of observations has His experiments also showed that the single | been strengthened by the re-establishment on a satis- | DECEMBER 26, 1912] NATURE 469 factory basis of a station at Braemar, with Mr. A. M. Shirran as principal observer. Observations were originally established there under the direction of the late Prince Consort; a continuous series exists for the period 1856-1905. The Registrar-General for Scot- land has been supplied regularly with monthly and quarterly reports from the office of the society, and also, direct from the observers in eight of the large towns of Scotland, with the daily observations of temperature and rainfall required for his weekly reports. The Meteorological Office in London has received direct from the observers at certain stations daily observations of temperature, rainfall, and, in some cases, sunshine for its Weekly Weather Reports. The council regrets to report a shrinkage in the membership of the society, due largely to the deaths of subscribers of long standing. A shrinkage in membership implies a reduction of income, and but for a considerable demand for the society’s publica- tions, there would have been a serious deficit for the financial year ending June 30 last. The expenditure of the society has been reduced to the lowest possible limit, but it will exceed the income for the current year unless there is a large accession of new mem- bers. The council has lodged an application with the Registrar-General for Scotland for a grant sufficient to defray the entire cost of the reports supplied to him by the society. Mr. J. Mackay Bernard has been elected president for the coming year. Pror. H. H. W. Pearson, of the South African College, Cape Town, sends us a copy of a letter from The Cape Times of October 29 last, wherein the Hon. A. Wilmot, formerly a member of the Cape Legisla- tive Council, describes the appearance from the deck of ss. Dover Castle, then in the southern portion of the Gulf of Guinea, of an object regarded as ‘‘ the head and neck of a monster—seemingly a serpent— extending at least fourteen feet above sea-level. Mr. Wilmot saw this object, as it pursued its way through the water, six times in the space of about two minutes; and it was independently noticed once or twice by several persons on board. The day, October 17, was exceedingly clear, and, according to Mr. Wilmot, ‘‘it is preposterous to talk of five independent witnesses being imposed upon by mistaking porpoises, a flight of sea-birds, seaweed, or cane for the sea monster they undoubtedly did see at a distance estimated at one and a half miles.” In the face of this testimony no one will deny that something strange to the pas- sengers, but interpreted as the head and neck of a serpent, was observed by them on the occasion men- tioned. But since there is neither sketch nor detailed description of the apparition to help in determining to what class of the animal kingdom it belonged, we venture to suggest that it may have been the upraised tentacular arm of a large kind of pelagic squid swimming near the surface. These arms are long and flexible, and expand somewhat abruptly at the end into an enlargement which at a distance might be mistaken for the head of a snake attached to a slender neck. The size of the object observed is no obstacle to this suggested explanation, since the ten- tacular arms of some of these gigantic squids reach a length of about thirty feet. NO. 2252, VOL. 90] Amonc the Bulletins of the Philosophical Society of the University of Virginia there appeared in July, 1912, a paper by Mr. H. E. Jordan, entitled ‘‘ Studies in Human Heredity.” The characters dealt with are left-handedness, pulmonary tuberculosis, cancer, hermaphroditism, onyxis (ingrowing toe-nails), nephritis, and melancholia. The method of study is the collection of pedigrees, on which a Mendelian interpretation is put with rather too great readiness. It is to be regretted that some care was not taken to describe the actual condition found in each indi- vidual. This lack of definite information is particu- larly noticeable in the case of left-handedness, which occupies more than half the paper. Left-handedness occurs in a variety of forms, and it would have added much to the value of the pedigrees if the author had noted, wherever possible, in what manner it was exhibited. Among the left-handed acquaintances of the present writer one used to write left-handed, but played games right-handed; in the majority this con- dition is reversed. One was in his early childhood so apt with left hand that he learnt to write with it, and then, having acquired the art of writing clearly and well, he appeared to forget it again; his letters became more and more unformed and slovenly in appearance, until, at the age of six and a half, it was thought better that he should commence again with his right hand. Would Mr. Jordan class all these cases indiscriminately as left-handed ? To The Field of December 14 Mr. Pocock con- tributes a note, with an illustration, of two long-beaked spiny anteaters now on exhibition in the Zoological Society’s Gardens. They form, apparently, part of a consignment of eight recently brought by Mr. Paul Kibler from the Charles Louis Mountains of Dutch New Guinea. In commenting on the height at which the body is carried above the ground—a feature in which these anteaters differ from the ordinary species —Mr. Pocock states that the pose of the limbs should be compared with that of tortoises rather than with that of elephants. The author quotes a letter from the Hon. Walter Rothschild relative to the five races by which the long-beaked species is locally represented in New Guinea. In the November issue of the Journal of the East Africa and Uganda Natural History Society reference is made to a decrease in the membership of the society and the lack of sufficient literary matter for the journal, of which only two numbers are in the future to be issued annually. Such want of support is to be deplored, especially in a country so rich in natural history subjects as Uganda. In an article on early man Mr. C. W. Hobley observes that while stone implements are common in Egypt and Cape Colony, they are relatively rare in B.E. Africa; and suggests that this may be due to the sparse population of the country in prehistoric times, when volcanic action appears to have been rife. Most of the implements hitherto found are of a crude type; and if it be true, as some suppose, that Africa was the cradle of the art of working in iron, this industry may have crushed out of existence the manufacture of stone implements, which consequently never attained the beauty and finish characterising those of Neolithic Europe. 470 Tue zoological expedition to the Altai Mountains, Siberia, and Mongolia, organised and carried out by the cooperation of the United States National Museum with the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Har- vard, has recently returned to the United States after an especially successful trip of about four months’ duration. The expedition was under the direction of Dr. Theodore Lyman, of Cambridge, Mass., and the National Museum was represented by Mr. N. Hol- lister, of the division of mammals. It was the object of the expedition to collect the mammals and birds of the Altai Mountains, especially the very large wild sheep of this region, and in this respect the expedition succeeded far beyond expectations. Among the small mammals there have been found several new species, diagnoses of which are given in a pamphlet entitled, “New Mammals from the Highlands of Siberia,” written by Mr. Hollister, and just published by the Smithsonian Institution, forming publication No. 2157 of the Smith- sonian Miscellaneous Collections. The whole collec- tion includes about 750 mammals and birds, among them a fine series of the wild sheep of the Altai region, which is the largest known species of sheep, together with ibexes, gazelles, and other large game. The specimens will be divided between the two institutions interested. Tue U.S. Department of Agriculture has issued (Forestry Service, Bulletin 85) a description of the chaparral, or dwarf forest vegetation of Southern Cali- fornia, by F. G. Plummer. The chaparral, or ‘‘elfin wood,” is one of the types of stunted forest—a plant formation found in several widely separated parts of the world—and is one of the intermediate forms be- tween a flourishing forest and a desert, representing a condition of balance between certain environmental extremes, a balance at which the growth is dwarfed and the full-grown trees attain only the dimensions of brush, being rarely more than 1o ft. high. It is sharply distinguished in composition from the dwarf forest formations of high latitudes and altitudes on one hand, and from the tropical and subtropical dwarf forests on the other; its dominant species belong to the genera Adenostoma, Arctostaphylos, Ceanothus, and Quercus, though the dominant forms often vary on adjacent watersheds. The memoir includes a discus- sion of the ecological relations of the chaparral species, the importance of the tree-cover in conserving mois- ture, the methods of controlling the destructive fires which rapidly sweep the more or less arid vegetation, and the possibility of introducing large tree species; hence it is of interest to the forester and geographer, as well as to the botanist. ANOTHER text-book, modestly styled a ‘‘ Guide to the Collection of Gemstones in the Museum of Practical Geology,” has been issued by that museum (obtainable through any bookseller from _ T. Fisher Unwin, London, price od.). Mr. W. F. P. McLintock here describes the properties of gems, with an excellent account of the influence of refractive index and internal reflection, and of the mysterious nature of colour. Eight pages are devoted to artificial gems. In the descriptive portion, euclase, benitoite, and variscite take their place as gemstones. NO. 2252, VOL. 90] NATURE | DECEMBER 26, 1912 OBERLEHRER L. WunpbeErR, of Sendelbach bei Lohr, | has published separately, through Teubner of Leipzig | (price 1.50 marks), his observations on the Kerlingar- | fjoll and other highlands in Iceland. He has deter- | mined barometrically, with due precautions, a number of heights for the first time, and is able to correct some features of the current geological map of the country. His observations on the rapid variations of glacier-streams as the comparatively feeble sunlight waxes or wanes are of considerable interest. In the Hofsjékull a true ice-dome of the Norwegian type is encountered, with marginal glacier-tongues. Tue continued interest taken by geologists in the origin of the British Triassic strata has been more than once noticed in these columns. Mr. T. O. Bosworth has now published, though the Leicester Literary and Philosophical Society, his researches on “The Keuper Marls around Charnwood” (Leicester : Thornley and Son). Particular attention is paid in this excellently illustrated volume to the rock-surfaces exposed by quarrying beneath the Trias, and to the blocks from these surfaces carried into the marls by weathering agents in Triassic times. More than 4o per cent. of calcium and magnesium carbonate has been found in some of the marls. The author believes that the red marls accumulated in compara- tively deep standing pools, the alternating grey bands representing coarser matter swept in from the desert areas during rains. Pror. S. PassarcGe has written, as a part in the Mitteilungen of the Geographical Society of Hamburg (Hamburg, L. Friederichsen and Co., 1912), an elabo- rate survey of morphological geography, which he endeavours to classify with the same precision as a department in zoology. His method can be indicated by quoting an example. In systematic morphology the two ‘‘types”’ are land-forms and coast-forms. In the first of these, volcanic-forms make the second order in the class of endogenous forms, and this order is divided into the family of intrusions and eruption- forms, the latter being separated into one genus (Gattung) of explosive discharges and another of effusive discharges, the second consisting of the following specific forms: dome-volcanoes, — shield- volcanoes, and flows. This has a very orderly aspect, and examples may be found which can be easily fitted into the several pigeon-holes, but most volcanoes of any size are composite in character, built up of dis- charges of scoria and flows of lava, and traversed by dykes and other intrusions. To draw hard and fast lines is more difficult in geography than most other branches of science, and, although some technical terms are necessary, it is doubtful whether they can be very precisely defined. Prof. Passarge’s work is an example of German thoroughness, with perhaps a corresponding tendency to over-classification, and it will be found, we think, more useful to teachers than to students, for the latter may find that minute atten- tion to the trees rather hinders them from seeing the wood. Dr. Puitie Erepia sends us a useful discussion, entitled ‘The Diurnal Variation of Temperature in Italy’ (excerpt from the Annals of the Central a a a ITE i DECEMBER 26, 1912] NATURE 471 Meteorological Office, part i., 1912). The investiga- tion is based on observations from 1892-1906 at 120 stations, at which no interruption had taken place during the period. The tables include monthly, seasonal, and yearly mean values of the daily maxima and minima, and of their difference (or mean daily range), each betng separately treated, except in the annual summary. This special treatment of the various data, especially of the daily range, is of con- siderable climatic interest. The author also gives, for all stations, the value for each month and season of the varying coefficient involved in Kamtz’s for- mula for obtaining true daily means of temperature. Among many useful results it is noted that, generally speaking, the effect of latitude is not very distinctly shown in the annual values of the maxima and minima, owing to the many local influences at work. The annual range is greatest in the interior, especially in Upper Italy, where, proceeding inland from the Adriatic coast, constantly increasing values occur. Tue International Geodetic Conference, which met at Hamburg in September last, among other impor- tant questions discussed the subject of the precision of a level network, and laid down a new standard of accuracy for “nivellements de haute précision.”” Such a standard will doubtless prove of great value to the directors of large surveys plannning new levelling work, and it will be interesting to see a detailed dis- cussion of the errors of an actual reseau compared with the limiting errors calculated from the formulze approved by the conference. Short otf this, it is not possible to institute a strict comparison between the two, but it would appear that good modern work, such, for instance, as the Indian Survey Department’s precision levelling, falls well within the prescribed limit. The thanks of all geodesists are due to Lieut.- Col. Lallemand for the trouble he has taken in this matter, and for his long-continued and most valuable contributions to this branch of geodesy. Pending the publication of the conference volume, a summary of the formulze in question will be found in the Comptes vendus of the Paris Academy of Sciences for October 14, IQ12. Tue indefatigable and distinguished seismologist, Dr. F. Omori, in vol. v., No. 7, of the Japan Astro- nomical Herald, has branched off on a new line and given us an interesting and instructive article on the variation of latitude and changes in the mean sea-level of Japan. First we are introduced to a table which gives in millimetres mean sea-level in successive years at nine stations round the coast of Japan. A glance at this shows that although sea-level during twelve months may have increased at one station, at other stations during the same period it may have decreased. The greatest fluctuations appear to have taken place at Misaki, which lies just outside the Bay of Yedo. In 1897 the sea-level at this place remained constant, but by 1909 it had risen 166 millimetres. An annual ayerage value of the records of nine stations, when they are plotted on squared paper, show that sea-level was low in 1897 and tgo2, but it was high in 1899 and 1905. NO. 2252, VOL. 90| a curve showing changes in latitude as observed at Tokyo and Mizusawa. The resemblance between these two diagrams is very striking, and from them it appears that a variation of o'r in latitude is accom- panied by a change of 42 millimetres in sea-level. A PAPER on searchlights for the mercantile marine, read before the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society by Dr. Henry Wilde, F.R.S., on May 7, was reported and commented upon in the issue of NaTURE for May 30 (vol. Ixxxix., p. 325). On November 12 Dr. Wilde returned to the question in a paper, entitled ““On Searchlights and the Titanic Disaster,’’ which he read to the same society. In this paper he passes in review the evidence given in connection with the use of searchlights in the report on the loss of the Titanic, and also the statements in the report of the Merchant Shipping Advisory Committee of the Board of Trade. After considering these reports, Dr. Wilde concludes his paper thus :—‘‘In view of the facts brought out by the several committees engaged in investigating the causes leading to the loss of the Titanic, it only remains for me to repeat and to emphasise the state- ment made in my paper read before the society in May last, that the ultimate responsibility of a calamity which the world deplores rests upon the British naval authorities through their fatuous policy of excluding searchlights from the Mercantile Marine.” In the Journal de Physique for November, M. J. Bosler, in a paper on the relations between magnetic storms, earth currents, and solar eruptions, puts for- ward a theory of the production of magnetic storms which he believes to be new. He was, it appears, led to it by finding that the horizontal component of the disturbing force in a magnetic storm is on the average at right angles to the direction of the earth current observed at the same instant at the same station, and that these currents flow at each station in a direction which is nearly constant. At Pare Saint Maur, near Paris, for example, the direction is in general from north-east to south-west. M. Bosler considers these currents the cause of magnetic storms, and explains them as due to the expression for the magnetic induc- tion through the earth having in it a variable term owing to electrified matter projected from the sun. This variable term would result in an electric current about the earth which in turn would produce a mag- netic disturbance. Unfortunately, the author does not indicate how the term expressing the variable induc- tion arises, nor does he trace the consequences of his theory any further. It seems, for example, to demand that magnetic storms should be most intense at any instant in the great circle perpendicular to the variable magnetic induction, a conclusion which might have been tested by comparison with observations. Pror. C. Ravenna and Mr. G. Bosinelli describe in the Atti R. Accad. Lincei (vol. xxi., ii., 355) further experiments to ascertain whether the traces of hydrogen cyanide found in young plants exist therein in the free state, or solely in the form of cyanogenetic glucoside from which they are liberated by the action Beneath this diagram Dr. Omori has given j of an enzyme under the conditions of making the test. 472 NATURE [DECEMBER 26, 1912 The experiments were carried out with cherry laurel, Phaseolus lunatus, and germinating almond, and in- stead of using boiling dilute alkali to kill the plants, as in former experiments, concentrated salt solutions boiling at 110° were employed; in this way the plant enzymes were more rapidly destroyed, with the result that the amount of hydrogen cyanide indicated was thereby considerably diminished. It is thus considered probable that free hydrogen cyanide does not occur as such in the plant. REPORT OF THE DEVELOPMENT COM- MISSIONERS. Ape second report of the Development Commis- sioners, for the year ended March 31, 1912 (Wyman and Sons, price 8d.), was issued recently. It will prove convenient to review the report briefly under the chief headings contained therein. General Position of Commissioners and Principles of Action.—As previously announced, the Commis- sioners cannot themselves make grants or loans, do not possess executive powers, and must receive applications through Government depart- ments before reporting to the Treasury. It is gratify- ing to learn that the recommendations of the Commis- sioners have been adopted in all cases of import- ance. Owing to the fact that money must be en- trusted to some suitable body, difficulties have arisen with regard to canals, roads, and some other matters coming within the scope of the fund, but it is ex- pected that such difficulties will ultimately be over- come. The system of block grants has been adopted, which, though entailing some delay, is held to secure greater efficiency. Although existing expenditure is not to be relieved, and local contributions are required, it is felt that authorities which have spent freely in the past should not be expected to find so large a proportion of the total sum to be expended in their areas as authorities which have been less enterprising. The principle of loans is adopted for schemes expected to give a direct return ultimately. In some eases, such as afforestation, advances will be made on condition that the extent of the operations be varied according to the state of the labour market, so that some relief of unemployment may result. This does not apply to such part of the 325,o00!. allotted to farm institutes as may be required for erecting buildings, these being urgently necessary. The principle that the fund must not be used to benefit private individuals directly creates difficulties in the case of canals, estate afforestation, and light rail- wavs; for grants are here debarred, although private profits are associated with public benefits of an im- portant kind. A different view must be taken of applications from public authorities for money to be applied in loans or grants to individuals, e.g. to fishermen. Such loans or grants would appear to be legitimate if they place individuals in a better position to help themselves, as in the case of advances enabling fishermen to acquire motor-boats. The Commissioners consider it their duty to recom- mend expenditure when and where most likely to be remunerative with reference to the economic develop- ment of the United Kingdom as a whole, even though this may appear unfair to certain localities. The provision of harbours for steam-drifters, for example, is regarded as more important than the develop- ment of small centres employing more antiquated methods of catching fish. NO. 2252, VOL. 90] I. Agriculture and Rural Industries.—Three chief lines ot action are reaffirmed as those of greatest im- portance, i.e. scientific investigation, research, and education as means of improving the quality and increasing the amount of agricultural products; supply of information regarding new crops and indus- tries to cultivators for enabling extended practice; improvement of commercial methods by promotion of cooperation. It is considered that pure research is not a local matter, and that it must be continuous and concen- trated. Hence the selection of a comparatively small number of centres for research in the eleven main branches of agricultural science. It is recognised that research and education should be in close touch with one another, and although the fund is to be devoted to economic development, the Commissioners feel that when subsidising research the canon of apparent economic value should be cautiously applied. In addition to grants to institutions, a sum of 3o000l. per annum (probably to be increased to 5oool.) is reserved for individual investigators much on the lines adopted for the 4oool. per annum entrusted to the Royal Society for distribution. In this way it will be possible to utilise individual research ability wherever found. For purposes other than research England and Wales are to be divided into twelve provinces, each with its agricultural college providing the highest kind of agricultural education, demonstrating the results of research, and giving advice to farmers. |The lower grades of instruction and advice will be | provided by the farm institutes. The Commissioners consider that such an institute should possess two essential characteristics: first, the provision of shorter, simpler, and cheaper courses than those given at colleges ; secondly, that it should serve as the head- quarters of the county staff. A very large amount of elasticity is regarded as desirable, and there need be no ‘‘ material embodiment in bricks and mortar.’’ The general lines approved closely resemble those advo- cated at the cooperative conferences held between the governors of the Royal Agricultural College, Ciren- cester, and representatives of several county authorities in IgIt. Flax, hemp, tobacco, and beet are cited as crops requiring full investigation in order to determine whether they can be made a commercial success in this country. The existing voluntary societies are to be utilised in organising cooperation, largely because ‘‘ cooperation is particularly the kind of movement to which it is essential to retain the enthusiasm of voluntary workers.”’ Considering the enormous amount of dairy and other farm produce imported, it is distressing to learn that ‘“‘the question of agricultural cooperation in Ireland is unfortunately complicated by political differ- ences.” Other directions of activity include the con- tinuance of light horse breeding schemes, the establish- ment of a cattle-testing station, and of a national poultry institute. II. Forestry—One guiding principle is here adopted, i.e. that ‘‘education and the provision of technical advice are the best lines cf advance for the immediate present.’’ This general idea is given effect by the recognition of five centres in England and Wales (Oxford, Cambridge, Cirencester, Bangor, and Newcastle), with suitable provision for Scotland and Ireland. Why the Commissioners consider that Ox- ford and Cambridge should be equipped for “ higher education in forestry,’’ and the other three centres for “forestry education of a simpler kind,” is a mystery, without some reason for believing that the education so far given at Oxford and Cambridge has been DECEMBER 26, 1912]| NATURE 473 superior to that obtainable elsewhere. The two older universities are alsc to be the chief centres for re- search. : The Commissioners further approve of loans to local authorities for afforestation of suitable land, e.g. water catchment areas. : Some advance has been made in matters com- prised under the remaining headings of the report, namely :— Ill. Land Drainage and Reclamation.—One Irish scheme (Owenmore) approved. IV. Rural Transport.—Considering the vital im- portance to small holders and others of this matter ‘it is astonishing to find that only a very few applica- tions, all Irish, have been received. No grants were recommended. V. Harbours.—The Commissioners make a number of important recommendations, on the lines indicated in an earlier part of this review. VI. Inland Navigations.—Technical difficulties re- tard this direction of advance, but loans are recom- mended for improvement of the Stort and Upper Medway. VII. Fisheries.—Substantial grants to various authorities are recommended, partly for scientific re- search, and partly for improvement of harbours, and other purposes. Concessions to Irish fishermen by way of loans are also recommended. VIII. Miscellaneous.—An application Meteorological Office was not entertained. 1X. Compulsory Orders for the Acquisition of Land. —Only one small and unimportant order has been made. Within the limits of our space it is impossible to deal with the last part of the report, which is devoted to finance, but it is stated that in all cases the Com- missioners ‘have tried to follow sound principles of finance and administration, to take a broad view of the questions involved, and to avoid any haphazard and spasmodic distribution of public money.” The Commissioners may be congratulated on having made very considerable progress during the year, and the principles of their action appear to be fairly sound, though they are somewhat handicapped by the unusually small proportion of scientific experts to be found among them. It is, howevey, very gratifying to know that the whole time of Mr. A. D. Hall is in future to be given to development work. Now and then we find that a sound principle advocated is not worked out satisfactorily in practice by the responsible authority. For example, on p. 11 of the report we read that the grants available from various resources “will provide for utilising to the full the energies of the Agricultural Colleges in teaching, in research, and in giving technical advice to farmers on practical difficulties involving problems which are beyond the scope of either an experienced agriculturist or even a member of the County Staff.”” Yet a grant of 1000l. per annum for advisory work in horticulture and agri- culture has been made to the University of Bristol, none of which has been allocated to the associated Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester, the pioneer institution, accustomed to give the kind of advice contemplated for nearly seventy years. The progress made as regards cooperation and rural transport is disappointingly slow, considering the great import- ance of these for enabling farmers to cope with foreign competition, but the Commissioners can scarcely be blamed for the delay. Ultimately, we may hope to see a substantial reduction in the enormous sums paid to foreign countries for agricultural products. NO. 2252, VOL. 90] by the RECENT PUBLICATIONS ON THE IRILRIDIME TDN (Ola MEU, SONNE. ECENT inquiries have shown that the fertility of agricultural land in Europe has very materi- ally increased owing to the use of commercial fertilisers and green manuring, but it has often been stated that this increase is effected at the expense of virgin lands. Mr. Coventry therefore instituted an inquiry in India to see if there is any evidence of a progressive decline in fertility there. The results are published in vol. vii. of The Agricultural Journal of | India, and show that the average of productivity may have become lower, but this can be entirely explained by the fact that inferior lands have been taken into cultivation on account of the great agricultural pros- perity and expansion brought about under British rule. When allowance is made for this it is seen that the fertility is not declining, but rather tends to increase. It is, however, undeniable that phosphoric acid and | potash are removed from the soil in the crop and | transferred to the centres of population. Impoverish- ment of the virgin soils necessarily takes place, although the productiveness is not affected until lack of these particular nutrients becomes the limiting factor in crop production. This position has been reached in parts of the United States, and has in- duced Prof. Whitson and his colleagues at the Wisconsin Experiment Station to undertake a valu- able set of investigations on the effect on the soil of rock phosphate, which fortunately is readily obtain- able. In the admirable surveys of Wisconsin now being made by Dr. Weidman it is shown that con- tinued cropping has caused phosphate exhaustion, which can be remedied by dressings of rock phos- phate. The other side of the question, the increased phos- phorus supply to land near cities, is very well seen in many parts of England, and has recently been strikingly illustrated by Messrs. Hughes © and Aladjem in a paper in The Agricultural Journal of Egypt (vol. i., part ii.). Analysis of soils taken from various places in the Delta showed that certain spots were much richer in phosphates than usual, although in Other respects the soils were fairly uniform. Detailed examination of one of these cases showed that the authors were working on the site of an ancient city where a considerable population had existed for a period of at least four thousand years before the Arab domination. To supply such a population and the animals belonging to it with food must have required the produce of a large area, while the refuse of the city would be used as manure only on the nearer land. The city and its population have long since vanished, but the concentration of phos- phoric acid in the soil remains an indelible record of the past :— Distance from the centre of Kom, kilometres O-I 1-2 2-3 3-4 455 Total phosphoric acid, PerAcenty yen esas 0534) 0120) 10:26) 10722, O722 Easily soluble phosphoric acid, per cent. 0°086 07069 0°065 O'05I 0'036 Nitrogen compounds are also transferred, like phosphorus compounds, but they take part in a per- petual cycle in which the nitrogen of the air plays a part, so that the accumulation and depletion pro- cesses are both limited. Much work is being done on this cycle; in particular, investigators in all countries are finding that addition to the soil of easily oxidisable organic substances, such as sugar, 474 conditions a notable fixation of atmospheric nitrogen. Indeed, in tropical countries where sugar-cane is cultivated, molasses are sometimes actually added to the soil for this purpose. The action of the sugar is not entirely simple, however, and Peck has shown that in Hawaii it mv actually do harm by bringing about a marked decomposition of the nitrates (Bull. No. 39, Hawaiian Sugar Planters’ Association). It is, however, now realised that soil fertility is not wholly a matter of plant food, but may be limited by the presence of harmful substances in the soil. This phase of the problem is being investigated by Schreiner and Skinner, who have recently published (Bull. No. 77, Bureau of Soils, U.S. Dept. of Agri- culture) a detailed account of the action of coumarin, vanillin, and quinone on plant growth. The general research of which this forms part consists in isolating from the soil such organic compounds as can be identified, and then trying their effect on plant growth. It would be a mistalke to suppose that the medium on which the soil organisms live and which is in contact with the plant roots is. the inert mineral matter that constitutes the bulk of the soil. Recent investigations have brought into prominence the colloidal constituents that occur in notable quantity and appear to be distributed over the surfaces of the particles, and apparently impart to the soil many of its characteristic properties. On general grounds, it might be expected that these colloids would be much altered by the addition of small quantities of soluble salts, and the experiments of R. O. E. Davis (Bull. No. 82, Bureau of Soils) have justified this view, and have shown in what way the changes affect the physical properties. The re-establishment of vegetation on devastated areas presents many important problems, and much interest attaches to a paper by W. N. Sands on the return of vegetation and the revival of agriculture in the area devastated by the Soufriére eruption in St. Vincent, 1902-3. The paper is published in the West Indian Bulletin, vol. xii., No. 1, and is well illus- trated. Vegetation now flourishes wherever the old soil remains, even when a considerable admixture of ash has taken place. The ash itself, however, is un- suited to vegetation, and where no soil is present vegetation is very scanty. Once, however, plants begin to get a footing improvement speedily takes place, as the substances formed on their decay furnish supplies of plant food. In dealing with the agri- culture, it is noted that yields are now in some cases higher than formerly; this result is attributed to the heating of the soil by the lava, and is discussed in the light of recent work at Rothamsted. STR UPPER AIR INVESTIGATIONS. ITH the beginning of this year the Meteoro- logical Service of Belgium completed its hundredth international balloon ascent, and _ the director, M. Vincent, considered this to be a suitable occasion for communicating to the Royal Academy (Bulletin de la Classe des Sciences, 1912, No. 6) some of the data deduced therefrom. The complete results are included with those obtained in other countries in a special publication compiled by the president of the International Commission for Scientific Aéronautics and elsewhere. The recording apparatus used is the Bosch-Herge- sell baro-thermo-hygrograph, and this is suspended to the smaller of two rubber balloons, coupled in tandem and inflated with hydrogen gas. The larger balloon NO. 2252, VOL. 90| NATURE [DECEMBER 26, 1912 bursts at a variable height, and the rapidity of the fall of the apparatus is slackened by the smaller balloon. This remains floating as soon as the appa- ratus reaches the ground, and serves as a signal to its whereabouts. After making allowance for acci- dents, ninety-two of the records obtained remained available for examination. The highest altitude | reached was 32,430 metres (determined from the pres- sure and temperature curves by means of Laplace’s formula) on June 9, IgIlI. principal inversion was recorded at 6890 m. on Novem- ber 3, 1910, and the highest at 13,760 m. on August 2, 1906. The lowest temperature, —73°5° €., was registered on February 2, 1911, at 10,390 m., at the level of the inversion. M. Vincent distinguishes three regions in the atmo- sphere accessible to instrumental observation :—(1) An upper one, which has been called the stratosphere, where the decrease of temperature is nil, or replaced by an increase; (2) an intermediate zone, where the decrease is at the rate of o'7° C. per 100 metres, whether the conditions be cyclonic or anticyclonic; (3) a lower stratum of variable depth, where the decrease is less than 0°7°, and is frequently negative ; some remarkable inversions are quoted in this portion of the atmosphere. These two lower zones are known as the troposphere. The conditions obtaining in the stratosphere are essentially different from those in the lower regions; the strata are nearly in statical equilibrium, the wind velocity usually weakens, and the direction is uncertain, but the author shows that there ace important exceptions to this rule. The trajectories of some of the highest ascents determined by means of a special theodolite designed by M. de Quervain have been discussed. The Royal Observatory of Batavia has recently published an important contribution to our knowledge of the upper air, including observations made (1) with kites and captive balloon at Batavia between Novem- ber, 1909, and September, 1910; (2) with kites in the Java and South China seas in January, 1910; and (3) with manned balloon in the years 1910 and 1ro11. It was during the descent of a balloon on August 5, 1g1t, that the leader, Lieut. A. E. Rambaldo, unfor- tunately lost his life. A preliminary report upon these investigations was published in the Proc. Amsterdam Acad., June 25, 1910, and referred to in Nature of November 3 of that year. Among the results of the kite observations we note that the amount of aqueous vapour per cubic metre over Batavia de- creases with height, even in the lowest strata. The decrease of temperature with height, up to 1000 metres, is less in the west than in the east monsoon; between 1000 and 2000 metres it is about equal. Over the ocean the decrease is considerable between o and 200 metres and exceeds 1° C. in the first 100 metres; above 500 metres it is less than at Batavia. Above 1400 m. the temperature is higher than at Batavia, and the difference probably increases at heights beyond 3000 m. The diurnal change of the vertical temperature gradient differs over land and sea. Tue Supplement to the Monthly Weather Review of the Canadian Meteorological Service for 1911 con- tains a preliminary account of the results of the in- vestigation of the upper air over Ontario by means of balloons and kites commenced during that year; a full description of the apparatus and methods em- ployed, together with a more complete discussion, is reserved until a longer series of observations has been obtained. Registering balloons were liberated on the evenings preceding the ‘‘international’’ days, and the results are given for each o'5 km. of height, with intermediate points if there were any noteworthy The lowest level of the. ere DECEMBER 26, 1912] NATURE 475 features. The greatest height reached was 202 km. | on September 9; pressure 43 mm.; temperature —59° C. The lowest temperature, —62°, was re- corded at 141 km. All the balloons travelled easterly, but as several were lost owing to the proximity of lake or forest, the station had to be moved trom Toronto to Woodstock, about eighty miles to the westward. The kite station is at Agincourt, about fourteen miles from Toronto; Dines’s kite and jmeteorographs were used, and good records of pres- sure, temperature, humidity, and wind direction have been obtained; the highest flight was 7900 ft. above sea-level. * BIRD NOTES. lie the November number of The Zoologist Mr. Harvie-Brown, in completing his account of the southern extension of the breeding range of the fulmar which has been in progress for many years, points out that these essentially Arctic birds had established themselves in St. Kilda at least 250 years ago. In 1838 or 1837 they were observed for the first time in the Faroes, nesting on the cliffs of Qualboe in Suderoe, and by 1849 they had colonised Skuor and Great Dimon. From these islands the fumar has invaded, as a breeding species, the Shetlands, the Scottish mainland, and the west coast of Ireland. To Notes from the Leyden Museum, vol. xxxiv., Nos. 3 and 4, Dr. Van Oort contributes further re- cords of the recapture of birds marked in Holland during 1911 and 1912. Among the species mentioned is the spoonbill, of which one example was taken at Reculvers, Kent, while four others were killed in north-western France. The total number of birds ringed in 1g12 is considerably in excess of those marked in IgIlI. An article on the haunts of the spotted bower-bird (Chlamydodera maculata), contributed by Mr. S. W. Jackson to the October number of The Emu, is illus- trated by excellent photographs of the ‘‘runs,’’ nests, and eggs of these birds. In addition to certain im- plements purloined from the writer’s camp, the objects in one of the bowers included ribs and vertebrz of sheep, toe-bones of emus, fragments of coloured glass, stoppers of sauce-bottles, metal clippings, screws, metal bottle-capsules, a cartridge-case, and numerous pods and seeds. The birds nest high up in leafy trees, but select as look-out stations leafless branches or trees. In vol. ii, No. 1, of the University of California Publications in Zoology Mr. C. Bryant bears testimony to the utility of birds as destroyers of grass- hoppers. In July last it appears that grasshoppers were doing considerable damage to alfalfa and vegetables at Los Banos, Merced County, California. An average of about fifteen grasshoppers to a square yard is harmful, but in this instance there were from twenty to thirty. Several kinds of birds were observed to be feeding on the insects, and it was noticed that the local contingent of the former was reinforced from the neighbourhood. The author is led to conclude that although birds cannot be regarded as a trust- worthy means for controlling all infestations of grass- hoppers, yet they are efficient in preventing many. They can be depended on to protect crops by their war against the grasshoppers. ‘The failure of birds to check an insect outbreak is evident to all. Their suc- cess in preventing insects from becoming abnormally abundant is not so apparent but is no less real.” Many birds in this particular case changed their normal feeding habits; and took to preying on grass- hoppers, and species usually considered harmful to the agriculturist were commended for their utility. NO. 2252, VOL. 90] ‘he food of the pheasant in the Scottish grouse moors forms the subject of a note by Mr. P. H. Grimshaw in The Scottish Naturalist tor November. Examination of the contents of the crop of a bird killed in Argyllshire, where the heather-beetle (Loch- moea suturalis) was unusually abundant during the summer, showed that these consisted chiefly of in- sects. These included 2286 flies (Bibio lepidus), 508 heather-beetles, and six other insects. “This leads to the conclusion that the pheasant, like the blackcock, may be reckoned of importance in checking the ravages of the heather-beetle. Another paper on the food of birds is published as Bulletin No. 44 of the Biological Survey of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. This report, which is drawn up by Mr. F. E. L. Beal, relates to the fly- catching species of North America, referable to the genera Sayornis, Empidonax, Muscivora, Myiarchus, Tyrannus, &c. The contents of the stomachs, or crops, of seventeen species were examined, and it was found that “of thirteen of these species Hymenoptera are the largest element in the diet. Of one species Orthoptera (grasshoppers and crickets) are the leading food; in another Lepidoptera (moths and caterpillars) are the favourites; and in two others Diptera (flies) stand at the head. Hemiptera (bugs) are eaten ex- tensively by some, but naturally the ones taken are the larger flying species. Plant-lice and_ scales [Coccidz] have not yet been found in the stomach of any fly-catcher, though one bird was-shot on a plant covered with lice, with which its bill was filled.” Several of these birds have been charged with de- vouring honey-bees, but the accusation is not sustained by the examination of their food; comparatively few of these insects being devoured, and those chiefly drones. The real harm done by these birds is the destruction of predaceous and parasitic Hymenoptera which wage war on injurious insects. ARS ILL STOCK DISEASES AND THEIR SUPPRESSION IN SOUTH AFRICA.} WM ODERN knowledge of trypanosome disease and others of a similar nature can be usefully applied to some of the problems which are in my particular line of research, viz. to diseases of our domesticated animals. I shall mention but two, known probably to you all, and which are of great economical importance—horse-sickness in equines, and blue-tongue in sheep. Long before any expert came in contact with .him, the observant farmer quite rightly classed these two diseases in one group. He even went so far as to say they were identical, but here is an opinion which. we are not able to support. There are, nevertheless, more similarities than differ- ences in the two; they resemble each other in nature of the cause, both being due to micro-organisms of infinitesimal minuteness, so small that none of our modern microscopes can detect them. The theory of our modern microscope teaches us that there is a limit to visibility beyond which objects can no longer be recognised. The so-called ultra- microscope, which makes use of a different principle of illumination, and allows the detection of objects varying in the magnitude of a molecule, has in these two diseases failed to enable us to demonstrate an organism so far. It must be there, nevertheless, and we conclude this from the experiment that we are able to transmit the disease by inoculation with blood from a sick to a healthy animal, in which latter, after a definite incubation time, it appears, thus showing _} From the Presidential Address delivered before the South African Asso- ciation for the Advancement of Science, at Port Elizabeth, on July 2, by Dr. Arnold Theiler, C.M.G. 476 NATURE [| DECEMBER 26, 1912 that a development must have followed. It having been demonstrated that the malady was inoculable, it formed the subject of much speculation to explain the observations which the farmers had been collecting ever since they knew it, and which principally apply to the climatic and tellurical conditions under which it appears. You have probably all heard that the farmer interpreted his observations to the effect that the dew is the cause. There is nothing ridiculous in this theory. Remember that our knowledge of micro- organisms as causes of disease is practically only a science of yesterday; remember that the English translation of the name ‘‘malaria’’ for the disease of that name means ‘bad air,’ and it is only a few years back that science admitted of such a theory as the probable cause; that is just as our farmers have done and are still doing for horse-sickness. The observations of the farmer are correct in details. We give them the right interpretation when we sub- titute for the name ‘“‘dew”’ the name ‘ blood-sucking night insect.” Under the conditions under which dew is formed horse-sickness and blue-tongue appear most frequently, and these conditions are most favourable for the breeding of mosquitoes and other blood-sucking insects. This being so, the question might be put to us, ‘‘But are there any direct proofs to this effect?” If we had all the proofs, we would no longer speak of a theory, and we must spealx of a theory until the actual blood-sucking insect has been demonstrated and until the experiments have been made under such conditions that no doubts are left any longer. In- directly, the theory has been so well founded that the only missing link is the insect itself. The reason why this link has not been demonstrated yet is the fact that we do not know sufficient of all the nocturnal blood-sucking insects of South Africa, of which various genera and many species exist; we do not yet know how to breed and handle them for such delicate experi- ments as are required to bring the proofs with horse- sickness and blue-tongue. Notwithstanding this, the theory has its practical value, inasmuch as it shows in which way protective measures can be adopted, and what has been said about the destruction of mos- quitoes in connection with human malaria applies equally well to the diseases under discussion. The theory goes still further. Seeing that flying insects must be accepted as being the transmitting agencies, we conclude that there also must be a reser- voir somewhere from which these insects obtain the virus. This is perhaps the most interesting point. The horse alone in the case of horse-sickness, and the sheep in the case of blue-tongue, are not sufficient to represent that reservoir. When recovered, the blood of these animals no longer contains any virus. Furthermore, horses, when introduced into a _ wild country where before there had never been any equines, are liable to contract the disease. Again, the almost ““explosion-like ’’ expansion when climatic conditions are suitable does not allow us to conclude that the sick animal alone is responsible, and we naturally ask, “Where does the virus come from?” By analogy with tsetse and human malaria we accept the exist- ence of a reservoir in the shape of a different species of animal, harbouring the parasite of the disease in its blood. Such an animal may be cold-blooded or warm- blooded, a bird or a mammal. Here, again, we have not yet been able to make further progress. We enter on a different branch of research. It will be interesting work for our zoologists to point out to us the geographical distribution of any such animals, coinciding with the distribution of the disease. Then we might have more hope of proving the theory than there is at present, where we have to work more or less in the dark. It is this theory NO. 2252, VOL. go] which justifies the hope that within the districts of the reservoir those diseases will be suppressed one day. Recently an assistant of mine, Mr. Walker, found a parasite in the blood of young ostrich chicks known under the name of leucocytozoon and related to the trypanosomes. Whatever the practical outcome of this discovery will be, one conclusion we are entitled to make now, and that is the parasite is transmitted by insects; and should it prove to be the cause of the mortality observed in chicks, the way to combat it is indicated by this conclusion. Whilst on the subject of suppressing disease, I wish to refer to some other well-known observations made by farmers, the correct interpretation of which has led to important applications. They are in connection with immunity. When horses or sheep recover, they are said to be salted against the disease, viz. to be immune. We expected this to be so by comparison with other diseases of a similar nature, but caused by visible organisms. To this latter group belong those against which modern science introduced methods of preven- tive inoculation, and by analogy we were entitled to anticipate that a similar possibility would exist in connection with those under discussion. It proved to be the case, and on recognised principles, methods of inoculation for mules as well as for sheep were worked out, which proved to be successful. In the case of horses, however, great difficulties were experienced, inasmuch as these animals showed a much higher susceptibility than mules, a fact which can only be explained by inherited immunity from their sires, which, although susceptible to the disease, have, at least in my experience, never been found to die. The methods in use for mules proved useless for horses. Here the observation of the farmers came to the rescue; they led to deductions which proved to be applicable in the practice. Long ago farmers had the experience that the so- called salted horses may break down in immunity. They called these relapses, or ‘“‘aanmanings.” Subse- quently our experience proved the same observations to be correct. Some of the mules and horses which were undoubtedly immune broke down when exposed to natural infection. The virus from such cases was collected, and in several instances it was shown that breakdown in immunity could be produced in almost any salted animals. The experiments showed that there was no actual loss of immunity in the animal affected, but the relapse was due to the different nature of the virus. This means from a biological point of view, the ultravisible micro-organism will also follow the laws of other organisms, viz. that of variability or mutability, but which can show itself to our eyes only by a different virulency in the animal it attacks. Accordingly more than one variety of horse-sickness organisms exist, and although from a_ pathological point of view we only recognise one disease, yet there are as many diseases as there are varieties of ultra- visible organisms. At one time we thought that the variation was simply due to the influence of environ- ment, but, based on a number of experiments, we came to the conclusion that the cause of the variability of a particular strain lies in the horse from which it is collected. The host represents, so to. say, its environ- ments. The passage through a horse determines whether there will be a decrease or an increase in virulency. This fact established, the further conclusion was made that there must be certain strains or varie- ties of which the virulency would not be so pronounced, and accordingly that a greater number of animals would recover when infected. This, indeed, proved to be the case. The variability of the organism has now been made use of for the inoculation of horses in connection with the method as applied to mules. The DECEMBER 26, 1912] NATURE 477 method was introduced into practice last year, and only in the experimental manner; it has not yet stood the brunt of the severe tests of the practice. The experience just now alluded to teaches us that under the conditions of the practice breakdown in immunity will occur. It remains to be seen to what extent they do occur, or, in other words, what per- centage of inoculated horses will be protected against the naturally acquired disease. The same principle was made use of in the preparation of the blue-tongue vaccine, and again recently in the method of inocula- tion against anaplasmosis of cattle, a‘disease generally known as gall-sickness. This latter was found to be caused by parasites attacking the red corpuscles of the blood. The remarkable observation was made that two different varieties of organisms could be distin- guished under the microscope, and the tests proved that whereas one species was very virulent, the other one was very much less so, and this latter protected an animal to a great extent against the former. The vaccines used against the various diseases therefore represent by no means anything artificial; they are specially selected germs producing the disease in a milder form, which give a great amount of immunity, but by no means a complete one, owing to the exist- ence alongside of still stronger varieties of the same species or genus. A cure or an inoculation against a disease always appeals to the mind of a layman, and more credit is attached to such an inoculation than to other methods of prevention or controlling the disease which perhaps are more rational but more tedious and cumbersome. A good illustration of this is afforded by red-water, which, as many of you will remember, was introduced into the Cape Colony many years ago. In those days measures were taken to stop its spread, but they were of no use, because the cause of the plague was not then known. Only in the beginning of the ’nineties of the last century was it found in America that it was due to a parasite which lived in the red corpuscles ; the parasite developed in the body of a tick, and was transmitted by these to new cattle. This was as much an epoch-making discovery as Bruce’s that the trypanosoma disease was carried by winged insects. The statements of the American men of science were subsequently verified in Cape Colony, and when the attention of South African workers was directed to the presence of similar parasites in the blood of South African stock suffering from various other ailments, then it was only natural to conclude that in their propagation ticks also must be responsible. The conclusion proved to be correct. It was further proved that there also existed the theoretical reservoir; it was found that it was the recovered animal itself which remained infected. This fact, so paradoxical as it appears for healthy animals to spread a disease, ex- plains the permanency of infection on our pasture; although they are immune, they maintain the con- tamination. The investigations by Lounsbury into heart-water, a disease caused by an invisible organism which at one time rendered the rearing of cattle and small stock almost an impossibility, more particularly in this neighbourhood, proved definitely that also here ticks were responsible. Once these facts were well established, it was a natural conclusion to expect that the destruction of the ticks would mean the eradica- tion of the disease, just as the destruction of mos- quitoes meant the disappearance of malaria. This conclusion at one time had only appealed to a limited number of farmers, and it is even at the present time not sufficiently appreciated. Perhaps it is not scientific enough, or there is not enough mystery about it. When the terrible disease, East Coast fever, was NO. 2252, VOL. 90] introduced into South Africa, the presence of a para- site found in the blood corpuscles was soon recognised, and the conclusion had to be drawn that here again ticks were responsible. This also proved correct. After the species of tick which transmitted-the disease had been traced, and their life-history was fully under- stood, and once it had been realised that in this disease, unlike the other caused by intracellular parasite, the immune animal did not represent the reservoir for the virus, it became possible successfuliy to combat it. In the course of time the most powerful remedy proved to be the dipping tank, which was decidedly the salva- tion of the Natal farmer, all other methods of stopping the spread in that Colony having failed. Tor the destruction of the ticks as the root of many evils in stock, the dipping tank must be considered to be the best and most practical means, and its introduction into South Africa is a great scientific attainment. Not only in the world of micro-organisms, but also in that of higher developed parasites, we shall find our example for demonstrating the utility of the adop- tion of biological research. I refer to one of the most important farming industries, viz. the breeding of ostriches. We know that one of the main drawbacks are internal parasites, and although the farmer is able to help himself temporarily in a rough and ready way, yet he feels that, in order to combat these pests more successfully, more scientific knowledge is required about the life-history of these worms. As soon as this is established—and I can tell you that good progress has already been made in this connection—practical deduction will be possible in order to build up a rational hygiene for the rearing of the chicks. So far I have selected my examples in scientific research and practical application out of a group of diseases due to parasites visible to the naked eye, by microscope, or those that can be traced by means of inoculation experiments. We have, so to say, the cause of the diseases in our hands, and can produce and reproduce them at will. This is the one and per- haps the main reason why in the past, in a consider- ably short time, good progress was made; we were dealing with problems similar to many others already solved. I will now have to mention a subject where the use of the microscope and all transmission experi- ments into animals failed. It is the disease ‘“‘Lamziekte’’ in cattle, to which, in recent years, so much attention has been given by the public, the Press, and Parliament. It has caused terrible destruc- tion, and even threatened to ruin the newly-developed north-western districts. The investigations carried out so far in conjunction with Mr. Burtt-Davy, the Government agrostologist and botanist, show that we have to deal with toxins which are present in grasses of certain areas. This is at least our theory, and it is well founded; it is, however, by no means new, as it has its analogies in other parts of the world, and explains the observa- tions made by farmers in various parts of South Africa; indeed, it represents the views of many farmers, although not precisely expressed. It is that grasses on certain soils and under certain climatic conditions develop a poison of an_ ac- cumulative character which only shows its effects on cattle after they have partaken of such grasses for a prolonged period. Actual feeding ex- periments which have been started on various experi- mental stations will bring the proof one of these days. The influence of climate and soil has also recently been brought home by experiments undertaken in Natal. Some of you will remember that Mr. Robert- son, of Grahamstown, proved in an unmistakable way that the plant Senecio latifolia, collected in that ' part of the country, was found to be very fatal when 478 NATURE. | DECEMBER 26, 1912 fed to horses and cattle. The experiments in Natal, carried out on the same class of animals with the same plant, proved harmless. You will grasp the complexity of these subjects when you remember that, in order to understand and explain them fully, a combination of a number of sciences is necessary, viz. pathology, geology, botany, chemistry, climatology, meteorology, and physiology. Better subjects could scarcely have been found to illus- trate how comprehensive investigations may become in a matter which at first sight seems purely and simply a problem for the veterinarian. This point brings me back to some remarks raised before. It is only pos- sible for an applied science, such as that for investigat- ing into the cause of the disease, to progress when the other sciences on which the applied one is based are advancing at the same time or, still better, are ahead of it. This applies strikingly to the case in point. Of the physiological effect of grasses and plants under the various conditions of climate and soil in South Africa we know nothing as yet. I am glad to state that the Minister of Agriculture, to whom I have explained the necessity of such investiga- tions, has promised to add a branch of physiological research on to the laboratory under my control. But an investigation of this nature must be thoroughly undertaken, and in order to be fruitful it must go hand in hand with chemical and biological investiga- tions of the nature of the soil as well. The necessity for such investigations has frequently been pointed out. Prof. Pearson some years ago advocated the erection of botanical gardens in South Africa in areas representing the various conditions of climate and soil, and one of his strong arguments was the economical importance such establishments would have. Our recent investigations bear him out, and should bring home the value of such institutions. For many years Dr. Juritz preached the necessity of a svs- tematic and thorough chemical survey of the soil of this subcontinent. The conclusions I put before you in connection with the disease caused by plants show you the necessity in the first instance of scientific research into soil and vegetation. But a good deal is required if we intend to make further progress in the understanding of the disease as already described, and of many more not touched at all. The necessity for a general biological survey of all South Africa becomes obvious. Particularly the geographical dis- tribution and seasonal occurrences of plants and animals, the connection of climate and soil with flora and fauna, will have to be thoroughly studied. Hand in hand with this will go the interpretation of the presence and absence of the cause of certain stock diseases. Fortunately, in the past a great deal has been done by a good many enthusiastic workers. More has yet to be done. Dr. Muir, in his presidential address in Cape Town two years ago, touched on this question, and he pointed out the necessity of a systematic co- operation in which the museums of South Africa could perform the leading duties. I fully agree to this, and I am of the idea that these institutes, similar to the one under my charge, should be centralised, and the work should be undertaken in a definite and well- planned manner, preventing overlapping, and securing complete specialisation in the various branches. We re- quire more : we want a centre for scientific investigation, a central university for South Africa, where research is the leading idea. I speak with emphasis, that South Africa should not wait any longer before establishing such an institute. We men engaged in the applica- tion of science feel the want of it in all our under- takings; we require it for advice or assistance in the many problems the solution of which is entirely out- NO. 2252, VOL. 90] side the scope of a single man, who is not always able to keep in line with the new discoveries, and out- side his own sphere of work. Nowadays, it is no longer a genius who will only be capable of solving Ikknotty problems ;- I venture to say that the methods of investigation and research are so far developed that any scientifically trained man with the necessary critical mind, and endowed with patience and per- severance, can tackle these investigations with every prospect of solving them, provided the sciences he has to make use of are sufficiently far advanced to be of assistance to him. In conclusion, I wish to come back to one of my remarks; that the South African tends to the practical side of scientific problems. If I can give him, after so many theoretical discussions, practical advice, it will be: foster by all means the pure sciences; they are, in the hands of experts, the medium of solving the many economical problems of South Africa. UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE. In the issue of Nature of December 5 last attention was directed to the action which the general council of the University of Edinburgh had taken to bring before members of Parliament and others interested in higher education the serious danger with which the universities of Scotland are threatened by the recent interference of the Treasury with their freedom of internal administration. From further information which has reached us, we find that the question of whether or not Scottish universities are to establish composite or inclusive fees is regarded by the council as relatively unimportant. The vital question is whether the Scottish universities, which have hitherto been free so far as their internal administration is concerned, are now to be subject to a State depart- ment. The council is not asking that the universities of Scotland should be freed from the responsibility of accounting for their use of public money, but it is desired that the autonomy which has hitherto been a greatly valued characteristic of the Scottish university system should not now be withdrawn. Tue Bulletin of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology for December, 1912, takes the form of “4 catalogue of the officers and students, with a statement of the requirements for admission, and a description of the courses of instruction.’’ One of the most interesting of the very complete arrangements of the institute is the opportunity for research afforded in all the laboratories devoted to the more advanced branches of instruction, as well as in the three separately organised research laboratories for physical chemistry, applied chemistry, and sanitary science. We notice also that by a gift in 1909 special research in seismology and other branches of geophysics was provided for. On January 1, 1912, the Hawaiian Volcano Research Association cooperated with the institute to establish an observatory and laboratory at the volcano Kilauea. Work was begun at once, and a suitable building has been constructed with laboratories, a seismograph cellar, water supply, and facilities for physico-chemical investigation of volcanic process. Investigations are carried on by a resident staff, and properly qualified investigators will be re- “ceived at the observatory. for special studies. Tr is announced that a group of some of the largest coal owners of South Wales has decided to start a mining school for the training of colliery officials. Treforest House, Treforest, has been acauired for the purposes of the school, and the post of directer of DECEMBER 26, 1912| NATURE 479 mining instruction is being advertised. It is proposed to make a levy of one-tenth of a penny per ton on the output of the collieries concerned, which will pro- vide upwards of 500ol. a year for the maintenance of the school. The scheme is really part of a larger scheme recommended by Prof. Louis, of Newcastle- on-Lyne, on the lines of the mining school at Bochum in connection with the Westphalian coalfield, whereby elementary instruction in mining, given at prepara- tory schools spread over the whole district, leads up to the higher work in the central mining school. The portion of the general scheme which it is now proposed to develop does not embrace the all-round training necessary tor mining engineers, such as that provided for in some of the English universities and at University College, Cardiff. 1t is much to be hoped that the mining courses now being arranged will not overlap the higher work that comes more strictly within the province of the University College at Car- diff, and that the development of the mining depart- ment at that college will not suffer in the future trom any want of sympathy and financial support from the wealthy colliery proprietors of our richest coalfield. Tue report for the session 1911-12 on the work of the department of technology of the City and Guilds of London Institute has been published by Mr. John Murray. The number of subjects in which examina- tions were held by the department was 75, the same number as in the previous year, the number of separate classes increased from 4495 to 4552, the largest on record, and the number ot students in attendance rose from 52,680 to 53,999. These figures represent the numbers of students of registered classes, receiving instruction mainly with a view to the institute’s ex- aminations, but they are only a proportion of the total number of students in applied science and technology, who are in attendance at courses of instruction largely influenced by the work of the department. There can be no doubt, the report states, that the teaching ot technology has improved greatly during the past few years; but it is noted that the examiners have still to direct attention to the insufficient knowledge that some candidates possess of the principles of their sub- jects, and to the lack of practical knowledge shown by others. As regards the preliminary training of the students, the examiners in several subjects comment on the inability of the candidates to write good Eng- lish, the poor handwriting and spelling, and the un- satisfactory answers to questions involving calcula- tions. The report urges that it is desirable, before commencing the distinctly technical part of their course of training, that the attendance of pupils at day or evening continuation schools in which special provision is made for manual instruction, the teaching of English, and practical science should be further encouraged. Tue Department of Agriculture and Technical In- struction for Ireland has issued its programme of tech- nical school examinations for 1912. Both in day secondary schools and in evening technical schools the department has adopted a system of inspection, to the exclusion of written examinations, as a test of efficiency, and has never prescribed written examina- tions for the purpose of assessing grants for educa- tional purposes. It is not proposed to depart from this policy, which has been attended by excellent results. In past years students requiring some certifi- cate of efficiency have entered for certain English public examinations in science and technology. The recent changes made by the Board of Education in its science examinations, together with other con- siderations, have led the department to inaugurate the examinations dealt with in the programme. The NO. 2252, VOL. 90] scheme of examinations is designed to follow courses of instruction extending over four years in the follow- ing branches of technical knowledge: commerce, building trades, applied chemistry, electrical engineer- ing, mechanical engineering, domestic economy, art. There will be, in general, two examinations in each course in each of the four years, and the examinations in each course must be taken in the order prescribed. The department will not be concerned with the examination of students other than those intending to take out a course certificate. The syllabuses of examina- tion are based upon the knowledge which may be acquired in following a definite course of instruction in a technical school, though the department will not for the present require attendance at a technical school as a qualification for admission to the examinations. Tue Imperial University of Tokyo, the calendar of which for the current session has been received, con- sists of six colleges of law, medicine, engineering, literature, science, and agriculture. In each college complete arrangements have been made for higher education in accordance with the most modern standards. It is possible here to refer to one or two examples only. Attached to the College of Agricul- ture are five forests, two in Tokyo Fu, one in Chiba Prefecture, one in Hokkaido, and one in Formosa. That in Chiba Prefecture, to take one instance, covers an area of about 5358 acres, and is divided into the Kiyosumi and the Okuzan forests, and it is intended for use in practical instruction in forestry, for the investigations undertaken by the professors and students, and to serve as a model of scientific forest management in Japan. The system of scholarships, too, is of special interest. Research and loan scholar- ships are awarded. The former are intended for graduates of ‘‘high scholarship and of sound and strong character ’’ who wish to devote themselves con- tinuously to study and research. Loan scholarships are of two kinds—college scholarships and donation scholarships. A college loan scholarship has a value not exceeding 120 yen per annum, and is for students unable to meet college expenses from their private means. When the holder of a loan scholarship has graduated, he is bound to refund the sum he has received by monthly instalments, so as to complete the repayment within the same number of months as that during which he had been in receipt of the scholarship; and he also pays interest at the rate of 6 per cent. per annum. A donation loan scholarship differs chiefly in being allotted according to the wishes of the donor. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. LONDON. Royal Society, December 5.—Sir Archibald Geilkie, K.C.B., president, in the chair.—Dr. J. H. Ashworth and Dr. T. Rettie: A Gregarine—Steinina rotundata, nov. sp.—present in the mid-gut of bird-fleas of the genus Ceratophyllus. This cephaline Gregarine was first observed in the mid-gut of adult examples of Ceratophyllus styx, and its life-history has been traced in larve and adults of this species, in which it has been found to be common. Examples of C. farrent and C. gallinae have also proved to be infected, but only sparingly.—G. Dreyer, W. Ray, and E. W. A. Walker: The size of the aorta in warm-blooded animals, and its relationship to the body-weight and to the surface-area expressed in a formula. The con- clusion reached is that in any given species of warm- blooded animal the sectional area of the lumen of the aorta (A) is proportional to the body-surface, and can be calculated from the body-weight by means of the 480 NATURE [DECEMBER 26, 1912 formula A=\W"/k, where n has the value 0'7o to .0'72, and k is a constant to be ascertained for each par- ticular ;species.—G. Dreyer, W. Ray, and E. W. A. Walker: The size of the trachea in warm-blooded animals, and its relationship to the body-weight,. the surface-area, the blood-volume, and the size of the aorta. Measurements have been carried out on rabbit, guinea-pig, and ptarmigan. These show that within a wide range of weight in any given species of warm- blooded animal, the sectional area of the lumen (T) of the trachea is proportional to the body-surface, and can be calculated from the body-weight by means of the formula T=W/k, where n has the value 0'70 to 0°72, and k is a constant to be ascertained for each particular species. Since n has now been shown to be o'7o to 0'72, not only in the case of the blood- volume, the aortic area, and the tracheal area, but also in calculating the surface-area from the body- weight, it follows that the three former measurements are all proportional to the body-surface, and that the formula put forward (W”/a=k) is a rational formula. —Studies of the processes operative in solutions :— (i) E. E. Walker : The conversion of ammonia cyanate into urea, especially as influenced by alcohols.—(ii) F. P. Worley: (1) The hydrolysis of cane sugar by dilute acids. (2) The hydrolysis of cane sugar by sulphuric acid, with a note on improvements in polarimetric apparatus. (3) The hydrolysis of methylic acetate by acids.—_(iii) Dr. H. E. Armstrong and F. P. Worley : The nature of hydrolytic process.—Dr. R. T. Beatty: The direct production of characteristic Réntgen radiations by ‘kathode particles.—A. S. Russell: The penetrating power of the y rays from radium C. Attempts have been made to detect a radiation from radium C possessing a greater penetrating power than ordinary y rays. A source of 300 millicuries of radium emana- tion was immersed in a tank of mercury at a distance of 20 cm. below the testing instrument, and sunk in the mercury until the leak in the testing instrument was no greater than the natural ionisation. It was found that the ionisation due to any radiation pene- trating 25 cm. of mercury is less than 2x 10-® of that due to the unabsorbed y-ray beam. The absorp- tion of the y rays was measured also for a great range of thickness of mercury. From 1 cm. to 22'5 cm. absorption took place strictly according to an ex- ponential law. Over this range the intensity is diminished in the ratio of 360,000 to 1. The value of the absorption coefficient (cm.-! divided by the density) was found to be 0'0438, which is very nearly the same as that found by Soddy and Russell for lead, namely 0'0437.—Dr. H. S, Allen: The photo-electric behaviour of iron in the active and passive state.— H. B. Keene: A determination of the radiation con- stant. The mean value obtained for the radiation constant equals 5°89 x 10-° erg. cm.” sec. deg.*. The paper contains the calculation of an exact expression for the energy exchange between two radiating coaxial circular apertures; the ordinary approximate expres- sion which applies when the distance between the apertures is great being insufficiently exact in the present case.—C. G. Douglas, Dr. J. S. Haldane, Y. Henderson, and E. C. Schneider; Physiological observa- tions made on Pike’s Peak, Colorado, with special reference to adaptation to low barometric pressures.— Muriel Robertson: Notes on the life-history of Try- panosoma gambiense, with a brief reference to the cycles of T. nanum and T. pecorum in Glossina pal- palis. Royal Meteorological Society, December 18.—Dr. H. N. Dickson, president, in the chair.—Prof. H. Bassett : Probable utility of salinity observations in the Irish Sea for long-date weather forecasting. The cyclones which reach the British Isles nearly all arrive NO. 2252, VOL. 90] ments which have affected the area. from the Atlantic, consequently any alteration in the distribution of temperature in the Atlantic may be expected to affect their number and character. The hydrographic investigations which have been carried out in the North Atlantic and in European waters during the past fifteen years have shown that they are affected by a periodic change in salinity and tem- perature, the period of which is about one year. This change is of such a nature that the water is salter and relatively warmer in the winter and spring months and fresher and relatively cooler in the summer and autumn, the time of maximum salinity depending somewhat on the geographical position. The author described the result of a series of salinity observations which he has carried out in the Irish Sea, and he has found that the salinity changes and the time of their occurrence preceded certain seasonal types of weather. He is therefore of opinion that if monthly observations of the salinities were made at certain stations on the line of the Calf of Man—Holyhead, these would enable forecasts of the general character of the weather over the British Isles and a_consider- able part of Europe to be given four or five months ahead.—J. E. Clark: Air currents at a height of fifty miles, as indicated by the Bolide, on February 22, 1909. This meteor, the brightness of which was at least four times that of Venus, was seen at 7.38 p.m. at a height of fifty-eight miles, and it left a remarkably bright strealk in the sky, which was watched by observers in the southern counties for the long period of 104 minutes. The author collected the various observations, and after plotting them on charts came to the conclusion that between 49°5 and 51 miles the strealx lay in a west wind of great velocity, and that at 51°5 miles the current was almost from the east with a velocity of about 100 miles an hour. Above this the current changed to south-east and ultimately to south-west, with an increased velocity.—C. Anthony : New form of standard barometer. Royal Microscopical Society, December 18.—Mr. P. E. Radley, vice-president, in the chair.—F. Enock: In- sect intelligence. Several instances were given from the life-history of spiders and insects which seem to show real reasoning power, and lead to the conclusion arrived at by Lord Avebury, who attributes to insects in degree a certain amount of conscious knowledge. When breeding the larve of dragonflies the author has repeatedly observed the nymph on leaving the water crawl up a leaf or stem or some twig, and when it has reached a certain point it rests and suddenly flings out its tail as far as it can, and should it come into, contact with anything, it changes its position and again flings its tail out, and continues to do so so long as it comes into contact with a leaf or stem; it changes position until, on flinging out its tail, it does not come into contact—then, and not until then, does it affix its claspirg limbs to the leaf or twig preparatory to going through its trans- formation. From this the author gathers that the nymph has conscious knowledge that it will require a certain amount of space so that its large wings do not come into contact with anything when fully developed. CAMBRIDGE. Philosophical Society, November 25.—Dr. Shipley, president, in the chair.—Prof. Hughes: The gravels of East Anglia. In introducing the subject of the gravels of East Anglia, Prof. Hughes pointed out that too much importance must not be attached to the absolute height and level of the river terraces, first, because of the rise of the valley from its mouth to its source, and, secondly, on account of the earth move- f He showed that DECEMBER 26, 1912] there had been considerable depressions in the valley of the Cam since the deposition of some of the exist- ing river silt. Only a small proportion of the flints of which the gravels were chiefly composed were likely to have been derived directly from the Chalk, and very few from the London Tertiaries. They were probably produced on the Miocene land surface over which the Crag sea advanced rapidly, sweeping up the old surface soils, and forming the first deposits of angular flints from which so much of our stained gravel has been derived. The subsequent depression of this area, while adjoining mountain regions were uplifted, would account for the material of the Norfolk cliffs, which might be referred to the action of an ice-laden sea on the land.—Dr. Marr: The meres of Breckland. Attention was directed to the small meres of the sandy heaths north of Thetford, situated in chalk. The meres are probably explicable on the view that events happened similar to those observed in other limestone districts, such events occurring as the result of subterranean drainage.—Dr. Arber: The earlier Mesozoic floras of New Zealand. A preliminary survey has been made of the specimens of fossil plants collected in New Zealand by Mr. D. G. Lilley, now biologist to Captain Scott’s Antarctic expedition, dur- ing the recent winterings of the Terra Nova in New Zealand waters. Those obtained from Mount Potts in the Rangitata Valley (Canterbury) are particularly important. For many years past it has been asserted that Glossopteris and other members of the Glos- sopteris flora of Gondwana-land occur in New Zealand at Mount Potts. Among the specimens examined, how- ever, there is no trace of Glossopteris, though another somewhat similar>plant is abundantly present, and this has no doubt been mistaken for Glossopteris hitherto. The age of the flora is further unmistak- ably either Rheetic or Liassic, and thus much younger than the Permo-Carboniferous flora of Gondwana- Jand.—R. H. Rastall: The mineral composition of some Cambridgeshiré sands and gravels. Following on a previous and as yet unpublished research on the Neocomian rocks, the author was led to investigate the mineral composition of the Pleistocene deposits of Cambridgeshire, ‘numerous specimens being collected from the Plateau Gravels, the sands of the ancient and of the present river-systems, and from certain surface deposits formed by wind-transport. The chief con- stituents are quartz, flint, and chalk, with a notable proportion of glauconite and heavy minerals, especially garnet, tourmaline, kyanite, staurolite, hornblende, augite, epidote, zircon, and iron ores. Muscovite was not found except in the plateau sands, a very remark- able fact, which cannot yet be fully explained.—Dr. F. H. Hatch : A remarkable instance of complete rock- disintegration by weathering. The material described comes from Diamantina, in the province of Minas Geraes, Brazil, where it is being worked for diamonds. It occurs as a loose sandy deposit in which there are a number of partially disintegrated pebbles, and is sufficiently soft to be dug out with a shovel at the lowest depth yet attained in the open-working. The pebbles consist of quartzite, vein-quartz, steatite, and tourmaline-quartz vein-stuff. The sand is a mixture of colourless quartz and of the fine powder produced by the pulverisation of the steatite fragments. The heavy minerals in the residue obtained by treatment with bromoform. are the following :—Zircon, zinc blende, galena, iron pyrites, chalcopyrite, rutile, and tourmaline. The material has evidently resulted from the prolonged weathering of an ancient conglomerate formation. MANCHESTER. Literary and Philosophical Society, November 12.— Prof. F. E. Weiss, president, in the chair.—Dr. Henry Wilde: Searchlights and the Titanic disaster (see p- NO. 2252, VOL. 90] NATURE 481 471).—H. G. J. Moseley : Radium as a means of obtain- ing high potentials. A radio-active substance which emits 8 rays should, when insulated, continue to gain a positive charge until a potential of the order of a million volts is reached. Only the fastest B rays should then be able to escape. Experiments have been made to test this point. A small bulb containing radium emanation was supported by a quartz rod in the centre of an exhausted flask. A disc suspended from a quartz spring in the neck of the flask formed a simple attracted disc electrometer. It was found that a bulb of diameter 9 mm. reached a potential of 160,000 volts in the course of a few minutes. A sudden discharge then occurred through the residual gas in the flask, although great care had been taken in obtaining the vacuum. A bulb of diameter 5 cm. charged up much more slowly; no discharge took place, and the final potential, 140,000 volts, was limited by a leak of electricity along the quartz sup- port. The cause of discharge in a high vacuum remains unknown.—C. G. Darwin: The interference- phenomena produced by passing X-rays through crystals. New SoutH WALES. Linnean Society, October 30.—Mr. W. W. Froggatt, president, in the chair.—T. D. A. Cockerell : Australian bees. No. I. A new species of Crocisa, witha list of the Australian species of the genus. A new species from West Australia is described. Two species attributed to Australia are excluded, Amboina being their cor- rect habitat.—T. D. A. Cockerell: A small collection of bees from Tasmania. Thirty-seven species are known from Tasmania, including two described as new in this paper. Tasmania is much richer in bees than New Zealand, and systematic collecting and observation are desirable-—W. L. Distant : Synonym- ical notes on some recently described Australian Cica- didz.—A. M. Lea: Revision of the Australian Curcu- lionide belonging to the subfamily Cryptorhynchides. Part xi. Deals with a group of small and highly polished weevils, sparsely represented in Australia, but abundantly in New Guinea and the Malay Archi- pelago. The abdomen and hind legs of some of the species are peculiar. Five genera (one new) are noted, and fourteen species (five new).—R. H. Cam- bage: (1) Notes on the native flora of New South Wales. Supplementary lists fo part viii. Camden to Burragorang and Mount Werong. (2) Notes on the native. flora of New South Wales. Part ix. Barraba to Nandewar Mountains and Boggabri. The Nan- dewar Mountains are of botanical interest. Their altitude is about 5000 ft., while they are situated about ninety miles west of the Main Divide. One Queensland plant, Pultenaea setulosa, was found there which had not vreviously been recorded from New South Wales; also several southern plants which Had not been recorded as. occurring north of the Hunter Valley. Amongst the latter is a Victorian species, Asterolasia correifolia, var. Muelleri, known in the Buffalo Mountains and in the Kiandra district, and its discovery on the summit of the Nandewara extends its known range 400 miles northerly. The question is discussed as to how it may have developed. To show the effect of climate on plant-distribution, it is pointed out that around Boggabri, at elevations | ranging from 800 to 1200 ft., about 36 per cent. of the species noticed occur in Tasmania, while on the Nandewars, at altitudes ranging from 3000 to 5000 ft., in a distinctly mountain or cool climate, about 60 per cent. of the plants found are represented in Tasmania. Catcutta. Asiatic Society of Bengal, November 6.—\W. Kirk- patrick : The marriage ceremony and marriage customs of the Gehara Kanjars. The marriage ceremonies and 482 NATURE [DECEMBER 26, 1912 marriage customs of the Gehara Kanjars, who are an endogamous section of an aggregate of tribes of a gipsy-like character scattered all over northern India, are remarkable for two or three survivals. The authors find a strict observance of the primintive exogamic law, a proper recognition of the occupational origin of the tribe, a reverence for the- tribal token, beater ordeal by way of consulting the oracle, and mock combat between the bride’s and bridegroom’s respective par- ties —Dr. P. C. Ray and Rasik Lal Datta: Isomeric allylamines.—Rasik Lal Datta: The preparation and decomposition of monochloro- and dichloro-benzyl- amines.—Jitendra Nath Rakshit: Action of stannic chloride on phenylhydrazine. BOOKS RECEIVED. Grundztige der allgemeinen Phytopathologie. By Prof. H. Klebahn. Pp. ii+147. (Berlin: Gebriider Borntraeger.) 4.80 marks. Fortschritte der naturwissenschaftlichen Forschung. Edited by Dr. E. Abderhalden. Siebenter Band. Pp. ii+268. (Berlin and Vienna: Urban and Schwarzen- berg.) 15 marks. Abhandlungen tiber den mathematischen Unterricht in Deutschland veranlasst durch die Internationale Mathematische Unterrichtskommission. Edited by F. Klein. 25 parts. (Leipzig and Berlin: B. G. Teub- ner.) Various prices. The Entomologist’s Log-book and Dictionary of the Life-Histories and Food Plants of the British Macro- Lepidoptera. By A. G. Scorer. Pp. vii+374. (Lon- don: G. Routledge and Sons, Ltd.) 7s. 6d. net. The History of the Collections contained in the Natural History Departments of the British Museum. Vol. ii., Appendix. By Dr. A. Giinther. Pp. ix+ 109. (London : Longmans and Co., and others.) 5s. Catalogue of the Mammals of Western Europe (Europe exclusive of Russia) in the Collection of the British Museum. By G. S. Miller. Pp. xv+ro1g. (London: Longmans and Co., and others.) 26s. Catalogue of the Collection of Birds’ Eggs in the British Museum (Natural History). Vol. v. By W. R. Ogilvie-Grant. Pp. xxiiit+547+plates. (Lon- don: Longmans and Co., and others.) 21. 7s. 6d. Catalogue of the Chzetopoda in the British Museum (Natural History). Part i. By Dr. J. H. Ashworth. Pp. xii+175+plates. (London: Longmans and Co., and others.) 27s. 6d. The Genus Iris. By W. R. Dykes. With 47 coloured drawings by F. H. Round, 1 coloured plate of seeds by Miss R. M. Cardew, and 30 line drawings by G. W. Johnson. Pp. 245. (Cambridge University Press.) 6 guineas net. Miners’ Nystagmus: its Causes and Prevention. By Dr. T. L. Llewellyn. Pp. xix+158. (London: The Colliery Guardian Co., Ltd.) The Centenary of a Nineteenth-century Geologist, Edward William Binney, F.R.S. Pp. 58. (Taunton : Barnicott and Pearce.) 2s. 6d. net. Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien. By Prof. A. Engler. Siebente, wesentlich umgearbeitete Auflage. By Prof. E. Gilg. Pp. xxxii+387. (Berlin: Gebriider Born- traeger.) 6.80 marks. Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Ireland. The Interbasaltic Rocks (Iron Ores‘and Bauxites) of North- East Ireland. By Prof. G. A. J. Cole and others. Pp. vi+129. (Dublin: H.M.S.O.; London: E. Stan- ford, Ltd., and others.) 3s. The Lichens of the Swedish Antarctic Expedition, By O. V. Darbishire. Pp. 74+3, plates. (Stockholm : Lithographisches Institut des Generalstabs;. London : Dulau and Co., Ltd.) The Works of Aristotle. Translated into English NO. 2252, VOL. 90] under the Editorship of J. A. Smith and W. D. Ross. De Motu Animalium. De Incessu Animalium. By A. S. L. Farauharson. (Oxford: Clarendon Press.) 2s. net. A History of Chemistry from the Earliest Times till the Present Day. By the late Prof. J. C. Brown. Pp. xxx+543. (London: J. and) A. Cbhurchil) 10s. 6d. net. Mathematische Instrumente. By Prof. A. Galle. Pp. vi+ 187. (Leipzig and Berlin: B. G. Teubner.) 4.40 marks. Beobachtungen tiber Strandverschiebungen an der Kiiste des Samlands. II., Brtisterort. By Dr. R. Bruckmann. Pp. 15+plates. (Leipzig and Berlin: B. G. Teubner.) 1.20 marks. Verodffentlichung des K6niglich Preuszischen Geo- datischen Institutes. Neue Folge. No. 54, Unter suchungen tiber die Gezeiten der festen Erde und die hypothetische _Magmaschicht. By Dr. W Schweydar. Pp. 58. (Potsdam; Leipzig: B. G Teubner.) 3.50 marlzs. The Problem of the Gasworks Pitch Industries and Cancer. The John Howard McFadden Researches. Pp. 48. (London: J. Murray.) 6d. net. The Passing of Morbid Anatomy. The Harveian Oration for 1912. By Sir J. F. Goodhart, Bart. Pp. 32. (London: J. Murray.) ts. 6d. net. Heredity and Memory, being the Henry Sidgwicl: Memorial Lecture, 1912. By Prof. J. Ward. Pp. 56. (London: J. Murray.) 1s. 6d. net. CONTENTS. PAGE American Anthropology. By Rev. John Griffith 457 Ceramic, Chemistry, “By VWWe/BH ie a. eee Two Books on Heredity. By L. Doncaster 458 Bhotopraphic Annwals)) ie peeremen cae cliel lien 2» 459 OurrBookshelf, . .. (2 fe) el y-suesiiten oll=is-lll a) tole eee Letters to the Editor :— The Natural Fracture of Flint. | (Z//zstvated.)—J. Reid Moir AON NEM bk 46 Excitation of y Rays by a Rays.—J, Chadwick ; AY-S:, Russell Safi: aaaesmtet eae 463 The Prickly Pear in Western China.—Prof. T, D. A. Gockerell’: . 5 7.5 SUSE) ears eee 464 Anthropology in Indiaand Malta. (/i/ustvated.) . . 464 New: Hydrogen. Spectrai. > "faeia c0- ee eee 466- 1S Nes eS cer eA Gene SG 467 (2) CC SC oto hte hho 5 cuSe eer tec cc 467- Report of the Development Commissioners . . . . 472 Recent Publications on the Fertility of the Soil. ISO A Oe es ool lar isu ei on o 47g Wpper Ain Investigationsise iy aes) 474 Bird Notes,’ By Ro. ae Wn eee s 475 Stock Diseases and their Suppression in South Africa. By Dr. Arnold Theiler,C.M.G...... 475 University and Educational Intelligence. .... . 475 Societies and Academies .:...... 5 m0 479- ooks:-Received ... «his, ese eee 482 Editorial and Publishing. Offices : MACMILLAN & CO., Lrtp., ST. MARTIN’S STREET, LONDON, W.C. ~ Advertisements and business letters to be addressed to the Publishers. Editorial Communications to the Editor. Telegraphic Address: Puusts, Lonpon. Telephone Number: Grerrarp 8830. UGS A WEEKLY ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL OF “To the solid ground Of Ne trusts the mind which builds for aye. SCIEN CW ORDSWORTH. _No. 2253, VOL.. 90] THURSDAY, Registered as asa Newspaper at the General Post Office. ii z JANU ARY y 2, 1913 es __ [Price SIXPENCE all Rights Reserved. BUY DIRECT FROM FESBECKER & Core (W.&J.GEORGE, LTD.,SUCC®>) LONDON, Ee G. doun J, GRIFFIN & Sots MAKERS OF Physical Apparatus THE GRAY-BURNSIDE MOTOR GYROSTAT for demonstrating all the properties and practical applications of the gyrostat. GYROSTATIC PENDULUM GRAY’S GYROSTATIC MODELS As demonstrated at the Physical Society. PRICES ON APPLICATION. KINGSWAY _ ~ London, W.C. Kemble St. NEW APPARATUS FOR PHOTOMICROGRAPHY For use in Horizontal or Vertical Positions. Possessing many New and Important Features. LARGE EPIDIASCOPE A new and convenient apparatus for the Direct Projection in Natural Colours of Microscopical Slides, Opaque Objects (such as Book IIlustra- tions, Photo Prints, Diagrams, portions of Plants, Skin Diseases, &c.), Lantern Slides, and Spectra. LEITZ-EDINGER DRAWING APPARATUS For the Direct Projection of Microscopical Pre- parations. Ensures greater accuracy in drawing. Catalogues and Booklets post free. E. LEITZ (London), 18 ‘BLOOMSBURY SQUARE, W.C. (A few doors from the British Museum.) : 8 $3 8 eo oe b] =; NEGRETTI & ZAMBRA’S 3 = | #3 Standard Meteorological Instruments. 938 oe eo eo | 88 Illustrated Price List sent free by post. 88 ie = oe on | $2 38 Holborn 88 @0 i eo | 9 Viaduct, oe 23 London,E.C. es rts ss so Branches: se oe of 82 45 Cornhill, Ss E.C., and 88 122 Regent es = Street, oe Se Ww. eo ts ce t Ie) ce eo Of e0e0e 080 Seoececece clxxx NATURE [JANUARY 2, 1913 THE DAVY-FARADAY RESEARCH LABORATORY ROYAL INSTITUTION, No. 20 ALBEMARLE STREET, W. DIRECTOR: Professor Sir JAMES DEWAR, M.A., LL.D., Ph.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. This Laboratory was founded by the late Dr. Ludwig Mond, D.Sc., F.R.S., as a Memorial of Davy and Faraday, for the purpose of promoting, by original research, the development and extension of Chemical and Physical Science. Persons fully qualified to undertake original scientific research admitted to the Laboratory are entitled to the use of the physical and chemical apparatus and ordinary chemicals of a Laboratory, and may be granted by the Director any special materials necessary for research, subject to the approval of the Laboratory Committee. The Staff of the Laboratory, and a trained Mechanician, are under the control of the Director. LENT TERM.—Monday, January 13, to Saturday, March rs. EASTER TERM.—Monday, April 7, to Saturday, July 26. Applicants can receive full information regarding the Laboratory by addressing the AssIsTANT SECRETARY, Royal Institution, No. 2r Albemarle Street, W. SPECIAL LECTURES. A COURSE OF SIX LECTURES will be delivered at the EAST LONDON COLLEGE (University of London), MILE END ROAD, E., By ARCHIBALD SHARP, Wh.Sc., B.Sc., A.M.I.C.E., ON ‘‘INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES,” With Special Reference to Possibilities of Immediate Future Developments, Lectures commence on MONDAY, JANUARY 20, 1913, at 7 p.m. Fee for the Course, £1 1s. Persons under 25 years of age who are employed in Engineering or Electrical Engineering work, will be adinitted at half the above rates. Syllabus on application to the Registrar, or Principal. J. L. S. HATTON, M.A. a THE SIR JOHN CASS TECHNICAL INSTITUTE, JEWRY STREET, ALDGATE, E.C. The following Special Courses of Instruction will be given during the Lent and Summer Terms, 1913 :— CONDUCTION IN GASES AND RADIO-ACTIVITY. By R. S. Wit.tows, M.A., D.Sc. A Course of Ten Lectures, fully illustrated by experiments, Friday evenings, 7 to 8 p.m., commencing Friday, January 17, 1913. PRODUCER GAS PRACTICE, SOLID FUELS, THE VALUATION OF FUELS, AND THE CONTROL OF FUEL CONSUMPTION. 3y J. S. S. BRaAmeE. A Course of Ten Lectures, Monday evenings, 7 to 8 p.m., commencing Monday, January 13, 1913. TECHNICAL GAS ANALYSIS. By Cuarces A. Keane, D.Sc, Pb-D., F.C A Course of Practical Work, Wednesday evenings, 7 to 10 p.m., com- mencing Wednesday, April 23, 1913. FUEL ANALYSIS. By J. S. S. Brame. A Course of Practical Work, Friday evenings, 7 to 10 p.m., commencing Friday, April 25, 1913. Detailed Syllabus of the Courses may be had upon application at the Office of the Institute or by letter to the PRINCIPAL. ————— BOROUGH POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE, BOROUGH ROAD, LONDON, S.E. CHEMISTRY DEPARTMENT. The Classes in (1) General Chemistry, (2) Laundry Chemistry, (3) Electrochemical Analysis, (4) Foodstuff Chemistry, recommence January 191 A Special Course of Lectures and Practical Work on “THE CuemistrRyY AND TECHNOLOGY OF THE EssENTIAL OiLs” will be given on Wednesday evenings at 7.30, beginning January 8, 1913. For full particulars apply C. T. MILLIS, Principal. BIRKBECK COLLEGE, BREAMS BUILDINGS, CHANCERY LANE, E.C. Principal: G. Armitage-Smith, M.A., D.Lit. COURSES OF STUDY (Day and Evening) for the Degrees of the UNIVERSITY OF LONDON in the FACULTIES OF SCIENCE & ARTS (PASS AND HONOURS) under RECOGNISED TEACHERS of the University. SCIENCE.—Chemistry, Physics, Mathematics (Pure and Applied), Botany, Zoology, Geology and Mineralogy. ARTS.—Latin, Greek, English, French, German, Italian, History, Geography, Logie, Economies, Mathematics (Pure and Applied). Evening Courses for the Degrees in Economics and Law. { Day: Science, £17 10s.; Arts, £10 10s. SESSIONAL FEES | Evening: Science, Arts, or Economics, £5 5s. POST-GRADUATE AND RESEARCH WORK. Particulars on application to the Secretary. SOUTH-WESTERN POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE, MANRESA ROAD, CHELSEA, S.W. Day Courses under recognised Teachers in Preparation for London University Degrees in Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, in Chemistry, Physics and Natural Science; and Technical Courses arranged to extend over Three Years and Prepare for Engineering, Electrical, Chemical and Metallurgical Professions. Session Fee, £15. Evening Courses in all Departments :— Mathematics—*]. Lister, A.R.C.S., T. G. Strain, B.A. ; Physics— *S. Skinner, M.A.,. *L. Lownps, B.Sc., Ph.D., *F. W. Jorpan, B.Sc. ; Chemistry—*J. B. Cotpman, A.R.C.S., *J. C. Crocker, M.A., D.Sc., and *F. H. Lowe, M.Sc.; Botany—*H. B. Lacey, S. E. CHANDLER, D.Sc., and *W. Rusnton, A-R.C.S., D.I.C. ; Geology—*A. J. Masien, F.G.S., F.L.S.; Human Physiology—E. L. Kennaway, M.A., M.D. ; Zoology—*J. T. CunnincHam, M.A.; Engineering—*W. CampBeLt Houston, B.Sc., A.M.I.C.E., *V. C. Davies, B.Sc., and H. AuGHTIE Electrical Engineering—*A, J. Maxower, M.A., ~B. H. Morpny, and U. A. OscuHwacp, B.A. "Recognised Teacher of the University of London. Prospectus from the SECRETARY, post free, 4d. ; at the Office, rd. ‘Velephone : 899 Western. SIDNEY SKINNER, M.A., Principal. CITY OF LONDON COLLEGE. ACTING IN CONJUNCTION WITH THE LONDON CHAMBER OF COMMERCE. WHITE ST., and ROPEMAKER S8T., MOORFIELDS, E.G, (Near Moorgate and Liverpool Street Stations). PRINCIPAL: SIDNEY HUMPHRIES, B.A., LL.B. (Cantab.) EVENING CLASSES in SCIENCE. Well-equipped LABORATORIES for Practical Work in CHEMISTRY, BOTANY, GEOLOGY. Special Courses for Conjoint Board, Pharmaceutical and other examin- ations. Classes are also held in all Commercial Subjects, in Languages and Literature. Art Studio. All Classes are open to both sexes. DAY SCHOOL OF COMMERCE. Preparation fora COMMERCIAL or BUSINESS career. Prospectuses, and all other information, gratis on application. DAVID SAVAGE, Secretary. SSS UNIVERSITY OF LONDON. KING’S COLLEGE FOR WOMEN, KENSINGTON SQUARE, W. Under the Patronage of Her Majesty QuEEN ALEXANDRA. Warden—Miss H. D. Oaxkecey, M.A. Preparation is given for the examinations of the University of London in the Faculties of Arts and Science, the London University Certificate in Religious Knowledge, the Archbishop's Diploma in Theology, the King’s College Diploma and Certificate in Home Science Separate courses of interest to non-examination students are given in History, Literature, Philosophy and Biology, also in the Home Science subjects of Hygiene and Physiology, and the Economics of Women’s ork. The Divinity Courses are also open to non-examination students Special Courses of Lectures useful to Social Workers will be given in the Lent Term. Instruction in Music by Mrs. Hutchinson and others. The LENT TERM BEGINS on THURSDAY, JANUARY 16. Further information may be obtained from the SECRETARY, 13 Kensing- ton Square, W. NATORE 453 THURSDAY, JANUARY 2, 1913. RACES OF MANKIND. Homo Sapiens. Einleitung zu einem Kurse der Anthropologie. Autorisierte Ubersetzung aus dem Italienischen. By Dr. Giuffrida-Ruggeri. Pp. vili-+198. (Vienna and Leipzig: A. Hartle- ben, 1913.) Price 5 marks. “THE author of this work, who holds the chair of anthropology in the University of Naples, has come in recent years to occupy a place among the leading ‘anthropologists of Europe. He has taken a part in every one of the recent international discussions relating to the origin of man and the separation of mankind into modern races. On every occasion he has shown himself to possess a wide and intimate knowledge, a clear and simple style, and an ex- ceedingly well-balanced judgment. The present work, which has been honoured by a translation into German, is marked by all these virtues, and will serve as an excellent and sys- tematic introduction to all those problems which at present occupy the attention of anthropologists. The chief problem concerns the single or multiple origin of modern races of mankind. The author, after discussing all the evidence produced in favour of a multiple origin—the facts produced by Klaatsch, by Kollmann, by Ameghino, by his colleague Sergi, who fills the chair of anthropo- logy in Rome, comes to the conclusion that all modern races are descendants of a common stock and are single in their origin. Modern races all belong to the one species, Homo sapiens, but it is a species made up of a collection of well-marked varieties, each variety being, in his opinion, a potential species. The characters revealed by the fossil remains of extinct races convince him that in the past there have been several species o! mankind, Homo sapiens being the only surviving species. As regards the number of varieties or ‘subspecies of modern races of mankind, the Neapolitan professor quotes with approval the statement of Prof. von Luschan, of Berlin, ‘‘ That it is as difficult to give their number as it is to estimate how many angels could dance on the point of a needle”! The principles which underlie the knowledge we apply to the evolution of man must rest on the laws of heredity. Hence in the first chapter of this book, which has the merit of very moderate dimensions, Prof. Giuffrida-Ruggeri discusses the problems of heredity and seeks to apply Mendel’s law to man, depending especially in this chapter on the writings of Bateson, Davenport and Hurst. He is apparently inclined to believe NO. 2253, VOL. gol that mutation has been an active factor in the differentiation of modern races, but is sceptical of convergence having played any part in human evolution. It would take us too far afield to summarise the | remaining chapters of the book; it is sufficient to state again that the work is the best introduc- tion yet published to the modern problems of A. K. man’s origin. IRRITABILITY OF PLANTS. Die Reizbewegungen der Pflanzen. By Dr. Ernst G. Pringsheim. Pp. viii+326. (Berlin: Julius Springer, 1912.) Price 12 marks. R. PRINGSHEIM disarms criticism by stating in his preface that he is writing rather for the layman than for his professional colleagues. We fancy, however, that there will be few plant physiologists who will peruse the book without gathering something from it, here and there an out-of-the-way fact, or a new impression—the result of skilful handling of his material on the part of the author. It is true that the book does not, perhaps, add much that is new to our stock of knowledge, and that sometimes one is disposed to dissent from the conclusions to which Dr. Pringsheim arrives. But there is a freshness about the whole work, coupled with a sense of first-hand acquaintance with the experimental evidence under review, which lifts it far above the level of a mere com- pilation. Indeed, it is open to question, perhaps, whether the book, as a whole, will not appeal rather to the physiologist than to the non-botanical reader, in spite of the intention conveyed by its author. Some of the pages dealing with geotropism are good reading, and really provide an excellent summary of the principal results at present attained. The layman, however, will probably want to know what Piccard’s methods (p. 49) of investigation on geotropism were, and it is not easy, without a previous familiarity with the apparatus, to follow the discussion of Haberlandt’s investigations on similar lines. The statolith theory of geotropic perception is very briefly dis- _ cussed, and some of the difficulties in the way of its acceptance are pointed out; the judicial con- clusion is reached that we have not yet heard the last word on it. ; The treatment of periodic movements is interest- ing, but perhaps more open to criticism than most of the rest of the book. The distinction between truly irritable movements and growth, which may accompany them, seems scarely to be kept in sight sufficiently. ab 484 NATURE [ JANUARY 2, 1913 Several of the specially interesting examples of plant-movement receive careful treatment, and amongst them chemiotaxis is fairly fully dis- cussed, but no very satisfactory conclusion is arrived at—a result which is quite justified by, and in accordance with, the present state of knowledge. In the general summary there occurs an excellent ' suggestion as to the general attitude to be main- tained towards the whole subject of irritability by a wise investigator. Although it may not be possible as yet to give a complete or satisfactory explanation for the irritable manifestations of life, or of the manner in which they are produced, it is nevertheless on the suggested lines that advance may still be most profitably made. Even if we are as yet ignorant of many things in chemistry and physics which are necessary to the solution of the problems, it is better to search in those directions than to delude ourselves with psychical explanations which are no real explanations at all, but mainly serve to bar real advance by substituting elusive phantasy for ascertainable fact. At the best, they may be useful in checking too ready dependence on crude mechanistic hypotheses. For this is apt to be the sin of those who desire to run along the road of the “exact sciences” faster than the way is securely built, or even exactly traced. i; By Ee COPPER SMELTING. Modern Copper Smelting. By Donald M. Levy, Pp. xli+259. (London: C. Griffin and Co., Ltd., 1912.) Price tos. 6d. net. HE book consists of the lectures given by the author before the senior students of metallurgy at the University of Birmingham, con- siderably extended, and is based partly on a study of the practice as conducted at some of the most important copper-smelting works in America, and of the records of the advances in the metal- lurgy of copper contained in recent technical literature. Incorporated in it are also the personal experiences of the author during a stay at the works at Anaconda and at others in Tennessee. In the first four lectures are given brief accounts of the history and uses of the metal anc of the preliminary preparation of the ores for smelting. As regards the roasting of ores, the modern type of furnace is indeed described, but the space devoted to this important operation might be extended with advantage in the next edition of the book. The use of the reverberatory furnace, which, not long ago, was considered by some to be passing NO. 2253, VOL. 90] into obsolescence and was almost everywhere being displaced by the blast-furnace, has, during recent years, again come to the front on account of its suitability for the smelting of fine ores. New furnaces of extraordinary length and other dimensions have been erected at Anaconda and elsewhere, .and are worked with a greater economy of fuel and labour than the smaller furnaces which formerly were universal in this country. Copper-smelting generally, however, is con- ducted on a much less magnificent scale than at the Anaconda works, and it would have been well if the description of the furnaces and practice there had been supplemented by an account of the practice and type of furnace that would be best adapted for works of moderate size. This remark also applies to lecture vi., on blast-furnace prac- tice, in which the Anaconda plant again receives chief attention. The lectures on bessemerising and copper- refining contain a good summary of these pro- cesses, but are wanting in one or two details. The foregoing criticisms are offered in a friendly spirit, as the book is a good one, an excellent summary of modern copper-smelting practice, and should be in the hands of every student of this subject. W. G. PERSONAL AND PUBLIC HEALTH. (1) Perfect Health for Women and Children. By Elizabeth S. Chesser. Pp. xi+276. (London: Methuen and Co., Ltd., n.d.) Price 3s. 6d. net. (2) Hypnotism and Disease: a Plea for National Psychotherapy. By Dr. Hugh C. Miller. Pp. 252. (London: T. Fisher Unwin, rgr2.) Price 5s. net. (3) Modern Sanitary Engineering. Part i., House Drainage. By G. Thomson, M.A. Pp. xv+ 266. (London: Constable and Co., Ltd., 1912.) 6s. net. (1) HE author’s experience as a woman doctor has frequently shown to her how necessary it is to women, especially mothers, that they should be supplied with information which will be of service to them in health and sickness; and the book which she has written aims at supply- ing intelligent women with such useful in- formation. The simple facts of hygiene, properly understood and practised, cannot fail to prevent much disease, and a knowledge of the domestic treatment of common ailments will in many cases avert serious complications. Miss Chesser has to be commended for having treated a wide sub- ject in such a sound, common-sense and practical manner as will make the book appeal to every class of reader, both lay and medical. The author JANUARY 2, 1913] NATURE 485 does not mince matters when she finds fault with the unhygienic practices of the present day; and the work is full of good, telling sentences, such as, “if women paid as much attention to their teeth as they do to their complexions, they would be 50 per cent. healthier and better looking.” The right provisions for the healthy child are summarised by the writer in her directions to give the child the right sort of food and make him eat it properly; provide fresh air for him night and day; teach him how to breathe and how to play; train his mind and character; do not “coddle” either in clothing or in diet. (2) This volume presents the main features of | psychotherapy in a form suitable for the intelligent lay reader, and it forms an interesting and instruc- tive work which should appeal to the physician as well astothe layman. The rationale of hypno- tism and the scope of suggestion in medical practice are clearly defined. The object of hypnotism, as taught in this book, is to render the mind receptive and capable of influencing function; and a merit of Dr. Miller’s exposition is its moderation in statement. With the enlarged understanding of the subject it seems likely that we shall in the future see an increased evidence of the suitable employment of psychotherapeutics; for our highest medical authorities recognise that mental healing has a firm basis ef truth and fact, and that it may be properly and safely employed by skilled doctors who have the gift and power to use it, for every mentally healthy . individual ean be brought under its influence. It is the absence of this power and the failure to cultivate it which has often led to the easier expedient of administering bromides, massage, &c., to neuras- thenics, when hypnotic suggestion would consti- tute a better treatment of the patient. This treatment by mental methods does not. necessarily involve hypnosis, and it includes the very important subject of re-education of self- control. The main object of the book is to show that what the “quack ” (religious or medical) can do by fraud, delusion, or mystery can be done by the honest physician who works through the mind on the body, without descending to deception in any shape or form. (3) This book presents a useful statement upon the practical sanitation of the dwelling, in so far as the provisions for drainage are concerned. would be expected, seeing that the writer has been lecturing upon sanitary engineering at the Royal Technical College, Glasgow, for some twenty years, the facts are well put, clearly expressed and concisely dealt with in a handy, well-illustrated volume. NO. 2253, VOL. 90] As OUR BOOKSHELF. Internaciona Biologial Lexiko en Ido, Germana, Angla, Franca, Italiana ed Hispana. By Dr. M. Boubier. (Jena: Gustav Fischer, 1g1r.) Pp. vit73-. Price 1.50 marks. | In 1gor the Delegation for the Adoption of an | Auxiliary International Language was founded. | This delegation, while approving generally of Esperanto, decided that certain reforms were needed, and as Esperantists would not agree to these, there have resulted two languages, or rather dialects, namely, Esperanto and Ido, of | which the latter possesses the advantage that it | can be printed without the use of specially | accented letters, besides other advantages in the matter of simplicity. In the ‘“Internaciona Biologial Lexiko,” Dr. | Boubier has drawn up a vocabulary, for the pur- | poses of this language, of the principal terms used /in biology, with their equivalents in German, | English, French, Italian, and Spanish. Most of these terms are mere modifications of ordinary bio- logical nomenclature adapted to the grammatical requirements of Ido. In many cases an intelligent reader could guess the meaning of these words, though he would have difficulty in writing them, and in this respect the present nomenclature is better than that used for some of the words in common use. It is to be hoped that these attempts to find a satisfactory auxiliary language will not result in chaos, for while we have already two rivals in Ido and Esperanto, attempts are being made in other quarters to restore Latin in a modified form to its original position as the language of the learned world, and if science students are still to be required to pass examinations in Latin on the ground that it is the fundamental language, they will certainly show some reluctance in learn- ing a second auxiliary language differing greatly from Latin. It will remain to be seen whether Ido is sufficiently near Latin to appeal to the pupils of our public schools. Who’s Who, 1913. Pp. xxx+2226. Pricé 15s. net. Englishwoman’s Year Book and Directory, 1913. | | Edited by G. E. Mitton. Pp. xxxi+412. Price 2s. 6d. net. | The Writers’ and Artists’ Year Book, 1913. Pp. vilit+147. Price 1s. net. (London: A. and C. Black.) | SoME idea of the comprehensive character of the latest issue of ‘““Who’s Who” may be gathered from the fact that it contains 25,000 biographies of men and women in some way distinguished. Dve prominence is given in the collection to suc- cessful workers in science, and not only are British men of science dealt with, but also those of foreign countries. The editor of this indispensable work of reference may be congratulated upon keeping it up to date and maintaining all its useful | characters. “The Englishwoman’s Year Book” serves ad- | mirably to show the increasing share educated 450 NATURE [JANUARY 2, 1913 education of their daughters and the opportunities available for them to obtain remunerative labour later in life. The volume should be in the hands of every woman worker. “The Writers’ and Artists’ Year Book,” in addi- tion to being a handy index to periodical literature, places at the disposal of writers, artists and photo- graphers useful guidance in the matter of dispos- ing of their work satisfactorily. The Beginner in Poultry. The Zest and the Profit in Poultry Growing. By C. S. Valentine. Pp. x+ 450. (New York: The Macmillan Company ; London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1912.) Price 6s. 6d. net. By the time the “beginner” has read this book he might well think himself something more than a beginner. The keynote of the work is sympathy, and once possessing that, it is hard indeed if one cannot make a success of any hobby in live stock. Naturally, the suggestions as to management are more suited to the States than to this country, but the reader who wishes to take a broad view of aviculture, and is already conversant with the ins and outs of the daily routine, will find much food for reflection by a careful study of many of the chapters. We would specially commend to the powers that be section 22 on poultry schools. When one knows of the hard struggle for existence some of our educational work has had, and the scant support our own Board of Agriculture can offer, it makes one feel somewhat envious of the magnificent grants that are so freely available on the other side. The writer of this notice has had the good fortune to take part in some of the courses alluded to, and knows that such experts as are engaged at Cornell and Corvallis, &c., are past masters in the poultry world, and heartily endorses much of what the book says on this question. The work contains some 450 pages, and is pro- fusely illustrated, though several of the reproduc- tions are not quite up to the high standard one usually sees in the American Press. Perhaps the author’s other book, “How to Keep Hens at a Profit,” should be read first. The present volume is rather for the library or student; it does not cater for the exhibitor. Its value is rather to the thinker, and he who thinks is he who rules. The Montessori System in Theory and Practice. By Dr. Theodate L. Smith. Pp. vii+78. (New York and London: Harper Brothers, 1912.) -Price 2s. 6d. net. In the review of Madame Montessori’s recent book describing her method of scientific pedagogy as applied to child education in “The Children’s Houses,” published in Nature on September 26 last (vol. xc., p. 99), some account was given of the system. It is sufficient to say of Dr. Smith’s little volume that it provides a convenient intro- duction to the methods advocated by Madame Montessori, and some reports of American experi- ence of their adoption. NO: 22553, VOL.190]] EETLERS TOY TEE SED IMO}. |The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of Nature. No notice ts taken of anonymous communications.] British Forestry and the Development Commission. Ir is more than two years since the Development Commission obtained its fine grant of 500,000. yearly for five years. There have been Parliamentary grants in addition; thus g00,o00l. was available the first year. Said The Times: “‘ The Development Fund is a remarkable departure from ‘the laissez-faire policy which has so long dominated the proceedings of British Governments.’’ It was early announced that one of the chief objects of the Development Commis- sion was British forestry, including the purchase and planting of land. One small piece of poor ground in Scotland represents all the land that has yet been acquired in Britain; and foresters are beginning to inquire if we have really broken away from the bad traditions of the past. British forestry has never had such an opportunity as this half-million grant. Will anything practical be done before it is too late and the grant come to an end, because nothing practical has been achieved? It is true that there have been useful educational grants; and promises of loans for forestry, on liberal terms, to “local authorities or other re- sponsible bodies’’: but this, without State forestry, is putting the cart before the horse. As is well known, the communal forests on the Continent carry a class. of forest inferior to the State forests, and they are only kept up to this standard by either State super- vision or their management by State forest officers, combined with the stiffening effect of the better managed State forests in their midst. For fifty years British State forestry has been stand- ing still. | Excellent schemes have been prepared. There have been innumerable Parliamentary Com- mittees and reports! Three quite good British schools of forestry training have been established, and, alas! abolished, in spite of the excellent training they were giving. There remains now but one State forest school, the useful institution for instructing wood- men in the Forest of Dean. In the successive abandonment of these Government forest schools we see the want of a permanent forest authority to defend them against the vacillations of political con- trol. The onus of this failure in forestry—and forestry is perhaps the greatest of the modern arts—lies in the hesitancy of the Britisher to accept State forestry. It is tolerably certain that no material progress in British forestry will ever be made without State forestry, which is the kernel and vith of the whole business. There are two reasons why we must accept State forestry. Only the State can obtain money at a low enough rate of interest (23 or 3 per cent.) to make forestry pay in this climate of low sun-power. Only the State has the ‘‘unending life,” viz. a life long enough for successful forest management. A private owner cannot be expected to plant trees for the public good with only the prospect of an uncertain 2 or 3 per cent., going to his son, his grandson, or even his great-grandson. Further, forestry, like so many other industries, must be done on a large scale to yield good returns. Most of the opposition to State forests is no doubt due to ignorance of what they are. To the uninitiated they may look much like the wild forest that, in parts of the world, has to be largely cut down to make JANUARY 2, 1913] NATURE 487 way for settlement. But, to those who know, the modern cultivated forest is very different. It yields more timber, and its uses ‘‘for the healing of the nations” are manifold and of the first importance. The nearer it comes to our doors, the better for us; and happily also the better for the cultivated forest. The wild forest is generally a distant business, not entering into the daily life of the people, a life which the forest can so enrich and enlarge. The avowed object of the Development Commission when instituted was ‘‘to apply State methods long proved successful in other countries and in the Colo- nies to the development”’ of these islands. But the Development Commissioners have now formally stated that their general policy is adverse to State forestry (Report for period ending March 31, 1911). No reasons are given for the adoption of a decision so strangely at variance with the rest of the civilised world. Ger- many spends 7,000,000l. a year on State forestry. The Prussian Forest Department between 1867 and 1892 acquired 329,850 acres of waste land for re-foresting at a cost of about 1,125,000l., besides granting sub- stantial bounties for planting to private landowners, and giving in one year (1893) about 32,000,000 young trees for planting to private owners of woodlands (Dr. Nisbet). France, with a much smaller forest area, spends half a million yearly on State forestry. Every country in Europe has its State forests in a more or less advanced condition of development. Most instructive, in this respect, is the excellent forest work of Japan. With a cool head and free hands, un- fettered by the traditions of Western Europe, it has calmly appropriated what is good in Western civilisation and rejected the bad. Japan adopted State forestry in the earliest days of its civilisation. It is now spending more than 250,000). yearly on its State forests, and it has some roo million young trees in its State forest nurseries. The returns show an average of sixty-two million trees planted yearly in the State forests! ~There are free grants of trees and subsidies for private tree-planting. Instruction in forestry permeates the whole educational system, from the universities to the village schools. Writing as one who has borne a prominent share in one of the largest works of constructive forestry in recent times, I say without hesitation, let the Development Commissioners frankly accept State forestry and do as the rest of the world. If, thirty years ago, Cape Colony had hesitated at practical State forestry it would not occupy the position it does now. Cape Colony (now under Union the Cape Province) has spent considerably more than 1,000,000l. on its forestry, and it is now producing, within its own borders, the greater portion of the timber imported from abroad at a cost of between 300,0001. and 400,000l. yearly. Cape Colony has wisely held that it is too poor a country to go on paying out this large sum yearly for imported timber. ; Though so little has yet been done for practical forestry in Britain, the Irishman has made his voice heard with the happiest results! He has established an epoch in the history of British forestry with the decision of the Development Commission that ‘‘State afforestation on a small scale may be started in Ireland immediately. According to the last returns that have reached me, there has actually been acquired for forest purposes in Ireland an area of more than 7000 acres. It is a serious reflection that Great Britain, year after year, is spending some twenty-five million pounds sterling on imported timber and forest products, a considerable portion of which could be grown on the waste lands of these islands. Sir William Schlich, in one of his admirable pub- NO. 2253, VOL. 90] | that the beautiful lications on British forestry (*‘ Forestry in the United Kingdom,” p. 23), says: ‘‘ From time to time suitable tracts of land come into the market and there is, in my opinion, no reason why the State should not acquire such land for re-foresting.”’ Though little has been done for Scotch forestry, for England and Wales there has been even less. Indeed, no beginning of practical State forestry has yet been made in England and Wales. The mountains of Wales, the Weald of Kent, the Sussex Downs, still show vestiges of their ancient wild forests; and here is the best field (near industrial centres) for the more productive modern cultivated forest. There is no reason, except national improvidence, why the Welsh mines should continue to draw the greater part of their pit props from France; or why the Weald of Kent and the Sussex Downs should not have their ancient beauties restored and become once more a source of local wealth and the joy to the Londoner forests near Paris are to the Parisians. Nowadays it is these accessible forests, close to industrial centres, that yield the best returns, some of them in France and Germany from 2I. to more than 3l. per acre per year of net revenue. Not very long ago it was remarked to me by a French forest expert that these forests near Paris, financially, were carrying the distant Alpine forests on their backs ! There are considerable areas of poor land within twenty or thirty miles of London that, at a reason- able expenditure, could be turned into rich forests, like the Beech forest of the Chiltern Hills. In the High- lands of Scotland, and on the Welsh mountains, there are climatic difficulties (too frequent mists, too little sun), bogland, and peat. But the south-east of Eng- land is free from these climatic troubles. It is every- where within the climatic limits of vigorous and easy tree srowth. Let us not forget that in going from the north of Scotland to the south of England we go half-way to middle Italy and Portugal, where the sun-power gives those enormous yields of timber that are the wonder of foresters in more northern climates, 20 tons of (air-dry, seasoned) wood, or 7oo cu. ft. per acre per year. There are 36,000 acres of heath, waste, or poor pasture land in Kent, Surrey, and Sussex. Labour, especially during the winter months, is abundant. Forest work is of the healthiest kind possible. No- where in the world do we see men of finer physique than the small farmers and villagers of Germany, who, in the winter, when other work is scarce, find their salvation in the health-giving forest. Some 10 per cent. of the industrial population of Germany draw their livelihood from the forest, and Sir William Schlich has computed (‘‘ Forestry in the United Kingdom”) that under any general scheme of State forestry for the British Isles, there would be employment for some two and a half million labourers in winter, and parts of spring and autumn. Here are far-reaching issues. Parliament has voted the money to put them to the test. And yet we allow insular prejudice to block the way to State forestry, which is the essential feature of modern scientific forestry in other countries. D. E. Hurcuins. Ridley, Kent, December 17. The Recent Foraminifera of the British Islands. I aM proposing, with my collaborator, Mr. Arthur Earland, to prepare a Monograph of the British Foraminifera, the work of Williamson being now in serious need of being brought up to date. With this object in view we are sending a preliminary schedule of questions relative to the shore sands of the British Islands to clergymen and medical men at coastal towns 456 NATURE [ANUARY 2, 1912 Fie and villages at intervals of a few miles all round the coast. As .these gentlemen are strangers to us, I should be very gl ad to hear from any persons living near the coast who would be willing to receive from a copy of the schedule and a statement of our preliminary needs. The services which we ask of observers round the coast do not involve any serious trouble, and, of course, no expenses will fall upon those who are willing to assist us. a EpWarRD HERON-ALLEN. Hamilton Terrace, London, N.W. 22 216) POPULAR NATURAL HAISTORY.1 Nee a ANTON’S work on plant galls i will be welcomed by a wide circle of readers, since sn appeals to both the botanist and entomologist. In it the former will find a ready cover the whole ground the author has included growths which can scarcely be regarded as galls in the accepted sense. Thus the “Reed Mace” fungus (Epichloe typhina) is a mere mass of mycelium outside the plant, there being no hyper- trophy of the tissues. It should also be noted that the galls on alder roots are caused, not by Frankiella alni, but, as Miss Pratt has shown, by the bacterium Pseudomonas radicicola, though the growths may afterwards become infested by the hyphomycete. Bottomley has shown that the similar ‘‘ealls’’ on the roots of bog myrtle are produced by the same bacterium. The work is illustrated by thirty-two plates, of which sixteen are reproductions of excellent colour drawings by Miss M. K. Spittal, and there are also more than thirty text figures. A male spider near the edge of a web in which the female is at the centre. means of identifying the gall-producers which claim his attention, whilst the latter will value the interesting details of insect life-histories. De- scriptions are arranged under the headings of gall- producing insects, and chapters are also devoted to growths produced by mites, nematodes, and fungi. The remaining half of the work is occupied by a very complete catalogue of British plant galls, botanically arranged. In the endeavour to 1 (r) “‘ British Plant-galls.”’ A Classified Text-book of Cecidology. By E. W. Swanton. With Introduc tion by Sir Jonathan Hutchinson, F.R.S., and sixteen coloured plates by Mary K. Spittal. Pp. xv+287. (London: Methuen and Co., Ltd., n.d.) Price 7S. 6d. net. _@) “ Spiderland.” By R.A. Elli With Photographs and Drawings by the Author. Pp. xxii+198. (London: Cassell and Co., Ltd., 1912.) Price 6d. net i ) “Elementary Entomology.” Aur By E. Dwight Sanderson and Prof. C. F. Pp. vii+372. (Boston and London: Ginn and Co., n.d.) Price (4) ‘‘ Butterflies Brown. Pp. 2714 a. net. 2253; and Moths at Home and Abroad.” "3 By H. Rowland- 21 full-page (London: plates. T. Fisher Unwin, 1912.) NO. VOL. 90| From ‘‘ Spiderland.” The author is to be congratulated on a work of great utility and general “excellence: (2 ) To the majority of the human race spiders are repulsive creatures. They are for the most part devoid of that beauty of form and colour which often ensures a favourable reception to other members of the so-called lower creation. He would, however, be a soulless person who, after reading Mr. Ellis’s work, did not regard spiders with respect if not with admiration. As shedding an interesting light on the struggle for existence it is worthy of note that some spiders which resemble ants lay but three or four eggs, whilst less defended orb weavers may lay twelve hundred. We hesitate to cast a doubt on the wonderful reasoning powers, and especially on the great maternal affection, which the author sees so con- JANUARY 2, 1913] NATURE 489 stantly exhibited by his subjects, but we confess that our faith in these attributes is of the weakest. The female Lycosid may carry her own young, but she will also carry any other young family indis- criminately, and the author refrains from telling us that Atypus affinis will devour her own brood should they unduly delay their departure from the parental abode. The elaborate nest once begun by Agelena will be carefully completed aa guarded, whether the eggs are removed or not. Mr. Ellis tells us that his book is primarily intended for young folk, but it will undoubtedly be of interest both to the naturalist and the general reader. (3) In this work the authors have provided a text-book for beginners undertaking a course of elementary entomology. The book is divided into three sections, the structure and growth of in- sects, descriptions of species typical of the orders, and a section containing a series of laboratory exercises, together with a key to the orders and information concerning the apparatus and methods employed in collecting and preserving. We have rarely seen a work in which so large an amount of information is compressed into so small a space, and the text is well and profusely illustrated. Such errors as we have found are but few, and detract little from the general usefulness of the work. The statement that the mouth parts of Lepidoptera are so formed as to preclude injury to vegetation is scarcely correct, since at least two African Noctuids do no small damage to | peaches by piercing the skin and sucking the juices, whilst the Australian Ophideres fullonica attacks oranges, and, as pointed out by Francis Darwin many years ago, has the proboscis specially modified in adaptation to its habits. The statement that all moths are night flyers seems to require some modification. So long as there is no universally accepted classification of the Insecta we must refrain from too great comment on this portion of the work, though we think it would have been better to point out the sexual differences in the tarsi of the Nymphalide and Lycenide, and _ the Erycinide should find a place in even a con- densed table. Compared with the general utility of the work these are, however, but small matters, and will doubtless be amended in a second edition, which we fully expect will soon be required. (4) The author of this work has drawn upon his wide and lengthy experience of collecting to provide an extremely pleasant and _ readable account of a selection of European Lepidoptera. We confess to a feeling of satisfaction that the work tends to lead the young lepidopterist away | from the narrow insularity so long and painfully associated with the old-fashioned British collector. The inflated value often placed on British examples of species which may be pests on the Continent is essentially unscientific. can extend his field to the Continent Mr. Rowland- Brown’s work provides just the information which will awaken and maintain a healthy interest in the subject. NO. 2253, VOL. 90] For the collector who | | whereby it is converted into isoprene, In criticising the coloured plates one must bear in mind the low cost of the volume, and if the figures are not always typical of the best in lithographic art they are at least free from that crudeness of execution which is not always absent from many more costly productions. Whilst we find no fault with the work itself we trust the author’s well-known talents, both as a writer and a naturalist, will soon find expression in a volume of a more advanced type. NATURAL AND SYNTHETIC RUBBER. Apress the above title an interesting address was delivered by Dr. F. Mollwo Perkin before the Society of Arts on December 11. After briefly reviewing the history of the development of the indiarubber industry and the nature of the processes used in extracting the natural product | and in vulcanisation, an account was given of the recent synthetic processes by which the manufac- ture of artificial rubber on the large scale has become a commercial possibility. In the process of the Synthetic Products Co. isoprene is made from fusel oil, which is fractionated so as to give isoamyl alcohol, CH(CHa),-CH,:CH,°OH, which is converted into the chloride, CH(CHs)." CH, CH,:Cl by the action of hydrochloric acid and then into the dichloride C(CHs3)sCl*-CHs*CH.2°Cl by the action of chlorine, under specially controlled con- ditions; the dichloride obtained is passed through a tube heated at 470° and filled with soda-lime, which can be polymerised to rubber by means of small quan- tities of sodium. The only difficulty in the way of this process is the cost of the raw product, amyl! alcohol, which is about r4ol. per ton. On this account, Prof. W. H. Perkin, with E. H, Strange, F. E. Matthews, | and Prof. Fernbach, devised a process for obtaining butyl alcohol cheaply, from which butadiene could be obtained. By the employment of a certain organism, it was found possible to ferment starch, and, more recently, sawdust, so as to obtain butyl alcohol and acetone, the latter being sold, thus cheapening the cost of the butyl alcohol. The butyl alcohol is chlorinated in the same way as the isoamyl alcohol, and by similar treatment with soda lime yields butadiene, CH,;CH-CH:CH,, which on polymerisation gives a ‘rubber which, | although not chemically identical with the poly- merised isoprene, has all the properties of natural rubber in regard to elasticity and behaviour towards sulphur on vulcanisation. An account was also given in the lecture of the processes devised by the firm of Friedrich Bayer, of Elberfeld, and of the interesting fact discovered by Prof. Harries that the presence of a small quan- tity of rubber ozonide very much increases the rapidity of polymerisation of isoprene and its derivatives. In discussing the question of the competition of | natural and synthetic rubber, it is pointed out that “at present prices and with the present supply and j demand there is no reason, provided synthetic 490 NATURE [JANUARY 2, 1913 rubber is as good as natural rubber, why the two should not exist side by side.” But the rubber planter is bidden take heed of the lesson taught by the fate of the natural alizarin and indigo industries and consider possibilities of improving the yield of natural rubber by better methods of tapping, coagulation, the study of agricultural conditions, and possible improvements by fertilisation and the suppression of insect pests, which play havoc with the young trees. It is a significant fact that the Badische Anilin und Soda-Fabrik has agreed to put by 1,000,000l. for research in connection with synthetic rubber, just as nearly 1,000,000l. was expended by the same firm in research before synthetic indigo was placed on the market. MOVEMENTS OF GLACIERS.} HE seventeenth report of the Commission Internationale des Glaciers makes its ap- pearance for the year rg11, in conformity with the decision at the Stockholm meeting, without waiting for laggard documents. We learn from it that on the Swiss Alps the majority of the glaciers are still decreasing, probably in conse- quence of the hot summer of 1911, only three showing signs of an advance, the reason of which remains to be discovered. In the Eastern Alps the observations include eight groups out of twelve, and these show that the fairly general advance of 1910 has not been maintained. In the Italian Alps the retreat, except in a few cases, has been general, as in the previous years, that of the southern end of the Brenva Glacier (Mt. Blanc) having been sixty metres. The report from the French Alps has not yet been received, but it is not likely to differ materially from the others, so that in this chain the diminution which began about half a century ago has now continued considerably longer than the time which was supposed to be its average one. Of the Scandinavian glaciers, four out of the five observed in Sweden show a marked advance. In Norway a larger number has been studied—in Jotunheim twenty-seven, and in different parts of western Norway twenty-three. In the former district only two show an advance, the remainder being in retreat. In the latter about half the Jostedalsbra are moving one way and half the other, but the Okstind (five) and two of the Frostis (three) are advancing. The report, owing to early publication, does not include returns from Russia, Asia, and America, so that general conclusions cannot be drawn; but we may perhaps infer that no marked change is likely to be indicated. The value, however, of summarised systematic observations such as these is very great, because they form the first step— and a very long one—in ascertaining the causes which bring about these periodic oscillations of the ice-streams. Gab: 1 “Les Variations Périodiques des Glaciers.” xvii Rapport, 1911. Rédigé par Charles Rabot et E. Muret. (Extrait des ‘‘ Annales de Glaciologie,” t. vil., pp. 37-47-) (Berlin: Borntraeger Fréres, 1912.) 2253, VOL. 90] ad (e) PROTECTION OF ANCIENT MONUMENTS. HE last report of the Inspector of Ancient Monuments, Mr. C. R. Peers, with an intro- duction by the First Commissioner, Earl Beau- champ, describes the limitations under which the work of the Department is conducted at present. The existing Acts are merely permissive, and the State can exercise no supervision, except with the consent, and indeed by the desire, of the owner. Earl Beauchamp believes that his Department should be invested with the power of intervention when monuments are suffering from neglect, or are threatened with actual damage or destruction, a view in which all antiquaries will concur. Even under the present restrictions much useful work is being done. The most important opera- tions were at Carnarvon Casile in anticipation of the investiture of H.R.H. the Prince of Wales, in the course of which much ancient work was cleared and repaired. At the Chapel Royal, Holy- rood, the discovery of the foundations of an ancient church, with apparently contemporary interments, has disproved the legend that the palace was founded in 1124 on a site till then uninhabited. At the Tower of London the Bell Tower and the turret flanking the Byward Gate had been repaired. At Old Sarum the excavations conducted by the Society of Antiquaries have disclosed the plan of the Castle buildings. Among the most interesting buildings placed in charge of the Department during the year were the Old Machar Cathedral at Aberdeen; the Gate- way Tower of Chester Castle; Richard III.’s Tower at Carlisle; Kirby Muxloe Castle in Leicestershire; and the Bishop’s and Earl’s Palaces at Kirkwall. Good progress has been made in the preparation of the County Inventories of Historical Monu- ments, of which five volumes have been issued, and scientific inquiries are in progress for the prevention of decay in stone-work. It may be hoped that Parliament will soon find time to com- plete the measures for the adequate protection of historical monuments throughout the country. THE NOTES. THE names of few men associated with scientific work appear in the list of New Year Honours. Three fellows of the Royal Society are among the recipients of honours, namely Mr. Francis Darwin, upon whom a knighthood is conferred; Dr. A. G. Bourne, Direc- tor of Public Instruction, Madras, who is made a Knight Commander of the Order of the Indian Em- pire (K.C.1.E.); and Dr. W. R. Dunstan, director of the Imperial Institute, who has been appointed a Companion of the Order of St. Michael and St. George (C.M.G.). Other names of men known in the scientific world are Sir Frank Crisp, a new baronet, for many years treasurer and vice-president of the Linnean Society, and honorary secretary of the Royal Microscopical Society from 1878 to 1889; Dr. R. W. Philip (knighthood), distinguished by his worl: ae or ANUARY 2, I9Q13 J 913 on the etiology and treatment of tuberculosis; Mr. S. Stockman (knighthood), chief veterinary officer to the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries; Dr. W. G. Liston (C.I.E.), director of the Bacteriological Laboratory, Parel, and senior member of the Plague Research Commission; and Prof. P. J. Briihl (1.S.O.), Civil Engineering College, Sibpur. Tue President of the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries has appointed an advisory committee to advise the Board on questions relating to the elucida- tion through scientific research of problems affecting fisheries. The committee will be composed of the following :—Mr. H. G. Maurice, Mr. F. G. Ogilvie, C.B., Commander M. W. C. Hepworth, C.B., Prof. G. C. Bourne, F.R.S., Prof. J. S. Gardiner, F.R.S., Prof. A. Dendy, F.R.S., Prof. W. A. Herdman; F.R.S., Prof. A. Meek, Dr. A. E. Shipley, F.R.S., Dr. E. W. MacBride, F.R.S., Dr. W. Evans Hoyle, Dr. S. F. Harmer, F.R.S., Dr. G. H. Fowler, and Dr. E. J. Allen. Mr. H. G. Maurice, the assistant secretary of the Fisheries Division of the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, will act as chairman of the committee, and Mr. A. T. A. Dobson, of the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, as secretary. Tue Research Defence Society has lately opened a bureau and exhibition at 171 Piccadilly, opposite Burlington House. The windows display a good col- lection of pictures, photographs, charts, and lantern- slides; apparatus for anzsthetics; germs in test- tubes; specimens of tsetse-flies and mosquitoes; books, pamphlets, and leaflets. They serve to remind “the man in the street’’ of the immense importance of experiments on animals to the welfare of mankind, and the great saving of human and animal life and health already achieved. Among the pictures is a large engraving of Fildes’s “‘The Doctor,’’ presented to the society by the artist himself. Leaflets are dis- tributed outside. The bureau is in charge of a young lady, who receives signatures and contribu- tions, and enlists new members and associates. The exhibition is quietly attractive to all passers-by. It is with regret that we have to record the death of Mr. J. Rowland Ward, the well-known taxidermist, which took place at his residence, Restmore, Bos- combe, Hants, on Saturday, December 28, 1912. Mr. Ward, who succeeded to the business started by his father, Henry Ward, was, we believe, the first to raise taxidermy to the rank of a fine art, and to replace the old-fashioned “ stuffing” process by model- ling the form of the animal, and then covering the “manikin”’ with the skin. And not only was he the inventor of this method, but the work of his firm has ever since maintained that high standard of excellence which has rendered the name of Ward famous throughout the world. The deceased gentleman was, indeed, a born artist, possessing almost unrivalled skill in modelling animals, and if his energies had not been otherwise fully occupied there is little doubt that he could have ,attained eminence as a sculptor. In addition to mounting individual animals or their heads, Mr, Ward devoted special attention to big groups of animals, the first of which was a ‘‘ Combat NO. .2253, VOL. 90] NATURE 491 of Red Deer,’ shown at the London International Exhibition of 1871. For this and other exhibits of the same nature, as well as for the excellence of his work as a general taxidermist, Mr. Ward received a number of gold medals and other awards. In addi- tion to his business as a taxidermist, Mr. Ward pub- lished numerous works on big game and sport. He was, moreover, himself an author, and his ‘‘ Records of Big Game” and ‘“‘Sportsman’s Handbook,” which have passed through several editions, are invaluable both to the sportsman and to the naturalist. Mr. Ward leaves a widow, but no family. Tue death is announced, at ninety-one years of age, of Dr. P. Redfern, formerly Regius professor of anatomy and physiology at Queen’s College, Belfast. Mr. J. B. Tyrrett, of Toronto, Canada, a member of the council of the twelfth International Geological Congress, to be held in Toronto in August next, is in London for a short time, stopping at the Hotel Vic- toria, Northumberland Avenue. He asks us to state that while in London he will be glad to furnish in- formation to anyone who purposes to attend the meet- ing of the congress. On Monday, December 23, the millionth visitor to the Zoological Gardens, Regent’s Park, during 1912 passed the turnstile. This is a record attendance, and bears forcible testimony to the appreciation by the public of the improvements which have been effected during the last few years in the gardens. The for- tunate individual who completed the million was awarded a free pass to the gardens for 1913. Mr. Epwarp Tyrer, well known as a telegraphic engineer, and by his inventions in connection with the system of block signalling on railways, died on Christmas night in his eighty-third year. Mr. Tyer was a fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society, and also an associate (1861) of the Institution of Civil Engineers, under its original charter, a member of the Institution of Electrical Engineers, and a fellow of the Royal Microscopical and Geographical Societies. THe Commonwealth Government has _ entrusted Prof. A. J. Ewart, professor of botany in the Univer- sity of Melbourne, with the investigation of the plants collected during the recent Northern Territory explor- ing expedition, and has appointed Dr. A. Morrison, formerly Government Botanist of West Australia, to assist in the work. Dr. Morrison will reach Melbourne shorily, and it is hoped that the material available will be sufficient for the preparation of a flora of the Northern Territory. WE learn from The Times that M. Liard, rector of the University of Paris, announced at a meeting of the council of the University held on December 27 that the Marquise Arconati-Visconti has decided to supplement her previous gift of 20,000]. by a further gift of 20,000]. to be devoted ‘“‘to the benefit of the Faculties of Science and of Letters.” It has been decided to use the money for the erection of an Insti- tute of Geography to be built by the side of the Oceanographical Institute, endowed by the Prince of Monaco. A492 NATURE [JANUARY 2, 1913 The Museum News for December, issued at Brooklyn, New York, gives a full account of the un- rivalled collection of specimens of ancient Chinese cloisonné which has been recently presented to the Central Museum by Mr. S. P. Avery. A complete catalogue of this splendid collection has been prepared by Mr. J. Getz, and is accompanied by a full descrip- tion of the elaborate processes by Mr. S. W. Bushell. Tue November issue of The National Geographic Magazine is remarkable for the large series of excellent coloured photographs which accompany two important articles on modern Russia. The first of these, by Mr. W. W. Chapin, is entitled, ‘‘ Glimpses of the Russian Empire ’’; the second, by Major-General A. W. Greely, on ‘The Land of Promise,’’ gives an interesting account of a journey across Siberia, and describes the enormous bodies of emigrants who are rapidly occupy- ing a region of immense fertility. ‘‘ Slowly but surely,” he observes, ‘‘ the fuller, freer life of Asiatic Russia is bringing into higher and harmonious rela- tions with its environment the godlike soul of man.”’ In L’Anthropoiogie for September—October last, L’Abbé H. Breuil, MM. S. Gomez and C. Aguilo con- tinue their important series of studies of primitive art in the Paleolithic caves of Southern Europe with a description of those recently found at Alpéra, 270 kilo- metres from Madrid. These drawings exhibit several notable peculiarities. They are nearly all representa- tions, probably magical in intention, of hunting scenes, in which the drawings of human figures, usually thin and elongated, with occasionally pronounced steato- pygy, depicting their weapons—bows, arrows, and lances—are peculiarly interesting. In one picture two dames, perhaps of high rank, appear dressed in wide, probably ornamented, petticoats. As some of the figures have been retraced, it is not easy to decide their relation to works of art of the same or similar types, except the conclusion that they probably belong to the earlier Quaternary period. It is to be hoped that this series of valuable contributions to prehistoric archeology will soon be republished in a permanent form and in English. Tue ‘Live Stock Journal Almanack’”’ for 1913 maintains the high level characteristic of that publica- tion, as well as its wealth of pictorial illustration. The contents include nearly sixty articles, notably one by Lord Northbrook on agricultural societies. Others relate to most of the British breeds of horses, cattle, sheep, and pigs. The least satisfactory is one on the relationships of the different breeds of horses and the ancestry of the group, the author evidently possessing but an imperfect acquaintance with his subject. In Naturwissenschaftliche Wochenschrift of Decem- ber 15, 1912, Dr. Killermann-Regensburg gives an account, with illustrations, of pictures of the walrus, the bison, and the ellk by Albert Dtrer. All three are in the Sloane library at the British Museum; those of the bison and ellk having been apparently brought to light but recently by Mr. Harry David, who de- scribed them in the first part of the Jahrbuch der K. NO. 2253, VOL. go] preussischen Kunstsammlungen for 1912. In the early part of the sixteenth century, and indeed up to 1550, bison still survived in Prussia, Hungary, and Sieben- biirge, so that Diirer may well have seen a living example. Apart from prehistoric sketches, his picture is the earliest known portrait of the bison. From the time their existence was recorded by Mr. Boulenger, in 1900, the presence of hair-like appen- dages in the males of certain frogs has been a puzzle to naturalists. A possible clue to their function is suggested by Dr. Bashford Dean in vol. xxxi., art. 29 (pp. 349-351), of the Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History. The suggestion is to the effect that these hairs may serve to retain the coils of spawn in cases where—as in the midwife-toad (Alytes), which does not, however, develop hairs—they are carried on the bodies and thighs of the males. It is mentioned that hair-like vascular structures are developed on the ventral appendages of the lungfish Lepidosiren, which also possesses the brooding habit. To The Victorian Naturalist of November, 1912, Mr. J. A. Kershaw communicates some interesting” particulars with regard to the breeding habits and young of the platypus. Three burrows on the Hopkins River were dug out in the presence of the author, one on October 26, rg1r, and the other two on October 22, 1912. From the first was obtained a female with two recently hatched offspring, and from the others eggs, a pair in one case and a single one in the other. When the first female was taken a young one was clinging to the belly so tightly that some little effort was required to detach it; its fellow had fallen off unobserved when the parent was dragged from the trench. None of the burrows had an entrance below the normal water-level, and in some cases the entrance was so high up on the bank that it would be sub- merged only by very exceptional floods. After the eggs are hatched the female ‘parent remains for some days with the young in the burrow, which she blocks with earth in several places, probably as a protection against flood-water, or possibly against enemies. Messrs. H. E. Jorpan and K. B. Steele have pub- lished an interesting account of their work on the inter- calated discs of heart muscle in The American Journal of Anatomy (vol. xiii., 1912, 151). Mr. H. E. Jordan had reached the conclusion in a previous paper, from his study of the dises in the heart muscle of humming birds, that these discs were not intracellular elements marking cell boundaries as maintained by Zimmer- mann and others. In the present paper, which is a comparative study in the microscopy of cardiac muscle, the authors adduce evidence in support of the con- tention of Mr. Jordan. They maintain that the discs are to be interpreted in terms of local contractions in the muscle fibrils, and that this explanation accounts for the great variety in formation and structure (of the dises) which is found. Further, they hold that the presence of these discs seems to be related in some way to the function of rhythmic contraction which is characteristic of cardiac muscle. In support of this hypothesis they advance the following facts. (1) The discs are absent in the heart of the mammalian foetus, JANUARY 2, 1913] NATURE 493 but they increase in number with age; (2) they are located in lines corresponding roughly with the axes of the heart muscle mesh; (3) they are generally found present in greatest abundance in hearts of rapid beat ; and (4) they are also present in the striated muscle of the media in the proximate (beating) end of the pulmonary arteries; for example, in those of the mouse. We have received the report of the Bristol Museum and Art Gallery Committee for the year ending Sep- tember 30 last, and congratulate the committee and the director on a year of steady progress in all depart- ments. New cases have been provided for the birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fishes, and these groups of vertebrates have been completely re-arranged and placed in their natural place relative to the collections of invertebrates so well exhibited in the Dame Emily Smyth room, opened last year. This work completes the re-organisation of the zoological galleries, which must now rank as some of the most attractive in the provinces. A scheme for the reorganisation of the geological and mineralogical collections has been pre- pared, but cannot be carried out in its entirety until new cases are provided. We hope that the appeai made in this report will meet with an adequate response, for the collections contain much valuable material, e.g., the series of Coal Measure fossils from the Bristol and Somerset coal beds, which, as pointed out in this report, is most complete, and must, for some time, remain unique owing to many of the mines having been closed down since they were collected. It is gratifying to note the increased use which has been made of the museum by students and by teachers and pupils of schools. The committee is alive to the educational value of museums and art galleries, and it is a pleasure to record the success which has attended its efforts to make the institution a real educational asset to the city. Dr. Fettx Oswatp recently presented to the Royal Geographical Society an account of his journey last winter from the Victoria Nyanza to the Kisii high- lands. His primary object was to ascertain the geological nature of the locality where Mr. D. B. Pigott, shortly before his unfortunate death while hunting, found a jaw-bone of Dinotherium. Dr. Oswald, however, also investigated considerable areas of unmapped country in the Kavirondo and Kisii dis- tricts, and reconnoitred in the extensive tracts left uninhabited through the ravages of sleeping-sickness. He has also carefully studied the natives of the country east of the Victoria Nyanza, and made many references to the beautiful flora of the region. He drew a com- parison between the successful ruling of this large and recently hostile country by a handful of Englishmen with the domination of the Romans in Britain, and described with welcome appreciation the way in which the land is governed by the district commissioner, two officers and a doctor, living at Kisii, which was chosen as the administrative centre as being outside the range of the tsetse-fly. Dr. Oswald has brought back col- lections of fossils, Neolithic implements, insects, shells, and certain plants, besides geological and topographical NO. 2253, VOL. 90] maps, and photographs—all as the result of only two months’ work in the field. Ir from the vertices of a triangle perpendiculars be drawn on a straight line, and if from their feet perpendiculars be drawn on the opposite sides, these perpendiculars meet in a point called the orthopole. Mr. W. Gallatly has published a short pamphlet on the properties of the orthopole, based partly on Prof. Neuberg’s work and partly on his own. His address is 5 Hampton Place, St. Marychurch, Torquay. Messrs. B. G. Teusner, of Leipzig, have forwarded their new catalogue of works on mathematics and natural philosophy, comprising books issued by them in these departments between April, 1908, and July, 1912. The catalogue is beautifully got up, and con- tains portraits of Leonard Euler as well as of the principal contributors to the Mathematical Encyclo- peedia and other publications. Tue use of algebraic formule for indicating the prices of goods in an actual price list appears to be somewhat of an innovation, but it has been introduced into the new catalogue of spectroscopic apparatus issued by Messrs. Adam Hilger, Ltd., of 75a Camden Road. A feature of greater importance is the excellence of the descriptions and illustrations of the apparatus with which the catalogue deals. SUPPLEMENT No. 25, vol. xi., of the Communications from the Physical Laboratory at Leyden (this supple- ment being a reprint of article V. 10 of the Encyklo- padie der Mathematischen Wissenschaften), by Prof. H. Kamerlingh Onnes and Dr. W. H. Keesom, con- sists of a most elaborate and extensive monograph on the equation of state. Together with its exhaustive references to the original literature, its table of con- tents and its author and subject indexes, this mono- graph forms a most valuable addition to science, and will be heartily welcomed by all workers in physics and physical chemistry. Prof. Kamerlingh Onnes is the recognised authority in this field of investigation, a position which he has won by thirty years of continuous and systematic theoretical and experimental work. It would be natural, therefore, to expect that this volume (extending to nearly 350 pages) would contain a masterly treatment of the subject, and it may be said at once that an examination of its contents more than justifies the expectation. The subject is discussed from every possible aspect, and includes a very full treatment of the theoretical as well as the experimental side of the problem. For many years to come the present mono- graph will be an indispensable work of reference for every physicist and chemist. We have also received Communications Nos. 127, 130, and Supplement No. 25 to Communications Nos. 121-132. These deal with researches on the isotherms of diatomic gases and their binary mixtures, on the second virial coefficient for diatomic gases, and on the Hall effect and changes in resistance in metals and alloys at low temperatures. ‘AN article on ‘‘ The Essential Oils,’’ including an account of the materials and methods of perfumery, 494 NATURE [JANUARY 2, 1913 is contributed to Knowledge for December by Mr. H. F. Slack. Written in a popular style, it still con- tains a large array of accurate technical information, which will provide profitable reading for the trained chemist as well as for the lay reader. Unper the unassuming title of ‘‘ Studies of Chinese Wood Oil, S-Elaeostearic Acid,’ Dr. R. S. Morrell describes in the Chemical Society’s Journal a series of experiments which represent the starting-point of a new era in the study of ‘‘drying oils.’’ This particular oil, when exposed to light, deposits a crystalline glyceride (C,,H,,O,),C,H,, which absorbs oxygen with extreme facility, and possesses all the essential pro- perties of a drying oil. But on account of its high melting-point, 61-62° C., it can be separated ina state of chemical purity, and provides for the first time a homogeneous material for the accurate scientific study of the ‘‘drying’’ process. The free acid of the glyceride and five of its salts are described in the paper. unlike the glyceride, does not possess the property of setting. EXCEPTIONAL interest attaches to Prof. Kipping’s papers on organic derivatives of silicon, issued in the November. number of the Chemical Society’s Journal. The most recent papers deal with silicane-diols of the type SiX,(OH),. These compounds possess in a remarkable degree the property of forming anhydrides. Thus diphenylsilicanediol, SiPh,(OH),, gives com- pounds such as the diols— HO.SiPh,.O.SiPh,.OH, HO.SiPh,.O.SiPh,.O.SiPh,.OH, and the oxides— SiPhy.O~ SiPh,.O.SiPhox O. These are formed by the removal of water from two, three, three and four molecules of the original diol. Such compounds are undoubtedly typical of a tend- ency amongst silicon compounds to form chains and rings of alternate silicon and oxygen atoms, which are nearly as stable as the ‘‘all-carbon”’ chains of organic chemistry. This tendency serves to explain the prolific character of oxidised silicon, which gives rise to derivatives only less complex than the carbon-com- pounds of organic chemistry. On December 18 Mr. W. J. A. Butterfield delivered a lecture on coal gas before the Institute of Chemistry, at University College, London. The re- quirements of a public gas supply were first discussed, the principal points being minimum cost per heat unit, strong smell to facilitate detection of leaks, a luminous flame, and innocuous combustion products. The growth and magnitude of the gas industry here and abroad were then dealt with, the world’s production of town gas in 1912 being estimated at 620,000 million cubic feet, for the production of which about 60 million tons of coal would be consumed. As by-products, 30 million tons of coke, 3 million tons of tar, together with ammoniacal products equivalent to about 550,000 tons of sulphate of ammonia, NO. 2253, VOL. 90] It is a remarkable fact that the ethyl ester, © would: be sold. As regards the annual consumption of gas per head of population, London heads the list with more than 8000 cubic feet. The predominant use of gas at the present day was stated to be for heating purposes. From this point of view present-day requirements of a gas supply in this country were characterised by (1) a gross calorific power of 540 to 580 B.T.U. per cubic foot; (2) specific gravity between 04 and 0-5; (3) oxygen required for complete combustion to be between 1-0 and 1-1 volumes of the coal gas, but the fluctuations in each of these to be restricted within narrow limits for any one district. Messrs. WILLIAMS AND NorGATE have just pub- lished the first number (January) of The British Review, with which is incorporated The Oxford and Cambridge Review. The aim is stated to be “to provide a periodical that shall be in the forefront of the world’s movements, showing what there is to observe in mental and moral advancement.’’ Among the articles in the January issue are :—*My Vicws regarding True and False Science,” by Count Leo Tolstoy; ‘‘ Bristol University and Some Reforms,” by Mr. F. M. Atkinson; and “Huxley and the Catholic ae by Mr. Cecil Chesterton. OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. ASTRONOMICAL OCCURRENCES FOR JANUARY :— Jan. 5. 2h. 37m. Mercury in conjunction with the Moon (Mercury 5° 41’ N.). » 7h. 36m. Mars in conjunction with © the Moon (Mars 4° 25/ N.). 5, 5h. 34m. Jupiter in conjunction with the Moon (Jupiter 5° 8. 4h. 27m. Uranus in conjunction with the Moon (Uranus 4° 4’ N.). g. 7h. 32m. Mercury in conjunction Mars (Mercury 0° 47’ N.). lo. 22h. 29m. Venus in conjunction with the Moon (Venus 1° 28’ N.). Ir. 3h. 4m. Mercury in conjunction Jupiter (Mercury 0° 13’ S.). 13. gh. 35m. Mars in conjunction with Jupiter (Mars 0° 47’ S.). 14. 20h. om. Neptune at opposition to the Sun. 7. 18h. 46m. Saturn in conjunction with the Moon (Saturn 6° 14’ S.). 21. 14h. 7m. Neptune in conjunction with the Moon (Neptune 5° 24’ S.). 23. 4h. om. Uranus in conjunction with the Sun. 8. 20h. om. Saturn stationary. I. igh. 30m. Mercury in conjunction Uranus (Mercury 1° 23/ S.). A Bricut Mereor REPORTED.—Two correspondents of The Daily Dispatch (December 21) report the ap- pearance of what was probably a meteor of exceptional brilliancy at 10.50 p.m. on December 18. One de- scribes it as a long, brilliant, bluish light, ‘‘ about thirty yards long,”’ and tapering to the ‘‘ tail,’’ around which was a peculiar pale golden glow. Stationed at Handforth, a village about nine miles due south of Manchester, this observer saw the meteor in the southern sky, and states that it appeared to fall slightly during its flight, which lasted eight seconds. The second observer states that the sky was so poor that no stars were visible from where he was, although the moon shone through the mist, yet the meteor was with with with JANUARY 2, 1913] NATURE oe) so bright as to remind him of a great rocket. He describes it as a great white light, with a brilliant head and a long, spreading, and shimmering tail, which cut its way across the whole expanse of the sky. From his position in Manchester the meteor appeared to travel in a direction slightly north of west from a point not far from south. Further details of this phenomenon should prove of interest. EPHEMERIS FOR GALE’s COMET, I9g12a.—In No. 4618 of the Astronomische Nachrichten, Dr. Ebell pub- lishes a daily ephemeris, extending to February 5, 1913, for Gale’s comet. The comet is now high up in Draco, and is reported to have a nucleus of magnitude jo or 11. The following is an extract from Dr. Ebell’s ephemeris, which is based on the elements published in Lick Observatory Bulletin No. 218 :— Ephemeris 12 h. (M.T. Berlin). 1912-13 ee) 6 (true) log x log A Mag. . m. e 1 Dec. 27 3. Eyu7sor. 64 5455) .-..Or22nbiees O'N374 ... 8! 31 a. elyegor0)--. +68) 14-5 -.410;2380)2--) O-1426 ... 8:6 Jan: 4 ... 17 455 ..-. +71 34°9 ... 072529 ... O'1490 ... 8°8 S ee smesioer 4:74 51:8) ..or2bogmeOrN505:... o:9 (2) LONSGulee-wt7o) 1 Ol O27 02m OsTOOT -..) 9.0 16 .:. 19/2071 --, +80 53°9 -.. O:200'7) ... O71766).... .9°1 THE SPECTRUM OF Nova GEMINORUM, No. 2. Having secured a number of photographs of the spectrum of Nova Geminorum, No. 2, Messrs. Adams and Kohlschutter give their measures and discussion of the radiations in No. 4, vol. xxxvi., of The Astro- physical Journal. The plates were taken with the Cassegrain spectrograph attached to the large reflector (80-foot focus) at Mount Wilson, and cover the period March 22-May 27. During this period considerable changes took place in the spectrum of the nova, and these are discussed at some length in the paper: the chief nebula line, A 5007, was first certainly seen on April 6. The authors have measured some hundreds of apparently dark and bright lines in the spectrum, and give observed wave-lengths for four groups of nega- tives, each group covering a definite period; thus in addition to the wave-lengths for the centres of the bright bands they give wave-lengths for the dark lines which some observers consider to be only parts of the structure phenomena of the bright bands. Generally speaking, the wave-lengths for the centres of the latter agree fairly well with those determined from the Madrid spectra, and published in Narure on April 25 (No. 2217, vol. 89, p. 201), and, possibly, might bear the same interpretation. Ten wave-length values of bright bands are given as reasonably identified with helium lines, although it is somewhat difficult to see, from the list of observed wave-lengths, exactly the type of line, or band, some of them represent. The presence of radioactive substances in the nova’s atmo- sphere is not indicated by the Mount Wilson photo- graphs, and the authors consider that the presence of nitrogen, as suggested by Mr. Wright in the case of Nova Lacertz, is probable but scarcely proven. The widths and displacements of the bright and dark hydrogen lines are also discussed, and the paper is accompanied by reproductions of a number of excellent spectrograms. OBSERVATIONS OF SaTURN.—L’Astronomie — for December contains the results of some observations of Saturn made by M. J. Camus, with the Mailhat equa- torial of o'1q m. aperture, at the French Astronomical Society’s observatory, on November 7. M. Camus used a power of 230, and he reports that, in front of the planet, the exterior edge of the crape ring showed NO. 2253, VOL. 90| | adjustments when the instrument is moved. marked irregularities appearing in profile as grey patches on the yellowish background of the globe. He was also able to recognise the various tints of the same ring. IMPROVEMENTS IN MICROSCOPES. Gene time ago (NarurE, December 14, 1911) we referred to several improvements which Messrs. Beck had introduced into their microscopes, and we noted especially the *‘handle’’ model as one in which all risk of damage is avoided to the working parts and Messrs. Beck now inform us that they have revised the make of their well-known “London microscope"’ on the handle model. In addition to this, the base and pillar are so designed that although the Continental model has been retained, the position of the centre of the inclining joint has been so placed as to give greater stability when the instrument is in a horizontal posi- tion, whilst not interfering with its vertical rigidity, and the size of the base has been increased to that of their large models to insure perfect steadiness under all conditions. The stage is square and specially large, measuring 4 in. in each direction. The coarse adjustment is by a spiral rack and pinion, so accu- rately fitted that even comparatively high powers can be focussed thereby. The fine adjustment is of the lever type. The adjustment is obtained by a fine micrometer screw actuating a supplementary pointed rod which impinges upon a hardened steel block work- ing upon the lever. The body tube is 140 mm. long, with a graduated draw tube, in a carefully packed fitting, which extends to a length of 200 mm. We have received a catalogue of microscopes from | Messrs. W. Watson and Sons, 313 High Holborn, W.C., in which the well-known instruments manu- factured by this firm are fully described. Their micro- scopes are British, both in design and construction, with the result that such points as a tripod foot to ensure rigidity in any position, and sprung fittings with adjusting screws to compensate for wear and tear, are insisted on. On the optical side, perhaps no firm has devoted more attention than Messrs. Wat- son to the substage condenser. In this connection it is noteworthy that they are now supplying an aplana- tised Abbe illuminator, which has an aplanatic cone of 065 N.A., that is, o15 N.A. in excess of the ordinary type, its total N.A. being 120.- At the price of 17s. 6d. such an appliance is obtainable by all microscopists, and will substantially increase the utility of any optical combination. It is interesting to see that such an improvement in substage illuminators is called for; at least it is reasonable to infer that such a demand has arisen. If it indicates that the average microscopist is at last awaking to the fact that in this direction he has the power greatly to increase the pos- sibilities of his instrument, even if it is of a simple form, then there is much hope in the future for micro- scopy. There is another matter of interest referred to in the catalogue. Messrs. Watson are now providing, under the designation *1/12 in., an objective which is really a 1/14 in. They state that many of the 1/12 in. lenses produced by other makers have really the mag- nification of a 1/14 in., so they determined to supply objectives of similar power. Tested with a Reichert 1/12 and a Leitz 1/16, the magnification of the new lens. is half-way between the two. Its N.A. 130 and its wonderful definition enable it to resolve difficult test objects. The dots of Surirella gemma, for instance, are easily seen with oblique illumination, and the definition is good enough to Ago NATURE [JANUARY 2, 1913 allow them to be seen, as dots, under a magnification of more than 3000. The colour correction leaves little to be desired, Carpenter’s deal test has been applied, but no more than a very feeble trace of colour has been seen in any of the rings. This lens will be a valuable addition to a battery of objectives, and when its actual magnification is taken into account accurate statements of the actual power used can be made. PRIZE AWARDS OF THE PARIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. | president of the Paris Academy of Sciences has announced the prizes awarded for the year 1912 as follows :-— Geometry.—Grand prize of the mathematical sciences divided between Pierre Boutroux (3000 francs), Jean Chazy (2000 francs), and René Garnier (2000 francs); the Francoeur prize to Emile Lemoine, for the whole of his mathematical works; the Poncelet prize to Edmond Maillet. Mechanics.—The Montyon prize to Ad. Doutre, for his inventions in connection with the stability of aéro- planes; the Fourneyron prize between G. Eiffel (1000 francs), for his experiments on the resistance of the air, and Armand de Gramont (700 francs), for his books on aérodynamics; the Boileau prize to A. Lafay, for his experimental studies on various problems con- cerning the action of the wind on solid bodies. Navigation.—The extraordinary prize for the Navy between M. Le Page (2000 francs), Captain Ronarch (2000 francs), and M. Marbec (2000 francs) ; the Plumey prize between Victor Garnier (2000 francs), for his invention of a periscope for use in submarine naviga- tion, and Henri Fabre (2000 francs), for his studies on the hydroaéroplane. Astronomy.—The Lalande prize between H. Kobold and C. W. Wirtz, for their work on the determination of the motion of nebula; the Valz prize to A. Schau- masse, for his observations on comets; the Janssen medal (astronomy) to M. Perot, for the application of interference methods to the study of the solar spec- trum; the Pierre Guzman prize was not awarded. Geography.—The Tchihatchef prize to the Duke of the Abruzzi, for the results obtained in his expedition to the Himalayas; the Binoux prize to M. Fichot, for his geodesic researches; the Delalande-Guérineau prize to Captain Tilho, for his geographical work in Central Africa; the Gay prize was not awarded, but Lieut.- Col. Delauney receives an honourable mention. Physics.—The Hébert prize to M. Houllevigue, for his researches in magnetism and thermoelectricity ; the } Anatomy and Zoology—The Da Gama Machado prize to J. Duesberg, for work relating to spermato- | genesis of mammals; the Thore prize to Antoine Grouvelle, for his work on the Coleoptera; the Savigny prize to Louis German, for his researches on the malacological fauna of tropical Africa. Medicine and Surgery.—Montyon prizes (2500 francs each) to VY. Pachon, for his memoirs relating to the measurement of arterial pressure in man, Charles Nicolle, for his work on exanthematic typhoid, and O. Josué, for his researches on arterio-sclerosis; men- tions (1500 francs each) are accorded to H. Carré, M. Mathis and M. Léger, and Etienne Ginestous; cita- tions are accorded to Jean Troisier, Henri Claude and Stephen Chauvet, Albert Sézary, A. Magitot, Louis Renon, Noél Fiessinger, Georges Schreiber; the Barbier prize to Eugéne Léger, for his pharmaco- | logical researches; the Breant prize was not awarded, but the arrears of interest were divided between C. J. Finlay (2500 francs) and A. Agramonte (2500 francs), for their work on the relation of mosquitoes to the | propagation of yellow fever; the Godard prize to ' to Mme. Jacques Parisot, for his work on the functions of the. kidney and the suprarenal capsules; the Baron Larrey prize to Dr. Troussaint, for his memoir on the direc- tion of the sanitary service in war, very honourable mentions being accorded to Ch. Teissier, M. Talon, R. Pigache and M. Worms, A. Conor; the Bellion prize Banda-Legrain, for her work against alcoholism, J. Cavaillé receiving an honourable men- tion; the Mége prize is not awarded, the arrears of interest being given to Mme. Long-Landry, for her researches on Little’s disease. Physiology.—A Montyon prize (experimental physio- logy) to Paul Portier, for his studies on the digestive zymases, very honourable mentions being accorded to Max Kollmann, Théodore Rosset, and Jules Glover; the Philipeaux prize divided between E. F. Terroine and Marcel Lisbonne; the La Caze prize (physiology) to E. Wertheimer, for the whole of his work in physiology; the Martin-Damourette prize to Maurice Arthus, for his researches on the physiology of snake poisons; the Lallemand prize between Gabriel Petit and Léon Marchand, for their memoir on the com- parative pathology of the nervous system, and | Giuseppe Sterzi, for his work on the nervous system Hughes prizes to Arnaud de Gramont, for his spectro- | scopic work; the La Caze prize to Marcel Brillouin, for the whole of his researches in physics. Chemistry.—The Jecker prize to M. Bourquelot, for his work on the chemistry of plants and plant fer- ments; the Montyon prize (unhealthy trades) to Paul Adam, for his work on the reduction of nuisance in the manufacture of superphosphate and his improvements in the storage of petrol and other dangerously in- flammable liquids; the Cahours prize between Mme. Ramart-Lucas, Paul Clausmann, and M. Ostwald; the La Caze prize (chemistry) to M. Urbain, for his researches on the rare earths. Mineralogy and Geology.—The Victor Paulin prize to Henri Arsandaux, for his chemical and petro- graphical work on silicate rocks. A Botany.—The Desmaziéres prize to Elie and Emile Marchal, for their work on mosses ; the Montagne prize between Mme. Paul Lemoine (1000 frances) and H. Collin (s00 francs); the de Coincy prize to Camille Servettaz, for his monograph on the Eleagnacee. NO. VOL. 90] OIG, reli AO fro JE) of the vertebrates; the Pourat prize to F. Maignon, for his experiments on the function of albumen as a food. Statistics.—A Montyon prize (statistics) between Henri Auterbe (Soo francs), Louis de Goy (600 franes), M. Janselme and M. Barré (300 francs), and Broquin Lacombe (300 francs). History of the Sciences.—The Binoux prize to J. L. Heiberg, for his works on the history of mathematics; an additional prize (1000 francs) to Marcel Landrieux, for his book on the life and work of Lamarck. General Prizes.—The Arago medal to Prince Roland Bonaparte; Berthelot medals to M. Bourquelot, Paul Adam, M. Clausmann, M, Ostwald, and Mme. Ramart-Lucas; the Gegner prize (400 francs) to J. H. Fabre; the Lannelongue prize between Mme. Cusco and Mme. Riick; the Gustave Roux prize to Armand Billard; the Trémont prize to Charles Frémont; the’ Wilde prize to M. Ferrié, for his work in the develop- ment of wireless telegraphy; the Lonchampt prize between M. Grimbert (2000 francs), M. Bagros (1000 francs), and Jules Wolff (rooo francs); the Saintour prize to Maurice Langeron (with 2000 francs), and a mention (with r1ooo francs) to Will Darvillé; the Bordon prize is not awarded, but R. Robinson receives an encouragement (2000 francs); the Houllevigue prize between Henri Lebesgue (3000 francs) and M. ad JANUARY 2, 1913] NATURE 497 Taveau (2000 francs); the Caméré prize to M. Gisclard; the Jerome Ponti prize to Georges Rouy, for his researches in systematic botany; the Leconte prize between Charles Tellier (8000 francs) and M. Forest (12,000 francs); the prize founded by Mme. la Marquise de Laplace to Jules Adolphe Menj; the prize founded by M. Félix Rivot between J. A. Menj, JF. G. Daval, R. G. R. Mabilleau, and R. E. Bollack. THE TIN MINES OF NEW SOUTH WALES.} ae more rapid growth of the demand for tin than of the supply, and the disappointing failure of aluminium to replace tin for many purposes for which it was hoped to prove an efficient substitute, have led to the more careful study of the tin fields of the world and to an increase in the tin production by about a third in the first decade of this century. Mr. J. E. Carne has added a monograph on the tin mines of New South Wales to the series of valuable monographs with which he has enriched the economic geology of Australia. The monograph is careful and exhaustive, and shows the author’s combined caution and insight. It consists mostly of detailed descriptions of the tin mines and miriing fields, and the economic problems naturally receive greater attention than the theoretical. There is, however, an interesting discussion of the genesis of tin ores, and the account of the mines is often enriched with suggestions of general interest. Economic questions are especially important in con- | nection with.a metal which is subject to such violent fluctuations in value, for the price of tin on the London market has varied since 1905 between 120l. and its pre- sent price of 230/. per ton. The association of tin with pegmatite veins has led to its being often claimed as one of the metals most likely to be of direct igneous origin; but Mr. Carne rejects the view that the tin in some granites was a primary constituent of the granite, and has been collected into veins as a direct differentiation product. He lays stress on the evidence which points to the deposition of the tin after the complete consolidation of the granite. The New South Wales tin deposits are, however, not of the kind for which there is most to be said for the igneous theory. Mr. Carne gives a list of seventy- seven tin veins in New South Wales, and in sixty- nine of these the tin is associated with quartz, in twenty-nine with chlorite, in twenty with felspar, and in only three with tourmaline. The rarity of the association with tourmaline suggests that tin in New South Wales is not a pneumatolytic product. The first record of tin in Australia which Mr. Carne accepts as authentic was in 1824. Actual tin- mining in New South Wales only began in 1872. Since 1875 the largest field—Emmaville—has yielded about 52,000 tons, and the Tingha field has yielded slightly less (45,500 tons). The tin mines in New South Wales include both alluvial deposits and lodes. The lodes belong to a type in which the distribution of the tin is sporadic and the patches of ore become smaller and poorer in depth. The deepest tin mine in Australia is the Vulcan Mine in North Queensland, which has already attained the depth of 1400 ft. The deepest in New South Wales is only 360 ft., and Mr. Carne’s account of the lodes renders this fact not surprising. J. W. G. 1 “The Tin-mini stry istributi in Ores in New South Wales.” By J. ©, Carne’ (New South Wales Depaimon nian Geological Survey, Mineral Resources No, 14.) Pp. 378+-xxxiii plates+8 figs. --14 maps and sections+iii maps in portfolio. (Sydney, rort.) NO. 2253, VOL. 90] OSMOTIC PRESSURE AND THE THEORY OF SOLUTIONS. TTENTION may be directed to a paper by Prof. A. Findlay on osmotic pressure and the theory of solutions, which has recently been published in Scientia. It has sometimes been suggested that the problems of osmotic pressure were solved once for all by van’t Hoff’s discovery that the gas equation PV=RT could be applied to solutions by substituting ““osmotic pressure”? for ‘‘ gas pressure.’’ But the recent exact measurements of the Earl of Berkeley and Mr. Hartley in England and of Morse and his colleagues in America have shown clearly that this simple equation is so restricted that it cannot in practice be applied with any approach to accuracy in the case of any of those solutions of which the osmotic pressures have been exactly measured. As Prof. Findlay points out, the first limitation to the equation PV=RT, when applied to solutions, is that the method used in deducing it only holds good for very dilute solutions. For stronger solutions the equation P= = = ve becomes RT RTf P ua { log, (1 x)} Ti 7 + 32% +425, &e. where V, is the molecular volume of the solute and x is the molar ratio, i.e. the ratio of the number of molecules of solute to the total number of molecules present. This equation assumes that there is no forma- tion of complex molecules, no change of energy or volume on mixing the liquid solvent and solute, and that the solution is incompressible. G. N. Lewis has shown that it holds good in a marvellous way when applied to vapour pressure measurements in mixtures of propylene bromide and ethylene bromide at 85°. But even this equation fails to represent with any approach to accuracy the measured osmotic pres- sures of cane-sugar solutions. Better results are obtained by assuming the formation of a hydrate of the sugar, but it is abundantly clear that van’t Hoff’s equation is only the beginning and not the end of the quantitative study of osmotic pressure, and that direct measurements of this property are still of the highest importance in studying the theory of solutions. ENGINEERING AT THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION. GLANCE at the proceedings of the Mechanical Science Section shows that a wide range of subjects was considered by the members, and, indeed, much planning was required to group the papers in such a way that all could be read and adequately discussed, and every moment of the available time was fully occupied in carrying out the longest programme of recent years. In the course of his presidential address on the Thursday morning, Prof. Barr discussed the relation of the engineer to the public, both from a utilitarian and an zsthetic point of view, and by aid of many illustra- tions of modern engineering achievements he again and again enforced his main argument that the main- tenance of a high ideal in all engineering work was necessary to obtain the highest good for the greatest number. Such illustrations as the attainment of dustless roads, smokeless factories, ships, and locomotives, and the abandonment of all sham decoration of engineering structures gave point to an address which was free 498 NATURE [JANUARY 2, 1913 from technicalities and permeated by a dry, literary humour of its own. The address was followed by an important report, the fifth of the Gaseous Explosions Committee, which dealt chiefly with the radiation effects and the turbu- lent motion of the gas charge in the cylinders of internal combustion engines. In this account of a large amount of new work carried out by different members, the committee shows that turbulence plays a most important part in determining the time of ignition of the charge in high-speed engines, such as are now used for motor-cars and aeroplanes, while it also has a large effect on heat loss, although at very high explosion temperatures the radiation effect is of chief importance. In connection with this paper Prof. Harold Dixon confirmed some of the results of the committee’s work in his account of the experiments on coal dust explosions at Eskmeals conducted for the Home Office. Prof. Thornton also described his experiments on the igniton of gaseous mixtures by momentary arcs, and indicated the safe limits for operating electrical machinery in coal mines containing inflammable gases. An important discussion with Section A on wireless telegraphy commenced the proceedings on the Friday morning. This joint meeting afforded an animated discussion in which a number of speakers representing both sections took part. A summary of the chief matters of interest has already appeared in these columns (December 12, p. 421), and it only remains to mention that this meeting was the most successful joint gathering of these sections in recent years. A paper immediately following, by Dr. Eccles and Mr. A. J. Makower, dealt with the production of elec- trical oscillations with spark-gaps immersed in running liquids. Although it appears that the efficiencies are about the same as that of an ordinary spark-gap in air, yet the former have the advantage of being prac- tically noiseless, a matter of some importance in large- powered wireless stations. The impedance of telephone receivers was also dis- cussed in a paper by Profs. Kennelly and Pierce, and the effect of the motion of the diaphragm was analysed in some detail. Another electrical paper of great interest was con- tributed by Prof. J. T. Morris, who described a method of measuring wind velocities by the aid of a small bare wire Wheatstone bridge having arms of manganin and platinum. The cooling effect of a current of air has no influence on the resistance of the manganin, but it lowers the resistance of the platinum, and an increased current is therefore required to effect a balance. This change of current is a measure of the velocity of flow of the air, as the author demonstrated by lecture experiments. A discussion on the gas turbine, at the commence- ment of the Monday meeting, was opened by Dr. Dugald Clerk, who described the attempts which have been made in recent years to construct a successful gas turbine. In particular, the performance of the large turbine recently constructed by Herr Hans Hobzwarth was analysed in some detail. Unfortunately, Herr Hobzwarth was, at the last moment, prevented from attending the discussion, and the details of his latest improvements were not available. An interesting group of papers dealing with motor- car and aviation problems was headed by a contribu- tion from Sir John H. A. Macdonald, K.C.B., F.R.S., on ‘*The Road Problem,’”’ in which he described the road-making methods of Macadam and Telford, and the modern attempts to obtain a dustless and prac- NO. 2253, VOL. 90] tically indestructible road suitable for motor vehicles. Various interesting experiments on the acceleration and tractive power of motor-cars were described by Mr. Wimperis, who, in the absence of the author, Prof. Chatley, also gave a summary of a paper on the control of aeroplanes. The results of experiments at the East London College on the distribution of pressure on inclined aerocurves were also described by Mr. A. P. Thurston. A considerable portion of the sitting on the Tuesday was devoted to naval problems, and the first paper was a notable contribution on the suction between passing vessels by Prof. Gibson, of University College, Dundee, and Mr. Thompson, the engineer of the Dundee Harbour Trust. Numerous experiments were made with a fair-sized steam yacht, and a 30-foot motor-boat running on parallel courses at speeds of about six knots, and these showed that suction was considerable, and rapid in action at lateral distances of less than roo feet. Prof. Henderson discussed problems in propulsion by the aid of energy systems moving with the pro- pelled body, and Mr. Mavor described some large new vessels fitted with his system of electrical transmission, and showed the advances made since his paper of last year. Mr. Axel Welin also described his system of lifeboat lowering and raising gear, which is now being fitted to numerous passenger vessels. Papers relating to the testing of materials were taken on the concluding morning. Prof. Coker described some optical determinations of the distribution of stress in plate and coiled springs, and also the results of stress determinations by thermo- electric methods. These latter have an advantage in that they depend on the sum of the principal stresses at a point, while optical measurements determine the difference, and a combination of both methods was advocated in certain cases. Mr. Haigh described an ingenious electro-magnetic machine for obtaining repetitions of stress at fre- quencies up to 120 per second, and Mr. Larard showed some very fine kinematograph films of the fracture of torsion specimens. Papers by Prof. Petavel and Dr. Lander were also read during the meeting, describing experiments on heat transmission, in which attention was directed to the large convection losses of steam-pipe coverings. Mr. R. S. Whipple described a Féry bomb calori- meter in which the rise of temperature due to com- bustion is measured by thermo-couples, and the heat- ing effect is absorbed by the metal, no water being employed. Dr. Gray and Mr. Burnside gave an interesting demonstration of their motor gyroscopes, and Prof. Wilson gave an account of some exposure tests of aluminium alloys, while Dr. Wall discussed the ques- tion of hysteresis loss in iron due to pulsating and rotating magnetic fields. Mr. T. Reid described a new form of rescue apparatus for coal mines, and Dr. Owens contributed a paper on the weathering of Portland stone. The section was well attended throughout, and the discussions were well sustained. During the proceed- ings the section heartily congratulated Sir William White, K.C.B., F.R.S., a past-president of the section, on his election to the presidency of the Association for the Birmingham meeting next year. It is interest- ing to recall that in the last twenty-five years two other distinguished engineers, Sir Frederick Bramwal and Sir Douglas Galton, have filled the presidential chair. GG: JANUARY 2, 1913 | NATURE 499 LORD LISTERS Introductory Remarks. T is said that the Egyptian kings, after death, had to undergo a trial before they were embalmed. Our great men appear to be similarly arraigned, as their character and attainments are brought to judgment by the lesser ones of earth, who bear testimony con- cerning them, weighing them in their own balance, each to his entire satisfaction. The reputation of the smaller great men may be affected by this judgment. The reputation of the truly great lies beyond the reach of blame or praise, and lives on in history after all those who have weighed them have been forgotten. Such was Lister. Unlike the Egyptian kings, however, Lister was tried during life. His struggle with disease and with the mind of his fellow-men, though long and severe, was ultimately successful, and the great good achieved by the adoption of his methods was universally acknowledged. Whilst yet in the autumn of his life he was able to look on at the spread of the antiseptic system over ever-widening areas, and to rest in the consciousness that he had accomplished a great work for the good of mankind. It would be out of place here to lay before you in their order the honours and titles showered upon Lister in the latter period of his life, or to refer to the impressive ceremony on the occasion of his funeral in the fane of the immortals—Westminster Abbey— save to remind you that, though the Abbey was open to receive his remains, the true man was shown in him when he directed that his body should be laid where his dust would mingle with the ashes of one he loved, and who had been his constant companion and helpmate during the most active portion of his life. Lister's Early Days. His Father, Joseph Jackson Lister. Lister was blessed in his earlier days by excellent environment, well suited to one who was about to follow a scientific career. His father, Joseph Jackson Lister, was a man of outstanding scientific merit. He left school at four- teen years of age, to assist his parent at the wine trade, in London, and though for many years closely tied down to business, he yet contrived, by early rising and otherwise, to gain free hours in which to supple- ment the education received at school, which, though sound, was insufficient for his needs. He was thus, in many respects, a self-taught man. He possessed extreme accuracy of thought, and was a most method- ical worker, skilful with brush and pencil. As a microscopist he was the first to solve the problem of the achromatic lens, whilst many observations on zoophytes and ascidians were made by him—a paper on the former appearing in the Philosophical Trans- actions. Here, then, was a man of grit, who left school | at fourteen years of age to enter business in London, but who, by dint of his own exertion, found means to extend his scanty education, devoting what time he could to scientific pursuits with accuracy of thought and methodical work. Had it been in one’s power to choose a father for Lister, one could not have chosen a man better suited to the purpose. His Teachers and their Influence. The influence of Sharpey upon young Lister was great. At University College he was guided by Sharpey to undertake important researches, which 1 From a discourse delivered at the Royal Institution on June 7, 1912, by Sir William Macewen, F.R.S. NO. 2253, VOL. 90| were continued by Lister after he had left London. Papers were written by him upon numerous physio- logical and histological subjects—such as the con- tractile tissue of the iris, an inquiry regarding the parts of the nervous system which regulate the con- tractions of the arteries, the cutaneous pig- mentary system of the frog, the coagulation of the blood, the early stages of inflamma- tion, &c. There also Graham aided him in the study of chemistry, and furnished his mind with a sound knowledge of its principles. In Edinburgh he studied under Syme, and became a great admirer of Syme’s intellect and judgment, as well as of his skill as an operator. This intimacy ripened and lasted through- out the remainder of Syme’s life. All these men were the best he could have been educated under and associated with. The knowledge and experience gained from them admirably equipped him for the life of research which he was about to enter. It is obviously impossible here to deal with all the periods of Lister’s life, and therefore it has been deemed expedient to select one of these, and that the most vigorous of his career, when he evolved the theory of antiseptics, and when he had to defend his thesis. Pre-Antiseptic Days. In Lister’s early surgical days in the Glasgow Royal Infirmary he encountered the same phenomena, which prevented the healing of wounds, in all hospitals throughout the world. Suppuration in wounds was the rule, and very profuse it generally was. Dressing of the wounds had to be done daily, and sometimes several times a day. The handling of highly-inflamed wounds was a source of pain, and the dressing was anticipated by the patients with an apprehension akin to terror, especially as the exhausting process, with its accom- panying high fever, reduced the resisting powers of the individual to a low ebb. The suppurative process invaded the deeper tissues, affecting the blood-vessels, and produced septic thrombosis, from which septic emboli were carried to distant parts. The effect of the dissemination of the septic material was soon shown in the high temperature, the violent rigours, the profuse sweats, the sweetish, sickening odour from the breath, the yellow cachexia, emaciation, and final delirium which all too frequently ended in death. Sometimes every patient in a ward who had a serious operation performed upon him would be swept away. The wards would then be emptied, lime-washed, well ventilated, and reopened, soon to be the scene of further pyzemic ravages. All this was most depressing for the attendants, and many of the young student dressers had at times to retire to the restoring influences of the open air, and there debate within themselves whether it were physically possible for them to continue their work in the midst of such scenes of suffering. Surgeons and patients alike dreaded operations, owing to their terrible results, and only operations of dire necessity were permitted to be performed. Severe compound fractures were treated by amputation of the limbs, as to attempt to save them was to court disaster. Consequently amputations in those days were common. It is impossible for students of the present day adequately to realise the conditions which previously existed. Inflammation supposed to be necessary to Wound Healing. Surgeons were ever at work, attempting to discover the cause of this excessive inflammation, and many were the theses and volumes written on the subject. 500 NATURE [JANUARY 2, 1913 It was fully recognised that, if one could discover the cause of this excessive inflammation, it would be the first step toward eradicating the serious conditions attending wound healing. The minds of men, how- ever, were obscured by an initial error of fundamental importance, which warped their vision, and for which the doctrine inculeated at the time was responsible. The error lay in the belief that, with the exception of healing by what was known as primary union, inflammation was necessary for wound healing, and that in the process of healing the phenomena of in- flammation were always present. Wound healing was treated in the text-books under the heading of inflammation. So that, instead of inflammation being regarded, ab initio, as a noxious process, it was looked upon as a necessary and bene- ficent one. It was only when it became excessive that it was regarded as baneful, and efforts were made to lessen it. The trend of inquiry was therefore directed toward the elucidation of the phenomena produced by in- flammation on the tissues, instead of endeavouring to discover the cause of inflammation and how it could be prevented. Saviotti and Lister on the Nerve Control on the Blood-vessels in the Early Stages of Inflammation. Much time was devoted by many observers to the elucidation of the effect of reflex’ action upon the blood-vessels, in the early stage of inflammation. The investigations of Saviotti* and Lister proved that reflex action, to which alone active hyperemia had been pre- viously attributed, was not the only factor in the pro- duction of increased local blood supply. From observa- tion on the cutaneous pigmentary cells of the frog, if was evident that they were controlled by reflex action, as exhibited when the pigment in them contracted to the centre of the cell, under the influence of a beam of light, passing through the eye of the animal. It was also seen that limited areas could be taken out of the control of this general reflex action, by the application of certain irritants applied locally. In order to account for this latter phenomenon, it was deduced that peripheral nerve ganglia must exist, having control of limited areas, and that when these ganglia were paralysed, they would no longer transmit the general nerve impulses. Granting this conclusion, it was further deduced that a similar local nerve control might regulate the smaller blood-vessels under topical irritation of the parts and in the earlier stages of inflammation. If these ganglia were paralysed, the arteries would dilate, as is seen in active hyperemia. These communications were interesting and impor- tant, yet, though highly appreciated by all who valued science for itself and admired it for the truth it aimed at, they did not directly appeal to those who look lightly upon investigations the results of which are not immediately productive of direct and tangible benefits. Microbes Discovered to be the Cause of Putrefaction and Fermentation (Cagniard-Latour and Schwann). While darkness still brooded over the realm of medicine and surgery, notwithstanding endeavours to reach the light, investigations had been conducted in quite other fields, which were not only important in themselves, but were destined to lead to the revelation of multitudes of hitherto invisible organisms, every- where existing, and playing a very potent part in the economy of the world. More than thirty years previously, 1835-37, Cagniard- 2 “Virchow Archiv,” vol. i. NO. 2253, VOL. go] Latour in papers to the French Academy * recognised that alcoholic fermentation was due to the presence of a living organism. He found that grape-juice con- tained numerous globular bodies which he considered to be of vegetable nature, and which reproduced them. selves by budding. These were always present when fermentation occurred, and in their absence fermenta- tion did not take place. In the following year, Schwann, of Berlin,* pub- lished the results of an investigation into the causes of putrefaction, in the course of which he also in- dependently discovered the yeast plant. q What was of equal importance, he demonstrated that a putrescible fluid, such as a decoction of meat, could be freely and indefinitely exposed to the action of pure air—air free from dust and organisms—with- out putrefaction ensuing in it. Those views of Schwann that putrefaction is due to the action of living organisms, and those of Cag- niard-Latour showing that fermentation is caused by the yeast plant, did not, for more than thirty years, — yield the fruit which, viewed from present knowledge, might have been expected from them. Cagniard-Latour and Schwann’s Observations con- firmed by Pasteur, 1858. Pasteur, when in the University of Lille, had abundant opportunity of studying alcoholic fermenta-_ tion, as alcohol was the staple article of manufacture in that town. He became thoroughly convinced of the correctness of the observations and deductions previously made by Schwann and by Cagniard-Latour. He verified and extended those observations showing that fermentation was due to micro-organisms, and confirmed the observations of Schwann that pure air had no effect in producing putrefaction. An Organism found to be the Cause of a Disease by Davaine, 1850. In 1858 Pasteur reasoned from analogy that the relation of micro-organisms to disease was highly probable, and that the changes taking place in the secretion of a wound were probably due to a some- what similar process to that of fermentation. The probability of micro-organisms being the cause of disease was greatly increased by a momentous dis- covery from a totally different quarter, an organism having been constantly found invading the tissues and blood-vessels of animals which had died of splenic fever. This was the Bacillus anthracis, discovered by two observers, Davaine®> and Rayer in 1850, though it was ten years later before the complete identification of the relationship of this germ to the disease was definitely established. Chronologically this was the bacillus discovered. first pathogenic Other Theories of Fermentation. Those observations and conclusions of Schwann, Cagniard-Latour, Pasteur, and Davaine were not generally known, and, where known, were not gener- ally accepted, other theories being still in the field. Besides the chemical theory of fermentation and putrefaction, the believers in heterogeneous and spon- taneous generation were still many. Pouchet,® in 1859, made a systematised attempt to prove the pos- sibility of spontaneous generation, and even after the antiseptic theory had been formulated, spontaneous 3 Annales de Chimie et de Physique, t. \xviii., 2nd series, p. 206, 1838; Comptes rendus, t. iv., p. 905. 1837. 4 Poggendorff Annalen, xli., p. 184, 1837. ® Davaine, ‘* Recherches expérimentales sur la Maladie Charbonneuse,” par H. Toussaint. (Paris: Asselin and Co.) © Pouchet, “* Hétérogénie ou Traité de la Génération spontanée basé sur des nouvelles expériences.” (Paris, 1859.) JANUARY 2, 1913] NATURE 501 generation was still advanced by Bastian’ and other observeys, who tried to demonstrate that vital force and living matter may arise de novo under the action of ordinary physical forces. Tyndall, Huxley, and Ray Lankester against Spontaneous Generation. Such writings had the effect of confusing the issue and diverting men’s minds from the truth, and it was | in no small measure due to the powerful help of Tyndall, Huxley, and Ray Lankester that the error was conclusively refuted. Dr. E. Ray Lankester (NatuRE, January 30, 1870) | stated that he had performed numerous experiments | with turnip solution, made under the conditions given | in Dr. Bastian’s book. No life was developed, a | result contrary to that obtained by Bastian. tions, and expressed his belief that the organisms which Bastian got out of his tubes were exactly those which he put into them. Tyndall, the illustrious predecessor of Sir James Dewar at the Royal Institution, submitted the ques- tion to fresh investigations. He had gone over the ground on which Bastian took his stand and was able to expose many of the errors by which experimenters misled. were One very beautiful and convinc- ing experiment was introduced by Tyndall. He observed the fact that in a box .the sides of which were coated with glycerine, all the particles of dust floating in the inside air fell and adhered to the glycerine in the course of a few days. The air is then optically pure. A transmitted ray of light tells the moment when this purity is obtained. Tyndall proved that to an eye rendered sensitive by remaining in darkness for a few minutes, the course of the ray is visible only so long as there are floating particles of dust capable of reflecting or diffusing light. On the other hand, the course of the ray becomes invisible to the eye as soon as the air has deposited all its solid particles. When this deposition has occurred, any organic in- without undergoing the least putrefactive or fermen- tive change, and without producing bacteria. Lister Promulgates and Introduces the Practice of the Antiseptic Treatment of Wounds. While professor of surgery in Glasgow, Lister was constantly speculating on the cause of inflammation and the cause of putrefaction in wounds, and during a discussion with friends, it was suggested to him that Pasteur’s papers on fermentation might be of use in elucidating what seemed to be somewhat kindred processes. These papers of Pasteur came as a revela- tion to Lister, especially as he had not been cognisant of the observations made about thirty years previously by Schultze (1836), Schwann (1837), and Cagniard- Latour (1838), which had really laid the foundation of the germ theory and modern bacteriology. The perusal of Pasteur’s work threw a flood of light on the subject of decomposition in wounds, and Lister at once accepted the theory, and began a search for a something which would prevent the entrance of living organisms into wounds, believing that if such were found the healing of a wound would proceed “just as if it were subcutaneous.” About this time creosote—the active agent of which was carbolic acid—was used for disinfecting sewage, and Lister secured a sample of carbolic acid from Dr. Anderson, professor of chemistry in Glasgow Univer- Ba “The Beginnings of Life,” 1872; ‘‘ The Evolution and Origin ie, NO. 2253, ‘VOL. 90] of sity. He tried it in August, 1865, with results which justified his hypothesis. In the wards of the Glasgow Royal Infirmary, which, previously, in common with other hospitals, had been the home of septic diseases, with their ter- rible issues, the introduction of the antiseptic treat- ment by Lister acted like the magician’s wand, dis- pelling the horrors which previously accompanied wound-healing and creating an atmosphere of sweet- ness and health. Difficulties in Accepting Antiseptic Theory and Practice. The new treatment and the theory on which it was founded were received at first—save by a few faithful pupils—with scepticism and coldness, and | later on with open hostility. Prof. Huxley (Nature, October 13, 1871) stated that | he had seen Dr. Bastian’s experiments and prepara- | | their presence. Germs in purulent wound secretions were not then demonstrated, and Lister was boldly called upon to show those organisms in such secretion before found- ing a theory and practice upon the assumption of This desirable demonstration was not obtained until later (1880-81), when Billroth and Ogston demonstrated the presence of organisms in pus taken from acute abscesses. Yet the deduction arrived at by Lister at that time, from the experi- | ments of many able and trustworthy men of science, was not only permissible, but was the only one to which the data then available inevitably pointed. Subsequent investigations with which all are now conversant abundantly proved the correctness of the conclusion. The usual fate meted out to innovators or disturbers of settled doctrines was shared by Lister. He and his theory were virulently assailed both from within the hospital and from without. Some colleagues, some governors, and a host of freelances all joined in the fray, the most ignorant being ever the loudest. He was despitefully used, and had to bear the derision and cackle of fools. A scoffer has not necessarily a _ high standard of intelligence, and at best he does but | devil’s work. Fortunately such ephemera, trouble- A | some and annoying as they are, die before the light. fusion may be introduced into the box and kept there | Germany readily accepts Antiseptic Teaching. Lister’s teaching in this country was at first of no avail. It fell upon ears unprepared to receive it. Except by his own students in Scotland and a sprink- ling of them in England, the antiseptic treatment passed unheeded over Britain, yea, even over the land of Pasteur it passed to other nations, especially to that country where the scientific education of its people, their earnestness of purpose, thoroughness of method, and their desire to see under the surface enable them to appraise quickly any theory and prac- tice having a scientific basis. Another reason for the rapid spread of antiseptics among the surgeons of northern Europe was that they bestirred themselves ‘‘ to go and see” the practice first- hand. Thereafter they returned to their homes with a precise knowledge and a truer conception of the theory and practice than they otherwise could have had. The influence of Danish and German testimony, corroborative of the value of the antiseptic treatment, made itself felt, and did much to render its adoption universal. Pyogenic Organisms Discovered, 1880; Organisms the Cause of Disease. The discovery of pyogenic organisms as the cause of suppuration in wounds was of great importance, as it demonstrated the correctness of Lister’s theory and gave a tangible basis for the practice. It placed 502 NATURE [JANUARY 2, 1913 both the etiology of suppuration and its treatment upon a scientific basis. | Empiricism was in great measure overthrown, and henceforward a_ rational etiology for disease and its treatment was sought. Microbiology, then in its infancy, received a great impulse, and fresh fields were opened from which an ever-increasing harvest has been reaped. From the burning plains and pestilential swamps of the tropics, to our own slums, with their three great D’s—dirt, damp, and darkness, which we fondly harbour in our midst—disease after disease has been traced to its micro-organismal cause. Those diseases which re- main will doubtless yield their secret to steady inves- tigation, and would do so all the more readily if submitted to a properly constructed investigation de- partment under scientific control. Tuberculosis, which for centuries was regarded as an hereditary disease, was shown to be germ-borne, common to man and to the lower animals, and to be intercommunicable between them. Cancer and sar- coma and the varieties included under these terms are doubtless also germ diseases, the germs of which are probably to be found near our everyday life, if our eyes were open to perceive them. The need of a scientific experimental investigation department under scientific control is all the more apparent as the Government has at last ventured to advance measures intended to mitigate one of the communicable diseases —tuberculosis. Yet what the governing bodies do with the one hand they undo with the other. For instance, in the old days the light that entered our houses was taxed, and the windows became smaller; to-day the powers that be tax the air con- tained therein, and for every cubic foot of air enclosed additional charge is made. In order to escape or to lessen this burdensome assessment, many huddle themselves and their families into dwellings of the smallest compass, where they inhale pre-breathed air, with the resultant lowering of vitality, germ-dis- semination, disease, and death. Then we appoint commissions to find out the cause of the deterioration of the race! Every man who is born has an inalienable right to as much fresh air as he is able to consume; but. the “powers that be” say, ‘‘God may give you that right, but we shall tax you for using it.” It is true that they do not as yet tax us for the amount of air we inhale out of doors, possibly because they do not know how to estimate the individual consumption. Yet the governing bodies are full of humanity and have the best intentions. When the ravages of tuber- culosis can no longer be hidden, as it stares them in the face, they are moved to grasp at the first thing that appeals to them, and they say. to the affected, “Come, let us help you; we shall put you in sana- toria."". What happens there? The patient has his birthright restored to him in being able to breathe the fresh air which God has meted out so freely, and for the use of which he was previously taxed. Would it not be better to begin at the other end ?— better to stop producing tuberculosis than merely to alleviate or to cure it once it has developed? Modifications in Antiseptic Treatment. Antiseptic treatment underwent many modifications. What was essential in the early days of its introduction became no longer necessary as the advance of know- ledge brought clearer conceptions and paved the way for radical changes in ‘the form of treatment. It became apparent that though strong antiseptics intro- duced into wounds destroyed organisms, they at the same time exercised an irritating influence on the living tissue, lowering its vitality, decreasing its re- NO; 2253, VOL. 90] sisting power, and increasing its secretions. To that extent the free use of antiseptics in the interior of wounds was detrimental. Besides being harmful, they were unnecessary, as healthy living tissue of the interior of the body is free from germs, and pure air is innocuous. Evolution of Aseptic Treatment. As microbiology yielded its secrets, the bearing of germs and their products on the phenomena of disease ever became the clearer. The primitive conception of germs acting upon the human body just as they would in a laboratory test-tube was soon dispelled, and the multiplicity of the defensive reactions estab- lished by the living tissues for their own protection was recognised. It was seen that the microbie pro- ducts excited the tissues to anti-bacillary action, and the elements of immunity, as we now understand it, were established. The anti-bacillary phagocytic action of the living healthy tissue was demonstrated by the beautiful ex- periments of Metchnikoff, when it was seen that a certain number of organisms, brought into contact with the living tissue, could be destroyed therein by living cells. It also became obvious that the healthy living tissue in the interior of the body was in- herently free from germs, and when wounded was capable of healing rapidly, and would do so if its vitality were preserved, and if germs emanating either from the abundant flora of the skin or from elsewhere could be prevented from being brought into contact with it. This was effected by sterilising the skin and the instruments and all material brought into contact with the wound, without allowing antiseptics to invade the interior of the tissues. It is upon such lines that aseptic treatment was introduced. Aseptic surgery was a natural evolution of antiseptic surgery—the one paved the way for the other. - The surgery of the present day involves the per- formance of painless, almost bloodless, operations, the wounds healing, as a rule, under a single dressing of the slightest description. Any material introduced into a wound for the arrest of haemorrhage, or for bringing the parts together, is of a kind which, after its function has been performed, the living cells are able to remove. When the patient recovers from the effects of the anzesthetic his trouble is over. The film which covers the wound drops off of itself as soon as the phagocytes have completed their work of remov- ine the deep part of the catgut stitches. The air of cheerfulness in a surgical ward is now pronounced, the difficulty often being to persuade the patients to remain quiet for a time sufficient to allow the internal parts to heal. Advances -consequent to the Introduction of Aseptic Surgery. The introduction of aseptic surgery and the exten- sion and more correct appreciation of bacteriological knowledge have enabled surgical procedures upon the human body to be greatly extended. The dangers arising from risk of wound infection being averted, many new devices have been practised for reaching the internal organs and for removing therefrom the pro- ducts of disease. Regions of the body hitherto considered too dangerous to be operated upon have now been success- fully entered, and it soon became apparent that wher- ever diagnosis showed the presence of .a_ serious pathological lesion, there the surgeon could follow, and where practicable eliminate it. Since the introduction of asepsis and the conse- a ad ee ee ee JANUARY 2, 1913] quent acquisition of extended and more definite patho- logical knowledge, the field of greatest surgical activity has been the abdomen—abdominal surgery, as. we now know it, has been created. Tens of thousands— possibly millions—of human lives have been saved in this field alone, and the amount of pain and discomfort alleviated has been enormous. Surgeons of all countries have contributed to this beneficent result, and have vied one with another in restoring health and comfort to the community, thus adding greatly to the economic prosperity of the nations. Compound fractures, so fatal in pre-Listerian days, were not only robbed of their fatality, but surgeons became emboldened to make compound fractures for the rectification of malformation of the limbs. Compound fractures, under the heading of osteo- tomies, have been performed aseptically in thousands —the bones healing aseptically. A portion of bone which has been fractured and displaced may be re- moved, placed in aseptic solution, pared, rearranged, and returned to its proper place in the body, where it will live and grow, and become restored to its functional use. Defects in the bone of one person may be made up by grafting on a portion of bone removed from another. A transplanted bone may be divided into little pieces, and a mosaic work of new bone may be placed in another animal to restore defects. Asepsis, along with better knowledge of the physics of the pleura, has enabled surgeons to penetrate into the lungs and to remove therefrom pathological pro- ducts, with a gratifying amount of success. Portions of lung have been removed, and several times the whole of one lung has been successfully taken away— the patients still continuing to enjoy life, working for their own living and one, at least, for that of his family. Aseptic surgery has enabled operations upon the brain to be safely undertaken, and brain surgery has kept pace with the localisation of cerebral function. Its further development rests with the increase of precise data on that subject. Direct experiment on the brains of lower animals furnished excellent data on the localisation of the motor functions, but in- formation as to the localisation of the higher intel- lectual functions must be gathered by patient clinical observation. The discerning eye and the discriminating sense guiding the educated finger with its softness and lightness of touch have, under asepsis, carried out many operative procedures on diseased brains, where the tangled skeins of that delicate fabric have been unravelled. Considering the delicacy of the organ, and the fact that in many instances life has been sapped at the governing centres of energy bv the pathological lesions, operations on the brain have been very suc- cessful, many of them veritably snatching the patient from the brink. ; The consummation of alcacta i gical activitv has been attained by the int ,.as re‘,yof aseptic practice, surgery having been ret eiped since the introduc- tion of Listerian principles and treatment. Personal Teaching and Demonstration versus Books. It is fashionable nowadays to decry university teachers and professors, many regarding them as an effete remnant of antiquity. It is contended that all that is required is to issue a paper or a book and allow the students to read at their own firesides instead of compelling them to attend lectures and demonstrations in a university. : It is true that formerly the teaching extended only NO. 2253, VOL. 90| NATURE S25) | : so far as the teacher’s voice could carry, but now one can write in one’s own laboratory, and, if the message be important, it will be borne to the limits of the civilised world, and thus it is possible to instruct an audience of unlimited size. There is, however, a difference between teaching by books and viva voce teaching and demonstration. Some things may be explained by means of clear writing and may be understood by correct reading, ' but there are other things difficult of comprehension in detail without the aid of practical demonstration. More especially is this the case when one has not the opportunity of personal contact with the intro- ducer or with one who has seen his practice and followed his methods. No matter how well a state- ment may be written, impressions are drawn from it which differ according to the preparedness and pre- vious experience of the mind of each individual reader. Personal observation produces a much more vivid impression and generally corrects individual mis- construction. g As professor of surgery in Glasgow, Lister followed the Scottish method, teaching the principles of sur- gery in the University, and afterwards demonstrating his methods in the wards of the infirmary. His lec- tures in the University and his observations in the wards were complementary to each other, and gave a groundwork more thorough than could otherwise have been obtained. Those who had been so taught found his methods simple and easy of execution, and were often astonished at seeing others less fortunate falling into serious errors in their attempt to carry out the antiseptic practice after reading Lister’s papers alone. There were many earnest men—professors of Con- tinental universities, amongst others—who were well qualified to read correctly what had been written, yet who, having read, were not satisfied, but straightway desired to be brought into personal contact with the professor, in order that they might hear his teaching from his own lips and see the practice carried out by his own hands. Prof. Saxtorph, of Copenhagen, was amongst the first of the many distinguished visitors to the Glasgow Royal Infirmary to see Lister’s practice and to study his methods. After a few days he remarked that the seeing of the practice persuaded him of its feasibility, and that it then seemed much easier than it did when he had only read Lister’s papers. So it was with many others. Lister as a Scottish and as a London Professor. Lister’s teaching was more rapidly propagated among the students he had in Scotland than among the London students. The position which he occupied as a Scottish professor aided in this, as it was different from that held by him as professor of surgery in a London hospital. In London in those days, the bull of students desired, naturally, to take the membership of the College of Surgeons, and most teachers at that time taught to the requirements of the Board of Examina- tion, otherwise their prelections were not specially sought after. In London, Lister was teaching a new doctrine, not yet generally homologated, and his wards were attended by few students compared with the numbers that surrounded him in the Scottish univer- sities. On the other hand, Lister had less time to devote to the teaching of studénts, as London was more accessible to foreign visitors, and many of his davs were devoted to demonstrations for their benefit. As a Scottish professor, Lister’s position offered the greatest advantage for the dissemination of his doc- trines. He could teach his own students what he 504 believed to be true, and, if necessary, teach them in advance of the time, as the teaching and the examina- tion were both under his supervision. Hence Glasgow students were the first to become imbued with the spirit and to grasp thoroughly the principles of anti- septics, which they carried into practice. students thronged his wards and lecture-theatres in the infirmaries, an eager, critical, and ultimately an enthusiastic crowd, bringing inspiration to their teacher, whose principles and practice they afterwards bore to the ends of the earth, even before many examining boards were prepared to accept his teach- ing. Lister’s Influence on the Scottish Students. Lister’s presence in the Scottish universities was of the utmost value. By him teaching was maintained at a high level; he used the universities to stimulate thought, and therein aided them to perform their highest function. It was an inestimable blessing to a university to have such a man in it, and a priceless privilege to the students—to those of them who could appreciate it—to be allowed to stand silently by and watch the habit of mind and see how the brain worked. He was a man in earnest, and therefore he taught. His teaching was supported by direct appeal to nature. He accumulated data by observa- tion and experiment, from both of which careful deductions were drawn. As a thinker, Lister did good by laying bare the difficulties he encountered in carrying out his projects, and his modes of overcoming these difficulties. In this way he stimulated and pro- pagated the thinking faculties of the student. He showed his methods and thereby paved the way for others to follow. In Glasgow Lister not only promulgated the theory of antiseptic surgery, but he worked out and thoroughly established its utility in practice, leaving behind him a body of enthusiastic disciples. After spending, as Regius professor of surgery, nine of the most active years of his life, and those fullest of scientific fruition, Lister passed quietly from Glasgow without public recognition of his services, the general body of citizens being unaware that a great scientific achievement had been wrought in their midst. It was long afterwards, when ‘“‘all the world wondered,” that SESE OW. became alive to what it had possessed—and ost. The Students’ Appreciation of Lister. As to the manner in which Lister was viewed by the Glasgow students, the following is an extract from a letter written me by a friend and fellow- student, which so well expresses my own views that I give it in his words :— “We students were all very much impressed by the personality of Lister. His mild expression and his grave demeanour gave him benign dignity which could not fail to command respect. Even the impediment in his speech, which in another man might have been a source of annoyance to his hearers, seemed in his case only to add to the weight of what he said; and as he spoke slowly not a word of his lecture was lost. You remember how his students more or less uncon- sciously fell into a way of speaking which was a manifest echo of the master’s voice. This affectation on the part of the students was simply an indication of the hero-worship which pervaded Lister’s class, for there is no doubt we all idolised him. “T understand it has been said of Lister that he was not a good lecturer, and that he was not a bril- liant operator. You and I can laugh at such state- ments. Lister’s lectures were all that could be desired. His subject-matter was always interesting—generally intensely sq; his thoughts were clear and well defined, NO. 2253, VOL. 90] NATURE. Scottish | ' laurel crown offered by the students. [JANUARY 2, 1913 and he conveyed them to his hearers in choice and vivid language which left no doubt as to his mean- ing. As to his operating slowly, did he not tell us that the advent of anzsthesia by chloroform had rendered it unnecessary and undesirable to hurry through the work? Lister was thinking out and developing the antiseptic system at that time, and we were privileged to listen day by day as he informed us of hig difficulties and how he proposed to overcome them; and so we watched the progress of those early stages which laid the foundation for the final triumph. . .. Above and beyond all petty details rises the towering personality of the man while the mind dwells fondly on the grandeur and beneficence of his achieve- ments.” (J. W. Allan.) From another of Lister’s Glasgow students, and one who was his house-surgeon in the Royal In- firmary, Dr. J. Coats (now Colonel Coats), who was among the first to practise antiseptic surgery in private, an interesting letter of reminiscences has been received, from which the following is culled :— ““One day when Lister was visiting his wards in the Glasgow Royal Infirmary, there was a little girl whose elbow-joint had been excised, and this had to be dressed daily. Lister undertook this dressing him- self. The little creature bore the pain without com- plaint, and when finished she suddenly produced from under the clothes a dilapidated doll, one leg of which had burst, allowing the sawdust to escape. She handed the doll to Lister, who gravely examined it, then, asking for a needle and thread, he sat down and stitched the rent, and then returned the dolly to its gratified owner.” On one occasion on which Lister visited my wards in the Royal Infirmary, after he had been for some time in London, we were walking together from a ward in one part of the building to a ward in another, by means of a gangway of wood and glass, when Lister remarked: ‘‘ Macewen, do you find this bridge a convenience to your work, for if so, you have to thank me, as I was instrumental in getting it put up?" I replied, ‘‘ Yes, it is a convenience, but it is nothing compared to the greater gangway you pro- vided, by which the patients after operation cross directly from the wards into the midst of life and health.”’. I received a kindly look, a suppressed smile, and a pressure of the arm... . In Edinburgh, though his system was met by some with determined opposition, it was adopted more or less thoroughly by others, and by many of the vounger men enthusiastically. The students, though doubtful at first, began to observe his results, and soon became admirers of Lister and his work. When Lister entered the clinical theatre of the old infirmary to deliver before a crowded audience his last lecture there, he was presented with a farewell address from the students. As he rose to reply, the air was rent with a rousing cheer that shook the building to its foundation. A cheer such as only British students —at rare moments—know how to give. It is spon- taneous, and burs li} > a blast from the throat of a whirlwind. Listertrect fairly overcome. One who was near him, as a quiet observer, saw that he first became pale, and then a blush covered all his visible anatomy to the tips of his fingers. In a few moments he recovered, and said: ‘‘Gentlemen, I can recall my reception in the surgical theatre in Munich, on my visit to Nussbaum, where I was greeted with a Ger- man ‘ Hoch.’ It was to me almost overpowering in its enthusiasm, but it was as nothing compared to this.” (Dr. Young.) That spontaneous outburst issuing from four hundred throats made amends for much. It was the That rousing ee el JANUARY 2, 1913] NATURE 505 cheer reverberated through his whole being, and left such deep impression as doubtless would be with him to the end. In the evening of his long life, when he stood apart from the honours which had been showered upon him, there remained to him the greatest of all rewards, a clear conscience and the knowledge that he had devoted his life to and had achieved a great work for the good of humanity. UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE. Dr. A. D. Ross, lecturer on natural philosophy in the University of Glasgow, has been appointed to the chair of mathematics and physics in the University of Western Australia. AT a special meeting of the council of Hartley University College, Southampton, held on December 30, Dr. Alexander Hill, late master of Downing Col- lege, Cambridge, was unanimously elected principal at a salary of toool. a year. Mr. Frank Roscog, who for the past twelve years has been master of method in the Day Training Col- lege of the University of Birmingham, has been appointed secretary of the Teachers’ Registration Council. THE general meeting of the Association of Public School Science Masters will be held at the London Day Training College, Southampton Row, W.C., on January 8 and 9; in connection with the meeting Dr. T. P. Nunn will deliver a series of addresses on the afternoons of January 6 and 7, upon ‘The Theory of Science Teaching, with Special Reference to the Con- ditions in Boys’ Schools.” On Wednesday, January 8, the president of the association, Sir Archibald Geikie, K.C.B., P.R.S., will deliver an address, and there will be a discussion upon the aims and uses of school science societies. On January 9 the subjects to be discussed are :—Practical examinations in science, the teaching of mechanics, and the value of presenting the historical aspect in teaching science. A paper urging that the teaching of density should be placed in the background and be superseded by the idea of ““Roomage,’’ or specific volume, will be read by Mr. G. F. Daniell. WE learn from Science that by the will of the late Prof. Morris Loeb, formerly professor of chemistry in the New York University, large bequests are made to scientific and educational institutions. Subject to the life interest of Mrs. Loeb, 100,000l. is bequeathed to Harvard University for the advancement of physics and chemistry, 50001. is left to the American Chem- ical Society for the establishment of a type museum of chemicals, to be established in the Chemists’ Club of New York City, the U.S. National Museum, or the American Museum of Natural History, and 5001. is bequeathed to the National Academ~ of Sciences. The Hebrew Technical Institute /re' ves 10,0001. The residuary estate, subject to Mrs. Loeb’s life interest, is to be divided equally among the Smithsonian In- stitution at Washington and certain New York insti- tutions, including the American Museum of Natural History, the Hebrew Technical Institute, and the Educational Alliance. The Smithsonian In- stitution receives its bequest to further the exact sciences. The American Museum of Natural History is to secure a collection for the illustration of the industrial use of natural products in ancient and modern times. The Hebrew Technical Institute is to establish technical courses for mechanics. NO. 2253, VOL. 90] THE report of the hundred and sixteenth session of the Royal Technical College, Glasgow, which used to be known as the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College, is a record of satisfactory progress. The number of day students for the session 1911-12 was 572; of evening students, 4691; and of students in affiliated continuation classes, 8682. The college is therefore the centre of an organisation responsible for the education of 13,945 individuals. The corre- sponding number for the preceding session was 13,473. The increase in the number of day students was twelve. The roll of students contained the names of 157 graduates of the four Scottish universities, and of the Universities of Oxford, Cambridge, London, Manchester, Durham, Leeds, Sydney, Adelaide, Cal- cutta, Allahabad, and Heidelberg. Although seven large laboratories were provided for pure and applied chemistry in the new buildings recently opened, they have already proved insufficient, and, in consequence, an additional chemical laboratory, to accommodate seventy-two students, has been provided by trans- ferring to the corridors on the same floor the contents of the museum of technical chemistry. Such rapid development of an industrial department is good evidence that the college maintains its position as possessing one of the leading schools of applied chem- istry. The new lectureship in sugar manufacture, founded with the aid of subscriptions from firms and individuals interested in this industry, has been estab- lished. Proposals have been made for the establish- ment of a lectureship dealing with leather-tanning, but the governors are obliged to postpone taking steps in this direction until subscriptions are forth- coming to meet at least one-half of the probable expense, as was done in the case of the lectureship in sugar manufacture. In other departments of the college there are similar developments, and the report makes it clear that under its new name this Scottish technical college is entering on a career of increased usefulness. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. LONDON. Linnean Society, Derember 19, 1912.—Prof. E. B. Poulton, F.R.S., president, in the chair.—Cecil H. Hooper: Experiments on the pollination of hardy fruits, with observations on the insect visitors to the blossoms. Strawberries, provided there is wind, set fruit well without insects. Raspberries and logan- berries set fruit imperfect in shape if insects are excluded. Currants and gooseberries, owing to the construction of their flowers and pollen, cannot be pollinated and set their fruit without the visits of insects. All these plants set fruit perfectly with pollen of the same variety or even of the same flower; but in the case of the apple, pear, plum, and cherry, this is not always the case, many varieties being self- sterile, and almost all produce more abundant and finer fruit with pollen of another variety. In these trees there is little transference of pollen by the wind, and even if a self-fertile tree is enclosed in muslin whilst in blossom (there being ample movement of the wind, insects only being excluded), it is the excep- tion for any fruit to set; it is the same with goose- berries and currants. In trials with apples, only nineteen varieties out of sixty-five proved self-fertile; in pears, four out of thirty; in plums, twenty-one out of forty-one; in cherries, five out of twelve; whilst, when cross-pollinated, in three-quarters of the trials one or more fruits set on a truss. There seems to be a preference as to pollen, some varieties setting better with pollen of one variety than with that of another; 506 NATURE [JANUARY 2, 1913 and some varieties will not set with certain pollen. Out of nearly 3000 insects observed last spring visit- ing the blossoms of the various fruit bushes and trees, 88 per cent. were hive-bees, 53 per cent. bumble and other wild bees, and 6} per cent. flies, ants, beetles, wasps, and other insects; but the latter group have not fluffy bodies for carrying pollen, and amuse themselves eating the pollen—H. M. Chibber: The morphology and histology of Piper Betle, Linn. MANCHESTER. Literary and Philosophical Society, November 26, 1912.—Prof. F. E. Weiss, president, in the chair.— Prof. F. E. Weiss: The root-apex and young root of Lyginodendron. This genus, one of the Coal- Measure plants, the remains of which are frequently preserved in the calcareous nodules of the Lancashire coa] seams, is of peculiar interest, owing to the posi- tion assigned to it and allied genera. Fern-like in appearance, it is known to have borne seeds of con- siderable complexity, and it has therefore been placed in a newly established group of Pteridospermz, be- tween the true ferns and the flowering plants. As among other characters, these two groups are dis- tinguished by the possession of a single cell or multiple group of such cells at the apex of their roots, an investigation of the root-tip of Lyginodendron is of some interest. Careful examination of numerous sec- tions tends to prove that the structure of the root-tip of Lyginodendron agrees more closely with that of the ferns than that of the flowering plants.—Dr. Kurt Loewenfeld : The importance of autograph documents for the history of science (part ii.). The author dealt chiefly with letters by Priestley and Lavoisier. These included letters to Sir Joseph Bank and Josiah Wedg- wood, and others relating to the Birmingham riots in 1791. The draft of a letter of the French chemists, offering to make good all Priestley’s losses through the riots, was read. It is noteworthy, especially con- sidering the scientific relations between Lavoisier and Priestley, that this draft had corrections by the hand of A. L. Lavoisier, which makes it evident that this letter originated from him. DUBLIN. Royal Dublin Society, December 17, 1912.—Prof. James Wilson in the chair.—J. Adams: The germination of the seeds of some dicotyledons. Investigations were made to determine how long the seeds of a particular species of plant remain in the ground before they germinate. Observations were made on 278 different species of plants belonging to 190 genera, and repre- senting fifty-eight families. In some cases the seeds germinated after a few weeks, while in others, such as the hawthorn, a year and a half was required. The characters of 158 species not included in Lub- bock’s treatise are given. The majority of the seeds used were of British species, but a few exotic species, such as almond, fig, &c., were included.—Prof. T. Johnson: Bothrodendron (Cyclostigma) Kiltorkense, Haughton, sp. The paper treats of specimens obtained by the author at Kiltorkan, co. Kilkenny, and of others in the collections. in Dublin and London. An attempt is made to prove that B. Kiltorkense, abundant at an epoch when Lepidodendron and Sigil- laria were either non-existent or, if formed, still relatively rare, and showing pronounced calamitoid characters—including transverse _ zonation (nodal diaphragms?) and vertical fluting—is the earliest and best representative of the ancestral stock from which the Lycopodiales and Equisetales took their common origin.—Prof. J. Joly: A method of microscopic NO. 2253, VOL. 90]| measurement. | This is one which apparently has not hitherto been applied in microscopy; it ‘consists in observing with the camera lucida the object to be measured, in such a manner that its image appears upon a sheet of paper on which two lines have been drawn slowly diverging from a point. By shifting the paper the image is made to fit exactly between the lines, the position where it fits being marked. A similar operation is performed with a suitably divided millimetre scale. From the data so obtained a simple calculation gives the diameter of the object. —Prof. H. H. Dixon and W. R. G. Atkins: Osmotic pressures in plants. (a) Methods of extracting sap from plant organs; (b) osmotic pressures and electrical conductivities of the saps of plant organs. (a) Vari- ous methods of obtaining ‘sap for microscopic con- ductivity measurements are discussed. It is shown that the sap pressed from living tissues may have a concentration very different from that in the vacuoles of the cells, the protoplasm of which must be rendered permeable before the unaltered sap can be pressed. Exposure to heat, toluene vapour, or chloroform is open to objection. Treatment with liquid air seems free from objection, renders the membranes permeable, and allows the unaltered sap to escape. Cryoscopic and conductivity measurements on this true sap show that it is usually much more concentrated than that pressed from the untreated organs. An extreme example of this is afforded by the leaf of Chamaerops humilis. (b) The fundamental error in previous cryo- scopic and conductivity measurements of the sap of plants, which was pointed out in the foregoing paper (a), renders revision of previous results necessary. The present paper contains a number of results of cryoscopic determinations, osmotic pressures resulting from them, and conductivity measurements made on saps obtained from organs treated with liquid air. EDINBURGH. Royal. Society, December vice-president, in the chair. Irvine Masson: The pre- cipitation of salts by corresponding acids. If B is the initial solubility in pure water, and 6b the solubility for acidity a, then within fairly wide limits it is found that the ratio a/(B—b) is a constant, on which the change of temperature seems to have little effect. Its value is very nearly unity for the chlorides and nitrates experimented with. The main object of the paper was to connect by means of this empirical formula the two recognised methods for studying experimentally these relations, namely, the ‘“‘ solubility ’’ method, which determines directly the solubility of a salt in water containing the acid in varying concentrations, and the ‘““ precipitation ’’ method, as used by Gibson and Denison, which aims at ascertaining the minimum concentration of aqueous acid which when added in small quantities to the saturated aqueous salt solution causes deposition of salt. Prof. Seward and N. Bancroft: Jurassic plants from Cromarty and Suther- land. The mate: | included Hugh Miller’s collection in the Royal Scott. Museum, a section of a cone in Dr. Kidston’s collection, petrified wood from Helms- dale lent by Dr. Horne, and two fossils found by Dr. Nathorst on the Sutherland coast. The examination of the material had led to the recognition of six new species, Thinnfeldia scottica, Brachyphyllum eathiense, Masculostrobus Woodwardi, Conities Juddi, Cedro- xylon Hornet, and Strobilites Milleri. Prof. F. J. Cole: A monograph on the general morphology of Myxinoid fishes, based on a study of Myxine. Part V.—The anatomy of the gut and appendages. C Tate Regan: Antarctic fishes of the Scottish 16, 1912.—Prof. Bower, JANUARY 2, 1913] National Antarctic Expedition. The fishes, which were collected in the vicinity of the South Orkneys, Falk- land Islands, and Gough Island, include forty-eight species, of which ten are new to science. The report is supplemented with a monograph on the Noto- theniidze and related families, a revision of the Qoarcidz, and notes on the systematic position and distribution of the Galaxiida. It also includes an account of a new genus taken in South Georgia, and named Chaenocephalus salvesent. Prof. Emile Topsent: the Porifera of the Scottish National Antarctic Expedition. Several new genera and many new species are described from high southern latitudes and also from great depths. Paris. Academy of Sciences, December 23, 1912.—M. Lipp- mann in the chair.—Gaston Darboux: Surfaces of translation.—G. Lippmann: An electric time-measuring apparatus for the comparison of two _ periodic phenomena. An arrangement of two electrical con- tacts on a tube rotating at a known uniform rate, and each separately adjustable, so that the time elapsing between the two contacts can be made any fraction of a second, read directly from the instrument. As examples of applications of the instrument are given the comparison of two sidereal clocks, the reception of Hiffel Tower signals, and the emission of time signals. —Th. Schlesing, Jun.: The detection and estimation of free white phosphorus in phosphorus sesquisulphide. The method is based on extraction with a low boiling petroleum ether, and subsequent determination of the ratio of phosphorus‘to sulphur in the residue left after evaporating the ether.—M. Gouy: The spontaneously ionised gases. A reply to some criticisms by C. Darwin.—M. Guntz was elected a correspondant for the section of chemistry in the place of the late M. Cannizzaro, and M. Leimann a correspondant in the section of mineralogy in the place of the late M. Zirkel.Kr. Birkeland: The source of the electricity of the stars. A discussion of the possibility of the stars and the sun becoming negative by the loss of positive electrons.—E. Belot : The material of satellites with respect to the density of the planets, their time of rotation, and their superficial structure.—D. Th. Egorofi : The integration of functions.—N. Lusin: The properties of Denjoy’s integral.—P. Montel: The exist- ence of derived functions.—W. H. Young: Fourier’s series convergent nearly throughout.—S. Lattés: The reduction of linear substitutions.—M. Norlund: Linear equations with finite differences.—Witold Jarkowski : The equation of the barogram of the ascent of an aéroplane.—Jules Roux: The law of Stokes and the charge of an electron. A study of the fall of sulphur spheres of small radius in xylene and the application of Stokes’s formula, modified by Cunningham, to the results.—M. Jouguet : The stability of equilibrium of a system enclosed in a cover impervious to heat.—E. Briner and E. L. Durand: The action of temperature on the equilibrium of nitric and nitrous acids, formed by starting with the oxides of nitrogen and water. An increase in the pressure of the NO and lowering of temperature both favour the formation of nitric acid.—Auguste Piccard: The cons‘ ution of water and the thermal variation of its ni ,ietisation. On the assumption that any body has a constant diamagnetism so long as there is no change of state the tempera- ture coefficient of magnetisation described in an earlier paper has been applied to determine the con- stitution of water. The results are in general agree- ment with those deduced from the change of density with temperature.—J: A. Muller: The mode of ionisa- tion of sulphuric acid in dilute aqueous solution. A discussion of the experimental data given appears to show that in dilute aqueous solution sulphuric acid NO. 2253, VOL. 90] NATURE 597 ionises into the ions H and HSO,, and this ionisation takes place with evolution of heat within the limits of temperature studied.—M. Hanriot: Tempering of metals without deformation.—Marcel Ostwald: Some properties of the alkaline nitrites. A description of the mode of preparation of the pure nitrites, followed by data relating to the appearance, melting points, densities of solids and solutions of sodium and potassium nitrite—Daniel Berthelot and Henry Gaudechon: The photolysis of various bioses and trioses by the ultra-violet rays.—Jacques Duclaux : The polymerisation of bodies at low temperatures.— CEchsner de Coninck : The determination of the atomic weight of uranium. The value 238°4 is derived from the ignition of the oxalate-—Léon Guillet: The copper- zinc-nickel alloys.—Léo Vignon: The fractional dis- tillation of coal. Five samples of coal were heated successively to 400°, 600°, 850°, 1000°, and 1200° C., and analyses made of the gas given off at each tem- perature.—Maurice Laniry: The action of hydrogen peroxide on oxythionaphthene, oxythionaphthene- carboxylic acid and thioindigo.—P. Carré: Contardi’s glycerotriphosphoric acid. An adverse criticism of Contardi’s results—Marcel Godchot and _ Félix Taboury: The bromination of cyclopentanone.—A. Mailhe: The nitro-derivatives-of the oxide of meta- cresyl.—Georges Tanret : The presence of stachyose in the bean and in the seeds of some other Leguminose. Stachyose forms a strontium compound, and this was utilised in the detection of this sugar in various Leguminose.—G. André: The hydrolysis and displace- ment by water of the nitrogenous and mineral matters contained in leaves.—Marin Mbolliard: The hyper- trophiant action of the products elaborated by Rhizo- bium radicicola. An account of comparative experi- ments on the growth of the pea in water and in water containing the secretory products of the above-named parasite.—L. Armand: Germination and development of the embryo in the Lobeliaceze.—Pierre Teissier and Pierre Louis Marie: Attempts at variolic serotherapy. —J. Renaut: The direct connective filiation and development of arterial muscular cells.—Jacques Mawas: The form, direction, and mode of action of the ciliary muscle in man.—Jacques Pellegrin: New contribution to the ichthyological fauna of Lake Vic- toria (Africa).—A. Magnan: The functional adaptation of the intestine in ducks. A reduction in the length of the intestine has been obtained experimentally by change of food.—D. Keilin: The structure of the pharynx in the larvee of some Diptera as affected by the nature of the food.—M. Javillier: The substitution of various chemical elements for zinc in the culture of Sterigmatocystis nigra. Cadmium is the only element analogous to zinc in its action on the growth of this fungus. The presence of a ten-millionth part of cadmium increases the yield 2°6 times.—Em. Bourque- lot and H. Hérissey : The synthetical reaction between galactose and ethyl alcohol under the influence of kephir.—L. C. Maillard: The formation of humus and of mineral combustibles without the intervention of atmospheric oxygen, of micro-organisms, of high tem- peratures, or of strong pressures. The interaction of amino-acids with sugars gives brown condensation products containing nitrogen, and regarded by the author as analogous with the humus extracted from soil. Carbon dioxide is evolved in this reaction, which takes place in the absence of oxygen. This reaction is regarded as explaining the natural formation of humus.—Gabriel Bertrand and F. Medigreceanu: The temporary fixing and mode of elimination of man- ganese in the rabbit—H. Bierry and Mme. Z. Gruzewska: A new method for the determination of elycogen in the liver. A modification of Pfluger’s method, permitting more rapid estimations without loss of accuracy. Comparative figures are given for 505 NATURE [JANUARY 2, I913 results obtained by the proposed method and that of Pfliiger.—Maurice Nicloux: An experiment realising the mechanism of the passage of carbon monoxide from the mother to the foetus.—Ch. Pussenot: The middle Westphalian in the alpine axial zone.— G. Gouré de Villemontée ; A case of globular lightning. —E. A. Martel: The displacement of the thermal springs at Roosevelt Dam, Arizona. Cacurta. Asiatic Society of Bengal, December 4, 1912.—Dr. Sten Konow : Fragments of a Buddhist work in the ancient Aryan language of Chinese Turkestan. This paper gives an account of six MSS. leaves (forming part of a bulky work containing about 400 leaves) recovered from Khotan, and written in verse in what is pro- visionally designated as the ancient Aryan language.— Dr. N. Annandale; Contributions to the biology of the Lake of Tiberias. No. 1, an account of the sponges. The paper is the first in a series based on a visit to Palestine made in October, 1912, with the object of discovering whether the peculiar fauna characteristic of fresh water in tropical Africa and Asia, especially as regards the lower invertebrates, extends northwards up the Jordan valley. Considered as a whole the sponge fauna of the lake provides evidence (1) that a peculiar fauna of closely related species is being evolved therein; (2) that in this lake, as in others, there is a tendency for the Spongillidz to lose their characteristic gemmules; and (3) that as the gemmules disappear the skeleton of the sponges becomes harder and more compact.—D. Hooper: The Ash of the plantain (Musa sapientum, Linn.). The ash of plantain leaves and stalks is used in India for various indus- trial purposes: as a mordant in dyeing, as a soap, medicine, table salt, and manure. Analyses of authen- tic samples show a variation in composition and alkalinity, and do not exhibit a greater value than ashes of other plants. There is evidence that the composition of the ash is influenced by the soil in which the plants are grown.—M. H. Sastri: A short note on Ayi Pantha, a newly discovered cult in the Bilada District of the Marwar State. The new reli- gion was preached by women in the fifteenth century A.D. Its chief seat is at Bilada in Marwar. It has a perfect administrative organisation, and it has about a lac of adherents. The chief obiect of worship isa light kept up for the last 450 years fed by ghee. It emits no smoke, but a yellow substance called ‘‘ Kesara,” which means saffron. The lady preacher is known as ‘“‘Ayi,”’ and the cult is therefore called “ Ayipantha.” As Shams Tabrez is an object of reverence, this cult seems to be a survival of the ancient fire-worship of Iran. BOOKS RECEIVED. Handwérterbuch der Naturwissenschaften. Edited by E. Korschelt and others. Lief. 26 to 34. (Jena: G. Fischer.) Each 2.50 marks. Beziehungen des Lebens zum Licht. By Dr. C. Neuberg. Pp. 63. (Berlin: Allgemeine Medizinische Verlagsanstalt G.m.b.H.) 1.50 marks. The Moorlands of North-Eastern Yorkshire: their Natural History and Origin. By F. Elgee. Pp. xvi+361-+illustrations+maps. (London and Hull: A Brown and Sons, Ltd.) 12s. 6d. net. The British Bird Book. Edited by F. B. Kirkman. Section x. Pp. 188+plates. (London and Edin- burgh: T. C. and E. C. Jack.) tos. 6d. net. Notes on the Natural History of Hornsea Mere. By G. Bolam. (London and Hull: A. Brown and Sons, Ltd.) 1s. Untersuchung und Nachweis organischer Farbstoffe auf spektroskopischem Wege. By Prof. J. Formdanek. NO. 2253, VOL. 90] Zweite Auflage. Zweiter Teil. 2 Lief. . Pp. 366+ plates. (Berlin: J. Springer.) 14 marks. Abrégé sur l’Hélice et la Résistance dé l’Air. By M. Gandillot. Pp. 188. (Paris: Gauthier-Villars.) ro francs. Bergens Museums Aarbok, 1912. 2det Hefte. Pp. (Bergen: J. Griegs.) 84+plates xxvii+ 152 +plate i. Bergens Museums Skrifter. Ny Roekke. Band ii., No. 1. Vestlandske Graver fra Jernalderen. By H. Schetelig. Pp. iiit+242. (Bergen: J. Griegs.) DIARY OF SOCIETIES. FRIDAY, JANUARY 3. Geotoaists' ASSOCIATION. at §.— Some Valleys and Moraines in the Bergen District, Norway: H. W. Monckton. MONDAY, Janvary 6. ARISTOTELIAN Society, at 8.—Intuitional Thinking : Prof. Frank Granger. Society or Cuemicat InpusTRY, at 8.—The Estimation of Glyceryl Acetate in Essential Oils: S. Godfrey Hall and A. J. Harvey.—The Estimation of Moisture : F. H. Camphell.—The Determination of Moisture in Foods, etc. : W. P. Skertchly.—The Determination of Water: G. N, Huntly and J. H. Coste. TUESDAY, January 7. RénTGEN Society, at 8.15.—Spark Photographs ‘at High Pressure: Prof. A. W. Porter, F.R.S., and W. B. Haines.—Some Relations between Kathode and Rontgen Rays: Dr. R. Whiddington. WEDNESDAY, January 8. Geotocicat Sociery, at 8.—The Geological History of the Malay Penin- sula: J. B. Scrivenor.—A Mass of Anhydrite in the Magnesian Limestone at Hartlepool : 165- C. 'T. Trechmann. THURSDAY, January 9. Concrete InsriTuTE, at 7.30.—Concrete in its Legal Aspect: W. Valentine Ball. InsTITUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS, at 8.—The Design of Apparatus for Improving the Power Factor of A. C. Systems : Prof. Miles Walker. MATHEMATICAL SOCIETY, at 5.30.—The Reduction of Ideal Numbers: E. H. Berwick.—Proofs of Certain General Theorems Relating to Orders of Coincidence : J. C. Fields. FRIDAY, January to. Royat ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY, at 5. CONTENTS. PAGE Races of Mankind. By A. K. 1: . =) 202) ssoneeeeee Irritability of Plants. By J. B. Ro ot a 483 Copper Smelting. By W. G. Me oS 5 484. Personal and Public Health 484 Our Bookshelf ec 485 Letters to the Editor :— British Forestry and the Development Commission: = D. E. Hutchins . 486 The Recent Foraminifera of the British Islands. — Edward Heron=Allen| 292 a). 02) ene ee . 487, Popular Natural History. (dlustrated.) ot > 2 oe Natural and Synthetic Rubber .......... 489 Movements of Glaciers. By T. G. B. c - 490 The Protection of Ancient Monuments. . 490 Notes a 490 Our Astronomical Column :— Astronomical Occurrences for age) 2 494. A Bright Meteor Reported . : ; 494 Ephemeris for Gale’s Comet, 19120 13 495 The Spectrum of Nova Geminorum, No.2. 495. Observations of*Saturn’ Fs <1.) = 270.) 2) Sees Improvements in Microscopes . . 495 Prize Awards of the Paris Academy of Sciences . 496 The Tin Mines of New South Wales. By J. W. G. 497 Osmotic Pressure and the Theory of Solutions 497 Engineering at the British Association. ByE.G.C. 497 Lord Lister. By Sir William Macewen, F.R.S.. . 499 University and Educational Intelligence . Ben 2&(o1s Societies and Academies ....... : ae (0), Books Received Be RN RO os oie ee eee Diary of Societies . | 508 Editorial and Publishing Offices: MACMILLAN & CO., Ltp., ST. MARTIN’S STREET, LONDON, W.C. Advertisements and business letters to be addressed to the Publishers. Z Editorial Communications to the Editor. Telegraphic Address: Telephone Number: Puusis, Lonpon. GERRARD 8830. —— a ether A. WEEKEX) 1GEUSTRATED JOURNAL, OF SCIENCE. ““To the solid ground Of Nature trusts the mind which builds for aye OS ONE No. 2254, VOL. 90] “LTHURSDAY, JANU ARY 9, 1913 _[Pxic E SIXPENCE __ Reg zistered as a New spaper 3 at ihe ‘General Post Office. } [al Rights Reserved. NEWTON & Co.’s New “College” LANTERN, MADE ENTIRELY 1N METAL, With Removable Bellows Front, for Science Work, ‘* Miniature” giving an open stage if required well ventilated ‘‘Steam Proof’ Condenser, Semi-enclosed Arc Lamp, Resistance, &c. In Case Complete £7 12s. 6d. (Woodcut in course of preparation.) This is probably the very finest value in Optical Lanterns for Class Room Work that has ever yet been put on the Market. ¢ for Particulars, or call and see the Instrument in Messrs. NEWTON & Co.'s New OPTICAL & DEMONSTRATION SHOWROOMS, At 72 WICMORE STREET, LONDON, W. Freer Street, E.C. (Two minutes’ Bond Street Station, C.L.R.) to H.M. the Late at 3 walk from Warrant By Royal 1/- By Post King and the Government. ue LENS It is the Key to Success in Photography. Who can expect to excel who does not understand how to use the diaphragm, the Sous back, the rising front, focussing scale, &c., &c.? All such questions are lucidly and simply explained in “PHOTOGRAPHIC LENSES A SIMPLE TREATISE.” numerous gdiagrams and cloth bound. illustrations, 68 CORNHILL, Rie nDpECK, Lids oacn ec. CES eee 350 pages, 44 plates, | GRAND PRIX, STUDY REYNOLDS & BRANSON, Ltd. ““RYSTOS"' OPEN STAGE LANTERN. TURIN, 1911. With Iron Body (suitable for any illuminant) with side door and brass sight holes, walnut base, meniscus condenser 44 in. diameter, objective of superior quality 23 in. diameter, 6, 8, 9, Or 12 in. focus, with rack and pinion. Coribletss in - £5 12 2 extra, 22 travelling case, but without burner “ Phoenix” Bs x For Optical Lanterns of other assigns, see Catalogue, 224 pages, post free. 14 Commercial Street, Arc Lamp for above Leeds. # NEGRETTI & ZAMBRA’S = RAIN GAUGES. The ‘“ Hyetograph ” is a Recording Rain Gauge that is approved by _ the highest authorities. Price, complete, with charts, pen, and ink, £6150 Illustrated Price List of Rain Gauges, etc., sent post free on request. 38 Holborn Viaduct, London, E.C, 45 Cornhill, E.C. I22 Regent St., W. oe ° ° ce e- lity, ‘Ye JAN 21 1918 CXC NATURE [JANUARY 9, 1913 ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. ALBEMARLE STREET, PICCADILLY, W. Tuesday next (January 14), at three o'clock, Professor WILLIAM BATE- son, D.Sc., F.R.S.. First ot Six Lectures on ‘‘The Heredity of Sex and some Cognate Problems.’’ One Guinea the Course. Thursday (January 16), at three o'clock, Seron Gornon, Esq., F.Z.S., First of Two Lectures on ** Birds of the Hill Country.”’ Half a Guinea. Saturday (January 18), at three o'clock, Henry Watrorp Davies, Esq., Mus.Doc., LL.D., First of Three Lectures on “‘ Aspects of Har- mony” (with Musical Illustrations). Half a Guinea. Subscription to all the Courses in the Season, Two Guineas. The Friday Evening Meetings will begin on January 17. at nine o'clock, when Professor Sir J. J. THomson, O.M., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., will give a Discourse 01 “‘ Further Applications of the Method of Positive Rays.” To these meetings Members and their Friends only are admitted. SPECIAL LECTURES. A COURSE OF SIX LECTURES will be delivered at the EAST LONDON COLLEGE (University of London), MILE END ROAD, E., By ARCHIBALD SHARP, Wh.Sc., B.Sc., A.M.I.C.E., ON ‘INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES,” With Special Reference to Possibilities of Immediate Future Developments. Lectures commence on MONDAY, JANUARY 20, 1913, at 7 p.m. Fee for the Course, £1 1s. Persons under 25 years of age who are employed in Engineering or Electrical Engineering work, will be admitted at half the above rates. Syllabus on application to the Registrar, or Principal. J. L. S. HATTON, M.A. THE SIR JOHN CASS TECHNICAL INSTITUTE, JEWRY STREET, ALDGATE, E.C. The following Special Courses of Instruction will be given during the Lent and Summer Terms, 1913 :— CONDUCTION IN GASES AND RADIO-ACTIVITY. By R. S. Wittows, M.A., D.Sc. A Course of Ten Lectures, fully illustrated by experiments, Friday evenings, 7 to 8 p.m., commencing Friday, January 17, 1913. PRODUCER GAS PRACTICE, SOLID FUELS, THE VALUATION OF FUELS, AND THE CONTROL OF FUEL CONSUMPTION. By J. S. S. Brame. A Course of Ten Lectures, Monday evenings, 7 to 8 p.m., commencing Monday, January 13, 1913. TECHNICAL GAS ANALYSIS. By Cuarves A. Keane, D.sc., Pb.D., F.I.C. A Course of Practical Work, Wednesday evenings, 7 to 10 p.m., com- mencing Wednesday, April 23, 1913. FUEL ANALYSIS. : By J. S. S. BRaME. A Course of Practical Work, Friday evenings, 7 to 10 p.m., commencing Friday, April 25, 1913. Detailed Syllabus of the Courses may be had upon application at the Office of the Institute or by letter to the PRINCIPAL. BACTERIOLOGY AND PATHOLOGY. KING’S COLLEGE, LONDON. University Laboratories : 62 CHANDOS STREET, CHARING CROSS, W.C. Bacteriology and Pathology—Professor Hewiett, Dr. F. E. Taycor, and Dr. Hare. Bacteriology of Fermentation—Mr. Ruys Cuarces, F.1.C. Microscopy—Mr. J. E. BarNarp, F.R.M.S. Parasitology—Dr. GEorGE C. Low. The Laboratory is open daily for Instruction and Research. For particulars apply to the Secretary or to Professor HEWLETT at 62 Chandos Street. ET UNIVERSITY OF LONDON. KING’S COLLEGE. BACTERIOLOGICAL DEPARTMENT. 62 Chandos Street, W.C An Evening Class in Bacteriology will be’ held on Monday evenings at or 6.30 (by arrangement), commencing January 13, 1913. For particulars apply to the Secretary or to Professor HEWLETT BATTERSEA POLYTECHNIC, S.W. Principal—*S. G. Rawson, D.Sc. University Courses, Day and Evening, under Recognised Teachers of the University, are provided for Degrees in SCIENCE, ENGINEERING, and MUSIC. Full Courses for Day Technical and other Students, extending over three or more years, are given. For Evening Students, Classes and Systematised Courses are also provided. pre. M.:Saxevsy, M.Sc., B.A. Mathematics... .4 *F. W., Harvey, M.A., B.Sc.® \*H. H., Harris, M.A. ! \ / \ *W. Tuomson, M.A., B.Sc. Physics *S. Marsu, B.Sc., Ph.D. 5 *J. WiLson, M.Sc. Chemistry *J. L. Wires, D.Sc. | *W. E. M. Curnock, M.Sc., B.Eng. Mechanical and J*j. B. SHaw, A.R.C.S., Wh.Ex. Civil Engineering | *H. M. Epmonps, B.Sc. *M. T. Ormssy, A-R.C.S., M.I.C.E. Electrical f*A. W. AsHuTon, M.Sc. Engineering |~A. T. Dover, A.M.I.E.E. {*Miss L. J. Crarke, B.Sc. Botany *-\*Miss E. pE Fraing, D.Sc. Geology ... *J. V. Evspen, D.Sc. Music *H. D. Wetton, Mus.Doc., F.R.C.O. * Denotes Recognised Teacher of University of London. Domestic Science. Head of Department—Miss M. E. MARSDEN. Art and Crafts. Head of Department—F. H. Anprews, F.S.A.M. Physical Training for Women. Head of Department—Miss H. F. Morse. Courses are provided in Technological Chemistry, Sanitary Science, and Sanitary Law, &c., and for Higher Civil Service Examinations. Special facilities are afforded for Research Work. The new Hygiene Laboratories given by the Worshipful Company of Drapers are ready for use. Scholarships to the value of £300 are awarded annually. The Governing Body have opened a Hostel for Women Students. Athletic Grounds extending over five acres have been acquired. The Edwin Tate Library is open for the use of students. For prospectus and further particulars apply to the SECRETARY. BEDFORD COLLEGE FOR WOMEN (UNIVERSITY OF LONDON), YORK PLACE, BAKER STREET, LONDON, W. Principat—Miss M. J. TUKE, M.A. The Lent Term begins on Thursday, January 16. Lectures are given in preparation for all Examinations of the University of London in Arts, Science and Preliminary Medicine, for the Teachers’ Diploma, London, the Teachers’ Certificate, Cambridge, and for the Cambridge Higher Local Examination. Six Laboratories are open to the students for practical work. There is a special course of Scientific Instruction in Hygiene, designed to furnish training for Women Factory and Sanitary Inspectors and Teachers of Hygiene. The Art School may be attended by students who are not taking other subjects at the College. A single course in each subject may be attended. Regular Physical Instruction is given free of cost to students who desire it by a fully-qualified woman teacher. Accommodation for 68 Resident Students is provided, partly in the Col- lege and partly in an additional residence at South Villa, Regent's Park. ENTRANCE SCHOLARSHIPS. Three Entrance Scholarships (one in Arts and two in Science) will be offered for competition in June, rgr3. Full particulars on application to the Principal at the College. SECONDARY TRAINING DEPARTMENT. Application for Entrance Scholarships, Grants, &c., for the course beginning October, 1gr3, should be sent to the Head of the Department. ne EEE EEE IMPERIAL COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, SOUTH KENSINGTON. A Course of about 20 Lectures, with Practical Work, will be given, commencing January 14, as follows :— Subject. Conducted by The Pathology of Plants ... Professor BLACKMAN, M.A., Sc.D., F.L.S. For further particui rs of this and other Courses to follow, and for admission to this Course, application should be made to the SECRETARY. ———— ae WANTED (in London), Private Lessons in Elementary Crystallography, with special reference to Mineralogy, also Lessons in Elementary Petro- graphy. State qualifications, facilities, & terms to Box 9, c/o NATURE. SOY INA hig THURSDAY, JANUARY 9, 10973. SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY. Treatise on General and Industrial Inorganic Chemistry. By Dr. Ettore Molinari. Third revised and amplified Italian edition. Trans- lated by Dr. Ernest Feilmann. Pp. xvi+704. (London: J. and A. Churchill, 1912.) Price BUSo IWS HIS treatise, which is a translation of the third and amplified Italian edition, is divided into three parts, devoted respectively to general, non-metallic, and metallic chemistry. So far as English readers are concerned, it is open to doubt whether the general part (pp. I-125) represents, in any sense, an improvement on the treatment of the subject. to be found in standard works on _ historical and _ physical chemistry. In some cases, the views of the author are not such as would meet with unquali- fied acceptance by all chemists, and in these cases the translator has added emendatory notes, many of which occur in this general section (e.g. pp. 25, 49, 50). In the paragraphs devoted to the history of chemistry the author discusses, in some detail, the development of chemical arts among the ancient civilisations of the world. He holds that the Chinese in particular were adepts in these matters, and had actually anticipated Priestley and Lavoisier in arriving at a know- ledge of oxygen and the composition of water. The space allotted, in this section of the book, to various historical topics is not, however, pro- portional to their chemical interest and import- ance. A long footnote, occupying two-thirds of a page, refers to certain particulars in the life of Lavoisier which are of dubious import in a scientific treatise. Biographical criticism leaves us with so few illusions that we might have been spared a reference to the accusation brought against Lavoisier that he amassed, ina few years, 48,0001. as a fermier-général. This and similar items might with advantage have been replaced by such genuinely chemical matters as Rey’s work on the calcination of metals, and Graham’s re- searches on the diffusion of gases. The former of these investigators is not mentioned in con- nection with the anti-phlogistic theory, and the latter’s experiments are dismissed in half a sen- tence (p. 39). A statement regarding the lique- faction of helium (p. 29) is contradicted by the facts cited on p. 312. The descriptive portions (Par‘. 2 and 3) con- tain those distinctive features 0. the work which justify its translation into English. Here the NO. 2254, VOL. 90] author has indicated the industrial processes in- volved in the preparation of the more common elements and compounds, and in those cases where the manufacture has assumed considerable proportions, full details. are given in order to emphasise the commercial importance of the sub- ject. The manufacture of ordinary and fuming sulphuric acid, the utilisation of atmospheric nitrogen, and the production of hydrogen on a large scale are examples of these topics. A new departure consists in giving the commercial price of each substance, as well as a complete summary of its industrial applications. Statistics are em- ployed to compare the past and present import- ance of the commoner chemicals. aa In the case of manufactures carried onto a considerable extent in Italy, such as the produc- tion of sulphur and calcium carbide, the author gives interesting details on the influence of local conditions on the development of the industry. The section devoted to metals, includes full accounts of the industrially important compounds of the alkali metals, the production of super- phosphate fertilisers, the modern smelting . of copper, and the manufacture of Portland cement.. Even the less common elements are briefly men- tioned, and their industrial applications indicated.. The micrography of iron and steel is described in some detail, and illustrated by two phototype plates. There are a number of minor typographical errors scattered through the book (e.g. pp. 110, 112, UE. NOP, AOS, As, Bi, Some Cit \wyovrela are not devoid of unconscious humour. Ruther- ford’s name is effectively Germanised to Ruther- dorf by the simple expedient of transposing two letters. Sulphur is said to be used in the wine- growing industry against a cryptogram (si2) which attacks the young bunches of grapes. Ge Ws ML THE PRODUCTION OF CANE SUGAR. The World’s Cane Sugar Industry, Past and Present. By H. C. Prinsen Geerligs. Pp. xvi +399+maps. (Altrincham: Norman Rodger, 1OL2)) IPOS WAG. sXe, BOUT the middle of the nineteenth century nine-tenths of the world’s sugar was ob- tained from the sugar cane. At the close of the century the proportion had fallen to about one- half, and the industry was considered by many to be dying out. Then there came a revival; the quantity began to increase, and has since grown continuously. The proportion, however, remains much about the same as before, for there has been U 510 NATURE | JANUARY 9, 1913 a concurrent increase in the quantity of sugar pro- duced from beetroot. In fact, an equilibrium appears now to have been reached, sugar cane and beetroot contributing each about one-half of the world’s total sugar, though sometimes the one preponderates a little, sometimes the other. The cause of the decline was, of course, the development of the beet sugar industry in Europe. The revival has been due to the coalescence of a number of factors, chief among which are the Brussels Convention abolishing the bounty system, the Japanese acquisition and development of Formosa, the tariff privileges granted by the United States to the former Spanish colonies, and, “last but not least,” as Mr. Geerligs points out, “the great advance of science in the province of sugar cane cultivation and cane sugar manufac- ture.” This last factor is the one which would be of chief interest to readers of NarurE: it is not, however, dealt’ with, except incidentally, in the book before us. The author thinks the time ripe for a connected survey of the past, the present, and the probable future of the cane sugar industry in the various producing regions. He has there- fore collected and discussed a large amount of historical, industrial, and statistical information respecting each of the countries concerned in the production. An idea of the scope and method of treatment will be gathered from the following summary of the topics dealt with in a typical section :—geography, climate, area planted with sugar cane, cultivation, manufacture, import and export duties, and future prospects. Whilst the greater part of the book is of value chiefly to specialists, the first two chapters are of somewhat wider interest. They give a general survey of the history of the sugar industry, both cane and beet; in them Mr. Geerligs describes how various economical and political conditions consumption, exportation, have influenced the production of sugar, and he explains fully the working of the bounty system and of the sugar “cartels” on the European con- tinent. The author prophesies great progress in the near future for the Philippines, which, since the American occupation, have shown much improve- ment in methods of cultivation. Cuba has made similar progress, though here the difficulty of obtaining labour is against rapid development in the future. Porto Rico, and, given stable poli- tical conditions, Mexico, are also considered to be countries where the cane sugar industry should increase largely. C. S. NO. 2254, MONOGRAPHS ON BIOCHEMISTRY. (1) Oxidations and Reductions in the Animal Body. By Dr. H. D. Dakin. Pp. viii+ 755. (London: Longmans, Green and Co., 1912.) Price 4s. net. (Monographs on Biochemistry.) (2) The Simple Carbohydrates and the Glucosides. Second edition. By Dr. E. Frankland Arm- strong. Pp. vilit+171. (London: Longmans, Green and Co., 1912.) Price 5s. net. graphs on Biochemistry.) (1) HOSE who have followed Dr. Dakin’s work will be interested to learn his general conclusions as to the course of oxidation and reduction in the animal body. His mono- graph is logically arranged into general principles, including the nature of oxidising and reducing agents and the methods of investigation, and a detailed consideration of the results obtained for the various classes of chemical substances. There is a_ striking difference between the amount of positive knowledge concerning the oxidation of fatty acids and of carbohydrates. This difference may be due to the greater ease with which the products of oxidation can be iso- lated in the former group. For instance, the fol- lowing conclusions amongst others are reached concerning the catabolism of fats: the oxidation of saturated fatty acids leads to the formation of a- and §-unsaturated acids either directly or, more probably, through the intermediate formation of B- hydroxy- and B-ketonic acids; unsaturated acids give rise to the same products as do the saturated acids; they may take up water and form saturated hydroxy-acids; they may undergo direct oxidation at the double linkage; but di-hydroxy-acids such as are formed by in vitro oxidation of unsaturated acids are not intermediate products of biochemical oxidations. Contrast with these the one definite statement about the carbohydrates :—‘‘Lactic acid must therefore be regarded as one of the most important substances concerned with the intermediate meta- bolism of the carbohydrates.” This lack of balance is characteristic of a developing line of work, and does not imply any lack of effort. On the contrary, it is remarkable that so much information has been accumulated in a comparatively short time. The unravelling of the processes of oxidation requires great care and patience. The methods of investigation are liable to lead to mistakes, but the author uses the results with due caution. He points out that when a supposed intermediate product gives thd}same end products as does the original substance, the deduction is that this pro- duct may be a step in the transformation, but if (Mono- JANUARY 9, 1913] NATURE 511 it does not do so, the reaction is practically certain to proceed by some other path. From the whole tone of the book, one is led to place great confidence in the conclusions reached by the author. The collection of so many data in such accessible form is a great boon to biological chemists. (2) The first edition of Dr. Armstrong’s mono- graph was reviewed in Nature nearly three years ago (May 19, 1910). The second edition is larger, and the cost is greater. This subject has such a large literature that there was some danger that the monograph might have been a condensation of some dull and monu- mental work. Fortunately, the author has avoided that entanglement, and has presented a comprehensive survey of his subject without making his book a chemical inventory. The chemistry of typical carbohydrates is described, and their relationship to other sugars is indicated. Excellent tables give the required data, so that the train of thought is not interrupted by un- necessary details. After reading the monograph, one can see a connection between a- and f-gluco- sides, their relation to enzymes, the cause of muta- rotation, and many other interesting phenomena. Both these monographs ought to be read by all physiologists and biological chemists, as_ they contain much information about their respective subjects, and in addition they are well written with a broad view as to the general problems involved. le Bek BOOKS, ON FORESTRY ARBORICULTURE. (1) Illustriertes Handbuch der Laubholzkunde. By Camillo Karl Schneider. Lieferung 6—12. Pp. v+1070. Price 34 marks. Register. Pp. vii+136. Price 5 marks. (Jena: Gustav Fischer.) (2) The Story of Our Trees in Twenty-Four Lessons. By Margaret M. Gregson. Pp. xii+160. (Cambridge: University Press, 1912.) Price 2s. 6d. (Cambridge Nature Study Series.) (3) Forestry in New England. A Handbook of Eastern Forest Management. By Prof. R. C. Hawley and Prof. A. F. Hawes. Pp. xv +479. (New York: John Wiley and Sons; London: Chapman and Hall, Ltd., 1912.) Price 15s. net. (4) Identification of the Economic Woods of the United States. Including a Discussion of the Structural and Physical Properties of Wood. By Prof. Samuel J. Record. Pp. vii+117+6 plates. (New York: John Wiley and Sons; London: Chapman and Hall, Ltd., 1912.) Price 5s. 6d. net. NO. 2254, VOL. 90] AND (5) Lightning in Relation to Forest Fires. By F. G. Plummer. Pp. 39. (U.S. Dept. Agric., Forest Service. Bulletin Washington, IQI2.) (1) SHIGE HE number of trees and shrubs in cultiva- tion in the open air in this country is astonishing. Numerous new introductions have been made of late years, mainly from China, where the discoveries of Dr. A. Henry and Mr. E. H. Wilson have opened up an immense region, replete with new and hardy species. No complete treatise on the subject has appeared in English since Loudon published his classic work, ‘Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum,” in 1838, and the abridgment, “Trees and Shrubs,” in 1842. We have had to depend upon German text-books. The best of these, Koehne’s ‘“‘ Deutsche Dendrologie,” was published in 1893, and is now out of date. We hail, then, with great pleasure the appear- ance of the concluding part of Schneider’s great work, which deals with broad-leaved trees and shrubs, the conifers not being included. This is in two volumes, the first comprising 810 pages and 460 figures, the second 1070 pages and 628 figures, supplemented by a separate index of names, covering no fewer than 136 pages. The whole forms an indispensable text-book for all interested in arboriculture and horticulture. The descrip- tions are short, but accurate; the references are numerous and exact. Varieties and sports, which were omitted in Koehne’s work, are briefly mentioned by Schneider. As his regions of cultivation extend from the Baltic to Istria, most of the genera which are cultivated in England are taken up; but there are curious omissions. Eucalyptus is not referred to, yet no fewer than twelve species find a home in the west of England and Scotland, and in most parts of Ireland. The account of monocotyledon- ous trees and shrubs is very limited. While Yucca, Ruscus, Smilax, and Agave are included, no mention is made of palms like Trachycarpus, or of any of the bamboo tribe. Molhoss Viaduct, London, E.C. 45 Cornhill, a I22 Regent St., PRICES ON APPLICATION. Kemble St. KINGSWAY London, W.C. C@e0@e0se0e0e0e0e0e08e80 PES Set Sot Pot tot tet tot tod tat tot tok tory cc NATURE [JANUARY 16, 1913 THE DAVY-FARADAY RESEARCH LABORATORY ROYAL INSTITUTION, No. 20 ALBEMARLE STREET, W. DIRECTOR: Professor Sir JAMES DEWAR, M.A., LL.D., Ph.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. This Laboratory was founded by the late Dr. Ludwig Mond, D.Sc., -R.S., as a Memorial of Davy and Faraday, for the purpose of promoting, by original research, the development and extension of Chemical and Physical Science. Persons fully qualified to undertake original scientific research admitted to the Laboratory are entitled to the use of the physical and chemical apparatus and ordinary chemicals of a Laboratory, and may be granted by the Director any special materials necessary for research, subject to the approval of the Laboratory Committee. The Staff of the Laboratory, and a trained Mechanician, are under the control of the Director. LENT TERM.—Monday, January 13, to Saturday, March rs. EASTER TERM.—Monday, April 7, to Saturday, July 26. Applicants can receive full information regarding the Laboratory by addressing the Assistant SecretTary, Royal Institution, No. 21 Albemarle Street, W. SPECIAL LECTURES. A COURSE OF SIX LECTURES will be-delivered at the EAST LONDON COLLEGE (University of London), MILE END ROAD, E., By ARCHIBALD SHARP, Wh.Sc., B.Sc., A.M.I.C.E., ON ‘INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES,” With Special Reference to Possibilities of Immediate Future Developments. Lectures commence on MONDAY, JANUARY 20, 1913, at 7 p.m. Fee for the Course, 41 1s. Persons under 25 years of age who are employed in Engineering or Electrical Engineering work, will be admitted at half the above rates. Syllabus on application to the Registrar, or Principal. J. L. S. HATTON, M.A. UNIVERSITY OF LONDON. The following Advanced Courses of Lectures will be delivered :-— A Course of Four Lectures on ‘'Some hitherto neglected Sourses of Error in Mine-Surveying and their Elimination or Reduction by Improve- ments in Instruments or Methods,” by L. H. Cooke, M.I.M.M., in the Metallurgical Lecture lheatre of the Imperial College, Royal College of Science, Exhibition Road, S.W, at 3 p.m., on Monday, January 20, Thursday 23, Monday 27, and Thursday 30. Admission free, without ticket. A Course of Eight Lectures on ‘“ The Relaticns of Electrolytes to Living T’ssues,” by G. R. Mines, M.A., in the Physiological ‘Laboratory of the University of London, South Kensington, S.W., on Tuesdays, January 21, 28, February 4, 11, 18, 25, March 4 and rr, at 5 p.m. Admission free, without ticket. P. J. HARTOG, Academic Registrar. COUNTY BOROUGH OF WEST HAM. MUNICIPAL TECHNICAL INSTITUTE. The Council invite applications for the post of LECTURER IN MATHEMATICS. Salary, £200 per annum. Full particulars, with Form of Application, can be obtained by sending a stamped addressed enveloje to the Principal, Municipal Technical Insti- tute, Romford Road, West Ham, E., and applications should reach him on or before Monday, February 3, 1913. FRED. E. HILLEARY, Town Clerk. January 13, 1913. BIRKBECK COLLEGE. ASSISTANT LECTURER AND DEMONSTRATOR IN BOTANY. The Council invite applications for this post. Commencing salary, £160. Applications stating age, experience, academic qualifications, &c., with not more than three testimonials, should be sent in not later than January 31. aah THE PRINCIPAL. Birkbeck College, Breams Buildings, Chancery Lane, E.C BIRKBECK COLLEGE, BREAMS BUILDINGS, CHANCERY LANE, E.C. Principal: G. Armitage-Smith, M.A., D.Lit. COURSES OF STUDY (May and Evening) for the Degrees of the UNIVERSITY OF LONDON in the FACULTIES OF SCIENCE & ARTS (PASS AND HONOURS) under RECOGNISED TEACHERS of the University. SCIENCE.—Chemistry, Physics, Mathematics (Pure and Applied), Botany, Zoology, Geology and Mineralogy. ARTS.—Latin, Greek, English, French, German, Italian, History, Geography, Logic, Economies, Mathematics (Pure and Applied). Evening Courses for the Degrees in Economics and Law. { Day: Science, £17 10s,; Arts, £10 10s. SESSIONAL FEES , Evening: Science, Arts, or Economics, £5 5s. POST-GRADUATE AND RESEARCH WORK. Particulars on application to the Secretary. THE SIR JOHN CASS TECHNICAL INSTITUTE, JEWRY STREET, ALDGATE, E.C. The following Special Courses of Instruction will be given during th Lent and Summer Terms, 1913 :— CONDUCTION IN GASES AND RADIO-ACTIVITY. By R. S. Wittows, M.A., D.Sc. A Course of Ten Lectures, fully illustrated by experiments, Friday evenings, 7 to 8 p.m., commencing Friday, January 17, 1913. PRODUCER GAS PRACTICE, SOLID FUELS, THE VALUATION OF FUELS, AND THE CONTROL OF FUEL CONSUMPTION. By J. S. S. Brame. A Course of Ten Lectures, Monday evenings, 7 to 8 p.m., commencing Monday, January 13, 1913. TECHNICAL GAS ANALYSIS. By Cuarvtes A. Keane, D.sc., Pb.D., F.1C. A Course of Practical Work, Wednesday evenings, 7 to 10 p.m., com- mencing Wednesday, April 23, 1913. FUEL ANALYSIS. By J. S. S. BRAME. A Course of Practical Work, Friday evenings, 7 to 10 p m., commencing Friday, April 25, 1913. Detailed Syllabus of the Courses may be had upon application at the Office of the Institute or by letter to the PRINCIPAL. SOUTH-WESTERN POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE, MANRESA ROAD, CHELSEA, S.W: Day Courses under recognised Teachers in Preparation for London University Degrees in Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, in Chemistry, Physics and Natural Science; and Technical Courses arranged to extend over Three Years and Prepare for Engineering, Electrical, Chemical and Metallurgical Professions. Session Fee, £15. Evening Courses in all Departments :— Mathematics—*J. Lister, A.R.C.S., T. G. Strain, B.A. ; Physics— *S. SKINNER, M.A., *L. Lownps, B.Sc., Ph.D., *F. W. JORDAN, B.Sc. ; Chemistry—*J. B. Coteman, A.R.C.S., *J. C. Crocker, M.A., D.Sc, and *F. H. Lowe, M.Sc.; Botany—*H. B. Lacry, S. E. CHANDLER, D.Sc., and *W. Ruston, A-R.C.S., D.I.C. ; Geology—*A. J. Masten, F.G.S., F.L.S.; Human Physiology—E. L. Kennaway, M.A., M.D. ; Zoology—*J. CunnincHam, M.A.; Engineering—*W. CAMPBELL Houston, B.Sc., A.M.LC.E., *V. C. Davies, B.Sc., and H. AUGHTIE 3 Electrical Engineering—*A, J. Makower, M.A., *B. H. Morpny, and U. A. Oscuwatp, B.A. *Kecognised Teacher of the University of London. Prospectus from the SECRETARY, post free, 4d. ; at the Office, rd. ‘Lelephone : 899 Western. SIDNEY SKINNER, M.A., Principal. KING EDWARD VII. SCHOOL, LYTHAM. The Governors of the Lytham Chuivies invite applications for the HEADMAS1ERSHIP of the above Public se ondary School. Candidates must be University Graduates under the age of 45. ‘Lhe salary, including capitation fees on the present number ot boys (150), is £550, with house, rates, coal, and light. Applications must be sent before March 1 next to the undersigned, from whom particulars can be obtained. WILSON, WRIGHT & DAVIES, Solicitors, 6 Chapel Street, Preston. January 3, 1913. FOR SALE.£5 Jubilee Coin, two S. American Doubloons, 1808 Hispan=18 33 Chile, several articles Jewel- lery, God Watch, Chain, and Trinkets.—Offers to D, M. Granam, Auctioneer, Forfar, N.B., Trustee, who holds the articles specified. NATURE 535 1913. THURSDAY, JANUARY 16, A MATHEMATICIAN’S LECTURES ON AERONAUTICS. The Dynamics of Mechanical Flight. Lectures delivered at the Imperial College of Science and Technology, March, 1910 and 1911. By SiGe Greenhill. Pp. iii+121. (London: Constable and Co., Ltd., 1912.) Price 8s. 6d. net. TP to the present time the study of problems _) relating to aeroplanes and airships has con- spicuously failed to attfact the attention of our leading mathematicians and mathematical phy- sicists. This is the more surprising in view of the important part that has been played in the pasi, and is still being played, by methods of mathe- matical analysis in systematising and elucidating our knowledge of electric phenomena. A book by so trustworthy a mathematician as Sir G. Green- hill should prove of great value in clearing up the misunderstanding's which have so frequently arisen as to the meaning and use (or misuse) of formulz in connection with aeronautics. This book claims to be the substance of the lectures given by Sir G. Greenhill at the Imperial College, and in view of the difficulties of writing a book of this character, the author has probably valid reasons for not wishing to extend its scope beyond the limits of these lectures. What he has done is to present in the first place a simple account of some of the more elementary problems which are discussed in detail in his report on the stream lines past a plane barrier, and in the second place a general summary of the formule that are in- volved in relations between lift, drift and horse- power, gyrostatic action, the screw propeller, and the pneumatical principles of the airship. As might naturally be expected by those who know Greenhill’s writings, the introduction is mainly taken up with quotations from Greek, English, and other classics. There are two methods of investigating the pres- sure on a plane moving through a fluid medium. One is the Newtonian method, which expresses the pressure in terms of the momentum communicated to the column of air on which the plane impinges. The other is based essentially on Bernouilli’s pres- sure-equation, which determines the pressure from the stream line motion past the plane. The Newtonian method still finds great favour with a large class of practical men, and many attempts have been made to apply it to aeroplanes. But beyond Newton’s deduction of the so-called “sine-squared ” law for a medium which, as Green- hill remarks on p. 14, is taken “to behave like a cloud of particle dust,” little or no progress has NO! 2255, VOL.90l — been made in obtaining results that can be re- garded as established on a trustworthy basis. On p. 41 Greenhill gives a figure show- ing a popular misrepresentation of the stream lines past a cambered plane, which finds favour with some of these neo-Newtonian would-be philoso- phers, but in which the absence of any broad- ening of the stream lines is inconsistent with the existence of any thrust or lift. The theory of discontinuous motion as originated _by Kirchhoff and Helmholtz, and developed by Lord Rayleigh, Schwarz and Christoffel, Michell, Love, and finally at very great detail in Greenhill’s report, comprises all the problems that are soluble by existing analytical methods regarding fluid pressures on planes, as determined from Bernouilli’s equation. It is true that they involve assumptions which at best form only a first approximation to the conditions prevailing in actual aeroplanes. But* a closely ‘analogous relation exists between the application of conjugate func- tions to electrical problems and the calculations required in practical electric engineering. No one will question the value of analytical applications of complex variables to electricity, and similarly these hydrodynamical investigations offer the best basis for a theoretical explanation and study of aeroplane pressures. A considerable portion of the chapters on this subject is devoted to a discussion of the integrals _ involved in problems where the first integration can be effected without the use of elliptic functions. The condition for this is that there must only be two edges at which discontinuities are formed, or that the number of such edges must be reducible to two from considerations of symmetry. In such cases the “Omega” diagram’ representing the logarithm of the reciprocal of the velocity has only two: right-angles, and the first integration only. involves a quadratic expression under the radical sign. A table of different forms of this | integral is. given in the present book. Since the book appeared, some researches have been started at Bangor on the lift and drift of bent planes, with the view of estimating the effects of camber. One such application is suggested by Greenhill on p- 40, who, however, assumes that the stream lines divide at the bend; this we find is not the general rule, but a particular case. The object of the research is to obtain numerical tables of the lift and drift in particular systems, and so to acquire some information regarding their relative efficiency. The integrals are all capable of evalua- tion, and this research could probably not have been started but for Greenhill’s previous work on the subject. The chapter on gyrostatic action is of an ele- >.< On Be NATURE [JANUARY 16, 1913 mentary character, and those who have seen Greenhill experimenting with bicycle wheels at former mathematical congresses will not be sur- prised to find these experiments detailed here. The chapter on the screw propeller contains a summary of the principal theories and formule that have been proposed, but, as the author points out, all these are based on certain assumptions. The discontinuous motion past the blades of a pro- peller is far too complicated to admit of analytical investigation. The reference on p. 105 to the method of fixing two screws on the same shaft so as to neutralise the rotational angular momen- tum of the wake. seems deserving of careful atten- tion. This system may not have been of much advantage when applied to the early screw steamers, but with the increasing size and speed of modern flying machines, an arrangement of the kind may not improbably prove indispensable, especially in a rare medium like air. Without some such plan increased speed can only be obtained by increasing the revolutions of the screw or decreasing the pitch, and in the latter case the proportion of energy wasted in the rotation of the wake increases correspondingly, as does also the couple, tending to turn the aeroplane over sideways unless it is provided with twin-screws. The last chapter deals with the pneumatical prin- ciples of an airship, that is to say, mainly ele- mentary hydrostatics. For the student of exact science, this book will afford a good account of the principles and formule which determine the forces acting on a flying machine when it moves through the air. The study of the motions which an aeroplane undergoes under the action of these forces is another matter altogether. On the other hand, those who require to apply formule to actual machines will have a guarantee that the formule in this book are at least sound deductions from the assumptions on which they are based. G. H. Bryan. MUNICIPAL TRADING AND CURRENCY. (1) Principles and Methods of Municipal Trading. By Douglas Knoop. Pp. xvii+ 409. (London: Macmillan & Co., 1912.) Price 10s. 6d. net. (2) The Standard of Value. By Sir David Barbour, K.C.S.I., K.C.M.G. Pp. xvi+242. (London: Macmillan & Co., 1912.) Price 6s. net. (1) HE subject of municipal trading presents an initial difficulty of definition. The economic or “reproductive ” undertakings of local authorities may be divided into trading enterprises carried on for profit, and those of which the charges do not fully cover the cost and which are therefore subsidised. Mr. Knoop confines himself NO. 2255, VOL. 90] to the former, but includes those businesses which are sometimes carried on for profit and sometimes are not. As a result, his work has gained in completeness and thoroughness. The arrangement of the book is admirable, and each chief division of the subject, such as Extent, Management, and Selling or Labour Policies, is separately dealt with.. Moreover, both the general treatment and the criticism are, with a few ex- ceptions, ample and well-informed. One may mention especially the case of reserve funds and renewals, in which the author’s strictures appear most just, and the judicious summing-up regarding the “writing-down” of the commercial to the housing value of cleared sites. The author’s con- clusions limit the municipal management of com- petitive enterprises to those which tend to become monopolies ; otherwise, “with one or two small ex- ceptions, it is strongly to be deprecated.” This appears unduly pessimistic, but few will deny the very great value of the book as a history, descrip- tion and criticism. (2) Sir David Barbour, a former Financial Member of the Council of the Governor-General of India and one of the Royal Commission on Gold and Silver, aims at placing on record the results of his wide administrative and financial experience. His book deals primarily with the causes of appre- ciation or depreciation, whether in a gold standard or under a system of bimetallism. Regarding the latter, he holds that a definite verdict either way is not possible, but is doubtful whether the adop- tion of a gold standard would have taken place if all its consequences could have been foreseen. There is a slight preliminary treatment of some general questions of economic theory which bear upon the subject, and a fuller one of the Quantity Theory and of the relations of money, credit and prices. Here the author is inclined to under- estimate the modifications of the theory that are brought about by the influence of credit, at any rate in the case of wholesale transactions. Again, it is not the total output of fresh gold, but the part of it that is used for coinage, including re- serves of bullion, that influences the level of prices. The second half of the book is both the more valuable and the more interesting part of it. The points are well made that to lower general prices, decreased cost of production must be accompanied by increased output; and that “the fall in the gold price of silver was due to the fall in the gold price of commodities produced in the gold standard countries and exported to the silver standard countries.” The whole book is clear and read- able, and, embodying as it does the theoretical conclusions of a man of wide practical experi- ence, contains much that is of interest and value. N. B. DEARLE. JANUARY 16, 1913] NATORE 537 BUILDING STONES. (1) Handbuch der bautechnischen Gesteinspriifung. Fir Beamte der Materialpriifungsanstalten und Baubehérden, Steinbruchingenieure, Architekten und Bauingenieure, sowie fiir Studierende der technischen Hochschulen. By Prof. J. Hirschwald. Zweiter Band. Pp. xvi+ 388-923. (Berlin: Gebriider Borntraeger, 1912.) Price 32 marks. (2) Building Stones and Clays: Their Origin, Characters and Examination. By Edwin C. Eckel. Pp. xv+264. (New York: J. Wiley and Sons; London: Chapman & Hall, Ltd., 1912.) Price 12s. 6d. net. (1) HE first volume of Hirschwald’s com- prehensive work was noticed in NATURE of June 6, 1912 (vol. 89, p. 344). This, the second and final volume, deals with the applica- tion of the methods previously described. One of the outstanding features of Hirschwald’s method is the frank acknowledgment that different types of stone demand that attention should be paid to their peculiarities of structure and mineral composition. Thus, he treats separately each of the following types :—Sandstones, grauwackes, limestones — dolomites — marbles, roofingslates, granites, gneiss with mica schists, syenites— diorites—diabases, porphyries, trachytes—rhyolites —andesites, basalts, schalsteins and tuffs. Under each of these heads he gives an account of the general petrographic characters, microstructure, chemical composition, peculiarities of weathering, special methods of testing applicable to the stone, the mode of obtaining a valuation of the stone’s weather-resisting qualities from the results of testing, and remarks upon the points to be observed in the quarries. analysed with great minuteness, and the results of the examination are expressed in terms of | weather-resisting quality. This is done by assign- ing a symbol to each recognisable degree of each of the characteristics of stone structure, e.g., in sandstones made of quartz grains bound by silice- ous “cement ” there are four grades: Ka, grains in optical orientation with their neighbours; KB, grains joined by outgrowths not so related; Ky, nicrogranular quartz; Ké6, amorphous silica. Then come thirteen grades of “contact cement” other than simple silica. The pores in the stone are treated separately; there are twenty-two grades of “texture pores,” empty or variously filled, and as many grades of “structure pore” types, andso on. Tables are given in which these NO. 2255, VOL. 90] l | | | | The first | the short section on clays, Microscopic examination he rightly regards as | of the first importance, and by its means the | structure and mineral composition of the stone are | symbols and the numerical results of physical tests are assigned values according to a scale of weather resistance which is itself the result of observa- tions and tests made on tried stones actually employed in buildings of considerable age. The results of observation and test are added together to obtain the desired figure representing the quality (Q). This, for example, is the formula worked out for a certain sandstone— Kd pgk; ce Kb Go, S7V O 0'52(2—075)-+-0'5 X 1°5 —0°5 +0'45=—1-45=(I to I1) indicating that the quality-class of the stone is between first and second grade. The book provides fully worked-out tables and schemes for the valuation of microscopic observa- tions and experimental results, so that by employ- ing them it would be a comparatively easy matter to obtain the formula for any new stone. At the recent congress of the International Association for Testing Materials it was decided to recommend that Hirschwald’s method should be tried and reported upon by testing institutions, and to assist in this process a set of type micro- slides and small samples of building stone with annotations by Prof. Hirschwald will be procurable from Krantz, of Bonn. (2) It is interesting to examine Mr. Eckel’s new work on building stones and clays side by side with Hirschwald’s book. The former is a well- preduced volume treating the subject on broad lines and mainly from an American point of view. two chapters are upon elementary geology; then follow eight chapters describing the geological, chemical and physical properties of the principal stone groups; one on the field examination and valuation of stone properties, and one on the laboratory testing of stone. Part ii., is inadequate and rather out of place nowadays in a book on build- ing stones. The book contains much plain common sense, together with what can be regarded only as padding; thus, on p. 42 the author makes it clear that commercial analyses of granite are of little or no use, yet he immediately introduces twelve pages of analyses. There are more than thirty-eight pages of compiled analyses in the book and a number of tables of physical test results quoted from various sources. The latter are of small value because, as the author himself well knows, the tests are not made under comparable conditions. Though much of the tabulated matter might have been omitted without loss, the writer’s outlook, as a practical engineer, on the testing problem is well worth consideration. The restricted American scope of the work is illustrated by the scant notice taken of the 538 NATURE [JANUARY 16, 1913 trachytes, tuffs and other volcanic rocks which play an important part in Europe. Copious lists of American references are given, as well as statistics of production quoted from official publications. In another edition, ‘White Man’s Field, Red Man’s Field and Yellow Man’s Field,” misquoted on p. 159 from Beare’s table, should be trans- formed from their present “Wild West” state into the more readily recognisable “White Mansfield Stone,” etc. PHYSICS FOR CHILDREN AND STUDENTS. (1) The Boy’s Playbook of Science. By John Henry Pepper. Revised, rewritten, re-illustrated with many additions by Dr. John Mastin. Pp. x+680o. (London: George Routledge & Sons, Ltd. ; New York) E) Bs Dutton & Cos)" Pricelss. (2) Examples in Applied Electricity. By C. G. Lamb. Pp. iv+61. (Cambridge: The Uni- versity Press, 1912.) Price 2s. 6d. net. (3) Manuale di Fisica ad Uso delle Scuwole Secon- darie e Superiori. Volume Primo. Meccanica. By Prof. Bernardo Dessau. Pp. xii+ 500. (Milano: Societa Editrice Libraria, 1912.) Price 12 lire: (1) O say that this book is a remarkable one would in a sense be true, but might at the same time be misleading. If the term be used it must be qualified by saying that the remarkable features are mainly undesirable. No doubt the object of the book is commendable, for no one denies that it is an excellent thing to interest youth in the wonders of natural phenomena, and, further, that the treatment should be as comprehensive as possible. At the same time, it is surely better to explain a few things well than to give loose and inadequate explanations of many. In this respect the book in question is not at all successful. A very large number of phenomena are dealt with in a manner which is often too cursory to be clear, and is sometimes, indeed, actually erroneous. Thus in treating the subject of gravitation the author, after regretting the fact that there are not many good lecture-table experiments illustrating this effect, goes on to say that “attention may be directed to the fact of a piece of potassium thrown on the surface of water in a plate generally rushing to the sides, and, as if attracted, attaching itself with great force to the substance of the pottery or porcelain.” Although aot an absolute statement of fact, this is at least a suggestion that the movement is the result of gravitational attraction between the potassium and the sides of the vessel. The N rays of Prof. Blondlot are spoken of as though NO. 2255, VOL. 90| | their existence had never been disputed, and heat is spoken of as a force. Another curious feature is the order in which the various subjects are taken. For some un- accountable reason a chapter an aerial flight—in which several pages are wasted upon an absurd and unnecessarily long list of persons who have at various dates been killed in attempting to fly— is sandwiched in the section on chemistry between the liquefaction of gases and the halogens. It should be said that the contents of the bool: are limited to the consideration of the science of inanimate objects, and undoubtedly convey much useful information. Nevertheless, the weaknesses which have been referred to above render it im- possible to bestow upon the book any hearty recommendation. i (2) The author of this little volume has com- piled, mainly from test papers set to the students in the Cambridge Engineering Laboratory and from the papers in the Mechanical Science Tripos, a considerable number of numerical questions in electrical engineering. They are arranged in the form of papers of some eight questions each, and the answers are given at the end of the book. The questions are varied in character and, although they do not include the subjects of polyphase currents and wireless telegraphy, should prove very useful in engineering schools. (3) This first volume of Prof. Dessau’s Manual of Physics includes rather more than what is usually denoted by the title of “Mechanics” in England. Besides the ordinary mechanics of solids and fluids we find treated in an elementary manner—as, indeed, is the whole book—such phenomena as gravitation, elasticity, diffusion of gases, and the interference of waves. The book is exceedingly well printed and the diagrams are uniformly good. OUR BOOKSHELF. Science from an Easy Chair. Second Series. By Sir Ray Lankester, K.C.B., F.R.S. Pp. xiii+ 412. (London: Adlard and Son, 1912.) Price 6s. 6d. net. Sir Ray Lanxester’s weekly contributions to The Daily Telegraph represent the high-water mark of popular papers on scientific subjects. The general public has in recent years been infected with a feverish desire for sensation; and as science can offer little to gratify that appetite, thoughtful articles upon its achievements are now relatively much fewer in the periodical Press than they were a generation or two ago. Possibly men of science are partly to blame for this state of affairs. They must be specialists in order to make progress in their own particular fields of inquiry; and they are often not only themselves January 16, 1913] NATURE 539 unfamiliar with the commonest vocabularies of other departments of natural knowledge, but also regard the endeavour to create a comprehensive interest in nature as a thing of little importance. There are, unfortunately, very few, if any, men of science in these days of minute specialisation who are capable of writing such illuminating papers on scientific methods and results as those in this volume and the collection which preceded it. The papers are perfect models of scientific exposition: simple, yet not childish; informative, but not tedious; bright without being flippant ; sparkling with human interest and original always. Thirty-one main topics form the subjects of the chapters of the present volume, and upon all of them the author writes with freshness and breadth of knowledge that command admiration. For the student of science whose work is running in a narrow groove the papers provide a pleasant antidote; and to readers engaged in other activities they will be a revelation. One minor point is worth mention. Sir Ray Lankester, writing on the work of glaciers, refers to glaciated rocks that have “the form of rounded humps, compared to a sheep’s back, and hence called ‘ voches moutonnées.’” We thought that Several years ago Prof. Grenville Cole had shown this interpretation to be incorrect, for the reason that de Saussure, who first used the term, meant to suggest a resemblance of the rocks, not to a flock of sheep, but to the wigs styled in his day moutonnées. An Analysis of the Church of St. Mary, Cholsey, in the County of Berkshire. By Prof. F. J. Cole. Pp. viiit+62-+4+23 plates. (Oxford: B. H. Blackwell; London: Henry Frowde, 1911.) Price 5s. net. Tue professor of zoology in the University College of Reading teaches, in this book, a valuable lesson to church architects and archeologists, ‘that only an investigation by methods of precision can bring the study of the parish churches within the cognisance of serious research.” Ecclesiastical architecture is now quite a dead art. It has lost the living touch with nature. Of its true natural basis even Dr. Cole has nothing definite to say. Still, he has discovered the nearest thing to it, and is well qualified to teach his lesson. The case may be put in stronger terms, but let Dr. Cole speak : “But, unfortunately, the morphological method is hardly, if ever, carried to its legitimate extreme. The amateur, finding it easy to classify his detail according to the Norman, Early English, Decor- ated, and Perpendicular convention, cultivates the deadly shade of that architectural Upas. ‘ Yet that way perdition lies.’ On the other hand, the professional architect gives us a set of drawings, of the greatest value let it at once be said, but unaccompanied by any attempt to wrest the secrets from the building he has been measuring.” (Pref. iv.) It is the author’s insistence on exact measure- ment that will lead the student “to the bed-rock NO. 2255, VOL. 90| { of ascertained fact.” It is measurement, more than fashions or “styles,” that differentiates periods in architecture. But while the author has succeeded in making out successive periods by measure, it seems not to have occurred to him to consider why certain measures were adopted, and why they should differ with the lapse of time. To some extent, the value of orientation is recognised, but itis to be hoped that the author’s next “attempt to wrest the secrets” from St. Mary’s, Cholsey, or any old church, will be to show that the in- dividual measures represent celestial spaces or distances, and that the orientation is the key to the structural symmetry. Joun GRIFFITH. Experimental Physiology. By Prof. E. A. Schafer, F.R.S. Pp. vilit+3i11. (London: Longmans, Green and Co., 1912.) Price 4s. 6d. net. EXPERIMENTAL physiology is a convenient, but not.very logical, name for that part of physiology which is not chemical. The present little book is a handy guide to the student in the practical class. It is the outcome of many years’ experi- ence in the teaching of such classes, and will form a trustworthy laboratory companion. The descrip- tions of the experiments are clear and concise, and a special word of praise is to be accorded to the excellent diagrams which accompany the text. The great bulk of the work which the student can himself perform is necessarily limited to the pithed frog. Experiments on living animals under anzesthesia can only take the form of demonstra- tions. Experiments on man himself are not restricted by law, and the present-day tendency of the physiological teacher is to increase the number of exercises which the students can perform upon themselves or upon each other, and to diminish the importance of the humble but still necessary frog. Wie IDE Jak The Centenary of a Nineteenth-Century Geologist —Edward William Binney, F.R.S. By James Binney. Pp. 58. (Taunton: Barnicott and Pearce, 1912.) Price 2s. 6d. net. Epwarp BINNEY was born on December 7, 1810, and died in December, 1881. He was three times president of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester, was president of the Manchester Geological Society, and in 1856 was elected a fellow of the Royal Society. With Young and Meldrum he commenced the manufacture of mineral oils from Boghead coal obtaimed from Bathgate, near Linlithgow, in 1850; and in four- teen years—when the patent had run out—a net profit of 60,0001. was made. Mr. J. Binney’s little book is a tribute to a suc- cessful man of business and a keen student of nature. Prominence is given to details of litiga- tion of little interest to scientific readers; and filial regard will perhaps account for the remarks as to the want of acknowledgment by Williamson ' of what he owed to Binney in the study of fossil plants. Whether local printers or the author are , responsible for the neglect of elementary rules of | punctuation throughout the book is not for us to decide. 540 NATURE [JANUARY 16, 1913 LETTERS TO THE EDITOR. [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of Nature. No notice is taken of anonymous communications. | The Double Refraction produced by the Distortions of Elastic Bodies according to Volterra’s Theory. TuE interesting experiments of Prof. E. G. Coker on the application of optical methods to technical problems of stress distribution have been described in an article in Narure of December 5, 1912. This article suggests that this‘ would be an opportune moment to publish, outside of Italy, the results of researches which. Sig. Trabacchi and I undertook some years ago for a similar purpose (Rend. Lincei, vol. xviii., 1909). There is this essential difference from Prof. Coker’s experiments, that our object at that time was the experimental verification of precise calculations deduced from Volterra’s theory of elastic “distortions”? (Ann. de Il’Ecole Normale de Paris, 1907). The peculiarity of these distortions consists in the entire freedom of the distorted bodies from the in- fluence of external forces. Let it suffice to recall the two simplest cases, namely those in which a small slice, with faces either radial or parallel, is removed from a cylindrical ring of elastic matter, and the cut surfaces then glued together. There exist accordingly internal tensions, but no external forces; this makes the theoretical calculation quite rigorous, and the experimental conditions very similar to the hypotheses in the theory. I found it easy, starting from Vol- terra’s general formula, which permit the calcula- tion, noint by point, of the tensions in the interior of the cylinder, to prophesy the figures of double refrac- tion which should be observed in polarised light traversing the ring in the direction of its axis, and— more precisely—the equations of the absolutely black lines, corresponding to various orientations of the ring with respect to the principal sections of the polariser analyser. In the case of a radial cut I was able to predict the formation of a circle and a cross, the arms of the cross being parallel to the sections of the polarisers, irrespective of the orientation of the ring in its plane. So far as can be calculated, the radius of the circle depends only on the exterior and interior radii of the ring, and not on the angular amplitude of the cut. The circle is the locus of points where the distortion is reduced to a uniform dilatation or com- pression, that is, where the isotropy of the body is unaltered. It was a less simple matter to foresee the aspect of the phenomenon in the case of a cut with parallel faces equidistant from the axis. In Fig. 1 the x axis coincides with the faces glued together after the re- moval of the slice. With the nicols parallel and perpendicular to this axis, the theory demands the formation of a black straight line in the direction of the x axis, and of a curve of the fourth order, tangent to the exterior circle at the extremities of the diameter | perpendicular to the x axis. In Fig. 2 are reproduced the lines theoretically calculated when the nicols are inclined 45° to the direction of the cut; in this case one should observe a black line perpendicular to the x axis, and two curves similar to the two branches of a hyperbola; there should be, furthermore, four isolated black points at P, O, R, S. The curves predicted are not neutral curves, that is to say, curves without double refraction, but isogonal curves, 7.e. curves NO. 2255, VOL. 90] wherein the double refraction has a constant direc- tion, that of the nicols. As a matter of fact, there exists in this case no neutral line, but merely six neutral points. - ; These calculations were, at my suggestion, verified in this institute by Sig. Trabacchi. He made use of rings of freshly prepared gelatine, and by their im- ' i 1 Fic. 1. mersion in water avoided all possibility of accidental double refraction which might result from adhesion to the supporting glass plate. The ring, in a hori- zontal plane, was lowered’ carefully in a glass dish of water. The dish was illuminated from below by polarised light coming from a black mirror; a simple optical device was used, which allowed the entire Fic. 2. image of the ring to be projected through a nicol of dimensions much smaller than those of the ring. Figs. 3, 4, and 5 reproduce the photographs obtained. The first corresponds to the radial cut, the others to the cut with parallel faces, with the light polarised respectively parallel to, and at 45° from, the direction of the cut. The correspondence with the January 16, 1913] NATURE 541 theoretical calculations is more than satisfactory ; especially in view of the difficulty of making, in a material soft and easily distorted, the cuts called for by the theory. It would certainly be preferable to make use of celluloid, as Prof. Coker now does. I did indeed attempt it at the time of these experiments, but ex- perienced some little difficulty in glueing the celluloid after cutting it, inasmuch as, in accordance with Volterra’s theory, pressure is exerted on some regions of the faces in contact, tension on others. The optical method, which permits the investiga- Without having experimented on the effects of com- plete sterilisation of a sick soil, Messrs. Russell and Petherbridge state (loc. cit., p. go), ‘‘our experiments thus lead to the conclusion that at least two factors are concerned in soil sickness: a falling off in bac- terial activity and an accumulation of plant parasites and disease organisms.” ; As a matter of fact, all that is proved is, as in Drs. Russell and Darbishire’s paper quoted, that partial sterilisation produces both increased crop and increased bacterial activity. The illogical conclusion is then drawn from this that increased crop is due to increased Fic. 3. tion of the internal distribution of tensions, has thus given us the means of verifying the theory of elas- ticity in a salient point, namely Volterra’s theory of distortions, just as it has given Prof. Coker the means of supplying, by the use of experimental models, cer- tain deficiencies of the theory—a theory which cannot always submit to rigorous calculation the complex conditions of internal strains to which the materials of practical construction are subject. O. M. Corstno. Rome, Physical Institute of the Royal University. The Bacterial Theory of Soil Fertility. In vol. v., part i. (October, 1912) of The Journal of Agricultural Science, Messrs. Russell and Pether- bridge state that ‘partial sterilisation appears to be the proper method of dealing with ‘sick soils’” (p. 91). I venture to think that the theory of partial sterilisation—which is indeed very attractive—will not stand examination. According to this theory the fer- tility of a soil depends largely on its bacterial popu- lation, the enemies of which are destroyed by partial sterilisation, which the bacterial spores survive. Now if this theory is correct, it should follow that complete sterilisation must diminish the fertility of a soil, since all bacterial spores will have been destroyed. This, however, is not the case, as Dr. Russell is apparently aware, for Drs. Darbishire and Russell in the same journal (vol. ii., part iii., December, 1907, Pp 319) state: ‘‘a few experiments have been made with soils heated to 120° C. The same kind of results are obtained as at the lower temperatures, but they are somewhat intensified.” In other words, complete sterilisation gave an in- creased crop over partial sterilisation. The comparative effects of complete and partial steri- lisation on a soil were shown by the present writer (Cairo Sci. Jour., vol. iv., No. 43, April, 1910), maize in soil untreated, soil heated to 95° C., and soil heated to 170° C. yielding green weights in the proportion of 145°5, 151°7, 1055°6 (see Fig. 1). NO. 2255, VOL. 90] Fic. 4. Fic. 5: bacterial activity. This erroneous deduction would not | have been arrived at had a few parallel experiments | been conducted with completely sterilised soils. | appears to have been overlooked. Again, the authors find that plants grow as well in extracts from the ‘“‘sick”’ soil as in extracts from partially sterilised soil. They conclude that the “sickness”? is therefore not due to a soluble toxic substance. But does this prove it? The phenomenon of absorption (or adsorption) of soluble salts by soils Further, these | results are in direct contradiction to the very elaborate experiments carried out by the U.S.A. Department of Agriculture. With regard to the growth of seedlings in water extracts of soils, very little detail of the method of the experiments is given. For instance, it is not stated at what stage the seedling was planted in the water extract. That certain precautions may have been overlooked would appear possible from the statement (used as an argument against the toxic theory) that ““cucumber seeds are very sensitive to unfavourable | conditions, but they germinate fully as well in ‘sick’ soil as in partially sterilised soil.” Now Pickering (Journ. Agric. Sci., vol. ii., part iv., and vol. iii., parts i. and iii.) pointed out that ger- mination is delayed in heated soils—a fact long known to farmers—and supposed that this was due to the production by heat of a toxic substance. The present writer (loc. cit.) proved that this delay is due entirely to a physical cause, viz. the increased osmotic pressure in the water contents (and water extract) of a heated soil; this causes imbibition by the seeds to be checked, in some cases. to such an extent that they rot before they have absorbed sufficient water to cause germina- tion. Now if the seeds in Russell and Petherbridge’s experiments were germinated in the soil extracts, after five days’ growth (plate iii., Fig. 3a), we should scarcely expect the seedling in the extract from the heated soil to have made up for time lest in ger- mination. Even if the seeds were all germinated under the same conditions, e.g. in water, and seed- on 42 NATURE [JANUARY 16, 1913 lings in similar stages of growth were then trans- ferred to the soil extracts—as was the case in the writer’s experiment above quoted—we still have in the case of some varieties of plants this delayed ger- mination period extended to a considerable length in water cultures; in other words, the extract from a heated soil retards growth during a period of several days after the germination has actually taken place. This appears to be connected in some way with the formation of root hairs, the growth of which is often entirely inhibited in water cultures. The safest way of testing the effect of various soil extracts on plant growth is to sow seeds in different portions of one and the same soil (which should not be too rich), and then, after germination, water with the various soil extracts. Until some assurance is forthcoming that the neces- sary precautions have been taken, the results of the water cultures mentioned cannot be accepted. Finally, it will be difficult for any theory of soil fertility that, like Dr. Russell’s, claims that all, or almost all, depends on bacterial activity to explain Fic. 1.—Maize plants after growing for seven days in soil previously treated as follows :—r1-18 not heated ; 19-26 heated to g5° C. ; 27-34 heated to 170° C. away the injurious effect of any one plant on all its neighbours (see present writer in Journ. Agric. Sct., vol iv., part iii.). F. FLEetcHeEr. Kyambu, British East Africa, November 27, 1912. Mr. FLercuer is under a misapprehension in attri- buting to me a ‘“‘theory”’ that “‘all, or almost all,” of soil fertility depends on bacterial activity. should certainly agree with Mr. Fletcher that any such hypothesis, if it were advanced, would be much too narrow to account for the facts. Soil fertility is not due to the operation of any one factor, but of several. At least five conditions have to be fulfilled by the soil if the plant is to make satis- factory growth. There must be (1) adequate food supply; (2) proper water supply; (3) suitable tempera- ture; (4) enough air for the roots; (5) absence of injurious substances or factors. Every one of these conditions is essential; any one that is unfulfilled sets a limit to the growth of the plant, and therefore to the fertility of the soil. I have discussed the interaction of these various factors at some length in my book on “Soil Condi- NO. 2255, VOL. 90| tions and Plant Growth,” and need now only refer to the place of bacterial action in the scheme. Among the various nutrients required by the plant are the nitrogen compounds. Nitrates are the com- pounds usually obtained from the soil, but ammonium salts also serve; there is evidence, however, that highly complex compounds like the proteins, peptones, &c., are of little value to the plant even when they are soluble. Now the nitrogen compounds of the soil are mainly complex and insoluble, but they decompose slowly to form ammonia, which then oxidises to nitrates. It has been repeatedly demonstrated that when all the other essential conditions are satisfied, an increase in the supply of ammonium compounds or of nitrates increases the amount of plant growth, i.e. of soil fertility. An increased supply of ammonium salts and nitrates may be brought about either by direct addi- tion of these compounds or of substances easily con- verted into them, or by increasing the rate at which ammonia production takes place in the soil. The production of ammonia in the soil is largely due to bacteria. When the condi- tions are made more favourable to bacterial action a marked increase in activity sets in, accompanied by an increased production of ammonia and nitrate. A corresponding in- crease in soil fertility follows. Par- tial sterilisation of the soil leads to marked increases in bacterial numbers for reasons that Dr. Hutchinson and I have discussed elsewhere. The accompanying in- crease in the amount of ammonia produced is closely connected with that of the bacterial numbers that no reasonable doubt can be entertained as to its bacterial origin. So much for the general relation- so ship of bacterial activity to soil fertility. We can now turn to some of the details raised by Mr. Fletcher. He goes on to say that if bacterial activity has anything to do with soil fertility a completely sterilised soil ought to be less fertile than a partially sterilised soil. Un- fortunately no one has ever suc- ceeded in carrying out this experi- ment. When a soil is heated to in Mr. Fletcher’s experiments, ¢ 120° €., as in some of ours) it alters so completely that it can no longer be compared in any sense with the unheated soil. A considerable amount of decomposition takes place, and much ammonium and other simple soluble nitrogen compounds are formed. There is no reason to suppose that it matters to the plant whether the ammonium and other compounds are formed by bacterial action or by any other process; the essential point is that they should be formed; whatever their origin, they serve as plant nutrients. The increased gain in plant growth on such highly heated soils can be largely attributed to this cause. The water-culture experiments, like the other ex- periments made at Rothamsted, were carried out with all the care and precautions that we could command. The obvious pitfalls mentioned by Mr. Fletcher were avoided. The fact that our results differ from those obtained by the United States Bureau of Soils implies no contradiction at all; they worked with ‘sour’ soils, and we worked with the entirely different ‘‘ sick” soils. We could find no evidence whatsoever of the presence of any toxin in our sick soils, or in our On G., or even to as January 16, 1913] NATURE 543 normal soils, but we do find abundant evidence of the activity of organisms detrimental to the ammonia- producing bacteria. We are therefore justified in re- garding these detrimental organisms as one of the factors limiting soil fertility. We have shown that partial sterilisation destroys these organisms, and that it causes an increase in numbers of ammonia-produc- ing bacteria, in the amount of ammonia produced, and in the fertility of the soil; these factors are all so closely connected with one another that no reasonable doubt can be entertained of the existence of a causal relationship between them. E. J. Russevi. Rothamsted Experimental Station, Harpenden. Precocity of Spring Flowers. I Hap occasion to remark in a letter to Nature (No. 1477, vol. lvii., February 17, 1898) on the unusually early flowering of many winter and spring flowers in the December of 1897 and the January of 1898; so many of these records have been surpassed already during the recent remarkably mild period that I am ventiiring to put a few of them before your readers. For the last twenty years I have kept a record of the first flowers of about eighty species of wild and garden spring flowers in this county, and the season named above is the only example which at all approaches the present one in the precocity of flowering. The winter aconite began on December 8, and has been flowéring profusely since the middle of the month, when about a hundred blossoms were gathered in one day; other early dates are December 20, 1911, December 23, 1897; the first week in January is the mean, the latest January 27, 1887. Green hellebore, January 10; usually end of February; latest, March 26, 1902. Fetid hellebore, December 1; usually early February; latest, February 21, 1904. Lesser celan- dine, December 1; usually early February; latest, March 12, 1900; other early records, January 20, 1898 and Igo!. Wild white sweet violet in the hedges, January 5, many to be seen now, whereas mid-February to early March is its usual. season. Pyrus japonica on many walls has been as much covered with flowers throughout December as it is usually in April and May. Strawberry-leafed cinauefoil, December 24; usually begins in February. Gooseberry, January 5; a bush in the garden with many opened flowers. Hedge parsley abundant in the hedges in January; usually begins in mid-April. Lonicera fragrantissima, from December 18 onwards; usually begins early in January; earliest, December 10, 1900. Adoxa moschatellina (Moschatel), in bud January ir; usually flowers in April. Petasites fragrans (winter heliotrope), mid-November, occasionally as early, but more usually December and January. Yellow coltsfoot, January 7; usually early March; earliest previously, January 21, 1898, February 20, 1897; latest, March 26, 1909. Primroses abundant in December and early January. Omphalodes verna abundant December; usually early March; latest, April 1, 1902. Spurge laurel, December 20; usually early in February; January 12, 1912, January 29, 1898, March 18, 1897. Dog’s mercury, ¢ flowers, November 28; earliest previously, December 21, 1900; latest, March 12, 1900. Hazel, both So and 9, January 5; earliest d, December 24, r911, 9, January 16, 1906. Chimonanthus fragrans (winter sweet), very abundant from November 14; earliest before, Decem- ber 9, 1907. Yellow crocus, January 5; earliest, January 22, tgo01, January 24, 1898. Galanthus NO. 2255, VOL. 90] Elwesii, November 14. Common snowdrop, Decem- ber 28; earliest, January 8, 1912. Foliage has been out for some time on honeysuckle and elder, and even the “‘brushwood sheaf round the elm-tree bole is in tiny leaf,’ which, according to Browning, should not occur until April! Flower-buds are swelling on English elm and grey willow. ELEONORA ARMITAGE. Dadnor, Herefordshire, January 13. Many references are being made to the numbers of plants in flower now to be found in various parts of the country. May I give a list of those I gathered on January 6 in our garden in South Devon, ranging from 230 to 500 ft. above sea-level ? Gorse (double French and single), ivy, jasmine (yellow), honeysuckle, crocus (yellow), polyanthus, primrose, berberis, Daphne mezereum, ribes (pink and white), daisy, veronica (purple and pink), laurustinus, azalea (white), rhododendron (red), clianthus (“ par- rot’s bill’’) mignonette, heath (white and Mediter- ranean), violet (Russian, white, and Neapolitan), rose (pink, yellow, and ‘Dorothy Perkins’’), genista (yellow), passion-flower, -forget-me-not, snowdrop, lavender, cyclamen, tobacco-plant (white), ivy gera- rium (pink), wallflower, borage, Helliborus (foetidus, orientalis, and niger), arabis, Garrya elliptica, arbutus, solanum, pansy, Aubrietia purpurea, and Pieris (Andromeda) floribunda. T. Mary Lockyer. Salcombe Regis, Sidmouth. Tue effect of the mildness of the winter is shown in the number of wild plants now in flower, some of them evidently survivors from the autumn, others early spring flowers, and yet others entirely out of season. During a wall on January 3 and 4 from Brighton through Ditchling and Haywards Heath to Balcombe, we observed no fewer than thirty wild flowers in blossom, many of them being abundant. The list is as follows :—Daisy,: gorse, dandelion, cinquefoil, primrose, feverfew, avens, red. deadnettle, hawkweed, groundsel, chickweed, shepherd’s purse, yarrow,. lesser celandine, garlic mustard, dwarf spurge, spear thistle, barren strawberry, ivy-leafed speedwell, corn marigold, dog’s mercury, dove’s-foot crane’s-bill, field speedwell, herb robert, white dead- nettle, cress, lesser periwinkle (a garden escape), and the following, all young plants: wild-beaked parsley, buttercup, and rose campion. Epirh How Martyn. Light Perception and Colour Perception. THE Departmental Committee on Sight Tests hag recommended a method of classifying colour-blindness by measuring the luminosity of the colour sensations by means of the flicker method of photometry. The degree of abnormality is estimated by the ratio of red to green compared with the normal. This classi- fication is absolutely erroneous. Light perception and colour perception are quite distinct—that is to say, there may be considerable defect of colour perception without defect of light perception. The first two cases of colour-blindness (dichromics who confused red and green) examined by me on the method suggested by the Committee had a ratio identical with the normal, whilst a man who had not the least defect of colour perception had an abnormal ratio. Prof. A. W. Porter and I examined one of the above-mentioned colour- blind men by another method, and we could not detect the least defect in the perception of luminosity in any 544 NATURE [JANUARY 16, 1913 part of the spectrum. We ascertained the point of extinction and the point of reappearance of light from all parts of the spectrum. F. W. EpripGE-GREEN. London, December 25, 1912. The late Mr. Leigh Smith and Novaya Zemlya. May I be allowed to point out to you that there is an omission in the short notice your publication quoted from The Times on the death of Mr. Leigh Smith? Your countryman was found and rescued on the west coast of Novaya Zemlya, near the mouth of Matotschkin Sharr, by Captain J. Dalen, Dutch R.N., who was in command of the Dutch exploration vessel, Willem Barents. Sir Allan Young, in the Hope, was near, but Leigh Smith and his men did not know it when they were found and directed to the English ship by the Dutchmen. This occurred on August 3, 1882. Next year, when the Willem Barents again left for exploration work in northern waters, Sir Clements Markham and Mr. Leigh Smith came over to Amster- dam and presented two fine silver cups to the presi- dent of the Dutch Committee for Polar Research Work in kind remembrance of his being seen and brought to safetv by Captain Dalen and his crew. This act of courtesy by Mr. Leigh Smith was much appreciated by our countrymen. W. H.R. v. Manen. Rotterdam, January tro. COUNTRIES AND CUSTOMS.} (1) HE jealousy of the State Government renders Nepal perhaps the least-known country in the Empire among those with which we maintain friendly relations. To a student of art like the writer it is peculiarly interesting, because it forms a link between India and Tibet. Mr. Brown was allowed some liberty in visiting the sacred sites in the valley; but if he secured any new information on geography or politics he has not disclosed it. On the subject of Newar art he gives us some valuable facts and impres- sions. The Gorkhas, now the ruling caste, have contributed little to the art treasures of the country, and the art of the Newars represents a | Tibetan substratum largely influenced from India. But it is the India of the Middle Ages, not that of the present day, when the people have come under foreign control, Mohammedan or British. The book is provided with many fine photographs, and a few sketches in colour to illustrate Newar architecture and work in metal, stone and wood. The author traces with skill the varied influences which have contributed to establish the Nepalese art school, and he gives some interesting facts, partly in corroboration, partly in extension, of those admirable essays on local religion and custom for which we are indebted to the late Dr. H. A. Oldfield. The pleasant, unaffected style in which these notes are recorded makes them more valu- «1 (1) ‘‘ Picturesque Nepal.” By Percy Brown. Pp. xvi+z205. (I-ondon: A and C. Black, 1912.) Pricé 7s. 6. net. (2) ‘‘ Papua or British New Guinea.” By J. H. P. Murray. Introduction by Sir William MacGregor, G.C.M.G., C.B. Pp. 388+ plates+-map. (London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1912.) Price 15s. net. (9) Through Shén-Kan. The Account of the Clark Expedition in North China, 1908-9." By Robert Sterling Clark and Arthur de C. Sowerby. Edited hy Major C. H. Chepmell. Pp. viiit+-247-+64 plates+2 maps. (Lon ion: T, Fisher Unwin, 1912.) Price 25s. net. R NO. 2255, VOL. 90] With an | able than those which usually accompany books the claim of which to support lies in the illustra- tions alone. (2) Our knowledge of Papua is rapidly increas- ing. Mr. R. Williamson’s book on the Mafulu Mountain People, the work of an explorer and expert in ethnology and law, has been soon fol- lowed by the present work, which is of quite a different class. Mr. Murray admits his lack of scientific knowledge in ethnology, geology, botany, and indeed in any other branch of science; but he enjoys the advantage of long experience of the country, and Sir W. MacGregor assures us that “he has had opportunities of seeing into the heart of things in New Guinea in a way that no previous writer could ever lay claim to.” This opinion is justified by the study of his book. He begins with a careful geographical account of the British pro- vince, followed by a history of the island from the age of the first explorers, an exhaustive _ account of the native tribes, of the methods under which the Australian officers administer justice, and of the progress in developing the resources of the country. The book is provided with a fairly adequate map and a good series of photographs. In an interesting introduction, Sir W. Mac- Gregor describes the task which lay before the new officials, the establishment of a land system, criminal and civil legislation. He concludes that “the two finest and best institutions I left in New Guinea were the constabulary and village police, and the missions.”” The book is almost purely ethnographical. The Papuo-Melanesians, he thinks, were the result of more than one immi- gration; but he declines to dogmatise on the origin and affinities of the Papuans. Students of cannibalism will find full details of the custom in a repulsive form. Most interesting, and full of instruction to other administrators whose lot lies among savage peoples, is the account of the methods by which the natives are being gradually civilised, and how a system of law, adopting all that is useful among the indigenous institutions, has been introduced. The book may be safely recommended as an instructive account of some of the wildest races in the Empire. (3) The fine volume which describes this attempt to explore North China is, to some extent, the record of a failure. In the expedition organised and financed by Mr. R. S. Clark, of New York, it was proposed to start from T’ai-yuan Fu, in Shansi, and after traversing Shén-Kan, i.e., the provinces of Shansi and Kansu, to skirt the Tibetan border to Ching-tu Fu, in Schuch’uan; then to descend the Min River to Sui-fu or Hsu- chou Fu, and return to Shanghai vid the Yang-tzu. Its primary objects were—a careful plane-table survey of the whole route followed, astronomical observations for latitude and longitude at all im- portant towns, to observe the meteorological con- ditions, to collect specimens, and to use photo- graphy in various ways. The work of the survey was placed in charge of a Punjabi surveyor, Hazrat Ali; Captain Douglas, V.C., D.S.O., of the Royal Army Medical Staff, was allowed by the JANUARY 16, 1913] NATURE Ut War Office to take charge of medical affairs, and Dr. A. de C. Sowerby was zoologist, our country- men being thus largely represented on the scientific staff. The expedition crossed the Yellow River, went into winter quarters at Yen-an Fu, and thence the route lay roughly westward. But at Lan-chou, Hazrat Ali, while engaged in survey- ing, was murdered in circumstances which were never fully ascertained, and the popular excite- ment thus aroused necessitated the return of the party. It is much to be regretted that, in spite of every kind of pressure on the Chinese Foreign Office, no reparation has been made for this atrocious murder of a British subject. A NEW INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE. N the year 1911 an account was given in this journal (vol. Ixxxviii, p. 82) of a conference of scientific men in Brussels to discuss the general theories of radiation. This meeting, which was of unusual interest and importance, was due to the initiative of Mr. Ernest Solvay, of Brussels. At the conclusion of the meeting, Mr. Solvay PHYSICAL | offered to donate a sum of money to assist scientific | research in the domain of physics and chemistry. | After consultation with Prof. Lorentz, of Leyden, the president of the meeting, Mr. Solvay agreed Colossal Buddha, at Ta-fu-ssii, Shensi. In addition to the account of the journey which was thus tragically interrupted, a careful itinerary and a good map are provided. Mr. Clark and Dr. Sowerby contribute reports on the results. Most of the collections, except the insects which Captain Douglas has presented to the British Museum, have gone to the United States National Museum. Some interesting mammals, including a new three-toed jerboa (Dipus sowerbyi) and a polecat (Vormela negans), were found; but the record in other departments is rather dis- appointing. On the whole, considering the disaster which brought the expedition to a close, much useful work was done, and the splendid series of photographs makes the work of permanent value to science. NO. 2255, VOL. 90] From “‘ Through Shén- Kan.” to found an International Physical Institute for a limited period of thirty years, to have its head- quarters at Brussels. The resources of the in- stitute were provided by the generous donation of a capital sum of one million francs. Part of the proceeds is to be devoted to the foundation of scholarships for the promotion of scientific re- search in Belgium, part to defray the expenses of international meetings to discuss scientific prob- | lems of interest, and the residue to be awarded in the form of grants to scientific investigators to assist them in their researches. For the first year, which terminates on May 1 1913, a sum of about 17 | for the latter purpose. ’ ,500 francs is available It is the intention of the | committee each year to give grants for special lines 546 NATURE [JANUARY 16, 1913 of work. As the first international meeting was engaged in the discussion of the theories of radia- tion, it is proposed this year to assist preferentially researches on the general phenomena of radiation, comprising Réntgen rays and the rays from radio- active bodies, general molecular theory, and theories of units of energy. The grants will be awarded without distinction of nationality by the administrative committee of the institute on the recommendation of the international scientific committee. The administrative committee is composed of Profs. P. Heger, E. Tassel, and J. E. Verschaffelt, of Brussels; the scientific committee is composed of H. A. Lorentz (Haarlem), Mme. Curie (Paris), M. Brillouin (Paris), R. B. Goldschmidt (Brussels), H. Kamerlingh-Onnes (Leyden), W. Nernst (Berlin), E. Rutherford (Manchester), E. Warburg (Berlin), and M. Knudsen, secretary (Copenhagen). The requests for subsidies should be addressed before February 1, 1913, to Prof. H. A. Lorentz, Zijlweg 76, Haarlem, Holland. They should be accompanied by definite information on _ the problem to be attacked, the methods to be em- ployed, and the sum required. Definite regula- tions have been drawn up for the administration of the institute and for the periodical change of the members of the international scientific com- mittee, which are intended to be representative of the active scientific workers in physics and chemistry in Europe. Mr. Ernest Solvay has in the past been a very generous supporter of science, and has been responsible for the endowment of several scientific institutes in Brussels. The new Solvay Inter- national Institute, which is due entirely to the generosity of Mr. Solvay, is unique in character, and promises to be of great value to science. It will offer an admirable opportunity for scientific men of all nations to meet together and to ex- change views on questions connected with physics and chemistry, and to obtain a consensus of opinion as to the best direction in which grants should be given to extend or deepen our knowledge of special subjects. As the funds available for distribution are limited, the decision of the com- mittee to restrict the grants for each year to investigations in a special department of science seems a wise one, and should be more fruitful in results than if the money were distributed in small sums over a wide field of scientific inquiry. The sub- jects for which grants are available will, no doubt, be changed from time to time in accordance with the decision of the international committee. E. RUTHERFORD. THE BIRMINGHAM MEETING OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION. HE arrangements for the forthcoming meet- ing of the British Association in Birmingham are being actively proceeded with, and the follow- ing provisional statement shows how matters stand. Among the new features of the British Associa- NO. 2255, VOL. 90| V sp 5 Feao ic : tion meeting at Birmingham in September next there will be a complete series of “ Citizens’ Lec- tures.” These are intended to give working men and women the opportunity of taking part in the association’s meeting. They will be held each evening (except the first evening and Sunday even- ing) and will constitute a perfectly distinct branch of work from the regular activities of the association. In view of the central and accessible position of Birmingham, a large attendance of members is anticipated, and a local fund of 60001. is being raised in order that the arrangements may be worthy of the city. A sum of 4oool. has already been promised as the result of a private canvass, and a public appeal for the remainder has just been issued. The meeting will commence on Wednesday, September 10, after an interval of twenty-seven years since the last visit to Birmingham. The usual opening business meetings will then be held, and will be followed by the inaugural address of the president (Sir William White, K.C.B.) in the evening. On Thursday, September 11, the sec- tional meeting's will commence, and the programme includes an evening reception by the Lord Mayor (Lieutenant-Colonel E. Martineau) at the Council House. On the Friday, in addition to the usual programme of sectional and committee work, there will probably be a reception at the new University Buildings, Bournbrook, and special arrangements will be made to show members over the various scientific departments. In the evening one of two discourses will be given. The excursions on the Saturday will include Stratford, Coventry, Kenilworth, Warwick, and Shrewsbury; whilst special expeditions will be arranged for archeologists, botanists, geologists, and geographers. On the Sunday there will be special services at the Cathedral and other places of worship. The following day there will be an entertainment given by the local committee. On Tuesday, September 16, the draft programme includes a conference of delegates, a garden party in the afternoon, and the delivery of the second discourse in the evening. The usual closing busi- ness meetings will be held on Wednesday, September 17. LORD HALDANE ON EDUCATIONAL ORGANISATION. pes announcement made by the Lord Chan- cellor on Friday last, in replying to the toast of his health as the guest of the Manchester Reform Club, will be welcomed by all who have the interests of English education at heart. Speaking after consultation with the Prime Minister, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, and the President of the Board of Education, Lord Haldane said the next great social problem with which the Government intends to deal is education and its organisation. As readers of NATURE will know, the British Science Guild and other import- { ant bodies working for the provision of a properly January 16, 1913] coordinated and complete system of education have long urged the need for action on the part of the State if this nation is, in the coming keen competition for the markets of the world, not. to be outclassed by nations which have organised their educational forces. It may be hoped that this great question will be approached in the spirit of Lord Haldane’s remarks, and that our legislators will unite in building up a complete national system of educa- tion suited to modern needs. In the course of his address Lord Haldane said :— . In what I am going to say I am not speaking casually, or with any light sense of responsibility, but, after consulting with the Prime Minister and the Chancellor of the Exchequer and Mr. Pease, we have NATURE decided that this question is the next and the most | urgent of the great social problems we have to take up. Of course, it is education. The state of educa- tion in this country—elementary, secondary, . and higher—is chaotic, and my colleagues and I feel that os the time has come when a step forward must be taken | and on no small scale.. As a second message, Mr. Lloyd George sends word that his heart is in this ques- | tion just as it is in insurance, and that he is ready to | throw himself into it with the whole-heartedness with which he threw himself into the insurance question. After consultation that is what we think. As a nation England has never been sufficiently interested in education to stir up its leaders about it. That arises partly from the fact that the leaders themselves have not. thrown themselves into the education question sufficiently to stir up the nation. Now is the time for the leaders to make an effort, and that is what’ the Prime Minister and the Chancellor of the Ex- chequer think. How is it to be done? Education, if it is to be interesting, must be an appeal to the spirit. It must be an endeavour to raise the level intellectually and morally of the coming generation, upon whose superiority the country will depend in the days to come to meet growing competition. It is worth while making a_sacrifice to bring about that result. I do not want you to be under any illusion. It is a tremendous question which we have before us. It is _a costly question, too, but I will point out that the expenditure is productive expenditure. ; In looking at the balance-sheet in the matter we must not look only at the debit items. If the nation is educated as it should be, the charge for old-age pensions will be smaller than it is now, because there will be fewer people left with less than 13]. a year. Income tax will yield more, because more people will be over the income tax limit. The taxes will yield more because the production of the country will be greater. Education means increased power of pro- duction. Then the bill on what I may call the nega- tive side of the account will be smaller. payments will be necessary on account of crime and drunkenness. All social shortcomings will be less among better educated people. We must keep up the capacity of this country to lead in the production of the world. The cost of education on a great scale, even though it involves a great sacrifice, is a sacrifice well made. We intend to try to make education an interesting | subject. I wish that we had Matthew Arnold again among us, writing as he wrote thirty-five years ago. One thing is quite certain—what is about to be done for the coming generation must not be done at the expense of the ratepayer. In Scotland there is a university Smaller | 547 England a university to three and a half millions. Some remedy for that must surely be found. A national system of education must -be not merely elementary, secondary, or university, but it must be one entire whole, and it must start from this—the child must be made fit to receive the education. A great step forward in that direction has already been made. Then we must remember that though we are making provision by which children may have chances of becoming. university students, the bulk of them will not get beyond the elementary school, and full provision must be made for them to do the best that they can within their limits. We must do something substantial in the way of making the teacher’s pro- | fession more popular. I am not speaking in the air on this question. We have been busy with the experts for some time, and I should not have ventured to speak as I have done if we did not see pretty clearly the path along which we are going. When we come to work out these things comprehensively it is marvellous how difficulties disappear. JI see no reason to despair of our accomplishing rapidly such a reform in our educa- tional system as should put us.at least on a level with any other nation in the world. NODES: THE scientific world has lost one of its veterans by the death of Louis Paul Cailletet in Paris on January | 5. Born in 1832, at Chatillon-sur-Seine, he studied at the School of Mines and the Faculty of Sciences at Paris. His first work was in metallurgy, and he made many scientific investigations into the principles of cementation and puddling. Later work on the theory of smelting led him to investigate the properties of gases under pressure. As a result of an admirable series of researches he was able to announce in 1877 that he had liquefied oxygen by cooling produced by sudden release from considerable pressure. The same result was obtained by Pictet at Geneva in the same year by a different method, and quite independently. Later investigations enabled all the so-called per- manent gases to be liquefied with the exception of hydrogen, which was left for Wroblewsky, who had | been his pupil, and much of the later work of Amagat, | | Dewar, Kamerlingh Onnes, Linde, and Claude was the direct result of his methods and discoveries. In conjunction with Mathias, investigations on vapour pressures and critical volumes led to the discovery of the law of the rectilinear diameter, which has had such fruitful results. Always devoted to scientific | work, he became much interested in aviation, acting for many years as the president of the Aéro Club of France. The Academy of Sciences elected him a corresponding member in 1877, and gave him the Jecker prize and elected him an academician in 1884. In 1910, on the occasion of his academic jubilee, he was proclaimed the father of modern cryogenics. Zootocists and naturalists interested in the big game of East Africa, and sportsmen wanting to know something of the country, of the methods of transport and of the paraphernalia for a hunting trip, will not regret spending a couple of hours at the Holborn Empire, where some of the results of Mr. P. J. Rainey’s recent photographic studies of wild animals to one and a half millions of the population; in | are being shown by the Jungle Film Company of NO. 2255, VOL. 90] 548 NATURE [JANUARY 16, 1913 America. The exhibition consists ofa series of moving pictures, the sequence of which, to relieve the eyes of the audience, is periodically interrupted by a show of ordinary slides, the whole depicting various incidents and adventures that happened during the trip. The best and most interesting pictures were taken behind an artificial screen at a water-hole, which was visited by elephants, giraffes, zebras, oryxes, baboons, and other species, the scene being enlivened by a fight between two rhinoceroses and by the sensational death of one of them, which charged the photographer in a disconcerting manner. The main object of the ex- pedition was, however, to trap and photograph, not to kill. One of the scenes depicting the struggles of a trapped hyzna is perhaps needlessly prolonged, not to say painful, and the attempt of the expositor to rob the creature of the well-deserved sympathy of the audience by abusing him as a scavenger and body- snatcher will appeal only to the childish-minded, and it will, of course, be well known to English sports- men that the idea of hunting lions with dogs, which is claimed as a novel feature of the trip, was regularly practised more than half a century ago by that intrepid sportsman Gordon Cumming. Joun Napier of Merchiston made the first public announcement of his invention of logarithms in 1614, and an English translation of his work was issued two years later, that is, ome year before his death. Announcement having been made of a pro- posal to celebrate the tercentenary of Napier’s dis- covery next year, it may be of interest to state the position of the matter. The Royal Society of Edin- burgh has invited the cooperation of other scientific and educational bodies in arranging for this celebra- tion, and the great majority of these institutions and corporations have nominated representatives upon the general committee, which will be convened at an early date to consider the whole question. Among the bodies which were invited by the Royal Society of Edinburgh to cooperate were the Edinburgh Town Council, the universities and technical colleges of Scotland, the Faculty of Actuaries, the Merchant Company, the Heriot Trust, the Edinburgh Committee for the Training of Teachers, the Chamber of Com- merce, Merchiston Castle School, and the like. The only societies outside Scotland which were asked to send representatives to the general committee were the Royal Society of London and the Royal Astro- nomical Society, these being respectively included be- cause of their national importance as the highest representatives of science in our country and of that particular science of astronomy which was the first to benefit by Napier’s great invention. We under- stand that nothing has yet been decided as to the character of the celebration; a congress of calculators and an exhibition of all kinds of aids to calculation in the form of tables or instruments have been men- tioned; but no scheme can be definitely adopted until the general committee has met. WE are informed that Vittorio Emanuele III., King of Italy, has consented to the use of the prefix “Roval”’ by the Italian Geographical Society. NO. 2255, VOL. 90] Sir RickMaN GODLEE, president of the Royal College of Surgeons, will deliver the Hunterian oration in the theatre of the college on Friday, February 14, at four o’clock. Tue death is announced, at eighty years of age, of Dr. W. H. Dickinson, past-president of the Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society and of the Patho- logical Society, and at different times Croonian, Lum- leian, and Harveian lecturer, as well as censor, of the Royal College of Physicians. Tue Geological Society of London will this year award its medals and funds as follows :—Wollaston medal, Rey. Osmond Fisher; Murchison medal, Mr. G. Barrow; Lyell fund, Mr. S. S. Buckman; Bigsby medal, Sir Thomas Henry Holland, K.C.I.E., F.R.S.; Wollaston fund, Mr. W. W. King; Murchison fund, Mr. E. E. L. Dixon; Lyell fund, Mr. Llewellyn Treacher; Barlow-Jameson fund, Mr. J. B. Scrivenor and Mr. Bernard Smith. Pror. Guipo Cora informs us that the fall of a house in Rome on January 8 was clearly registered at the Collegio Romano Observatory by an Agamennone seismograph at 4.26 a.m. The first earth movement came from the north-east, corresponding to the position of the Via del Tritone, where the fall occurred, by which fifteen people were killed, and afterwards the ground continued to vibrate for twenty minutes. Lizur. FILCHNER, the leader of the German Ant- arctic expedition, returned from the south to Buenos Aires on January 7. He has apparently crossed an ice-belt of great width (1200 nautical miles), and dis- covered, last February, a new land in 76° 35’ S., 30° W., extending to 78° or 79° S., to which the name of King Luitpold has been given. Its boundaries and extent are by no means clearly defined in reports to hand. Lieut. Filchner declares himself satisfied with the results, but the expedition has returned earlier than was expected, and he expresses the hope that work will be carried on. There is later to hand - a report of dissension between the members of the nautical and scientific staffs of the expedition, which, it is to be hoped, may not have prejudiced the work. GERMAN geographers and their colleagues elsewhere are concerned over rumours of disaster to the German expedition in Spitsbergen. The ship has been aban- doned in the north at Treurenberg Bay, and though it may be salved in the summer, it is by no means certain that the crew and staff, or some of their members, are not lost or in extremity, for the leader, Lieut. Schréder-Stranz, was away on a sledging journey from which he had not returned. Captain Ritschel, with infinite difficulty and much suffering, has made his way to Advent Bay, and a relief expedi- tion has been organised. The original party was not apparently prepared to winter in the field. Caprarn Ernar MIKKELSEN’s account of his expedi- tion to north-east Greenland, presented at the meeting of the Royal Geographical Society on January 13, sounded like a chapter of accidents successfully over- i come. At the very first, in the summer of 1909, he January 16, 1913] NAT ORE 549 was delayed with trouble over his dogs, and those he obtained appear to have done him but poor service. Much additional labour devolved upon himself and his companion, Iversen, who made the journey to Dan- marks Fjord, and they had to struggle as well against | privation, and, from time to time, sickness. were in large measure dependent on caches of pro- They | visions, the contents of which might or might not | prove sufficient for their needs, and on obtaining game, the appearance of which was problematical. Captain Mikkelsen outlined his discoveries relating to the important work of the Mylius Erichsen expedition, as it was his main object to recover the records of the lost leader and his companions, Brénlund and Hoeg-Hagen. He was successful, and referred to the serious import to his own plans of the report left by Erichsen of the non-existence of the Peary channel. This channel Mikkelsen had intended to follow to the north-west coast. By his experiences of boat-work among the ice, and of journeying over the sea and inland ice, and coastwise, Mikkelsen has added com- prehensively to our knowledge of the conditions of travelling in Greenland. M. A. PrazMowski contributes a second study on the nitrifying organisms of the group Azotobacter in the Bull. Internat. de l’Acad. des Sciences de Cracovie (No. 7B, July, 1912). Azotobacter is a true Schizo- mycete, though it has affinities both with the protozoa and with the unicellular alge. Its pre-eminent func- tion is to fix nitrogen, and it is probable that it can obtain nitrogen either from nitrogenous compounds or from the free nitrogen of the atmosphere. Mataria is prevalent in the Andaman Islands, Bay of Bengal, and a valuable report on the subject has been furnished by Major Christophers (Scientific Memoirs of the Government of India, No. 56, 1912). The chief carrier in the settlements is the anopheline mosquito Nyssomyzomyia ludlowi, a species which breeds in and about salt swamps, and was not found at a greater distance from salt or brackish water than half a mile. It was proved to carry the malignant tertian parasite, and it is quite probable that it carries all forms of the malaria parasite. Dr. WirLowiryskr has directed our attention to an article by Prof. Hofer in the Osterreich. Fischerei Zeitung (No. 21, 1912) on the biological purification of sewage effluents, &c., by means of fish. Tanks have to be provided, in extent at the rate of one hectare (2°5 acres nearly) per 2000-3000 persons. They work well even in winter, when covered with ice, and are quite equal in efficiency to irrigation in sewage farms, and financially the return is better than from sewage farms, as 500 kilograms of fish (carp) are reared per hectare (in what time is not stated). In spite of the enormous and rapidly increasing output of zoological literature at the present time, it is surprising what a large number of well-known types, constantly studied by students in the labora- | tory, remain inadequately described. A good general account of the morphology of such forms is always NO. 2255, VOL. 90] valuable, even if it be restricted to some particular system of organs, and we welcome the appearance in the Zeitschrift fiir wissenschaftliche Zoologie of two monographs of this kind. The description by Rudolf Hillig of the nervous sytem of Sepia officinalis (op. cit., vol. ci., part 4) is a detailed and admirably illus- trated piece of work, which cannot fail to be widely useful, though we fear that but few students will be able to find time to follow it out in all its intricacies. The same remarks apply with equal force to the more comprehensive account by Erich Reupsch of the anatomy and histology of the common Heteropod, Pterotrachea coronata (op. cit., vol. cii., part 2). Two notable monographs on the invertebrate fauna of Japan have recently been published in the Journal of the College of Science, Imperial University of Tokyo.’ The first (vol. xxx., art. 2) is on ‘The | Errantiate Polychzeta of Japan,” by A. Izuka, and con- | tains a systematic account of the group illustrated by ” twenty-four plates. The term “ errantiate,’’ instead of “errant,” strikes us as being somewhat peculiar, and we do not remember to have seen it before. The second (vol. xxix., art. 2) is a posthumous work on the actinopodous Holothurioidea, by the late Prof. K. Mitsukuri, whose death was such a grievous loss to zoological science. This work has been edited by Prof. I. Ijima and Mr. H. Ohshima, and is illus- trated by admirable text-figures of the calcareous skeletal elements and plates of external form. The coloured illustrations, drawn from life, are very beau- tiful, and for quaintness of form and colour it would be difficult to find any invertebrate to surpass Enypniastes eximia. OBSERVATIONS made on Long Island at the be- ginning of June, 1911, have enabled Dr. L. Hussahof, in The American Naturalist for December, 1912, to | obtain new information with regard to the breeding habits of the sea-lamprey (Petromyzon marinus). It has been considered that fertilisation in these lampreys is internal—a supposition which may be explained by the fact that the eggs can develop parthenogetically, but in ordinary cases normal fertilisation tales place. Both this formation and spawning occur in a kind of nest made in the bed of a stream by carrying away stones in the circular sucking mouth until a basin- shaped depression is formed, on the bottom of which sand accumulates. Like eels, lampreys never return to the sea after spawning. Death appears to be mainly due “to the cycle of metabolic processes initiated on the maturing of the gonadial products ’’; but this may be aided by reduced vitality due to the labour of removing stones from the nest, and also by the development of “‘ fungus ”’ in the self-inflicted wounds made during the breeding season. Tue determination of the magnitude of the experi- mental error in agricultural field trials has recently attracted considerable attention in this country, and has now been investigated in the United States by Prof. Lyttleton Lyon, of Cornell. The results are published in the Proceedings of the American Society of Agronomy, and afford interesting confirmation of those obtained at Rothamsted and at Cambridge. 550 NATURE [JANUARY 16, 1913 Messrs. LAUDER AND FacGan have issued in bulletin form (Report 26, Edinburgh and East of Scotland Agricultural College) a summary of their investiga- tions on the effect of heavy root feeding on the milk of cows. They show that the feeding of a ration containing a large quantity of water does not reduce the percentage of fat or increase the percentage of water in the milk. A more concentrated ration cer- tainly yields a larger quantity of milk, but the turnip ration, on the other hand, gave richer milk and at a lower cost. An account has been published from the Entomo- logical Laboratories of the Agricultural Research In- stitute, Pusa, of the Tetriginze (Acridiinae), by Dr. J. L. Hancock. The members of this subfamily are so variable in structure and coloration that difficulty is experienced in drawing specific distinctions between some of the closely allied forms. The author has car- ried out a systematic arrangement of the species, and has succeeded in dividing the members of this genus into two groups by the characters of the frontal costa and the position of the superior paired ocelli. Tue existence of circular currents in the Sea of Japan, we learn from The Japan Chronicle, Kobe, of December 19, 1912, has been established by Dr. Wada, the meteorologist of the Korean Government- General. Great weight is attached to the discovery by Japanese authorities, who regard it as having an important bearing on the distribution of marine life and even on human migrations in East Asia. Dr. Wada carefully studied the movements of nearly 400 mines, laid in Vladivostok Bay by the Russians and Japanese during the war, which drifted on to the coasts of Japan, and further observed the drift of 120 bottles thrown into the Sea of Japan from a steamer belonging to the Government. From the data obtained, Dr. Wada concludes that the Liman cur- rent, running down from the Siberian coast, flows southward past Kang-won and Ham-gyong Provinces, Korea; from Cape Duroch the stream sweeps round to the coast of Echizen, Japan, whence it goes northward along the coast of Japan together with the Tsushima current. One stream goes out into the Pacific through the Tsugaru Strait, and another stream continues northward to Tartar Strait, where it rejoins the Liman current, thus forming a complete circle. SHortLy after the great Valparaiso earthquake of August 16, 1906, attention was directed to certain luminous phenomena that were observed before, at the time of, and after the earthquake. The observa- tions have recently been analysed by Count de Mon- tessus de Ballore, the director of the Chilean Seismological Office (Bollettino of the Italian Seismological Society, vol. xvi., pp. 77-102). The total number of records collected is 136. Of these 44 are decisively, and 16 implicitly, negative; in 38 cases some lights of an indefinite character were noticed; in the remaining 38 records the observation of luminous phenomena is more or less explicit. Many of the negative records are communicated by NO. 2255, VOL. 90] persons accustomed to scientific investigations, and in some cases contradict alleged observations of lights at the same places. It does not follow that the lights, when observed, were connected with the earthquake, for, in the centre and south of Chile, a storm raged during the night of the earthquake, and it was from this part of the disturbed area, and not from the epicentral district, that most of the observations came. Count de Montessus therefore concludes that, for the Valparaiso earthquake at any rate, the connection of the luminous phenomena with the earthquake is not proven. In Science of December 6 Prof. J. E. Church, jun., in charge of Mount Rose Observatory, on the summit of a peak of the Sierra Nevada Mountains (altitude 3292 metres), gives an interesting account of its plans and progress. The meteorological station is at pre- sent the highest in the United States, and was estab- lished privately a few years ago for the purpose of ascertaining the minimum temperatures at that point; it was subsequently attached to the University of Nevada. Although the staff only occupies the observa- tory during part of the year, the station is well pro- vided with specially constructed self-recording instru- ments, and bids fair to become of considerable import- ance in the study of mountain meteorology. Among the main problems which occupy attention may be mentioned (1) the prediction of frosts at lower levels and the relationship of the former to the passing of storms over the summit. A temperature survey has been in progress for two seasons for the purpose of delimiting areas suitable for fruit-growing, and several auxiliary stations have been established at various levels. (2) The influence of mountains and forests on the conservation of snow. A special bulle- tin on this subject is now being prepared. Prof. Church points out that ‘forests may be too dense as well as too thin for the maximum conservation of snow.”’ The ideal forest seems to be one filled with suitable glades, which may be produced by judicious pruning or by proper planting. Unper the title, ‘A Class of Periodic Orbits of Superior Planets,’ Prof. F. R. Moulton, in a paper reprinted from the Transactions of the American Mathematical Society, xiii., 1, discusses the problem of three bodies of a distant particle moving subject to the attraction of two finite bodies which revolve about the common centre of gravity, with special reference to the case of nearly circular orbits. In a note contributed to the Atti dei Lincei, xxi., (2), 7, Dr. Giovanni Giorgi considers the solution of problems in elasticity where after-effect (the Nach- wirkung of Boltzmann) is taken into account. The object is to show that when any problem in statical elasticity has been solved, the corresponding solution in the present instance can be deduced by substitut- ing an expression involving a differential operator for the constant modulus of elasticity. Various definitions of a curve have been given by Jordan, Schénflies, Young, Veblen, and others. In the Memoirs of the College of Science and Engineer- JANUARY. 16, 1913] NAT CFSE, 55! ing, of Kyoto, Japan, Mr. Takeo Wada examines these and proposes a new definition of a simple curve, based, like those of Veblen and Young, on the theory of sets of points. It is shown that this definition of a curve is equivalent to that of Jordan, and it appears in- dependent of the dimensions of the space in which the curve exists. Parr 2 of vol. viii. of the Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards contains a complete description of the work done by Messrs. E. B. Rosa, N. E. Dorsey, and J. M. Miller in determining the value of the international ampere, which deposits 111800 milli- grams of silver in one second, in terms of the abso- lute ampere, which is one-tenth of a c.g.s. unit of current on the electromagnetic system. The method used is that of the Rayleigh current balance of the single moving-coil type. The balance itself was a 3o-cm. beam Rueprecht, from one pan of which the moving coil was suspended between two coaxial fixed coils. The coils were water-cooled so as to minimise convection currents in the air. The ratio of the radii of fixed and moving coils, 50 and 25 cm. respectively, was found by using them as concentric galvanometer coils. The quantity directly measured by the authors was the electromotive force in international volts at the ends of a standard ohm carrying one absolute ampere, but by comparing their result with that of Messrs. Rosa, Vinal, and McDaniel, giving the inter- national volts at the ends of the resistance when an international ampere passed through it, they find that the absolute ampere deposits 111804 milligrams as against the international ampere, 111800 milligrams, of silver in one second. THE past year has been notable as regards the smaller electrical apparatus in that great development has taken place in domestic electrical appliances. Both manufacturers and central station engineers have at last awakened to the fact that in order to compete with the gas companies in cooking and other appli- ances an organised campaign is necessary to bring before the public at large the advantages of the smaller electrical domestic apparatus as produced at the present time. Consequently the engineers of municipal undertakings and supply companies have been working hard to bring the hitherto comparatively unknown domestic electrical appliances before their consumers, and the manufacturers also by improved and simplified heating units have largely contributed to the success of this campaign. The present year should see a reasonably cheap and economical electric oven put on the market to compete with the everyday gas cooker, which at present, on account of its low initial cost, still holds the field against the electric oven among the general public. Several English manufacturers have also during the past year put down extensive plant for the production of small electric motors and fans, the greater part of which up to quite recently were imported from Germany ‘and Italy. Repropuctions from photographs of H.M. sub- marine-boat E4 appear in both Engineering and The Engineer for January 10. This boat is of the latest NO. 2255, VOL. go| type, constructed by Messrs. Vickers, Ltd., at Barrow- in-Furness, and is of large size and great speed. The surface speed of about sixteen knots is obtained from heavy oil-engines of more than 1500 _brale-horse- power. It is understood that the vessel is nearly 180 ft. in length and 23 ft. in beam; the submerged displacement is about 800 tons. A wireless telegraphy mast is fitted, and there is a large rudder at. deck level, which improves the steering of the vessel when submerged. It is also stated that the vessel accom- modates disappearing guns. When travelling at the surface, E4 draws about 12 ft. of water. Very little authoritative information has been given regarding vessels of the E class, for obvious reasons. Tue fortieth year of publication is reached by the 1913 issue of *‘ Willing’s Press Guide.” The volume provides an admirable index to the Press of the United Kingdom, and useful lists of the principal Colonial and foreign periodical publications. The journals and proceedings of the various scientific and other learned societies are duly indexed. Tue address on “‘The Place of Mathematics in Engineering Practice,” delivered by Sir William White before the International Congress of Mathe- maticians at Cambridge last August, and referred to in our report of the proceedings of the congress (September 5, vol. xc., p. 4), has been published in full in our comprehensive contemporary. Scientia (vol. xii., N. xxvi—6), the London agents of which are Messrs. Williams and Norgate. OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. Tue Sun’s Macnetic Firerp.—The question of the sun possessing a magnetic field, similar to the terres- trial magnetic field, is discussed, especially with regard to the phenomena of the sun’s upper atmosphere, by M. Deslandres, in No. 27 of the Comptes rendus (December 30, 1912). He first discusses the matter theoretically, and, supposing the magnetic field to be produced by the rotation of the sun’s electric charge, shows that a solar ion expelled vertically from the sun should be so deviated by the field as to describe a helix having its axis parallel to the field; if many luminous ions are expelled in the form of a promin- ence the helical motion at the base of the promin- ence, as seen from the earth, will depend upon the position of the prominence in the solar magnetic field. From a number of observations, M. Deslandres shows that the recorded phenomena are in accordance with the demands of the theory, and he accepts as certain the existence of a general magnetic field about the sun, similar to that of the earth, and in general much more feeble. THE INTEGRATED SPECTRUM OF THE Mitky Way.— The Harvard analysis of the spatial distribution of the spectra of more than 32,000 stars indicates that the Sirian type predominates in the Milky Way, and therefore the integrated spectrum of the galaxy should be of the A type. To test this conclusion Dr. Fath has actually secured spectra of certain large areas of the Milky Way, and finds that his results are not exactly confirmatory. With the special spectrograph he used for his work on the zodiacal light, he exposed a plate for a total of 30h. 20m. on the rich region of the Milky Way that is partially bounded by the stars 7, 6, and A Sagittarii; a second plate was exposed for a total of 65h., and gave better results. 552 [JANUARY 16, 1913 The general character of the spectrum so secured is solar in that it shows the F, G, H, and K lines, and three broad absorption bands more refrangible than K; a bright line is suspected at 4164“, but may be merely a subjective phenomenon due to contrast. Plates of other regions were taken, and agree in indicating that the integrated spectrum of the Milky Way is of the solar type. Dr. Fath suggests that his result differs from that obtained at Harvard because he dealt with altogether fainter stars, and that beyond a certain undetermined magnitude stars of the solar type predominate. A perfectly independent photographic investigation also indicates that, in the mean, the fainter stars of the Milky Way are the redder. These results, if they prove to be perfectly general, are most important from the cosmological point of view. (Astrophysical Journal, vol. xxxvi., No. 5, p. 362.) ComETs DUE TO RETURN THIS YEAR.—Mr. Hollis, continuing a function performed by the late Mr. W. T. Lynn for many years, discusses briefly in The Ob- servatory (No. 457) the periodic comets due to return this year. Holmes’s comet, period 6:86 years, is due to pass perihelion early in the year, but the conditions are not very favour- able; it was ob- served in 1899 and 1906. Finlay’s comet, period about 6'5 years, was dis- covered at the Cape in 1886, and was observed in 1893 and 1906; at the latter return it passed perihelion on September 8. Both these comets are of the Jupiter family, to which also be- longs the object (19061V) discovered by Dr. Kopff in 1906, and calcu- lated to have a period of 6°67 years. Two other comets may appear, but are not expected with any great confidence. The first, discovered by Mr. E. Swift in 1894, was con- sidered to be possibly identical with de Vico’s ‘lost comet, but has not been seen since, although a thorough investigation gave a period of 64 years. Finally, Westphal’s comet of 1852, calculated to have a period of about sixty years, may appear, and five search-ephemerides for it have been published by Herr Hnatek in the Astronomische Nachrichten, No. 4619. PARALLAX INVESTIGATIONS.—In parts iii. and iv., vol. ii., of the Transactions of the Astronomical Ob- servatory of Yale University, Dr. F. L. Chase and Mr. M. F. Smith publish the results of their helio- meter observations of the parallaxes of forty-one southern stars, most of which have large proper motions. The methods employed and the individual results are discussed at length, and then the final results are collected into one table showing the mag- nitude, spectrum class, position, proper motion, and parallax of each object. Seven stars show a total proper motion exceeding 1”, and eight have parallaxes exceeding o'1”; only two stars are common to both categories. The volume concludes with a valuable catalogue of the collected parallax results obtained at the Yale Observatory for nearly 250 stars. NO. 2255, VOL. 90] Lhermo-couple lead NATURE flalinum spira Heoala eurrenl lead - ——_ EXPLOSIONS IN MINES. At the end of the report before us the Committee — gives the following short summary of its prin-— cipal contents :— @ ‘‘A method is described by which the relative in- flammability of different dusts can be ascertained by measuring the temperature of a platinum coil which — just ignites a uniform cloud of dust and air projected across the coil fixed in a glass tube. the relative inflammability does not depend upon the “total volatile matter,’ but on the relative ease with which inflammable gases are evolved. “The order of inflammability so obtained corre- sponds in a remarkable degree with the percentage of inflammable matter extracted from the same coals by pyridine. “We are of opinion that these two methods form a valuable means of discriminating between different coals in regard to the sensitiveness of their dusts to ignition. It must, however, be borne in mind that these tests have been made with dusts artificially ground and sieved to an eaual degree of fineness, and since coals differ considerably in their power of resist- Coal Dust From arr blast apparatus” _— Quarlz capillary tube Thermo-couple lead Heotlin ag curren! Jead Enlarged section across Cd. Fic. 1.—Apparatus for detzrmining the relative ignition-temperatures, ot coal-dust clouds. | ance to pulverisation, the friability of a coal must be taken into account.” In the body of the report ‘the subjects are discussed under three heads :—On the ,relative inflammability of coal dusts; the effect of the admixture of an in- combustible dust with coal dust; and experiments on the relative inflammability of different coal dusts at Liévin. Three appendices deal, respectively, with the following subjects :—(1) The volatile constituents of coal; (2) the extraction of coal by pyridine; (3) analyses of coals and their relative ignition-tempera- tures. From the results of the analyses contained in No. 1 appendix the Committee concludes that “all coals con- tain at least two different types of compounds of | different degrees of ease of decomposition”; that coal ““must be regarded as a conglomerate of which the degradation products of celluloses form the base and the changed resins and gums of the plants the cement”’; that the latter are most readily decomposed by heat, yielding as gases mainly the paraffin hydro- carbons; that these are probably the substances which 1 Second Report to the Secretary of State for the Home Department of the Explosions in Mines Committee. Cd. 643r. (London: Wyman & Sons, Ltd., :gt2.) Price 7}¢. The illustrations which accompany the present article are from this report, and are reproduced with permission of the Con- troller of H.M. Stationery Office. ¥ It is shown that — January 16, 1913] NATURE have been shown by Bedson to be extractable in con- siderable quantity from coal by the action of pyridine; and that the inflammability of any particular kind of coal dust depends more upon the proportion of paraffin-yielding substances contained in it than upon that of its volatile matter considered as a whole. The apparatus employed by the Committee for ascertaining the temperature of ignition of different Ikinds of coal dust resembles that previously employed for the same purpose by Bedson and Widdas, and by Taffanel, in so far that, in each, a small cloud of fine dry dust (1 or 2 grams) is projected by a puff of air into a tube, or closed space, in which it is raised to the temperature of ignition by coming more or less closely into contact with an electrically-heated surface or spiral of platinum wire. Bedson and Widdas had no means of measuring the temperature of ignition Pressure ~ Gauge. Fic. 2.—Apparatus for giving a constant puff of air.—A brass cylinder 65 cm. long and of 11 cm. internal diameter is fitted with a weighted piston. For the experiments, the weight employed ts such as to give a pressure of 2 lbs. per sq. in. directly, but hoped to determine it by calculation from the varying number of amperes required to effect ignition with different kinds of dust. In this they were disappointed in consequence of the alteration which the coil of platinum wire underwent owing to | the adhesion of particles of dust to it. Taffanel and the Committee, on the other hand, both measure the temperature by means of a thermo-couple. It will be sufficient, for present purposes, to describe the appli- ances used by the Committee. The puff of air is produced by opening a stopcock | B, Figs. 1 and 2, in a tube one end of which com- | municates with the interior of a vertical brass cylinder at its bottom end. The cylinder, which is 65 cm. NO. 2255, VOL. 90] long by 11 cm. in diameter, is provided with a weighted piston, which gives a pressure of 2 Ib. per sq. in. to the air in its interior. The other end of the tube with the stopcock is connected to a larger tube A (Fig. r), 2°5 cm. in diameter by 45 cm. long, in which a charge of about 2 grams of sieved and dried dust is laid along the bottom. The latter tube is supported near the upper side of a third horizontal glass tube, 8 cm. in diameter by 140 cm. long, open at both ends, as shown. A thin-walled quartz tube of capillary bore, with a platinum coil of 32 gauge Wire, 17 mm. long by 15 mm. in diameter, closely wound upon its outside, and with a platinum and platinum-rhodium thermo-couple passing through it, extends horizontally across a diameter of the larger tube at a point 4o cm. from one end. The thermo- couple is connected to a mille-voltmeter calibrated to read to temperatures on the Centigrade scale. The cross-section in Fig. r shows the disposition of the various connections and the position of the platinum spiral. By the adiustment of an external resistance the coil can be heated to any desired temperature up to 1400° C. If ignition takes place freely when the dust-cloud is puffed into the combustion tube, the temperature of the coil is lowered 10 or 20 degrees, and another trial made, and so on, until the dust-cloud does not ignite. The mean of the two last observations is then taken as the ignition-temperature. The following observations regarding the dust of a coal (224 N) containing 2°11 per cent. moisture, 35°70 per cent. volatile matter, 59°99 per cent. fixed carbon, and 2°20 per cent. ash, which was passed through a 240 mesh sieve, and dried for an hour at 107° C., may be given as an illustration of the method of finding the temperature required :-— Temperature of A Result. platinum coil. SS 1040° C, Ignition. Flame propagated rapidly to end of tube. 1020° C. Ignition. Slow propagation of flame. tooo? C, No ignition. ; FOLOS Ge No ignition. A few sparks round coil. iti Pic) Ignition-temperature, 1015° C, Fig. 3 shows two photographs of the flames pro- duced in this apparatus. A table on p. 9 gives the relative ignition-tempera- tures of a number of different dusts the total volatile | matter of which, calculated on ash-free dry coal, varies from 41°77 per cent., with an ignition-tempera- ture of 1065° C., to 26’02 per cent., with an ignition- | temperature of 1095° C. The intermediate results are p 95 so incongruous amongst themselves that the Com- mittee can discover no relationship between the per- centages of volatile matter and the ignition-tempera- tures. On the other hand, a similar table on p. 10, which gives the percentage extracted by pyridine, shows also that while the dust of one coal with a total proportion of volatile matter amounting to 32°14 per cent., and | a percentage of 37°9 extracted by pyridine, ignites at a temperature of ro05° C., that of another, containing 363 per cent. of volatile matter, and a percentage of only 22°r extracted by pyridine, requires a tem- perature of rogo° C. to produce ignition. While fully alive to the fact that the relationship between ignition-temperature and percentage extracted by pyridine cannot be expected to hold rigidly, the Committee is of opinion that the results obtained up to the present are encouraging, and intends to con- tinue the investigation on the same lines. 554 NATURE [JANUARY 16, 1913 In the experiments on mixtures with a coal [THRE BONAPARTE FUND OF THE PARIS dust the ignition-temperature of which was 1005° C. ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. when pure (passed through a 2;0 mesh sieve and aan j heated to 107° C. for an hour), it was found that with HE committee of the Paris Academy of Sciences 80 per cent. coal dust and 20 per cent. shale dust the appointed to deal with the distribution of the ignition-temperature was 1095° C.; with 80 per cent. Bonaparte Fund for the year 1912 has made the coal dust and 20 per cent. calcium carbonate, 1095° C.; following recommendations, which have been accepted and with 96 per cent. coal dust and 4 per cent. sodium by the academy :—3000 francs each to MM. Louis bicarbonate, 1ogs° C., and similarly with smaller per- Gentil, Pallary, J. Pitard, and Bouguil, members of centages of the inert substances. the scientific expedition to Morocco. This expedition M. Yaflunel’s apparatus, experiments, and conclu- will undertake geological, zoological, botanical, and sions are described in the ‘‘Cinquiéme série d’Essais agronomical researches with a view to the future sur les Inflammations de Poussiéres,’’ published in August, 1911, but space fails us to do more than mention them in this place. Appendix I. is an abridgment of two papers—by Dr. Wheeler and M. J. Burgess—contained in vol. xevii. and vol. xcix. of the Transactions of the Chemical Society, which deal with the destructive distillation of coal and the products evolved from it at different temperatures. Appendix II. is a descrip- tion of the method of extracting those matters con- tained in coal that are soluble in pyridine, by means development of the country. 3000 francs to Prof. de Martonne and his fellow-workers, Jean Brunhes and Emile Chaix, for assisting the publication of a collec- tion of morphological documents, entitled ‘Atlas Photographique des Formes du Relief ‘Terrestre.”’ 3000 francs to Louis Dunoyer for the construction of apparatus for the complete study of absorption and fluorescence spectra of the alkali metals. 3000 frances to M. Hamet, for collection of material for his work on the Crassulaceze francs to M. Bosler for the purchase of a prism of large dispersion for study- 2500 Fic. 3-—Typical photozraphs of the of a Soxlet fat-extraction apparatus, of which an illus- tration is given. Appendix III. is a table of analyses (ultimate and proximz ite) of forty-six different sz amples of coal. It also contains the percentage (on ash-free dry coal) extracted by pyridine, and the relative ignition-temperature of each. The members of the Committee are to be congratu- Jated on the ingenuity displayed in the construction of the apparatus for ascertaining the ignition-tempera- ture of more or less combustible dusts. The results of their experiments, as well as those of M. Taffanel in the same direction, are, in themselves, ex- ceedingly interesting, and may, in some as yet occult manner, tend towards the prevention of colliery explosions. They would undoubtedly be of service if an attempt were made, at any time, to classify mines according to the more or less inflammable nature of the coal dust produced in them. But as the attempt to do this in Germany led to disastrous results in the of at least one mine? in which the coal dust was supposed to be innocuous, the experiment is obviously lighly dangerous one. W. GaLLoway. Carolinengliick, February 17, 1898: 116 killed. O. 2255, VOL. 90] flames produced on the ignition of coal-dust clouds. Vhe igniting-coil is at A. | ing planetary spectra. 2500 francs to M. Baldit, for the purchase of self-recording instruments for study- ing the electrical phenomena of the atmosphere 2500 francs to Paul Pascal for apparatus required for the study of absorption in the ultra-violet by sub- stances the magnetic properties of which have been for previously studied. 2500 francs to M. Schlegel, assistance in his work on some Crustacea. 2000 | francs to M. Sauvageau, for assistance in his studies on the distribution of the Cystoseira. 2000 francs to M. Welsch, to him in the continuation of his geological work. 2000 frances to M. Bierry, to defray the expenses of his proposed work on the metabolism assist of the carbohydrates. 2000 francs to Dr. Mawas, to allow him to continue his experiments on the mechanism of the accommodation of the eye. 2000 francs to M. Gruvel, to assist him in his exploration of the bay of Lévrier from the zoological, oceano- graphical, and geographical points of view. Awards from this fund are not given as prizes for completed work, but given to workers of proved competence for carrying out definite researches. are assistance in JaNnuaRY 16, 1913] THE WEATHER OF 1912. “Pee almost complete absence of summer weather and the frequent rains at almost all seasons have rendered 1912 memorable. The bad weather was more noticeable by contrast with the magnificent weather of 1911. The summer contrast for the two years was dealt with in Nature for September 19, I9gI2, pp. 71-73- NATURE 59 on SCIENCE TEACHING IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS.! \( the period of more than sixty years during which I have watched the progress of education in this country, no feature seems to me to stand out more prominently in that progress than the entrance and establishment of science in a recognised place in the tuition of our public schools. At the beginning of the Lonpon RESULTS. ‘TEMVERATURE MEANS RAINFALL SUNSHINE SEE See Ls ; Ig12 E ays |} Vo. diff. ) ff. 4 Max Min. mee fa ee Sue | | aoe oral me DENN ee Min average average nights days fall | average mea average é , In. In. Hous Hows January . 44°9 36°0 40 4 + 2:0 19 8 18 3/03 pe a Uy a°s9 -o'5! February | 486 386 43°6 Faas 23 7 21 1°73 +0°25 || 1:33 -o078 March 5353 40°5 40°9 +4°4 26 1 | 19 2°58 +106 | 2°97 -—039 April. 59'8 39:4 | 4976 +1°5 17 2 2 0'04 =1:53 || 747 | 2-44 May . 675 46°5 57 0 + 3°2 24 - | 12 I 29 — 0°63 615 — 0°26 June . 60°5 49°3 594 —09 11 —- 18 2°35 +031 729 +o°8t July . 74°9 54°74 64°6 +0°9 15 — II 1°24 —1'16 5°34 = 1°91 August 66°7 501 58°4 Ans 1 a 26 4°27 +193 3769 | 3709 Sept. - 60°8 46°5 BaF —4°5 4 — 5 211 —0704 BQ || Sweets October..| 57°1 39°3 45°2 —2'2 9 2 14 771588 —0'g0 3°96. | +0788 Nov. 483 39 3 438 +04 17 6 16 TS55 ie | aes O87; 089 | ~083 Dect 50°5 407 45.6 +58 26° 2 21 2:82 + 0°99 0°86. | - +0:07 Weal 58°5 434 509 +0°3 192 28 183 24°39 £0770): IIL 3573 - 0°40 The Greenwich observations given in the foregoing table are taken from the reports of the Meteorological Office. The mean temperature for-the year is 509°, which is 0°8° in excess of the average. From June to October inclusive July was the only warm month. In both August and September the deficiency was 45°, and in the two months combined there were only five warm days. was 58° in excéss of the average. ‘There have only been two Decembers since 1841 with a higher mean; these were 462° in 1852, and 458° in 1868. The excess of temperature in March was 4°4°, and the month in some districts was the mildest during forty vears. There were only twenty-eight days with frost during the year. ; ae The wettest months of the year were August, January, December, and March. There were only five days without rain in August, and only ten dry days in December. The driest month was April, with a total rainfall of o'04 in., and at some places in the south-east of England the month was rainless. The year’s sunshine was 1364 hours, and the sunniest month was April, with a duration of 225 hours, which is 85 hours in excess of the average, and it was double the duration registered in August, which, with its 114 hours, was the least sunny month of any from April to October inclusive. The summary for the year given by the Meteoro- logical Office from the results for the fifty-two weeks ended December 28 shows that the greatest excess of rain in any district was 9°57 in. in the south-west of England, whilst in all the English districts, except the north-west, the excess was more than 5 in. The west of Scotland was _ the only district with a deficiency. of rain, and there it. was less than an inch short of the average. The duration of bright sunshine was deficient over the entire kingdom; the greatest deficiency amounted to o’oh. per. day for the year in the north-east of England, and o’8h. per day in the east of Scotland, the south-west of England, the south of Ireland, and the Channel Islands. Cuas. Harpinc. NO. 2255, VOL. 90] December, with the mean of 45°6°, period the teaching of even the rudiments of a know- | ledge of nature formed no part of the ordinary curri- / culum of study. Here and there; indeed, there might be found an enlightened headmaster or other ‘teacher who, impressed with the profound interest and the great educational value of the natural sciences, con- trived to find time amid his other duties to discourse to his pupils on that subject, and sought to rouse in them an appreciation of the infinite beauty, the ‘endless variety, the ordered harmony, and the strange mystery of the world in which they lived. He might try to gain their attention by performing a few simple experi- ments illustrative of some of the fundamental’ prin- ciples of physics or chemistry, or by disclosing to their young eyes some of the marvels which they might discover for themselves among the plants and animals of the countryside. Such broad-minded instructors, | however, were rare, and were far ahead of their time. There were then no special science teachers, no school laboratories, no proper school museums. The range of instruction in the public schools still lay within literary lines, pretty much as it had existed for centuries; excellent, indeed, so far as it went, but. somewhat out of date, and no longer in keeping with the modern advance of knowledge and culture all over the world. Boys left school, for the most part, pro- foundly ignorant of nature, save in so far as they had been able to pick up information by the way, from their own observation, reading, or reflection. At the universities they fared little better. Chairs for the cultivation of various branches of science had indeed been founded there. But the duties of the pro- fessors were usually considered to consist chiefly or solely in the delivery of lectures, which were some- times dull enough, and, where not required in reading for degrees, would attract but scanty audiences. An enthusiastic or eloquent professor might gather around him a goodly company of listeners as, in geology, Buckland used to do at Oxford and Sedgwick at Cambridge. But the laboratory work and experi- 1 From the presidential address delivered to the Association of Public Schoo! Science-masters on January. 8 by Sir Archibald Geikie, K.C.B., Pres.R.S. 550 NATURE [JANUARY 16, 1913 mental demonstrations, now admitted to be so essen- tial, had scarcely begun to be instituted in the univer- sities. Lord Kelvin’s famous physical laboratory, one of the earliest institutions of the kind in this country, was started by him only about the year 1850, and that of his friend Tait at Edinburgh some years later. But the discoveries of modern science last century and the far-reaching effects of their practical applica- tions in everyday life were arousing rapidly increasing attention in the community. Natural knowledge was seen to be both of supreme interest in itself and of paramount importance on account of the many ways in which it could minister to the welfare of man. It was impossible that education could long remain unaffected by this widespread appreciation. Alike on the schools and on the universities the force of public opinion began to make itself felt. Ere long a momen- tous step was taken by a Royal Commission which was appointed to inquire into the public schools, and which, in its report, “strongly recommended the introduction and fostering of natural science in these schools.”” The Public Schools Act, which embodied the recommendations of the Commission, was passed in 1868, and may be regarded as marking the definite starting point of this great reform. Of course, the adoption of science teaching in the public schools has not everywhere made the same pro- gress throughout the country. As was to be expected, it has been unequal, depending as it did on the disposi- tion of the authorities at each school, as well as on the accommodation and funds available. In one or two schools the position of science is perhaps nearly as good as is at present required, and the rest are gradually improving. Everywhere the spirit of com- promise and amity has prevailed, and there seems to be on all sides a general desire to meet the require- ments of the science side, so far as the circumstances of each school will permit. If from the schools we turn to the universities, we see that the advance of the provision for the sciences has there been still more rapid. Not only have the older seats of learning widened their range of studies and largely increased the facilities for scien- tific research, but newer universities have sprung up in. different centres of population, with the dominant purpose of developing scientific training and promoting the prosecution of original investigation. As a further and significant proof that the com- munity at large has awakened to the importance of making natural science one of the branches of educa- tion, we must also take account of the multiplication of secondary schools having a scientific element, and the rise of technical schools and colleges. This retrospect of the past half-century and the out- look which it discloses for the future cannot, I think, be contemplated without considerable satisfaction by the reasonable advocates of science who are not swayed by an inborn spirit of iconoclasm. The ad- vance which has been made may not have been as rapid as these reformers desire, or as we all hoped for. But it has been real, it is still in progress, and we may believe that it will now advance more equally and rapidly over the whole country. But while I am of opinion that we have cause to rejoice over what has already been accomplished, I do not wish to draw too roseate a picture of the present state of the science teaching in this country, or of the position and prospects of the science-masters. I well know that these teachers are in many cases confronted with serious difficulties which hamper them in their work. They are, so to say, newcomers into the educational system of the country, and the subjects which they teach have consequently neither the pres- tige ior the position held by the long-established NO. 2255, VOL. 90] literary studies. Such a state of matters is obviously one that can only be changed by the lapse of time, and let us hope that this lapse will not be prolonged. In the meanwhile, the science-masters, straining every nerve to make their teaching effective, will, by their success in kindling a love of science among their pupils and demonstrating the educational value of their teaching, take the most effectual way to estab- lish the position of science and to further their own claims for consideration. The necessity of providing several science-masters, where circumstances permit, raises the difficulty of finding places for them in the already crowded time- table of the school. This is undoubtedly a very serious problem. Each of the various subjects taught contends for what is thought adequate time. And in this com- petition undoubtedly the older subjects in the curri- culum, being already in possession, and having strenuous defenders, are at a considerable advantage over those which have been recently introduced. But the difficulty is one which, in the hands of a sym- pathetic headmaster and with a spirit of goodwill among the members of his staff, ought not to be insuperable. Even without the curtailment or aban- donment of any of the studies already in the field, it should be possible by tactful rearrangement to secure at least the time demanded for the minimum amount of science teaching which is indispensable. In my opinion this minimum should ensure that every boy at a public school shall be given the opportunity of obtaining a broad general idea of the scope and bear- ings of natural science and of having his apprehen- sion stirred with regard to the manifold interest and charm of nature. This end cannot be properly attained by lectures alone, though these, from an inspiriting teacher and well illustrated with experi- ments or demonstrations, are invaluable. They re- quire, however, to be supplemented with practical work by the pupils, wherein they can themselves handle apparatus, and thus gain a far more vivid and lasting knowledge of physical and chemical laws and processes than can be acquired in any other way. They must also learn the fundamental elements of biology and geology, studying not only with the teacher in the class-room, but with specimens of plants and animals in the laboratory or museum, and where possible in the field. The true educator, no matter in what branch of discipline he may be engaged, is not a man whose chief aim is to cram into the minds and memories of his pupils as ample a store of knowledge as these will hold, and whose success is to be judged by the results of competitive examinations. If this is true on the literary, it is not less so on the scientific side. And on the latter the temptation to teach in that unfruitful way is probably greater than on the former. I have known more than one teacher of science possessing a wide acquaintance with his subject, yet quite incapable of making use of it as a stimulating educational instrument. Full of details, he would pour them forth in wearisome iteration, without the guiding thread of logical sequence that would have linked them intelligibly and interestingly together. Men who have within them no store of living fire are hopelessly incompetent to elicit any spark of it in their listeners. I hope such men are rarer now than they were in my younger days. If they have not passed with the dodo and the gare-fowl into the domain of extinct creatures, they should be zealously kept out of our public schools. In all the educational world I can think of no task more delightful to undertake than that of the science- master. At the same time there are few which demand so wide a range of qualifications. To reach January 16, 1913] WET OLE 37 on the highest success in his calling the science-master must, of course, be thoroughly versed in his subject, alike theoretically and practically. He should, if pos- sible, be a man who has himself done some original research, or at least is intimately familiar with methods of experimentation and investigation, and able to guide his pupils along the lines of independent research. I am strongly of opinion that his efficiency will be much augmented if he has had a good literary as well as a scientific training. When he enters on his teaching career he will soon find the great advantage of a cultivated style, both in dis- coursing and in writing. Unfortunately some able men of science who have neglected the literary side of their education cannot arrange their thoughts in proper sequence or express them with clearness and terseness. I would urge the science-master to keep his hold on literature, ancient as well as modern. Many a time when weary with his labours, and dis- couraged, perhaps, by the difficulties wherewith they are beset, he will find in that delightful field ample consolation and refreshment. But, above all, the science-master must be thoroughly in love with his subject and possess the power of infusing some of his affection for it into his pupils. His evident and genial enthusiasm should be infectious and become an inspiration that appeals to his boys in everything he does, whether as he lectures and demonstrates to them in the class-room or as he shows them how to work in the laboratory. There are probably few other callings in the educa- tional domain where the personal touch, the stimulat- ing influence that springs from earnest devotion to a subject, has so many opportunities of manifesting itself and tells more promptly and powerfully on the pupils. The teacher who is gifted with such an in- spiring power may do more in the way of developing a love of science with the meagre outfit of a parish school than a man without this influence can do with all the resources of a modern laboratory. RADIATIONS OLD AND NEW.1 \ 7 HEN, therefore, X-rays are projected into any material we must think of them as a stream of separate entities, each one of which has complete independence of its neighbours and pursues a life of its own. It changes to a 8 ray and back again; as a B ray it is liable to loss of energy and much deflection, so that those rays which do not pass through the body but are held therein end as electrons moving about in the body with the velocities of thermal agita- tion; that is to say, with those velocities which free electrons in the body must possess on account of the hare which they take in carrying the heat of the ody. Now we may ask ourselves what will be the result if transformations continue to take place at these lower energies; for the moment let us assume that they do. Let us consider some substance like a block of metal. Within it we know that there are innumer- able electrons travelling to and fro with various speeds. In their motion is stored up energy; the communica- tion of heat to the body makes them dance more quickly. When the quicker motion is begun in one part of the body, diffusion hands on the motion to the rest; that is to say, heat has been conducted through the body. If we try to pass an electric cur- rent through the body, it is the movement of the electrons that constitutes the current. This is the accepted theory at the present time. It is even pos- 1 Evening discourse delivered on September 6, 1912, before the British Association at Dundee by Prof. W. H. Bragg F.R.S. Continued from P. 532. NO. 2255, VOL. 90] sible—but this is not accepted by all—that the energy of the moving electrons in the body constitutes the main store of heat therein. The electrons do not all move at the same speed, of course; but there is a certain well-known distribution of their energies about a mean value. At any time a certain percentage of the electrons are moving with speeds lying within definite limits, although the individuals possessing such speeds are continually changing. If we now take into account the transformations of which I have been speaking, we find that there must be X-ray quanta—this name will do for them as well as any others—in such numbers as to be in equilibrium with the electrons of every variety of speed. In the case | of the X-rays and electrons which we have been handling in our experiment, we find that the greater the energy the larger the number of X-ray quanta required to be in equilibrium with the corresponding electrons, for quanta of large energy are transformed into electrons much more rarely than quanta of small energy, whereas electrons of large energy are trans- formed as often, and perhaps more often, than those of small energy. Thus the distribution of energy amongst the quanta is not the same as the distribu- | tion amongst the electrons; in the former there is a much larger number—relatively—of the quanta of larger energy. The electrons which we are considering have very little power of penetration or of breaking away from the substances in which they are. At high tempera- tures, when they move more quickly, there is a con- siderable emission, an effect which has been much studied recently. But at ordinary temperatures the emission of electrons is small. Recently R. W. Wood has suggested that there must be an “aura” of elec- trons surrounding a conductor and extending a minute distance away, since only in this way can we account for the fact that electricity passes freely from one con- ductor to another when they are separated by a space of the order of a wave-length of light. But if the electrons have such difficulty in breaking away from a substance, this is not true of the X-ray quanta. If they behave like those we have been investigating of recent years, they have far greater powers of penetration than the electrons, and every body must be emitting them in streams. Moreover, if bodies be placed near each other, there will be an interchange which will hand energy from one to the other until there is an equilibrium. If a hot body is placed near a cold one, the former contains some electrons and corresponding quanta of great energy, and as these stream over to the cold body, they go through transformations which permit of loss of energy, since for a time they put the energy into electron carriers which can exchange, and do exchange, energies with others—through the mediation of the atoms, it may be. X-ray quanta have not that power of themselves. Thus in time the two bodies are brought to the same temperature. In this way we have a conception of radiation which | on the surface differs from that which is ordinarily held. But does it do so really? May it be that we have merely found a different method of regarding the processes of radiation? If so, that would be a very good thing, for it is one of the best aids to inquiry to have more than one hypothesis which will link together a number of experimental facts. Nor need we be afraid if the hypotheses differ considerably. On the contrary, that means that we have the greater number of interesting things to discover between the two points of view and their final point of convergence. Now we know that when light falls upon material substances there is an emission of electrons of slow speed; in other words, light radiation resembles 558 NATURE [JANUARY 16, 1913 X-radiation in one important particular. Investiga- tors have gone further. They have shown with con- siderable probability that the velocity of the ejected electron varies with the wave-length of the light; the shorter the wave-length, the swifter the electron. Moreover, there are lines of reasoning, worked out in great detail by Planck, Einstein, and others, which lead to the thought that light energy is contained in separate quanta; the shorter the wave-length, the more energy in the quantum. This is one of the most remarkable developments of modern physics. It seems as if there was a strong invitation to con- sider radiation from this point of view. We ought not to think that in doing so we abandon the wave theory or its electro-magnetic development. Rather we might say that the radiation problem is too great to be seen all at once from any point to which we have hitherto attained, and that it is to our advantage to look at it from every side. It would be quite fair, moreover, to say that there is something after all in the corpuscular theory of light. There is a very great deal of evidence, as I have already indicated briefly, for a corpuscular theory of X-rays; and it is widely held that the two forms of radiation are’ akin to each other. How can we hold a corpuscular and a wave theory of light at the same time? If we say that radiation consists in the emission of quanta, each of which traverses space without spread- ing or altering in any way, and label this a cor- puscular theory; and if, on the other hand, we sup- pose light to consist of wave-motions, and that we can resolve such wave-motions at any one time into elements each of which might exist alone and would then spread through space like a ripple on a pond; and if we say that the quantum in the one theory is to be matched with the element in the other, then, of course, the two theories are inconsistent. But such inconsistencies are difficulties of our own making. If one hypothesis links together a number of observed facts, and a second hypothesis a somewhat different number; and if we think the two are incon- sistent, the fault must be ours. We must be stretching one or other hypothesis to breaking-point, and we must work in the hope of finding a new hypothesis of greater compass. Until we do so, we are right to use those which are more limited; it is the way of scientific advance. So the great men of the past have done, as we may see readily. Let us go back to the discussions of the close of the seventeenth century, the time when Newton, Huygens, Hooke, Pardie, and others debated the nature and form of light. A very important discovery had recently been made by Romer, who had shown by astronomical observations that light, which brought the news of the events taking place in space, tool: time to bring it; in others words, that light had a velocity. Romer had even succeeded in measuring the velocity with fair accuracy. Now Descartes had supposed the propagation of light to be instantaneous. He had considered it to be a pressure transmitted across a plenum between the luminous object and the eye; according to a well-known image, vision re- sembled the process by which objects are made mani- fest to a blind man, who feels for them with his sticlx and receives pressures transmitted thereby. Apart from the direct proof by Romer that this view was wrong, a very interesting objection to it is given by Huygens, who, after stating the Cartesian theory, remarks that ‘it is impossible so to understand what I have been saying about two persons mutually seeing one another’s eyes, or how two torches can illuminate each other.’’ That is to say, it is impossible to explain on a simple pressure theory the perfect facility with NO. 2255, VOL. 90] | ways; which rays of light traverse each other without injury. This mutual traverse of light rays inverested Huygens exceedingly, and, as we shall see, influenced materially his choice of the hypothesis in terms of which he expressed the facts known to him. Thus Newton and Huygens were led to introduce the idea of motion of some sort of matter as a funda- mental point in their theories. They did so in different and the distinction grew to be a cleavage between two schools of thought. It was not a very deep distinction at first; it would have been easy to have stepped from one side to the other of the dividing line. Only in later times. did the corpuscular and wave theories stand immovable in hostile antagonism. It is not at all impossible that modern research will once more draw the two theories together. The difference may be put in this way :—Newton imagined light corpuscles which moved in. straight lines from the source of light to the recipient. » thought that the ‘light’? had the same carrier from beginning to end of its path. We should now cxpress his idea by saying that the ‘‘energy”’ of the tight had the same carrier; but Newton did not, of course, conceive of light-energy as a quantity to be measured and discussed. How far he was from this more modern idea is instanced by his supposition that the radiating power of the sun was conserved by the mutual radiation of its parts. On the other hand, Huygens imagined the light to be passed on from particle to particle of the zther; that is to say, the energy was not carried by one particle all the way, but by relays. It must be remem- bered that he thought of the zther as a collection of particles resembling the particles of luminous bodies, but of smaller dimensions. The latter particles he supposed to float in a subtle medium which agitated | them and made them strike against the particles of the zther, which thus became the seat of spreading impulses. We might compare the difference between the ideas of Newton and Huygens with the difference between the despatch of a message by a special runner and the spreading of a rumour. Huygens has given two reasons for his choice of hypothesis: one, the extreme speed of light, which Romer had recently found; the other, the ease with which rays of light traverse each other. duced him to reject the idea of the movement of ——_—*— pg — These in- — matter through the whole of the distance from source — to receiver, since he could not imagine how matter could move with so great a speed, nor could he con- ceive how material rays could pass through each other. He arranged ether corpuscles in a row between source and receiver, and supposed light to move along the row in the same way that a disturbance would move along a row of glass spheres placed so as to touch each other. Indeed, he filled all space with ather particles in contact so as to allow of the transmission of disturbances from any one point to any other. In such_a plenum two disturbances might easily be imagined to cross each other without hindrance. To use an illustration which he gives himself, “If against this row (B C in Fig. 10) there are pushed from two OMOSOOCO® — Fic. to. opposite sides at the same time two similar spheres A and D, one will see each of them rebound with the same velocity which it had in striking; yet the whole row will remain in its place, although the movement has passed along its whole length twice over.’’ It is, of course, the movements, not the spheres, which January 16, 1913| WAT ORL Dd9) traverse each other. Or we may arrange the experi- ment as in Fig. 11. If the balls A, and B, are pushed in the directions of the arrows so as to strike the rows they are shown approaching, the spheres A, and B, will spring forward and continue the lines of motion of A, and B,, and the movements will have crossed each other without any injury. He conceived such a result to be beyond explanation on a theory like Newton’s. His hypothesis met also, as he thought, the other of the two fundamental requirements. The disturb- ance might be supposed to move as fast as was desired, even with the extreme velocity which light, according to Romer, possessed. For, as he says, “there is nothing to hinder us from supposing the particles of the zther to be of a substance as nearly approaching to perfect hardness and possessing a springiness as prompt as we choose.”’ And another very important property of light was illustrated at the same time, viz., that the velocity in free zther was independent of the intensity. It is to be observed that Huygens takes the ideas of hardness and impenetrability of matter which he has drawn from the behaviour of glass spheres and applies them to the molecules of the zther. From what we have seen of the properties of the mew rays we cannot allow Huygens any justification of the reasons which he gives for his preference for the wave theory. There were two, you will remember. In the first place, he supposed that matter could not move with so great a speed as light; yet you see that the a particles move practically as fast as. he conceived light to move, and. they are as mate- rial as anything else. Secondly, he argued that streams of matter could not interpenetrate each other; yet we see that atoms can pass through each other easily. Indeed, the more we consider the behaviour of the rays from radio-active substances, the more impossible appears the view that “ parti- cles” of any sort have boundaries which are limits to interpenetration. _ We see no reason for supposing that there is anything in the known universe which can retain a portion of space to its own exclusive use and forbid all strangers to enter therein. So the reasons which Huygens gives for his choice of a hypothesis are both mistaken; and we might Fic. 11. think that this was a bad beginning for the structure | which he built. But his true foundation was laid otherwise. The spreading-pulse theory suggested to him his famous construction of the wave front, which has been of such immense importance in the develop- ment of our knowledge of radiation. His construction gave a correct account of the phenomena of reflection and refraction, and, what was most wonderful, he found himself able to explain by its means the com- plicated motion of light in Iceland spar. In this way he began the marvellous development of the relations between light and crystalline structure which has roused the interest and admiration of the subsequent centuries. It is true that he had no idea of a regular succession of waves; in fact, he expressly states that he does not wish us to think of his pulses as following each other at regular distances. He did not explain colours, and he failed altogether to account for NO. 2255, VOL. 90] polarisation. But his hypothesis linked certain facts together, and was useful so far as it went. It was Newton with his corpuscular theory who introduced the idea of periodicity in order to explain the colours of the soap film and other “thin plates ”’; who ascribed differences in colour to differences of frequency, and correctly described the phenomena of polarisation as due to the rays of light having sides, a description which could not be applied to the con- ception of Huygens. Newton was able to express many of the facts known to him in terms of vibrations of an all-pervading zther; he saw that in such case the longer vibrations would excite the sensation of red, and the shorter—the more refrangible—the sensa- tion of violet. He actually supposed that such vilia- tions travelled along the optic nerves and carri«d the sensations to the brain, and he directed attention to persistence of vision as evidence of the “vibratory nature of the motions at the bottom of the eye.” Heat he supposed to be conveyed by zther vibrations. He could express the behaviour of a soap film in respect to colour in terms of the wave theory with formal correctness, showing its dependence on the ratio between the thickness of the film and the wave length of light. But he preferred to express his ideas on a corpuscular model, because he could not other- wise explain the formation of sharp shadows, and deemed it impossible for a pulse on rounding a corner to spread so little as light. It was for this reason he rejected the theory of Huygens, and he was perfectly right. If we take Huygens’s own model, if we project a billiard ball against a group of other balls in contact, as we might, somewhat inefficiently, start a game of pyramids, the energy of motion is scattered every way, and balls fly in all directions. Huygens never met this objection; it was not answered until the time of Fresnel, more than a hundred years after- wards. Newton was also impressed with the impos- sibility of varying the nature of light by transmission, reflection, or refraction, and ascribed all apparent changes of colour to sorting processes. As he says, “very small bodies conserve their properties unchanged in passing through several mediums, which is a con- dition of the rays of light.’”” He was thinking of contemporaries who supposed that the colour of light was readily changed in deviation or transmission. The essence of Newton’s idea was the travel of light as an entity which did not spread or change as it went. He implied by the term ‘‘corporeity of light” no more than ‘“‘something or other propagated every way in straight lines from luminous bodies without determining what that thing is, whether a confused mixture of difform qualities or modes of bodies, or of bodies themselves; or of any virtues, powers, or beings whatsoever.”” He strongly opposed a tendency to read more into his hypothesis than it was intended to hold. In these respects the X-ray resembles very closely the corpuscle which Newton conceived, so long at least as it remains untrans- formed. But if transformation occurs the electron generally loses energy, and a retransformed X-ray will have less energy than the original, a well-known process. It may be compared with the phenomenon of fluorescence, of which Newton knew nothing. Now if X-rays are to be classed with light, as there are reasons for supposing, and as many do suppose with more or less conviction, then it must be acknow- ledged that Newton’s conception has more value in it than the last century has been accustomed to grant. But we shall not therefore adopt Newton’s theory as he left it. It is too obviously defective. It cannot explain diffraction, and his main reason for rejecting the wave theory was wrong. He gave no satisfactory explanation of the uniformity of the velocity of light 560 NATORE [JANUARY 16, I913 in space. Even his explanation of the colours of thin films is defective. Moreover, he was hopelessly at sea, and, it may be observed, so was Huygens, in attempting to explain the absorption of light. Neither of them had at his command any mechanism but that of the collisions between particles of zther, particles of matter, and light corpuscles, and they could but juggle with the relative sizes of these things. Newton was very hard put to it to explain the difference be- tween a perfectly transparent body and a perfectly black one, and was compelled to suppose it due to a small difference in the sizes of the particles of matter. Huygens would have liked to ascribe internal reflections at the surface of a piece of glass to colli- sions between the zther corpuscles and the particles of air outside, and was disconcerted by the fact that reflection took place equally well when there was no air at all. But it is quite unnecessary. to follow the subject further, and discuss the contributions of Young | and Fresnel, and the other men of famous names to whom the modern theories of radiation are due. The point is simply this, that each of these great workers constructed for himself a hypothesis or model, which represented correctly certain facts known to him, and by its aid was able to use what he knew as a means to learn more. The results of his work de- pended upon the construction of his model, and his choice of the known facts he had made it to represent to a greater or less degree. For no one could con- struct a hypothesis which represented correctly all that was known. But if it was correct so far as it went it led to good results in a limited field. Therefore it happens that hypotheses must always be diversified, and it is well for the possibilities of advance that they should be. If now we have a number of new facts regarding new radiations, if it turns out that they are to be carried over to the older radiations which have been studied for so long, and if the wave theory cannot absorb them at once, this means no rejection of the work of the past, no re- tracing of steps. It means rather the enriching of our opportunities of advance, in which all the good work which has been done in the past will tell as well as that which we may hope to do in the future. If my observations are well-worn sayings, you will perhaps forgive the fact in the mewness, and I should like to add, if I might, the appropriateness, of the illusfration. It does, after all, make for our encouragement and efficiency if we remember that we are free to make any hypothesis we please, and that we are not to be judged directly for the choice we male, but indirectly for the use we make of it. Our reasons for choosing a scientific creed wifl prob- ably be wrong; we cannot hope to do better always than Newton and Huygens. But perhaps we can do something with it which will be good and will last. It may contribute also to the general peace if we remember that our hypotheses are made, in the first instance, for our own personal use, and that we have no justification for demanding that others shall adopt the means which we find most convenient in the modelling of our own ideas. UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE. CaMBRIDGE.—The professor of anatomy has re- appointed Dr. W. L. H. Duckworth to be senior demonstrator of human anatomy for five years from January 1, 1913, and Mr. D. G. Reid to be an addi- tional demonstrator of human anatomy for the same period. The Quick professor of biology has reappointed Mr. C. Warburton to be demonstrator in. medical ento- NO. 2255, VOL. 90] mology as from October 1, 1912, to September 30, I9I5. The managers of the Balfour Memorial Fund give notice that the Balfour studentship will be vacant March 25. The names of applicants, together with such information as they may think desirable, should be sent on or before January 31 to the secretary, Prof. J. Stanley Gardiner, Zoological Laboratory, Cambridge. Oxrorp.—The master and fellows of University College intend to proceed, in the course of the Hilary Term, 1913, to the election of a fellow qualified to take part in the educational work of the college as prelector, with special reference to the chemistry schools, provided that a candidate suitable to the re- quirements of the college presents himself. Candi- dates must have taken a degree in a university of the United Kingdom or of the British Dominions beyond the Seas, and be unmarried. A stipend of at least 35o0l. per annum, including the emoluments of the fellowship, will be assigned to the fellow and pra- lector, so appointed, from the first, with prospective rise of salary proportionate to nature and length of service. The przelector in chemistry will not be pre- cluded from undertaking further work in the Univer- sity, outside the college, subject to the consent of the master and fellows from time to time. Candidates. are requested to forward to the master of University College, on or before January 31, 1913, the following documents :—(1) A signed application setting forth the candidate’s qualifications, and any evidence (such, e.g. as original work) which he may desire to lay before the electors; (2) three, and not more than three, testimonials from independent sources in his favour. Pror. R. M. Burrows, professor of Greek in the University of Manchester, has been appointed prin- cipal of King’s College, London, in succession to the Rev. Dr. A. C. Headlam. Tue fifth annual dinner of old students of the Royal College of Science, London, will be held at the Café Monico, Shaftesbury Avenue, on Saturday, January 25. The president of the Old Students’ Association (Sir William Crookes, O.M., F.R.S.) will preside, and the guests will include Sir Alfred Keogh, KCBS Sir Henry Miers, F.R.S., Sir Robert Morant, K.C.B., Lieut.-Col. Sir David Prain, C.1I.E., Sir Amherst Selby-Bigge, K.C.B., Dr. R. T. Glazebrook, F.R.S.,, and Dr. H. Frank Heath, C.B. Tickets may be: obtained on application to Mr. T. Ll. Humberstone, secretary of the Old Students’ Association, 3 Selwood Place, South Kensington, S.W. Tue recently established University of Hong Kong is making rapid strides in the development of its: various faculties, and attention is at present being specially directed to the provision of facilities for the practical study of pure and applied science. In an address delivered to the Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders of Hong Kong last November, Prof. C. A. M. Smith, professor of engineering in the new University, made an eloquent appeal to men of wealth to assist in the important work of training Chinese students in modern science. ‘‘In Hong Kong,” he said, ‘‘we wish to train men who know the East to develop China’s natural resources. For that develop- ment they must obtain machinery—if we do our work aright we shall secure a market for those who are at home, and provide greatly increased freightage for the shipping to this port.’’ Later he continued :— “We require at once machines for demonstration and experimental purposes. We want to equip labora- tories for testing the materials of construction, such January 16, 1913] NATURE 561 as steel, concrete, copper, &c. We want oil, gas and steam engines, and refrigerators, as well as dynamos and all sorts of electrical apparatus.” As an induce- ment to manufacturers and others to give generously, Prof. Smith said :—‘‘We will house your gifts and keep your samples running and in good condition. We will show your present and future customers the merits of your machines, and we will advertise your goods in the centre of the greatest market of the near future.”” There seems every likelihood that Prof. Smith will be successful in his efforts to secure well- equipped laboratories of a modern type. Already, we understand, the Chloride Electrical Storage Co., Ltd., of Manchester, has decided to present to the Univer- sity of Hong Kong a complete battery of their chloride accumulators for use in the electrical laboratory. It may be hoped that ere long each of the pieces of apparatus in the list needed at the new University, which has been circulated widely by Prof. Smith, will be secured. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. Lonpon. Mathematical Society, January 9.—Prof. A. E. H. Love, president, and temporarily Sir Joseph Larmor, treasurer, in the chair.—J. C. Fields: Proofs of certain general theorems relating to orders of coincidence.— W. E. H. Berwick : The reduction of ideal numbers.— A. E. H. Love: Notes on the dynamical theory of the tides.—W. H. Young: Uniform oscillation of the first and second kind.—H. Bateman: Some definite in- tegrals occurring in the harmonic analysis connected with a circular disc. Royal Astronomical Society, January 10.—Dr. F. W. Dyson, F.R.S., president, in the chair.—Dr. S. S. Hough: The periodic errors in the right ascensions of standard catalogues. In giving an account of this paper, Sir D. Gill explained in detail the method adopted at the Cape Observatory for obtaining great accuracy in meridian observations, notwithstanding some instability in the foundations of the instruments. —Prof. Douglass spoke on the records of solar radia- tion made in Arizona.—H. E. Wood: Work at Union Observatory, Transvaal, and photographs of Gale’s comet. The comet had two straight tails, one of them of considerable length.—Rev. A. L. Cortie : Sun-spots and terrestrial magnetic phenomena, 1898- 1g11. Second paper, the greater magnetic storms. It was concluded that while a general state of sun- spot activity corresponds with a general state of terrestrial magnetic activity, it requires the advent of a large spot, the influence of which extends in all directions, or a spot favourably situated in helio- graphic latitude, to disturb the equilibrium by the precipitation of a magnetic storm.—Prof. H. C. Plummer: The motions and distances of the brighter stars of the type B-Bs, being a continuation of pre- vious researches on stellar motions. The whole of the stars of the first type appear to be at about 200 light-years’ distance, and to be very uniformly dis- tributed ina plane, their motions being parallel to the Milky Way. The author considered that there were two star streams.—Mr. Eddington pointed out that the motions of the B-type stars were very small, and that they might be moving in a direction perpendicular to the Milky Way.—C. Martin and H. C. Plummer : The short-period variable SU Cygni. Prof. Plummer showed a diagram of the interesting light-curve of the star. Paris. Academy of Sciences, December 30, 1912.—M. Lipp- mann in the chair—H. Deslandres: The general mag- netic field of the upper layers of the solar atmosphere. New verifications. Regarding the upper solar layer NO. 2255, VOL. 90| as strongly ionised, the behaviour of the ions in a magnetic field offers a simple explanation of the phenomena hitherto observed. Further experimental proofs are given.—A. Haller and Edouard Bauer: The formation of dimethylstyrolene, starting with phenyl- dimethylethyl alcohol. The alcohol was obtained by the reduction of phenyldimethylacetamide with sodium and absolute alcohol. Various by-products of the reaction are described._The secretary announced the death of Paul Gordan, correspondant for the section of geometry.—J. Guillaume; Observations of the sun made at the Observatory of Lyons during the third quarter of 1912. The results of observations made on seventy-two days are given in tabular form.—M. Luizet: Elements of the orbit of the variable star RR Lion (BD +24'2183°).—Ch. Gallisot: The influ- ence of the colour and magnitude in sudden varia- tions of brightness of a stellar image. An account of a repetition of some experiments of Broca and Sulzer, for the case of luminous points.—Georges Rémoundos: The theory of M. Picard and algebroid functions.—J. Taffanel and H. Dautriche: The detona- tion of dynamite No. 1.—G. Eiffel: The resistance of spheres in air in motion. An experimental study of the causes of the divergence of the author’s results and those obtained at the aérodynamical laboratory at Géttingen. In the expression, R=KSV?*, in which R is the total resistance, S the diametral surface, V the velocity of the air, and K a constant, K is only really constant after a certain critical value of V has been reached. In the G6ttingen experiments V was below this critical value. The existence of this critical velocity is of practical importance, and must be taken into account in apparatus used to measure the velocity of the wind, or of aéroplanes.—René Arnoux: A new method of steering aéroplanes by means of the motor. —Gustave Plaisant: A mode of cycloidal attack of the air—A. Korn: The potentials of an attracting volume the density of which satisfies the Laplace equation.—F. Croze: New observations relating to the Zeeman phenomenon in the hydrogen spectrum. The author’s experimental results are not in accord with those recently published by Paschen and Back. An account is given of further experiments on the cause of these discrepancies.—Guillaume de Fontenay: The action of inks on the photographic plate. The action is complicated, and varies greatly with the method of working.—Ch. Boulanger and G. Urbain: The theory of efflorescence. The influence of the magnitude of the crystal. An expression is given for the rates of loss of moisture of two crystals of different masses of the same material, and this is submitted to experi- mental confirmation with a special form of micro- balance.—André Brochet: The relation between the conductivity of acids and their absorption by hide powder, ‘The acid absorption is a general phenomenon, and is due to a chemical combination, since whatever acid is employed the amount absorbed is sensibly proportional to the chemical equivalent.—Jean Bielecki and Victor Henri: The quantitative study of the absorption of the ultra-violet rays by fatty acids and their isomeric esters. The absorption of ultra-violet rays by acids and esters is not determined by their empirical formula. It depends on the constitution of the molecule-—H. Labbé: The influence of alkaline salts on the elimination of urinary ammonia in normal dogs.—Michel Cohendy and D. M. Bertrand: Living sensibilised antistaphylococcus vaccine.—A. Trillat and F. Mallein: Study of the action of the filtrate or distillate of a fresh culture of B. proteus on the evolution of the disease caused by pneumococcus in mice.—E. L. Trouessart: Migrating and sedentary forms in the ornithological fauna of Europe.—Louis Besson: A periodic element in the variations of the barometer. 562 NATURE BOOKS RECEIVED. The Milk Question. By Prof. M. J. Rosenau. Pp. xiv+309. (London: Constable and Co., Ltd.) 7s. 6d. net. Introduction to the Rarer Elements. By Dr. P. E. 3rowning. Third edition. Pp. xiiit232. (New York: John Wiley and Sons; London: Chapman and Hall, Ltd.) Willing’s Press Guide, 1913. Pp. xii+487. (Lon- don: J. Willing, Ltd.) 1s. Weather Bound. By R. T. Smith. Pp. 320. (Birmingham: Cornish Bros., Ltd.) 15s. net. The Value and Destiny of the Individual. The Gifford Lectures for 1912, delivered in Edinburgh University. By Dr. B. Bosanquet. Pp. xxxii+ 331. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd.) tos. net. Handbuch der Entomologie. | Edited by Dr. C. Schréder. Lief. 1 to 3. (Jena: G. Fischer.) 5 marks each, Das Bodenwasser und die Abkiihlung des Meeres. By F. Nansen. Pp. 42. (Leipzig: Dr. W. Klink- hardt.) The Sea West of Spitsbergen. The Oceanographic Observations of the Isachsen Spitsbergen Expedition in 1910. By B. Helland-Hansen and F. Nansen. Pp. 89+plates vi. (Christiania: J. Dybwad.) Finlandische hydrographisch-biologische | Unter- suchungen No. 10 Jahrbuch, 1911, enthaltend hydro- graphische Beobachtungen in den Finland umge- benden Meeren. Edited by Dr. R. Witting. Pp. 129+4 plates. (Helsingfors.) Plant Diseases. By Dr. W. F. Bruck. Translated by Prof. J. R. Ainsworth-Davis. Pp. 152. (Lon- don: Blackie and Son, Ltd.) 2s. net. DIARY OF SOCIETIES. THURSDAY, Jaxvary 16. Royat Society, at 4.30.—The Effect of Junctions on the Propagation of Electric Waves along Conductors: Lord Rayleigh.—The Influence of Chemical Constitution upon Interfacial Tension and upon the Forma- tion of Composite Surfaces: W. B. Hardy.—Duration of Luminosity of Electric Discharge in Gases and Vapours: Hon. R. J. Strutt.—Some Electrical and Chemical Effects of the Explosion of Azoimide : Rev. P. J. Kirkby and J. E. Marsh.—Factors Affecting the Measurement of Absorp- tion Bands: H. Hartridge.—The Refraction and Dispersion of the Halogens, Halogen Acids, Ozone, Steam Oxides of Nitrogen and Am- monia; and the Causes of the Failure of the Additive Law: Clive Cuthbertson and Maude Cuthbertson.—Liquid Measurement by Drops: R. Donald.—The New Theory of Integration: Prof. W. H. Young.— Negative After-images with Pure Spectral Colours: Dr. G. J. Burch.—A New Method of Measuring the Torque produced bya Beam of Light in Oblique Refraction through a Glass Plate : Dr. G. Barlow.—The Positive Ionisation produced by Platinum and by certain Salts when Heated: Dr. F. Horton. Roya. InstiTuUTION, at 3.—Birds of the Hill Country: Seton Gordon, Linnean Society, at §.—A Visit to Madagascar in Search of Subfossil Lemuroids: The Hon. P. Methuen.—Les Caridines des Seychelles, avec des Observations sur leurs Variations: Prof. E. L. Bouvier.—Psychodide of the Seychelles ; Ephemeridz of the Seychelles : The Rev. A. E. Eaton. —Odonata of the Seychelles: H. Campion.—A New Land Leech from the Seychelles: W. A. Harding.—Some New British Plants : G. C. Druce. RoyaL Society oF ArTS, at 4.30.—Agricultural Progress in Western India: G. F. Keatinge. INSTITUTION OF MINING AND METALLURGY, at 8.—(1) Some Considerations on the Specification of Theodolites for Mines; (2) Specification of a Precision-Theodolite (for Workings on Lodes of Medium Inclination and Narrow or Medium Thickness): L. H. Cooke.—Description of a Modern Lead Concentrating Mill, Broken Mill Junction North Mine, N.S.W. : S. C. Bullock.—The Blast Roasting of Sulphide Ores: J. H. Levings. FRIDAY, JANUARY 17. Royat InsTITUTION, at 9.—Further Applications of the Method of Positive Rays: Sir J. J. Thomson, INSTITUTION OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS, Stewart. at §8.—Indicators: J. G. MONDAY, JANUARY 20. Roya Society oF Arts, at 8.—Liquid Fuel: Prof. Vivian B. Lewes. Victoria INSTITUTE, at 4.30.—The Fact of Prediction: Rev. J. Urquhart, TUESDAY, JANUARY 21. RoyvaL INSTITUTION, at 3.—The Heredity of Sex and Some Cognate Problems : Prof. W. Bateson. Rovat STATISTICAL SOCIETY, at 5.—The Population of England in the Eighteenth Century : Prof. E. C. K. Gonner. MINERALOGICAL SOCIETY, at 5.30.—Optical Activity and Enantiomorphism of Molecular and Crystal Structure: T. V. Barker and J. E. Marsh.— Note on the Determination of the Optic Axial Angle of Crystals in Thin- NO. 2255, VOL. 90] [JANUARY 16, 1913 section: H. Collingridge—Graphical Determinations of Angles and Indices in Zones: Dr. G. F. Hecbert Smith.—The Goldschmidt Apparatus for Cutting Models of Crystals: J. Drugman.—A Nodule of Iron Pyrites : Prof. H. L. Bowman. InsTITUTION oF CiviL ENGINEERS, at 8.—The London and South-Western and Metropolitan District Railways’ Widening between Acton Lane and Galena Road: EF. A. Ogilvie. Roya ANTHROPOLOGICAL INSTITUTE, at 8.15. WEDNESDAY, JANUARY 22. Gerotocicat Society, at 8.—The Fossil Flora of the Marske Quarry (Yorkshire): H. Hamshaw Thomas. With Notes on the Stratigraphy : Rev. G. J. Lane.—The Derived Cephalopoda of the Holderness Drift : C. Thompson Roya. Society oF Arts, at 8.—Advertising : E. Street and L. Jackson. THURSDAY, JANUARY 23- Roya Society, at 4.30.—Protable Papers : The Relation of the Islets of Langerhans to the Pancreatic Acini under Various Conditions of Secre- tory Activity: Dr. J. Homans.—The Metabolism of Lactating Women: E. Mellanby.—(1) Colour Adaptation ; (2) Trichromic Vision and Anoma- lous Trichromatism: Dr. F. W. Edridge-Green.—Transmission of En- vironmental Effects from Parent to Offspring in Simocephalus: W. E. Agar.—Contributions to the Histo-chemistry of Nerve; the Nature of Wallerian Degeneration: H. O. Feiss ‘and W. Cramer.—Onychaster, a Carboniferous Brittle-star: I. B. J. Sollas. Roya. INSTITUTION, at 3.—Birds of the Hill Country : Seton Gordon. INSTITUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS, at 8.—The Use of a Large Lighting Battery in connection with Central Station Supply: F. H. Whysall. FRIDAY, January 24. Roya InstiruTION, at 9.—Recent Advances in Scientific Steel Metal- lurgy: Prof. J. O. Arnold. PHYSICAL SOCIETY, at 5- CONTENTS. PAGE A Mathematician’s Lectures on Aeronautics. By Prof.G. H. Bryan, FiRiS7 ey eee) oo Municipal Trading and Currency. By N. B. Dearle 536 Building Stones 4 Meo o bysii! Physics for Children and Students ...-... . 538 Our Bookshelf Prot s so Out te o 538 Letters to the Editor :— The Double Refraction produced by the Distortions of Elastic Bodies according to Volterra’s Theory. (Iilustrated.)—Prof.O. M, Corbino .... . . 540 The Bacterial Theory of Soil Fertility. (Z/stvated.) —F. Fletcher; Dr. E. J. Russell is Nea Precocity of Spring Flowers. —Eleonora Armitage ; Lady Lockyer; Edith How Martyn. . - 545 Light Perception and Colour Perception.—Dr. F. W. Edridge=-Greenge ee soars 543 The Late Mr. Leigh Smith and Noyaya Zemlya.— W. H.R. v. Manen - . - Pmcooces, coc Sighs Countries and Customs. (J//ustrated.) . ... +. 544 A New International Physical Institute. By Prof. KE. Rutherford, RARSS. ya) eS The Birmingham Meeting of the British Association 546 Lord Haldane on Educational Organisation. . . . 546 Notes ERS cco ono 547 Our Astronomical Column :— The Sun’s Magnetic Field . . «+ - = - 551 The Integrated Spectrum of the Milky Way 551 Comets Due to Return this Year cyt 552 Parallax Investigatioms). 99) a) lei) eels selec yen Explosions in Mines. (Z//ustrated.) By Prof. W. Galloway... . Bik ee hs A caeirier Brae Sa The Bonaparte Fund of the Paris Academy of IGIENICES) 5/7... -su-peemee jets! st. 203} Sic eR The Weather of 1912. By Chas. Harding. ... . 555 Science Teaching in Public Schools. By Sir Archi- bald Geikie, K.C.B., Pres. R.S. . .. ... - S555 Radiations Old and New (/Wth Diagrams.) By Prof WW. H. Bragg; BOR See) eee University and Educational Intelligence. .... . 560 Societies and Academies .....-. - ; = =e SO Books Received : se ge Diary of Societies . 562 Editorial and Publishing Offices: MACMILLAN & CO., Ltp., ST. MARTIN’S STREET, LONDON, W.C. Advertisements and business letters to be addressed to the Publishers. Editorial Communications to the Editor. Telegraphic Address: PHusis, LONDON. Telephone Number: GERRARD 8830. 05 = A WEEKLY ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL OF SCIENC “To the solid ground Of Nature trusts the mind which builds for aye.’-—WoRDSWORTH. No. 2256, VOL. 90] i " THURSDAY, JANUARY 23, 1913 [PRICE SIXPENCE Registered as a Newspaper at the General Post Office.) [All Rights Reserved. Will work from any ordinary house lighting circuit. Complete with resistance and £3 3 0 mechanical tray. ... Te “ir (For alternating current 10/6 extra.) Write for Special Leaftet. NEWTON & CO. (late of 3 Fleet Street), Opticians by Royal Warrant to H.M. the King, WIGMORE STREET, Tm wr. THE HANDLE LONDON MODEL. This is a new model, in which the limb is made so as to form a convenient handle for lifting the microscope. Otherwise it is similar to the ordinary London model. No. 1325. Stand, incase, £3 5 6 No. 1329. Stand, incase, with spiral focussing substage 40 No. 364A, Eye- piece ..- Sets 5 No. 801. frds Object Glass 4? No. 803. 4th ’ Object Glass 110 FuLt PARTICULARS OF R. & J. BECK, 68 Cornhill, E.C. REYNOLDS & BRANSON, Ltd., Chemical and Scientific Instrument Makers to His Majesty’s Government (Indian, Home & Colonial). “ Rystos”’ Analytical Balance with Magnalium Beam. Improved vertical movement of rider hook, rider scale from end to end of beam, and plumb line. The bearings are agate throughout; the beam of hard magnalium. Base of black crystal. Mahogany case with counter- poised doors and brass levelling screws. To carry 200 grammes, sensitive to x/sth milligramme, or 1/toth milli- gramme with a less load... £7 Ditto, Ditto, to carry 200 grammes, with straight beam, of cheaper con- struction .. oa . Solve oS Particulars of other Magnalium Balances on application. Catalogues of Chemical and Physical Apparatus, Chemicals for Technical purposes and Research, Laboratory Fittings and Furniture, &c., &c., post free on application. Leeds. 14 Commercial Street, ec9ecece0e al ec@ececece NEGRETTI & ZAMBRA’S = RECORDING RAIN GAUGES. The “Hyetograph” ° has but 3 moving parts, viz., the float, 3 the pen arm, and the clock drum. It ® is, therefore, simple. Price, complete, with charts, pen, and ink, £6 150 e] § Illustrated Price List of Rain Gauges, etc., sent 33 post free on 38 Holborn Viaduct, London, E.C, eo =45 Cornhill, E.C. e2 122 Regent St., W. ° request, gconian Instig, } / FEB 4 1913 CCXI1 NATURE [JANUARY 23, 1913 INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. FounDED 1877. INCORPORATED BY RoyAt CHARTER, 1885. The nex' INTERMEDIATE EXAMINATION will commence on TUESDAY, APRIL 1, 1913. FINAL EXAMINATIONS in (a) Mineral Chemistry, (4) Metallurgical Chemistry, (¢) Physical Chemistry, (2) Organic Chemistry, and (e) The Chemistry :f Food and Drugs, &c., will commence on MONDAY, MARCH s1, or on MONDAY, APRIL 7, 1973 The List of Candidates will be closed on TUESDAY, FEBRUARY 25, 1913. Forms of application and further particulars can be obtained from the REGISTRAR, Institute of Chemistry, 30 Bloomsbury Square, London. W.C. The Regulations for the Admission of Students, Associates, and Fellows, Gratis. Examination Papers: Annual Sets, 6a. each. “A List of Official Chemical Appointments.” Fourth Edition, 2s. (post free, 25. 3d.). APPOINTMENTS REGISTER.—A Register of Fellows and Associates of the Institute of Chen.istry who are seeking appointments is kept at the Offices of the Institute. Applications for the services of professional chemists should be forwarded to the Registrar, stating the requirements. ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. ALBEMARLE STREET, PICCADILLY, W. Thursday next (January 30), at Three o'clock, Professor B. HopKINSON, M.A., F.R.S. First of Two Lectures on ‘‘ Recent Research on the Gas Engine."” Half-a-Guinea the Course. Subscription to all the Courses in the Season, Two Guineas. THE UNIVERSITY OF LEEDS. A Special Course of Ten Lectures on MINING HYGIENE (8) and MINES RESCUE WORK (2) will be given in the Mining Department of the University on Monday evenings at 7 p.m., from January 27 to March 17 (inclusive), and on April 28 and May 5. Fee for the whole Course, ras. 6¢., or for the two Lectures on Rescue Work, 2s. 6d. : Further particulars may be obtained from the Secretary, The University, Leeds. UNIVERSITY OF LONDON. BROWN INSTITUTION. A Course of Five Lectures will be given by Mr. F. W. Twort, M.R.C.S.> L.R.C.P., Superintendent of the Brown Institution, under the will of the late Mr. Thomas Brown, Founder of the Institution, in the Theatre of the Royal College of Surgeons, Lincoln's Inn Fields, W.C., kindly lent for the purpcse by the Council of the College. Sxdyect.—A Comparative Study of Tuberculosis and Johne’s Disease. Dates.—Monday, Jan. 27, Wednesday, Jan. 29, Friday, Jan. 31, Tuesday, Feb. 4, and Thursday, Feb. 6, 1913, at 5 p.m. Admission free, without ticket. HENRY A. MIERS, Principal. University of London, South Kensington, S.W. UNIVERSITY OF LONDON. An Advanced Course of four Lectures on ‘‘ The Morphology of Gnetales” will be delivered by Professor MarGareT Benson, D.Sc., at University College, Gower Street, W.C., on Fridays, January 31, February 7, 14 and 21, at5 p.m. Admission free, without ticket. P. J. HARTOG, Academic Registrar. ADMINISTRATIVE COUNTY OF LONDON. The London County Council invites applications for the position of VISITING TEACHER of HYGIENE at the Trade School for Girls, Queen Square, Bloomsbury, W.C., for one attendance per week, at a fee of 7s. 6d. an attendance. The person appointed will be required to give theoretical and practical instruction in personal and domestic hygiene. Applications must be on the official forms to be obtained, with particulars of the appointment, by sending a stamped addressed foolscap envelope to the Epucation Orricer, London County Council, Education Offices, Victoria Embankment, W.C., to whom they must be returned by Monday, January 27, 1913. Every communication must be marked T.1 on the envelope. He oF . r oi Canvassing, either directly or indirectly, will be held to be a disqualifi- cation for appointment. LAURENCE GOMME, ~ Clerk of the London County Council. Education Offices, Victoria Embankment, W.C., January 15, 1913. WANTED at once, in the Zoological De- partment, University of Liverpool, a LABORATORY STEWARD. Applicants should write, without delay, stating experience, to Prof. Herdman, who will supply particulars BY ORDER OF THE SECRETARY OF STATE FOR INDIA IN COUNCIL. Inpia OFFICE, WHITEHALL, Lonnon, S.W. JANUARY 14, 1913. WANTED, for work at Calcutta in connection with the Chemical testing of principally oils, paints, varnishes and cements, an ASSISTANT CHEMIST. Candidates should possess an Honours Degree in Chemistry from some British University, and, if possible, should hold the Associate- ship of the Institute of Chemistry, with two or three years’ experience as Chemist in some large Chemical manufacturing company of establi-hed reputation. They should be unmarried. The successful candidate will be engaged on a five years’ covenant at a salary of Rupees 450-50-600 per mensem, with first-class passage to'Calcutta paid. The appointment is a non-pensionable one, and the holder will be of gazetted rank and required to subscribe to the State Railway Provident Fund. Applications, with copies of three recent testimonials, should be sent to the DirecToR-GENERAL OF STORES, India Office, Whitehall, London, S.W., not later than February 4, 1913- H. J. W. FRY, Director-General of Stores. BY ORDER OF THE SECRETARY OF STATE FOR INDIA IN COUNCIL. InpIA OFFICE, WHITEHALL, Lonpon, S.W. JANUARY 14, 1913. WANTED, for work at Calcutta in connection with the physical testing of iron and steel work, metals, cement, oils, paints, &c., an ASSISTANT LABORATORY OFFICER. Candidates should be mechanical engineers with a University Degree in Engineering or Science, and practical know- ledge of the testing of materials in addition to Works experience, and preferably should have had a training in Physics. The successful candi- date will be engaged on a five years’ covenant at a salary of Rupees 450-50-600 per mensem, ‘with first-class passage to Calcutta paid. The appointment is a non pensionable one. and the holder will be of gazetted rank and required to subscribe to the State Railway Provident Fund. Applications, with copies of three recent testimonials. should be sent to the Director-GENERAL OF SToRES, India Office, Whitehall, London, S.W., not later than /edrwary 4, 1913 H. J. W. FRY, Director-General of Stores. The CIVIL SERVICE COMMISSIONERS are prepared to consider applications from gentlemen for appointment to the position of ASSISTANT DIRECTOR of EXAMINATIONS in their Department. Applicants must be University Graduates with First Class Honours in Mathematics. Skill in modern languages, especially in French and German Composition, is highly desirable. Experience in teaching or examining will be taken into account. Salary £300, rising by annual increments of £25 to £700, with pension rights under Civil Service Regulations. Age 23-30. Application should be made by letter addressed to the S—crETARY, Civil Service Commission, Burlington Gardens, London, W., not later than February 14; qualifications should be stated, and references given ; not more than three testimonials (originals or copies) should accompany the application. UNIVERSITY OF BIRMINGHAM. HEAD MASTERSHIP OF THE TRAINING COLLEGE FOR MEN. The Council invites applications for the Head Mastership of the Training College for Men, which has been vacated by the appointment of Mr. Frank Roscoe, M.A., to the Secretaryship of the Teachers’ Registration Council. Commencing stipend, £350 per annum. Applications and Testi- monials should reach the undersigned not later than Saturday, February 15, 1913. Further particulars may be obtained from A GEO. H. MORLEY, Secretary. KING EDWARD VII. SCHOOL, LYTHAM. The Governors of the Lytham Charities invite applications for the HEADMASTERSHIP of the above Public Secondary School. Candidates must be University Graduates under the age of 45. _ The salary, including capitation fees on the present number of boys (150), is £550, with house, rates, coal, and light. Applications must be sent before March 1 next to the undersigned, from whom particulars can be obtained. WILSON, WRIGHT & DAVIES, Solicitors, 6 Chapel Street, Preston. January 3, 1913. COUNTY BOROUGH OF WEST HAM. MUNICIPAL TECHNICAL INSTITUTE. The Council invite applications for the post of LECTURER IN MATHEMATICS. Salary, £200 per annum. Full particulars, with Form of Application, can be obtained by sending a stamped addressed envelope to the Principal, Municipal Technical Insti- tute, Romford Road, West Ham, E., and applications should reach him on or before Monday, February 3, 1913. FRED. E. HILLEARY, Town Clerk. January 13, 1913. NGA Cis 563 THURSDAY, JANUARY 23, A PIONEER IN APPLIED SCIENCE. Collected Papers in Physics and Engineering. By Prof. James Thomson, F.R.S. Selected and arranged with unpublished material and brief annotations by Sir Joseph Larmor, Sec. R.S., and James Thomson. Pp. civ+484. (Cam- bridge: University Press, rg12.) Price 153. net.) HEN Sir Joseph Larmor edited the scientific V papers of Lord Kelvin and Prof. Fitz- gerald he did work which nobody else could have done so perfectly ; his time, however valuable, was spent to advantage. The editing of these papers of Lord Kelvin’s brother might have been under- taken by many others, but now that the excellent result is before us we cannot regret it, and we must confess that we did not expect to find in the editor such a perfect sympathy with James Thomson’s methods of study. He shares with Prof. Thomson’s son the honour and credit of this publication. hundred pages of biography and comment upon Thomson’s works—excellent reading. have 153 pages of papers relating to fluid motion, dating from 1852 to the Bakerian lecture of 1892 ; nearly eighty pages on congelation and liquefaction from 1849 to 1888; forty pages on the continuity of states in matter from 1869 to 1873; seventy pages on dynamics and elasticity from 1848 to 1887; and about eighty pages on geological and miscellaneous subjects from 1848 to 1892. James Thomson was very exact in his use of language and in his ways of thinking. Even although in some of our studies we are quite exact, most of us are quite slipshod about other things that we think we know. If it were necessary to give examples the reader might be referred to paper 14 of this collection. Thomson there refers to the usual methods of study of the flow of water. He says: “The theoretical views so arrived at and very generally promulgated are in reality only utterly false theories based on suppositions of the flow of the water taking place in ways which are kinematically and dynamically impossible, and are at variance with observed facts of the flow, and even at variance with the facts as put forward by the advancers of those theories.” After giving some examples, he says: “Now this method is pervaded by false conceptions and is thoroughly unscientific.” Although Thomson constructed his famous turbine sixty years ago and put in simple language the principles on which nearly all modern water and steam turbines are now being con- structed, these papers of his are so little known NO. 2256, VOL. a0] The book begins with about a | Then we | | | that nearly all books on hydraulics are still per- vaded with the old false conceptions and un- scientific methods. He was free from the common fault of | self-deception. There is no vagueness in any of his explanations of phenomena. When he | explains such a thing as the tears of strong wine and refers to surface tension he is as exact as Prof. Boys or Lord Rayleigh, and he demands from his reader the same carefulness. When he is not perfectly sure of a thing he tells you so frankly. The results of Thomson’s thought in so far as physics is concerned are known to all of us; they are to be found in all text-books; I wish we could say the same about his work in engineering. But both physicist and engineer will get much education in reading the original papers. They will come in contact with a true scientific mind, absolutely honest, intensely observant, afraid of self-deception, concentrative, persistent and tireless. I have no hesitation in saying that the hydraulic engineer who has not read these papers has a great deal to unlearn and learn. Only the very simplest mathematical or scientific knowledge is needed by the reader, but he must have common sense and humour and the same inclination to laugh at pretentious, ignorant notions as the author himself. 1 think myself that in a few cases Thomson ought to have worked with higher mathematics. For example: water being supposed to be frictionless and to flow from two similar vessels with similar and similarly placed orifices, he thought it necessary to prove that the lines of flow are similar. If this is so, it is evident that if 1 and L are the dimensions, p and P the pressures, v and V the velocities at similar places, then P/p=L/l and V/v=7L/I. His proof of the similarity is ingenious. Applied to the case of vessels moving through water it is Froude’s law, but in this case, unlike Thomson’s own, viscosity enters into the real phenomena in an all-important way, and the assumption that the proposition has been proved is very dangerous. Thomson used his proposition in getting a rational formula for the measurement of water by his tri- angular notch, and in proving that the empirical | formula of Dr. Francis for rectangular notches is really a rational formula. It is curious that it should be necessary to tell engineers that the Francis formula is correct and that the usual formule of the text-books are quite incorrect. Now that long proof given by Thomson in his 1876 paper (given by him to students in his classes for fifteen years previously) seems to me unneces- sary. In one of his vessels A the flow is natural, ' and in the other B he guides the flow in stream Vv 564 NATURE [JANUARY 23, 1913 lines similar to those of A; he shows that there are no forces tending to deform the guides of B, and if we imagine them to disappear the flow is un- changed and remains similar to the flow in A. But since he proves so much, he ought to prove that there is no other way in which the flow can occur in B, and I am afraid that this cannot be done except by Kirchoff’s use of higher mathe- matics. Indeed, Kelvin showed that there might be two answers to all such problems, one of them being unstable. The first of these fluid motion papers (1852) deals with the free vortex. The example to which he most frequently referred his students was that of water leaving a basin by a central hole. The nearly circular motion of every particle is such that the speed is inversely proportional to distance from the axis, and he satisfied himself that our simple theory as to pressure, circular speed v, and height was correct. But he noticed that particles of dust on the lower surface of the basin moved in towards the hole nearly radially; he arrived at the conclusion that surface friction destroyed vw, and therefore destroyed the centrifugal force, and therefore destroyed the balance of pressures, and therefore created a radial flow. This simple prin- ciple gave the key to the atmospheric phenomena of great forest fires; it enabled him to explain what occurs at river bends and why a river through alluvial ground tends to become more and more crooked; it enabled him to explain the phenomena of cyclones, and, most important of all, it enabled him in 1857 to give his simple explanation of what had puzzled many clever scientific men for two hundred years, the grand currents of atmospheric circulation. That short paper is easy to under- stand. The Bakerian lecture of the Royal Society with the same title, delivered in 1892 two months before his death, added nothing to that simple explanation, then thirty-five years old, but in it he gave at some length the history of the problem, Hadley, in 1735, explained the trade winds in latitudes 30 S. to 30 N., but in all the numerous writings by distinguished men before and after Hadley until 1857 there was only slipshod reason- ing and no explanation of the prevailing S.W. winds north of latitude 30 N. There is a whirl of the atmosphere there from the west which would produce no northerly flow of the air, only that there is friction against the earth; this diminishes the speed of the air and upsets the balance of pressures, producing a northerly flow close to the earth’s surface—exactly the basin phenomenon ! His proof, in 1849, that pressure lowers the melt- ing point of ice consists in subjecting a mixture of ice and water toa Carnot cycle. He assumes with Carnot that no heat disappears when work is done, NO. 2256, VOL. go| but he states quite clearly, as nobody else had ever done, what the third part of the cycle would be if Carnot were wrong and if less heat were given out than what had been received. Using Regnault’s experimental results for steam, Lord Kelvin had in 1848 calculated the value of Carnot’s function, and James Thomson used the result, which was this:—‘‘*We find that the quantity of work developed by one of the same thermal units descending through one degree about the freezing-point is 4°97 foot-pounds.” This enables him to find that the lowering of the melting-point is 0°00000355 p where p is the increase of pressure in pounds per square foot. This paper and Kelvin’s paper and their connection with the vexed question, “Who discovered the second law?” are exceedingly interesting. Kelvin’s paper of 1851 first estab- lished the second law on a logical basis irrespec- tive of assumed properties of matter, and Kelvin was too generous in giving credit to Clausius and, indeed, to Rankine also. But these four men and Joule himself were all very close to the discovery in the three years 1848 to 1851. I know of no more interesting reading than what I find in Prof. Silvanus Thompson’s life of Lord Kelvin during these years. No one of Plutarch’s heroes “played the game” more nobly than the Thomsons. James Thomson reasoned out from the above principle the cause of the flow of glaciers and the plasticity of ice and other curious ice phenomena, as well as the influence of stress on crystallisation generally, in a series of papers and letters until 1889. In 1862 he had made a model of a surface showing how p, v and t for carbonic acid vary, and had thought of conditions of instability. Dr. Andrews’s Bakerian lecture of the Royal Society in 1869 caused him to revert to his previous study of the discontinuities of his surface, to complete his model and to write papers of 1871 on the abrupt changes at boiling and condensing. He reasoned out the existence of the triple point for ice, water and steam in 1872 and 1873 in the same way as that of his 1849 paper on ice. The one p, t curve for saturated steam drawn on copper by Regnault is really two curves the slopes of which at o° C. are not the same, being in the ratio dp/dt for ice-steam+dp/dt for water-steam=1°13. These matters are familiar to all readers of Maxwell’s book on heat, but the student will be interested in the letters and notes from 1862 which describe how Thomson was led to his results. He used to tell his students, with some glee, how his eye detected in Regnault’s curve the discontinuity at 0° C. which nobody had noticed before. His valuable papers on the strength and elas- JANUARY 23, 1913] NATURE 565 ticity of materials, the theory of springs, safety and dangers in structures and the testing of struc- tures, on units, on dimensional equations, on absolute motion, on fatigue of materials are less well known, but students who read them will get a clear insight into subjects on which text-book reasoning is sometimes rather slipshod. His paper on the parallel roads of Lochaber is acknow- ledged to have cleared up a great geological puzzle. His paper on prismatic structure in basaltic rocks cleared up the Giant’s Causeway puzzle. In his paper of 1872 on atmospheric refraction of inclined rays and on the path of a level ray he solved another important problem. His integrating machine is now in use for tide-calcula- tion. There are many papers on subjects of general interest to which I cannot refer because I have no space. Suffice it to say that on every subject about which he wrote he threw a new light, he gave fresh ideas, and he started students on new lines of thought. In reading one of his papers we instinctively feel sure that he has given long and careful consideration to the matter and has looked at it from many points of view; consequently he has exact and clear ideas, and he is able to state them in simple language, so that we at once accept his conclusions as correct. Joun Perry. TABLES OF THE WEIGHT OF AIR. Tabellen der Luftgewichte y?, der Druckaqui- valente B; und der Gravitation g. Tables des poids de Vair y;, des équivalents barométriques f? et de la gravité g. weight of one milligram per litre in the air surrounding the pendulum. He has, therefore, calculated a series of tables, where they were not already in existence, whereby all the data required can be found with the maximum of directness and accuracy and the minimum of trouble. Every table has the formula on which it is based printed at the head, and a clear statement of the whole problem is printed in three parallel columns in German, French and English. In only one case is this departed from, where the names of the countries in which a large number of stations are situated for which g has been determined are printed in English only, “on account of the extended use of this language ’’—a compliment which an English paper should acknowledge. The most important of the tables is calculated for every 10 mm. of barometric height from 380 to 680 mm., and then for every mm. up to 790 mm., and for every degree of temperature from —1° C. to +36° C. For all these conditions the weight of a litre of air free from CO,, but both dry | and half saturated with moisture, is calculated on | the basis that at Paris the weight of dry air free | to discuss the tables fully. from moisture and CO, is, under standard condi- tions, 129321 mg. Alongside the figure giving the weight is another, called by the author “the pressure equivalent of temperature,” which shows the change in pressure in mm. of mercury due toa change of 1° C. intemperature. It is interest- ing to notice that this, in the case of half-saturated air at 760 mm., has a minimum value at about Ae (Oe It would require more space than is available It is sufficient to say ‘that the printing, the paper and the arrangement Tables of the Weight of Air yi, of the Air- Pressure Equivalents £; and of the Gravity g. By Dr. S. Riefler. Pp. iv+io1. (Berlin: | Julius Springer, 1912.) Price 6 marks. N rough experiments, the density or the weight of the air may often be ignored; generally, however, it is allowed for with more or less com- pleteness. But when it is desired, as in the author’s work, to make a precise determination, so precise that the effect of moisture in reducing it, or carbonic acid gas in increasing it, must not be ignored, and when the local value of g has to be allowed for, then the investigator may find | the calculation to be unduly tedious. The author of these admirable tables has been brought face to face with the difficulty in con- nection with the disturbing effect of the density | of the surrounding air on the period of the pendu- | lum of the astronomical clock. For instance, the rate of such a pendulum is changed by 1/100 second per day, so he states, by a variation in NO. 2256. VOL. go] ! are all admirable, and that these tables should be found in every laboratory where exact work is done. GV. 8B: ANTHROPOLOGY AND ARCHASOLOGY. (1) The Annual of the British School at Athens. No. xvii. Session 1910-11. Pp. liv+355+4xxi plates. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1912.) Price 25s. net. (2) The Cochin Tribes and Castes. By L. K. Anantha K. Iyer. Vol. ii. Pp. xxiii+ 504. (Madras: Higginbotham and Co.; London: Luzac and Co., 1912.) (3) The Origin of Civilisation and the Primitive Condition of Man. Mental and Social Condition of Savages. By the Right Hon. Lord Avebury. 7thedition. Pp. xxvili+454. (London: Long- mans, Green and Co., 1912.) Price 7s. 6d. net. (4) Notes and Queries on Anthropology. Edited 66 on NATURE [JANUARY 23, 1913 for the British Association for the Advancement of Science by Barbara Freire-Marreco and Prof. J. L. Myres. 4th edition. Pp: xii4>288: (London: Royal Anthropological Institute, 1g12.) Price 5s. (5) Rough Stone Monuments and their Builders. By T. E. Peet. Pp. xii+172. (London and New York: Harper and Bros., 1912.) Price 6d. net. HE last issue of the Annual of the British School at Athens opens with an interest- ing review of the working of this institution since its foundation in 1883, prepared by the honorary secretary, Mr. G. A. Macmillan. In spite of its limited resources, the school, which deserves more active support from archeologists and students of classical literature in this country, has done most valuable work in the excavation of historical sites, and in the preparation of monographs on the archeology and anthropology of Greece and the eastern ASgean area. In the present volume, besides reports on the topography of the Troad, Thebes, Phylakopi, Phokis, and other places, Mr. W. R. Halliday has made an important con- tribution to the study of comparative religion in his article entitled ‘“Cenotaphs and Sacred Localities,” in which he deals with the stratifica- tion of local beliefs. It is interesting to read a description of a Thracian Tholos tomb at Kirk Kilisse, written before the recent campaign which has directed public attention to this place. The number, as usual, is provided with a fine series of maps and illustrations. (2) Mr. L. K. Anantha Krishna Iyer, in the new volume of his survey of the people of the Cochin State in south-western India, passes from a de- scription of the degraded forest and menial tribes to the higher castes, with whom he is much more personally familiar. He begins with an elaborate account of the Brahman classes, which display remarkable differences in beliefs and customs as compared with their brethren in northern India, from whom they form a comparatively recent off- shoot. Then come the Nayars, with their strange marriage regulations and their unique association with the Nambutiri Brahmans. Equally interest- ing are the Mohammedan Mappillas, a race sub- ject to occasional outbreaks of savage fanaticism which has from time to time nerved them to resist British troops. We have a full account of the remarkable colony of White and Black Jews, whose origin and history are still subjects of con- troversy. Finally, he describes the Syrian Church of Malabar, an of much interest to students of the history of Christianity. On all these varied races the author has collected a mass of valuable information. This book, for which NO. 2256. VOL. God 2S. (1) institution | volume devoted to physical anthropologists are indebted to the liberality of the State Government, is excellently produced, and supplied with admirable photographic illustra- tions. Thanks to the writer and Mr. Edgar Thurston, the ethnologist is now provided with a trustworthy account of the races of southern India. The survey will be completed by a third anthropology, the appearance of which will be awaited with much interest. (3) Lord Avebury’s work on primitive civilisa- tion, first issued in 1870, now ranks as an anthropological classic. It is, however, much to be regretted that the author, in this new edition, has been unable to subject the work to a thorough revision and bring his authorities up to date. It is true that in his introduction he refers to some recent work, and discusses with admirable re- straint the vivacious criticisms of the late Mr. Andrew Lang on the views expressed on savage religion; but, frankly speaking, his bibliography and references are not up to the level of modern research. A list of authorities on the beliefs and sociology of primitive man which ignores Sir E. Tylor’s “Primitive Culture,” and writers like Profs. Frazer and Westermarck, Messrs. Craw- ley. Hartland, and Lang, is clearly inadequate, and the authorities quoted in the notes, though good of their kind, are prehistoric, because they do not include recent surveys of savage life in Australia, India, America, Africa, or Melanesia. It may be hoped that in the next edition of this useful book Lord Avebury will take the oppor- tunity of subjecting it to thorough revision, by bringing the bibliography up to date, and improv- ing the notes by quotations from the works of modern travellers and ethnologists. (4) The ‘‘ Notes and Queries on Anthropology,” issued by the Royal Anthropological Institute with the aid of a grant from the British Associa- tion, now appears in a thoroughly revised edition, prepared under the superintendence of Miss Freire-Marreco and Prof. J. L. Myres. Every chapter of the work bears the marks of careful and judicious reconsideration, and, as it stands, it should be in the hands of every traveller and official who has the chance of investigating savage races. In future editions of this valuable ques- tionnaire, it might be advisable to extend the list of works recommended to the student, which only very imperfectly represents the best modern work. A section might also be added suggesting the pre- cautions under which these elaborate interroga- tories should be used in field work, with a sugges- tion, gathered from the experience of those familiar with savage races, of the best methods by which trustworthy information can be collected. Di JANUARY 23, 1913] NATURE 567 (5) The question of the origin of megalithic monuments and of the race by whom they were constructed has acquired fresh importance from the discussion, at the recent meeting of the British Association at Dundee, of the theories advanced by Prof. G. Elliot Smith, who attributes them to influence from Egypt, where he assumes that the invention of copper led to the use of carved stone. Mr. Peet’s method in the present book is to give a summary account of megalithic monuments throughout the world, to which he adds some cautious, well-considered speculations on their origin and diffusion. He fully recognises the difficulty, in the present state of our knowledge, of deciding the centre from which they were de- rived. He suggests that the idea of the rock- tomb was brought into the megalithic area by the builders of the monuments, that it did not result from contact with the eastern Mediterranean, and that there is no direct connection between the corridor tombs of the megalithic countries and the great Tholoi of Crete and the Greek mainland. The book may be safely recommended as cautious summary of a most difficult problem. a RECENT BOOKS ON PHYSICAL SUBJECTS. (1) Elements and Electrons. By Sir W. Ramsay, K.C.B., F.R.S. Pp. ix+173. (London and New York: Harper and Brothers, 1912.) Price 2s. 6d. net. (Harper’s Library of Living Thought.) (2) Radium and Radioactivity. By A. T. Cameron. Pp. 185. (London: S.P:€:K., 1912.) 2s. 6d. (Romance of Science Series.) (3) 4 Handbook of Physics. By W. H. White. Pp. xv+667. (London: Methuen and Co., Ltd., n.d.) Brice’ 7s- 6d. (4) A Course of Physics, Practical and Theoretical. By Dr. C. H. Draper. Pp. xi+413. (London: Blackie and Son, Ltd., 1912.) Price 4s. 6d. net. (5) La Théorie des Ions et 1l’Electrolyse. Deuxiéme Edition. By A. Hollard. Pp. vii+ 220. (Paris: Gauthier-Villars, 1912.) Price 5 francs. (6) Lehrbuch der Optik. Dritte erweiterte Auflage. By Dr. Paul Drude. Herausgegeben von Dr. E. Gehrcke. Pp. xvi+548. (Leipzig: S. Hirzel, 1912.) Price 12 marks. (7) Electricity and Its Practical Applications. By Prof. M. Maclean. Pp. xiv+492. (London: Blackie and Son, Ltd., n.d.) Price 10s. 6d. net. T need scarcely be stated that a popular treatise from the pen of Sir William Ramsay is sure to be of absorbing interest. This is particularly the case with the present volume, NO. 2256, VOL. 90] Price { (r) with the subject of which the author’s name is so intimately associated. The various stages in the development of chemistry, and later of radio- activity, are sketched in a manner quite delightful, and although the treatment of the mechanics in- volved may be regarded by some as rather loose, it is only in a few instances that this objection can be raised, and it should be remembered that, after all, the readers will not all be strict mathe- maticians. The principal chapters are those which deal with Dalton’s atomic theory, molecular weights, the periodic table, molecules—invisible and visible— electrons, radioactivity and transmutation. Prob- ably the last of these is that which will invoke the greatest interest. It is common knowledge that Sir William Ramsay’s work in this field has been received in some quarters with scepticism, and, of course, all controversies are popular. The author draws a distinction between “transmutation” and “transformation,” the former applying to con- trolled changes as distinct from natural changes. Among the reasons brought forward as indicating the probable effect of corpuscular bombardment in producing transmutation, it is suggested that it may be due to high temperature. The “tempera- ture” of rapidly moving alpha particles is cal- culated upon the kinetic theory, and the number obtained is enormous. With this view it is difficult to agree, for even if we admit the validity of this calculation as repre- senting the temperature of the particles them- | selves, it cannot be claimed that it also measures the temperature of the body bombarded. But apart from this, the accumulated evidence of transmutation which is recorded in this chapter should not be lightly dismissed, especially coming as it does from the discoverer of the spontaneous production of helium from radium. It may be scarcely credible, because so extraordinary, but it may, nevertheless, be true. (2) This is another little book on somewhat similar lines, although, in this case, radioactivity is the sole subject. The author takes the very reasonable view that some knowledge of physics and chemistry must be assumed in the reader, but | the calls on this knowledge are neither great nor / numerous, and will form no bar to the majority of students. A straightforward and interesting | account of the main radioactive phenomena con- stitutes the contents of the book, and the novice who desires some acquaintance with this won- derful new subject could not do better than acquire a copy. (3) It is not often that one comes across a text- book exhibiting so much originality as that which Mr. White has recently produced. To say that 508 NATURE [JANUARY 23, 1913 it differs from the ordinary text-book scarcely ex- presses the truth of the matter. It is so often found that a new book on physics merely consists of previous works plus a few modifications and additions. Here, however, internal evidence makes it perfectly clear from page to page that the author is indeed the author. The book is a very good one indeed, and should find a large sale among those students of physics who need in a single volume a treatment of the subject rather more than elementary. It is true that in many places the illustrations of physical principles used verge on the ludicrous, and that the mode of expression often seems out of place, but the redeeming feature is that the illustrations excellent. It may be said, in fact, that by reason of the frequent recourse to everyday Occurrences as constituting examples of various physical phenomena this book is chiefly note- worthy. A few of them, notably those connected with physiological processes, may, perhaps, be beyond the average student, but the author has evidently introduced them for the special benefit of students of medicine. One undesirable feature may be mentioned in conclusion, namely, the fact that the author has attempted in several places to conduct algebraic calculations in words instead of symbols, the result being that the reasoning, although correct, is very difficult to grasp. (4) This is a combined theoretical and practical text-book intended for schools, and to be covered normally on a three-years’ course. In most respects it resembles the usual school-book. It is, however, a good plan to describe in one volume the methods of doing experiments and the theoretical treatment of the principles involved. (5) The author of this book has produced a useful record of much of the experimental work which has been done on electrolysis, and interprets the results upon the theory of ionisation. He claims that the simple theory, although admittedly inapplicable to concentrated solutions, yet may afford a basis to which modifications may be made, just as did Mariotte’s and Gay-Lussac’s laws for gases. The subject is divided into four sections, namely, the constitution of electrolytes, their con- ductivity, contact potential, and electrical energy. A considerable number of tables are given record- ing numerical values of such quantities as heats of ionisation and conductivities of acid solutions of various strengths. (6) In a book having the reputation of the late Prof. Drude’s “Optics,” the chief interest in the appearance of the third edition is attached to the modifications and additions introduced. Such a book would be hard to improve, and might easily be spoilt. Prof. Gehreke has wisely refrained NO. 2256, VOL. 90] are from making any serious alterations, and the additions are few in number, the principal being a short description of Stokes’s theory of aberration and a paragraph or so on the photo- chemical effect on gases. The treatise is still Drude’s “Optics,” and will continue to merit the high place it already holds in physical science. (7) This volume has been written for the use of students of electrical engineering. It consists of the treatment of magnetism and electricity, first of all from the theoretical point of view, and then in connection with its various applications. The mathematical treatment is quite elementary—it is, in fact, based on Deschanel’s ‘Natural Philo- sophy,” so far as the purely theoretical part is concerned, many of the diagrams also being repro- duced from that treatise. A series of tables of constants and various questions and exercises add to the value of the book, which appears to be well fitted for its purpose. OUR BOOKSHELF. La Cementazione dell’ Acciaio. By Dr. Frederico Giolitti. Pp. xi+506. (Torino: Unione Tipo- grafico-Editrice Torinese, 1912.) In the present work, Prof. Giolitti has collected together the important experimental results ob- tained by his fellow-workers during the last four years relative to the cementation of steel. At the same time, he has presented an exhaustive review of the subject from its scientific and tech- nical aspects. The chemical nature of the process of cementation (in which term case-hardening is included) has been the subject of many con- troversies, and it cannot be said that the mechan- ism of the transport of carbon is even now understood. Prof. Giolitti subjects the extensive literature of the question to a critical review, which does not appear to omit any work of importance, English and German memoirs being examined as thoroughly as those in Italian and French. This part of the book might, perhaps, have been some- what condensed by the omission of repetitions, but it forms an excellent source of reference for a class of facts of great importance for the general theory of metallic alloys. The chapter in which the results of previous investigations are summed up scarcely gives sufficient attention to the fact, now fully established, that carbon diffuses in the solid as a carbide, and not in the free state. The author’s own researches, which occupy the larger part of the book, deal mainly with the specific influences of carburising gases (hydro- carbons and carbon monoxide, alone or in the presence of solid carbon) in the process of cement- ation. Details are given of the experimental con- ditions employed, and of the technical processes based on the experiments. The methods are of great scientific as well as technical interest as examples of the application of a purely physico- chemical study of equilibrium to an industria? January 23, 1913] NATURE 569 operation. The work is an important and valuable contribution to the literature of metallurgy. Cy aD: Index Zoologicus No. II. Compiled (for the Zoological Society of London) by C. O. Water- house and edited by David Sharp, F.R.S. Pp. vi+324. (London: Printed for the Society, 1912.) Price 15s. Tue subtitle of this volume describes its scope; it runs: “An alphabetical list of names of genera and subgenera proposed for use in zoology as recorded in the * Zoological Record,’ vols. 38-47 inclusive (1901-1910), and the zoology volumes of the ‘International Catalogue of Scientific Litera- ture,’ annual issues 1-10, together with other names not included in previous nomenclators.” The first volume was published in 1902, and the primary object of the present work is to serve as an index to the intervening ten years, but it is also planned so as to be with Scudder’s ‘“‘ Nomen- clator”” a complete register of the names of genera and subgenera proposed for use in zoology. The editor of this volume points out that 140,000 names have been, up to the present time, proposed for the genera and subgenera of zoological taxonomy. Systémes Cinématiques. By Prof. L. Crelier. Pp. too. (Paris: Gauthier-Villars, r911.) 2 francs. (Scientia. Janvier, 1911. Phys.-Mathématique. No. 31.) UnpER the above title, the author investigates the motion of a right-angle one side of which passes through a fixed point, while the vertex describes a fixed right line or circle, that of a rod sliding between axes at right-angles, that of a crank connecting rod, and so forth; altogether, six methods of generation are investigated. The curves associated with these moving systems in- clude the base and rolling centrodes or loci of the instantaneous centres, the envelope of the moving line and those of other lines associated with it, the trajectories of various points of the figure, and certain envelopes of their tangents. In this way a large number of curves are obtained, possessing interesting properties; of course, many of these are already well known. The figures in the book are rather complicated. The book con- tains a portrait of Col. Mannheim and a short bibliography. Internal Secretion and the Ductless Glands. By Prof. Swale Vincent. With a preface by Prof. E. A. Schafer, F.R.S. Pp. xx+464. (London: Edward Arnold, 1912.) Price 12s. 6d. net. Pror. SWALE VINCENT is well known as an inves- tigator who has devoted much attention to one of the most interesting chapters of physiology, namely, that which deals with the group of organs, formerly so mysterious, which are known as the ductless glands. The adrenal bodies, the thyroid and parathyroids, the thymus, the pituitary, pineal, carotid, and coccygeal bodies are the principal ones treated, but, as is well known, internal secre- tions are also formed by glands which possess ducts, and so we also have chapters on the NO. 2256, VOL. 90] pancreas, liver, kidney, and reproductive organs. The literature of the subject is enormous, and in presenting a lucid and terse account of the recent progress of science, and in ferreting out the 3000 or more references which deal with it, the author has, as Prof. Schafer says in his preface, laid us under a deep debt of gratitude. We Dr Ee A Laboratory Manual of Agriculture for Second- ary Schools. By Prof. L. E. Call and E. G. Schafer. Pp. xv+344. (New York: The Macmillan Co.; London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1912.) Price 4s. net. Tuts book is issued to supply the demand that has arisen for laboratory exercises in the teaching of agriculture in the United States. Directly agriculture becomes a school subject (and it is for secondary schools that the book is intended), it becomes necessary that the teacher should be provided with a number of simple experiments within the capacity of the scholars and of the school equipment. Of course, the out-door observations must still remain the essential ground- work of the instruction, but a weil-chosen course of laboratory experiments can be arranged to bring out the main principles and illustrate the working of the individual factors involved. The lessons deal with soils, crops and animals. For convenience of working they are arranged in calendar form, beginning in September and con- tinuing through to May, with an “extra” for Arbor Day. They have actually been carried out in | schools, so that they are known to be workable. The soil experiments deal mainly with the moisture relationships, which in Kansas play a | large and sometimes a controlling part in soil fertility. The crops studied include the cereals, cowpeas, cloves, lucerne and potatoes: the exer- cises range over the germination.of the seed, the development of the root and seed, and the ex- amination of the harvest. The animal section is based on the score-card method, devised in America and found so useful that it has been introduced into this country. Teachers of agriculture will find many useful and suggestive lessons in the book, and it will | serve as an excellent example of the standard of instruction aimed at in the American schools. LETTERS TO THE EDITOR. [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of Nature. No notice is taken of anonymous communications. | An Effect due to the Sudden Great Increase of Pressure. In the course of some experiments on the mapping of the lines of electric force between two charged con- | ductors, a remarkable effect, due to the sudden very | great rise in pressure in the oil separating them, occurred. The conditions of the experiment necessi- tated the use of two pointed strips of tinfoil, separated by an interval of 1/16 in., laid on a sheet of glass 570 NATURE [JANUARY 23, 1913 with a drop of turpentine, to act as an insulator, between them. On this was laid a thin cover-glass, as used for covering objects when mounted for the microscope. Unintentionally the potential between the two tinfoil strips rose high enough to permit a spark to pass through the oil between them, and when this occurred a small piece was blown out of the centre of the cover-glass, being about 1/16 in. in diameter on the upper side and about half this on the lower, the piece of glass having the appearance of a small truncated cone. The cover-glass was only held down by the film of oil separating it from the strips of tinfoil; yet the fragment of glass was ejected with considerable force. The cause of the effect may be explained as follows : the energy liberated from the spark was sufficient to cause the pressure to rise rapidly to a high value in the confined space, either by decomposing the oil and heating the liberated gas, or by forcing away the oil along its path, and so compressing it. (We are, however, not concerned here with the question as to whether the pressure on the glass cover had its seat in the oil alone or in the gas liberated from the oil, but only with the fact that the passage of the spark through the oil gave rise to a series of events which culminated in the forcing out of a plug of glass from the cover.) As the time during which the spark lasted was almost negligible, the rate at which the pressure rose near the spark was great enough to send out a pulse of pressure through the oil. This pulse strik- ing the thin cover-glass had sufficient energy stored in it to cause the small piece of glass to be removed from it. This effect is the converse of that noted by Mr. J. Y. Buchanan during the voyage of the Challenger in 1873, and repeated by him while on board the yacht of H.S.H. the Prince of Monaco, the Princesse Alice, in the summer of 1902 (see Proc. Roy. Soc., 1903, vol. Ixxii., p. 88; or NATURE, 1903, vol. Ixviii., p. 334). I will quote from Mr. Buchanan’s paper :—‘‘ The brass tube (Figs. 1 and 2, plate i.) above referred to was the case for holding a piezometer which was accident- ally broken. With it I repeated the experiment which I had made in the Challenger, with this difference, that I used only one sealed glass tube. It was an ordinary pipette of 50 c.c., sealed up at both ends close to the body. It was wrapped in a piece of muslin and loosely packed with cotton waste so as to occupy the middle of the brass tube. “The length of the brass tube was 33 cm., and its diameter 4°13 cm. Its weight without the cover was 350 grams. Both the top and the bottom are pierced with many holes so as to allow passage to the water. “Thus charged, it descended on the sounding line to a depth of 3000 metres, and when it came up it was evident from its appearance that the experiment had succeeded. As in the experiment on board the Chal- lenger, the glass had been converted into a snow-white powder. The external effect also was confined entirely to that part of the brass tube which had been occupied by the sealed glass tube. Above and below it there was no disfiguration.”’ In this case it was easier for the water outside to distort the brass tube than to flow through the per- forated caps covering the ends, and so fill the space lately occupied by the glass bulb. In the case of the punctured cover-glass the pressure rose so suddenly on the spark passing through the oil that there was not sufficient time to raise the glass as a whole, or to push away the film of oil lying between it and the elass slide, with the result that a minute piece of glass was forcibly blown out. Had the cover-glass possessed the ductility of brass, there would perhaps NO. 2256, VoL. 90] have been a bulge formed instead of a piece being bodily removed. On another occasion I had a practical demonstration of the power given out by a spark. It was in the early days of wireless telegraphy, and I had con- structed an oscillator of a simple type, consisting of a pair of brass balls immersed in paraffin oil, the oil and balls being contained in an inverted bottle from which the bottom had been removed. The bottle was about 2} in. in diameter, and about 4 in. deep, and the balls were situated at the centre, one above the other, and § in. apart. I had not passed more than about a dozen sparks between the balls when suddenly the glass was shattered. The large end of the bottle was open, and the free surface of the oil was about 24 in. in diameter. We have in this case direct evidence of a pressure being transmitted in the form of a pulse, or single wave, to the glass containing vessel of an intensity sufficient to cause it to break. The cause of this pressure was the spark passing from ball to ball through the oil, and while passing pushing away the oil on all sides with a rapidity which gave rise to a pulse of pressure. This pulse travelled outwards with great velocity, and contained such a store of energy that on striking the sides of the vessel it was sufficient to rupture the glass. The potential energy of the original electric charge was converted into the kinetic energy of the spark, and this in turn was transformed into the energy of the pulse, which was finally transferred to the glass. As the amount of energy was too great for the glass to hold, it found an outlet in shattering the vessel. The “pressure in an electric spark” is a term by no means uncommon in scientific literature, yet but little attention is paid to the effects which this pressure exerts on surrounding objects, as, for example, when a tree or house is struck by lightning. They all be- long to the type mentioned above. In conclusion, I would recommend a careful study of the paper by Mr. J. Y. Buchanan referred to above to those interested in the subject of the sudden relief of great pressure. W. G. Royat-Dawson. 17 Pembridge Gardens, London, W. January 8. The Halo in the Ricefield and the Spectre of the Brocken. In connection with the curious Japanese phenomenon of the halo seen around the head of the shadow of a person standing in a ricefield in early morning (Nature, p. 419, December 12, 1912), it may be of interest to recall that some recent balloon voyagers have reported observations of a bright halo surrounding the shadow of the car thrown upon a horizontal cloudfield by oblique solar rays. Coloured diffraction rings are sometimes seen surrounding the head of the ‘spectre of the Brocken,” but for these to be visible theory requires that the drops constituting the mist should be of uniform size. In an article in the Meteorologische Zeitschrift (p. 282, June, 1912; see also Science Abstracts, p. 574, December, 1912), by Prof. F. Richarz, discussing the theory of the sub- ject, reference is made to an observation by Dr. Bieber from the balloon Marburg of a halo around the shadow, and also to other verbal communications of a similar character. Prof. Richarz’s article is followed by another describing a photograph taken by Dr. Wegener of a series of three diffraction rings seen around the shadow of the same balloon, the Mar- burg, on another voyage. The centre of the rings was the point corresponding to the shadow of the eye, or of the camera objective. On calculating the JANUARY 23, 1913] NAT ORE 571 radius y of the cloud drops from the angular radius of a ring, a divergence from theory was found on this, and other, occasions. Theoretically all the rings should give the same value for 7, but the calculated value of y was found to diminish with the order of the ring outwards. The Japanese observers are stated in the note to attribute the halo to reflected light from sun-images formed on the green blades by rays refracted through dewdrops. In the case of the cloud observations it seems necessary to assume reflection from portions of the cloud itself. The difficult point, however, is to explain why the light thus reflected should be maximum in the direc- tion of the sun, or, what is the same thing, in the direction of the observer. The fact that the ring surrounds the shadow of the observer’s head seems to render such an assumption necessary. A single drop, as Prof. Richarz points out, does not give maximum intensity of reflection in the direction of the incident light. Dr. Richarz’s explanation why the cloud as a whole should do so is simple and ingenious, and is applicable whether the sun’s rays fall normally or obliquely to the surface of the cloud. Direct light only penetrates into the cloud (or assemblage of drops) when it finds a clear path, for if it strikes any drops on the way it will be scattered or diverted by refrac- tion and reflection at their walls. If light which has so penetrated should then fall on the surface of a drop in the interior, it will be reflected in various directions, but only that portion of the reflected beam which returns the same way it came can find a clear path out again. Portions of the beam reflected in other directions will generally find their way blocked by intervening drops and be scattered. Hence the intensity of the reflected light will be maximum in the direction of the source of light, and the intensity will fall off rapidly with departure from that direction. The observer’s head (or the balloon) cuts off the central portion of the sheaf of rays which he would see most brightly reflected, leaving only the peripheral portion visible. To digress, I have a vivid recollection of one very foggy winter evening when I was wintering in a cottage on a wild part of the Cornish coast. Chancing to throw open the casement window of the sitting- room, I was for the moment quite taken aback to find myself confronted by a talJ sinister figure looming up before the window. It was my own shadow thrown on the fog by a lamp left unshaded on a table in the room. Perhaps I may take this opportunity to record another little optical observation of different character. Once—I think it was towards the close of the hot summer of 1908—watching, from the top of a cliff some Soo ft. high, the sun setting over the sea, I saw the upper half of the disc look like a double staircase; there were three or four distinct, almost rectangular, steps cut out of the limb symmetrically on either side. When most of the disc had sunk out of sight, the small portion remaining was suggestive of the lid of a teapot with a knob on top. Some lines of light cloud about the horizon showed the existence of horizontal stratification in the atmosphere, and the strange distortion of the solar limb was evidently due to refraction through horizontal strata with extraordinary sharpness of boundary and differ- ence of density. ALIcE EVERETT. Milbourne Lane, Esher, January 6. ‘** Rosa stellata.’” In 1898 Prof. E. O. Wooton described a remark- able new NO. 2256, VOL. 90| rose from southern New Mexico, giving , | and has added a fourth species, R. vernonii. it the name Rosa stellata on account of the stellate trichomes. The peculiar, mostly trifoliolate leaves, the leaflets with cuneiform bases and more or less truncate, sharply toothed apices, gave the plant an unusual appearance; while even the flowers, described as “large and showy .. . deep rose-purple,’’ were not at all like those of the ordinary wild roses of the Rocky Mountains. Through the kindness of my friend, Prof. Fabian Garcia, I obtained some living plants of R. stellata from the original locality in the Organ Mountains. Some of these were sent to Dr. A. R. Wallace, who has grown them in England successfully; the others have been growing in Boulder, Colorado. Last year the plants in my garden grew exceedingly well, and were most attrac- tive. Certainly if R. stellata can be generally used in gardens, it will be a valuable addition to horticul- ture, but it probably will do its best only in relatively dry climates. My wife attempted crosses with several other roses, and in one case was successful in getting good seed; what will result remains to be seen. The fruit of R. stellata, as indicated by Wooton, is large, beset with strong slender prickles. Quite unlike the usual types of rose fruits, its walls are dense, not at all fleshy or brilliantly coloured, but corky. The orifice is very broad, with a diameter of 8 mm. The bright chestnut-red seeds, about 4 mm. long, are long-oval, not compressed, and therefore not at all angular. All this differs conspicuously from the fruit of typical Rosa. R. stellata, however, is not the only plant of this type. Years before, Engelmann described R. minuti- folia from Lower California, a plant with the same general characters. In recent times, Dr. Greene has separated part of Wooton’s R. stellata as R. mirifica, Thus we have a compact group, which should, I think, form a distinct subgenus or genus Hesperhodos, with stellata as the type. All the species are of extremely restricted distribution, which may probably be ex- plained by the fact that the fruits are not adapted to be eaten by birds. The wide-open prickly fruit suggests that this may be a primitive form, as compared with true Rosa; but it is to be noted that the roses found fossil in the Miocene beds of Florissant, Colorado, belong to the true genus Rosa, not at all to Hesperhodos. T. D. A. CockERELL. Boulder, Colorado, December 30, 1912. A Lens or a Burning Glass? In the latest edition of Carpenter on the microscope at p. 11g occurs the following, evidently from the pen of the late Dr. Dallinger :—‘t There is in the British Museum a remarkable piece of rock crystal, which is oval in shape and ground to a plano-convex form, which was found by Mr. Layard during the excava- tions of Sargon’s Palace at Nimroud, and which Sir David Brewster believed was a lens designed for the purpose of magnifying. If this could be established it would, of course, be of great interest, for it has been found possible to fix the date of its production with great probability as not later than 721-705 B.c. . . . We spent some hours in the careful examination of this piece of worked rock crystal, which, by the courtesy of the officials, we were permitted to photo- graph in various positions, and we are convinced that its lenticular character as a dioptric instrument cannot be made out. There are cloudy striz in it, which would nrove fatal for optical purposes, but would be even sought for if it had been intended as a decorative boss; while the grinding of the ‘convex’ surface is 5/2 not smooth but produced by a large number of irre- cular facets, making the curvature quite unfit for optical purposes. In truth it may be fairly taken as established that there is no evidence of any kind to justify us in believing that lenses for optical purposes were known or used before the invention of spec- tacles.”’ While studying the evolution of fire-getting it occurred to me that this lens might have been used for obtaining fire from the sun; in other words, as a burning glass. It is well known that when the fires on the ancient altars happened by some accident to go out they had to be renewed by “pure” fire, obtained either by rubbing two sticks together or by concentrating the rays of the sun. It would be an interesting investigation to see if this lens could be thus used. Of course, in the dull climate of England it might not work so well as in the sunny latitude of Nimroud, but the experiment would be worth trying, and by noting the extent to which the temperature was raised a good guess might be made as to its efficiency. Joun Pun. Paterson, N.J., U.S.A., December 25, 1912. ‘** Primeval Man.’’ Your brief review of ‘‘ Primeval Man” (Nature, January 9, p. 512) devotes rather more than half of its space to the flat contradiction of two statements contained in a footnote. | Your reviewer writes :— “That there was no connection between the Druids and the megaliths is absolutely unsupported by evidence. The idea is certainly older than the eighteenth century.” It is now commonly held that the Druids were an institution peculiar to the Celts, and there is no reason for tracing their origin to the pre-Celtic in- habitants of our islands. As the first wave of Goidelic or Brythonic invaders cannot have reached Britain much before 600 B.c., a gap of many centuries separates the Druids from the builders of the mega- lithic structures, which, by common consent, belong mainly to the end of the Neolithic or beginning of the Bronze age. With regard to the popular notion connecting the Druids with the megaliths, the earliest printed refer- ence appears in the enlarged edition of Camden’s ‘ Britannia,’” 1695. Here seven theories as to the origin of Stonehenge, &c., are cited, and the Druidic theory is quoted as being derived from a MS. paper of Aubrey. It is interesting to note in this connection that there is no instance of the words druidic. druid- ical, recorded in the‘‘ New English Dictionary” before 499° I am able to take a somewhat impartial view of the objections raised by your reviewer, as the foot- note in question was written for me by the author of. the articles, ‘‘Druidism,” ‘‘Celt,’’ and ~‘ Early Ireland,” in the ‘Encyclopedia Britannica.” A. HInGsTon QUIGGIN. 88 Hartington Grove, Cambridge, January 14. THE origin of the footnote is satisfactorily explained. Sir John Rhys’s papers in the Transactions of the British Academy are strongly recommended. For literary information about the British Druids Welsh and Trish sources should be consulted. The material evidence bearing on primeval man, which was omitted from Mrs. Ouiggin’s book, is the astronomical testi- mony of the monuments, as interpretative both of Neolithic culture and of the real avocation of the Druid, whose nationality or race.should be regarded as a secondary matter. Mrs. Ouiggin’s Celtic chrono- NO. 2256, VOL. 90] NATURE [JANUARY 23, 1913 logy should be revised. Mr. Common Consent, alias Commonly Held, is very apt to ignore evidence whiclz he cannot quite follow, and what he follows generally is the angle of least resistance. He is very hard on astronomers and Druids—ancient astronomers. Mediaeval Welsh bards speak of bardic prophets as derwyton, modern Welsh derwyddon, ‘‘ Druids.’’ The traditional regulations for the erection of a stone circle for bardic purposes are prefaced with the statement that the regulations had been handed down from the time of the Welsh princes—that is, before the sub- jugation of Wales by Edward I. (see the section, “Voice of Gorsedd,” in Welsh and English, in the printed collection called ‘‘Iolo MSS.,’’ which may be consulted in most large libraries). Efforts have beer made to show that such bardic documents are forgeries, with what motive is not stated. It has been proved, on the other hand, that the “‘forgers”’ did not understand their own alleged productions, and that their traducers are still more unaware of the meaning of the architectural principles involved in the tradi- tional account (see NaTure for the last twenty years, and the second edition of Sir Norman Lockyer’s “ Stonehenge’’). Joun GRIFFITH. X-rays and Crystals. Ir is not at all difficult to measure the ionisation produced by the radiation reflected by crystals, as indeed Prof. Barkla has already suggested. Using a sheet of mica and a pencil of a few millimetres diameter, I find it possible to follow with an ionisation chamber the movement of the reflected spot while the mirror is rotated. H Brace. Leeds, January 17 ANTARCTIC BIOLOGY AND THE ROCKS OF WESTERN WILKES LAND. HE three last publications on the results of the Antarctic expeditions of the Discovery, Scotia and Gauss show that these works are ap- proaching completion. The new contribution to the scientific results of the Scotia includes all the botanical reports except that on the phytoplankton, which may prove the most important. Of the ten memoirs in this volume, two deal with local- ities, Ascension and Gough Islands (lat. 50° S.), which are outside the Antarctic area: Seven of the memoirs are republished from various journals, while that by Mr. and Mrs. Gipp on the marine alge is a compilation of their three papers with a rediscussion of some of the results. It is a great convenience to have these valuable memoirs col- lected into one volume; but it is unfortunate that the species founded in them are described in this work as “new species.” Much trouble may be thus caused by the annual biological records again cataloguing these species, or by their being sub- sequently assigned to wrong dates. 1 ** National Antarctic Expedition, 1901-4." Natural History. Vol. vi. “Zoology and Botany.” Pp. xvit+o+32+63+plates in text. (London > Printed by Order of the Trustees of the British Museum, and sold by Longmans and Co. ; Bernard Quaritch ; Dulau and Co., Ltd. ; and at the British Museum (Natural History), to12.) Price 16s. Scottish National Antarctic Expedition.” Report on the Scientific Results of the Voyage of the S.Y. Sco¢za during the vears 1902, 1903, and 1004. Under the leadership of Dr. W. S. Bruce. Vol. iii., “‘ Botany.” Parts i.-xi. Pp. ix-+-153+plates in text. (Edinburgh: The Scottish Oceanographical Laboratory ; Edinburgh and London: Oliver and Boyd ; Glasgow: James MacLehose and Sons, 1912.) Price 23s. 6d. “Deutsche Siidpolar-Expedition, 1901-3." In Auftrage des Reichsamtes des Innern. erausgegeben von Erich von Drygalski. ii Band, ‘‘Geo- graphie und Geologie.” Heft vii. Pp. viii+6r7-662-+-2 plates. (Berlin: Georg Reimer, 19°2.) Price 7.50 marks (Subscription price 6.20 marks.) JANUARY 23, 1913] NATURE S45 The first of the two new contributions in this volume is an interesting essay by Dr. Rudmose Brown on the problems of Antarctic botany. He agrees with Dr. Skottsberg in limiting the Ant- arctic area to south of 60° S. He retains Dougherty Island as existing, in spite of the failure of the latest attempt to find it. Dr. Brown refers to the striking poverty of the Antarctic in land plants. In the South Orkneys (iat. 61° S.) the expedition did not find a single flowering plant, whereas in 79° N. in Spitsbergen some of the land is carpeted with flowers of a hundred species. Dr. Brown attributes the poverty of the Antarctic flora to the mean temperature in the summer being below freezing point and to the flocks of penguins, which, in the absence of carnivorous animals, over- run the land. In his discussion of the origin of the Antarctic land flora, Dr. Brown remarks that the presence of an Arctic element in the mosses might appear to support the doctrine of bipolarity, which, he agrees with Dr. Skottsberg, has no botanical support. That most of the zoological evidence is also opposed to the theory is remarked by Mr. F. Jeffrey Bell in his interesting intro- duction to the last volume on the collections of the National Antarctic Expedition. Mr. Rudmose Brown explains the presence of the Arctic mosses by their transmission by sea birds, of which some species range almost from pole to pole. Some plants may have been introduced to Antarctica by wind; for Dr. Fritsch found in material from the South Orkneys the pollen of Podocarpus, which must have been blown from South America. Dr. Brown regards the whole Antarctic land flora as derived from South America, a conclusion which is supported by the absence of New Zealand plants from eastern Antarctica. The second new memoir is by Dr. J. H. Harvey Pirie on Antarctic bacteriology. Levin has shown that many Arctic birds and seals are free from bacteria. Dr. Pirie, however, found that three out of the four species of seals examined and ten of the fifteen species of birds contained bacteria. His general results agree with those of Gazert, Ekelof and Charcot of the German, Swedish and French expeditions respectively, that Antarctic animals usually contain bacteria but may be sterile. Dr. Pirie found that the air, when carefully col- lected from the crow’s-nest and the deep sea samples, was always sterile. In seven out of ten cases the surface water of the sea yielded bac- teria. Denitrifying bacteria are, however, very scarce, and Dr. Pirie points out that the nitrogen so continuously added to the sea is eliminated by the action of these bacteria. Owing to the slight bacterial denitrification in the polar seas, plant and animal life is more abundant there than in the tropics. Hence is explained the extraordinary abundance of individuals in the polar seas in spite of the relative poverty in species, a fact which is referred to by Mr. Jeffrey Bell in the new volume of the reports on the collections of the National Ant- arctic Expedition. He quotes Mr. Hodgson’s NO. 2256, VOL. 90] remark that it was usual to take from ten to thirty thousand amphipods at a single haul, and Mr. Bell estimates that the collection included nearly ten thousand specimens of one schizopod. Mr. Bell refers to the two new species of Cephalodiscus and Mr. Hodgson’s rediscovery of the ten-legged Pycnogonid as perhaps the most interesting of the biological results of the expedition. The volume includes three memoirs, a report on some young holothurians by Prof. MacBride, in which he suggests that these animals were derived from primitive echinoids, a hypothesis which appears less probable since Walcott’s discovery of a Cambrian holothurian, which is much more ancient than any known echinoid. The second memoir is by Prof. Ehlers on the polychaets, and the last is by Prof. Fritsch on the freshwater alge. This memoir is perhaps of less interest than the same author’s report on the alge collected by the Scotia, for Messrs W. and G. S. West have previously described the collection from South Victoria Land brought back by the Shackleton expedition. In the South Orkneys, in addition to the red snow which is familiar in Polar and Alpine regions, there is a yellow snow, due to a mixture of eighteen species of algz and two of fungi. The colour is due to the numerous globules of fat. The general affinities of this flora are planktonic, and Dr. | Fritsch suggested that it was carried ashore by the wind. The last part of the volume on the geographical and geological results of the German south polar expedition contains a posthumous memoir by E. Philippi, the geologist of the expedition, on the intra-glacial material found near the winter quarters of the Gauss. The icebergs examined came from the east, and contained fragments of granite, gabbro, gneiss, crystalline schists, and a red quartzite, but no fossiliferous rock or repre- sentative of the “young volcanic” series. _ Ice- bergs were also examined eight miles west of the Gaussberg, and they contained similar rocks. Philippi concludes from the characters of the ice that it must have flowed over an irregular un- dulating land. The erratics collected by the expedi- tion have been identified by Dr. Reinisch and in- clude a similar but more varied series of rocks. They include granite and aplite, gabbro and gabbro porphyrite, many varieties of gneisses and horn- blende schists, some of which are rich in pyrites, marble, quartzite, calc-silicate rock and sandstone. There is no true mica schist or phyllite. This | . . . association of rocks supports the view that western Wilkes Land is geologically a southern continua- tion of Western Australia. The third memoir in this part is a valuable study by Reinisch of the rocks collected in various Atlantic islands from the Azores to St. Helena. His report and analyses confirm the conclusion that the volcanic rocks of these islands mainly belong to the alkaline series, though, as Reinisch remarks, some of the basaltic rocks are intimately related to augite andesites. hws a7 NATURE [ JANUARY 23, 1913 MODERN PUMPS FOR HIGH VACUA. HE widespread researches on the phenomena in electrical discharge tubes, which form so important a feature of modern physics, directed much attention to the question of obtaining high vacua. In 1888, as Lenard tells us,! an efficient vacuum pump was by no means an essential part of the equipment of a physical laboratory: at the present time it emphatically is so. In the follow- ing a brief account will be given of the modern forms of the different types of pumps, especial reference being made, however, to a pump recently invented by Dr. Gaede, as it depends on a prin- ciple never before applied, and seems from present information more efficient than any of its prede- cessors. All vacuum pumps except this latest one of Gaede’s make use of the principle employed by Otto von Guericke in the first air-pump— that is, the intermittent separation and discharge of a fraction of the gas from the reservoir to be exhausted by means of a piston, which in the mercury pumps takes a liquid form. We can, in reviewing the modern forms, divide these pumps into three classes: the solid piston pump, the hand mercury pump, and the automatic mercury pump. The solid piston pump has preserved much of its original arrangement of valves, but has been modified in the Geryk pump, which may be taken as a modern example, by the use of layers of a particular oil in the place of packing. The valves are always covered by the oil, which takes up all clearance, and hence leakage is largely avoided, but the vapour pressure of the oil, though very small, prevents the highest vacuum being produced; however, o'0002 mm. of mercury can be attained. In a still more recent pattern, the “Rose” pump manufactured by Messrs. Cosser, there is no piston rod, the piston being of iron and moved by electro-magnets oscillating outside the pump cylinder. The forms of hand mercury pump now used are all modifications of the well-known Toepler pump. One of the simplest and most successful is that devised by Antropoff, in which the usual bulb is replaced by one of cylindrical form arranged obliquely instead of vertically. The desire to reduce the time and labour attach- ing to the hand pump has led to the construction of a large number of mercury pumps which can be operated mechanically ; in experiments such as those of Prof. Wien on canal rays such a con- tinuously running pump is a necessity. The most convenient of these are the various rotary pumps, of which the first was devised by Schulze-Berge, and of which Kaufmann in 1905 brought out a pattern which has been considerably used. The essential of this is an inclined spiral tube which rotates continuously ; a thread of mercury running in it cuts off and forces out a fraction of. the air at every rotation. There are two such tubes; the pump, though efficient, is somewhat fragile and complicated. 1 Nobel discourse, 1906, p. 3. NO. 2256, VOL. 90] The rotary mercury pump most in use at the present time is that of Dr. Gaede. It consists of an outer closed drum half filled with mercury, in which a second drum rotates. This drum is divided into chambers, which in turn become con- nected to the vessel to be exhausted; by the rota- tion they are filled alternately with gas and mercury, the gas being displaced into the outer space between the two drums and cut off from return by the mercury. The system is similar to the gas meter, only in this the moving gas effects the rotation, while in the Gaede pump the rotation sets the gas in motion. With this pump the pressure must first be reduced to a few milli- metres of mercury by any rough preliminary pump, as otherwise the difference of pressure between the outside and inside of the rotating drum will become sufficient to drive the gas back into the drum again. In the past year, however, Dr. Gaede described an air-pump depending on a new principle, which he calls the molecular air-pump. Maxwell assumed, and Knudsen has recently verified ex- perimentally, that if a gas be in contact with a solid surface, the gas molecules are reflected from it in all directions independently of the angle of incidence, or ‘‘diffusely reflected.” This is due to molecular irregularities of the surface. Gaede has shown that for pressures above 0001 mm. of mercury the above assump- tion is not ex- perimentally veri- fied, and he attributes this to the formation of a film of ad- sorbed gas on the solid surface, which covers and conceals the molecular irregu- larities. The surface then presents only mechanical irregu- larities, and the result is that if a gas be travelling over a surface the molecules are preferentially thrown back in the direction from which they came, as they fall in general on small slopes of the irregularities facing their direction of drift. In both this case and that of diffuse reflection the new pump is _ effective, but the point is of interest in considering the theory of the pump, and it was considera- tions of this kind which led Gaede to its construction. The new pump depends for its action on the dragging of the gas by a rapidly moving surface.? Consider a cylinder A rotating in a clockwise direc- tion in a case B; in B there are two openings n and m connected by a slot (Fig. 1). The gas will be dragged by the cylinder from n to m, and in Fic. 1.—Principle of molecular air pump. 2 For the illustrations which accompany this article, we are indebted to the makers of the new pump—E. Leybold’s Nachfolger, Culn. JANUARY 23, 1913] NATO RB B75 consequence a difference of pressure will be estab- lished between n and m which is proportional to the speed of rotation and the internal friction of the gas; the latter being independent of the pres- sure, the difference of pressure produced should be independent of the pressure. This is true when the pressure is relatively high; if it continued to be (Soo0-12,000 revolutions per minute) are sufficient to give a vacuum better than any hitherto obtained. In practice the pump is constructed as indicated in Fig. 2 (a) and (b). Instead of cutting the slot in the case, the cylinder is grooved, and a tongue C from the case projects into the groove; this is equivalent to a very - == long slot in the Yi fy LYM LLM I J Lh fl), 5 5 we YMA YM MM Ye By case. For in- = creased efficiency several parallel grooves are cut, and connected with one another so that the low pressure side of one is the Fic. 2.—Construction of molecular air pump. true down to the lowest pressures we should be able to create an absolute vacuum by exhausting initially with another pump at nm to a pressure lower than the (constant) difference of pressure between m and n. When, however, we come to pressures below o’oor millimetre of mercury this is no longer the case; the molecules are then diffusely reflected, and fly from one wall to the NACHFOLGEE LN 01S E.LEYB co Fic. 3.—Molecular air pump. other without meeting other molecules. If the surface of the cylinder moved with a velocity greater than the molecular velocity we would obtain an absolute vacuum; such speeds are im- possible in practice. However, at these low pres- sures the ratio of the pressures at m and n remains constant independent of the pressure, and it has been found that attainable speeds of revolution NO. 2256, VOL. 90] high pressure side of the next (Fig. 2, b). The com- plete pump is shown in Fig. 3. A pre- liminary pump is needed to reduce the pressure to a few millimetres of mercury initially. A great advantage of this form of pump is that it deals with vapours as well as gases, as the low pressure part of the pump remains at low pressure. In other forms of pump the gases are compressed while being removed, and in conse- quence vapours condense which are afterwards brought back into the vacuum again. Without | drying agents the new pump has produced a | vacuum lower than any hitherto measured, | o'0000002 millimetre of mercury; this pressure | Gaede of the kinetic heat effect. was calculated by observing pressures in different grooves. Very interesting are the measurements made by Owing to the increased velocity of the molecules the temperature of the gas should be higher near the upper surface of the tongue C (Fig. 2) than near the lower sur- face, and by arranging a thermocouple in place of the tongue C Gaede has detected such an effect as soon as the pressure is low enough to allow the mean free path of the molecules to be larger than the dimensions of the groove. A table of the exhaustion attainable with various selected pumps is appended. the ratio of the Pump. Pressure in milli- . metres of mercury. Water pump 2c cee ax LO Ordinary piston pump ... ae Rote . |e *Older Geissler pump *Newer Geissler pump *Sprengel pump oT oOo! wae inc sot OOO! *Modified Toepler pump ... Se -+» 0.00001 *Kahlbaum’s automatic mercury pump 0000002 Geryk oil-filled pump s+» 0'0002 Gaede rotary mercury pump 0'00001 Gaede molecular pump ... 00000002 * Taken from Winkelmann’s ‘‘ Handbuch der Physik,’ I. The numbers must only be taken as very rough; for instance, it is very doubtful whether Kahlbaum’s pump can give a better vacuum than Gaede’s mercury pump (the figure for which is given by the Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt). E. N. pa C. ANDRADE. 576 NATURE [JANUARY 23, 1913 NOTES. WE regret to see the announcement of the death on January 10, in his sixty-first year, of Dr. F. Teller, chief geologist at the K. K. Geologische Reichsanstalt at Vienna, and member of the Vienna Academy of Sciences. Pror. A. Keiru has been elected president of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, in succession to Mr. A. P. Maudslay. Mr. T. C. Hodson has been elected secretary of the insti- tute, in succession to Mr. T. A. Joyce, who has be- come a vice-president. M. B. Baitraup, director of the Paris Observatory, has been elected president, and M. H. Deslandres, director of the Meudon Observatory, vice-president, of the Paris Bureau des Longitudes for 1913. Tue death is announced, in his fifty-ninth year, of Dr. G. A. Gibson, of Edinburgh, who was a well- known authority on diseases of the heart. His work on ‘‘ Diseases of the Heart and Aorta,” published in 1898, established his reputation as a specialist. Tue Copenhagen correspondent of The Daily Chronicle reports that at a special audience on January 20 King Christian decorated Dr. V. Poulsen and Prof. P. O. Pedersen with the Medal of Merit in gold on account of the honour they have brought to Den- mark by their work in connection with wireless tele- graphy and telegraphones. Dr. E. M. Krypie, for many years attached to the paleontological staff of the United States Geological Survey, at Washington, has accepted a similar posi- tion on the Geological Survey of Canada. Mr. Bur- ling, for many years assistant to Dr. Walcott in the palzontology of the Cambrian rocks of North America, has also joined the technical staff of the Canadian Survey at Ottawa. EXTENSIVE preparations are being made for the forthcoming meeting of the International Congress of Zoology to be held in the museum of the Oceano- graphic Institute at Monaco, March 25-30. Numerous collections from various expeditions and countries are being exhibited in the spacious halls of the institute. The aquarium at Monaco and the Russian Biological Station, Villefranche, are also expected to furnish interesting material for discussion during the con- gress. A SPECIAL general meeting of the Royal Geograph- ical Society was held on January 15 to consider, among other matters, the proposal to admit women as fellows of the society. The president (Lord Curzon of Kedleston) moved the resolution : ‘‘ That the society approve of the election of women as fellows,” and it was carried by 130 votes to 51. In future, therefore, women will be eligible for admission as fellows on the same basis as men. On Thursday next, January 30, Prof. B. Hopkin- son will deliver the first of two lectures at the Royal Institution on recent research on the gas engine, and NO. 2256, VOL. 90] on Saturday, February 8, Sir J. J. Thomson will begin a course of six lectures on the properties and constitu- tion of the atom. The Friday evening discourse on January 31 will be delivered by Mr. George M. Trevelyan, on the poetry and philosophy of George Meredith, and on February 7 by Sir John Murray, on life in the great oceans. THE will of the late Mr. Rowland Ward, the taxi- dermist, directs that the trustees with respect to his charitable bequests shall expend sool. per annum out of the income of his residuary estate, after the legacies and annuities specified have been paid, for a period of ten years in the purchase of specimens to be pre- sented to the Natural History Museum, South Ken- sington. The residue of his estate is left in equal shares to such eight of fourteen selected charitable and other institutions as his widow shall choose. In default of his widow’s selection within twelve months of the testator’s decease, the whole of the fourteen institutions—which include the Natural History Museum—are to share equally. Mr. A. C. Craupet, whose death on January 17 will be widely regretted, was born on June 9g, 1855, and was the eldest son of the late Mr. Frederick Claudet, of London and Cannes, the founder of the well-known firm of assayers and metallurgists. He was educated privately and at the Royal School of Mines, where he took the associateship in metallurgy in 1878. He was one of the best-known and most universally respected members of the mining and metallurgical community, and had been treasurer of the Institution of Mining and Metallurgy from its foundation in 1892 to the day of his death. He was president of the institution in 1906-7, and had also been a trustee for a number of years. At various times he also served on the council of the Institute of Chemistry, the Faraday Society, and on those of other scientific bodies. He took a keen and active interest in various educational movements to which he devoted a great deal of time, and which he generously assisted financially. These movements included the reorganisation, rebuilding, and equipment of the Royal School of Mines, the establishment of the Imperial College of Science and Technology, the Imperial College Union, &c., and he served on several committees connected therewith. He was an active member of the executive committee of the Bessemer Memorial Fund, from which the Bessemer Laboratory at South Kensington was equipped. He and Mr. Hennen Jennings, of Washington, D.C., established a ‘‘post-graduate grants fund,’’ under the auspices of the Institution of Mining and Metallurgy to supple- ment the scholarships given by the institution to assist graduates to take practical courses in mines and works in the chief mining centres of the world, and many young engineers have been assisted in this way to bridge the period between college and their actual professional career with excellent results. His noble qualities of heart and mind are not so common as to make his death anything but a real loss to an un- usually large number of friends, both personal and | professional. JANUARY 23, 1913] NATURE 577 Tue Home Secretary has appointed a committee to inquire and report as to the conditions necessary for the adequate and suitable lighting (natural and artificial) of factories and workshops, having regard to the nature of the work carried on, the protection of the eyesight of the persons employed, and the various forms of illumination. The committee consists of the following members:—Dr. R. T. Glazebrook, C.B., F.R.S. (chairman), Mr. Leon Gaster, Prof. F. Gotch, F.R.S., Dr. J. Herbert Parsons, Mr. W. C. D. Whet- ham, F.R.S., and Sir Arthur Whitelegge, K.C.B. The secretaries of the committee are Mr. D. R. Wil- son and Mr. C. G. Paterson. Any communications regarding the inquiry may be addressed to Mr. D. R. Wilson at the Home Office. THE committee which has been formed from repre- sentatives of several of the principal agricultural in- stitutions of this country for the purpose of securing adequate British representation at the tenth Inter- national Congress of Agriculture, to be held at Ghent, Belgium, on June 8-13 next, is making an appeal for adherents to this important congress, and also for the contribution of papers on agricultural subjects. The subscription for members, who will receive the pub- lications of the congress gratuitously, and have the right of taking part in the discussions, has been fixed at 20 francs (16s.) Subscriptions should be sent to the secretary, British committee (Mr. H. Chambers), Craven House, Northumberland Avenue, W.C., with whom those desirous of reading papers at the con- gress should communicate. AccorRDING to an article in The Times of January 16, the council of the Zoological Society has received, and accepted, an offer from Mr. J. N. Mappin, head of the firm of Messrs. Mappin and Webb, Ltd., to install in the gardens a series of terraces in rockx- work for the better display of certain groups of the larger animals. In tendering a vote of thanks to Mr. Mappin for this munificent offer, the council intimated that the proposed structures are to be known as the Mappin Terraces. The site on which they are to be erected is the one where the special Malay and | Nepalese collections were exhibited last summer; work is to be commenced at the earliest possible date, and it is hoped that the whole installation will be com- pleted within a twelvemonth. That it will enhance the attractions of the ever-popular menagerie cannot be doubted, and it is expected that it will also con- duce to the well-being and health of the animals. In making his offer Mr. Mappin expressed the hope that the council might see its way to allow shop- assistants to enter the gardens at a reduced payment on certain days, a suggestion which was favourably received by that body. The council has also accepted a gift of roool. from Sir J. Key Caird, Bart., for the erection of a new insect-house. WE regret to have to record the sudden death of Dr. O. T. Williams, hon. assistant-physician, Royal Infirmary, Liverpool, and lecturer on pharmacology and demonstrator of biochemistry in the University. Dr. Williams was cut off in the early prime of a life of great promise. He was only thirty-five years of NO. 2256, VOL. 9o| | creatitis after a few days’ illness. | on the biochemical problems related to disease. and succumbed to an attack of acute pan- During the past ten years he had published many important papers His work was concerned chiefly with the biochemical problems of digestion and metabolism, such as the nature and constitution of the lipoids of tissues and organs, the lipoids of diabetic blood, the nature of the protein in albumosuria, abnormal fat assimilation associated with some diseases of the intestine, and certain biochemical changes associated with appendi- citis. An account of Dr. Williams’s published papers alone gives but little idea of the influence he was beginning to exert upon the progress of research in medical science in Liverpool, and in forming high ideals of the work of the physician as a scientific worker in the minds of the younger men in the city. His early death will be long lamented by many whose minds he influenced. Tue death of Colonel F. Bailey, R.E. (retired), at Edinburgh on January 21, will come as a shock to foresters in many parts of the world. age, Colonel Bailey was one of the early pioneers when, forty years ago, the modern science of forestry was taken over by Englishmen from the Continent. He is best known as having for many years conducted the course of forestry at Edin- burgh University. Several of his pupils now fill the most important forest appointments in the Empire. When a Captain in the Royal Engineers, Colonel Bailey was selected, so far back as 1871, to take charge of the survey branch of the Indian Forest Department. He held this important post until 1884. Latterly he also had charge of the Indian School of Forests at Dehra Dun. In 1884 he was appointed by the Secretary of State for India to take charge of the English students following the course of in- struction at the Nancy Forest School. In 1887 he was decorated by the French Government in recognition of his forest services. He returned to India, tem- | porarily, in 1887, and for some time acted as Inspec- tor-General of Forests for that country. In 1907 fail- ing health compelled the resignation of the Edinburgh lectureship; in July last the Senatus of the Univer- sity conferred upon him the honorary degree of LL.D. Until his death he was hon. editor of the half-yearly forestry publication of the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society, of which he was president in 1898. He was the author of papers on forestry far too numerous to mention here. As to his work in the field, he will be remembered as the framer of ‘ working plans” for two important forest estates in Scotland, the first of their kind. The best known of these, that for Novar, is held to be well fulfilling his calculations and anticipations. He also helped Lord Lovat and Captain Stirling of Keir in the preparation of that most detailed and practical working plan of last year for the Glen Mor area on the Caledonian Canal. Tue Horace Dobell lectures of the Royal College of Physicians were delivered by Dr. C. J. Martin, F.R.S., the subject being ‘‘ Insect Porters of Bacterial Infections." The lectures form a very complete sum- mary of our knowledge of the conveyance of typhoid 78 O1 NATURE [JANUARY 23, 1913 fever and diarrhoea by house-flies, of plague by fleas, and of relapsing fever by ticks; lice and bugs are also referred to. Many details are given of the anatomy of the insects, and a full bibliography is appended. Tue January number of Bedrock (No. 4, 1913) con- tains the full text of Dr. Metchnilkoff’s Priestley lec- ture, ‘‘The Warfare against Tuberculosis,’’ delivered before the National Health Society, an abstract of which was published in these columns. Dr. Eric Pritchard writes on “the milk problem,” dealing with the question of the effect of heat as applied in pas- teurisation and sterilisation of milk. He is satisfied that infants may be satisfactorily reared on freshly boiled milk and also on dried milk. A parasitic fungus (Empusa muscae) of the house- fly has long been known, and its use has been sug- gested as a means of destroying flies. Hitherto the fungus has not been artificially cultivated, but Mr. Edgar Hesse now claims to have done this, and with his cultures to have infected and destroyed flies. The fungus attacks the house-fly (Musca domestica), the lesser house-fly (Fannia canicularis), and the stable- fly (Stomoxys calcitrans). It was formerly believed that the fungus attacks the fly from without, but Mr. Hesse finds that the spores are swallowed and probably germinate in the crop, and thence invade the tissues of the fly. The matter has been brought to the notice of the Local Government Board, by which it is being considered and examined. The evidence of the conveyance of disease germs by flies is complete, and the fungus might, therefore, be employed to destroy flies. Str Ronatp Ross delivered a lecture on medical science and the tropics at a meeting of the Royal Colonial Institute on January 14. He said that he cannot but feel that the reason why tropical Africa has not become civilised is due to the fact that the great tropical diseases affect not only immigrant Europeans but are almost equally disastrous to the natives. The ravages of malaria, yellow fever, kala-azar, dysentery, plague, and cholera were reviewed. The death-rate fell remarkably between 1903 and i911, owing to knowledge accumulated by a band of enthusiastic in- vestigators, who, however, are most inadequately remunerated. Sir Ronald Ross said that Britain gives probably less than 50,oool. per annum throughout the Empire for medical research, and yet medical research benefits some fifty millions of white subjects of the Empire. Mr. Austen Chamberlain, who presided, instanced as an example of the value of tropical medi- cal research the fall in the invaliding rate of European officials between 1904 and ig1t from 63 to 25 per tooo. He made an earnest appeal for funds on behalf of the schools of tropical medicine. Tue University of California, in No. 4, vol. x., of its ethnological series, publishes an elaborate monograph on the tribe of Salinan Indians, which has been pre- pared by Mr. J. Alden Mason. The task of inquiry has been difficult owing to the lack of information regarding the stock itself, and the existence of similar conditions among the adjacent tribes. The Salinans NO. 2256, VOL. 90| occupy a position between the typically central culture of the northern groups and that of the Chamash to the south. Their general characteristics are a depend- ence primarily on vegetable food, chiefly acorns, a great stability of population, absence of gentile organisation, a weak development of the arts, of war, and of ritualism. In spite of these drawbacks, the present monograph, with its abundant details of their ethnology and culture, shows a considerable advance on our knowledge of the natives of Cali- fornia. THE Queensland Museum has issued the first volume of a series of memoirs which promises to supply a valuable addition to our knowledge of the natural sciences and ethnology of Australia. The present issue opens with a paper on Papuan mummification by the director, Dr. R. Hamlyn-Harris, in which he describes two specimens from Torres Straits. The body was placed on a platform with a fire beside it, partly for the comfort of the spirit, and partly to assist in dispelling the noxious fumes arising during the process of desiccation. The corpse was then removed to the sea and cleaned, the interior being filled with pieces of the dried sago-palm. It was hung up to dry, and adorned by the insertion of pieces of Nautilus shell for eyes, the body was smeared with ochre and oil, and various ornaments were attached to it. When dried, it was fixed to the central pole of the hut, and after some years the head was made over to the widow, and the mummified corpse was taken to one of the gardens of the deceased and allowed to decay, or in some cases it was buried inside the hut. Ir is announced in the January number of The Entomologist’s Monthly Magazine that, in conse- quence of having taken up his residence abroad, Lord Walsingham has felt compelled to resign his joint editorship of that journal. From a distributional point of view considerable interest attaches to the identification by Dr. C. R. Eastman (Ann. Carnegie Mus., vol. viii., No. 2, 1912) of remains of doubly-armed fresh-water herrings of the genus Diplomystus in Tertiary deposits in Guinea. For the genus—in addition to several other localities—also occurs in a Tertiary formation on the Brazilian coast, and thus seems to indicate the pre- valence of similar conditions during Tertiary times on the two sides of the Atlantic. The author discusses the bearing of the new fact on the theory of a former land connection between western Africa and eastern North America by means of an hypothetical ‘* Helenis.”’ A compact summary of the knowledge we now possess concerning the structure, origin, and economics of pearls and mother-of-pearl is given in a paper on “ Perlen” contributed by Prof. E. Korschelt to Fortschritte d. naturwissenschaftlichen Forschung (Band vii., 1913). In sixteen short sections Prof. Korschelt gives an impartial account of the most important work of the last ten years. with the origin of pearls, it is becoming quite clear from the work of Rubbell, Dubois, and Jameson that In connection JANUARY 23, 1913] NATURE 579 by far the greater number of pearls are formed around particles that are closely related to certain kinds of shell substance. We might, in fact, divide the causes of pearls into internal and external causes. The external causes include worm and other parasites and sand grains, and both are actually proved causes. The internal causes appear to be more interesting, and, so far as the pearls in the fresh-water mussel (Margaritana margaritifera) and possibly the Ceylon pearl oyster (Margaritifera vulgaris) are concerned, seem to be the more important. The paper is well illustrated, and as a short summary is admirable, though many sections undoubtedly require more detailed treatment. Dr. W. C. Srurcis has forwarded a copy of his recently published ‘‘ Guide to the Botanical Literature of the Myxomycetes.”” This bibliography of an exten- sive and important group of Protista, which has been claimed alike by the botanist and the zoologist, gives the titles of a very large number of publications between the years 1875 and 1912, and though the compiler has confined his attention somewhat closely to citations from botanical writers, thus omitting a certain amount of valuable material in the fields of cytology and physiology especially, it will prove ex- tremely useful to students of these organisms, whether botanical or zoological. The guide is issued by the Colorado College, as Science Publication, vol. xii., Noir THE annual report of the Director of Agriculture for the Federated Malay States deals mainly with rubber, and shows an astonishing development of this crop. No fewer than 107,200 acres of land were opened during the year, while the total output of rubber was but little short of twenty-two million pounds, against twelve and a half million of the previous year; prices were also well maintained. Insect pests occur, but not to a serious extent; accord- ing to the entomologist, white ants (Termes gestroi) are decreasing, and the other pests can now be con- trolled. Fungoid diseases cause some _ trouble, especially that brought about by Fomes semitostus, but this is now amenable to treatment. Tue Meteorological Committee has recently issued the seventh edition of ‘‘A Barometer Manual for the Use of Seamen.” The work was originally issued by the Meteorological Council in 1884, as a revise of the “Barometer Manual” prepared by Admiral FitzRoy, which had then been long out of print. Both these manuals attained great popularity; altogether about 25,000 copies of the revised editions were disposed of, this large supply being partly due to the adoption of the work as a text-book for mercantile marine ex- aminations. The manual now under report (83 pp., large 8vo) was prepared in the marine division of the Meteorological Office under the superintendence of Commander Campbell Hepworth, C.B. (marine super- intendent). It differs from the last edition mainly by the addition of certain paragraphs in the text, tem- perature conversion tables, and other minor details, and, like some of its predecessors (which have been referred to in our columns), is well illustrated by NO. 2256, VOL. 90] | find it an interesting piece of apparatus. | any other part of the film. The makers of the figures and by plates compiled from material in the possession of the office. The sections dealing with barometric pressure and its variations, with gales of the temperate zones, and tropical storms are very interesting and instructive, both for seamen and others, and, as stated in the title, the work is really “a text-book of marine meteorology.” In the Proceedings of the Tokyo Mathematico- Physical Society, vi., 17, Mr. T. Terada considers the experimental fact that the velocities of earthquake waves fall short of the values calculated by hydro- dynamical methods. His analytical work is devoted to examining whether this discrepancy can be accounted for by the yielding of the earth’s crust, | regarding the latter as a flexible bed resting on an inner fluid magma. The results show that the ex- planation is a plausible one, though the analysis in- volves a number of assumptions not realised in practice. For some time past, the belief that Newton’s law of gravitation is only approximate, and that the influ- ence of a gravitative field depends on the time during which it has existed, has received increasing attention from physicists and astronomers. In a paper con- tributed to the Wiener Sitzungsberichte (cxxi., 1) Prof. G. Jaumann builds up a theory of gravitation based on a modification of Laplace’s and Poisson’s differential equations. This modification consists in the addition of an extra term proportional to the time-flux of the potential, and it leads to the result that in empty space the potential is propagated according to the same law as temperature in the diffusion of heat. The theory is applied to planetary motion, variation of latitude, and conditions of stability of the solar system. WE have had an opportunity of experimenting with the ‘‘Rainbow Cup,” which Mr. C. V. Boys showed a few months ago at the Royal Society soirée, and The cup has its lip horizontal, and can be spun about a vertical axis. When a soap film is placed on the top of the cup and the cup then spun, the film thins rapidly in | the middle, and in a good light the display of colours is brilliant. By altering the direction of rotation coloured patterns can be produced which might be used as the basis of decorative designs. By continu- ing the rotation or by tilting the film a black spot can be obtained and a study of its motions under different conditions soon shows that it is thinner than * Rain- bow Cup” are Messrs. J. J. Griffin and Sons, Ltd., Kingsway, W.C. We have received a copy of the second annual report of the work of the Radiological Institute attached to the University of Heidelberg, a report which appeared in part 43 of the Elektrotechnische Zeitschrift for 1912. The institute was founded in 1gt0, has Prof. Lenard for director, and a further staff of three assistant lecturers and demonstrators in addition to an instrument-maker and attendant. In the two years it has been in operation it has pro- 580 NATURE [ JANUARY 23, 1913 duced a long series of researches published in scien- tific journals in this country, as well as in Germany. These may be grouped under the following heads :— Absorption and secondary radiation of kathode rays, photoelectric effects, electrical conductivity of gases and of flames, phosphorescence and radio-activity, in- cluding its application to medical work. We wish every success to this active and progressive institute. Tue receipt of the notification of the Metropolitan Gas Referees for the current year serves as a reminder that the qualitv of the gas supplied to the County of London is subject to severe control. The threat ot a monopoly caused by the amalgamation of various gas companies led to increased Parliamentary control, and commencing with the City of London Gas Act, 1868, there are several Acts dealing with the London gas supply, the latest being the London Gas Act, 1905. Subject to these Acts, the details of the methods to be used in gas-testing are left to three gas referees, who have to prescribe and certify the situation and number of the testing places, the apparatus and materials for testing the illuminating power, calorific power, purity and pressure of the gas provided by the companies. The notification of the gas referees gives the methods prescribed in detail. The con- trolling authorities (the London County Council and Corporation of the City of London) have also certain discretionary powers as to the times of testing, and these authorities also appoint the gas examiners. Messrs. CHARLES GRIFFIN AND Co., Lrp., have published a tenth edition of an ‘‘ Elementary Manual on Applied Mechanics,” by Mr. A. Jamieson. Many new examination questions have been added, and the symbols agreed to by the International Electrotech- nical Commission, held in Turin in 1911, have been included. Messrs. J. WHELDON AND Co., 38 Great Queen Street, Kingsway, W.C., have just issued a catalogue (No. 60) of books and papers on microscopical science in most of its branches. The catalogue includes a number of valuable works, both ancient and modern, and the classification makes it easy to find the works available in the various departments of microscopy. OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. Nova GEMINORUM, spectroscopic observations of Nova Geminorum, No. 2, made at the Harvard and Arequipa Observatories, are discussed in Circulars 175 and 176 of the Harvard College Observatory. Prof. Wendell’s magnitude observations show several fluctuations, with maxima on March 14, 17, 23, 30, and April 5; the magnitude increased con- siderably during the night of March 14. The spectra were taken between March 13 and June 5, 1912, inclusive, and are discussed by Miss Cannon; some are reproduced in the second circular. On March 13 the spectrum was not of the usual nova type, i.e. bright lines accompanied by dark lines; but was of the class F, (Procyonian) type, with slight variations, having dark lines only; a reproduction of the spectrum of Procyon is placed above the nova spectrum on the plate accompanying the circular, and shows the simi- NO. 2256, VOL. 90] No. 2.—The photometric and | larity very strikingly. Miss Cannon remarks on the fact that the earliest spectrum of Nova Persei (2) also lacked bright lines, and that these are the only two nove of which the spectrum has been secured while the star’s light was still rising to its primary maxi- mum. The spectrograms taken on March 14 show the spectrum in a transitional state, the characteristic “nova spectrum” being fully developed on March 16. The bright band at K, faint on March 20, had dis- appeared by March 22, only a narrow dark line re- maining; on March 27 a brightening in the region of the spectrum near A4640 was noticeable, the con- tinuous spectrum was faint, and the dark hydrogen lines not clearly seen, but on March 30 both the con- tinuous spectrum and the dark hydrogen lines were again more intense, the latter being distinctly double. A spectrum taken on May 10 is stated by Miss Cannon to show increased intensities for bands at AA4640 and 5016, while a bright band appears on the less refran- gible edge of Hy; this probably represents the appear- ance of the nebula line 5008 and the line which ap- peared during the nebula stage of previous nove at 4365. THE VARIABLE STAR 87, I911.—From time to time we have referred in these columns to Mr. D’Esterre’s notes describing a possible nova in the constellation Perseus. The star was conspicuous on plates taken by Mr. D’Esterre on November 13 and 21, 1911, but did not appear on three previous dates. Prof. E. C. Pickering now states, in Circular 176, that from an examination of the Harvard photographs, Miss Cannon finds that the star was of the eleventh magnitude on October 30, 1896, September 17, 1899, and January 28, 1902, but was not visible on sixty-eight other plates, including one taken, with sixty minutes’ ex- posure, on November 3, 1885, which shows faint stars. Prof. Pickering concludes that this object is certainly not a nova, but appears to be a variable star with a large range which is bright during a relatively short portion of its variations; the period does not appear to be uniform, and he suggests that the object pos- sibly belongs to the U Geminorum and SS Cygni class of variable stars. Tue Transit oF Mercury, NOVEMBER 14, 1907.— Prof. Donitch observed the transit of Mercury which took place on November 14, 1907, from a_ special station established at Assuan. The chief observa- tions were spectroscopic, the spectra being taken with a special spectrograph, at the times of internal con- tacts, the slit coinciding with the sun’s limb. The resulting spectra show no lines other than those of the solar spectrum, and lead Prof. Donitch to the conclusion that the planet does not possess an atmo- sphere extending beyond 15 km. from its surface; but for the present he hesitates to consider this con- clusion as rigidly established. (Bulletin de l’Académie Impériale des Sciences de St. Pétersbourg, No. 17.) ASTRONOMICAL ANNUALS.—We have received M. Flammarion’s ‘Annuaire Astronomique,”’ for 1913, and the ‘“‘Anuario”’ of the Madrid Observatory. In addition to its usual complete series of tables and ephemerides, the former contains useful illustrated reviews of the progress of astronomy and meteorology during 1912, several special articles, and a frontispiece showing six untouched photographs of the annular solar eclipse of April 17, 1912. The “Anuario,”’ besides the ordinary tables and ephemerides, has a popular article on new stars, a long article on the determination of azimuths in the field, an interesting review of solar physics, with special reference to the development of the spectro- heliograph, and a résumé of the solar and meteoro- logical observations of 1911 and 1912. January 23, 1913] NATURE 581 THE CLEVELAND MEETING OF THE | delivery of the vice-presidential addresses were AMERICAN ASSOCIATION. |; arranged with following symposia often in joint | ee sixty-fourth meeting of the American Asso- ciation for the Advancement of Science was held in Cleveland, Ohio, from December 30, 1912, to January 4, 1913, under the presidency of Prof. E. C. Pickering, director of the Harvard College Observa- tory. The meetings of the association were accom- panied, as usual, by the meetings of a large number of affiliated societies of national scope but of specific object. Twenty-five such societies met this year in Cleveland at the same time, and, in part, in close | cooperation with the eleven sections of the American | part played by osmotic pressure and related forces as Association. The meetings were held in the buildings of the Western Reserve University and of the Case School | .~..- Hera aE of Applied Science, which, with the exception of the | AGIOS) SESS IS 2) NOUS Wee | pbk NES ENS Medical College of the Western Reserve University, stand upon the same campus in the eastern part of the city. The facilities for the meetings were admir- able, and have seldom been excelled in the history of such meetings. There were about one thousand scientific men and women in attendance, or about one-half the attendance of the Washington meeting of last year, which is accounted for by the fact that while Cleveland is a large city and a manufacturing and commercial centre, it has not the large museums and scientific organisations of Washington. Never- theless, some of the meetings were more largely attended than last year. The physicists, for example, and the psychologists, as well, held the largest sessions | in their history, and most of the meetings were marked by exceptionally full programmes of great interest. The growing tendency of the past few years to emphasise the work of the affiliated societies, more or less at the expense of the sections themselves, was in evidence, and the recent movement was continued whereby it has been arranged that when a national scientific society corresponding in its subject with a given section meets with the association, the sec- tional programme is abandoned except for a session of general interest, other papers offered to the section being transferred to the corresponding society. It is an interesting movement, and quite different from the general tendency in the British Association. The titles of the addresses of the retiring vice- presidents of the different sections were as follows :— Section A, Mathematics and Astronomy, ‘‘The Spec- troscopic Determination of Stellar Velocities, con- sidered Practically,’ by Dr. E. B. Frost, Yerkes Observatory, Williams Bay, Wisconsin; Section B, Physics, ‘‘ Unitary Theories in Physics,” by Dr. R. A. Millikan, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois; Section E, Geology and Geography, “‘ The Significance of the Pleistocene Molluscs,” by Dr. B. Shimek, State University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa; Section F, Zoology, ‘‘Is it Worth While?” by Dr. H. F. Nach- trieb, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minne- sota; Section G, Botany, ‘‘ The Scope of State Natural History Surveys,” by Dr. F. C. Newcombe, Univer- sity of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan; Section H, Anthropology and Psychology, ‘‘The Study of Man,” by Dr. G. T. Ladd, Yale University, New Haven, Conn.; Section I, Social and Economic Science, ‘‘ The Comparative Measurements of the Changing Cost of Living,” by Dr. J. P. Norton, Yale University, New Haven, Conn.; Section K, Physiology and Experi- mental Medicine, ‘‘The Function of Individual Cells in Nerve Centres,’”’ by Dr. W. T. Porter, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Mass.; Section L, Educa- tion, ‘Educational Diagnosis,” by Dr. E. L. Thorn- dike, Columbia University. In a number of instances, the meetings for the NO. 2256, VOL. 90| session between one or more societies and sections on subjects closely related to the subjects of the vice- presidential addresses. In Section G (Botany), an interesting symposium was held on permeability and osmotic pressure, the leading paper on this title being presented by Dr. Jacques Loeb, now of Columbia University. To this discussion, Dr. H. C. Jones con- tributed a paper on the bearing of osmotic pressure on the development of physical or general chemistry ; Dr. W. J. V. Osterhout discussed the permeability of plant cells; and Dr. B. E. Livingston discussed the | environmental factors. Section B (Physics) and the American Physical on photographing and analysing sound waves, by Dr. D. C. Miller, of the Case School of Applied Science, Cleveland, Ohio; the reaction of the room on the source of sound, by Dr. W. C. Sabine, Har- vard University, Cambridge, Mass.; and some points concerning absolute-measurements of sound, by Dr. A. G. Webster, Clark University, Worcester, Mass. The programme of Section I (Social and Economic Science) was largely devoted to conservation topics, one day being given to a symposium on the con- servation of human life and health. The American Association of Anatomists and the American Physio- logical Society had especially long and interesting programmes. The American Society of Zoologists divided its programme into sections on the following topics : ecology and behaviour; comparative anatomy ; comparative physiology; embryology and develop- ment; cytology; and genetics. The American Chemical Society, an organisation of great strength, this year for the first time in many years has decided not to meet at the same time and place with the American Association. This is a new policy which will be given a trial. The Chemical Section of the association (Section C) will, it is hoped, continue its activities, but at the present meeting the address of the vice-president was not given. Owing to the absence, on account of ill-health, of the vice- president of Section D (Mechanical Science and Engineering), no address was delivered before this section. At the opening meeting, the retiring president, Dr. C. E. Bessey, of the University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska, introduced the president-elect, Prof. E. C. Pickering, and addresses of welcome were delivered by Mayor Baker, of Cleveland, by President C. F. Thwing, of the Western Reserve University, and by Acting-President Comstock, of the Case School of Applied Science. President Pickering responded to these addresses of welcome, and was followed by Dr. Bessey with his address as the retiring vice-president, the title of the address being ‘“‘Some of the Next Steps in Botany.’ This opening session was held in the large ball-room of the Hotel Statler, and was followed by a reception tendered by the local committee. “At the meeting of the general committee, Atlanta, | Georgia, was chosen as the place of the next meeting during Convocation Week, 1913-14 (the week in which the first day of January falls), and Philadelphia was recommended as the place of meeting for the following year. Arrangements were made to make an earnest effort to bring about a large and important meeting in the summer of 1915 on the Pacific coast during the International Exposition to be held at San Francisco to celebrate the opening of the Panama Canal. The following officers were elected for the year 1913 :—President, Dr. E. B. Wilson, Columbia Uni- versity, New York, N.Y.; vice-presidents: Section A, 82 on NATURE [JANUARY 23, 1913 F. Schlesinger, Allegheny Observatory, Allegheny, Pa.; Section B, A. D. Cole, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio; Section C, A. A. Noyes, Massachu-.- setts Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass.; Section D, O. P. Hood, U.S. Bureau of Mines, Washington, 17.C.; Section E,J.S. Diller, U.S. Geological Survey, Washington, D.C.; Section F, A. G. Mayer, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, D.C.; Sec- tion G, H. C. Cowles, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois; Section H, W. B. Pillsbury, Univer- sity of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan; Section I (no election); Section K (no election); Section L, P. P. Claxton, U.S. Commissioner of Education, Washing- ton, D.C. General secretary, H. W. Springsteen, Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio; secre- tarv of the council, W. A. Worsham, jun., University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia. The following are the new secretaries of the sections elected for five-year terms :—Section A, F. R. Moul- ton, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois; Section 5, W. J. Humphreys, Weather Bureau, U.S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.; Section C (no election); Section D, A. H. Blanchard, Columbia University, New York, N.Y.; Section E, G. F. Kay, Iowa State University, Iowa City, Iowa; Section F, H. V. Neal, Knox College, Galesbury, Illinois; Section G, W. J. V. Osterhout, Harvard University, Cam- bridge, Mass.; Section H, G. G. MacCurdy, Yale University, New Haven, Conn.; Section I, S. CG. Loomis, New Haven, Conn.; Section K (no election) ; Section L, S. A. Courtis, Home and Day School, Detroit, Michigan. SCIENCE AT RECENT EDUCATIONAL CONFERENCES. SEVEN conferences were held in London during the first fortnight of this month, but we need only refer to the proceedings of the Public School Science-masters, the Teachers’ Guild, the Assistant- mistresses, the Domestic Science Teachers, and the London County Council Conference of Teachers. It is true that the Headmasters’ Conference met in December; but it is a remarkable fact that although individually the members are men of great force directed with earnestness, the vectorial addition of their forces when combined in conference yields a resultant which tends to zero. As their proceedings have no direct bearing upon science teaching, no further reference need be made to them here. The usual meetings of the Association of Public School Science-masters (A.P.S.S.M.) were held at the London Day Training College, and were preluded by four lectures given by Dr. T. P. Nunn on the theory of science teaching, with special reference to the con- ditions in boys’ schools. Dr. Nunn held that the aim of science teaching was to take the pupil along one of the main roads of human progress. The dis- ciplinary value of science teaching was that they were treading the pathways of great minds, the function of the school being to bring the pupil into sympathetic relation with the character of human effort. He went on to deal with the characteristics of scientific method | at different stages of its development; with the nature of induction and deduction, postulate, hypothesis, law and principle. The correlation of science with mathe- matics and other branches of the school curriculum was illustrated by applying the principles advocated to particular topics, and the skill and ingenuity of the applications were warmly applauded by an audience composed of experienced science-masters. The main meeting opened with a_ presidential address by Sir Archibald Geikie, Pres.R.S., who gave NO. 2256, VOL. 90] | work of Galileo, Paschal, and Newton. a retrospect based on his personal observation of the progress of science in public schools during the last sixty years. An abridgment of the address was pub- lished in Nature of January 16. The first afternoon was devoted to the discussion of the aims and uses of school science societies, and the topics were assigned to opening speakers, who gave in each case a very useful account of the practical management on which success largely depends. General principles and methods were discussed, and next the subjects of field work in zoology and geology. The possibilities of a school astronomical society were brought forward by Mr. G. Hewlett (Rugby), and the Dulwich College Photographic Society was de- scribed with reference to details of organisation. It is a striking indication of the spirit animating mem- bers of the A.P.S.S.M. that no mention was made of the large amount of voluntary work which these societies place on the shoulders of the busy science- master; this voluntary burden is accepted as a matter of course, and nothing said. One who is merely an onlooker may direct attention to this spirit. The discussion on practical examinations in science was unsatisfying. Mr. Berridge made some good points in his censure of the weaknesses of examiners; but the objections to abolishing practical examinations of matriculation (or lower) standard lacked a spokesman. Probably some profit would accrue to the crammer— at the expense of the schools. Mr. Berridge’s sugges- tion that ‘‘a certificate from some responsible person, stating that a given number of hours have been spent in practical work, should be exacted from all candi- dates before they are allowed to sit for a paper in science,’’ may be intended as a safeguard, but its operation is uncertain. It would be much easier for examining authorities merely to drop practical exam- inations, and there is a danger that this may be done without requiring Mr. Berridge’s certificate. No resolution was put before the meeting, and the time for discussion was too short. Valuable papers were submitted on the teaching of mechanics by Mr. A. W. Siddons (Harrow), Mr. C. E. Ashford (Dartmouth), and Mr. W. J. Dobbs. All advocated procedure from experiment and intuition to theory of increasing rigour; from concrete to abstract. The outcome of the discussions during recent years at the A.P.S.S.M. and the Mathematical Association will be, we hope, that the experimental and logical treat- ment will be unified. Formerly boys learnt ‘‘mechanics”’ in the mathematical class-room under one teacher, and another subject, also called ““mechanics,’’ in the physical laboratory, without cor- relation. We have got as far as correlation, and are now hoping for unity. Mr. G. F. Daniell urged that the teaching of density should be put into the back- ground, and that specific volume should be given priority. He proposed the term ‘‘roomage”’ (already used in the Navy) in place of specific volume. The suggestions were favourably received. The value of the historical sequence in teaching chemistry was urged by the Rev. T. J. Kirkland. Mr. W. D. Eggar drew an amusing sketch of the historical sequence in electricity, but put in a strong plea for employing the method in leading the student to understand the He claimed that to trace the development of ideas which cul- minated in Newton’s discoveries was to open a new vista in the intellectual outlook, and ought to form part of any liberal education. The association continues to increase in member- ship, and has just originated a useful piece of work by publishing a selected list of science books suitable for school libraries. There was the usual admirable exhibition of apparatus, the influence of which extends JANUARY 23, 1913] NAL URE 583 beyond the limits of the meeting and of the associa- tion. The Mathematical Association met in the same building, and it was unfortunate that arrangements were not made so that the two presidential addresses at least could be attended by members of both asso- ciations. Good service has been done by the Teachers’ Guild, on the initiative of which thirteen associations met by agreement in the University of London and had a kind of British Association week of meetings. At one of the guild meetings Miss Sheavyn directed atten- tion to the mode of entry into the higher grades of the Civil Service. Of the first hundred in the last competition fifty-nine scored chiefly in classics, twenty- ‘nine in mathematics, and twelve in other subjects. (One gathers that science is not wanted or that pro- ficiency in science is not esteemed as evidence of mental culture.) Miss Sheavyn regretted that in tech- nical posts requiring qualifications in science, e.g. posts at the British Museum, the question of opening them to suitable women should not be considered, notwithstanding the difficulty experienced at times in getting .applicants. Miss L. M. Drummond, in her presidential address to the Assistant-mistresses in Public Secondary Schools, discussed ‘‘ the scientific study of living things as an element in education.” She said that they were urged by social reformers to teach girls certain definite biological facts, notably those of human physiology and reproduction; but there was too little appeal for real training in biological thought. In this age people did not set as high a value as they should on the energising power of ideas. Some knowledge of a living body was valuable, but she did not think it followed that a course of human physiology should always be introduced. If the school course included animal anatomy, more definite physiological teaching would find a natural place, and on such a foundation she would base teaching in hygiene. Training in scientific biology was a real and helpful preparation for entering sympathetically into the thought-life of the time. A somewhat different line of argument was talzen by Prof. Starling at the L.C.C. Conference. We hope to refer to this in a future article, to which also we postpone consideration of the discussion at the Asso- ciation of Teachers in Domestic Subjects. G. F. DAaNtELv. PRIZES PROPOSED BY THE PARIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCES FOR 10914. (EH OMETEY ube Francceur prize (1000 francs), 7 for discoveries or works useful to the progress of pure and applied mathematics; grand prize of the mathematical sciences (3000 francs), for an improve- ment in the theory of functions of one variable which are susceptible of representations by trigonometrical series of several arguments, linear functions of this variable; Poncelet prize (2000 francs), for work in pure mathematics. Mechanics.—Montyon prize (7oo francs), for the invention or improvement of instruments useful to the progress of agriculture, the mechanical arts, or sciences; Henri de Garville prize (1500 francs), for original work in mechanics; Fourneyron prize (1000 francs), for a theoretical and experimental study of the question of combustion of explosion turbines. Navigation.—The extraordinary prize of 6000 francs, as a recompense for work increasing the efficiency of the French naval forces; Plumey prize (qooo francs), for improvements or inventions con- tributing to the progress of steam navigation. Astronomy.—The Lalande prize (540 francs), for the most interesting observation, memoir or worl: useful NO. 2256. VOL. geal to the progress of astronomy; the Valz prize (460 francs), for the most interesting astronomical observa- tion during the year; the Janssen prize (a gold medal), for a discsvery or work representing an important | advance in physical astronomy; the Damoiseau prize (2000 francs), for an improvement in Le Verrier’s | tables of Jupiter. Geography.—The Tchihatchef prize (3000 francs), for the encouragement of naturalists of any nationality who have made explorations in the lesser-known parts of Asia; the Gay prize (1500 francs), for a study of the distribution of hydraulic forces in a mountainous region, with a description of the methods and instru- ments employed in this research; the Binoux prize (2000 francs), for work on geography; the Delalande- Guérineau prize (1000 francs). Physics.—The Hébert prize (1000 francs), for a treatise or discovery extending the practical use of electricity; the Hughes prize (2500 francs), for work contributing to the progress of physics; the Victor Raulin prize (1500 francs), for facilitating the publica- tion of works relating to meteorology and physics of the globe; the La Caze prize (10,000 francs), to the author of works or memoirs contributing to the pro- gress of physics. Chemistry.—The Jecker prize (10,000 francs), fo1 work in organic chemistry; the Cahours prize (3000 francs), for the encouragement of young workers in chemistry; the Montyon prize (unhealthy trades, a prize of 2500 francs and a mention of 1500 francs), for work rendering an art or trade less unhealthy; the L. La Caze prize (10,000 francs), for work in the field of chemistry. Mineralogy and Geology.—The Fontannes prize (2000 francs), for a paleontological publication. Botany.—The Desmaziéres prize (1600 francs), for a work on Cryptogams; the Montagne prize (1500 francs), for researches on the anatomy, physiology, development, and description of the lower Crypto- gams; the De Coincy prize (goo francs), for a work on Phanerogams. Anatomy and Zoology.—The Savigny prize (1500 francs), for the assistance of young travelling zoologists, not receiving Government aid, who occupy themselves with the invertebrates of Egypt and Syria; the Thore prize (200 francs), for the best work on the habits and anatomy of a species of European insect; the Cuvier prize (1500 francs), for a work on zoological paleontology, comparative anatomy, or zoology. Medicine and Surgery.—The Montyon prize (2500 francs, mentions of 1500 francs); the Barbier prize (2000 francs), for a valuable discovery in surgical, medical, or pharmaceutical science, or in botany having relation to medicine; the Bréant prize (100,000 francs), for a means of curine Asiatic cholera; the Godard prize (1000 francs), for a memoir on the anatomy, physiology, and pathology of the genito- urinary organs; the Baron Larrey prize (750 francs), to a naval or army surgeon or doctor, for a worl: dealing with military medicine, surgery, or hygiene; the Bellion prize (1400 francs); the Mége prize (10,000 francs). Physiology.—The Montyon prize (750 francs), for work in exnerimental physiology; the Philipeaux prize (900 francs), for the same; the Lallemand prize (1800 francs), for work relative to the nervous system; the Pourat prize (tooo francs), for a memoir on the origin of the anti-ferments; the L. La Caze prize (10,000 francs), for a worl on physiology; the Martin- Damourette prize (1400 francs), for a work on thera- peutic physiology. Statistics—The Montvon prize (1000 franes, two mentions of 500 francs). 584 NATURE [JANUARY 23, 1913 History of Science.—The Binoux prize (2000 francs). General Prizes.—The Arago, Lavoisier, and Berthe- lot medals; the Henri Becquerel prize (3000 francs); the Gegner prize (3800 francs); the Lannelongue prize (2000 francs), for men of science or their relatives in need of assistance; the Gustave Roux prize (1000 francs); the Trémont prize (1100 francs); the Wilde prize (gooo francs, or two of 2000 francs), for dis- coveries in astronomy, physics, chemistry, minera- logy, geology,. or experimental mechanics; the Lon- champt prize (4000 francs); the Saintour prize (3000 francs), for researches in the physical sciences; Henri de Parville (2500 francs); the Victor Raulin prize (1500 francs), for facilitating the publication of works relating to meteorology; the Houllevigue prize (5000 francs); the Caméré prize (4000 francs); the Jerome Ponti prize (3500 francs); the Bordin prize (3000 francs), for a study of the nature and origin of the gases and emanations from the terrestrial globe; the Serres prize (7500 francs), for works on general embryology applied to physiology and medicine; the Jean Jacques Berger prize (15,000 francs); the prize founded by Mme. la Marquise de Laplace; the Félix Rivot prize (2500 francs). BRITISH MEDICAL SCIENCE AT THE GHENT INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION. NE of the most important sections of the British exhibit at the forthcoming International Exhibi- tion at Ghent will be an organised demonstration of the progress that has been made in this country in the scientific investigation of tropical diseases and of their prevention and cure. The exhibit has been care- fully planned by a committee composed of members of the various schools of tropical medicine, and each school deals specially with certain diseases. The London School, represented on the committee by Dr. H. B. Newham, is dealing with beri-beri, cholera, filariasis, and guinea-worm. The exhibit of the Liver- pool School, prepared by Dr. J. W. W. Stephens and Prof. Newstead, will be devoted to the subjects of malaria, sleeping sickness, yellow fever, and ankylo- stomiasis. The Royal Army Medical College, under the direc- tion of Lieut.-Col. Sir William Leishman, is under- taking exhibits of enteric fever and leishmaniasis, tise former arranged in five sections to illustrate respec- tively the causation, diagnosis, dissemination, patho- logy, and vaccine treatment, the latter in three sec- tions dealing with Indian kala-azar, infantile kala- azar, and Oriental sore. Malta fever is allotted to the Admiralty under the direction of Fleet-Surgeon P. W. Bassett-Smith, and plague to the India Office, represented by Sir A. M. Branfoot. Dr. Andrew Balfour, of Khartum, is preparing the exhibit relat- ing to leprosy. In addition to the work of the schools, an exhibit will be sent by the Natural History Museum to illustrate the problems of natural history, such as life-cycles of the parasites, structure and life-histories of their insect-carriers, &c., specially connected with the study of tropical diseases. In each case the disease will be considered, so far as possible, from the various points of view of dis- tribution, cause, pathological effects, dissemination, treatment, and prophylaxis. The exhibits will com- graphs of the parasites that cause the disease, and of the insects that transmit them, illustrating their structure and life-histories; charts, maps, and statis- tics showing the distribution and incidence of the disease, results of treatment, &c.; and specimens or models of apparatus used in treatment or prevention, such as, for example, models of mosquito-proof port- NO. 2256, VOL. 9ol | Museum Road. holes and cabins on ships. In the case of beri-beri | specimens of rice will be shown illustrating the causa- | tion of the disease, and in the case of sleeping sickness heads and skins will be exhibited of the species of antelope and other wild game which harbour the trypanosome. The entire exhibit, the details of which are now practically complete, will be, it is hoped, a striking testimony to the wide range and great importance | of the investigations upon tropical diseases that are being carried on in this country. UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE. CaMBRIDGE.—The prize of sol. from the Gordon Wigan fund for a research in chemistry was awarded in the year 1912 to Mr. D. H. Peacock, for investiga- tions on hydroxyhydrindenehydrazine and its resolu- tion, 1:2: 4-triketopentamethylene, the theory of molecular volumes. The Senate authorised some time ago the erection of the eastern half of the forestry building, as soon as adequate funds have been provided. More than 4500l. has now been privately subscribed, and a grant from the Development Fund will enable the erection of the building to be taken in hand immediately. The cost of the contemplated building will exceed 5oool., and the grant will therefore amount to 25001. The forestry committee recommends that the grant by the Treasury of a sum of 2500l., which is required to defray half the cost of the eastern portion of the forestry building, be accepted, and that the Vice- Chancellor be authorised to convey to the Develop- ment Commissioners the thanks of the University for the grant now authorised, and for their promise of a future grant when an extension of the forestry build- ing will be required. It is proposed to confer the degree of master of arts, honoris causa, upon Mr. G. Udny Yule, University lecturer in statistics. Oxrorp.—The Herbert Spencer lecture this year will be delivered by Dr. D’Arcy Wentworth Thompson, C.B., professor of natural history, University College, Dundee, at the Examination Schools, on Thursday, February 13, at 5.30. The subject of the lecture, which will be illustrated by lantern-slides, is “‘ Growth and Form,” On January 28 Convocation will vote on a proposal to assign a plot of land in the University Park, to the east of the plot lately assigned for the erection of a new chemical laboratory, for the purpose of an engineering laboratory. It will be remembered that last term Convocation declined to sanction the alloca- tion of a site for the latter purpose at the north-west corner of the park. A movement has been set on foot for acquiring land in various parts of the city for the future extension of University departments, and in particular for securing a site for the proposed engineering laboratory in the neighbourhood of It is understood that a sum of more than roool. has already been promised for this object, including a donation of sol. from the Chancellor, Lord Curzon. On the other hand, it is urged, in a paper signed by many of the teachers of science in the prise specimens, models, coloured drawings, or photo- | University, that the Museum Road site is very un- suitable for the proposed laboratory, and it appears to be extremely doubtful whether, if the park site be refused, the other proposal will be accepted as an alternative. ACCORDING to a recent regulation issued by the Minister of Public Instruction in France all students of foreign nationality who wish to pursue their studies JANUARY 23, 1913] in French universities with a view to obtain the licence or doctorate in law, the licence in science or in letters, or the doctorate of the university in medi- cine must produce (in the original) diplomas or certifi- cates awarded to them by the universities or other institutions where they have pursued their studies and passed their examinations. These documents, which must be accompanied by a translation by a certified translator (traducteur juré), will be viséd and certified either by the Consul-General of France in the student’s native country or by one of the representatives of that country accredited to France. Tue following lectures will be delivered at the Lister Institute of Preventive Medicine on various dates from February 4 to March 18:—‘‘The Early Bacteriological Work of Lord Lister,” Prof. C. J. Martin, F.R.S.; ‘“‘ Various Products of the Tubercle Bacillus used in Diagnosis and Treatment and Cur- rent Views upon their Mode of Action,’ Dr. G. H. K. Macalister ; ‘‘Some Recent Work on the Agglutination of Bacteria with Special Reference to Agglutination with Acids,” Dr. J. A. Arkwright; (1) ‘“‘Recent Work on Hezmolysis,” (2) ‘‘Serum-fast Bacteria,’ Dr. J. Henderson Smith; ‘‘ Lipoids,’’ Dr. H. Maclean; ‘‘ The NATURE | paratory trades schools. 585 able type of boy now required in industry. He de- scribed an interesting educational experiment which is being made in Leeds in the establishment of day preparatory trades schools. These schools combine a pre- liminary practical training in trades with a continued general education for boys who have passed through the elementary school. The course covers a period of two years and aims at an all-round development of the boy’s faculties in a practical manner. For such schools it is important, Mr. Graham insisted, to secure a teaching staff wilh practical experience of the work- shop. For boys who enter some trade or industry directly they leave the elementary schools, a corre- sponding course of study is required between the ages of twelve and fourteen. The ultimate success of such a scheme lies to a large extent with the employer, and the Leeds employers are beginning to appreciate the value of the training given in the pre- During the years of youth and adolescence, he continued, supervision and guid- | ance are needed, especially in regard to blind-alley Laws Governing Disinfection by Various Agencies,” | Dr. H. Chick; ‘‘The Chemical Action of Bacteria,” Prof. A. Harden, F.R.S. The lectures are addressed to advanced students and others interested in the sub- jects discussed. Students of the University are ad- mitted free, and others can obtain a card of admission on application to the secretary of the institute. In the issue of Science for December 27 last, Prof. Rudolf Tombo, jun., examines the registration re- turns for November 1, 1912, of twenty-nine of the leading universities in the United States. Five uni- versities show a decrease in the total enrolment, namely Cornell, Illinois, Iowa, Johns Hopkins, and Pennsylvania, while four institutions showed a loss in the total enrolment in the previous year. The largest gains were registered by Columbia (10609), | California (733), Minnesota (515), New York Univer- sity (488), Texas (475), Nebraska (391), and Harvard (303). In the previous year there were four institu- tions that showed a gain of more than three hundred students, namely California, Columbia, Cornell, and Ohio State. For 1912 ten institutions exhibited an increase of more than two hundred students in the autumn attendance, as against four in 1911. Of these institutions four are in the east, five in the west, and one is in the south. Of the universities dealt with the six with the highest total attendance are as fol- lows :—Columbia, 9007; California, 6457; Chicago, 6351; Harvard, 5729; Michigan, 5620; and Cornell, 5412. As regards the number of students in pure science, Cornell continues to maintain its lead in this branch, enrolling 1419 students, as. against Michigan’s 1284, Yale’s 1139, and IlIlinois’s 96s. Mr. James Grawam, secretary for education in Leeds, delivered on January 17, at the University of Leeds, a lecture on methods of preparation for the future life of our industrial army. In elementary education in this country, he said, we are not at present getting full value for the money spent, and this is to be attributed to the early age of leaving school and to local by-laws which allow the brightest pupils to leave before they have obtained full benefit from the education provided. The Government should, he said, take steps to raise the school-leaving age to fourteen years for urban districts throughout the country. This would make it possible to organise at the top of the elementary schools a special course of work, thoroughly practical in character, and likely to help in the production of the intelligent and adapt- NO. 2256, VOL. 90] | Wyoming). occupations where comparatively high wages are paid for unskilled employment, often leading to the prema- ture development of a spirit of independence in the boy and to the withdrawal of discipline and guidance on the part of the parent. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. LONDON. Royal Meteorological Society, January 15.—Annual general meeting.—Dr. H. N. Dickson, president, in the chair.—Mr. C. J. P. Cave was elected president and Mr. F. Druce treasurer for the ensuing year.— Ordinary mceting.—C. F. Brooks : The snowfall of the United States. The author has collected the data available from more than 2000 stations for the fifteen years 1895-1910, and from the results thus obtained he has prepared a map showing the annual snowfall. The effects of topography, prevailing winds, storm frequency, and the location of the great lakes and | oceans in and about the United States on snowfall are very apparent. In the first place, the western coast ranges, the Sierra Nevadas and Cascade ranges, lying in the path of the prevailing westerlies blowing from the Pacific Ocean, bring excessive snowfall (in many places exceeding 4oo in. per year) on their western flanks. The dry interior basin just to leeward of these mountains has very little snowfall, except where mountains rise above the general level. The great Rocky Mountain chain again brings copious snowfall (exceeding 100 in. per year in a great many places, from Idaho and Montana south to northern New Mexico, and in some places in Colorado as high as 400 in. a year, and 300 in. per year in southern Again, in the lee of these mountains, the dry western prairies suffer deficient snowfall. On nearing the Great Lakes, snowfall increases, and on the south-east shores of each of the lakes, 80 to more than 100 in. of snow falls annually. The Appalachian Mountain chain brings the lines of equal snowfall far south, there being 50-100 in. in the mountains from Maryland to Maine. In northern New England fre- quent storms in winter cause a snowfall of more than roo in. annually. In south-eastern United States snowfall occurs practically everywhere, except in ex- treme southern and eastern Florida and southern Texas. The Gulf Stream shows its influence as far as Cape Hatteras by bending the lines of equal snow- fall far to the north. Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, January 16.— Mr. Edward Hooper, president, in the chair.—L. H. 580 NATURE [JANUARY 23, 1913 Cooke: (1) Some considerations on the specification of theodolites for mines. (2) Specification for a pre- cision-theodolite. Having found in the course of a long experience that the greater number of theodo- lites catalogued by British makers, while not unsuit- able for the purposes of the civil engineer and surface surveying in general, are not well adapted for under- ground work, more particularly in inclined deposits, the author has attempted to draw up a specification for a precision-theodolite specially suited for the re- quirements of the mining engineer. The outcome of successive endeavours in that direction was embodied in the two papers presented to the institution, the intention being to provoke discussion from mining men with a view to the ultimate drafting of a specifi- cation which should standardise the vital features and quality of a mine-theodolite suitable for working on lodes of no great thickness or inclination. As a pre- liminary, Mr. Cooke has formulated a series of twenty- four conditions which he regards as more or less essential to the production of a really useful instru- ment for the purpose required, his chief points being portability and readiness for immediate use, protec- tion of the vernier plates and other vital parts from dust and dirt, absolute accuracy in reading, and all possible simplicity of construction and operation.— S. C. Bullock: Description of a modern lead concen- trating mill, Broken Hill Junction North Mine, New South Wales. While not desiring to hold up the plant described in his paper as a model, the author showed how by pursuing a series of experiments, it was possible to improve a mill’s output to a marked degree. The mill feed, which was originally treated as one class of ore, was divided into two sections, rhodonite and quartz, to undergo separate treatment in accord- ance with their respective physical characteristics, after the preliminary crushing and sorting. This system was devised as the outcome of exhaustive tests in sizing, screening, and concentrating, and the result of the new working has been a considerable increase in recovery. A further development alluded to in an addendum to the paper is the installation of a minerals-separation plant, which is intended to treat the crude zinc-lead ore after the jig lead has been extracted.—J. H. Levings: The blast-roasting of sul- phide ores. This paper related the practical experi- ence of a working metallurgist in Tasmania, when the first smelter at which the Huntington-Heberlein process was used outside Europe was installed, in 1900, the Carmichael-Bradford process following a year later. A chief point of interest in the paper deals with the shape of the pots or roasting vessels, various experiments ultimately deciding the form which gave the most uniformly satisfactory results. MANCHESTER. Literary and Philosophical Society, January 7.—Mr. Francis Jones, vice-president, in the chair.—Dr. G. Hickling : A remarkable band-like cloud, observed on the night of December 24, 1912. It was suggested that the object observed was possibly due to cloud formation on the trail of dust in the track of a meteorite.—Dr. H, F. Coward and F. Brinsley : Vortex rings of flame in a hydrogen-air mixture.—R. F. Gwyther: The specification of the elements of stress. Part ii., simplification of the specifications already given (vide Manchester Memoirs, vol. Ivi., No. 10); and part iii., an essay towards the reconstruction of the fundamental equations. Part ii. dealt with a general mode of reducing the number of arbitrary functions or the general stresses within a body from Six to three. Part iii. dealt with the physical basis of the fundamental equations, and proposed a scheme differing from that generally accepted. NO. 2256, vor. ool | The use of low temperatures in cryotherapy. | freezing mixture of solid carbon dioxide in alcohol or Paris. i Academy of Sciences, January 6.—M. F. Guyon in the chair.—The president . announced ‘the death of M. Teisserenc de Bort and of M. Cailletet.—L. E. Bertin: Calculation of the crease of load or of speed obtained by increasing the dimensions of a steamer.—E. Bouty: The dielec- tric polarisation of the wall and measurements of dielectric cohesion; the retardation of the silent dis- charge.—L. Maquenne and E. Demoussy : The influence of the preceding conditions on the value of the respira- tory coefficient in green leaves. The theory developed by the authors regards two stages as essential in normal plant respiration, introducing a new factor, the solubility of carbon dioxide in the cell juices—A. | Calmette and C. Guérin: A new contribution to the pathogeny of tuberculous infection. Healthy and tuberculous cattle were kept in the same shed for a! period of eleven months, under conditions preventing ! animals infection by the lungs. All the healthy became tuberculous, and responded to the tuberculin test, although only half of them showed definite | tuberculous lesions.—P. Stroobant : The distribution of spectroscopic double stars on the celestial sphere. , Spectroscopic double stars are relatively much more | numerous in the galactic zone than in the whole of the stars of the same magnitude, and this is due to the high proportion of helium stars among the binaries.—A. Demoulin: A general property of lines in- eid tales traced on a surface.—A, Rosenblatt : Irregular surfaces _ satisfying the inequality #,=2(f,+2).—Ch. Miintz: ‘ The direct solution of the secular equation and some analogous transcendental problems.—Georges Giraud : A class of transcendentals having a theorem of multi- plication.—M. Néorlund: Linear equations of finite differences.—G. Keenigs: The construction of the centres of curvature and principal planes of the envelope of a surface of a cylinder which rolls without slipping on another.—Jules Andrade : Experimental researches on the double cylindrical spiral.—Henri Villat: The flow of heavy fluids.—J. de Boissoudy : The equilibrium of a gas in a state of binary dis- sociation.—A, Leduc; Guldberg’s law and the law of corresponding states.—O. Dony-Henault: The use of resistances of granulated metallic chromium for elec- trical heating. Powdered chromium, compressed between carbon plates, can be conveniently used as a resistance furnace, and permits of the use of low voltages. Temperatures above the melting point of quartz can be maintained.—Daniel Berthelot and Henri Gaudechon : The commencement of photolysis of ethyl alcohol, acetaldehyde, and acetic acid.—H. Copaux ; The basicity of the tungsto-acids.—P. J]. Tarbouriech : 2.2-Dimethylcycloheptanone.—A. Fernbach: The acidi- fication of musts by yeast in the course of the alcoholic fermentation.—Marcel Baudouin: The lumbar verte- bral.canal in the anthropoid apes and in prehistoric man.—Pierre Teissier, Pierre Gastinel, and P. L. Marie: The passive vaccine immunity conferred by intravenous injections of variolic serum.—F. Bordas : A acetone is recommended for therapeutic work instead of pencils of solid carbon dioxide.—A. Magnan: The relations between feeding and the dimensions of the cazcum in ducks.—Pierre Kennel; Contribution to the study of the functions of the large tentacles in Arion rufus.—Jacques Liouville: The polymorphism of Delphinus Cruciger.—M. Desgrez and M. Dorléans: The influence of the constitution of the purin bodies on their action towards arterial pressure.—A. Railliet, G. Moussu, and A. Henry: Experimental researches on the development of Fasciola hepatica.—Ch. eee 92 => JANUARY 1913| NADY RE 587 Pussenot: The lower Stephanian (Cevennes zone) in the axial Alpine zone. An attempt at the coordination of the various levels of the coal strata in the western Alps.—De Montessus de Ballore: Earthquakes and the phases of the moon. These appear to be un- related. January 13.—M. F. Guyon in the chair.—G. Bigourdan: Description of an apparatus for sending time signals automatically. A diagram is given of the time signal agreed upon by the recent Inter- national Conference, and form of commutator de- scribed by means of which such a signal may be sent automatically with high accuracy.—Lord Rayleigh : The resistance of spheres in air in motion. Referring to some experimental results published in a recent number of the Comptes rendus (December 30) by M. Eifel, it is pointed out that the law of dynamical similitude as developed by Stokes and Reynolds for | viscous liquids is applicable, at least as a_ first approximation.—R. Lépine and M. Boulud: Feebly combined sugar in the blood.—Jules Baillaud: An in- tegrating opacimeter for stellar photographs. The Hartmann microphotometer is based on the assump- tion of a homogeneous photographic plate; a new form of photometer is described which is independent of this condition.—P. E. Gau: The most general transformations of partial differential equations of the second order.—Maurice Janet: The characteristics of systems of partial differential equations.—M. Schwartz and M. Villatte: The application of an optical method of coincidences to the transmission of time. The apparatus used consists of two optical telegraphs of the military type using acetylene, a Leroy electro- maonetic pendulum with variable contact, and chrono- meters beating half-seconds. Two methods have been devised, one optical, the other partly optical and partly auditory. Results are given for distances be- tween 6 and 45 kilometres, with an accuracy of 005 | second.—Marcel Brillouin: The theory of black radia- tion.—M. Costanzo: The occlusion of the products of radium. Palladium occludes the products of the dis- integration of radium. These phenomena can be applied to the estimation of radium.—Adrien Guéb- hard: The theoretical possibility of a reversible arrangement for the automatic reconstitution of the natural colours by projection.—E. Mathias, H. Kamer- lingh Onnes, and C. A. Crommelin: The rectilinear diameter of argon. The densities of the liquid and saturated vapour at the same temperature of argon are given for eight temperatures ranging from —125°17° to —18315°. Argon follows the law of the rectilinear diameter approximately, but the deviations, although small, are too systematic to be assigned to experimental error.—A. Perot: The movement of the luminous centres in hydrogen tubes.—Ch. Boulanger and G. Urbain: Theory of the efflorescence of saline hydrates. The influence of temperature.—Marcel Boll: The relation between the velocity of a photo- chemical reaction and the incident radiant energy. The velocity coefficient of a photochemicad reaction is proportional to the incident radiant energy, even if the reaction is bimolecular.—Nicolas Czako: The alloys of aluminium with vanadium alloys were pre- pared, containing from 1 to 80 per cent. of vanadium, and these were studied by the metallographic method. Crystals of Al,V and AIV were identified, and indica- | tions of the existence of AlV, were obtained.—Jacques | Duclaux : The elements of energy.—P. Lebeau and A. Damiens: A method of analysis of mixtures hydrogen and gaseous saturated hydrocarbons, hydrogen, methane, ethane and propane. The method is based on the fractional distillation of the liquefied gases. Hydrogen and methane cannot be separated in this way, but a good separation of hydrogen from NO. 2256, VOL. 9o| of | | | ethane and propane was obtained.—Ed. Lasausse : The fixation of the alkaline bisulphites on the salts and | ester salts of the acetylenic acids. One or two mole- cules of sodium sulphite are fixed, giving mono- or | di-sulphonates. The reaction has been studied with phenylpropiolic acid, methyl phenylpropiolate, and methyl amylpropiolate—Paul Gaubert: Some com- pounds of cholesterol giving liquid crystals.—Lucien Daniel: New researches on grafting of Brassica.— J. Stoklasa: The influence of uranium and lead on vegetation. Minute proportions of nitrates of lead and uranium in the soil cause a distinct increase in plant growth.—M. Marage: The action of complex and intermittent sound vibrations on the auditive centres.—J. Mawas: The form, direction, and mode of action of the ciliary muscle in some mammals.—R. Anthony and I. Bortnowsky: A pleuropatagium of peculiar type in Microcebus minor minor.—H. Agul- hon and R. Sazerac: The action of uranium salts and of metallic uranium upon the pyocyanic bacillus.—P. Becquerel: The influence of uranium salts and of thorium salts on the development of the bacillus of | tuberculosis.—Ph. Lasseur and G. Thiry: Coloured cultures of bacteria considered up to the present as achromogens.—Em. Bourquelot, H. Hérissey, and M. Bridel: The biochemical synthesis of glucosides of alcohols with the aid of a ferment (a-glucosidase) con- tained in air-dried low yeast. o-Ethylglucoside has been obtained in a pure crystallised state biochemic- ally —Robert Douvillé: The influence of the mode of life on the sutural line of the Ammonites belonging to the family of the Cosmoceratideze.—Alfred Angot : | Value of the magnetic elements at the Val Joyeux Observatory on January 1, 1913. BOOKS RECEIVED. | An Elementary Course of Magnetism and Elec- tricity. By Dr. C. H. Draper. Pp. viit+86. (Lon- | don: Blackie and Son, Ltd.) 2s. Safety in Coal Mines. By Prof. D. Burns. Pp. | 158. (London: Blackie and Son, Ltd.) 2s. 6d. net. The Principles of Stock-breeding. ishy Jekosin Ij Wilson. Pp. vii+146 (London: Vinton and Co., Lid yess. net. | Journal of the Institute of Metals. Vol. viii., No. 2. Edited by G. Shaw Scott. Pp. ix+378+plates 32. (London: Caxton House.) | Die neuere Entwicklung der Kolloidchemie. By Dr. W. Ostwald. Pp. 23. (Dresden and Leipzig : TY. Steinkopff.) 1 mark. A New Geometry. Parts i. and ii. and J. M. Child. Pp. xvili+315. millan and Co., Ltd.) 2s. 6d. A Vertebrate Fauna of the Malay Peninsula from the Isthmus of Kra to Singapore, including the Adjacent Islands. Reptilia and Batrachia. By Dr. G. A. Boulenger. Pp. xiiit+294. (London: Taylor and Francis.) 15s. The Electron Theory. By Prof. T. Mizuno. Pp. a In Japanese. (Tokyo: Z. P. Maruya and Co., Ltd By S. Barnard (London: Mac- Notions de Mathématiques. By Prof. A. Sainte- | Lague. Pp. vii+512. (Paris: A. Hermann et Fils.) 7 francs. Explosives. By Dr. H. Brunswig, translated and | annotated by Drs. C. E. Munroe and A. L. Kibler. Pp. xv+350. (New York: J. Wiley and Sons; Lon- don: Chapman and Hall, Ltd.) 12s. 6d. net. Building Stones and Clay-products. By Dr. H. Ries. Pp. xv+415+lix. (New York: J. Wiley and Sons; London: Chapman and Hall, Ltd.) 12s. 6d. net. 5858 NATURE [JANUARY 23, 1913 Human Physiology. lated by F. A. Welby. Vol. ii. Pp. vili+558. Ltd.) 18s. net. Achievements of Chemical Science. Philip: Pp. viit217. (London: Ltd.) 1s. 6d. A Medical and Surgical Help. By W. Revised by Dr. A. Chaplin. Pp. xviii+355. (London: 5s. net. Elementary Manual on Applied Mechanics. By Prof. A. Jamieson. Tenth edition, revised and enlarged. Soa sess (London: C. Griffin and Co., Ltd.) 3s. 6d. The Theory of Measurements. By Dr. A. de Forest Palmer. Pp. xi+248. (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co.; London: Hill Publishing Co., Ltd.) tos. 6d. net. Ifandbuch der Morphologie der wirbellosen Tiere. By Prof. L. Luciani. Trans- Edited by Dr. M. Camis. (London : Macmillan and Co., By Dr. J. C. Macmillan and Co., J. Smith. Fourth edition, revised. C. Griffin and Co., Ltd.) Edited by A. Lang. Band iv., Lief. 1. (Jena: G. Fischer.) 5 marks. A Handbook of Wireless Telegraphy. By Dr. J. Erskine-Murray. Pp. xvi+ 442. Ios. 6d. net. The Manufacture of Iron and Steel. By H. R. Hearson. EP: xi+103. (London: E. and F. N. Spon, Ltd.) . 6d. net. Le Probleme: Physiologique du Sommeil. By H. Piéron. Pp. xv+520. (Paris: Masson et Cie.) 10 francs. By M. G. Ray- Fourth edition, revised and enlarged. “(London : Crosby Lockwood and Son.) Les Merveilles du Monde Sidéral. mond. Fasc. ii. (Paris: G. Thomas.) Die sanitarisch-pathologische Bedeutung der Insekten und verwandten Gliedertiere, &c. By Prof. E. A. Géldi. Pp. 155. (Berlin: R. Friedlander und Sohn.) g marks. High School Ethics. Book One. By J. H. Moore. Pp. xiv+182. (London: G. Bell and Sons, Ltd.) 2s. 6d. net. Mécanique appliquée. By Prof. J. Perry. Trans- lated by E. Davaux, with additions, &c., by E. and F. Cosserat. Tome I. L’Energie Mécanique. Pp. vii+398. (Paris: A Hermann et. Fils.) Practical Agricultural Chemistry. By Prof. S. J. M. Auld and D. R. Edwardes-Ker. Pp. xxiv+243. (London: J. Murray.) 5s. net. Elementary Physical Optics. By W. E. Cross. Pp. 312. (Oxford : Clarendon Press.) 3s. 6d. Lost in the Arctic. By E. Mikkelsen. ; Pp. xviii+ 395 + illustrations + map. (London: W. Heinemann.) 18s. net. DIARY OF SOCIETIES. THURSDAY, January 23. Royar Society, at 4.30.—The Metabolism of Lactating Women: E- Mellanby —(1) Colour Adaptation; (2) Trichromic Vision and Anoma- lous Trichromatism: Dr. F. W. Edridge-Green.—Transmission of En- vironmental Effects from Parent to Offspring in Simocephalus: W. E. Agar.—The Relation of the Islets of Langerhans to the Pancreatic Acini under Various Conditions of Secretory Activity: Dr. J. Homans.—Con- tributions to the Histo-chemistry of Nerve; the Nature of Wallerian Deccnerasione a O. Feiss and W. Cramer.—Onychaster, a Carhoniferous Brittle-star : J. Sollas.—Herbage Studies. II. Variation in Lotus Corniculatus Baa vifolium repens (Cyanophoric plants): Prof. H. E. Armstrong, F.R.S., E. F. Armstrong and EF. Horton. Roya. INSTITUTION, at 3.—Birds of the Hill Country : Seton Gordon. INSTITUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS, at 8.—The Use of a Large Lighting Battery in connection with Central Station Supply: F. H. Whysall. FRIDAY, JANUARY 24. Royat InstTiTuTION, at g.—Recent Advances in Scientific Steel Metal- lurgy: Prof. J. O. Arnold. Puysicat Society, at 5.—The Electrical Conductivity and Fluidity of Strong Solutions : W. S. Tucker.—The Resistance of Electrolytes : S. W. J. Smith and H. Moss.—The Recalescence of Iron Carbide: S. W. J. Smith and J. Guild. NO. 2256, VOL. 90] MONDAY, JANUARY 27. Royat GreoGrarHIcAL SocIETY, at 8.30.—Morocco: Alan G. Ogilvie. Roya Society oF ArTs, at 8.—Liquid Fuel: Prof. Vivian B. Lewes. INSTITUTE OF ACTUARIES, at 5.—Some Aspects of the National Insurance: Act, 1911. Part I, National Health Insurance: R. C. Simmonds. TUESDAY, JANUARY 28. Roya Institution, at 3.—The Heredity of Sex and Some Cognate Problems : Prof. W. Bateson. Roya Society oF ARTS, at 4.30.—The Wood Industry in the British Dominions: C. E. W. Bean. Institution of Civit ENGINEERS, at 8.—The Canton-Kowloon Railway (Chinese Section): F. Grove and B. T. B, Boothby.—1he Canton- Kewloon Railway (British Section) : G. W. Eves. WEDNES AY, JANUARY 29. AERQNAUTICAL SociETy, at £ j0.—Stability Devices for Aéroplanes = M&vyn O'Gorman. Roya Society oF Arts, at 8.—Co-partnership : Aneurin Williams. THURSDAY, Jaxvary 30. Royat Soctery, at 4.30.—Prvobable Papers: The Formation of Usually Convergent Fourier Series: Prof. W. H. Young.—The General Theory of Blastic Stability: R. V. Southwell.—A Spectro-photometric Com- parison of the Emissivity of Solid and Liquid Copper and of Liquid Silver at High Temperatures with that of a Full Radiator: C. M. Stubbs.—A New Analytical Expression for the Representation of the Components of Diurnal Variation of Verrestial Magnetism : G. W. Walker.—An Investi- gation into the Magnetic Behaviour of Iron and some other Metals under the Oscillatory Discharge from a Condenser: Prof. E. W. Marchant. Rovat InsTITUTION, at 3.—Recent Research on the Gas Engine: Prof- B. Hopkinson, F. RS. Concretk InsiriruTE, at 7.30.—The Settlement of Solids in Water and its Bearing on Concrete Work: Dr. J. S. Owens. SocreTy oF Dyers anp Cotourists, at 8.—The Possibilities of a Standard Light and Colour Unit: J. W. Lovibond. —A Simple Method for Detect- ing Silk, Cotton and Wool Fibres in Admixture in Textiles: W. P. Dreaper. FRIDAY, January 31. Royat INSTITUTION, at 9. —The Poetry and Philosophy of George Meredith: G. M. Trevelyan. CONTENTS. PAGE A Pioneerin Applied Science. By Prof. Moe Peyay ESRES So piido r S{o8: Tables of the Weight of Air. By C. Vi Bo ee 565 Anthropology and Archeology .......... 505 Recent Books on Basse eh ae Pere crac oF Sar. Our Bookshelf same mn 6 6, 6 Sil: Letters to the Editor :— An Effect due to the Sudden Great Increase of Pressure. —W. G. Royal-Dawson.. . The Halo in the Ricefield and the Spectre of the Brocken.—Alice Everett. . . pels “* Rosa Stellata.””—Prof. T. D. A. Cockerell AA ie Gy A Lens or a Burning Glass?—John Phin . _ . 571 “Primeval Man.”—-Mrs, A. Hingston Quiggin ; Rev. John Griffith . X-rays and Crystals.—Prof. W. H. Bragg, F.R.S. Antarctic Biology and the Rocks of Western Wilkes Wand.) (By, Je) WWE Gere Modern Pumps for High Vacua. ” (Tlustrated.) ‘By Dr. ED Ni.da iC. Andrade say maen 5 anit teen INOLESI 5 BRURIEE Rae 0 > ° Our Astronomical Column :— Nova Geminorum, No. 2 Bice e %: lols eae The Variable Star 87, r91r. . 2 bear The Transit of Mercury, November 14, 1907 5p chairs Astronomical Annuals. . . The Cleveland Meeting of the American Association 581 Science at Recent Educational Conferences. By 569 Gab Daniell a. 582 Prizes Proposed by the Paris Academy of Sciences for 1914 583 British Medical Science at the Ghent International ; Exhibition . . . ~ «oes University and Educational Intelligence . ; SSS Societies and Academies .......-..- == = 595 Books Received te eons a co Hy Diary of Societies . is bi eo ee oes Haitarial and Publishing Offices: MACMILLAN & CO., Ltp., ST. MARTIN’S STREET, LONDON, W.C. Advertisements and business letters to be addressed to the Publishers. Editorial Communications to the Editor. Puusis, Lonpon. GERRARD 8830. Telegraphic Address: Telephone Number: FEB 151913 * A WEEKLY ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL OF SCIKNS§E. “To the solid ground Bie Nature trusts the mind which builds for aye. Sfiena| Muse "WORDSWORTH. No. 225 _ VoL. 90] _THURSDAY, 1913 JAN IUARY 30, [Price SIXPENCE eo asa Sens at the General Post Office.) fal Rights Reserved. BALANCES & WEIGHTS BUY DIRECT FROM FE-BECKER & CO ALL, W.&J.GEORGE. LTD.,SUCC®=) E LONDON, E 1G: Jou J. GRIFFIN ¢ ses Physical Apparatus THE GRAY-BURNSIDE MOTOR GYROSTAT for demonstrating all the properties and practical applications of the gyrostat. GYROSTATIC PENDULUM GRAY’S GYROSTATIC MODELS As demonstrated at the Physical Society. PRICES ON Kemble ‘St. APPLICATION. ~ London, ° W.C. ‘KINGSWAY | REYNOLDS & BRANSON, Lta. GRAND PRIX AWARD, TURIN, 1 11. SOLE AUTHORISED MAKERS OF STROUD & RENDELL SCIENCE LANTERNS. The *‘ University’ Lan- tern, with Russian iron body, sliding baseboard, two superior objectives, plane silvered mirror “A,” which is moved bya knob causing the rays to be reflected upwards for the projection of objects in a_ horizontal plane, condensers 4} in. diam., prism with silvered. back which can be used at Boe or as an erecting prism in mount “D,” hme-light burner, slide carrier. Price complete in travelling case, without reversible adjustable table ‘‘ B,”: SiGe a7: Ditto, ditto, with ‘“‘ Phoenix” Arc Lamp 11 15 O Reversible adjustable table ‘‘ B” for supporting apparatus, extra 7 6 The ‘ College ” Lantern, without aciusepl ble es table, with lime-light burner complete oes SL, SL Ditto, ditto, with ‘“‘Phcenix”’ arc lamp .. eo) LOMO Slit and prism for spectrum with support, for either lantern ed ee Polariser and analyser ... 2 00 Catalogues. post free. Optical Lanterns and Accessory Apparatus, 223 pages. Abridged List of Chemical Apparatus and Chemicals, 44 pages. echanical Models for teaching Building and Machine Construction, 14 COMMERCIAL STREET, LEEDS. | ecececeocece aL seh tel tel -Tel Jel yet fel tet fel Jel Jel fel jel jel jel | cece = NEGRETTI & ZAMBRA’S 3 RECORDING RAIN GAUGES. fo} 8’ The “Hyetograph” , ° has but 3 moving parts, viz., the float, 8the pen arm, and the clock drum. It e is, therefore, simple. Price, complete, with eo charts, pen, and ink, Se £6150 83 Illustrated Price List of eo Rain Gauges, elc., sent oe 20 post free on request, 88 38 Holborn Viaduct, : SS London, E.C, 2 88 45 Cornhill, E.C. Se 122 Regent St., W. Seoececece0e0e0ece Sel Sol Pot Sot tel tot Sot Sot tet tot tot tot 4 CCXXIi NATURE [JANUARY 30, 1913 THE DAVY-FARADAY RESEARCH LABORATORY ROYAL INSTITUTION, No. 20 ALBEMARLE STREET, W. DIRECTOR: Professor Sir JAMES DEWAR, M.A., LL.D., Ph.D., DESer Ras: This Laboratory was founded by the late Dr. Ludwig Mond, D.Sc., F.R.S., as a Memorial of Davy and Faraday, for the purpose of promoting, by original research, the development and extension of Chemical and Physical Science. Persons fully qualified to undertake original scientific research admitted to the Laboratory are entitled to the use of the physical and chemical apparatus and ordinary chemicals of a Laboratory, and may be granted by the Director any special materials necessary for research, subject to the approval of the Laboratory Committee. The Staff of the Laboratory, and a trained Mechanician, are under the control of the Director. LENT TERM.—Monday, January 13, to Saturday, March 15. EASTER TERM.—Monday, April 7, to Saturday, July 26. Applicants can receive full information regarding the Laboratory by addressing the Assistant SecrETARY, Royal Institution, No. 2r Albemarle Street, W. INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. Founpep 1877. INcorPporaAtTED By Royat CHARTER, 1885. The next INTERMEDIATE EXAMINATION will commence on TUESDAY, APRIL 1, 1913. FINAL EXAMINATIONS in (a) Mineral Chemistry, (4) Metallurgical Chemistry, (c) Physical Chemistry, (¢) Organic Chemistry, and (e) The Chemistry cf Food and Drugs, &c., will commence on MONDAY, MARCH 31, or on MONDAY, APRIL 7, tor3 The List of Candidates will bz closed on TUESDAY, FEBRUARY 25, 1913. Forms of application and further particulars can be obtained from the RecisTRAR, Institute of Chemistry, 30 Bloomsbury Square, London. W.C. The Regulations for the Admission of Students, Associates, and Fellows, Gratis. Examination Papers: Annual Sets, 6d. each. “A List of Official Chemical Appointments.” Fourth Edition, 2s. (post free, 2s. 3d.)- APPOINTMENTS REGISTER.—A Register of Fellows and Associates of the Institute of Chemistry who are seeking appointments is kept at the Offices of the Institute. Applications for the services of professional chemists should be forwarded to the Registrar, stating the reyuirements. EEE IMPERIAL COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, SOUTH KENSINGTON. * A Course of 20 Lectures and Demonstrations will be given, commencing on February 18 next, as follows :— Subject. Conducted by Fungal Diseases of Plants and their Remedies ... Mr. E. S. Sacmon, F.L.S. For further particulars of this and other Courses to follow, and for admission to this Course, application should be made to the SECRETARY. i EEEEEEEEEEE EEE UNIVERSITY OF LONDON. P. J. HARTOG, Academic Registrar. ES LEITH NAUTICAL COLLEGE. = Three Public Lectures will be delivered in the College on the three Wednesdays, February 5, 12 and 19, open free to all. The subjects are : ‘* Weather Changes,” “‘ Ocean Currents and Climate,” “. =) sees 640 Editorial and Publishing Offices: MACMILLAN & CO., Ltp., ST. MARTIN’S STREET, LONDON, W.C. Advertisements and business letters to be addressed to the Publishers. Editorial Communications to the Editor. Telegraphic Address: Puusis, Lonpon. Telephone Number: GERRARD 8830. Scqsonian Mnsiij Es FEB 25 193 YP i , = a= 33 rt : + “RAIN GAUGES” 45 Cornhill, E.C Draugh le h Mz P. = ; a : raughtsmen, complete with J apping ens sent Free lonang yao, 122 Regent St., W 3 ! R. & J. BECK, Ltd., 63 CORNHILL, ronan EC. eclii NATURE [FEBRUARY 20, 1913 ‘IMPERIAL COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, SOUTH KENSINGTON. Special Advanced Courses of Lectures will be given, commencing in March next, as follows :— Subject. Conducted by Magnetic Properties of Dr. S. W. J. Smitu, A.R.C.S., Metals and Alloys. M.A., D.Sc. For particulars of this and other Special Courses to follow, application should be made to the SECRETARY. EEE ESEEE IMPERIAL COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, SOUTH KENSINGTON. LECTURES in AFRONAUTICS, by Professor G. H. Bryan, Sc.D., F.R.S., in the Royal College of Science, Imperial Institute Road, South Kensington, commencing MARCH s next. A 5 The COURSE will deal with the Rigid Dynamics of Aeroplane Motions. For full particulars of these and other Courses in Aeronautics to follow, apply to the SECRETARY. ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. ALBEMARLE STREET, PICCADILLY, W. Tuesday next (February 2s), at Three o'clock, Professor H. H- Turner. First of three lectures on ““The Movements cf the Stars. Half-a-Guinea the Course. r i Subscription to all the Courses in the Season, Two Guineas. i BRITISH MUSEUM. The READING ROOMS will be CLOSED from SATURDAY, MARCH 1, to WEDNESDAY, MARCH 5, inclusive. itish Museum, F. G. KENYON, | ee eerie: 1913- Director and Principal Librarian. _ PATHOLOGICAL LABORATORY, UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE. THE JOHN LUCAS WALKER STUDENTSHIP. Applications for this Studentship, the holder of which. shall devote him- self (or herself) to original research in Pathology, are invited, and should be sent, accompanied by copies of papers containing published work and references—not testimonials—before March 7, 1913, to Professor G. Sims WoopueEab, Pathological Laboratory, New Museums, Cambridge, to whom also applications for further information regarding the Studentship may be addressed. The Studentship is of the annual value of £200 (grants may also be made for assistance and apparatus), and is tenable, under certain conditions, for three years from April rr, 1913. February 14, 1913- nnn nee EEE EEE UES! NATURAL SCIENCE SCHOLARSHIP. KEBLE COLLEGE, OXFORD. A SCHOLARSHIP of the annual value of £60, together with Laboratory Fees not exceeding £20 per annum, will b= awarded at this College in rch, 1913- Mane Meaeination commences Tuesday, March 4. ; ; Subjects: Chemistry or Biology, with Elementary Mechanics and Physics for all candidates, and Elementary Chemistry for those who offer Biology. For full particulars apply to Dr. Hatcuetr Jackson, Keble College, Oxford. GRESHAM LECTURESHIP ON ASTRONOMY. A Vacancy having occurred in the Gresham Lectureship on Astronomy by the death of Mr. Saunder, I am directed to give notice that candidates for the appointment must deliver applications in writing, accompanied by copies of three testimonials, to me before February 28 next. The appointment of LECTURER will be for one year only from the date of such appointment. 5 Personal canvassing will not be permitted. : Particulars of the duties of the office may be obtained from me. By order, G. H. BLAKESLEY, Clerk to the Gresham Committee. LT LISTER INSTITUTE of PREVENTIVE MEDICINE. The GOVERNING BODY will shortly proceed to the appointment of a SECOND RESEARCH ASSISTANT in the BIOCHEMICAL DEPARTMENT at a commencing salary of £200 per annum. Candidates should possess experience in research in Organic Chemistry, but a biological training is not necessary. All applications should be sent in before March 5. Further particulars can be obtained from the SECRETARY, Institute, Chelsea Gardens, London, S.W. Lister THE ROYAL TECHNICAL COLLEGE, GLASGOW. SCHOOL OF NAVIGATION. THE SEA-GOING TRAINING YACHT COVoTAVAIeD ae (550 tons displacement, 425 horse power) will be commissioned on April 1, when approved candidates will be accepted as marine c-dets for a course of training during the summer cruising season, which ends in September. The Winter Course within the College begins in October. Service in the ‘‘ Vivid" counts towards the qualifying period of sea- apprenticeship. Particulars may be obtained on application to the Director, the Royal Technical College, Glasgow. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, CAIRO, EGYPT. ASSISTANT ENTOMOLOGIST. Applications are invited for the post of an ASSISTANT ENTO- MOLOGIST in a grade of L.F. 360—L.E. 420, salary commencing at L.E. 360 per annum. One month’s salary will be paid for passage to Egypt. The selected candidate will be expected to help in administration, if necessary, as well as to do econome work and scientific research, Preference will be given to Universiry graduates with experience or training in Economic Entomology. Applications stating qualifications, experience, age and nationality should be addressed to Professor LEFRoY, Royal College of Science, S. Kensington. Applicants must attach a Dector's certificate stating that they are considered physically fit for service in Egypt. The selected candidate will be appointed under probation for the period prescribed by the Regulations, viz: one year at least and two years at most, and will be confirmed in his appointment if found satis- factory. Confirmation carries with it certain specified rights to persion or indemnity. Subject to the exigencies of the service, leave (which may not be taken the first year) is given for two months every year on full pay. DIRECTOR GENERAL. EGYPTIAN GOVERNMENT. MINISTRY OF EDUCATION. The post of ASSISTANT to the Professor of Biology and Parasitology (Professor Arthur Looss) at the School of Medicine, Cairo, is vacant. Pay 4400 a year, contract for two years; passage money out and back under conditions stated in contract. The Assistant will be expected to devote his whole time to teaching or to research in the Laboratory. The form of contract may be seen on application to the Direcror, Egyptian Educa- tional Mission in England, 36 Victoria Street, Westminster, London, S.W. Applicants must have had experierce in the teaching of Biology. Applications, together with copies of testimonials (which will not be returned), must leave London at latest by the mail of Friday, March 14. Every applicant must send in statements as to (a) his age, (4) his education and degrees, (c) his previous experience as a teacher of Biology. The selected candidate must pass as a first-class life before the Egyptian Government Medical Board in London, and must be prepared to arrive in Cairo within a month of appointment. Applications to be addressed to ‘‘ THe Direcror, Egyptian Government School of Medicine, Cairo.’ THE UNIVERSITY OF LEEDS. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Applications are invited for the LECTURESHIPin AGRICULTURAL BOTANY. The work of the Lecturer will include the teaching of Botany, Agricultural Botany, and Forest Botany, and opportunities will be provided for research in associati n with the Department of Botany. Applications will be received up to February 28, 1913, and should be addressed to the S—EcreTARY, The University, Leeds, from whom further particulars may be obtained. H.M. DOCKYARD SCHOOLS. WANTED, a JUNIOR ASSISTANT MASTER. Candidates must possess a University degree or some equivalent qualification, and should have had experience in Laboratory Work. The scale of salary is £150, rising to £200 by annual increments of £10, with a pension and prospects of promotion. Daties will commence on March 31, 1913, or earlier. Applications should be addressed to the SECRETARY OF THE ADMIRALTY C E.), Whitehall, London, S.W., from whom further particulars may be obtained. ANALYTICAL AND TECHNICAL CHEMIST, Ph.D., D.Sc., 31, with varied experience in scientific and technical research, and in the routine work and management of Soap, Glue, Fat, Fertiliser Works, and in other branches, after six years’ work abroad, seeks re engagement, preferably in neighbourhood of Liverpool or Manchester, either as Works Chemist or in Consulting Practice. Speaks French, German and Spanish.—Address ‘‘ M.,” c/o Hill, Dickinson & Co., 10 Water Street, Liverpool. INCA IO 5d 667 THURSDAY, FEBRUARY 20, 1913. IMMIGRATION AND ANTHROPOMETRY. Changes in Bodily Form of Descendants of Immigrants. By Prof. Franz Boas. Pp. xii+ 573- (New York: Columbia University Press; London: H. Frowde, 1912.) Price 7s. 6d. net. N the year 1908 Prof. Boas, at the request of the United States Immigration Commission, began an investigation into the physical character- istics of immigrants. The volume under review contains an elaborate tabulation of the anthropo- metric data obtained, together with an analysis of the conclusions drawn from them. One of the most remarkable of the facts brought to light is The reality of the results is confirmed by the fact that the changes noted are more marked among those children who were born more than ten years after their mothers had arrived in the United States than among those whose mothers had arrived more recently. Although the numbers dealt with are not very large, it is dificult to suppose that the results are due merely to chance, nor can they be attributed to what might be called a statistical accident. | There does not appear to be any ground for deciding ; whether they are due to the influence of a changed the changes undergone in head form by the descend- | ants of Hebrews and Sicilians. The cranial index of the former when born in Europe appears to be about 83; it sinks to 81 among those born in America. Among the latter, on the other hand, the index rises with the change of birthplace from 78 to more than 8o. It has been suggested, as a mechanical explana- tion of the relative lengthening of the Hebrew skull in America, that in Europe the babies of this race when very young are wrapped | The Cotton Plant in Egypt. up in swaddling clothes so tightly that they | _ has attacked a great diversity of problems in their cannot move and kept lying on their backs; that thus there is constant pres- sure on the back of the skull when it is in its most plastic condition, with the result that it decreases in length but increases in breadth. In themselves, America much greater freedom is allowed to the | child, and it can lie as it likes, sometimes on its | back, sometimes on its side; consequently, with the removal of the conditions which produce an artificial shortening a longer skull is developed. Prof. Boas examines and dismisses this hypo- thesis. One of the principal objections to it is that if it applies to the Hebrews it should apply to the Sicilians and Bohemians, who also keep their babies tightly swathed, but the relative length of the skull among the children of Sicilian and Bohemian immigrants decreases instead of increasing. It has also been argued that the results obtained are due to the fact that the types of immigrants of each nationality have been changing gradually, but an examination of the cranial indices of Hebrews who immigrated at different periods from 1880 to 1910 show that the index is constant throughout this period, and in addition to this the difference between those who arrived in any parti- cular year and their descendants is the same as that shown by a similar comparison involving the whole series. NO. 2260, VOL. 90] | ally relating to genetics. environment or to the selective elimination. of certain types. Prof. Boas inclines to the former view and urges that the onus of proof rests on those who hold the latter. They will probably be inclined to disagree with him on this point. Tee ee] [eens PROBLEMS OF THE COTTON PLANT. Studies in Physiology and Genetics. By W. Lawrence Balls. Pp. xvi+202. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd, t912.) Price 55. net. (Macmillan’s Science Monographs.) HERE can be no doubt of the freshness and originality of mind with which Mr. Balls application to the cotton plant. Some of these questions are genetic, some pathological, some physiological in the stricter sense, and most of them involve considerations of direct economic importance. Starting with the intention of improving the Egyptian cotton crop, the author found himself led on from one problem to another, and to the solu- he makes a real contribution, often approaching to the dignity of discovery. His analysis of growth-rate and of the many influences which affect it is an illuminating piece of work, full of novel suggestions, and a botanical physio- logist, looking for a line of work, might with profit follow up any of the various threads which Mr. Balls lets drop in his course. The same is true of that part of the book especi- The F, generation was often of a most complex type, and by the applica- tion of a graphic method of analysis apparatus is introduced which may probably assist in the un- ravelling of other similar cases. In his study of the heredity of seed-weight, new and interesting ground is broken. It is shown that a form with seed actually light is genetically endowed with the capacity to form heavy seed, but, owing to the smallness of the boll, the seed does not become heavy. The problem of interference between Cac tion of each 668 NATURE [FEBRUARY 20, 1913 factorial effects thus illustrated is one that, we are sure, awaits us in many comparable instances. Obviously, such interference might operate either by reducing the number of the seeds or by reducing their size; and in some plants, doubtless, the one effect will be found, and in other cases the other. The discussion of this and various other examples of complex results is unconventional and always fruitful. The book is one which well illustrates the mental attitude of the investigator to whom problems appeal chiefly by virtue of their difficulty. Had Mr. Balls stuck to any one of the lines he has begun, no doubt he could have gone much further along it; but so soon as anything like a solution is in sight he would rather start another chase. This is not unfriendly criticism: for many who can follow there are few who can begin, and others will some day make something of the various begin- nings here left unfinished. The real objection to this book is that it is in outward form at least a book. The only thread of coherence running through it is that the miscellaneous embryo treatises it contains were begotten in Mr. Balls’s mind by the cotton plant. So, in the same way, the common fowl has been the point of departure for lucubrations on the origin of the mesoblast, on poultry-breeding for the table, on coccidiosis, on the food-value of cereals, &c., but though it may be good for a man to keep all these topics dancing through his own head, no real purpose is served by amalgamating them into one volume. It was to meet such cases that publication in W. B. journals was invented. THE ENERGY SIDE OF NUTRITION. Nutritional Physiology. By Prof. P. G. Stiles. Pp. 271. (Philadelphia and London: WwW. B. Saunders Co., 1912.) Price 6s. net. LTHOUGH Prof. Stiles’s little book is entitled A “Nutritional Physiology,” it is really an ele- mentary treatise on the whole realm of physiology, though special attention is directed to digestion, absorption, and metabolism. Its keynote is the word “energy,” and the living body is regarded from the point of view of an energy-transformer. The work is dedicated to Prof. Graham Lusk, of New York, and his influence can be easily traced in the chapters which deal with metabolism. It is not possible to regard the book as a mere addition to the already numerous primers of physiology; it is something beyond this, although it makes no pretensions to being anything pro- found. It can be read with profit by the junior student, and still more by the senior student, and Old truths are often put in new ways, and so fresh light is shed NO. 2260, voL. gol even the professed physiologist. upon familiar problems. The language is often quaint and original, and the numerous analogies selected for explaining physiological truths are apt and well selected. Take the following as an example : “The regulating action of the liver and the muscles upon the carbohydrate distribution may be paralleled, in part at least, by an analogy. Let us compare the active tissues to a mill turned by the waters of a stream. The water supply to the mill is to be compared with the sugar supply to the cells, which derive their energy from it. A meal is to the body as a storm is to the mill- stream—it adds to the volume of the power- producing element. The dam by the mill is like the kidney in its relation to the accumulated store,” and so the parable runs on; it is unneces- sary to quote more of it here. The book contains the inevitable chapter on alcohol; this is written in a moderate strain, and may, perhaps, be viewed with disfavour by the extreme teetotaller because it is not intemperate. As one reads it, one almost feels that its author was writing it because he had to, but was pro- testing all the time inwardly against the American law which excludes all physiological books from scholastic institutions which do not obey the tyrannical behests of the party in power. We Die GHEMISTRY: PURE AND APPETED: (1) Fatty Foods, their Practical Examination. A Handbook for the Use of Analytical and Technical Chemists. By E. R. Bolton and GC. Revis. Pp. xii+371. (London: J. and A. Churchill, 1913.) Price 10s. 6d. net. (2) Der Kautschuk. Eine kolloidchemische Mono- graphie. By Dr. R. Ditmar. Pp. viii+14o. (Berlin: Julius Springer, r912.) Price 6 marks. (3) Modern Inorganic Chemistry. By Dr. J. W. Mellor. Pp. xx+871. (London: Longmans, Green and Co., 1912.) Price 7s. 6d. (4) A First Class-Book of Chemistry. By E. Barrett and Dr. T. P. Nunn. Pp. iv+124. (London: A. and C. Black, r91r2.) Price 1s. 6d. (5) Elementary Applied Chemistry. By L. B. Allyn. Pp. xi+127. (Boston and London: Ginn and Co., n.d.) Price 3s. (6) Trattato di Chimico-Fisica. Traduzione Italiana con note del Dott. M. Giua. By Prof. He Gs Jones. Hoepli, 1913.) Pp xx+611. Price 12 lire. (Milano: Ulrico (1) HE analytical examination of edible fats and oils is increasing in importance and in difficulty day by day. At least sixteen natural oils must be taken into consideration, and, when mixtures of these are presented for examination, ———————— << | FEBRUARY 20, 1913 | NATURE 669 the task of determining their nature and origin is one that is almost beyond the range of ordinary analytical methods. In addition to the natural oils and fats it is necessary now to take into account the artificial products obtained by reducing them by hydrogen in presence of nickel; although these are only rarely mentioned, their preparation has already become an extremely important in- dustry, which has grown to maturity at a very rapid rate and almost unobserved by the general public. The “Handbook” of Messrs. Bolton & Revis has the merit of dealing with the examination of ous and fats exclusively from the point of view of their utility as food products. They have there- fore been able to treat this branch of the subject with great thoroughness in a book of very modest dimensions. As they have had many years of ex- perience in carrying out the tests which they describe, their conclusions are entitled to be re- ceived with respect and regarded as authoritative. This statement applies not only to their selection of the tests which are most suitable, but also to the rejection of others which are less suitable or even seriously faulty; as they remark in the preface, ‘‘omission of a method may often be better evidence of the knowledge of it than its presenta- tion.” The book is well illustrated and attractively printed; its utility will not be diminished by the fact that it has not passed through the hands of a literary editor, and bears the impress of the laboratory rather than of the classroom or the study. (2) Dr. Ditmar’s monograph on rubber is char- acterised by the scientific character of its treatment of a technical subject. At the head of the preface the statement is set out that “The essence of a colloid is instability : for this reason life is linked to the colloidal state. The view of Heraclitus that ‘Everything is in a state of flux” is particularly applicable to the colloidal state, and has much to do with the inherent quality of “perishing,’’ which is so serious a limitation to the usefulness of rubber. The importance of this “perishing ” is shown by the fact that the author, in his chapter on the “Regeneration of Rubber,” gives a list of nearly 200 patents, nearly all of which have been taken out during the last ten years. Attention is directed to the the coagulation processes as affecting the nature of the product. In the case of synthetic rubber the aim must be to secure a highly polymerised product: the polymerised isoprene of the Elber- feld works possesses these qualities, but the poly- merised butadiene resembles glue and can only be used as a “blender” or adulterant. NO. 2260. VOL. aol Idvra pet,” great importance of It is im- possible in a brief notice to discuss the vast amount of valuable information that has been brought together in this monograph, but it may be com- mended without reservation to the attention of all those who are interested in rubber, either as a technical product or as material for the study of colloid chemistry. (3) Dr. Mellor’s “Modern Inorganic Chem- istry’ is one of the most original of the text-books that have been published in recent years. Its very originality will probably limit its usefulness as a text-book for beginners, who would probably be well advised to acquire the rudiments of their knowledge from some more conventional source. But for a student who has already acquired a sound knowledge of inorganic chemistry, and is wondering in what way he may best add to it, it would be difficult to suggest a volume more calculated to impart new ideas and increased in- formation than Dr. Mellor’s book. It would serve admirably as a text-book of inorganic chemistry to cover the gap between the requirements of an intermediate and final B.Sc. examination. The four crystalline forms of sulphur have at last been able to secure equal recognition in a text-book, and in the course of two pages the modern views of the composition of steel are effectively summarised. Little monographs such as these, embodying the results of recent re- searches, are of frequent occurrence and cover a very wide range of topics. On the other hand, the historical aspects of chemistry receive full recog- nition, nearly every statement of importance being accompanied by the name of the author who first discovered the facts and the date of the discovery. (4) It is a matter of interest to receive a text- book of chemistry bearing on its title-page the names of a science master and an “examiner in education.” The book that they have compiled is as a whole very logical and satisfactory, and in- cludes incidental references to several phenomena which can be described in simple terms, but which have not previously found their way into ele- mentary text-books. Amongst these the distilla- tion of petroleum, the manufacture of linoleum, and the liquid-air process for separating oxygen | may be mentioned. The authors appear to be unaware of the his- torical aspects of their subject. There is really | no need to use such a term as “soda gas” when Black’s name of “fixed air” is available as a | description of the gas which does not introduce prematurely to the student a statement of the pres- ence of carbon in it. The authors have also been obliged to confess the illogical character of their action in describing the gas as. ‘“‘carbon dioxide” in chapter xvi. when they are unable even to “cc 670 NATE, [FEBRUARY 20, 1913 attempt an explanation of the prefix until they reach chapter xxv.; even then they are not in a position to give any explanation which would be recognised as valid by any serious student of chemistry. Here again the lack of logical sequence might have been avoided by describing the gas as “carbonic anhydride”; even ‘carbonic acid gas” would be an improvement on ‘carbon di- oxide” under the conditions imposed by the ele- mentary character of the course. (5) The American book on “ Elementary Applied Chemistry”’ bears many signs of its country of origin, including a brief introduction written in the style of a “display advertisement.”’ On the very first page of the book the student is required to make a note of his first chemical experiment as follows : Copy and sign the following statement : I hereby certify that a mixture called Tonsil- litis Specific and examined by me contains Name Date The mixture is one of sulphur and sugar, to be prepared ad hoc by the instructor. English readers may derive from this book considerable amusement and at the same time obtain a number of useful hints as to the possibility of introducing to youthful students the ‘chief tests used in examin- ing water, milk, baking-powder, &c. (6) The Italian volume is a translation of the well-known American text-book, and will there- fore not be likely to circulate in this country. It is well printed and is presented in an attractive form. ARAM IL. OUR BOOKSHELF. The Theory of Evolution in the Light of Facts. By Karl Frank, S.J. W5uth a chapter on Ant Guests and Termite Guests, by P. E. Wasmann. Translated from the German by C. T. Druery. Pp. xii+241. (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Dribnerand! Co., Lidl, 1r913))) Brice ssmet- Tue object of this book, as stated in its preface, is to substitute “pure postulates ” for those which are referred to as “postulates of the theory of evolution,” put forward by “many students of nature at the present day.” As examples of these precious pure postulates we may cite the following : (a) The oldest known fossils represent the beginnings of life on the globe (p. 22). (b) The absence of all the intermediate forms between great groups indicates a “transformation and alteration of form rather than an actual higher evolution ’’ (p. 76). (c) ‘““We are not justified in bringing animals, like mammalia, birds, fishes and worrns, into genetic connection with plants, like trees, ferns, and mosses’”’ (p. 108). (This, we are told in the preface, is the chief postulate.) NO. 2260, VOL. 90] (d) Explanation of the origin of life is essential to any theory of evolution (pp. 83-108). Starting from these “postulates,” there is no difficulty in forecasting the author’s conclusions. Indeed, but for the fact that some recent re- searches are referred to in order that they may be tortured into support of the author’s views, we might imagine that we were reading one of the reviews of the “Origin of Species ” written fifty years ago; and this idea would be confirmed as we come upon contemptuous and vituperative re- ferences to Darwin, Haeckel, and other men of science. Not having seen the German original of the book, we cannot say whether the inaccuracies, which abound in every part of it, are due to the author or the translator. Within the compass of a dozen lines we find ‘Quartiary,” ‘Mussel Chalk,” “Dyas (Perm.)=Permian Limestone and Old Red Sandstone,” and “ Algonkium= pre- Cambrian.” Nor are we impressed, as we wade through misconceptions, misstatements, and mis- spellings, by the fact that the book bears the Imprimatur + Johannes J. Glennon Archiepiscopus Sti. Ludovici. The Story of a Hare. Pp. xi+199+ plates. 1912.) Price 6s. net. In this life-story of a hare the author has success- fully combined narrative with instruction. Most books on natural history for general readers are too informative and lack the living feeling which always commands a wide appeal. This touch, which makes the whole world kin, is largely a thing of sympathy, and no book on the life of a wild animal can be successful without it. Mr. Tregarthen possesses that attribute and has there- fore written a book which will be appreciated by all lovers of wild animals and observers of their habits. He describes the life of a hare from birth to death from the point.of view of the animal itself, and amid the scenes of a century ago. We have thus an account of the hare’s habits and its struggles for existence in an attractive setting. The author has insight as well as sympathy, and ’ By J. ©._, Gresarthene (London: John Murray, his book should interest many readers. Les Progrées Récents de l’Astronomie. By Prof. Paul Stroobant. Pp. 173. (Brussels: Hayez, Rue de Louvain, 112, 1912.) Pror. Srroospanr’s annual résumé of the advances made in astronomy during the previous year is becoming a work of increasing usefulness to the astronomical reader; a wide range of subjects is treated concisely and with a discerning appreciation of relative importance. As usual, the review of 1911 is not restricted to observations only, but includes the recent advances in theory, such, for example, as Miller’s and Stérmer’s papers on the mechanics of the corona and Birkeland’s suggestions as to the formation of sun-spots. Tables of new variable stars (148), minor planets (now totalling 732) and new spectroscopic binaries (94), and several fine plates, add considerably to the value of the work. W.. E. R. FEBRUARY 20, Belly Hered 7 J. Arthur Thomson. ee edition. Pp. xvi+627. (London: John Murray, 1912.) Price gs. net. In the present edition of his book, the original edition of which was reviewed in Nature for August 20, 1908 (vol. Ixxvill., p. 361), Prof. Thomson has included references to some of the new discoveries that have been made in the last five years in the branch of biology with which the volume is concerned. An Elementary Historical Geography of the British Isles. By M.S. Elliott. Pp. x+172. (London: A. and C. Black, 1913.) Price 1s. 6d. Tuis little hook shows very convincingly how pro- foundly the geography of a country can influence its history ; and it serves to demonstrate also the IAT Oe fal LETTERS TO THE EDITOR. [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of Nature. No notice is taken of anonymous communications. | Iceberg Melting. I HAVE pleasure in sending you a photograph of the iceberg around which we obtained the isothermal lines published in Nature of December 12, 1912. I did not make an instrumental survey of this berg, | but it was larger than the average of those met with in the Strait of Belle Isle. We sighted more than 200 bergs during our trip, and made traces of many of them. Invariably the temperature rose on the approach to a berg. Sometimes a small fall of tem- perature resulted abeam of the berg, but the rise of Fic. 1.—Iceberg used for the purpose of studying the isothermal lines published in the issue of NaruRE for December 12, 1912. necessity of a good knowledge of geography for teachers of history. The volume may be recom- mended as suitable for supplementary reading for boys and girls in secondary schools who are e study- ing history or geography. The book is well illus- trated and contains numerous helpful maps. The Interpretation of Radium. By F. Soddy. Third edition. Pp. xvi+284. (London: John Murray, 1912.) Price 6s. net. [ue general characters of this work were given in the review of the first edition which appeared in the issue of Nature of May 27, 1909 (vol. Ixxx., p. 368). In the present issue Mr. Soddy has included the latest and most complete data avail- able, and those new discoveries for which there trustworthy evidence. A new final chapter upon the thorium and actinium series has been added. NO. 2260, VOL. 90] is | beres which have temperature was the one characteristic effect. The two other photographs [not reproduced] I send you illustrate the fantastic shapes seen in ice. I wish it were possible to furnish in some way an idea of the wonderful colouring, but I am totally unable to do so. In the ‘‘swimming moose”’ you can see the danger- ous overhanging ridge, which is caused by the under- water melting and the lapping of the warmer water waves against the ice. This ridge is always found in not recently turned over. In the records which Mr. King was able to get for me in 1g10, besides the rise of temperature, a fall of tem- perature was obtained, when the ship approached the various icebergs, with the exception of one. These bergs were all floating in the main arctic current off the eastern coast of Labrador. In the light of my recent work I feel sure that the drop in temperature was due to the influence of the cold current in which the iceberg was floating. These cold currents exist in the main arctic current, whether ice is present or rot, but the effect of the presence of the ice is to elevate the temperature slightly. 672 NATURE [FEBRUARY 20, I913 To assist in illustration of my meaning reference must be made to the microthermogram taken on the Allan Line R.M.S. Victorian last June. This record, which is a direct trace from the chart on the instru- men is through the ice track at a depth of 18 ft. by the Cape Race route. After passing the ‘“‘Cold Wall”’ the arctic current drops in temperature regularly as the ship proceeds westward. The small variations up and down are partly due to icebergs passed at dis- tances of six to eight miles, and partly due to colder | currents. The lowest temperature recorded here was reached nearest the Newfoundland coast, but the effect of ice can be seen well marked by the ‘sharp peak of | temperature, which I have shaded. Just here we conductivity tests were proach it. I have many other traces illustrating the same thing, and for this reason I was forced to abandon the idea that an iceberg sensibly cools the water in which it is floating. I was also unable to find by calculation that an iceberg could appreciably influence the sea-water on account of its slow rate -of melting. {t is very illusive to depend on laboratory tank experiments to illustrate sea-water circulation: the conditions at sea are very different. I was very much surprised not to find, during my experiments last summer, more conclusive evidence of sea-water dilu- tion due to the melting icebergs. A large number of made of sea-water, and these —_—— | | TAY WALL oF SEPARATIION BETWEEN! GULIF STR pam 8° ede edad | ae eee. Me ° eae cc Fic. 2. passed most of the ice closely, proceed slowly in heavy fog at times. This colder and swifter arctic current carried with it the greater proportion of the ice, but it is well known that this | colder current exists whether accompanied by ice or not. The great drop in temperature just before coming abeam of our largest berg was not due to the iceberg itself, but to the influence of the cold current. The effect of the ice is to hold the temperature abnormally high. The dotted line on the diagram represents how the temperature would probably have gone had no ice been present. It would depend which way we approached this berg whether a drop in temperature would result. The te mperature rises rapidly, whichever way we ap- NO. 2260, VOL. 90] and were obliged to | are described in my Canadian Government Report. The following may be of interest; the readings were made at 26° C. :— Table of Conductivities of Sea-water taken in July (1912). Close to grounded berg, Cape Bauld Neld 0-05007 Strait of Belle Isle, eastern end 0:04827 Ten miles east of Belle Isle 0-04850 Close abeam large berg... Be 0:04787 One mile north of same berg 004806 Close abeam same berg 0:04827 Six miles from same berg 0:04768 Seventy yards to leeward of a berg . 0:04787 Forty yards to windward of same berg 0:04787 | One hundred yards to leeward of a berg ... 0:04806 FEBRUARY 20, 1913] NATURE 673 The numbers may perhaps indicate a slight effect, but nothing like what I expected. My conductivity tests of the sea-water brought back by Mr. King from Hudson’s Strait in rg10 gave a value of o-0480 at 25° C. Correcting for temperature this observation serves to connect the sea-water entering the Strait of Belle Isle with that in Hudson’s Strait. Eastward from Belle Isle Strait the conductivity rises rapidly | for 180 miles, after which it becomes uniform up to | 450 miles. The greatest arctic current sweeps down close to the Labrador shore, and in through the Strait of Belle Isle, where the resultant flow is westward. The following measurements of the conductivity through the ice track by the Belle Isle route were obtained last October on the Empress of Britain. The values were all measured at a uniform temperature of 25 Abeam of Belle Isle 08 0-04865 Forty miles east of Belle Isle ... 0-04986 Eighty miles east of Belle Isle ... + 0:05047 One hundred and sixty miles ... -¢ 005150 Two hundred miles 00 0:05235 Two hundred and sixty miles ... 0:05257 Four hundred miles on 005211 Four hundred and fifty ... 0:05257 It is evident that the great arctic current is of a lower order of salinity, and that its course may be traced along our eastern coast. In the early spring when the water is cold the Newfoundland fishermen will find the cod in the vicinity of the icebergs, and will always obtain their catch there. Perhaps this is an indication of the warming influence of the bergs, for the cod will not live in very cold water. Next summer I shall continue my observations more particularly with reference to the influence of land on the temperature of the sea. I hope before long to be able to publish here some typical microthermo- grams showing this effect. H. T. Barnes. McGill University, January 27. Atmospheric Potential. UnperR the above heading Mr. Evan McLennan refers in Nature, February 13, p. 647, to supposed | puzzles in atmospheric electricity. That certain diffi- culties exist no one can deny, but Mr. McLennan’s difficulties might, I think, be removed by consultation of existing text-books. The vertical current which he thinks should exist in the atmosphere does exist, and methods of measuring it with more or less accuracy have been in operation for some years. Mr. C. T. R. Wilson devised an apparatus for its direct measure- ment, and his experiments, made in good weather near ground level, gave a mean value of about 2x 10-'® amperes per sq. cm. A mean value of the same order, but slightly larger, has been deduced at Potsdam from continuous observations of the electric | conductivity of the atmosphere and the potential gradient. To get an electrical current through a ver- tical conductor it is necessary to bring its upper end | to the potential of the surrounding atmosphere. ‘“St. Elmo’s fire ’’ is a well-known natural phenomenon. Currents can be obtained through a wire attached to a kite, but the experiment at times may be dan- gerous. Mr. McLennan seems to suppose that the potential in the free atmosphere increases uniformly with the height. Observations, however, have shown that the normal rate of increase of potential per unit of height diminishes as the height increases and becomes small at the height of a few kilometres. A mountain, it should be remembered, is part of the earth, and shares its potential; if steep it has a large No. 2260, VOL. 90] effect on the shape of the equipotential surfaces in adjacent space. Dr. Simpson, in the letter referred to by Mr. McLennan, mentions the real poser, viz. why in spite of the vertical current the earth retains its | negative charge in fine weather. C. CHREE. The Ascent of the Italian Balloon ‘‘ Albatross,’”’ August 12, 1909. In Nature of August 19, 1909, a note appeared stating that in an ascent from Turin the Italian balloon Albatross, manned by Lieut. Mina and Signor Piacenza, had reached a height of 38,715 ft., which is greater by about 3000 ft. than any authenticated record for a manned balloon ascent. A communica- tion has recently been received from Prof. Palazzo, director of the Italian Meteorological Office, in which he states that the aéronauts Mina and Piacenza were not provided with the necessary instruments for measuring the height which they reached, and that M. Mina, in the Rivista Tecnica d’Aeronautica of 1910, modified his earlier estimate and sought to prove that the balloon had reached a height of 9240 m. (30,300 ft.). Owing to the absence of a proper record of pressure and temperature, however, even that value is uncertain. W. N. SHaw. Meteorological Office, South Kensington, London, S.W., February 12. Induced Gell-reproduction in the Protozoa. Tue discovery of the fact that the products of cell death can cause cell-division in lymphocytes and other cells of the human body has given rise to a strong suspicion that these substances may be necessary for any form of cell-reproduction to occur. Jt has been already demonstrated by Fantham and Ross that Amoeba coli can be caused to divide through many generations by means of auxetics, and Drs. Ross and Cropper have shown that induced cell-reproduction will occur in the ova of Ascaris megalocephala if the eggs are mixed with a solution containing auxetics and incubated. It is important, therefore, for con- firmation to come from other sources. Some time | ago I was fortunate enough to discover a new variety of Polytoma, differing considerably from P. uvella in many respects, but chiefly in the fact that the new variety formed spores in the late autumn, which did not develop until the following spring. A full account of the new organism is in course of preparation for publication. These winter resting spores seemed to me to be ex- tremely suitable objects for testing the action of auxetics. Some preliminary experiments were accordingly made to see whether increase of temperature would cause development. Spores were placed under suitable con- ditions in the incubator, and kept at a temperature of 25° C. for periods varying from one to three weeks. | On careful examination it was found, however, that no change had taken place. A solution was then prepared containing 2 c.c. of | a 4 per cent. solution of theobromine, 0-4 c.c. of a 5 per cent. solution of sodium bicarbonate, and 0-5 c.c. of a rt per cent. solution of atropine sulphate, and the mixture diluted to 10 c.c. with water. Water con- taining large quantities of the spores was then mixed with an equal volume of this solution, and the mix- ture was incubated at 25° C. On examination at the end of forty-eight hours about 5 per cent. of the | spores were found to show indications of division, | while controls containing no auxetics showed no change. I then worked with a concentrated extract of sheep’s suprarenal gland, augmented by the addi- | tion of 0-5 c.c. of a 1 per cent. solution of cadaverine to 10 ¢.c. of the extract. Incubation of spores with this mixture gave unmistakable evidence of division at the end of eight hours, and in forty-eight hours the products had separated, and were lying free within the sac wall. At a later period they acquired flagella, and several sacs discharged their contents, which appeared quite normal in all respects. The fact that auxetics will cause the full develop- ment of these spores is important, and raises the question as to whether their presence may not be necessary under natural conditions, as it seems fairly evident that pond-water must contain auxetics, de- rived from the organic matter present, and it is quite possible that it may also contain augmentors in the shape of some of the alkaloids of putrefaction. Much worl, however, remains to be done in this direction before the question can be regarded as definitely settled. From the available evidence, however, it seems to be clearly demonstrated that the products of cytolysis do cause cell-reproduction, and, that being so, it is very probable that it is absolutely necessary for a cell to absorb these auxetics before any repro- duction is possible. Auprey H. Drew. 69 Ewhurst Road, Crofton Park, S.E. The Lion in Sinhalese Art. In the notice of the new ‘Guide to the Collections of the Colombo Museum,” which appeared in NATURE of January 9 (p. 523), the point was raised as to the source of the concept of the lion which occurs so fre- quently in Sinhalese art. The lion has never been native of Ceylon, and the association of the symbol with the Sinhalese race may be traced back so far as B.c. 543, when a band of adventurers from northern India, led by Wijayo, landed in Ceylon. According to the Mahawansa, Wijayo’s father was the offspring of a lion, and was called Sihabahu, or Sinhabahu (lit. ‘‘lion arm”’). This legend is based upon the fact that the grandfather of Wijayo was probably an outlaw named Siha or Sinha (‘lion’). Hence the name Sihala or Sinhala was given to Wijayo’s kingdom, and the newly estab- lished race became known as the Sinhalese. In this way the lion became the national emblem, and, together with the sun, is depicted on the royal banner. Nevertheless, there is no Sinhalese heraldry, as the term is understood in Europe. The lion was regarded as a symbol of royalty by the Sinhalese, hence the word sinhdsena (lit. ‘lion seat’’) was applied to the throne. In the Colombo Museum there is a stone lion standing about 5 ft. high, upon which was placed the throne of the kings when the seat of Government was at Polonnaruwa. A monograph on the Sinhalese banners is shortly to be issued from the Colombo Museum, when the sig- nificance of the lion will be fully discussed. JosEepH PEARSON. Colombo Museum, Ceylon, January 30. THE BRITISH ANTARCTIC EXPEDITION. (1) TrRiBpuTE TO THE DEAD EXPLORERS. ULLER information and reflection on the disaster which overtook Captain R. F. Scott and his four companions in the Antarctic have served to intensify the national senses of bereave- ment at their end and of pride at the manner in which it was encountered, and both senses have NO. 2260, VOL. 90] NATURE [FEBRUARY 20, 1913 been given full expression, St. Paul’s Cathedrat was filled, and might have been filled again, on Vriday last, when a memorial service was held. The King was present, and there also attended. Queen Alexandra, the Prime Minister, and other members of the Government, representatives of the Opposition, of foreign Powers, of the Royal Geographical Society, of the Royal Society, and of many other bodies and institutions which were directly interested in the expedition, or with which its lost members were associated. Memorial ser-. vices have also taken place at Portsmouth and Devonport dockyards and elsewhere. Expressions of regret have been received from many Colonial and foreign Governments and _ societies, and tributes of deep sympathy and appreciation have been paid to the memory of the dead by other workers in the polar fields—Dr. Nansen, Admiral Peary, Captain Amundsen, Dr. Charcot, Sir E. H. Shackleton, and others. Prompt steps have been taken to fulfil the last wish of Scott, that those dependent on his com- panions and himself should not be allowed to want. On the part of the Government, it is stated that Captain Scott and Petty Officer Evans will be regarded as having lost their lives in action, and the pension due to their widows will consequently be enhanced. Further assistance, covering the necessities of the dependants of the other lost travellers, may be expected to be forthcoming from the public funds. The committee of the Antarctic Exploration Fund, of which Sir Edgar Speyer is chairman, is taking measures to the same end, and is also concerned to clear off the very heavy debt remaining upon the expedition, towards which Scott himself had pledged personal property, and which includes the recoupment of some of the survivors who have forgone part of the payment due to them. The question of the proper publica- tion of the scientific results of the expedition is. also involved. If the expedition had ended in success unshadowed by disaster, and if the leader had himself returned, means would have been. open, which now are closed, for the discharge of these liabilities; the loss of his lectures, for ex- ample, must have a serious financial bearing on the whole position of affairs. In addition to the action of the Government and of the committee, a public subscription fund has been opened by the Lord Mayor of London; two London newspapers (The Daily Telegraph and The Daily Chronicle) have adopted a similar course, and collections are also being made under various official or unofficial auspices in various centres in the provinces and colonies. It may be added that, at the moment of writing, the Mansion House Fund has not been augmented with the rapidity characteristic of occasions of deep national feeling; it may well be that the public waits to learn what measures will be taken by the Government; but these cannot in the nature of the case be taken immediately, and there is ample scope for the proper use of whatever moneys may in the meantime be sub-- scribed. FEBRUARY 20, 1913] NATURE 675 In addition to the above connections in which money is needed, a specified object of the Mansion House Fund and of some others is’ the provision of a national memorial to the dead. From such an object none can conceivably dissent ; a genera- tion which has recently criticised those preceding it for neglecting to set up a proper memorial to ‘Captain James Cook could scarcely face the chance of incurring similar criticism in the case of Captain Scott; but the question of the form which should be taken by a national memorial is wide, and always involves much discussion and invokes many opinions. In all the present circumstances, how- ever, much respect and consideration are due to a suggestion which emanates from Lord Curzon, who, as president of the Royal Geographical Society, addressed a letter to the Press on Satur- day last, summarising the whole position as, but more fully than, it has been summarised above. In his concluding paragraphs he discusses the question of the form of a national memorial to Scott and his companions. “A national monument in a public place,” ‘‘a memorial in our great metropolitan cathedral,” are the suggestions which would come first to the minds of most men, but Lord Curzon qualifies them with the counter-sug- gestion that “the available sites for public monu- ments in London are few; nor does our artistic genius invariably find its best expression in masses of marble or bronze.” Many would agree with this view, and might feel that some measure of more practical utility, such as the endowment of future scientific research in the Antarctic or Arctic region, would be a more fitting memorial to those who gave their lives in the advancement of that particular department of research. Lord Curzon’s suggestion, however, made on behalf of the Royal Geographical Society, is for the erection of a Scott Memorial Hall on a portion of the ground belonging to Lowther Lodge, which has recently been acquired by the society as the headquarters where it will very shortly be estab- lished. The society has hitherto held its large meetings in the theatre at Burlington Gardens; but since the Lowther property was acquired the ultimate provision of a hall of its own has been in mind. The disaster to Scott is an incident not only in national history, not only in the history of exploration, but in the history of the society itself ; it befalls to synchronise with two other important incidents, the establishment of the society in new quarters and the broadening of the basis of its membership; on such grounds there is reason for a hope that the proposal for a hall specially de- voted to lectures on geographical science and exploration should be fulfilled more speedily than in the normal course it would probably be, and should be identified with Scott’s name; and it may well be suggested that the establishment of such a hall would be a most fitting form of national memorial, combining at once the public function fulfilled by statuary and the scientific function of a foundation for the advancement of geographical research. A national memorial of such form could NO. 2260, VOL. 90] be entrusted to no more fitting keeping than that of the society which is the representative of the nation in the promulgation of geographical dis- covery, and has been so closely associated with the British Antarctic Expedition itself. The scientific importance of the expedition, to which brief reference was made last week on the basis of the information which had been brought from the expedition last year, is immensely en- hanced by the further results which Commander E, R. G. Evans has now summarised. First, it is a duty to pay one further tribute to the personal devotion to their scientific duties of Scott and his dead companions, for not only does it appear that through all the dreadful stress of the return march from the pole, down to March 12 (1912), when the thermometer was broken, they maintained meteorological observations, but it is reported also that they carried with them to the end a collection of geological specimens, a dead weight which they must often have been tempted to jettison; many would have done so, and none would have blamed the act. Commander Evans lays stress on the geological results of the expedition at large; and the main points of these results are referred to below. Investigations of the physical condi- tions of the ice were continued; these, together with meteorological, magnetic, gravity, and atmo- spheric electrical observations occupied Mr. C. S. Wright, while Mr. E, W. Nelson carried on hydrographic work; Mr. Cherry Garrard dealt ; with the preparation of skins of zoological speci- mens, and Mr. Lillie with marine biological col- lections. A new line of soundings is mentioned, extending from Banks Peninsula to 60° S., 170° W., and thence to 73° S., and an abrupt shoal, with only 158 fathoms’ depth above it, is recorded in the middle of Ross Sea. (2) GroLocicaL RESULTS. The dispatch from Commander Evans pub- lished on February 15 deals especially with the geological results of the expedition; they were collected by the southern party under Captain Scott, by the northern party under Lieutenant Campbell—who was accompanied by Mr. Raymond Priestly as geologist—by the western party under Mr. Griffith Taylor, and by Mr. Priestly during the ascent of Mount Erebus in December, 1912. It is clear that each party secured most interesting and valuable information. All the parties have been working in areas that had been previously traversed by members of the National Antarctic Expedition, or by that under Sir Ernest Shackleton. It had been hoped that one party would have visited King Edward VII. Land, and have discovered the structure of the lands to the east of the Ross Sea, which were quite unknown until reached by Nansen’s companion Johansen, who was serving with Amundsen. The abandon- ment of this project enabled the energies of the | whole of Captain Scott’s staff to be devoted to the further study of South Vietoria Land. 676 NALORE [FEBRUARY 20, 1913 Commander Evans’s despatch is written in popular language, and the results cannot be judged until the receipt of a more technical statement. The difficulty of: interpreting the cablegram is | increased by some obvious verbal errors; thus the | Statement that in the volcanic series at Cape Adare “there was found an agglomerate of erratic | bearing, many of the boulders being striated by ice action,” is unintelligible. If it means that the old rocks there include a conglomerate of ice- | scratched boulders, the discovery would be of much interest, especially if its age can be determined; it may mean that the volcanic rocks include an agglomerate, and that there is also a_ glacial boulder bed. Commander Evans reports that the southern | party brought back 35 Ib. of geological speci- mens, Which were apparently all collected from the Beardmore Glacier. The report published shows that this material confirms the conclusions based on the specimens collected by Sir Ernest Shackle- ton. His party observed seven seams of coal in 3 $ E 5 3 ovens « wR » = a ™ ® N Snose- clad tena ‘ es Le __ Prakran SF 4 ie ee Bea Vo Qa \ \ A eel LoL, Ress! Creat Zee oe FP by s x; ae Fic. 1-—¥F, Faults bounding the mountain Horst. 2, Coal seams in beacon sandstone. aaa, Limestone breccia with. Archeocyathus, Ethmo- phyllum, Solenopora, etc. n\|7--~- the cliffs at the head of the Beardmore Glacier : one seam was 7 ft. thick, and four were each 3 ft. thick. The coal contained 69 per cent. of fixed carbon, and the sample tested was non- coking, The seams occur in the Beacon Sand- stone, and the plant remains indicate that the age of this formation is either Upper Paleozoic or early Mesozoic. The fossil plants obtained by Dr. Wilson appear to be in better preservation, and it is therefore interesting to find that they confirm the age assigned to the Beacon Sandstone by Prof. David and Mr. Priestly. The other fossils obtained by the southern party are described as ‘“‘corals of a primitive form, typical of the early Paleozoic Age.” The Cambrian fossils obtained from the same locality by Shackleton include a coral allied to Ethmophyllum, and specimens of Archzeocya- thus, Coscinocyathus, Solenopora, as well as sponge spicules and traces of Radiolaria. The accompanying section (Fig. 1) from the report by Priestly and David shows the relative positions of the Cambrian and coal-bearing formations. The specimens of Cambrian limestones obtained by the southern party will probably yield important addi- tions to the small Cambrian fauna collected by Sir E. Shackleton. The northern and western parties have both , ledge of the area. have been made by the two previous expeditions, and they will no doubt add materiaily to know- The recovery of Prof. David's collection from Depot Island will probably enable him to fill in further details to his work. Mr. Griffith Taylor, of the Australian Meteoro- logical Service, who was geologist to the western party, has examined a coal seam in the Beacon Sandstone near Granite Harbour, while Mr. Priestly has studied the same formation near Mount Melbourne, and there obtained some large stems of fossil wood. These new plant remains should enable the age of the Beacon Sandstone to be more definitely established. Prof. David | describes the formation as similar to the ‘ Trias- Jura” of Tasmania, but he regards the evidence as only adequate to assign it to the Gond- wana Formation; and it may therefore be as early as the Carboniferous or as late as the Jurassic. The detailed survey by Mr. Priestly and Mr. | Taylor will no doubt be found to vield more new information to the geology of South Victoria Land than is implied by the dispatch. Their work, for example, will probably settle the ques- tion at issue between the two former expeditions as to whether any of the granites are intrusive into the Beacon Sandstone. It is also announced that the volcano rocks of | “Rock Island,” clearly a misprint for Ross Island, have been discovered to be older than was thought. Mr. Priestly during the first season collected a series of rocks from the Cape Adare district, which was previously known from the collection made by the Southern Cross Expedition, and described by Dr. Prior. Mr. Priestly also ascended Mount Erebus by a different route from that followed by Prof. David; the lip of the crater was found to be 10,000 feet high, and the sledges were hauled to the level of 9500 feet. The volcano was in “mild eruption,” and Mr. Gran was nearly suffocated by its fumes. Mr. Griffith Taylor has measured the flow of the Mackay Glacier, and found that its rate is 80 ft. a month, a much lower speed than that of some Greenland glaciers, and less than that esti- mated for the Ross Barrier. With so competent a physiographer as Mr. Taylor, valuable contribu- tions to the glacial geology of the area may be confidently expected. Commander Evans’s report directs attention to the interesting problem of former changes in the Antarctic climate. As the rich fauna living in the Ross Sea includes simple corals and sponges, the fossils from the Cambrian limestones do not prove any considerable change in the temperature of the Antarctic seas. The fossil plants and coal seams give stronger evidence than the fauna of climatic change. It is interesting to know that the Ant- arctic shared in the variations of climate proved for the Arctic regions by their well-known plant beds; but the extent and nature of the climatic change indicated by the Arctic fossil plants is still been at work in areas of which preliminary surveys | problematical. NO. 2260, VOL. 90] FEBRUARY 20, 1913] NATURE 677 EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES IN AERO- to the DYNAMICS.1 M EIFFEL has contributed much +V experimental study of aérodynamics and aéronautics, and his experiments at the Eiffel Tower some years ago upon air resistance at high velocities will be recalled as establishing the truth of the squared law for velocities up to 40 metres a second. His subsequent researches at his laboratory in the Champ de Mars will be familiar to all students of the subject, and more particularly to those concerned with the more practical aspects of aérodynamics as pertaining to the design of aéroplanes. In this paper he describes some recent researches, and also the apparatus and equipment at his new laboratory in the Rue Boileau, Auteuil, which the writer has had the opportunity of inspecting, thanks to the courtesy of M. Eiffel and of M. Rith, his able collaborator. This laboratory was designed on a more _ extensive scale than that of the Champ de Mars, for the wind tunnel in the latter only allowed velo- cities of 18 metres a second. As the speed of aéro- planes _ consider- ably exceeds this, it was deemed ad- visable to con- struct new appara- tus to obtain velo- cities more nearly those attained in actual flight. The large wind tunnel in this laboratory consists of a tube provided with a fan, the tube being made on the Venturi pattern, and in that part corresponding to the “throat” is situated the room containing the delicate register- ing apparatus, in which the attendants can watch and work the tests upon aérofoils of large size suspended in the current (Fig. 1). The current traverses this room, the outlet and inlet being on opposite sides. The cone collector has diameters of 4 and 2 metres with a length of 3°30 metres, and the diffuser (or discharge end of the tube) has a length of 9 metres and ends with a fan 4 metres in diameter (Fig. 2). With this large tunnel veloci- ties of 2 to 32 metres per second are obtained. Parallel with this tube, and passing through 1 ** Tes nouvelles recherches expérimentales sur la Résistance de l'Air et l'Aviation faites aux lahoratoires du Champ de Mars et d’ Auteuil.” Par M. G. Eiffel. Extrait des Mémoires de la Société des Ingénieurs Civils de France. (Bulletin de Juillet, 1912.) NO. 2260, VOL. 90] | model. the same instrument or measuring room, is another, 1 metre in diameter, by which velocities of 40 metres per second (89 miles per hour) can be obtained. The registering apparatus is carried upon a chariot running on rails, and may be moved from one tube to the other, as desired, across the instrument room. So much for the design of this laboratory, at present the largest of its kind in existence, and very complete in all that pertains to experimental aérodynamics. The first tests made at the Auteuil laboratory and described in the paper before us were upon model aéroplanes to determine, if possible, the laws of similitude between an aéroplane and its For this purpose an exact model, con- structed to a scale of 1 to 14°5, was made of the aéroplane used by Col. Bouttieaux and M. Meudon, of the military aéronautical laboratory at Chalais- «3 Fic. 1.—Dynamometer room through which the current of air passes from right to left (Auteuil laboratory). Meudon, for experimental purposes and equipped with registering apparatus. By pressing a button the pilot, Lieut. Saunier, when flying on an abso- lutely calm day, could register photographically the following data :—(1) the kinetic thrust of the propeller, or head resistance, usually called “drift”; (2) the speed of the propeller; (3) the velocity of the aéroplane relative to still air; (4) the angle of attack or angle made by the chord of the aérofoils with the line of flight. The model of this aéroplane was subjected to tests in the laboratory at velocities about the same as those of the actual flight, and curves were drawn giving the values of lift and drift for different angles of attack. | When these resist- ances, horizontal and vertical, are compared for the aéroplane and its model, they are found to 678 NATURE | FEBRUARY 20, 1913 lie on the same curve, taking account, of course, of the scale of the model. All the values of the vertical components for the aéroplane fall exactly upon the curve for the model, and five out of seven for the horizontal components likewise, the other two showing but slight difference. The paper contains other results obtained in this new labora- tory from which much may be expected in the future. In his paper? M. Gandillot makes frequent ca!ls upon the experimental results obtained by M. Eiffel to support the mathematical analysis he gives of the action of bodies moving through the air and the thrust of aéroplane propellers. He considers the air as an elastic medium in which disturbances are propagated according to well- known laws. The mass of air acted upon by a THE WHEAT SUPPLY OF GREAT BRITAIN. “HE recent announcement by Mr. R. H. Rew that this country produces about one-half of its own food lends interest to the volumes of statistics periodically issued by the Board of Agriculture, setting forth the respective amounts of agricultural produce raised at home and imported trom abroad, and the home production of agricul- tural produce. Even those who professed to be experts in the matter were not prepared to find that so much of our food was home-grown. There is no doubt that the wheat statistics had been responsible for the misconception. Only about one-fifth of our wheat is supplied by the British farmer, the rest all coming from abroad. It had been too hastily assumed that the other imports 5 of food supplies Fic. 2.—Discharge end of the Venturi tute (Auteil plane surface moving through it may be calculated by these considerations, and the deductions are supported by M. Eiffel’s results. Thus a plane surface moving at a constant velocity at a known gradient acts upon a mass of air greater than the volume swept through, as is shown by the fact that the force necessary to move the plane is greater than would be accounted for by displace- ment. In the light of the experiments of M. Eiffel on propellers in a current of air, the discussion of the action of propellers during flight is interesting, especially the law connecting speed of flight with angular velocity of propeller. This mathematical summary is a valuable work taken in connection with the researches at the Champ de Mars and Auteuil. I 1S 18} 2 “Abrégé sur I'Hélice et la Résistance de l’Air.” Par Maur'ce Gandillot. (Paris; Gauthier-Villars.) NO. 2260, VOL. 90] ze 3 worked out in the same proportion. In the latest figures published in the Journal of the Board of Agri- culture (No. 6, 1912), it is shown that the home crop amounted to more than 8 million quarters for the previous season (1911-12). Al- though this is far below the 1o mil- lion quarters raised in 1885, it is, nevertheless, the highest crop obtained for many years, a_ highly satisfactory result on which agricul- turists are much to be congratu- lated. The total imported was laboratory). roughly 274 mile : : lion quarters, which came most from India, next from Canada, followed by the United States, Argentina and Australia, and least (among the principal countries) from Russia. One of the most remarkable developments has been the Indian supply. So recently as 1908-9 India came rather a bad fourth on the list of wheat-supplying countries, Canada third, and the Argentine and the United States respectively first and second. But the Indian export made a big jump up in 1909-10, and a further one in 1910-11, and it maintained this new high level in 1911—12. So much admirable work has been done at Pusa on the production of Indian wheats for the British market, and so much interest has been aroused among the more progressive cultivators, that we may confidently expect India to maintain a high position among wheat-producing countries. FEBRUARY 20, 1913] NATURE 679 : , | P : Canada is, however, running India very close, and ; member of the Legion of Honour, and in 1879 he the staff of the (ttawa Experimental Farm is actively engaged in studying wheat produc- tion, in raising new varieties suited to the different regions, and in devising new methods of manage- ment or cultivatio. likely to increase the yield. {t is satisfactory, al-:, to find that Australia has considerably increase: her shipments of wheat and sent more than in any previous year; the yields for some of the States would seem to indicate even further possibilities of increase. GEORGE MATTHEY, B.R:S. HE death of Mr. George Matthey, F.R.S., on February 14, in his eighty-eighth year, removes one who whilst actively engaged in commercial work was at the same time keenly interested in scientific progress. During the early years of his life Mr. Matthey’s time was devoted not only to developing and extending the business in Hatton Garden, but also to a most careful study of platinum and its associated metals, and he devised methods by which these metals could be separated quantita- tively from each other on a large scale. These methods were described by him in the Proceedings of the Royal Society for 1879 (vol. xxviii., p. 463). In 1870 an international metric commission met in Paris. Its object was the construction and verification of a new and uniform series of standards, and upon it served such masters of metallurgical and chemical arts as Deville, Debray, and Stas. Certain members of the com- mission undertook the work of purifying the platinum and iridium of which the new standards were to be composed. After much labour had been expended, the alloy consisting of platinum with ro per cent. of iridium was produced, but on analysis it was found to be impure. At this stage Mr. Matthey was invited by the French Minister of War, at the instigation of several important official bodies, to prepare the necessary quantity of alloy. He at once undertook the work of making the large quantities of platinum and iridium in the highest state of purity, and finally cast the ingots of the alloy in Paris. These ingots were submitted to the most rigid analysis, and proved to be exactly of the com- position required. Mr. Matthey was then invited to construct the bars of the somewhat peculiar cross-section which had been already decided upon. The writer well remembers Mr. Matthey telling him that his friends besought him to have nothing to do with the construction of the bars; he was not, how- ever, a man to be daunted by a difficulty of this sort, and he went into the City and bought a second-hand lathe, and set one of his skilled work- men to produce the bars of the desired cross- section. The bars fulfilled all the conditions that were laid down. Copies of them were supplied to all the larger countries of the world, and they now constitute the standards upon which the metric system rests. Mr. Matthey was appointed a NO. 2260, VOL. 90] | was elected a fellow of the Royal Society. Notwithstanding the absorbing character ol business affairs and inroads on his leisure neces- sitated by his deep interest in scientific progress, Mr. Matthey found time to interest himself in educational matters; he played a very active part in the foundation of the City and Guilds Colléges for the advancement of technical education at Finsbury and South Kensington, and served for many years on the executive governing body of those institutions. His wide knowledge of affairs and his keen judgment of men played no small part in determining the signal success of these two colleges from their very inception. The very complete scheme of technical education with which London is provided is in a large measure due to the enthusiastic efforts of Mr. Matthey in associa- tion with two other prominent members of the Goldsmiths’ Company, Sir Walter S. Prideaux and the late Sir Frederick Abel. Mr. Matthey for a very prolonged period served as a warden of the Goldsmiths’ Company, where his counsel and advice were of the greatest assist- ance on questions relating to assaying and the precious metals. Almost all who work at scientific research are under a deep debt of gratitude to Mr. Matthey and his firm for unvarying kindness in helping them out of many difficulties by placing the resources of their works so freely at their disposal. Those who had the privilege of counting Mr. Matthey as a friend realise that they have lost a truly delightful companion, remarkable not only for the wide breadth of his sympathies, ‘but also for his genial temperament and abhorrence of all that savoured of sham. Cxew ie NG? Mr. Davin Hooper, curstor of the Industrial Sec- tion, Indian Museum, Calcutta, has been appointed economic botanist to the Botanical Survey of India. BANG Tue Rev. A. H. Cooke, author of an important work on molluscs (‘Cambridge Natural History Series”’), has succeeded Mr. R. Bullen Newton in the presidency of the Malacological Society of London. Tue Toronto correspondent of The Times states that the Dominion Government will grant Mr. Stefansson the sum of 15,o00l. towards his expedition into unexplored territory north of the Canadian mainland. Mr. Stefansson will take with him Canadian students with scientific knowledge, and the expedition will be directly under the Canadian Geological Survey. He expects to be absent three winters and four summers. Dr. W. J. G. Lanp, assistant professor of botany at Chicago University, has recently spent four months in investigations in Australia and the Samoan Islands. Two of these months were occupied in the collection and study of plants in the island of Tutuila, where the remarkable growth and variety of the ferns attracted special attention. Dr. Land also made observations in and around the crater of Kilauea in the Hawaiian Islands. 680 [FEBRUARY 20, 1913 hitherto been accustomed to present its Elisha Kent Kane gold medal to explorers only. This year, how- ever, it has made an innovation by bestowing that honour, the highest in its gift, on a distinguished geologist, Prof. W. M. Davis, of Harvard. The pre- sentation immediately preceded a lecture by Prof. Davis on human response to geographical environ- ment. This was the first of a series of memorial lectures to Angelo Heilprin. On Tuesday next, February 25, Prof. H. H. Turner will begin a course of three lectures at the Royal Institution on the movements of the stars, and on Thursday, March 6, Mr. W. B. Hardy will deliver the first of two lectures on surface energy. Friday evening discourse on February 28 will be delivered by the Hon. R. J. Strutt on active nitrogen, and on March 7 by Mr. C. T. R. Wilson on the photography of the paths of particles ejected from atoms. Tue Paris correspondent of The Times reports that preparations are being made for the dispatch of an official French expedition to Franz Josef Land under M. Jules de Payer, son of the Austrian Captain de Payer, who commanded the Austrian expedition that discovered Franz Josef Land in 1873. The object of the expedition is to explore the little-known north- eastern portion of Franz Josef Land. A base will be established in the archipelago formed by Zichy Land, Liv, Eva, Adelaide, and Hvidtenland Islands. M. de Payer proposes to pass the winter at the base in scientific observations and in preparation for summer work, when a varied programme of scientific inves- tigation will be executed by means of two aéroplanes and a boat fitted with auxiliary power. A BEQUEST of tool. was left to the Linnean Society by the late Sir Joseph Hooker. The council of the society desires that the bequest should form the nucleus of a fund to be raised for the endowment of a Sir Joseph Hooker lecture, to be delivered every second, third, or fourth year, and to be published by the society. The proposal meets with the warm approval of Lady Hooker. A total sum of not less than 600!. should be obtained for this purpose, and the council confidently appeals to the fellows of the Linnean Society and others to contribute. Cheques should be drawn in favour of the ‘‘ Hooker Lecture Fund,” and sent to the general secretary of the Linnean Society, Burlington House, London, W. Tur Board of Trade and the principal Atlantic steamship lines are to cooperate in carrying out during the present year the recommendations of the Merchant Shipping Advisory Committee in its report on life- saving at sea as to stationing an ice observation vessel to the north of the steamship routes across the North Atlantic. Following the advice of a conference sum- moned by the Board of Trade to consider the best means of giving effect to this recommendation, it is proposed this spring to station a vessel off the east coast of North America to the north of the steamship routes to watch the break up of the ice and to report its movement. The Scotia, formerly employed on the NO. 2260, VOL. 90] The | Scottish Antarctic expedition, has been chartered, and it is anticipated that she will be ready to leave about the end of this month. The vessel is being fitted with a Marconi wireless installation of long range to keep in touch with the wireless stations in Newfoundland and Labrador. The cost of the expedition will be shared between the Government and the principal Atlantic steamship lines. There will be three scien- tific observers on the vessel, and as she will be from time to time stationary, it is expected they will make oceanographical and meteorological observations of general scientific interest, as well as of direct value to the work in hand. Tue Herbert Spencer lecture at Oxford was de- livered on February 14 by Prof. D’Arcy Thompson, He began by paying a warm tribute to the memory of Spencer, laying stress on the widespread nature of his influence—an influence that had more effect upon contemporary thought than even that of Kant in a former generation. With no education in literature or art, and without advantages of style, he was yet “a gallant soldier in the cause of intellectual free- dom.’’ Passing on to the special subject of his lec- ture, viz. ‘“‘ Aristotle as a Biologist,’ Prof. Thompson drew a graphic picture of the natural surroundings of Aristotle during his two years’ residence at Mitylene —the period to which, in the opinion of the lecturer, the bulk of his work in natural history is to be attri- buted. Many reasons of weight were given in fayour of the view that in the fauna, and especially the marine fauna, of Lesbos and the neighbouring seas and islands, Aristotle found the chief material for his anatomical researches. This was important in rela- tion to the fact that it limited the date of his chief philosophical works to a timte subsequent to the writ- ing of his treatises on biology. Plato ‘‘saw as in a vision,”’ but Aristotle was neither artist nor poet, nor, it was to be suspected, a profound mathematician. But he wasa naturalist born and bred, and, above all, a student of life itself. His biological instincts and training unmistakably influenced his philosophy. This | was apparent alile in his politics, his psychology, and his ethics. In all these his treatment was scientific. Making full use of the comparative method, he yet stopped short of a complete historical conception of evolution. Tue widespread belief in the sanctity of the fig-tree, which, as the pipal (Ficus religiosa), is venerated in India, is illustrated by the account contributed to the January issue of Man on the cult of the tree by the A-Kikuyu of East Africa. The exact species of this tree has not been as yet determined, but Mr. W. H. Beech describes it as the medium by which prayers ascend to Ngai, the tribal deity. As is the case with its Indian congeners, the wood is used to make the fire-drill, and the identity of observances connected with the tree seems to suggest a fusion of Indian with East African culture. We have received from Capt. Stanley Flower a re- vised list of the zoological gardens and menageries of the world, published apparently at Cairo. The total number is 168. FEBRUARY 20, 1913 | NATURE 681 Vow. iv., No. 2, of Meddelelser fra Kommissionen for Havunderségelser, serie: Fisheri, is devoted to an account by Dr. J. Schmidt of the early (‘‘prelepto- cephaline ") larval stages of congers and certain other eels. It is claimed that this is the first definite identi- fication of some of the earliest stages of the species in question, and therefore the first trustworthy clue to the particular kinds of murznoids which spawn in the Mediterranean. All the larva have pectoral fins, even in cases where these disappear in the adult. They may be divided into two groups, according to the absence or presence of swellings in the intestine, and the even distribution or collection into groups of the pigment cells. To the first group belong Conger vulgaris, C. mystax, and Muraena helena, and to the second Nettastoma melanurum, three species of Ophichthys, and a new form, described as Lepfto- cephalus telescopicus. The three species of Ophich- thys and the Leptocephalus spawn in winter, instead of, like the rest, in summer. Dr. S. Kusano has published (Journal of the Col- lege of Agriculture, University of Tokyo, iv., No. 3) an account of the life-history and cytology of a new species of Olpidium, which is of great interest with reference to the affinities of the Chytridiales, an ex- tremely lowly group of fungi. The most remarkable feature in the life-cycle of this new form is that some of the swimming reproductive cells (zoospores) regu- larly copulate in pairs to form a zygote. In discussing the difficult question of the affinities of this remark- | able group of organisms, the author inclines to the view that their origin must be sought in the Flagellata or the Mycetozoa rather than in the primitive green alge; this confirms the conclusion arrived at inde- pendently by Némec (see note in Nature, vol. Ixxxix., Pp. 539): Miss Annie D. Betrs contributes to the current number (December, 1912) of The Journal of Economic Biology an extremely interesting account of the fungi of the beehive, having by her investigations added considerably to the knowledge of this subject. The results are based on work done on the combs of stocks which died during the years 1910 to 1912 of the Isle of Wight bee disease. Twelve fungi are described, of which two are apparently confined to beehives, others adapted to hive-life but not confined to this habitat, while others again are commonly or occasionally present but not specially adapted to life in the hive. Some of the fungi belonging to the last category (Penicillium, Aspergillus, and other moulds”) are ubiquitous, but in other cases the fungus spores must be carried from hive to hive by the bees themselves. None of the fungi described appear to be pathogenic, though the presence of much mould in a stock is, if not a cause, at any rate a sign of unhealthy conditions, indicating either that the hive is not weather-proof or that the colony is weal. THE mysterious sounds known under the general name of brontides, but locally as barisal guns, mist- poeffeurs, &c., have for some months past been very noticeable in the south-west of Haiti. In this island NO. 2260, VOL. 90] the sound is called the gouffre. According to Mr. J. Scherer (Bull. of the Seis. Soc. of America, vol. ii., Pp. 230-232), it is most frequently heard in the range of La Selle. On its northern side, this range is bounded by a steep cliff, formed by displacements along a fault that is believed to be still growing. The sounds appear to come from the base of this cliff, and, as they are the same as those which accom- pany noticeable earthquakes (the Haitians apply the name of gouffre to both), it is suggested that they are caused by small adjustments of the crust along the fault. The gowffre is also heard in the north- western part of the island, at Port-de-Paix and Limonade. In view of the approaching return of the drift-ice season, the meteorological chart of the North Atlantic for February, issued by the Deutsche Seewarte, con- tains an interesting summary of the prevalence of ice in that ocean during 1912. The Meteorological Office } . . . | charts also contain much useful information on the same subject, with table showing the extreme limits of ice- bergs and field ice in 1go1-12, and diagram of phenomenal drifts during a long series of years. Last year the drift was one of the most remarkable ever known; little ice was sighted prior to the middle of February, but by the end of March a general and rapid spread was observed. By the end of May the drift reached about 383° N., and in June its southern limit had extended almost to 37° N. The positions laid down on the charts refer to the general drift; isolated bergs were met with much further south. In fact, the Meteorological Office diagram shows that ice may be observed almost anywhere in mid-ocean north of 30° N. With reference to the rate at which icebergs may travel, the Seewarte quotes an interest- ing case. On April 29, in 41° 25’ N., 41° 43’ W., the ss. Clio passed a berg supposed to be that with which the Titanic collided on April 14, and which therefore had travelled 380 nautical miles, E.4S., in fifteen days. One end of the berg was broken off, probably owing to impact with a vessel, and the water round about it was strewn with wreckage, such as chairs. towels, and cther articles. In the Revue générale des Sciences tor January 15 Mr. R. de Baillehache, one of the members of the French Commission on Units, directs attention to the advantages of the metre-kilogramme-second system for practical as well as scientific purposes. In. view of the legislation on the subject foreshadowed by the French Minister of Commerce and Industry in August last, he draws up a scheme of definitions and sug- gests several new names for the units which up to the present have not had special names assigned to them. For the unit of capacity the litre is retained and the cubic metre becomes the kilolitre. The unit of force—the cop (Copernicus)—communicates an acceleration of one metre per second to a mass of one kilogramme. The unit of pressure—the tor (Torri- celli)—is one cop per square metre, and is equal to ten baries. The unit of heat is the kilogramme degree of water at 15° C. The electrical units are the present ohm, volt, and ampere. on $2 NATURE [FEBRUARY 20, 19137 Tue December, 1912, number of Terrestrial Mag- netism contains an account, by Dr. G. E. Hale, of the attempts which have been made at Mount Wilson Solar Observatory to detect the Zeeman effect due to the magnetic field at the sun’s surface. An objective of 1 ft. diameter and 60 ft. focal length forms an image of the sun on the slit of the 75-ft. spectrograph, which to prevent temperature disturbances is mounted in a vertical shaft in the ground. Photographs of the region near the sodium lines in the third order spectrum were taken, and a neat polarising arrange- ment allowed either the red or the violet edge of a broadened line to be photographed. The plates on measurement showed evidence of a positive displace- ment of the lines in the northern and a negative in the southern hemisphere of the sun, the magnitudes reaching their maxima at about 50° north or south latitude. Further observations are being made with the view of fixing the magnitudes of the displacements more accurately. Wiru reference to Mr. R. M. Deeley’s letter on retinal shadows in Nature of January 30, we have received other letters bearing upon the point. Mr. H. H. Bemrose thinks, probably correctly, that they are the same as Purkinje’s figures. Mr. C. Wel- borne Piper once saw similar branching lines after experimenting with powerful sources of light. In his case they were coloured red against a background of an approximately complementary colour, whilst with the other eye green vessels were seen against a red background. Purkinje’s figures are most easily seen with lateral illumination of the dark-adapted eye. Shadows of the retinal vessels are then thrown upon the sentient layer of the retina, the rods and cones. Mr. Piper’s observation is of considerable interest. Black print has frequently been seen to look red when viewed in bright illumination. This is undoubtedly due to coloration of the light by blood during trans- mission through the lateral wall of the eyeball. Birk- hoff, however, has shown that erythropsia or red vision may occur after gazing at a brightly illu- minated surface for ten to fifteen minutes when all lateral light is excluded. Rivers holds that erythrop- sia in general is due to blood, the conditions under which it is observed being such as more or less to eliminate the normal red adaptation of the retina. The transient appearances noticed by our correspond- ents may be regarded as Purkinje’s figures seen in unfavourable circumstances owing to the general diffusion of the illumination. Tue February issue of The Chemical World con- tains a reprint of a hitherto unpublished letter from Sir Humphry Davy to Prof. W. T. Brande, who in 1813 succeeded him as professor of chemistry in the Royal Institution. Written from Idria, it contains a description of a visit to a quicksilver mine containing veins of cinnabar up to a foot in thickness. Davy also records the occurrence, in the great salt mine at Halstadt, of a blue variety of salt; as this blue colour is now attributed to the action of radium emanation, it is not surprising to read the statement: ‘‘I have been again searching in vain for the cause of this extraordinary colour.” Both mines, occurring in NO. 2260, VOL. 90] bituminous schist, contained dangerous quantities of inflammable air, and gave to Davy the opportunity of introducing his safety lamp. ‘The letter, with two others, is now in the possession of Sir William Tilden. SomE interesting views as to osmosis in soils are developed by Dr. C. J. Lynde and Mr. F. W. Bates in two papers published in The Journal of Physical Chemistry (vol. xvi., pp. 758-781). Experi- ments are brought forward to show that a clay soil acts as a semi-permeable membrane, and that by virtue of the osmotic pressure of the solutions of salts in the soil transference of water can be effected. The efficiency of a soil column as a semi-permeable mem- brane increases with its depth, comparatively long columns being necessary to produce the same effects as a perfect semi-permeable membrance. The view that an osmotic movement of water occurs in soils would explain an increased supply of water brought through the subsoil to the surface in the summer months, when the plants actually need more water, and the beneficial results of soil mulching and certain practices in dry farming. Tue January issue of the Journal of the Chemical Society contains an important paper by Mr. T. R. Merton on the photography of absorption spectra. A method has been adopted which resembles those re- cently devised by Dr. Houstoun, of Glasgow, the chief feature of which is that the actual ‘ extinction- coefficients "’ are measured instead of merely the thick- ~ ness of solution required to blot out a particular spectrum line in a photograph. By using this method it has been found possible to determine the actual form of the extinction-curves, and in particular the shape of the single absorption band in the visible spectrum of cobalt nitrate (Proc. Chem. Soc., January 23, 1913). It appears that the curve showing the width of spectrum absorbed is of a simple mathe- matical form, its distribution about the central axis of the band being identical with that of the well- known probability curve. The axis of the band is, however, not vertical, 7.e. the wave-length of maxi- mum absorption changes slightly with the concen- tration of the solution. It is suggested that the anomalous form of many extinction-curves is due to the superposition of several curves of the above simple form. Rep Book No. 177 of the British Fire Prevention Committee contains a report on a system of extin- guishing petrol fires which has given very satisfactory results. ‘The system comprises either a permanent installation, wheeled fire appliances, or small extin- guishers, as the case may be, from which certain chemicals are forced, the extinguishing effect being obtained by the combination of two liquids which produce a thick foam which gradually spreads over the surface of the burning petrol, thereby excluding air and extinguishing the fire. According to the report, two petrol fires of considerable area and severity were creditably dealt with, as well as numerous smaller fires, and the extinguishers were also effective on celluloid fires. The system is one | which claims the attention of those concerned in the } ever-increasing hazards of petrol, used particularly FEBRUARY 20, 1913] NATURE 683 for transport purposes. Copies of the report may be obtained from the assistant secretary, British Fire Prevention Committee, 8 Waterloo Place, S.W. WE have received a copy of an address delivered by Prof. C. Neuberg before the members of the German Zentralstelle fiir Balneologie, at Schwerin, in Sep- tember last, entitled ‘‘ Bezichungen des Lebens zum Licht’ (Berlin, Allgemeine Medizinische Verlags- anstalt, pp. 63, price 1.50 marks). This address con- tains a valuable summary of recent work on the in- fluence of light on living organisms, both from the chemical and biological aspects; in this field Prof. Neuberg has himself been an active worker, and some of the views he develops, regarding the influence of sunlight on health and disease, will be read with considerable interest. An illustrated article in Engineering for February 14 gives an account of the large Humphrey gas pumps installed at Chingford. There are five sets in all; the first two were started on January 18 and 19, and the third a week ago; the remaining sets will no doubt be at work before the official opening of the Chingford Reservoir by his Majesty the King on March 15 next. No accurate tests have been made as yet, but it is already sufficiently obvious that the guaranteed output is being very substantially ex- ceeded. So carefully have the designs of the pumps been worked out that the only detail altered, as the result of seeing them at work, has been the substitu- tion on certain valve-spindles of a solid nut instead of the split one originally provided. It has required considerable courage to accept a contract, under very stringent penalties, for pumps of this type, 7 ft. in diameter, and developing each between 200 and 300 h.p., on the basis of the experience gained of an experimental pump having an output equivalent to about 35 h.p only. The results so far have entirely justified Mr. Humphrey’s confidence in the capabilities of his remarkable contribution to the progress of mechanical engineering. OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. VARIATION OF LATITUDE: THE Kimura TEerM.—After applying all known corrections to the results obtained by the International Latitude Service, there remains a periodic term, known as the Kimura term, for which many explanations have been suggested. Dr. F. E. Ross now suggests that this term is not real, but is due to our lack of knowledge concerning the method of treating the results. He points out that any one of the suggested explanations is efficient, but argues that there is no need for them, for any periodic error in the system of mean declinations adopted would produce a so-called Kimura term. (Astro- nomische Nachrichten, No. 4630.) WestTpHaL’s Comet.—Having investigated, by Pontécoulant’s method, the perturbations of West- phal’s comet (1852iv) for the period 1852-1914, Herr M. Viljev publishes a set of elements and a number of search-ephemerides in No. 4621 of the Astro- nomische Nachrichten. As the time of perihelion passage is still uncertain, he gives a number of NO. 2260, VOL. 90] | loan, of a large ephemerides, extending to March 12, which cover the period +240 days on either side of the computed epoch; the period of the comet is 61-5554 years, and it last passed perihelion on October 12, 1852. THe Opacity OF THE ATMOSPHERE IN 1912.—An article in No. 63 of the Gazette astronomique directs attention to the general opacity presented by the sky on cloudless nights during the late spring, the summer, and the autumn of 1912. M. de Roy found sixth-magnitude stars invisible to the naked eye, even on moonless nights and at the zenith, while other observers in many parts of the world found a lack of transparency, noticeable in observations of the sun and stars and in the unusual paleness of the blue of the sky. A suggested explanation of the phenomenon is that volcanic eruptions, more especially the one which took place in the Alaskan peninsula and Aleu- tian archipelago in June, polluted the atmosphere with fine dust, and so reduced its transparency. A ZOOLOGICAL GARDEN FOR EDINBURGH. {pee council of the Zoological Society of Scotland, in pursuance of its project of raising the neces- sary funds for the purchase and laying out of the estate of Corstorphine Hill House as a zoological garden and park, as announced in Nature of January 30, has issued a prospectus giving a brief account of the development of the modern zoological garden of the type the society wishes to establish, together with some suggestions regarding the benefits of such an institution to education, science, and art, and a full description of the site selected for the purpose. The prospectus is illustrated with scenes depicting enclo- sures and ranges in the New York Zoological Park and in Carl Hagenbecl’s menagerie at Stellingen, which, with modifications, will serve as models for the kind of accommodation it is proposed to adopt for the animals in Edinburgh. Finally, there are many beautiful views of the grounds of the above- mentioned estate, which not only testify to the wisdom of the council in its choice of a situation, but suggest that, given the necessary funds for the purchase of stock and the upkeep of the collection, Scotland will be able to claim that it has at least the most pictur- esque zoological garden in Europe. The scheme for the establishment of the garden was in some danger, at the time of our recent note on the subject, owing to the approaching expiry of the society’s option for the purchase of this fine site, and the doubt whether a sufficiently large amount would be subscribed within the brief period remaining. This danger has been averted by the action of the Edin- burgh Town Council, which has agreed to purchase the site, of which the society will have the entire use and control in return for an annual payment of 4 per cent. on the price, the society having the right to redeem the site from the corporation within fifteen years. The society is already assured, by gift and and representative collection of animals, and it is the intention of the council to have a number of them installed and the garden open to the public by the beginning of July, 1913, though opera- tions involving much disturbance of the ground will be deferred until the winter months. Funds are urgently needed, both for the future development of the garden and for the redemption of the site, and donations should be intimated to the honorary treasurer, Mr. T. B. Whitson, C.A., 21 Rutland Street, Edinburgh. 654 NATURE [Serie 20, 1913 VIGATION AT THE ROYAL TECHNICAL COLLEGE, GLASGOW. HE steady diminution in the supply of officers for the mercantile marine, which has been going on for the past few years, is becoming a serious problem to shipowners. The average number of certificates as second mate granted annually by the Board of Trade has fallen from 1132 to 746, or 34 per cent., during the last fifteen years, and as a consider- able wastage in the number of candidates takes place during the compulsory period of qualifying sea ser- vice between the granting of this initial certificate and that of master, it follows that there is a correspond- ing reduction in the number of officers qualified to fill the higher ratings on board ship. NA This state of affairs has been brought about by the disappearance of the sailing ship and by the reluct- ance of shipowners to carry apprentices in steamers. It is partly due also to the fact that the requirements for the essential certificates of competency have within recent years been made more exacting, and the subjects increased, so that candidates who would have been capable of passing the old tests find the higher standard now demanded a serious obstacle. Further, the great increase in shipping tonnage has created a large demand tor qualified officers, there being only some 30,000 to man our mercantile marine fleet of some gooo0 vessels, figures which go to show that the navigator’s profession is by no means an overcrowded one. NO. 2260, VOL. 90] | in universities The governors of the Royal Technical Goieees Glasgow, being impressed with the desirability of providing improved facilities for instruction in nautical subjects, established in 1910, with the finan- cial assistance of the City Educational Endowments Board, a School of Navigation. The instruction offered has been eagerly taken ad- vantage of during the two years’ existence of the school, but mostly by students out of their apprentice- ship stage. It has, however, been felt all along that a development on the lines of practical as well as theoretical training was necessary. At present parents who send their sons into the mercantile marine de- prive them of opportunities of higher education that and technical colleges are offered to youths who enter other professions. In order, therefore, tice, the governors have arranged to provide a two to coordinate theory and prac- years’ course of training as marine cadets for lads who have just left school and have reached the stage of the Scotch intermediate leaving certificate. The winter session will be devoted by the cadets to the more theoretical side of their subjects, whilst attending the classes in the college. The summer will be spent afloat on board the seagoing training steamer Vivid, a vessel of 550 tons, which has now been acquired from the Admiralty. The ship will be commissioned in April each year, and, having bunker capacity for a steaming radius of 3000 miles, she will be capable of making extended voyages. Dormitory, dressing and bathroom accommodation is being pro- FEBRUARY 20, 1913] NATURE 6385 vided for fifty cadets, who, in addition to performing the ordinary routine work of the ship, will be in- structed in the duties of the navigator and seaman as required on board a first-class modern ship. Strict discipline is to be maintained on board, and the cadets will be at all times under the supervision and guid- ance of the instructors. The addition of the Vivid to the equipment of the school provides opportunities for the practical testing of the theoretical work of the lecture-room under actual seagoing conditions, and the vessel, in fact, furnishes the laboratory which in every other department of applied science has long been considered an essential adjunct to efficient in- struction. In framing the scheme of instruction, the governors of the college have kept in view the fact that owing BIOLOGICAL WORK IN INDIA. ja EEO ES the mosquito-destroying capacity of the small cyprinoid fishes known to the Spanish inhabitants of Barbadoes as milliones appears to have been considerably overestimated, naturalists in India are convinced that many of the smaller fresh-water fishes of that country play an important réle in this respect. Experiments have been carried on for the last few years by officials of the Indian Museum with the view of procuring exact details on the subject, and the result is a report, published by order of the Trustees, on “Indian Fish of Proved Utility as Mosquito-destroyers,”’ drawn up by Capt. R. B. S. Sewell and Mr. B. L. Chandhuri, in which eleven species are scheduled with such descriptions and Fic. 2.—Navigation laboratory of the Royal Technical College, Glasgow. to increased competition and the consequent necessity of saving every mile of distance and minute of time, the ingenuity of the shipbuilder, engineer, and man of science has provided the modern navigator with instruments of precision undreamt of in the earlier days of steam navigation—instruments the proper use of which demands a sound knowledge of the prin- ciples underlying their construction and a careful training in their manipulation. The course of training has the support of the leading shipping firms, as it is recognised that the cadets who have gone through the full course will be of immediate value on board ship, instead of, as at pre- sent, wasting at least the first year of their apprentice- ship picking up the elements of their profession in a haphazard fashion. NO. 2260, VOL. 90] illustrations as render their identification easy. What, if any, practical results ensue from the investi- gation remain to be seen. An issue of the Entomological Series of the Memoirs of the Department of Agriculture (vol. ii., No. 9), forming the second part of life-histories of Indian insects, records the results of investigations carried on at Pusa on the early stages of two species of Rhynchota and eight of Coleoptera. The memoir is illustrated with coloured plates, and, as mentioned in the preface, Mr. D.. Nowrogee, to whom the in- vestigation was entrusted, is to be congratulated on the manner in which he has carried out a difficult task. Beautifully executed illustrations in colour are like- wise a feature of a second article on insects 686 NAT ORE [FEBRUARY 20, 1913 injuriously affecting casuarina trees in Madras, by Mr. V. S. Iyer, forming Forest Bulletin No. 11. The worst offender seems to be the caterpillar of the moth Arbela tetraonis, but the fat grubs of a longicorn beetle are likewise harmful. No. 10 of the serial just quoted is devoted to an account, by Mr. R. S. Hole, of the great outbrealx of bark-boring beetle-larvee in the coniferous forests of the Simla district between 1907 and 19it. Five species were involved in this very serious attack. From among several articles in vol. vii., part ii., of the Records of the Indian Museum, attention may be concentrated on one by Dr. N. Annandale on the Indian. fresh-water soft tortoises, or mud-turtles, of the family Trionychide. The author recognises one species and two subspecies which were not included by Mr. Boulenger in the volume on reptiles in the “Fauna of British India,” namely, Anderson’s Trionyx nigricans, from Chittagong, which has hitherto been insufficiently described, and two local races of the widely spread Emyda granosa. Nor is this all, for Dr. Annandale resuscitates Gray’s genus Dogania for Trionyx subplana, on the ground that in the upper shell of this species the entire series of costal plates is separated by mural bones, instead of the last pair meeting in the middle line. In Records of the Indian Museum, vol. vii., part | ili., Mr. J. R. Henderson describes a new tortoise from the Cochin district of southern India, under the name of Geoémyda sylvatica, Geoémyda being used as equivalent to Nicoria. Eri or endi silk, the product of the caterpillar of a large Assamese moth, of which the technical name does not appear to be mentioned, forms the subject of the first number of vol. iv. of the Entomological Series of the Memoirs of the Department of Agri: culture of India. According to the authors, Messrs. H. Maxwell-Lefroy and C. C. Ghosh, this sillz, which from its nature cannot be reeled, is spun and woven in Assam into an exceedingly durable cloth, which readily takes vegetable dyes. Experiments have been undertaken at Pusa with the view of ascertaining whether the cultivation cannot be extended to other parts of India, with results that appear promising. As the cocoons are not damaged by the moths in making their exit, there is no necessity for lxillinge the latter, which renders the sillk acceptable to sects lilce the Jains, who object to taking life in any circum- stances. R. MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS. OL. VIII.. parts 1 and 2, of the Transactions of the Faraday Society contain a series of papers which were read at a special meeting of the society held for the general discussion of the magnetic pro- perties of alloys. The papers naturally fall into two groups, viz. those dealing with ferrous and with non- | ferrous alloys respectively. The iron-carbon and jron-silicon alloys form the subject of an exhaustive paper by Dr. Gumlich, which is of considerable importance in connection with trans- former working. He finds that the presence of large amounts of silicon result in the metal, even when quickly cooled, exhibiting a pearlitic structure rather than containing the injurious solid solution of carbon in iron. With prolonged annealing even the pearlite is decomposed into ferrite and temper-carbon. A silicon content of 3 to 4 per cent. is necessary for this effect, so that the good magnetic properties of thin sheet-metal containing less than this amount of silicon must have another origin. Figs. 1 and 2 show an alloy with 4°5 per cent. silicon and o0'29 per cent. carbon. Fig. 1 is with the metal in the untreated NO. 2260, VOL. 90] condition, and Fig. 2 after annealing at 975° C. The annealing has resulted in the pearlitic structure giving place to enclosures of temper-carbon, and the coercive force has been reduced from 1°26 to 0'65 C.G.S. units. A paper by Messrs. Colvert-Glauert and Hilpert, on the magnetic properties of nickel steels, describes a series of tests the results of which are at variance with the view that the peculiar magnetic properties of these alloys are due to the nickel retarding the Fic. 1.—4'5 per cent. silicon-iron alloy (untreated). change from y-iron to a-iron. They find all their nickel-iron alloys when quenched at 1200° €. to be strongly magnetic, and they have come to the con- clusion that at that high temperature a strongly mag- netic compound is formed which persists through all subsequent thermal treatments. Prof. Wedekind’s paper on the magnetic properties of compounds in relation to their stoichiometric com- position summarises very clearly the present state of BiG. 2. —4°5 pec cent. silicen-iron alloy (annealed), knowledge on this important subject. At is found that simple compounds of ferromagnetic metals are throughout essentially more feebly magnetic than are the metals themselves, so far as they represent one particular degree of valency. Simple compounds of the latent-magnetic metals (manganese, chromium, vanadium, and (?) titanium) are generally more strongly magnetic than the metals, and some of the compounds exhibit residual magnetism. The maxi- FEBRUARY 20, 1913| NATURE 087 mum magnetisation is determined by the stoichio- metric composition, especially where several com- pounds of the same components exist. Manganese, for example, has a maximum in the trivalent condi- tion with such elements as can themselves be trivalent. Several papers deal with the Heusler alloys. Dx: Ross describes a series of magnetic investigations from which it is concluded that the magnetism of these alloys is associated with the occurrence of solid solutions having the intermetallic compound Cu,Al as one constituent, and probably Mn,Al as the other. The theory is supported by evidence gathered from examination of the microstructure and from cooling curves. Drs. Knowlton and Clifford, in their paper, also appear to favour the hypothesis of a series of solid solutions as best suiting their magnetic results, but Drs. Heusler and Take still adhere to their belief in a series of ternary magnetic compounds of the general formula Cu,Mn,Al., where x and y can have any of the values 1, 2,..., and x+y=32. It seems now to be certain that these Heusler alloys—despite their very small hysteresis loss under certain conditions of thermal treatment, &c.—do not give promise of practical applications in electrical measuring instru- ments. Their extreme variability, their hardness, and their brittleness are strongly against all commercial applications. THE ASSOCIATION OF TECHNICAL INSTITUTIONS. HE twentieth annual general meeting of the asso- ciation was held in Birmingham on January 31, when Mr. J. H. Reynolds, of Manchester, the new president, delivered his presidential address, in the course of which he discussed the progress of elemen- tary education since the Act of 1870, and contrasted the abundant provision of the present day with the meagreness which prevailed anterior to the Act. He detailed the causes which operated to prevent the realisation of the full fruits of the great Imperial and local expenditure incurred in the establishment and maintenance of elementary education with special reference to the early age of leaving school, and to the absence of proper measures for securing the con- tinued attendance of the children upon suitably de- signed courses of instruction and training in evening schools during the years of adolescence. He urged the abolition of half-time and the extension of the school age until fourteen, unconditionally throughout the urban and rural areas of*the kingdom, and discussed the demand made that the curriculum of the elemen- tary school should be confined to “the three R’s,” maintaining that there should be made the fullest possible provision for the education and training of the worker’s child for his future life as a producer and as a citizen. He further directed attention to the poor physical condition of many thousands of children in the public elementary schools, and ap- pealed for smaller classes and better trained teachers. He dwelt upon the importance of this question of elementary education, since until it is well considered and effectuallv provided, secondary education cannot be adequately established, and any technical education and training of real value directly concerned with a livelihood and based upon scientific principles are im- possible. Education is one, and indivisible, and if there is to be a satisfactory superstructure the foundations must be carefully laid, and the whole scheme made organically complete from the elementary school to the university. Out of a child population between the ages of thirteen and seventeen amounting to upwards of NO. 2260, VOL. gol 1,800,000, there were only 325,117 enrolled in evening schools. Measures should be enacted requiring all employers to give facilities for the continued educa- tion of their employees between the ages of fourteen and seventeen; until that age was reached the child should remain the ward of the schoolmaster. The Act of 1902 unified under one responsible | authority all forms of education, and for the first | time in the history of English education gave the means for the provision of a properly organised system of secondary education. The operations of the Tech- nical Instruction Act of 1889 had awakened a new and serious interest in education, derived from the fact that the ill-prepared educational condition of the students made it impossible to impart successfully any satisfactory training in science or technology. Under the provisions of the Education Act of 1902 numerous old endowed schools all over the country which had become effete for want of effective public control, and of the means to meet the demands of modern requirements, have been revivified, and large numbers of new secondary schools, well staffed and equipped, have been provided. The great drawback to their efficiency is to be found in the short school life, extending to not more than two years and nine months, contrasting unfavourably with the school life of the German gymnasium and the Ober-Real-Schule, extending to nine years, and ending in a leaving examination, admitting without further test to any technical high school or university in Germany. Measures should be taken to ensure a satisfactory length of school life in English secondary schools, concluding with a school-leaving examination giving admission at once to any institution for higher learn- ing. We have further so to systematise our secondary education that in going from one large urban or other centre to another the scholar will be sure to find a school of similar standing to that he has left. It is to the improvement of the product of the elementary school and in the extension of the school age until fourteen, to a large increase in the number of second- ary schools and in the extension of the length of the school life therein, so as to approximate to that of the German and Swiss secondary schools, that we must look for the future growth and efficiency of technical institutions. Having regard to English conditions these institu- tions have done an immense service in the past in providing the means of continued education and train- ing for the great mass of the youths engaged in our trades and industries, and English manufacturing industry owes much of its pre-eminence, especially the engineering industries, to the work and influence of these evening schools. In this connection the work of the Department of Science and Art and of the City and Guilds of London Institute has been of high im- portance and value. The opportunity of further instruction and training of this character in day classes is much to be desired. It is satisfactory to note that many of the more important firms, especially in the engineering and chemical industries, are encouraging the admission of a much better type of educated and trained man into their works, and are offering facilities and induce- ments based on training age and attainments. As industries grow in respect of the number and varied equipment of the men employed, and in the extent and complexity of the production, a higher type of man is required, characterised by a better general education, more expert knowledge and_ practical abilitv. It is realised that ‘“‘the day of the trained man has come; that of the untrained man is past.” A new science has come into being, namely “the 688 NATURE [FEBRUARY 20, 1913 science of industrial management,” demanding special qualities and the amplest training, the aim being to secure ‘‘a large increase in the wage-earning capacity of the workman,” and ‘“‘a still larger decrease in the labour cost of his product.” But not only is it neces- sary to consider the efficiency of the workman as such, but thought must be given to his life as a citizen; in short, not only economic but ethical con- siderations must have place, since industry demands the humanising influence of the most cultivated intel- ligence to ensure its complete success. In the words of Prof. Smithells: ‘Professions and business voca- tions are more and more becoming learned callings, each developing a special body of knowledge, which requires for its full mastery and effective use an intel- lectual training of what may be called the university standard.” The demand for this in respect of the great engineering and chemical industries has long been recognised and met in Germany. Hence the import- ance given to chemical and physical science, and the lavish provision made for its teaching in nearly. all her great universities, and to engineering in her technical high schools, of which, if the Polytechnikum at Zurich be included, there are now twelve with upwards of 13,000 day students taking full four-year courses, nearly all of them as a condition of entrance demanding from engineering students at least one year’s experience in a works, and no admission except to duly accredited students from a gymnasium or school of equal standing. These schools are all—vide Dr. Nicolson’s recent report—largely increasing their engineering equipment, so as to bring it up to the latest advance in engineering science and equipment, and with a view to further investigation and experi- ment in the service of the industries. Having regard to this equipment, to the spirit of investigation and research, and to the large body of highly educated students, we cannot be surprised at the position Ger- many now takes in the world of applied chemistry and engineering. It is further stated upon high authority that the exceptional expenditure on new plant and buildings at eight German technical high schools, including that of Zurich, during the last five years has been 785,o000l. If Englishmen mean to maintain their great indus- trial position they must follow in the steps of Ger- many, Since in many important spheres of engincer- ing practice she even now takes the lead. It would be an interesting inquiry, perhaps somewhat disquiet- ing in its results, to learn how many German patents are at this moment being worked in this country under licence. During the last few years there has been a definite movement on the part of certain of our large tech- nical institutions towards a closer connection with the universities within their own area, of which there are now thirteen in England and Wales, compared with three teaching and self-examining universities prior to 1880, marking an immense progress in the organisation of higher education within a generation. Of such institutions may be named Manchester, Bristol, Glasgow, Edinburgh, Belfast, and certain of the London technical institutions. Students in each of these institutions fulfilling the required conditions are now eligible for the degrees of their respective lecal universities to which they are attached. It is to be observed also that the ancient universities of Oxford and Cambridge have now strong technological departments, which help to put English institutions, though still far behind as a whole, in a much more favourable light than would at first appear on a comparison with Germany. In this connection it is convenient NO. 2260, vot. 90] to note the | endowment for the professorship of astrophysics. wisdom and liberality of the policy of the Royal Com- missioners for the Exhibition of 1851, whose scheme of science scholarships has been so fruitful in result, in the establishment in 1911 of the scheme of indus- trial bursaries to enable graduates of certain defined | institutions to enter upon industrial work at the close of their ordinary university course, thus enabling those men whose aualifications fitted them well to take part in the application of science in the indus- tries, but who were often diverted to less suitable employment by the necessity of earning a livelihood, to be relieved from constraint in their choice of occu- pation, and to enter into positions more suitable to their training and abilities. Eighteen bursaries were awarded, the payments ranging from 35/. to rool. per annum, varying according to salary and circum- stances. It is gratifying to note the great progress which has been achieved in scientific and technical educa- tion during even the last twenty years, the more sympathetic attitude of employers in the important industries, the increased liberal support, still far from the amount the circumstances demand, of the Imperial Government, and generally the growing appreciation by the public of the value and necessity of the best possible education in due degree for all the children of the nation. UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE. BirMINGHAM.—At the annual meeting of the Court of Governors, Prof. G. Barling was elected Vice- Chancellor of the University to fill the vacancy caused by the death of Alderman C. G. Beale. It is under- stood that in consequence of his election to this position, Prof. Barling will resign the chair of surgery, which he has held since the foundation of the University. He recently resigned his post of dean of the faculty of medicine, which he had held for six years, being succeeded by Prof. Peter Thompson. The council, having received an offer from the Board of Agriculture of a grant-in-aid, to be expended in carrying on a research department in agricultural zoology, has appointed Prof. F. W. Gamble, F.R.S., as director of the new department. An assistant director is to be appointed, who will devote his whole time to the duties, under the supervision of Prof. Gamble. It is understood that the department will specialise in helminthology. CampribGe.—Prof. H. F.’ Newall has conveyed to the Vice-Chancellor, on behalf of a donor who desires to be anonymous, an offer to the University of an In the course of his letter, Prof. Newall remarks :—'* The transfer of the Solar Physics Observatory to Cam- bridge introduces into the University a new study. The fresh opportunities. and obligations which it opens up can better be met by fresh endowments sufficient to secure permanently the services of a pro- fessor of astrophysics (who would also be responsible for solar physics) than by any measure that involves the diversion of the services of the Plumian professor from the development of dynamical astronomy and from the training of men in that department of know- ledge. If such a permanent professorship of astro- physics be established, it is desirable that its emolu- ments should be sufficient to attract really able men, and to raise it to a high rank among _ university posts.’’ This statement of the position of the subject was placed before the anonymous benefactor, who has empowered Prof. Newall to convey the following offer to the Vice-Chancellor :—‘‘ Should the University con- | cur in the views vou have expressed to me, I am } FEBRUARY 20, 1913 | NATIT RE 089 prepared on the occurrence of the first vacancy in the chair of astrophysics to contribute a sum of ten thousand pounds towards the permanent endowment of the chair, provided that the University is willing to undertake to supplement this sum by such further endowment either of principal or of income as will raise the emoluments of the chair thenceforward to Sool. a year.” Mr. C. Hankins, forester to Earl Cadogan, has been appointed adviser in forestry. He will be under the supervision of the reader in forestry, under whose responsibility all working plans and proposals of a general nature will be issued. Oxrorp.—The proposal to allocate a site in the University Park for the erection of an engineering laboratory has been dropped, it being understood that a suitable piece of ground will be available for this purpose without encroaching on the open space which adds so greatly to the amenities of Oxford. Mr. W. James Tuomas, of Ynyshir, has increased his gift of 10,000 guineas to the University College of South Wales and Monmouthshire to 12,7501. in order to cover the full cost of erecting a medical school. A LEADING article in The Chemical World on the Oxford University Laboratory directs attention to the remarkable developments that are in progress in the teaching of chemistry in the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge. Since the institution of the new régime at Cambridge, four years ago, ‘150 original communications have been published from the chemical laboratory of that University, a record that is probably unequalled by any laboratory in this country or elsewhere. In the same period the number of graduate and post-graduate students in the labora- tories has more than doubled. There can be little doubt that similar developments are to be anticipated at Oxford, following the recent election of Prof. W. H. Perkin to the chair of chemistry. THE governing body of the University of Wisconsin has decided, says Science, to ask the State legislature, now in session, for 200,000l., to be granted in sums of 50,0001. a year for four years, in order to provide and equip further accommodation for men students. The continuance of the present appropriation of 60,0001. a year for the construction and equipping of academic buildings will also be requested. For the further development of university extension work, an increase of soool. a year is desired. Owing to the reduction in the assessed valuation of personal pro- perty, resulting from the adoption of the income tax in Wisconsin, the University’s fund for current ex- penses has this year fallen below the amount antici- pated. The governors, therefore, have requested that the sum of 18,5001. be appropriated to make up this year’s decrease, that 35,0001. be provided for next year’s decrease, and 45,0001. for the following year’s decrease. VERY important developments are now taking place in the Royal (Dick) Veterinary College in Edinburgh. Not the least important is the removal from the pre- sent limited quarters to what will in a year or two be a fine addition to the many colleges which adorn the city. To make room for the new buildings, some quaint cottages of a bygone epoch will have to be removed. These are in what is known as Summerhall Square, which lies to the east of the East Meadows in the southern part of Edinburgh. The main frontage of the buildings will face west, and in the rear the clinical department will be housed in buildings quite distinct from those devoted to teaching and adminis- tration. The various laboratories and class-rooms will NO. 2260, VOL. 90] | be equipped with the best modern appliances for the study of the diseases and treatment of domestic animals. Another important development is the estab- lishment of a degree in veterinary science in the Uni- versity of Edinburgh. The regulations require the student to attend certain of the more purely scientific courses in the University, but the more technical part of the training is given in the Royal Veterinary Col- lege. Though no nearer to the University than the present college building, the new buildings will be much more conveniently situated, and the practical affiliation of the two institutions will be more thoroughly effected. It is expected that the new college will be ready for use in October, 1914. On February 13 a brilliant University function was held in the Library Hall of Edinburgh University, when Sir William Turner’s portrait was presented by the subscribers to the University. Mr. A. J. Balfour, M.P., the Chancellor of the University, presided, and received the portrait from Sir Robert Findlay, M.P., who presented it in the name of the many subscribers. Sir Robert Findlay, himself an old pupil of Sir Wil- liam’s, spoke of the sixty years’ service which Sir William had rendered to the University, first as assistant to Prof. Goodsir, then as professor of anatomy, and finally as principal of the University. As Sir Robert made the presentation, the curtain was drawn aside and revealed a striking and happy por- traiture of the veteran principal, by the hand of Sir James Guthrie, president of the Royal Scottish Academy. Mr. Balfour, in his remarks, dwelt on the remarkable developments which had taken place during the last fifty years in university life in Edin- burgh. In making their University keep up with modern needs, Sir William Turner was the man who above all others had taken the greatest share in this development. He combined in an unusual way the qualities of a great teacher and a great administrator. Lord Provost Inches having expressed the high appre- ciation which the Corporation had for Sir William, whom a few years since they had enrolled as a burgess | of their city, Sir William Turner, after thanking his many friends and old students for their great kind- ness, gave some interesting reminiscences of the early days in which he began his life in Edinburgh. Although he could not claim Edinburgh as his birth- place, he was sure no one could love the old city | better than he did, or could have a higher regard for its historic associations and its peculiar and indefinable charm. The ceremony they had been engaged in would remain in his mind, during the brief period that he might look to for a continuance of life, as a mark of confidence and esteem from his colleagues, students, and friends. SOGIE THES “AND ACADEMIES: LoNnDON.. Royal Society, February 13.—Sir Archibald Geikie, K.C.B., president, in the chair.—Prof. R. A. Samp- son: A Cassegrain reflector with corrected field. The purpose of this memoir is to discover an appliance which shall correct in a practical manner the faults of the field of a Cassegrain telescope while leaving unimpaired its characteristic features of great focal length, convenient position of the observer and achromatism. It is shown in agreement with the investigation of Schwarzschild that two mirrors alone cannot correct the field without introducing imprac- ticable curves or sacrificing the general design. A system of lenses is investigated which shall effect the purpose. Three lenses is the least number which can satisfy the two conditions of achromatism. 690 NATURE [FFBRUARY 2u, 1913 Achromatism for all colours is preserved completely by making all the lenses of the same glass. The first of these lenses is a meniscus silvered at the back, and besides adjusting the ackromatism of the other (wo, serves to reverse the direction of the ray. The other two form a pair of nearly equal but opposite focal lengths and intercept the outcoming beam. By a proper distribution of curvatures between their faces they introduce correcting aberrations. The resulting field is completely corrected for colour, spherical aber- ration, coma, and curvature of the field.—Prof, H. E. Armstrong and Dr. J. V. Eyre: Studies of the pro- cesses operative in solutions. XXV., The influence of non-electrolytes on solubility. The nature of the processes of dissolution and precipitation—E. E. Walker: Studies of the processes operative in solu- tions. XXVI., The disturbance of the equilibrium in solutions of fructose by salts and by non-electrolytes. —J. Chadwick and A. S. Russell: The excitation of y rays by the a rays of ionium and radiothorism. The work on the excitation of y rays by a rays, shown first by Chadwick in the case of the a rays of radium C, has been extended to ionium. A preparation of ionium and thorium equal in a-ray activity to 3 mer. of radium, after purification from all radio-active bodies which emit 8 and y rays, was found to emit a small but easily detectable amount of y radiation. This radiation is shown to be excited by the « rays, either in the ionium itself, or in the thorium with which it is mixed. It s a mixture of three types of radiation differing widely in penetrating power.— Prof. W. E. Dalby: Load-extension diagrams taken with the optical load-extension indicator. In this paper further experiments with the indicator are described. The optical load-extension indicator itself was fully described and illustrated in a paper read on March 7, 1912. Load-extension diagrams obtained from phosphor-bronze, gun-metal, and brass are shown, together with photomicrographs taken from the specimens tested. The chemical analyses of the metals are given in each case. The effect of anneal- ing brass rod is brought out by comparing the load- extension diagrams of an annealed and an unannealed specimen and by making a similar comparison of the corresponding photomicrographs of the structure of the material. The physical effect of annealing is to produce a state in which the load-extension curve approaches the shape given by copper, and bears little resemblance to the curve obtained from the same material in an unannealed state. Zoological Society, February 4.—Sir John Rose Brad- ford, K.C.M.G., F.R.S., vice-president, in the chair. —Dr. F. E. Beddard: The anatomy and systematic arrangement of the Cestoidea. The paper dealt with a number of new species of Ichthyotaenia and Ophido- tenia obtained from the gut of serpents that had died in the gardens.—H. G. Plimmer ; Report on the deaths which occurred in the society’s gardens during the past year, together with a list of the blood parasites found during the same period. An examination had been made of the blood of every animal that had died, with the result that parasites had been discovered in 140 cases, and in eighty of these for the first time. H. L. Hawkins: The anterior ambulacrum of Echinocardium cordatum and the origin of compound plates in the Echinoidea. A new method was de- scribed of exposing sutures in recent Echinoids suit- able for photographic purposes, the process combining staining with etching, and the description of the com- plex plating of ambulacrum III. in E. cordatum. The origin of ambulacrum ‘“ plate-crushing,’’ founded on a brief survey of the phenomenon in all groups of Echinoids, was discussed. Mechanical growth- pressure was regarded as the cause, with the growth NO. 2260, VOL. 90] _ of tubercles (Lambert’s hypothesis) as a secondary and merely modifying agent.—G. P. Farran: Plankton from Christmas Island, Indian Ocean. II., Copepoda of the genera Oithona and Paroithona. ‘This collec- tion, made in 1908 by Sir John Murray and Dr. C. W. Andrews, contained eleven species of Oithona and one of Paroithona, or rather more than half the known species, the total number of known species of Oithona being eighteen and of Paroithona two. This indicated the great richness in species of collections made in tropical waters. Seven of the species of Oithona and the one Paroithona appeared to be new to science. Linnean Society, February 6.—Prof. E. B. Poulton, F.R.S., president, in the chair.—A. W. Sutton: Re- sults of crosses between a wild pea from Palestine, presumably Pisum humile, Boiss and Noé, and culti- vated forms.—Miss Bancroft: The structure of Rhexoxylon africanum. A fossil stem described by Dr. A. W. Rogers as probably coming from the Karroo rocks of Cape Colony, indicates affinities with the Medulloseze of later Paleozoic age.—Dr. R. Verity: Revision of the Linnean types of Palearctic Rhopalocera. Mathematical Society, February 13.—Prof. A. E. H. Love, president, in the chair.—T. C. Lewis: Figures in n-dimensional space analogous to orthocentric tetra- hedra.—J. E. Littlewood : A property of the ¢-function- —G. H. Hardy: The summability of a Fourier’s series. —G. H. Hardy and J. E. Littlewood: Trigonometrical series which converge nowhere or almost nowhere.— H. Bohr: A theorem concerning power series.—P. J. Heawood: A graphical demonstration of the funda- mental properties of quadratic residues.—J. B. Holt : The irreducibility of Legendre’s polynomials (third paper).—W. H. Young: The mode of oscillation of a Fourier series and its allied series.—H. T. H. Piaggio ; Some non-primary perpetuant syzygies of the second Ixind. MANCHESTER. Literary and Philosophical Society, February 4.—Prof. F. E. Weiss, president, in the chair.—D. Thoday: A capillary eudiometric apparatus for analysing small volumes of air. Results of experiments relating to the exchange of gases between plants and the atmo- sphere.—W. B. Brierley: The structure and_life- history of Sphaeria lemaneae. The author traced the origin and development of the vegetative and repro- ductive organs of Sphaeria lemaneae, a fungus in- habiting sexual filaments of Lemanea. The relations obtaining between the host and parasite were eluci- dated, and the morphological structure and cytology of the fungus shown to be in general agreement with previous knowledge of Pyrenomycetous fungi. The accepted systematic position of Sphaeria lemaneae was questioned. Paris. Academy of Sciences, February ro.—M. F. Guyon in the chair.—Pierre Duhem: Two fundamental inequali- ties of thermodynamics.—Paul Sabatier and M. Murat : The direct addition of hydrogen to the phenylacetic esters: the preparation of cyclohexylacetic acid. This reaction requires a large excess of hydrogen in pre- sence of a very active nickel, maintained at 180° C. The yield is quantitative, no loss occurring through secondary reactions. The properties of cyclohexyl- acetic acid and of five of its esters are described.— Charles Depéret: Observations on the Pliocene and Quaternary geological history of the gulf and isthmus of Corinth.—Hugo de Vries was elected a correspon- dant of the academy in the section of botany, in the place of M. Schwendener, elected foreign associate.—Mlle. S. Tillinger: The determina- ' tion of the growth of functions defined by a Taylor’s | FEBRUARY 20, 1913 | NATURE 691 series.—J. Le Roux: The determination of the har- monic functions.—Th. De Donder; A theorem of Jacobi.—Henri Villat: The determination of problems of hydrodynamics relating to the resistance of fluids. —M. Gernez: Construction and use of maps for ortho- dromic navigation on planes tangent to the poles.— L. Crussard: The deformation of waves in gases and on finite interferences.—Car] Stérmer; An important problem in cosmical physics.—Albert Turpain ; Record- ing the Hertzian time signals. The possibility of recording directly and determining to a hundredth of a second the Eiffel Tower time signals. A descrip- tion of the results obtained by a photographic recorder, by means of which the beats of a chronometer and the wireless time signals are registered on the same sheet. —Edm. van Aubel: The latent heat of vaporisation of metals. Utilising the experimental data of Weh- nelt and Musceleanu for the latent heats of vaporisa- tion of mercury, cadmium, zinc, and _ bismuth, Trouton’s law is shown to hold for these metals, the constant varying only between 19:36 and 20-2.—A. Guillet and M. Aubert: Electric losses in the system plane-sphere-atmospheric air. The coefficient of asymmetry and its measurement.—V. Crémieu : A new idiostatic voltmeter. The voltmeter is claimed to be very sensitive, not damaged by excessive voltages, and not so fragile as the -gold-leaf electroscope.—Jean Becquerel, [.. Matout, and Mlle. W. Wright: Hall’s phenomenon in antimony. The Hall effect for antimony increases as the temperature of the metal is lowered, and depends on the position of the axes of the crystal in the magnetic field. The electromotive force is not always proportional to the strength of the magnetic field.—William Duane and Otto Scheuer : The decomposition of water by the a rays. At —183° C. the hydrogen and oxygen evolved are in amolecular proportion; in the liquid state the hydrogen is in excess, some hydrogen peroxide being also formed. When steam is decomposed by the @ rays hydrogen is also in excess.—Daniel Berthelot and Henry Gaudechon ; The inversion of saccharose by the ultra-violet rays. A criticism of recent work by other workers in this subject.—Marcel Godchot and Félix Taboury : The catalytic hydrogenation of camphorone ; some new cyclopentane hydrocarbons. Camphorone, treated with hydrogen and reduced nickel at 130° C., gives quantitatively dihydrocamphorone. At 280° C. the product is methyl-1-iso-propyl-3-cyclopentane.—A. Duffour: An interesting case of dimorphism. Benzyl- vanillic alcohol erystallises in monoclinic or triclinic crystals, according to its method of preparation. The triclinic modification is stable at the melting point.— Robert Mirande: The presence of callose in the mem- brane of some marine Algz.—C. M. Bret: The exist- ence in western Africa of two stable forms of Hevea brasiliensis presenting a different aptitude in the pro- duction of latex. The two forms can be distinguished ‘by the anatomical study of the base of the petiolules, the most vigorous plant being the poorest in latex.— H. Bierry and Mlle. Lucie Fandard: Adrenaline and | glycemia. The mechanism which governs hyper- glycemia and glycosuria is not so simple as has been hitherto supposed. Part of the free sugar in excess in the blood can go more or less rapidly into com- | bination without being lost to the organism, the surplus only passing into the urine.—R. Anthony and L. Gain: The development of the skeleton of the posterior extremity of the penguin.—Armand Dehorne ; New researches on maturation mitosis in Sabellaria spinulosa.—André Mayer and Georges Schaeffer: The composition of the tissues in non-volatile fatty acids and in cholesterol and the possible existence of a “* lipo- cytic constant.”—I-m. Bourquelot, H. Hérissey, and M. Bridel: The biological synthesis of the glucosides of NO. 2260, VoL. 90] alcohols (a-glucosides) with the aid of a-glucosidase. The destruction of the «-glucosidase in strongly alcoholic medium.—Fernand Meunier: The frequent asymmetry of the elytra in Blattidze of the Coal Measures of Commentry (Allier), and the phylogeny of the groups.—Jules Welsch: The primary dunes of Gascony, and an explanation of their formation. BOOKS RECEIVED. Vergleichende Physiologie wirbelloser Tiere. By Prof. H. Jordan. Erster Band. Pp. xxii+738. (Jena: G. Fischer.) 24 marks. One Hundred Simple and Exact Mathematical Proofs that the Valencies of Carbon are Unequal. By H. Collins. Pp. 109. (London: Morton and Burt, Ltd.) Les Atomes. By Prof. J. Perrin. (Paris: F. Alcan.) 3.50 francs. The Observer’s Handbook for 1913. Pp. 72. (Toronto: Royal Astronomical Society of Canada.) Annuario Publicado pelo Observatorio Nacional do Rio de Janeiro. Para o Anno de 1913. Anno xxix. Pp. vii+349+plate. (Rio de Janeiro.) The Honey-Star. By T. Edwardes. (London: Hutchinson and Co.) 6s. The Bradshaw Lecture on the Biology of Tumours. by Dr. C. M. Moullin. Pp. 39. (London: H. K. Lewis.) 2s. net. Our Vanishing Wild Life: Pp. xvi+296. Pp. viii+344. its Extermination and Preservation. By Dr. W. T. Hornaday. Pp. xv+ git. (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons.) 1.50 dollars. : Trees in Winter: their Study, Planting, Care, and Identification. By Drs. A. F. Blakeslee and C. D. Jarvis. Pp. 446. (New York: The Macmillan Co-; London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd.) 8s. 6d. net. ‘*Red Books” of the British Fire Prevention Com- mittee. No. 176, Fire Tests with Celluloid Substi- tutes. The Committee’s Report. Pp. 31. (London: British Fire Prevention Committee.) The Fate of Empires: being an Inquiry into the Stability of Civilisation. By Dr. A. J. Hubbard. Pp. xx+220. (London: Longmans and Co.) 6s. 6d. net. Luftelektrizitat. By Dr. K. Kahler. Pp. 151. (Berlin and Leipzig: G. J. Goschen.) 90 pfennigs. Health through Diet. By K. G. Haig, with the advice and assistance of Dr. A. Haig. Pp. x+227. (London: Methuen and Co., Ltd.) 3s. 6d. net. Diptera Danica: Genera and Species of Flies hitherto Found in Denmark. By W. Lundbeck. Part iv., Dolichopodide. © Pp. 415. (Copenhagen : G. E. C. Gad; London: W. Wesley and Son.) Das Wissen der Gegenwart in Mathematik und Naturwissenschaft. By E. Picard. German transla- tion by F. and L. Lindemann. Pp. iv+292. (Leip- zig and Berlin: B. G. Teubner.) 6 marks. British Birds’ Nests: How, Where, and When to Find and Identify Them. By R. Kearton. Revised and enlarged edition. Pp. xii+520+plates. (Lon- don: Cassell and Co., Ltd.) 14s. net. The Cambridge Manuals of Science and Literature : The Physical Basis of Music. By Dr. A. Wood. Pp. 163. The Story of a Loaf of Bread. By Prof. T. B. Wood. Pp. vi+140. The Modern Warship. By E. L. Attwood. Size, Weight, and Spin. Pp. 146. The Earth: its Shape, By Prof. J. H. Poynting. Pp. 141. The Atmosphere. By A. J. Berry. Pp. 146. (Cambridge University Press.) Each ts. net. Handworterbuch der Naturwissenschaften. By E. Korschelt and others. Lief 35-37. (Jena: G. Fischer.) 2.50 marks each Lief. 692 NALOGRE. [FEBRUARY 20, 1913 La Théorie du Ree et les Quanta, Rap- ports et Discussions de la Réunion tenue 4 Bruxelles, du 30 Octobre au 3 Novembre, 1911, sous les auspices de M. E. Solvay. Publiés par P. Langevin and M. de Broglie. Pp. iii+461. (Paris: Gauthier-Villars.) 15 francs. Meddelanden fran Statens Haftet 9, 1912. Pp. ili+269+4+xxxviii. Centraltryckeriet.) 2.25 kronor. Iron and Steel. By O. F. Hudson. With a section on Corrosion by Dr. G. D. Bengough. Pp. x+173 (London: Constable and Co., Ltd.) 6s. net. Catalogue of the Lepidoptera Phalaenz in the British Museum. Vol. xii., Catalogue of the Noc- tuide in the Collection of the British Museum. By Sir G. F. Hampson. Pp. xiii+626. (London: Long- mans and Co., and others.) 17s. 6d. Dent’s Practical Notebooks of Regional Geography. By Dr. H. Piggott and R. J. Finch. Book i., The Americas. Pp. 64. (London: J. M. Dent and Sons, Ltd.) 6d. net. Memoirs of the Department of Agriculture in India. Bacteriological Series. Vol. i., No. 1, November. Studies in Bacteriological Analysis of Indian Soils. Skogsf6rs6ksanstalt. (Stockholm : No. 1, 1910-11. By C. M. Hutchinson. Pp. 65. (Calcutta: Thacker, Spink and Co.; London: Thacker and Co.) 2.8 rupees. Memoirs of the Geological Survey. England and Wales. Records of London Wells. By G. Barrow and L. J. Wills. Pp. iv+215+iii plates. (London: H.M.S.O.; E. Stanford, Ltd.) 4s. 6d. Le Celluloid et ses Succédanés. 1 163. (Paris: Gauthier-Villars.) 2.50 francs. Leitfaden der Deszendenztheorie. By Dr. L. Pp. 55. (Jena: G. Fischer.) 1.60 marks. DIARY OF SOCIETIES. THURSDAY, FEBRUARY 20. Royat Society, at 4.30.—Studies on Enzyme Action. XIX. Urease, a Selective Enzyme. II. Observations on Accelerative and Inhibitive Agents: Prof. H. E. Armstrong, M. S. Benjamin, and E. Horton.— Nervous Rhythm arising from Rivalry of Antagonistic Reflexes; Reflex Stepping as Outcome of Double Reciprocal Innervation: Prof. C. S. Sherrington.—The Lib-ra'ion of Ions and the Oxygen Tension Of Tissues during Activity (Preliminary Communication) : !'r. H. E. Roaf.—Con- tributions to the Biochemistry of Growth. The Glycogen Content of the Liver of Rats Bearing Malignant Growths: W. Cramer and J. Lochhead. —Changes in the Glomrruli and Tubules of the Kidney accompanying Activity : Prof. T. G. Brotie and J. J. Mackenzie. INSTITUTION OF MINING AND METAL! URGY, at 8.—The Copper Queen Mines and Works, Arizona, U.S.A. (1) Historical Sketch: J. Donglas. (2) Geology of the Bisbee Ore Deposits: A. Notman. (3) The Power Plant at Bisbee, Arizona ; (4) The Power Plant at Douglas, Arizona: C. Legrand. (5) Reduction Works at Douglas, Arizona: G. B Lee.— Coppe *Smelting Methods at Bogoslowsk, Perm, Russia: R. Davey. Linnean Society, at 8.—The Anatomy of the Larva of Phryganca stvicla: R. H. Deakin.—Views of Spartina Vegetation (lantern- Slides) : Dr. Otto Stapf.—A Seven-winged Fruit of Sycamore: W. B. Turrill.—The Genera Radamza, Benth., and Nesogenes, A. DC: W. Hemsley.—Marine Algz collected by Mr. C. Crossland, Part II.: Prof. R. J. Harvey Gibson and Miss Margery Knight. FRIDAY, FEBRUARY 21. Roya. InstiTuTION, at g.—Horticultural Investigations at the Woburn Experimental Fruit Farm: Spencer U. Pickering. SATURDAY, FEBRUARY 22. Royac InstiTuTION, at 3.—The Properties and Constitution of the Atom Sir J. J. Thom-on, O.M. Essex Fietp Cus (atthe Essex Museum, Stratford), at 6.—Chonociphinus woorei, a New Species of Fossil Ziphioid Whale, from Walton-Naze : A. Bell.—The Legendary Folk-lore of Amulets, Charms, and Mascots: E. Lovett. By W. Main. Pp. Plate. MONDAY, FEBRUARY 24. RovaL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, at 8.30. Rovat Society oF ARTS, at S— The” Art of Miniature Painting: C. Davenport. INSTITUTE OF ACTUARIES, at 5.—‘! House Purchase’? Companies: The “Bond Investment”? Sections of the x909 Act and Some Actuarial Features of the Business returned thereunder: C. H. Maltby. TUESDAY, FEURUARY 25. Royat InstiruTIon, at 3. ~- 1he Movementsof the Stars. (1) The Nebular Hypothesis: Prof. H. H. Turner. Roya Society oF Arts, at 4.30.—Openings for Educated Women in Canada: Ella C. Sykes. INSTITUTION oF Civil PN CINE ENE) at 8.—The Erection of the Boucanne River Viaduct, Canada: .. Pratley. NO. 2260, VOL. 90] WEDNESDAY, Fesruary 26. GEoLocicat Society, at 8.—The Geology of Bardsey Island (Carnarvon- shire): Dr. C. A. Matley. (With an Appendix on the Petrography, by Dr. J. S. Flett.)—The Loch Awe Syncline (Argyllshire): E. B. Bailey. AERONAUTICAL SOCIETY, at 8 aos —Military Aviation: Major F. H. Sykes. Rovat Society or Arts, at 8.—lhe Education and Employment of the Blind: H. J. Wilson. THURSDAY, Fesrvary 27. Royar Society, at 4.30.—Probable Papers: Vhe Thermal Properties of Carbonic Acid at Low Temperatures: C. F. Jenkin and D. R. Pye.— Re-rednctions of Dover Tida! Observations, 1883-1884 : E. Roberts. ConcreTE INstiTuvE, at 7.30.—Economy in the Design of Reinforced Concrete : J. A. Davenport. Society oF Dyers aNp Co.ourisTs. at 8.—Starch and Decomposition Products: Dr. M. Hamburg.—A Method for the Testing of Malt Ex~ tracts: R. J. May.—The Valuation of Malt Products: W. P. Dreaper.— A Contribution to the Methods of Testing Malt Extracts: Dr. A. Herz. INSTITUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Fourth Kelvin Lecture— The Ohm, the Ampere, the Volt, A Memory of Fifty Years (1862-1912) : Dr. R. T. Glazebrook. FRIDAY, Frepsruary 28. Royat InstiruTion, at 9.—Active Nitrogen: Hon. R. J. Strutt. PuysicaL SOCIETY, at 5- SATURDAY, Marcu ti. Roya InstiTuTIon, at 3 —The Properties and Constitution of the Atom > Sir J. J. Thomson, O.M. CONTENTS. PAGE Immigration and Anthropometry. By E. H.J.S. 667 Problems of the Cotton Plant. By W.B...... 667 The Energy Side of Nutrition. By W.D.H... . 668 Chemistry: Pure and Applied. By T. M.L. ... 668 Our’ Bookshelf = . 2S. 0 = 2 eee eee Letters to the Editor :— Iceberg Melting. Crete) — Prof. H. T. Barnes, F.R:S; .- s a a yi Atmospheric Potential. =pr c. enieal F. R. ‘s. 673 The Ascent of the Italian Balloon ‘‘ Albatross,” August 12, 1909.—Dr. W. N. Shaw, F.R.S. 673. Induced Cell- mie in the Protozoa. —Aubrey Fi Drew.. eae . 673 The Lion in Sinhalese he _pr. foseee Pearse The British Antarctic Expedition. (1) Tribute to the Dead wee. (2) Geological Results. (With Diagram.).-. . - ed tS Experimental Studies in Aerodynamics. (Was tated.) By sR. 5:05 eee ce le eg OTE The Wheat Supply of Great Bacon ae George Matthey, F.R.S. ByC.T.H. . Notes a6 re bao Our Apironamicall Colma — Variation of Latitude: the Kimura Term... . - Westphal’s Comet . . ate na The Opacity of the Atoecenoen in rene. +: eh ol ROOD A Zoological Garden for Edinburgh .. . - Navigation at the Royal Technical hag 2 Glas. gow. (/ilustrated.) . . ‘ -\n ih ee Biological Work in India. By R. 1h Magnetic Properties of Alloys. (J//ustrated.) The Association of Technical Institutions ... . 687 University and Educational Intelligence. ..... Societies/and) Academies). 2 =) =) eee Books Received cw en alTen oy be ei he te cane Diaryiof:Societies:. . 5 2) =) che) 6 rcnec eee ee Editorial and Publishing Offices: MACMILLAN & CO., Ltp., ST. MARTIN’S STREET, LONDON, W.€. Advertisements and business letters to be addressed to the Publishers. Editorial Communications to the Editor. Telegraphic Address: Puusts, LONDON. Telephone Number: Grrrarp 8830. aqnson Of Nature trusts the mind which A WEEKLY ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. ‘“To the solid ground MAR14 1918 No. 2261, VOL. 90] THURSDAY, FEBRUARY _ builds for aye.’,-—WoRDSWORTH. ' [PRIcE SIXPENCE Office.) Registered as a Newspaper at the General Post BUY DIRECT FROM HATTON WALL, * LONDON, E.C. FE.BECKER &CO. (W.&J.GEORGE. LTD.,SuUCC®s) Jow J. GRIFFIN & so} MAKERS OF Physical Apparatus THE GRAY-BURNSIDE MOTOR GYROSTAT for demonstrating all the properties and practical applications of the gyrostat. GYROSTATIC PENDULUM GRAY’S GYROSTATIC MODELS As demonstrated at the Physical Society. PRICES ON APPLICATION. KINGSWAY London, W.C. Kemble St. | [All Rights Reserved. REYNOLDS & BRANSON, Ltd., Manufacturers of Chemical and Physical Apparatus. THE ‘“‘RYSTOS” ELECTROSCOPE. aa, This Electroscope, with paraffin insulator, remains charged for at least a day, and has been used with the greatest satisfaction in many secondary A ) customer states that the batch of two schools for the last ten years. dozen, obtained two years previously, has remained in efficient condition during that time. (a) Price with attachment for two Wires and top re- |. S/= each movable for cleaning the glasses... ; ca ; (b) Ditto, with two glass tubes for showing the leak- | age caused by a radio-active gas.. = efi 5/6 each. (c) Ditto, with transparent scale, lecturer's pattern, | for projection of image of gold leaf and scale } 7/6 each. by means of a lantern... “83 ae 20 Re 14 COMMERCIAL STREET, LEEDS. The “Seathwaite” Rain Gauge —, has a 5-inch diameter funnel, and a capacity of 30 inches of rain. It is constructed to prevent evapora- _ tion and freezing. The gauge for outlying districts. NEGRETTI & ZAMBRA, Holborn Viaduct, London, E.C. 45 Cornhill, E.C. 122 Regent St., W. BavoneT DAK Fittins ab Lever Ground List of “RAIN GAUGES” sent free lo any address. ian Instn ey : “Yo.N\ > \ National Mi ysev-~ cclxil NATURE [FEBRUARY 27, 1913 NOTICE A New Volume of Nature —the 91st—will begin on Thursday next, March 6. The number in question will contain an article (in the series of “Scientific Worthies”) on SIR J. J. THOMSON, 0O.M., F.R.S., by Prof. A. Righi of Bologna, and be accompanied by a photogravure plate por- trait, suitable for framing. Office : St. Martin’s Street, W.C. THE DAVY-FARADAY RESEARCH LABORATORY ROYAL INSTITUTION, No. 20 ALBEMARLE STREET, W. DIRECTOR: Professor Sir JAMES DEWAR, M.A., LL.D., Ph.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. This Laboratory was founded by the late Dr. Ludwig Mond, D.Sc., F.R.S., as a Memorial of Davy and Faraday, for the purpose of promoting, by original research, the development and extension of Chemical and Physical Science. Persons fully qualified to undertake original scientific research admitted to the Laboratory are entitled to the use of the physical and chemical apparatus and ordinary chemicals of a Laboratory, and may be granted by the Director any special materials necessary for research, subject to the approval of the Laboratory Committee. The Staff of the Laboratory, and a trained Mechanician, are under the control of the Director. EASTER TERM.—Monday, April 7, to Saturday, July 26. Applicants can receive full information regarding the Laboratory by addressing the AssIsTANT SECRETARY, Royal Institution, No. 21 Albemarle Street, W. EEE ROYAL INSTITUTION OF GREAT BRITAIN. ALBEMARLE STREET, PICCADILLY, W. Thursday next (March 6), at Three o'clock, W. B. HARDY, Esq., F.R Sh First of Two Lectures on ‘Surface Energy.” Half-a-Guinea the Course. Subscription to all the Courses in the Season, Two Guineas. UNIVERSITY OF LONDON. An Advanced Course of Four Lectures on ‘t The Theory of the Solid State” will be delivered by Professor W. Nernst, at University College, Gower Street, W.C., at 5 p-m., on March 6, 7, 10 and rr. Admission free, without ticket. d : P. J. HARTOG, Academic Registrar. BIRKBECK COLLEGE, BREAMS BUILDINGS, CHANCERY LANE, E.C. Principal: G. Armitage-Smith, M.A., D.Lit. COURSES OF STUDY (Day and Evening) for the Degrees of the UNIVERSITY OF LONDON in the FACULTIES OF SCIENCE & ARTS (PASS AND HONOURS) under RECOGNISED TEACHERS of the University. SCIENCE.—Chemistry, Physics, Mathematies (Pure and Applied), Botany, Zoology, Geology and Mineralogy. ARTS.—Latin, Greek, English, Freneh, German, Italian, History, Geography, Logic, Economies, Mathematies (Pure and Applied). } Evening Courses for the Degrees in Economics and Law. { Day: Science, £17 10s.; Arts, £10 10s. \ Evening: Science, Arts, or Economics, £5 5s, POST-GRADUATE AND RESEARCH WORK. Particulars on application to the Secretary. SESSIONAL FEES SOUTH-WESTERN POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE, MANRESA ROAD, CHELSEA, S.W. Day Courses under recognised Teachers in Preparation for London University Degrees in Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, in Chemistry, Physies and Natural Seience; and echnical Courses arranged to extend over Three Years and Prepare for Engineering, Electrical, Chemical and Metallurgical Professions. Session Fee, £15. Evening Courses in all Departments :— Mathematics—*J. Lister, A.R.C.S., *T. G. Strain, B.A.; Physics— *S. SkinnNER, M.A., *L. Lownps, B.Sc., Ph.D., *F. W. Jorpan, B.Sc. Chemistry—*J. B. Coteman, A.R.C.S., *J. C. Crocker, M.A., D.Sc, and *F. H. Lower, M.Sc.; Botany—*H. B Lacey, S. E., CHANDLER D.Sc., and *W. Rusuron, A-R.C.S., D.I.C. ; Geology—*A. J. Masten, F.G.S., F.L.S.; Human Physiology—E. L. Kennaway, M.A., M.D. ; Zoology—*J. T. Cunnincuam, M.A.; Engineering—*W. CampBeLr Houston, B.Sc., A.M.I.C.E., *V. C. Davigs, B.Sc., and H. AUGHTIE ; Electrical Engineering—*A. J. Makower, M.A., *B. H, Moreny, and U. A. Oscuwatp, B.A. “Recognised Teacher of the University of London. Prospectus from the SECRETARY, post free, 4d@. ; at the Office, 1c. SIDNEY SKINNER, M.A., Principal. Velephone : 899 Western. IMPERIAL COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, SOUTH KENSINGTON. Special Advanced Courses of Lectures will be given, commencing in March next, as follows :— Subject. Conducted by Magnetic Properties of Dr. S. W. J. Smitu, A.R.C.S., Metals and Alloys. M.A., D.Sc. For particulars of this and other Special Courses to follow, application should be made to the SECRETARY. LISTER INSTITUTE of PREVENTIVE MEDICINE. ASSISTANT BACTERIOLOGIST. The Governing Body of the Lister Institute will shortly proceed to the appointment of an ASSISTANT BACTERIOLOGIST. Salary £250 per annum. Applications, stating age and full particulars with references, &c., must be sent in by March 10, 1913, to the SECRETARY to the Governing Body, from whom further particulars may be obtained. Lister Institute, Chelsea Gardens, London, S.W. LISTER INSTITUTE of PREVENTIVE MEDICINE. The GOVERNING BODY will shortly proceed to the appointment of a SECOND RESEARCH ASSISTANT in the BLOCHEMICAL DEPARTMENT at a commencing salary of £200 per annum, Candidates should possess experience in research in Organic Chemistry, but a biological training is not necessary All applications should be sent in before March 5. Further particulars can be obtained from the Institute, Chelsea Gardens, London, S.W. SECRETARY, Lister LABORATORY STEWARD & LECTURE ASSISTANT required for the Physics Department of the Sir John Cass Technical Institute, Jewry Street, Aldgate, E.C. Preference will be given to candidates with a knowledge of instrument making and used to the care of accumulators, Commencing payment 25s. to 30s. per week, according to qualifications. Applications, stating qualifi- cations, experience, age and references, to be forwarded to Dr. Rar. WILLows, at the Institute, by March 10. NAO TeEe 693 THURSDAY, FEBRUARY 27 27 LOL. BOTANY FOR STUDENTS. A Text-Book of Botany. By Dr. Eduard Stras- burger, Dr. Ludwig Jost, Dr. Heinrich Schenk and Dr. George Karsten. Fourth English edition, revised with the tenth German edition by erofs W. Hy Lang) BAReSs Pp. xi4-767. (London: Maemillan and Co., Ltd., 1912.) Price 18s. net. pee years have passed since the last English edition of this comprehensive German text- book was published, and the present volume, re- vised by Dr. Lang, is by far the most satisfactory edition of the book which has yet appeared. The book has been very widely used by English- speaking botanists, though it is far from being an ideal work either for students or for teachers. With the rapid development of botanical research there has been a corresponding increase in the subject-matter dealt with until the volume is now uncomfortably bulky and heavy. The attempt to deal with botanical science in the most con- prehensive manner, which is the aim of this text- book, has resulted in the former editions in undue | condensation of the subject-matter. This defect is still very marked in the present volume and seriously impairs the value of the work. The arrangement follows that of previous editions, namely, two parts devoted to general botany—including morphology and physiology— and special botany, comprising cryptogams and phanerogams. The first part consists of 325 pages, and in the second section, physiology, the pages for the most part are closely printed with small type. With characteristic thoroughness the German authors appear to have included the last word in each branch of the subject, but there is also the tendency, when so many points have to be men- tioned, that a large number of important subjects receive too short a notice to allow of adequate _ explanation. This defect has all along been particularly noticeable in the morphological section of the volume. In the present edition the struc- ture of the sieve tube, for instance, is dismissed in about half a page of text with some indifferent figures—a treatment far too meagre to be | within the unaided comprehension of the ordinary , student. Germination, too, receives but the scanti- i est treatment. | It is true that references to all the most recent | work are given, but surely it would have tended to a more liberal education in botany to deal at NO. 2261, VOL. 90| | frightened at the size of the result. of modern work. | first. greater length with the fundamental facts and to put aside some of the minutia of detail. There is very little use in placing ornamented crockets on the pinnacles of a tower if the whole structure is likely to collapse from insecure foundations. In this, however, our plaint is not against Dr. Lang but is directed rather towards the authors of the book. The defect is probably due to the fact that they have had to compress matter suffi- cient for two volumes into one, and have become If, in the future, part i. should be separated from part ii. it _may then be found possible to extend adequately and fundamentally the sections of morphology and physiology. The physiological section has now become one of the most useful in the book and is, if anything, too careful to be thoroughly abreast Like the first section it tends to suffer from condensation and too brief treat- ment of the various subjects. As an instance it may be pointed out that the explanation of so important a phenomenon as plasmolysis fails to be wholly intelligible. The second part is as comprehensive as the Among the fungi the recent work by Black- man and others is included with illustrations, and the utmost care has been taken to put the reader in possession of the latest results. The inclusion of fossil types where needed to explain the sequence of plant forms is a distinct addition to the book. Our chief quarrel with the phanero- gamic section, and with the cryptogamic to a lesser extent, is the inclusion of the coloured illustrations, which are poor in themselves and are not likely to be of much service to British students. The defects from which this volume suffers may perhaps be attributed to two facts, the first being that it is a compound work, and the second and more important that it has been written to meet the requirements of too many different classes of people. The science of botany is presented as a con- centrated extract of dry facts and the subject is very largely shorn of its romance and charm. There can be no doubt, however, that it ought to be possible for the intelligent examinee to obtain the maximum number of marks in his examination after a careful study of this volume. Suitable though it may be for the various types of German students and serviceable as it un- doubtedly is to English-speaking students, we can- not but feel regret, despite its many excellent qualities, that this book is coming to be recog- | nised as the standard text-book of botany in English. DD MODERN PHYSICS. (1) Studies in Radioactivity. By Prof. W. H. Bragg, F-R.S. Pp. xi+ 196. Maemillan’s Science Monographs. (London: Macmillan andi Gov, wtds,) Tome.) sibnice 15s.emet. (2) The Electrical Properties of Flames and of Incandescent Solids. By Prof. H. A. Wilson, Ba RS Pp. vii+11g (London: University of London Press; Hodder and Stoughton, 1912.) Price 6s. net. T is seldom in the history of any science | that three fundamental discoveries are included within the brief space of three years. The discovery of X-rays in 1895 marks a new epoch in the history of physical science, for it led early in 1896 to the discovery of radio-activity and was followed in 1897 by the proof of the nature of the kathode rays and the advent of the electron as a definite entity. In the following years an ever-increasing fraction of the energy of workers in physics has been devoted to a study of the numerous important problems which have arisen from these three primary discoveries. In the early stages of the experimental inquiry a discussion of these subjects was conveniently included in single treatises on the conduction of electricity through gases and on radio-activity. With the rapid increase of our knowledge of the various subdivisions of the subject it was in- evitable that special treatises would be necessary to discuss in more detail the results of recent investigations. This is illustrated by the separate publications that have appeared on the theory of electrons, ionisation by collision, and the chemistry of the radio-active bodies. This tendency towards specialisation is in many respects advantageous provided two conditions are fulfilled. In the first place, it is essential that the subject should be treated by experts who have taken an active part in the development of our knowledge of the topics under consideration; in the second place, it is of great importance that the author, in the ex- tended treatment of the subject, should not lose sight of its connection with the main stream of advance physics, both experimental theoretical. in and NATURE X-ray must The two books under review fulfil these con- | ditions in an ideal manner, for they are both written by men who have made notable contribu- tions to our knowledge of the subjects under con- sideration, and have that requisite knowledge of modern physical views to treat the subjects in the right perspective. (1) The work of Prof. Bragg deals mainly with the phenomena accompanying the passage NO. 2261, VOL. 90] of a, B and y [FEBRUARY 27, I913 rays and X-rays through matter. An interesting account is given of the theoretical reasoning that led the author to predict the nature of the absorption of the a rays by matter, and of the admirable experiments made by him which led to such an important extension of our know- ledge of this subject. The results of experiments on the passage of X-rays through matter are interpreted on his well-known corpuscular theory of the X-ray. The essential point of this theory is that the energy of the X-ray is corpuscular in the sense that it is concentrated and does not spread from the source like that to be expected in an ordinary pulse or wave. In addition, it is supposed that the B ray and the X-ray are mutually convertible forms of energy. When a B ray disappears as a result of a close encounter with an atom, an X-ray of equal energy takes its place and tends to be propagated in the original direction of the B ray. This theory has the advantage of giving a concrete and easily grasped idea of the processes occurring in the passage of X-rays through matter, and has served | a very useful purpose in directing numerous investigations which have thrown much light on the subject. It is remarkable that although more than seven- teen years have elapsed since the discovery of X-rays, there is still a great difference of opinion as to their nature and the mechanism of their absorption by matter. The recent striking experi- ments of Laue and his colleagues, supplemented by the explanation of Mr. W. L. Bragg, seem to show conclusively that a fraction of the X-rays suffer regular reflection at the crystal planes of mica and of other crystals. These results seem only compatible with the vrew that the X-rays are some type of wave motion. On the other hand, the liberation of a high-speed electron from an atom traversed by the X-ray cannot be ex- plained with any credibility unless it be supposed that the energy of the X-ray is concentrated over a minute volume, and can be given up in an These apparently properties of the any satisfactory encounter with a single atom. but fundamental be reconciled theory of the X-rays. The book is very pleasantly and clearly written and contains a concise account of most of the important experiments on the subject under con- sideration. While there will, no doubt, be con- siderable difference of opinion as to the merits of the theories proposed by the writer, the book can be strongly recommended not only to the physicist, but to all those who are interested in the fascinating field of-inquiry which has been conflicting in FEBRUARY 27, 1913] opened up by the discovery of new types of penetrating radiation. (2) The work of Prof. H. A. Wilson is confined to a discussion of the electrical properties of incandescent bodies and of flames. Under the influence of the ionisation theory of gases this important field of inquiry has rapidly developed, and a large amount of experimental data has now been accumulated. An account is first given of the character and conditions of the discharge of negative and positive electricity from glowing bodies, followed by a discussion of the conductivity of flames under different conditions. It has been clearly established that the rapid discharge of electricity from hot bodies is due to the escape of free electrons, and the author discusses the result in the light of the theory developed partly by himself and partly by Prof. O. W. Richardson. This theory supposes that the free electrons in | a metal acquire sufficient velocity at high tempera- tures to escape from the metal and to give rise to the observed discharge of negative electricity. The earlier experiments certainly afforded strong ground for this conclusion. Since the publication of this book, however, experiments have been made by Pring and Parker and others which throw same doubt on the completeness of this explana- tion. It has been shown that carbon at very high temperatures and in a thoroughly exhausted snace gives only a minute fraction of the current to be expected from the application of the theory to the earlier measurements at lower temperatures. There seems to be little doubt that, at any rate | in the case of glowing carbon, the large electronic currents initially observed were due not to the escape of electrons in the carbon itself, but rather to some interaction between the carbon and the residual gases. The theory of the subject is at present in a somewhat unsatisfactory state, and it would appear that more complete experimental data are required before any theory can be adequately tested. Prof. Wilson gives a brief but concise account of the important experiments on the subject, followed in every case by a discussion of the results in the light of the theories proposed. An excellent description is given of the experiments on flames with and without the additions of salt vapours, and the results are interpreted in terms of the ionisation theory. The author himself was a pioneer in this field and laid the foundation of the present theory on a firm basis of experiment. The book is in no sense popular, but is written for the advanced student or investigator who is already familiar with the fundamental facts of the electronic theory and the ionisation theory NO. 2261, VOL. 90| NATURE | (7) Lhe Spiritual Interpretation of Nature. 695 of gases. It will be found very useful by all physicists as giving a concise and straightforward account of the present state of our knowledge of a very interesting but difficult field of investiga- tion. E.R: PHILOSOPHY AND PSYCHOLOGY. By J. Lionel Tayler. AS ('C. Pitieldy srg 1) (1) The Nature of Woman. Pp. 186. (London: Price 3s. 6d. net. (2) The Fundamentals of Psychology. Dumville. Pp. ix+382. (London: Clive, 1912.) Price 4s. 6d. (3) Evolution and the Need of Atonement. By Stewart A. McDowall. Pp. xvi+155. (Cam- bridge: University Press, 1912.) Price 3s. net. (4) On the Consciousness of the Universal and b. B. By W. the Individual. By Dr. F. Aveling. Pp. x+ 255. (London: Macmillan and Co., -Ltd., 1912.) Price 5s. net. (5) Science and the Human Mind. By W. C. D. Whetham, F.R.S., and Catherine D. Whetham. Pp. xi+304. (London: Longmans, Green and €o., 1912.) Price 5s. net. (6) The Note-Books of Samuel Butler, Author of “Erewhon.” Selections arranged and edited by Henry F. Jones. Pp. xii+438. (London: A. €. Fifield, 1912.) Price 6s. net. By Dr. J. Y. Simpson. Pp. xv+383. (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1g12.) Price 6s. net. (8) Papers on Psycho-Analysis. By Dr. E. Jones. Pp. xv+432. (London: Bailliére, Tindall and Cox, 1913.) Price ros. 6d. net. (9) Questions of the Day in Philosophy and Psychology. By Dr. H. L. Stewart. Pp. x+ 284. (London: Edward Arnold, 1912.) Price ros. 6d. net. (1) / DESCRIPTION, historical and _ bio- ae logical, of the feminist movement. The conclusions of the author, who is a London University Extension lecturer on biology and sociology, are: that woman, not being merely a female man, but of different aptitudes, has her own proper sphere and direction of development ; that her speciality is motherhood—not merely the | physical fact, but also the ennobling influences | involved ; that the married woman should not | work in factories, &c., but should be economically dependent on the man, as he is domestically dependent on her; and that a standard marriage- able wage should be secured to the male worker. The book closes with a reprint of W. C. Roscoe’s article, ‘““Woman,” in The National Review for October, 1858. In this pioneer essay, “every 696 NATURE [FEBRUARY 27, 1913 argument of real strength for and against the woman’s movement, that has been used in the fifty odd years that followed its publication, will be found summarised.” (2) A good text-book, more than elementary and well adapted for its purpose as a guide to teachers. It follows James and McDougall for the most part, and is provided with suitable questions at the end of each chapter. Its scheme is the usual modern one: first, the physiology of sensation, then perception, imagination, ideation, memory, conation, feeling, instincts. Through- out, the practical application to the child-mind is kept in view, and the writing is clear and good. Mr. Dumville is master of method and lecturer on education in the L.C.C. Islington Day Training College. (3) Mr. McDowall accepts the scientific view of biological evolution, carrying it forward to a higher plane. He suggests that the fact of spiritual development demands a determining en- vironment to call out spiritual activities. This he conceives as a transcendent mind which com- prehends, enfolds, includes the environment-sum of the whole world. Man, however, has sinned, being free; and his only way of salvation is to “accept Christ”—though if he fails to do so in this life he may have a chance in the next. Bishop Ryle supplies a eulogistic introduction to the book, which is thoughtful and earnest, and will doubtless be of use to many readers who feel the need of harmonising theology with natural science. (4) Dr. Aveling sketches the history of the prob- lem of universals or general terms—i.e. roughly speaking, what “man” means, apart from this or that man—from Plato down to the present, and then proceeds to give a detailed account of his psychological experiments. These were carried out with pictures and nonsense-words, with various observers. The results led to the conclusions—among others—that images are not necessary as contents for thought, but thinking always involves concepts as contents; and that “the ‘universal’ is phenomenologically present, or tends to be present, to consciousness as a con- cept or imageless substantive content.” The research was, of course, psychological, aiming at answering the question: “What is discoverable in consciousness when we think the ‘ universal ’ or the ‘ individual ’?” The metaphysical question (“Do universals exist in nature?”) and the epistemological question (‘‘Do our universal ideas correspond to reality? ”) are naturally left to their respective domains. (5) Mr. and Mrs. NO, 2261; "VOL. go] Whetham have once more t produced an admirably readable yet trustworthy popular-science book, and it is to be hoped that it will circulate widely. The development of science from its dim beginnings— dim so far as history is concerned—in Chaldea and Egypt, down through Aristotle, the Arabians, Aquinas, and the Renaissance, to the Baconian period and the present day—including even such recent events as Prof. Schafer’s Dundee address. | As becomes a historical survey, dogmatism and partisanship are avoided, the authors refraining from expressions of opinion on, eé.g., vitalism. The style is enlivened by a pleasant humour, as when the Council of Nicaea is said to have met, “with characteristic modesty, to determine the true nature of God” (p. 67), and the sequence of the book is logical and smooth. Its philosophy also is excellent, and many men of science might do worse than read the last two chapters on the scope and function of science, and its relation to religion. The “laws of nature” are the logical laws of the conceptual world formed by our own minds, and these laws are of practical use in enabling us to predict the future behaviour of our own perceptions. The business of science is to construct a consistent conceptual model, but how far that model corresponds to “reality” is not for science to say, nor can it be ‘assumed to represent reality in any final or total way. In short, there is room for metaphysics and faith by the side of science. : (6) The whimsical genius of Samfel Butler is best known through the satirical romance ‘“ Ere- whon,” but his “Life and Habit’ and “Un- conscious Memory ” show him as a serious thinker, of scientific methods, but with a spiritual and teleological view of evolution, in which he was in advance of his time. But his title to fame will probably rest on his literary style and the flashing audacity and originality of his thoughts. This is specially indicated in the volume under notice, which consists of detached and fragmentary notions, jotted down at odd times, on all subjects, from Handel to death, from mind and matter to painting. His criticisms are cruelly searching, as when he compares Pater’s style to an old woman who has had her face skilfully enamelled. ; It is a good book to dip into when seeking smart paradoxes. We recommend it to Mr. G. | Chesterton, of whom Butler often reminds us. Mr. Chesterton will rightly take this as a com- | pliment when he reflects that his friend G. B. Shaw | has called Butler the greatest English writer, in | his own department, of the latter part of the nineteenth century. (7) A very similar book to Mr. McDowall’s authors trace the US FEBRUARY 27, 1913] NATURE 6907 above-noticed, but on a larger scale and more MATHEMATICAL TEXT-BOOKS. detailed in its sketch of biological evolution. Dr. ; : ; ; Simpson is orthodox in his science, but on the (1) Exercises in Modern Arithmetic. By H. religious side conceives a World Principle im- Sydney Jones. Pp. x+336. (London: Mac- manent and transcendent, yet personal. “Of course, we cannot form a clear conception of such infinite, unconditioned personality. We are certain that it is something richer in content than our personality.” The problem of sin is very well handled: the Genesis narrative is symbolically true, but does not teach that man fell from a state of goodness. On the contrary, he has risen from a state of innocency, such as the child’s state before he learns to recognise good and evil. He must continue to rise, until he reaches communion with God through likeness to Him. contains much that is theologically and philo- sophically debatable, but is an excellent example of the modern literature of reconciliation, and does credit both to the learning and the piety of its author. (8) Dr. Jones dedicates his book Freud, among whose disciples he enrolls himself. Many interesting illustrations are given, showing the influence of subconscious desires in producing lapses of memory and the like. Other chapters deal with the relation between organic and func- tional diseases, simulation in hysteria, the patho- logy of morbid anxiety, the action of suggestion in psychotherapy, Freud’s theory of dreams, and psycho-analysis and education. The writer is associate-professor of psychiatry in the Univer- sity of Toronto. His book is extremely readable and good, chiefly by reason of its wealth of con- crete examples. We may incline to think that the Freudian psychology is itself obsessed with sex- ideas, and is guilty of tracing everything to sub- conscious sexual thoughts or desires; but, after all, a theory is best tested by its thorough applica- tion to facts, and there is no doubt that Freud is a pioneer, comparable—it may be, as Dr. Jones suggests—with Darwin himself. | (9) These essays are, in the main, an expan- | sion of a course of lectures delivered in the Queen’s University of Belfast. They deal with subcon- | sciousness, genius, pragmatism, pessimism, Nietzsche, &c. perately stated, and we only discover one dubious statement of fact—viz., that 98 per cent. of all classes of persons are hypnotisable. This per- | centage is much higher than the average opinion | of experts would allow. ) Myers in his psychology, according well-merited | praise to that writer and to the careful work of | the Society for Psychical Research. NO. 2261, VOL. 90] + The book | to Prof. The cpinions are well and tem- | | purposes. millan and Co., Ltd., 1912.) Price 2s. 6d. (2) Notes on Algebra. By A. F. van der Heyden. Pp. viilit+133. (Middlesbrough: Wm. Apple- yard and Sons, Ltd, 1912.) Price 2s. 6d. (3) The Teaching of Mathematics in Secondary Schools. By Arthur Schultze. Pp. xxi+ 370. (New York : The Macmillan Company ; London : Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1912.) Price 5s. 6d. net. (4) Higher Algebra for Colleges and Secondary Schools. By Dr. Charles Davison. Pp. viii+ 320. (Cambridge: University Press, 1912.) Price 6s. (5) Non-Euclidean Geometry: A Critical and Historical Study of its Development. By Prof. Roberto Bonola. Authorised English transla- tion with additional appendices. By Prof. H. S. Carslaw. With an Introduction by Prof. Federigo Enriques. Pp. xii+268. (Chicago: The Open Court Publishing Company, 1912.) Price 2 dollars net. (6) An Introduction to the Infinitesimal Calculus. Notes for the use of Science and Engineering Students. By Prof. H. S. Carslaw. Pp. xii+ 137. (London: Longmans, Green and Co., 1912.) Price 5s. net. (1) HIS volume consists of the examples re- printed from the author’s work entitled “Modern Arithmetic with Graphic and Practical Exercises.” The range covered is that required for the Oxford and Cambridge Local examinations. The quality of the examples, which are mainly of a practical character, is good. A number of typical examination papers are given at the end of the book. (2) This note-book is intended for students who are revising the subject, not for those breaking new ground. There is much interesting historical information; but we are inclined to think that the treatment is scarcely sufficiently thorough for many For example, none but the simplest tests of convergence are given, the theory of numbers is represented by Fermat’s theorem alone, | and the method given for resolving partial frac- | tions is inadequate. The author follows | _ than is at present customary. The geometrical representa- tion of complex numbers, Demoivre’s theorem and its applications are included. (3) The object of the author in publishing this volume is to show that the purpose of a mathe- matical training is best served by making the course less informational and more disciplinary He contends, and 6098 NATURE [FEBRUARY 27, 1913 with some truth, that the majority of teachers aim at impressing a set of facts upon their pupils rather than training them how to attack and discuss mathematical problems. Unfortunately, there are few teachers who are free agents; the requirements of the various examining boards must first be satisfied before personal individuality can be freely exercised, and much of the best work of the first-rate teacher is of a character that examinations can scarcely test. At the same time, mathematical teachers should undoubtedly know something of the science of teaching, and cannot fail to profit by a knowledge of the experience of others. In the present volume, there is much of real interest and value. After preliminary general discussions, the author examines in great detail the theory of geometrical teaching and somewhat briefly the elements of a suitable course in algebra and trigonometry. Such a work as this should find a place in the common-room libraries of our secondary schools. (4) This is a continuation of the author’s former treatise on algebra for secondary schools. It opens with the binomial theorem and includes all that usually finds a place in an advanced school course. Among the chief features of the book may be noted an excellent chapter on complex quantity; the geometry of vectors is developed, and the use of trigonometric functions renders the account reasonably complete. By introducing: the notation of the calculus, the treatment of limits is simplified and the usual applications in the theory of equations become possible. The work on con- tinued fractions is put rather more briefly than usual, but nothing of importance for any ordinary purpose has been omitted. The volume has an attractive appearance, the examples are really good, and the essay questions at the end will be of great assistance to scholarship candidates. (5) The study of non-Euclidean geometry has, till recently, attracted the attention only of the specialist; no doubt this has been due principally to the general belief that the difficulties were so considerable, the philosophical problems so in- tricate, and the subject so contrary to ordinary experience that the ordinary mathematician wouid, without prolonged study, make little of it. Time, however, invariably lowers the levels and extends the boundaries of the territory accessible to ordinary students. There are now a number of elementary text-books which make its pursuit a comparatively easy task. There are two valuable studies by Mr. Frankland—‘‘The Theories of Parallelism” and “ Euclid I., with a Commentary ”’ —there is a primer by Prof. Manning, a more elaborate treatise by Prof. Coolidge, and, for those NO. 2261, VOL. 90| who read German, the works of Killing, Lieb- mann, Hilbert, Vahlen, etc. The translation of Prof. Bonola’s valuable critical and historical summary will be of the greatest assistance to students. The book opens with an account of the attempts to prove Euclid’s parallel postulate which were made from the time of the Greek geometers down to the seventeenth century. The next section deals with the period when men were first beginning to inquire whether a form of geometry could exist independently of this postulate. This work is associated with the names of Saccheri, Lambert, Wolfang Bolyai and others; but it was not until the time of Gauss, Taurinus, Lobatschewsky, and Johann Bolyai that | the foundations of non-Euclidean geometry were securely laid. A most interesting sketch is given of the growth of thought in this period. The con- cluding chapter discusses the later work of Riemann, Helmholtz, Lie, Cayley, Klein, ete. There are five appendices; these deal with (a) the fundamental principles of statics; (b) Clifford’s parallels; (c) constructions; (d) the independence of projective geometry; (e) a method of exhibiting the impossibility of proving Euclid’s postulate by a consideration of the analogous geometry of a system of circles orthogonal to a fixed circle. This | last appendix, which is due to Prof. Carslaw and is based on Wellstein’s work, establishes, by an elementary and elegant method, a number of in- teresting theorems in hyperbolic geometry. (6) These notes on the calculus, drawn up for science and engineering students, are intended to | supplement the earlier parts of the ordinary text- books. The first chapter gives the analytical geometry of the straight line, the second illus- trates the meaning of differentiation by examples from physics and geometry; in the next three the rules for differentiations are given; and the last two, after a few pages on the geometry of the conic, give an account of integration and its applications. OUR BOOKSHELF. W eltanschauung. (Jena: Gustav Kausale und _ konditionale By Max Verworn. Pp. 46. Fischer, 1912.) Price 1 mark. Even when one profoundly disagrees, it is always. a pleasure to listen to Prof. Max Verworn, for he has clear-cut convictions which he states vividly and with enthusiasm. The present essay is an exposition of “conditionism’”’ as contrasted with “causalism,” and it deals hard blows at vitalism, dualism, entelechy, free will, and other naive and uncritical assumptions, as Verworn thinks. It may be of interest to state the five proposi- tions of conditionism :—(1) There are no isolated FEBRUARY 27, 1913] NATURE 699 or absolute things. All things, i.e. all processes and states, are conditioned by other processes or states. (2) There is no process or state which is dependent on a single factor. All processes or states are conditioned by numerous factors. (3) Every process or state is inevitably deter- mined by the sum of its conditions. similar conditions do similar processes or states occur, and, conversely, different processes and States presuppose different conditions. (4) Every process or state is identical with the sum of its conditions. The totality of the conditions is the process or state. (5) All the conditions of a process or state are of equal value for its occur- rence in so far as they are necessary. But it does not seem difficult to accept all these pro- positions and yet remain a good vitalist. Dizionario di Merceologia e di Chimica Applicata. By Prof. V. Villavecchia. Terza editione. Vol. ii. Lettere N-Z e Indice. Pp. 1360. (Milan: Ulrico Hoepli, 1913.) Price 15 lire. THE scope of this work and its especial features were explained when the first volume was _ re- viewed. The second volume embraces articles from N to Z, and occupies 1170 half pages. All the articles are written very concisely; in fact, so concisely that, e.g., the author has not yielded to the temptation to do more than mention the Italian occurrences of petroleum in the article ‘‘ Petrolio greggio.” The remainder of the work, covering 200 pages, forms a very complete index. It is carried through in four languages, and includes also botanical and zoological names. Thus this index very greatly assists the reader who is not sufficiently conversant with the Italian language to depend on the alphabetical arrangement of the subject-matter in the body of the two volumes. The Vertebrate Skeleton. By Prof. Sidney H. Reynolds. Pp. xvi+535. Second edition. (Cambridge: University Press, 1913.) Price 15s. net. Tus work, belonging to the Cambridge Zoologi- cal series, was reviewed at length in the issue “of Nature for July 15, 1897 (vol. Ti. p. 245), at the time of its original publication. rhe present edition has been revised and brought up to date. Prof. S. W. Williston has assisted Prof. Rey- nolds in this work, having rewritten the chapter on the Sauropsida and that on the general account of the skeleton in reptiles, as well as contributing some notes on birds and on the Stegocephalia. Heaton’s Annual: the Commercial Handbook of Canada and Boards of Trade Register, 1913. Edited by E. Heaton and J. B. Robinson. Pp. 401. (Toronto: Heaton’s Agency; London: Simpkin, Marshall, Hamilton, Kent and Co., Ltd.) Price 5s. Tue ninth issue of this yearly handbook dealing with the resources of Canada is full of interest. It will prove directly useful to teachers of commercial geography, and much of the general information it provides will appeal to scientific readers. NO. 2261, VOL. 90| Only under | LETTERS LTO THE’ EDITOR: | [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of Nature. No notice is taken of anonymous communications. ] On the Appearance of Helium and Neon in Vacuum Tubes. SINCE reading before the Chemical Society (see Nature, February 13, p. 653) the paper on the pre- sence of helium and neon in vacuum tubes (contain- ing hydrogen) after the gas had been sparked, we have carefully compared the spectrum lines that are supposed to be characteristic of these gases. The result has been interesting. In the case of neon and hydrogen there appears to be a large number of lines in the secondary spectrum of hydrogen that are very close to the important lines of neon. If only those lines are taken that differ by less than a quarter of an Angstrém unit (using the measurements of Wat- son), there are fifty-seven instances. It is not neces- sary to give all of them, but if the neon lines of intensity 4 and greater be talxen it is found that there are twenty instances :— Intensity Neon Hydrogen Intensity Neon Hydrogen 9 6506-69 6506-82 4 587227 ~ 5872-12 10 6402-43 6402:51 | 10 5852-62 5852-72 9 638314 6383-20 | 4 5760-74 5760-58 5 617509 697514 | 7 534340 534343 7 6143-31 6143°30 4 5122-40 5122-64 6 6096-36 6096-21 6 5080-52 5080-73 6 607451 607466 | 4 453793 4537-91 5 6030-20 6030-30 | 4 3682-37 3682-20 5 597576 597568 | 9 352061 3520-60 5 5882-06 5882-17 6 3472-68 3472:65 Moreover, according to Watson there are only two neon lines of intensity 10, and only four of intensity 9; Of these six principal neon lines, five are paralleled in the secondary hydrogen spectrum, and the sixth line of neon (of intensity 9), 6334-65, is near to a hydrogen one, 6335-53. There are also hity-three neon lines that differ from those of the secondary hydrogen spectrum by less than one Angstrém unit and by more than a quarter. This makes 110 lines that are paralleled in the two spectra. In the case of neon and helium there are also a series of lines that run parallel. Three of these lines were pointed out by Watson (Proc. Roy. Soc., vol. Ixxxi., p. 185). He says: ‘‘The lines at 6678 and 3447, however, were very bright on the same plate, and it must be concluded that there are two neon lines almost coincident with the helium lines.” “There appears to be a similar pair at 4713, though I was unable to obtain a plate on which the neon line alone was present. The wave-lengths of the lines concerned are :— He 6678-37 4713:25 3447°73 Ne 6678-50 4713:51 3447-83 And no reason can be at present assigned to their close proximity.” In the case of neon and oxygen, one of the two bright neon lines of intensity 8 and wave-length 5330:90 is very near to a bright oxygen line wave- length 5330°84. J. Norman Cottle. Hupert S. PatrEerson. February 22 700 NATURE [FEBRUARY 27, 1913 The Occurrence of the Portuguese Man-of-War (Physalia), and of a Giant Spider-Crab, ‘‘ Homola (Paromola) cuvieri,’’ in the English Channel. THE occurrence of the Portuguese man-of-war (Physalia) on the English coast is so unusual as to be well worth recording. During March and the early part of April, 1912, numbers of the Atlantic form of Physalia were cast up on our shores at various points between Cardigan Bay and Seaford in Sussex. It was also reported by M. Caullery* as occurring along with Velella on the French side of the Straits of Dover in the early part of April, 1912. Specimens were also sent to this laboratory on February 10 this year from Looe, on the south coast of Cornwall. There can be little doubt that the presence of Physalia on the south coast of England in March and April, 1912, was due to the almost continuous high southerly to south-westerly winds indicated in the south-eastern part of the North Atlantic in the meteorological reports for the early part of that year. Physalia is believed to occur normally only in the warmer currents of the Atlantic Ocean,? but in the early months of the year large specimens are not infrequently blown into the Mediterranean, and after storms thousands have been found about the same time of the year on the beaches of the Canary Islands. It is therefore not improbable that the Physalia stranded on the English coasts had been driven by the wind from the eastern portion of the subtropical North Atlantic. It is interesting to note that at the end of March northerly winds set in in the eastern part of the English Channel. This circumstance probably ex- plains why Physalia and Velella were driven on to the French side of the Straits of Dover. It may also be of interest to mention that a specimen of the very large spider-crab Homola (Paromola) cuvieri has been taken for the first time on record in the English Channel. The specimen is a very fine male. When the large clawed legs are held out at right angles to the body, the span is nearly 4 ft. (117-3 cm.), while the length of the carapace is rather more than 6} in. (166 cm.). We are informed by Messrs. M. Dunn and Sons, who presented the crab to the Marine Biological Laboratory at Plymouth, that it was taken by fishermen on December 16 last, in a trammel-net three-quarters of a mile E.S.E. of Pen-a-Maen Point (north-east of Dodman Point), on the Cornish coast. At this spot the depth of water is about 15 fathoms, whereas in the Mediterranean this crab is said to inhabit the deeper waters, and has been taken there in about 215 fathoms. Off the north-west coast of Africa* it has indeed been re- corded from a depth of 350 fathoms. There is an abundant growth of marine animals (viz. Anomia, Pomatoceros, Serpula, Sabella, Botryl- lus, Antennularia, Ascidiella, Plumularia) on the back and legs of the crab, a fact which seems to indicate that the animal has been living at Jeast some months in relatively shallow water. This specimen of Homola is still living in the tanks at the Marine Biological Laboratory, and is feeding well. The occurrence of Homola in the English Channel is one more instance of the close relationship of the fauna of this region with that of the Mediterranean and neighbouring parts of the Atlantic. Homola, however, has been recorded rarely from the west coasts of Ireland and Scotland,* hence there is the 1M. Caullery, Bud/. de la Soc. Zool. de France, tome xxxvil., 1912, pp- *Ergeh. der Plankton-Exped."" Die Siphonophoren, Ld. II., », 1807, p. 8. A. M:Ine Fdwards and E. L.-L, Bouvier, “‘ Expéditions Scientifiques du Trav. et du Talisman.” Crust. Decap., I.. ta00, p. 10. “Guide to Crustacea, &c., Exhibited in the Department of Zoology, h Museum (Natural History), 1910."” p. 66. NO. 2261, VOL. 90] possibility that this northern distribution may have been effected partially by means of the current which flows from the Mediterranean, and is believed to spread along the western shores of Europe. There is, moreover, reason to believe that the more typical planktonic forms of life might be carried considerable distances in such a wind-drift as that in which Physalia must have been. It is not suggested, how- ever, that the larvee of Homola, for example, would be driven so far as Physalia and Velella in similar circumstances, for it is well known that these two Siphonophores, inasmuch as they are semi-aérial, comprise a separate category of plankton with regard to their adaptation for distribution. The recent distribution of Physalia may therefore be said to offer us a picture by means of which we can more readily understand, for example, the close relationship between the fauna of the English Channel and that of the Mediterranean and neighbouring Atlantic region. J. H. Orton. The Laboratory, Plymouth. Actual Conditions affecting Icebergs. In the interesting discussion by Dr. Aitken on the relation between laboratory experiments and actual conditions, as affecting icebergs (NATURE, January 9), there is one element of primary importance which appears to be too much overlooked. To put it in the most general terms, icebergs are almost always moving in the drift of an ocean current; and the point to which I wish to direct attention is the relative movement of the water with respect to the iceberg. It is the nature of constant currents to have a greater speed at the surface and to decrease in velocity with the depth. This is a usual character- istic, as found in my investigations in the Tidal and Current Survey, in several such currents. For example, when the surface speed is one knot or more the velocity may fall to about half this at 30 fathoms, and it may be only distinctly appreciable at goo fathoms. An iceberg in such a current will, of course, move with the average velocity corresponding to its draught, and, as a consequence, the normal condition is that an iceberg has a superficial current running past it. It is also probable that this current will usually be much greater than such movements of the water around it as are set up by convection, from difference of temperature. It is also to be noted that this relative movement is independent of wind disturbance and tidal effect, which often accentuate it. In the work of this Sur- vey, I have had ample opportunity to observe these effects while at anchor in the open amongst icebergs for davs at a time. In Belle Isle strait, they ground in a depth of 30 or even 50 fathoms, which shows the draught they may have; and the strong tidal streams of 2 to 2} knots running past them create a wake behind them, like a vessel under sail. This may be considered an unusual condition, but it should not be overlooked in discussing practical safeguards, for an iceberg aground on the 30-fathom bank in the middle of Belle Isle strait is as much of a menace to navigation as any. Although there may thus be many modifications of general conditions, it will be on the safe side to assume in this discussion that there is always a superficial current of appreciable amount flowing past an iceberg, even in the open, while it is carried along in any berg-bearing current. W. Bett Dawson. (Superintendent of Tidal and Current Surveys, of Canada.) Ottawa, Canada, January 25. FEBRUARY 27, 1913]| NATURE 701 FRESH LIGHT ON THE CAUSE OF CANCER. EOE: JOHANNES FIBIGER, of Copen- hagen, describes in a long article in the Berliner klinische !Vochenschrift for February 17 some experiments which carry our knowledge of the relation between the origin of cancer and external causes a step further. The present writer has been aware of these observations since August, 1911, but they have been in progress since 1907. They have, therefore, been pursued for some five years, which indicates alike the difficulties overcome and the praiseworthy per- tinacity of the investigator. When examining growths found in the stomachs of three wild rats, Fibiger was struck by the presence of nematodes, and he set himself to determine if they stood in causal relationship to the growths or were accidental concomitants. Cancer of the stomach in mice was described by Murray in 1908 from the laboratory of the Im- perial Cancer Research Fund, but at an examina- tion undertaken in consequence of a letter from Fibiger, neither he nor we were able to show the presence of nematodes. The growths occurred in rats obtained from some sources and not from others, and their occurrence coincided with the presence of Periplaneta americana. From other sources he was aware of the cockroach serving as a host for round worms. The cockroaches har- boured a nematode, and he studied its life-cycle. It lives in the pavement epithelium of the upper portion of the rat’s alimentary canal, where it reaches sexual maturity. The eggs containing embryos are passed with the feces, and on being consumed by the cockroach (either P. americana or P. orientalis) the embryos are liberated, and wander into the striped muscles of the prothorax and limbs. In these situations they are found after six weeks coiled up trichina-like. When rats eat infected cockroaches, the larve are freed and wander into the squamous epithelial covering of the fundus of the stomach, and occa- sionally also into the gullet, tongue, and mouth. They do not invade the epithelium covering the rest of the canal. Fifty-seven tame rats were fed on P. americana infected with the Spiroptera; in fifty-four the nematode was found in the stomach, in seven the growths which had initiated the in- vestigation were found, and in twenty-nine others there were found the earlier stages of such growths. Feeding rats with eggs containing embryos did not convey the infection. Micro- scopical investigation showed in the case of seven rats growths resembling the tumour originally observed, together with the certain presence of secondary deposits in other organs in the case of two and possibly of three rats. The structure of the growths was in four out of the seven definitely that of a malignant new growth. It would appear, therefore, that for the first time malignant new growths have been deliber- ately produced by experiment through the agency of a living parasite. Fibiger draws the conclusion that the disease is dependent on the presence of NO. 2261, VOL. 90] the Spiroptera, and, on analogy with other Hel- minthes, assumes they act by some _ poison secreted, although he is not prepared to dismiss altogether the possibility of a virus or ultra- microscopical organism being concerned. All the histological pictures found form a_ continuous series, but they afford no clue to the mechanism of genesis. Important is the observation that the worms were only associated with the primary growths, and were absent from the secondary deposits, showing that the cells had acquired in- dependent powers of growth. The association of round and other worms with cancerous growths has long been known. Borrel and Haaland described this association for mice from the Institut Pasteur in 1905 for certain growths of the lung and lymph glands. The asso- ciation of a tape-worm with cancer of the small intestine in mice was described by Bashford and Murray in rg05. Haaland, when working in the laboratory of the Imperial Cancer Research Fund, published an elaborate communication on the asso- ciation of a nematode with cancer of the mamma in that animal. He assumed its excretions were the cause of chronic inflammation on which nodular hypertrophy, adenoma, and carcinoma developed. Its life - history — notwithstanding continued attempts made in the hope of being able to attack the problem of causal relationship directly—has not been followed to this day, but it was shown to be different from another nema- tode occurring in the alimentary canal, both nematodes having been identified by Mr. Shipley and Dr. Leiper. And since then there have been many other references in the literature. The presence of the worms must not be inter- preted in the sense that they are the cause of cancer, as has been done in the lay Press. They probably act as chronic irritants, of which a legion is associated with the development of cancer. They may be animate or inanimate, e.g. mere direct physical injury as in fracture of bone or in the “horn core” of cattle in India, chemical as in paraffin, petroleum, tar, arsenic, and aniline cancer, actinic as in the case of the short hot clay- pipe, the Kangri, the X-ray, or brand cancers (of cattle). Squamous-celled carcinoma develops in engine-drivers over the shin where the skin has been exposed for years to the direct action of heat. They may be of an infective nature as in Bil- harzia for the bladder, the tubercle bacillus where epithelioma develops in an old lupus scar, or Treponema pallidum, as in the association of kera- tosis linguee with epithelioma of the tongue. The irritant may be a larger parasite, such as worms. Borrel has suggested that the latter are the carriers of a specific cancer virus; on the other hand, it has been suggested that the relation for -all these irritants is a mediate one in quite a different sense, and that the common factor lies in the capacity of the living cell itself to undergo variations in structure and in powers of growth such as have been demonstrated in propagated tumours when subjected to the repeated irritation produced by transplantation, as described in the reports of the Imperial Cancer Research Fund. It 702 NATURE [ FEBRUARY 27, 1913 is unfortunate that the growths produced experi- mentally by Fibiger present just as much difficulty in the elucidation of the exact process as do all other natural growths. In the past the attempt has often been made to produce cancer by subjecting animals to the irrita- tions associated with cancer in man, but without success except possibly in the case of X-rays. As the writer has pointed out, the irritants vary from one mammal to another, and the knowledge of the irritants to which different species and even their individual organs are liable is of very con- siderable importance, and will require extensive study. Prof. Fibiger is to be congratulated not only in having isolated such an apparent specific irritant, but also, by carefully imitating the natural process, on having produced cancer experimentally through the mediate intervention of a parasite for the first time. EK. F. Basurorp. THE INTERNATIONAL AERO EXHIBITION AT OLYMPIA. Ee development of the details of flying machines between 1908 and the present time is immediately obvious on a visit to the Aéro Exhibition; but, quite apart from the higher standard of workmanship, it is also evident that scientific principles are governing the design of aéroplanes to a greater and greater extent. Almost without exception the designs show evi- dence of the general desire to keep. the resistance of the machines as low as possible and so get increased lifting power and speed. It is not any longer necessary to consider the bare possibility of lift, as the shape of the wings is now so good as to give about 20 lb. of lift per horse-power, and engines available for aéroplanes can be obtained of horse-powers up to 160, weighing less than 3 lb. per horse-power; such an engine can then carry, roughly, 1s tons, a weight greater than that of any existing aéroplane. The reduction of resistance does not then arise from necessity, but appears to be directly due to the application of se ientific principles. The chief saving in resistance arises from fewer stay-wires and in the covering of the fuselage or tail girder of almost all flying machines, although there are notable exceptions, such as the Maurice Farman biplane exhibited. As compared with the first Wright machine, the stay-wiring of modern machines looks comparatively simple, and in biplanes in particular the struts have been lengthened in the direction of the wind. The strength of the struts is often obtained from a circular steel tube, the desired section for low resistance being obtained from it by the addition of wooden tails and headpieces. ‘The difference of resistance due to shaping the tubes may, on a biplane, increase the carrying capacity of the machine to the extent of another passenger, The covering of the fuselage to make a stream- line body has, however, other effects than that of reducing the resistance. The side surface is con- siderable, and becomes equivalent to a vertical fin; Prof. Bryan in his book on stability has shown mathematically, what Mr. Lanchester NO. 2261, VoL. 90| deduced earlier from a combination of experiment and mathematical analysis, that the position of such fins is of the greatest importance when con- sidering the lateral stability of an aéroplane, and that great care must be taken in the arrange- ment of such surfaces. One then looks at the exhibits to find how far aéroplane constructors are designing according to the principles of inherent stability, and how far they leave the control to the skill of the pilot. So far as longitudinal stability is concerned, prac- tically all the machines at the normal flying speed satisfy the mathematical requirements for the stability of small oscillations. The essential | features of inherent stability are contained in a series of planes inclined fore and aft, with the angle of incidence from plane to plane decreasing progressively from front to back and in addition having the smaller or elevator planes of sufficient area. Most of the machines, such as the Blériot, BE 2, &c., have two surfaces, the main wings and a neutral or nearly neutral tail, whilst the Cody prize machine and the Maurice Farman biplane have each three planes due to the addition of a forward elevator. Part of the tail plane, and usually the greater part, is fixed to the fuselage of the flying machine, and exercises a control which is independent of the pilot, who is left with the adjustment of the remainder for manceuvring. An exception to this subdivision of the elevator occurs in the Breguet machine, where the whole surface is under the immediate control of the pilot. This latter ar- rangement has the advantage of a powerful con- trol and the corresponding possible disadvantage of depending entirely on the strength of the pilot for the maintenance of attitude. How much the advantage outweighs the disadvantage is obviously a question to be settled later by the majority of constructors, since it is not yet widely adopted. With the possible exception of flying at low speeds, it would seem that for longitudinal stability flying machines possess a_ considerable amount of inherent stability, and only call for serious assistance from the pilot in special circum- stances, as when the aéroplane is struck by a gust. Lateral stability, however, receives far greater variety of tre< ‘tment, and except that all machines provide large control for the pilot, there is, in the machines exhibited, little evidence of unanimity of method. Leaving out the difficult problem of the spiral dive and considering the machines for lateral stability in linear motion, the points of interest in the machines rest with the positions of the vertical fins or their equivalents. The most usual combination of fins, which may be seen on the Blériot, Deperdussin, and Bristol machines amongst others, is a dihedral angle. between the wing's, constituting an equivalent fin above the centre of gravity, and the side of the covered body together with the rudder, the latter making a fin behind the centre of gravity. In a recent lecture before the Aéronautical Society, the superintendent of the Aireraft Factory pointed out that the effect of dihedral angle is dependent to a greater or less extent on the arrangement for FEBRUARY 27, 1913] warping the wings, a freely connected cross- warp tending to eliminate the effect of dihedral angle. If for the time being we neglect the com- plication introduced by the warping mechanism, the system reduces to one of the cases considered by Messrs. Harper and Bryan, who state that, “for stability, the distance of the tail fin behind the centre of gravity must not be less than a certain inferior limit.” The condition is closely connected with the covering of the tail girder, as the covering means that the equivalent fin is brought nearer to the centre of gravity of the machine. The only representative at the exhibition of another method of obtaining lateral stability is the Handley Page monoplane. In common with other well-known machines, such as the Dunne and Etrich, the Handley Page monoplane has wings of special shape and disposition arranged so as to give righting couples to the machine when rolling or turning occurs. The experimental information available is not yet sufficiently advanced to show that this system of specially shaped wingss is either better or worse than the more usual one previously referred to, which depends on wings of a simpler form. Perhaps the best indication of the position of the subject of lateral stability is to be found in the fact that the whole of the warp and rudder is left to the personality of the pilot, and that both are powerful controls. As the periods of the oscillations are comparatively long, it is quite within the bounds of possibility that a pilot would be able to keep his balance without the aid of inherent stability devices. If, however, the treat- ment of longitudinal stability is any indication of the trend of construction, then in the near future we may expect considerable attention to be paid to the problems of lateral stability, and that the final solution will not be inconsistent with the principles of stability deduced from mathematical investigations of the stability of small oscillations. THE SCIENTIFIC WORK OF THE LOCAL GOVERNMENT BOARD.1 N the introduction to the report before us Dr. Newsholme surveys the public health of England and Wales during 1911, and reviews the work of the medical department of the Board for the year ending March 31, 1912. The varia- tions in mortality from various diseases since rgor are illustrated by charts, as in the previous report. The percentage increase of population for 1901-11 remains the same (12°4) as in the preceding decade, but this is due to a fall in the death-rate by 3°0 per cent., which just counterbalances the decline in the birth-rate. The deaths from scarlet fever continued to decline during 1911, those from diphtheria and enteric fever increased slightly, but those from diarrhoeal diseases showed a considerable increase over 1 Forty-first Annual Report of the Local Government Board, 1911-12. Supplement containing the Report of the Medical Officer for 1911-12, NO. 2261, VOL. 90] NAIURE 793 previous years, due to the abnormally hot season; even so, however, there was less diarrhoea, still less infant mortality, in 1911 than in | 1899. The previously plague-infected district in East | Anglia has been kept under observation, and /during July—October, 1911, 15,332 rats were examined, and twenty-seven farms or other premises were found to harbour plague-infected rodents. Of the auxiliary scientific investigations carried | out for the board, the first is a report on arterial degeneration by Dr. Andrewes. Dr. Newsholme points out in his introductory remarks that while there has been a great reduction in the general | death-rate during the past thirty or forty years, this reduction only affects ages up to forty-five years, while higher ages participate in it little or not at all. In fact, for males between fifty-five and seventy-five, the death-rate actually tends to be going up. Inasmuch as one-third of the total deaths for the age period fifty-five to sixty-five | is caused by diseases of the heart and blood- vessels, a knowledge of the causation of arterial degeneration is of importance. Dr. Andrewes’s report is of a preliminary nature; he considers that the use of tobacco appears at most an adjuvant cause, while the influence of alcohol cannot be satisfactorily demonstrated. Studies on the frequency of non-lactose fer- menting and non-liquefying aérobic bacilli in young children have been continued at Birming- ham by Dr. Lewis, and at Liverpool by Dr. Alexander, and Dr. Graham-Smith has investi- gated the incidence of the same organisms in flies. Prof. Nuttall and Messrs. Strickland and Merriman record observations on the species and number of fleas on British rats. Prof. Hewlett and Dr. Nankivell have investi- gated the influence of the Porter-Clark water- softening process on the bacterial content of water treated by it, and find that considerable purifica- tion is effected thereby. Dr. Blaxall finds that o'1 per cent. of oil of cloves is a valuable aid in the preparation of glycerinated calf lymph free from micro- organisms. Altogether this volume contains matter of much scientific value and importance. Ie be El THE MOUNTAINS AND THEIR ROOTS.! (1) ike would be difficult to conceive a greater divergence in character and scope between two books, nominally dealing with cognate sub- jects, than between the two first-named on our list. Prof. Bonney, in his metaphorical use of the word “building,” follows popular usage, for how 1 (x) The Building of the Alps.” By Prof. T. G. Bonney, F.R.S- Pp. 384. (London: T. Fisher Unwin, rgr2.)_ Price 1as. 6d. net. (2) Survey of India. Professional Paper No. 12: ‘* On the Origin of the Himalaya Mountains: a Consideration of the Geodetic Evidence.” By Colonel S. G. Burrard, F.R.S. Pp. ii--26. (Calcutta, 1912.) (3) Survey of India. Professional Paper No. 13. _“ Investigation of the Theory of Isostasy in India.” By Major H. L. Crosthwait, R.E. Pp. ili--rq. (Dehra Dan, rgr2.) 704 NATURE [FEBRUARY 27, 1913 many, when speaking of a building, whether it be cottage or cathedral, ever think of anything but the superstructure, the material or methods of construction, the outward form, or the internal plan? And so Prof. Bonney deals with the Alps. Commencing with the materials of which they are made, he goes on to deal with the processes by which they were raised, and the carving of their outward form by rain, rivers, and glaciers, winding up with the vegetation that clothes their surface, the animals that wander over them, and the humanity which frequents them, whether es permanent inhabitants or temporary visitors. Attractively got up and pleasantly written, it gives Prof. Bonney’s views on all these subjects— views which, as he mentions in the preface, are by no means universally accepted, but which, we may add, are none the less deserving of respectful attention—and will prove of interest not merely to the geologist, but to every intelligent and observant traveller in the Alps. (2) Col. Burrard’s memoir is of an entirely different character from Prof. Bonney’s book. Addressed to the adept, it makes no appeal to the tyro, and, leaving on one side all consideration of the superstructure, deals only with what may be called the foundations of the Himalayas. Geodesists have long known that the attraction exercised by mountains on the plumb-line is much less than that which should result from their visible masses, and the explanation, first suggested by the late Sir G. Airy, has of late years crystal- lised itself in the hypothesis of isostasy, according to which the mountains are supported by a species of flotation, the excess of material in the protuber- ance above sea-level being compensated by a defect of density below. The most complete and best-known investiga- tion of this hypothesis is that of Mr. J. F. Hayford, of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, who has dealt with it, in the light of American geodetic observations, in an elaborate manner. The form of the hypothesis adopted by him was that the compensation extended to a uniform depth, and was effected by variation of the density of the earth’s crust, so that the total downward pressure of a column of rock under the mountains should be the same as that of the lesser thickness under the ocean depths. Assuming this as the method of compensation, he found that the resi- dual differences between the observed and the calculated deflection became least if the depth to which the compensation extended was taken at about 113°7 kilometres, and with that assumption the residuals became so small that the hypothesis might be accepted as extremely probable. This is not, however, a necessary conclusion, for an erroneous hypothesis may be in accord with a limited number of observations, but fail when these are extended; and the result of the applica- tion of Mr. Hayford’s explanation to the Indian observations shows that it is inapplicable to that country. (3) The facts on which this conclusion is based NO. 2261, VOL. 90] are interesting, and are given in detail by Major Crosthwait. At stations within the Himalayas the plumb-line is deflected by about 30” to 4o! to the north, along the foot of the hills this has sunk to some 15” or thereabouts, and at dis- tances of more than forty miles it disappears or is replaced by a small southerly deflection. There is, consequently, a rapid variation in the amount of the observed deflection as we cross the limits of the mountain range, and this change is about double as great as it should be on Mr. Hayford’s hypothesis. The only other explanation investigated by Col. Burrard is that of foredeep, filled with sedi- ment, and according to his calculations this hypo- thesis gives results which depart even further from observation than Mr. Hayford’s. Col. Burrard offers an explanation of his own—that there is a rift in the subcrust along the foot of the mountains, the gradual opening of which gave rise to the compression of the Himalayas, and which became filled with the alluvium of the Gangetic plains as it was formed. Unfortunately he confesses that he is not geologist enough to elaborate this hypothesis, and it is difficult to see how it can be brought into accord with what is known. of the geology of the Himalayas and of the country to the south of them, nor how it differs from Prof. Suess’s foredeep. Moreover, Col. Burrard appears to have over- looked an important paper, published by Rev. O. Fisher in The Philosophical Magazine of 1904, in which he investigates the effect of the Himalayas on the plumb-line in the light of an hypothesis of isostasy radically different from Mr. Hayford’s. According to this the crust is of uniform density, the isostatic compensation being obtained by a variation in thickness, and on this hypothesis he finds that the attraction of the visible range, com- bined with the negative attraction of the down- ward protuberance, should give a northerly deflection of about 24” at the foot of the hills, of 2” at sixty miles away, and a southerly de- flection of about 2” at the farther edge of the plains. These results appear to be in very fair accord with observations in the region of the great Gangetic plain of upper India, where the conditions resemble those postulated in the calcula- tions; beyond this region, in the Punjab and in Bengal, the variations are greater than in the central area, but there the conditions are compli- cated by the fact that geology suggests, and gravitation measurements indicate, the presence of denser rock at a small depth below the alluvium. It must be acknowledged that Mr. Fisher’s investigations do not give a complete explanation of all the variations observed, but this is inevitable in the case of any hypothesis which assumes—as must be done for purposes of calculation—that the crust and the underlying material have every- where the same density. All that can be said is that it seems to be more closely in accord with the Indian observations than Mr. Hayford’s, and it is to be hoped that Col. Burrard will be able FEBRUARY 27, 1913] NATURE 795 to complete his investigations by a study in detail of the relation between the effects which should be observed, according to it, and the actual results of observation. SIR WILLIAM ARROL. ~IR WILLIAM ARROL, the famous bridge- ‘7 builder, born in 1839 at Houston, Renfrew- shire, died on February 20 at his residence, Sea- field House, Ayr. His great mechanical abilities and his remarkable administrative powers—two qualities not often found associated—enabled him | in the space of little more than forty years, for he started on his own account only in 1869, to expand a humble little boiler-repairing shop into the great Dalmarnock works employing some 5000 hands. Sir William Arrol was fortunate in finding a suitable field of work for the mental gifts with which he was so richly endowed. From the first his attention had been directed to the many novel problems, hitherto unsolved, which must be over- come if the building of long-span steel bridges was to be rendered commercially possible. It is with the great steel cantilever bridge over the Firth of Forth that his name will be for ever linked. De- signed by Sir John Fowler and Sir Benjamin Baker, the hazardous and difficult task of its erec- tion was entrusted to the firm of W. Arrol and Co. Splendid as was the design, perfect as were the working drawings down to the minutest details, when they left the hands of the two designers, it is not too much to say that it was the mechanical genius of William Arrol which made the erection of the bridge a possibility within the limits of time and cost which had been laid down by the engineers. The lengths of the spans and the height of the piers were far beyond any- thing previously attempted, and as a result the difficulties which had to be overcome would: have daunted most men; they only served to show more clearly the extraordinary gifts he possessed. It was in this task that his mechanical genius found its best outlet. During the whole of the seven years that the work was in progress he was constantly busy, scheming new devices such as improved hydraulic riveting appliances, oil-fired rivet-heaters, complex and ingenious machines for the troublesome task of drilling the plates which went to build up the huge steel compression members, and, most important of all, no detail, however insignificant, escaped his watchful super- vision and control. He received his knighthood on the completion of the bridge in 1890, and never was this honour bestowed on one who had more worthily earned it; he had revolutionised the art of bridge-building and made it a science. The Tay Bridge, the Tower Bridge, and many other great structures will bear testimony to the fact that Sir William Arrol was, as a mechanical engineer, fully entitled to a place in that little band of men whose achievements in the field of engineering shed lustre over the last half of the nineteenth century. NO. 2261, VOL. 90] | information. | representing science and research. INQ ESS. Bap news is to hand from the Australian Antarctic expedition, under the leadership of Dr. Mawson, for two members of it have lost their lives. These are Lieut. Ninnis, an Englishman, and Dr. Mertz, a Swiss member of the scientific staff. The manner of their death is not stated, and, indeed, the whole message, which has reached Australia from the wire- less telegraphic station established by the expedition at Macquarie Island, leaves us anxious for further It may be recalled that the expedition, reaching the Antarctic region in February of last year, was divided into two parties, under Dr. Mawson and Mr. Wild respectively, which landed about 143° E. and 95° E., in Adélie Land and Kaiser Wilhelm Land. It is known that valuable scientific work has been done, and that a considerable extent of coast-line has been charted for the first time. The vessel of the expedition, the Aurora, returned to Australia after landing the parties, and made a second voyage to the south to bring them off. It was thought that Dr. Mawson was aboard her, but apparently he | missed her, owing to “unfortunate circumstances,” ’ , which are not specified, and will have to remain in the south for another year, with six of his staff. For the rest, after mentioning the unhappy loss above referred to, he merely adds that there has been a successful sledging season, ‘‘opening up a large area of new land, both east and west of Commonwealth Bay, and obtaining important data at a number of stations in close proximity to the magnetic pole.” But in view of what has befallen, anxiety must re- main for many months as to the welfare of this party. Ir is officially announced that in recognition of the Antarctic work of her husband, the King has been pleased to grant to Mrs. Kathleen Scott the same rank, style, and precedence as if Capt. Scott had been nominated a Knight Commander of the Bath, as he would have been had he survived. AN interesting exhibition of works by the late Mr. Thomas Woolner, R.A., is open at his studios, 29 Welbeck Street, W., until March 8. The exhibits include a number of objects of interest to men of science, among them being plaster busts of Charles Darwin, Huxley, and Richard Quain, bronze medal- lions of Darwin and Sir Joseph Hooker, a colossal head, in plaster, of Capt. Cook, and a bronze medal Any works not disposed of during the exhibition will be sold in the studio by auction, on a date to be announced later. WE learn from The Lancet that, on the suggestion of the High Commissioner for Cyprus, the Secretary of State for the Colonies has arranged that a visit shall be paid to the island, during March, by Sir Ronald Ross, K.C.B., F.R.S... The object of the visit is to | investigate the causes of the prevalence of malarial fever in the island, and to advise in regard to the best means of combating the disease. Tue President of the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries has appointed Mr. D. H. Lane and Mr. Stephen Reynolds to be members of the Departmental 700 NATORE [FEBRUARY 27, 1913 Committee which he has recently appointed to inquire into the present condition of the inshore fisheries, and to advise the Board as to the steps which could with advantage be taken for their preservation and develop- ment. The President has also appointed Dr. E. H. J. Schuster to be a member of the advisory committee recently constituted to advise the Board on questions relating to the elucidation through scientific research of problems affecting fisheries. On Wednesday, March 12, a special meeting of the Faraday Society will be held in the rooms of the Chemical Society, Burlington House, when the pro- gramme will consist of a general discussion on the subject of ‘Colloids and their Viscosity.” The chair will be taken by the president, Dr. R. T. Glazebrook, C.B., F.R.S., and papers will be read by Dr. Wolf- gang Ostwald, Drs. H. Freundlich and N. Tshzake, Dr. W. Pauli, Dr. V. Henri, Mr. E. Hatschek, Prof. F. G. Donnan, F.R.S., Dr. S. B. Schryver, Prof. W. M. Bayliss, F.R.S., and Mr. W. B. Hardy, F.R.S. Ar the annual general meeting of the Physical Society, held on February 14, the officers for the ensuing year were elected as follows :—President : Prof. A. Schuster, F.R.S. Vice-Presidents: Those who have filled the office of president, together with Mr. F. E. Smith, Prof. ©. H. Lees, F.R.S., Prof. T. Mather, F.R.S., Dr. A. Russell. Secretaries: Mr. W.R. Cooper, Dr. S. W. J. Smith. Foreign Secretary: Prof. S. P. Thompson, F.R.S. Treasurer: Mr. W. Dud- dell, F.R.S. Librarian: Dr. S. W. J. Smith. Other Members of Council: Prof. C. G. Barkla, IPBRESs, Prof. P. V. Bevan, Dr. W. H. Eccles, Prof. J. W. Nicholson, Major W. A. J. O’Meara, €.M.G., Prof. it. (G. Porter, the Hon, Ro Jy Stitt) bReSs Dr: W. E. Sumpner, Mr. R. S. Whipple, Dr. R. S. Willows, Ar the anniversary meeting of the Geological Society, held on February 21, the officers for the ensuing year were appointed as follows :—President : Dr. A. Strahan, F.R.S. Vice-Presidents: Prof. E. J. Garwood, Mr. R. D. Oldham, F.R.S:, Mr. Clement Reid, F.R.S., and Prof. W. W. Watts, F.R.S. Secre- tavries: Dr. A. Smith Woodward, F.R.S., and Mr. H. H. Thomas. Foreign Secretary: Sir Archibald Geikie, K.C.B., President R.S. Treasurer: Mr. Bed- ford McNeill. The following awards of medals and funds were made :—Wollaston medal, Rev. Osmond Fisher; Murchison medal, Mr. George Barrow; Lyell medal, Mr. S. S. Buckman; Bigsby medal, Sir Thomas Henry Holland, K.C.I.E., F.R.S.; Wollaston | fund, Mr. W. W. King; Murchison fund, Mr. R. E. L. Dixon; Lyell fund, Mr. Ll. Treacher; Barlow-Jame- son fund, Mr. J. B. Scrivenor and Mr. Bernard Smith. The president delivered his anniversary address, which dealt with the form of that part of the Palaeozoic plat- form which underlies the secondary rocks of the south-east of England. Tue meetings of the Institution of Naval Architects will be held on March 12-14 inclusive, in the hall of the Royal Society of Arts. The morning meetings begin at 11.30, and the evening meetings on March NO. 2261, VOL. 90] 13 and 14 at 7.30. On March 12 the election of officers will take place, the president’s address will be delivered, and the institution gold medal and premiums presented. Papers will be read and discussed on each of the three days of the meetings, and among the subjects to be considered the following may be mentioned :—The mechanical gearing for the propui- sion of ships, by the Hon. Sir Charles A. Parsons, K.C.B.; the energy systems accompanying the motion of bodies through air and water, by Prof. J. B. Hen- derson; the calculation of stability in non-intact con- ditions, by Prof. W. S. Abell; notes on modern air- ship construction, by Baron A. Roenne; and the longi- tudinal stability of skimmers and hydro-aéroplanes, by Mr. J. E. Steele. The annual dinner will be held on March 12, at 7.30 p.m., in the Grand Hall of the Connaught Rooms. In connection with the paragraph which recently appeared in our columns on the Pennant collection presented to the Natural History Museum by Lord and Lady Denbigh, it may be mentioned that, accord- ing to a notice in The Times, the birds include two very interesting specimens of the capercaillie. These, it is inferred, probably represent the old British stock, which became extinct about 1760 in Scotland, and, if so, are its only known representatives. Further examination may prove the right of the British bird to rank as a distinct race. The capercaillies now found in certain parts of Scotland are the descendants of Scandinavian birds introduced about 1837 by the then Marquis of Breadalbane, at Taymouth Castle. In a notice of the collection in The Pall Mall Gazette of February 19 it is stated that Mr. Edgar Smith has found that a British snail described by Pennant as Helix rufescens turns out to be a young specimen of H. arbustorum. For the British species which has hitherto been incorrectly identified with H. rufescens the name H. montana is available. Tue Board of Trade announces with regard to the forthcoming expedition of the Scotia (see p. 680), which is being organised jointly by the Board of Trade and the North Atlantic steamship lines for the purpose of ice observation in the North Atlantic, that one member of the staff will be a trained meteoro- logist. Dr. Assmann, director of the Royal Prussian Aéronautical Observatory at Lindenberg, has made a valuable contribution to the scientific equipment of the Scotia by providing a number of kites for meteoro- logical work, and instruments to be attached to these Ixites for recording air pressure, temperature, relative humiditv, and wind velocity. It is hoped that if the weather conditions on the voyage are favourable a considerable addition may be made to the present very meagre knowledge as to the conditions of the currents in the upper air in the regions off the east coast of Newfoundland and Labrador. The long- range wireless apparatus in the vessel is being pro- vided free of charge by the Marconi Company. Two wireless operators will be employed in order that a constant watch may be kept. Tue keen north-easterly wind which blew with such persistence over the British Isles for the eight FEBRUARY 27, 1913| NATURE 797 days from February 15 to February 22 has checked | 1889. somewhat the early and rapid development of vegeta- tion, and in this way it will have proved beneficial. The cold over the United Kingdom was, however, by no means great, and the maximum day tempera- ture at Greenwich was only below 40° on two days, February 18 and 20, although in the ten days from February 13 to February 22 there was only one day, February 16, with the shade temperature above 43°. The frost at night was generally slight, but on the early morning of February 23, when the north-east wind had practically ceased, the shade temperature at Greenwich fell to 24°, which is the lowest reading since February 6, 1912, and the exposed thermometer on the grass fell to 10°. The weather was generally very dry. The controlling factors were a region of high barometer, mostly to the north of Scotland, and areas of low barometer to the south of Europe. On the Continent, and especially in France and Germany, the weather for the period was much colder than in the United Kingdom. Snow fell at Nice on February 17 and 19, and on February 17 the maximum day temperature at Nice was 41°, whilst at Greenwich for the same day the maximum was 42°. Ar the annual general meeting of the Royal Astro- nomical Society on February 14, Dr. F. W. Dyson, the president, gave an address on the presentation of the gold medal which had been awarded to M. Henri Alexandre Deslandres, for his investigations of solar phenomena and other spectroscopic work. He pointed out that M. Deslandre’s labours in solar physics have extended over more than twenty-one years. His researches on banded spectra established the laws fol- lowed by all spectra of this class; he also investigated the spectrum of the corona and of comets and their tails. But his most important work was with the spectroheliograph and a velocity recorder devised by himself, with which, perhaps, even more important results are being obtained. The chief general con- clusion drawn from the velocity records is that the bright areas on the solar surface are descending and the dark: filaments ascending. He has always kept in mind the ultimate obiect .of his researches—the deter- mination of the constitution and circulation of the solar atmosphere. The gold medal was handed to M. Roux, secretary of the French Embassy, for trans- mission to M. Deslandres, who was unable to be pre- sent. The psesident also announced that the Jaclson- Gwilt bronze medal and gift had been awarded to the Rev. T. H. E. C. Espin, for his observations of the spectra of stars and his discovery of Nova Lacerte. After a brief account of these researches, the president handed the medal and gift to Mr. Espin. News has reached us, by cablegram from Calcutta, of the death, on February 19, of Prof. W. Tate, pro- fessor of chemistry in the Civil Engineering College, Sibpur. Prof. Tate received his early scientific educa- tion at the Midland Institute, Birmingham, whence he proceeded, in 1886, to the Royal College of Science, South Kensington, as a national scholar. After a brilliant career as a student, he obtained the associate- ship of the college in chemistry, with honours, in NO. 2261, VOL. 90] He was then appointed demonstrator in one of the chemical laboratories of the college, and during that period he was engaged in some researches, and prepared a revised and enlarged edition of Sir Edward | Thorpe’s ‘‘Chemical Problems.”’ About sixteen years ago Prof. Tate was appointed to the Indian Educa- tional Service as professor of chemistry at the Civil Engineering College at Sibpur, which is situated in rather an unhealthy and somewhat malarious locality five or six miles to the south of Calcutta, on the banks of the Hooghly; and he continued in this appointment up to the time of his death. He had to reorganise, and almost to create, the chemical depart- ment of that college. Under his supervision a very successful and commodious laboratory was erected and equinped, and excellent work has been done in it by the students under his tuition. He also gave great help to committees of the Calcutta University in determining the courses in science for its degrees in civil engineering and also in other University ques- tions. He did valuable work during the whole of his service in India, and was very popular with the mem- bers of his department, and also with his students. His death at a comparatively early age will be deeply regretted by many friends, both in India and at home. Tue exhibition of ‘‘Wonders of Science,’ held in the Surbiton Assembly Rooms on February 19-22, proved remarkably successful, the capacity of the hall being frequently inadequate to accommodate all seel- ing admission. It is estimated that more than 7000 persons attended during the hours for which the ex- hibition was officially open; in addition, about 1200 school children were admitted in the mornings. The official programme mentions 152 exhibits, but many of these consisted of numerous objects. They in- cluded scientific apparatus, instruments, records, and specimens, illustrating the progress of science, par- ticularly in physics, electricity, chemistry, botany, astronomy, and medicine. In many instances instru- ments were shown in actual working. Demonstra- tions were given, from time to time, on liquid air, wireless telegraphy and telephony (including the transmission of music), the culture of bacteria, science applied to music, glass-blowing, the use of the potter’s wheel, the Fleuss life-saving apparatus, &c. A party of boys who had made themselves experts in blowing soap-bubbles was always the centre of a group of interested spectators, whilst the fascination of motion drew others to the gyroscope tops, rainbow cups, mercury heart, vortex rings, and the paper circular saw which was cutting wood. Microscopic objects shown under about forty microscopes had a constant succession of interested observers. The electric light produced by induction, as shown by Mr. Sharman, attracted great attention, as did also the Réntgen rays, the radium exhibit, the Pathéscope. and the optophone, an instrument by which light rays produce audible vibrations. The great success of the exhibi- tion may be attributed to (1) the generosity of many prominent men of science in lending exhibits and assisting in other ways; (2) the energy and zeal of a large party of local workers, aided by friends from a distance, under the leadership and direction of the NATURE | FEBRUARY 27, 1913 president, the Rev. J. C. Harris; (3) the satisfactory efforts of the publicity and tickets committees to advertise the exhibition beforehand in the district. Lorp Carnarvon and Mr. C. L. Woolley have recently been excavating Beacon Hill, in Hampshire, and the results are communicated by the latter to the January issue of Man. The fine contour-fort sup- plied examples of two types of construction, large circles, possibly pens surrounded by wattle enclosures, and hut dwellings sunk down to the chalk. The former contained a fragment of black pottery of the Bronze age. A mile or so from Beacon Hill is the group of tumuli known as the ‘Seven Barrows.” In one of these, which had not previously been dis- turbed, were found several burnt flints, which in the absence of human bones suggest disposal of the dead by cremation, as was usual in southern England. The form of the barrow is its most interesting feature, the open stone ring recalling the external structure of the long barrows, and suggesting that this constitutes an intermediate link between the long and round types of barrow. To the January number of the New York Zoological Society’s Bulletin Prof. H. F. Osborn communicates an illustrated account of the remarkably fine series of wild horses, asses, and zebras at present living in the menagerie, where a new house has recently been built for their reception. The paper is accompanied by a couple of maps showing the distribution of the various species and races. AccorpinG to an article by Mr. E. R. Waite in the fourth number of Records of the Canterbury (N.Z.) Museum, that institution has acquired, at a cost of 4ool., the skeleton of a Sibbald’s rorqual, prepared from an individual stranded near Okarito, on the west coast of the south island. In the flesh this monster measured 87 ft. in length. The museum has also added to its collection a cast and the skeleton of a stranded specimen of Layard’s beaked whale. We have received from Mr. J. A. Hutton, of Wood- lands, Alderley Edge, a table showing the annual number of salmon taken in the Wye from 1905 to 1912, with nets and with rods, and also the number of tons of ‘‘fish’”’ taken, year by year, from 1890 to 1912. In the first table the ‘record’? occurred in 1912, when the total number of salmon was 6205, with a collective weight of 91,0683 Ib., while in the second the maximum catch, by Miller’s netting, was 603 tons. In the February issue of British Birds, the editor records that a swallow ringed in Staffordshire in May, 1911, was taken near Utrecht, Natal, on Decem- ber 23, rgi2. After commenting on the length of the journey made by this bird, Mr. Witherby expresses the opinion that the evidence at present available does not support the view that British swallows normally travel southwards by the East African route, as might be inferred to be the case from the new record, Some months ago we recorded the arrival at Mr. Carl Hagenbeck’s establishment of five specimens of the pigmy West African hippopotamus, these, which NO. 2261, VOL. 90] were sold to Berlin and New York, being the first living examples of their kind to reach Europe. As announced in The Times of February 7, an immature living specimen has been received at the Zoological Gardens in Regent’s Park. A descriptive illustrated account of the animal, which has been conditionally purchased by the society, is given by Mr. Pocock in The Field of February 15. Tuat the mysterious humming in the air heard at times in fine summer weather in this country is due (as recorded in Nature in November last) to chiro- nomid flies, is fully endorsed in a note communicated to the February number of The Entomologist’s Monthly Magazine by Dr. E. E. Green. Writing from Ceylon, Dr. Green states that when bicycling by the border of a lalkke he heard a loud noise, which he had first attributed to machinery in motion, but that soon after he ran into a dense fog of minute flies, from which the sound proceeds. ‘These flies, which sometimes swarm into the houses of the resi- dents in such numbers that they may be swept up in the morning by the bushel, are, it seems, a species of Chironomus. Dr. Green also endorses the opinion that the sound is produced by a true stridulating action. Pror. A. H. Trow has during the last six years — made a study of the inheritance of certain characters in the common groundsel (Senecio vulgaris), and has published some of his results in The Journal of Gene- tics, vol. ii., No. 3. He finds that this is an aggre- gate species which includes many segregate or elemen- tary species, of which he has cultivated twelve; these were maintained pure and true to type for at least several generations. Six of them have been studied in detail, and are distinguished by more or less de- scriptive names; the others are for the present simply designated with their place of origin, all except one being British. The investigation has included the critical examination of about 10,000 groundsel plants; the most exacting work, consisting of long and tedious series of measurements of the vegetative organs, will form the basis of a further paper by the author. : Unper the title, ‘World Weather Bureau Favoured,” The Pittsburg Post (Pa.) of January 27 contains the report of a statement by Mr. H. H. Clayton, for many years meteorologist at the late Prof. Rotch’s observatory at Blue Hill (Mass.), with reference to the importance of the establishment of a central international weather bureau, where the accumulating observations from all parts of the world could be discussed. The idea of such an institution was mooted many years ago, and Mr. Clayton thinks its want is growing greater; he remarks: ‘‘It is ever becoming more apparent that if we are to leap the bounds of day-to-day forecasts for the seasons we must collect observations and study the meteorology of the world as a whole.” And with reference to crops and their connection with dreughts and rain- fall he points out that fabulous sums are at stake. Bearing upon the latter subject we may also refer to an interesting lecture, ‘‘ Meteorology and Agricul- FEBRUARY 27, 1913] NAT ORS 709 ture,’ especially the section on the possibilities of the use of statistics, delivered by Dr. W. N. Shaw at Cambridge, and printed in the Journal of the Scottish Meteorological Society (vol. xvi., No. xxix.) Mr. Clayton pays a well-merited tribute to the ‘‘ splendid pioneer work’ of Rotch, Teisserenc de Bort, Hilde- brandsson, and of Sir Norman and Dr. Lockyer, but he points out that an organisation on a very large scale is required, employing meteorologists from all over the world, cooperating with all Government institutions, yet having an individual existence and a permanent endowment. In his second Cantor lecture before the Royal Society of Arts, on the methods of economising heat, Mr. C. R. Darling referred to the great saving which might be effected if engineers would devote more attention to the physical laws and methods of heat insulation. Data are now available which enable the heat losses in the case of furnaces, and the heat gains in the case of refrigerating plant, to be reduced mate- rially. The two problems must be kept distinct, as the materials which may be best at one temperature are seldom the best at another temperature, owing to the great change of heat-insulating properties of sub- stances with temperature. Tue National Electric Lamp Association of Cleve- land, Ohio, has just published No. 1 of an Abstract Bulletin which contains abstracts of all the scientific papers issued from the physical laboratory of the association from its inception in 1908 to the present time. The full papers are already available in the proceedings of scientific societies or in the technical Press, but the abstracts of twenty-eight papers which the present number of the bulletin contains will be of great use to those who require the results of the investigations without the experimental details. We have had occasion to refer to some of these results, and we only propose here to direct attention to the wide ground covered by the abstracts, which are all prepared by the authors themselves. Several of them deal with the selective radiation from incandescent metals, many with photometry of lights of the same or different colours, a number with the efficiencies of lamps, and several with visual acuity. The asso- ciation is to be congratulated on the scientific value of the worl which is turned out from its physical laboratory. Notices have recently appeared in the daily Press and The Scientific American regarding an invention by M. Moreau, of Paris, which, according to the | cilltum or Mucor. arrangement increases the number of possible oscil- lations and adds to the difficulty of satisfying the conditions of stability. So little has been done in applying the principles of rigid dyanmics to aéro- planes that any attempt of this kind must be regarded as highly doubtful from a theoretical point of view. At the present time even Newton’s laws of motion are quite disregarded in many writings and experi- ments on aviation. The ‘‘ideal pendulum,” which is supposed to maintain a fixed direction without oscil- lating, has no more existence than the perfectly smooth body of our text-books. Failing an efficient study of the dynamics of the problem, the safest course in experimenting with pendulums is to damp their oscil- lations as much as possible. Perhaps the aviator himself damps the oscillations, in which case this may be a practical and successful way out of the difficul- ties. No. 1 of vol. v. of the Journal of the College of Agriculture, Tokyo, contains a number of exception- ally interesting papers. Prof. U. Suzuki and S. Matsunaga show that nicotinic acid occurs together with oryzenin in rice bran; this observation is of special interest, as, apparently, it is the first time that | nicotinic acid has been observed in plant material, although a homologue, picolinecarboxylic acid was isolated by Schreiner and Shorey some years back from soils rich in humus. Mr. T. Yabuta has studied a new organic acid which is formed by the action of Aspergillus oryzae on steamed rice in the manufac- ture of “koji,” and to which the name “koji-acid”’ is given; it is not identical with any acid yet obtained from the lower fungi, and is apparently also formed by some other Aspergillus species, but not by Peni- There is an interesting paper by Mr. S. Muramatsu on the preparation of ‘‘natto,” a vegetable cheese obtained by fermenting boiled soya beans, and the nature of the micro-organisms involved in the change, whilst Mr. R. Inouye contributes an important study of the chemical composition of the silkworm at different stages of its metamorphosis. The Builder for February 21 refers to the announce- ment that Prof. Boni has found that three large lifts Were in operation at the Imperial Palace on the Pala- tine Hill in ancient Rome. Modern refinements of | mechanism and finish were lacking, but the fact that accounts, is claimed to be a solution of the problem | of automatic stability for aéroplanes. The main feature would appear to be that the aviator sits in a kind of swing, described as a pendulum seat, operat- ing on the rudder for vertical steering, although it is stated that the seat can also be fixed by means of a brake. This arrangement may facilitate per- sonal control, and in this respect, experience may prove it to be successful, but it can scarcely be likely to secure “‘ stability.’ Suspension of the aviator’s seat is statically equivalent to raising the centre ot gravity of the system, while, on the other hand, any pendulum NO. 2261, VOL. 90] machinery of this kind was employed affords addi- tional evidence of the engineering genius of the Romans. Roman houses were heated in the first century by means of hot air proceeding from furnace- rooms and circulating under floors and inside the walls. Excavations in Pompeii have brought to light a house with well-designed hot and cold water ser- vice on a plan closely resembling modern installations. Instances such these emphasise the point that modern achievements depend upon improved appli- ances and increased scientific knowledge rather than upon superior intellectual capacity. as Mr. J. D. Porter has published separately, at the price of 2s. 6d, net, the ‘‘New Log and Versine Alti- tude Tables,” from ‘The ‘Newest’ Navigation Alti- tude and Azimuth Tables for Facilitating the-Deter- 710 NATURE [FEBRUARY 27, 1913 mination of Lines of Position and Geographical Posi- tion at Sea,” by Lieut. edition of which was reviewed in Nature for February 6 last (vol. xc., p. 617). THE proceedings at the conference on the theory of radiation, held in Brussels in 1911, have been referred to in two articles in Nature. The first appeared on November 16, 1911 (vol. IXxxxviii., p. 82), and the second on January 16, 1913 (vol. xc., p. 545). We have now received a copy of a volume containing the papers read at the conference and reports of the dis- cussions upon them; it is printed in French, edited by MM. P. Langevin and M. de Broglie, and pub- lished by M. Gauthier-Villars, of Paris, at the price of 15 francs. OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. \STRONOMICAL OCCURRENCES FOR Marcu :— March 2. oh. 24m. Jupiter in conjunction with the Moon (Jupiter 5° 22’ N 3- 22h. 50m. Uranus in omumeten with the Moon (Uranus 4° 2' N.). 4. 8h. 30m. Mars aa conjunction with the Moon (Mars 3° 10’ N.). g. 2h. 53m. Mercury in conjunction with the Moon (Mercury 1° 20’ N.). 11. 8h. 30m. Venus in conjunction with the Moon (Venus 2° 1’ N.). 13. 2h. 36m. Saturn in conjunction with the Moon (Saturn 6° 23’ S.). 17. 8h. 43m. Neptune in conjunction with the Moon (Neptune 5° 34’ S.). 19. 3h. om. Venus at ONES brilliancy. 20. I7h. 18m. Sun enters Sign of Aries, Spring commences. 21. 23h. 58m. Moon eclipsed, invisible at Greenwich. 29. 14h. 29m. Jupiter in conjunction with the Moon (Jupiter 5° 10’ N.). Tue Sorar Activity.—A sun-spot of unusually high latitude is at present visible on the solar disc. First seen on February 19, when it had just come over the eastern limb in heliographic latitude about 35° N., the spot has since developed somewhat, and on Mon- day last the leading nucleus was fairly large and dense. An outbreak in such a high iatitude possibly marks the beginning of a new sun-spot cycle, for the new cycles generally commence at a great distance from the equator, while the old cycle is dying away near the equator. As pointed out in Monday’s Times, the epoch of the next maximum of spot activity is somewhat uncertain because the previous maximum, 1906, was late, and presented a double peak. PuHotToGRAPHIC MaGNITUDES OF STARS IN COMA BERENICES.—On five plates taken with a 4-in. anastig- mat portrait lens, Herr Hnatek has measured the extra-focal images of 104 stars in the asterism Coma Berenices, and publishes the results in No. 4629 of the Astronomische Nachrichten. In addition to the definitive mean magnitudes, ranging from 5-2 to 10:3, Herr Hnatek gives the magnitudes as determined from each of his five plates, the B.D. number, the spectral type (Harvard), and the differences between his own and five other measures by various observers ; these comparisons show differences varying with mag- nitude and spectral type. For example, it is seen that the difference of magnitude Hnatelk-Pickering NO. 2261, VOL. 90| R. de Aquino, the second | increases as the temperatures decrease, and amounts to 0-43 mag. for class K stars. Tue DIstRIBUTION OF SPECTROSCOPIC BinaRY STARS. | —From Prof. Stroobant we have received an abstract from the Comptes rendus (vol. clvi., p. 37), in which he has discussed the distribution of spectroscopic binaries, as compared with other stars, in the celestial sphere. Dividing the sphere into 20° zones of galactic latitude, he finds that of the 306 stars given in Camp- bell’s second catalogue of spectroscopic binaries, 217 lie within the zone +30° to —30° galactic latitude, and only eighty-nine without it. For naked-eye stars generally, the proportion is 3154 to 2565, according to Houzeau, This preponderance near the Milky Way is found to be due to the relatively large number of helium. stars among the binaries, about 35 per cent. of the, total, for, according to Pickering, 93 per cent. of 686 helium stars are to be found in the galactic zone. HIGH-LEVEL MEASUREMENT OF SOLAR RapiaTION.— In No. 1, vol. xxxvii., of The Astrophysical Journal Prof. Very discusses the conditions affecting the measures of solar radiation at high levels. VYaking measures made up to nearly 30 km., he shows that aqueous vapour, the chief atmospheric absorbent of solar radiations, is still present, in appreciable quan- tities, at these great altitudes; thus the limits of the aqueous atmosphere are extended much further than some meteorologists have thought to be possible. Having reduced observations made at sea- level, 4420 and 13,700 metres, he finds thermal equivalents, at these heights, of 1-5, 2:00, and 2-86 cal./sq. cm. min. respectively, and by plotting these results gets a value for the solar constant of radiation of 3-5 cal./sq. cm. min. THE BLEACHING OF FLOUR1 ARLIER reports to the Local Government Board on the chemical changes produced in flour by bleaching, which have been summarised already in these columns, have been written with the object of producing chemical evidence of the supposed injurious effect of bleaching. A recent legal decision of considerable moment has stated that the presence of 3°43 parts of nitrites per million does not alter the genuineness of flour, and that it is admitted that no injurious effects from such a quantity of nitrites can be proved. The result of commercial bleaching is merely to alter the colour of flour to suit the taste of the consumer without altering the nature, sub- stance, and quality of the flour so as to render it a different article. In the present report, Dr. Monier-Williams admits evidence which brings his views more into line with | those prevailing elsewhere. Following the suggestion of Wesener and Teller, the colouring matter of flour has been compared by him with carrotene, the yellow plastid colouring matter of plants which is so obvious in the carrot. The method of comparison adopted is a physical one, namely the examination of the absorption spectra of the two pigments, which are shown to be identical. The colouring matter of flour is thus established as carrotene. Pure carrotene crystallises in small leaflets of an intense red colour, which, on exposure to the air, gradually absorb oxygen and form a colourless com- pound. Carrotene also absorbs practically its own weight of nitrogen peroxide, forming colourless com- pounds of unknown nature, which, however, all give 1 Report to the Local Government Board by Dr. G. W. Monier Williams. Food Reports, No. 19. October, 1912. Price 34. « - FEBRUARY 27, 1913| NATURE 7 PE the colour test for nitrites. It is thus clear that the two processes of bleaching carrotene, namely either by oxygen or by nitrogen peroxide, are quite distinct. It is assumed that the same holds good in flour and that artificially bleached flour, in which normally about one-third of the colouring matter has been destroyed by bleaching, and naturally aged flour are not quite the same thing. It is shown by Dr. Monier-Williams that unbleached flour, stored in small bags, as is customary in the retail trade, gradually loses its colouring matter, and at the same time picks up nitrites, which in time may amount to 14 parts of NaNO, per million. This is much the same quantity as is present in the freshly milled bleached flour typical of the London mills,” which, although it loses further colouring matter on storage, does not absorb any more nitrite. Actually after two months’ storage bleached and unbleached flours are practically identical. Samples of very heavily bleached flours had altered after two years’ keeping, so that they then only contained about as much nitrite as ordinary unbleached flours kept for a few months. The interesting conclusion is drawn that under ordinary conditions of storage there is an approximate figure towards which the nitrite content of all samples, whether highly bleached or unbleached, will eventually converge. With the cooperation of Mr. Kirkland, Dr. Monier- Williams has tested the baking qualities of some heavily bleached flours. Mr. Kirkland reports that all the loaves were of excellent quality, and had no re- markable taste or smell. The one exception—flour containing roo times the usual quantity of nitrite— gave a loaf which did not rise so well and possessed a somewhat rancid, oily taste. Leaving any ethical considerations as to the pro- priety of bleaching flour entirely out of account, this report serves to establish conclusively that there is no scientific evidence that bleaching by means of traces of nitrites is injurious, and it is now proved that the presence of traces of nitrites in stored flour is a natural course of events. REEVES’S NIGHT MARCHING WATCH. WWESSES. Cy Ee CASEEE A SANDE ECO: iD s have submitted a ‘night marching watch,” designed by Mr. E. A. Reeves, and costing 21. 15s. This is an ingenious device intended to help travellers to know their bearings when moving at night, pro- vided that they are able to recognise the brighter stars. The stars made use of are Aldebaran, Rigel, Sirius, Procyon, Regulus, Denebola, Spica, Arcturus, Antares, Altair, Fomalhaut, Capella, and, of course, by day the sun. The positions of these, together with the days of the months, are printed on a ring outside the watch face, but under the watch glass, and capable of being turned by the bezel (which unfor- tunately is smooth instead of being milled) so as to bring the date against the hour XII. Then the hour on the watch face under any star’s position when multiplied by two is the time measured from noon to this star’s meridian passage. A rectangular mark of luminous radium paint carried on the star rim is then set to this doubled time, and the watch is ready for use with that star. The hour hand carries a luminous projection which rides over the edge of the star rim, and as this hand rotates in the watch twice as fast as the earth rotates or the star appears to go round, the angle between _ 2 In other districts where a very white flour is required a stronger bleach is often adopted. NO. 2261, VOL. 90] | misplaced ? the two luminous marks already described as sub- tended at the centre of the watch, is double the hour angleofthe star. Butthe angle at the centre is double the angle subtended by the same arc at a point on the circumference, and therefore these two marks will subtend the star’s hour angle at any point on the cir- cumference on the other side of the watch. A luminous arrow-head is therefore placed upon the edge of the glass, which is capable of being turned round without turning the bezel. When the arrow mark is removed from the other two, and the watch face is inclined roughly to the colatitude with the first- named luminous mark at the upper side, and then turned in azimuth until a line passing through the arrow and the other mark is directed towards the star, then the first luminous mark as seen from the arrow will be in a southerly direction. As is usual with astronomical things, there are certain cases where the rules have to be turned inside out (as, for instance, when a star crosses the meridian to the north), and these are explained in the pamphlet. Unfortunately this pamphlet is ambiguously worded, and anyone not understanding the principle would have great difficulty in finding out what to do. The | question which must occur to anyone at all familiar with the night sky is this: Has not ingenuity been Even if the pole star be not visible, there is very little doubt, at least in the northern hemi- sphere, where it is. In the southern hemisphere, it is true, there is a great blank in the polar region, but it does not take long to learn the relations of the conspicuous southern stars to the pole. While there- fore some people might like to use the watch and enjoy the use of it on account of its ingenuity, others might prefer in practice to do without. THE VEGETATION OF THE TRANSCASPIAN LOWLANDS. R. O. PAULSEN has published an English edition, revised and corrected by Dr. W. G. Smith, of Edinburgh, of his important memoir on “The Vegetation of the Transcaspian Lowlands.” This memoir forms the first part of the biological section of the botanical results of the second Danish Pamir expedition—the systematic part of the botanical results having been already published as the examina- tion of the various natural orders was completed—and contains 279 pages, with 79 illustrations, and a map of the area studied. After describing the situation and boundary of the region examined, together with the general geological and climatic characters of Transcaspia, the author deals in considerable detail with the vegetation, which he classifies under the headings of five distinct plant-formations. These formations are the riverside thickets (bushland) and four types of desert formation (salt, clay, sand, and stone deserts). The second half of the memoir is devoted to an extremely interesting account of the various biological types of growth forms. The author follows Raun- Ikiaer’s system according to which the plants are arranged in classes depending upon the way in which they live through unfavourable seasons, special em- phasis being laid on the degree and kind of protection afforded to the dormant shoot-tips. Of the 768 species listed. nearly half are annuals which live through the hot, drv summer as seeds, having flowered during the rainy period; trees and shrubs are few and small. chiefly tamarisks, Callizonum (Polygonacez), and shrubby Papilionacee (especially Astragalus); the Composite of the Transcaspian flora include 103 712 NATURE [ FEBRUARY 27, 1913 species : Chenopodiaceze 94, Papilionaceze 85, Cruci- ferae 51, Gramineze 44, Boraginacee 42. Interest- ing comparisons are drawn between the Transcaspian flora and the floras of various other regions, desert and otherwise, with reference to the proportional re- presentation of the families and also of the biological types. The memoir concludes with detailed notes on the structure and biological adaptations of various Transcaspian species investigated by the author. Cc. THE “AEROSCOPE” KINEMATOGRAPH HAND CAMERA. AAS interesting demonstration of the greatly extended adaptability of kinematographic apparatus was given by Mr. Kasimir Proszynski at a meeting of the Royal Photographic Society on Tuesday, February 18. In introducing the “ Aéroscope’? hand camera, the lecturer made some general remarks dealing with the problem of flicker, the presence of which, more or less pronounced, has been of considerable trouble to producers of moving pictures. He stated that up to the present time it had been generally understood that the suppression of flicker was in some manner due to the phenomenon of persistence of vision, which, according to the experiments of Helmholtz and other investigators, continues about one-seventh of a second after the light impression has ceased. Mr. Proszynski considers this idea a mistaken one, and by means of a series of diagrams and demonstra- tions with the lantern he made out a streng case for his view that flicker is due to the slightly varying lengths of time during which the light from each picture is transmitted to the screen through the open- ings in the sector shutter. If the opaque portions of the shutter are not all exactly equal, the eye, being extremely sensitive to slight variations of illumina- tion, receives the impression of alternating light and darkness corresponding to the difference between the angular size of the blades of the shutter sectors. From this point of view the flicker should be com- pletely eliminated by using any simple shutter with four, three, or even two wings, the essential feature being that the wings must all be very accurately made of the same size. Various forms were shown in the lantern projector; in practice the three-bladed sector shutter is found most suitable. Another feature embodied in the ** Aéroscope ”’ camera is its adaptability for use without a tripod stand, thereby greatly extending the scope of its use- fulness to the portraying of scenes quite inaccessible fo the ordinary camera requiring a steady support. The camera is fitted with self-contained mechanism for driving the film, consisting of a small air motor, driven by compressed air stored in four steel reser- voirs held in the camera body. These cylinders can be recharged by means of a cycle pump to a pressure of 400 Ib. per sq. in. The motor is fitted with a governor for keeping the motion of the mechanism uniform, and a lever control on the exhaust for secur- ing different values of this motion to suit different subjects. The chances of injurious vibration during the expo- sure of the film are very neatly minimised by the introduction of a heavy gyrostat wheel in the end of the camera box; this is also driven from the air motor. A series of beautiful pictures of scenery, including animals and movine water, taken by Mr. Cherry Kearton in North America, was sufficiently convincing as to the efficiency of this novel method of animated picture photography. (25 125 1B NO. 2261, VOL. 90] ) THE NATIONAL PHYSICAL LABORATORY. Wee the view of raising funds to complete the additions now in progress at the laboratory, the executive committee of the laboratory last autumn appointed a funds committee, with Sir W. H. White as chairman, and entrusted it with the task of appeal- ing for support to persons interested in their national work, This work was commenced at Teddington in the year 1901; the great need of an institution such as the laboratory and the importance of its work have been amply demonstrated by its rapid growth. The original buildings comprised Bushy House, granted by the Crown, and an additional building for the engineering department. The wide scope of the work at the present time will be sufficiently indicated by an enumeration of the various buildings, and a brief indication of the purposes for which they are intended. (1) Bushy House, providing accommodation for administration offices and for divisions dealing with electrical units and standards, general electrical measurements, thermometry, optics, and tide-predic- tion. (2) Engineering building, for general engineering research and tests, with additional accommodation for aéronautical investigation, and for the examination of road materials (Road Board Laboratory). (3) Metallurgy building, for investigations into the properties of metals and alloys. _ (4) Electrotechnics building, equipped for researches connected with electricity, and for the testing of alter- nating- and direct-current instruments of all kinds, as well as of material for electrical purposes; also for photometric work, especially the standardisation of sources of light. (5) Metrology building, for measurements of length, end gauges, cylindrical gauges, screw gauges, tapes and wires for survey work, &c., the standardisation of weights, and the testing of measures of area and volume, glass vessels, &c. ; (6) William Froude National Tank, for experiments on models of ships. ; : (7) Observatory Department. This section of the work has been housed at Kew Observatory, and in- cludes the testing of thermometers, optical instru- ments such as telescopes, binoculars, sextants, theo- dolites, &c., watches, chronometers, and many other types of instruments. mae To provide for the research work which is con- tinuously in progress, and occupies perhaps two-thirds of the time of the scientific staff, generous assistance has been afforded by many private individuals, by the City companies, and by all the great technical insti-_ tutions, some of which have made annual grants for this purpose for many years past. Some three years ago it was evident that further buildings were needed at Teddington. The accom- modation for the metallurgical work was then quite inadequate, while the office and administration rooms were entirely unsuited to their purposes. The library had long overflowed the small room allotted for its use ten years ago. The arrangements for the receipt and dispatch of goods remained much as at_ the beginning, and it had become increasingly difficult to deal with the apparatus and material sent for test. Moreover, the optical and thermometric. test worl at Kew has quite outgrown the opportunities for test at the old observatory, and modern demands require a revision of the methods and appliances available for the work. In addition, a scheme has been approved by the Royal Society and the Government for setting free the observatory for meteorological observations FEBRUARY 27, 1913] NATURE 713 and research by the removal of the test work to | Teddington. The Office of Works has arranged to make certain alterations at Kew for this purpose, while the laboratory committee provides the necessary xccommodation for tests. Accordingly a scheme of new buildings at Tedding- ton was prepared at an estimated cost of about 30,000l., or, if scientific equipment is included, 35,oo0ol. Towards this the Lords Commissioners of H.M. Treasury agreed to contribute 15,o00l. in three instal- ments if the scheme could be completed without further application to the Government. Thus, it was left to the committee to raise, for the buildings alone, about 15,000l. This sum has now been obtained; the metallurgy building, erected through the generosity of the late Sir Julius Wernher, is complete and occupied, but much additional equipment is required. The other buildings are in course of erection, and funds are urgently needed towards their equipment. The mini- mum estimate for this is 5000l., of which about 3000l. has been contributed. Thus, apart from the special equipment for metallurgy, at least 2000]. more is needed to complete the scheme, and it is for this that support is being asked. The following are the present members of the com- mittee :—Sir William H. White, K.C.B., F.R.S. (chairman), Lord Rayleigh, O.M., F.R.S., Sir A. B. Kempe (treasurer R.S.), Prof. A. Schuster (seere- tary R.S.), Mr. J. A. F. Aspinall, Sir J. Wolfe Barry, iC Beekzkes.. Dr. G. i Beilby hs. Sir Hugh Bell, Bart., Dr. Horace T. Brown, F.R.S., Colonel Crompton, R.E., €.B., Mr. J. M: Gledhill, Mr. R. Kaye Grav, Sir R. A. Hadfield. F.R.S.. Mr. D. Howard, Sir J. Larmor, MP. BIR:S.. Dr. W. H. Maw, Mr. R. L. Mond, Sir A. Noble, Bart., K.C.B., IPIRESL, eles Give (Gy AN; ievecomG, I (Cplsy WEIS Sir Boverton Redwood, Bart., Mr. Alex. Siemens, Mr. D. Dyrer, and Prof. W. C: Unwin, F:R:S. PROGRESS IN AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. “(HE Board of Agriculture and Fisheries has issued its annual report on the distribution of grants for agricultural education and research in the year 1gtt-12 (Cd. 6601). Bound up with the report are statements respecting the several colleges aided, and a summary of the agricultural instruction provided by county councils in 1910-11. The classes and courses of instruction which the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries aids are those intended for persons of sixteen years of age or more, who have finished their school education, and are either pursuing technical studies with the view of becoming agriculturists, or are already engaged in agriculture and desire to improve their knowledge of the subject. The list of grants awarded in aid of educational institutions in the year 1911-12 shows that the total amount of the grant was 18,84ol., the same as in 1910-11. The interim grants in aid of agricul- tural research paid by the Board from the Develop- ment Fund during 1911-12 amounted to 9263/., and eae special grants for experiments and research to 2501. The accounts sent to the Board by local education authorities show that they are spending in round figures 80,oool. per annum on agricultural education. The Board’s grants for work in universities and colleges, not included in this sum, would bring the total public expenditure on agricultural education, apart from the Development Fund, to about go,oool. per annum. NO. 2261, VOL. 90] We reprint below a part of Prof. T. H. Middleton’s introduction to the report, referring to research institutes for agriculture :— The State has now placed, for the first time, a large sum for research at the disposal of British agri- culture, and it is clearly the duty both of the central and local authorities to devise means for applying to practical farming the knowledge provided by workers in research institutes. The purpose of the grants made for research is not in this instance to subsidise scientific workers, but to develop agriculture by scientific means, and until the knowledge of the laboratory has been translated into practice in the field the work is incomplete. When reconsidering their educational methods, local education authorities should understand that their aid is expected in secur- ing from the expenditure and labour incurred in agri- cultural research results of real value. The research institutes endowed by the Development Fund are national, not local institutions. The primary duty of the persons engaged in these institutes is to advance knowledge, and the needs of local agriculture, if they are considered at all, can only be considered incident- ally. The result is that if any locality wishes to make use of the research institutes it must take steps to adapt scientific discoveries to its own conditions. It should further be remembered by those respon- sible for the education of agriculturists that not only are the results of the work of all the new research institutes to be available for agriculturists in any county, but as a consequence of the establishment of research institutes in England this country may now draw upon the results obtained by the investigators of all other countries in a way that was formerly impossible. There has thus been created a system for bringing within reach of English agriculture the know- ledge resulting from the vast amount of work now undertaken in the research laboratories of all civilised countries. But all this knowledge will be valueless to any particular locality until it has been applied by farmers to the cultivation of their land. How is this application of scientific discoveries to the commercial questions of the ordinary farm to be accomplished? Can farmers be expected to study scientific treatises? If farmers did study and understand the publications of research stations, could they afford the time and the cost involved by the adaptation of the applications of new principles to the particular circumstances of their own farms? If answers to such questions as the foregoing are attempted it will be agreed that the Development and Road Improvement Funds Acts have added new re- sponsibility to the worl of local educaticn authorities, or at least that a duty which was formerly inconsider- able has now become important. The only important task of a local committee charged with agricultural education has hitherto been to provide for the instruc- tion of young persons up to the time when they leave school or college, or to supply itinerant teachers capable, as a rule, of instructing novices only;. they are now expected to make the provision required for advising experienced farmers on the means to be adopted in applying scientific discoveries to practice— a difficult and responsible task. It is sometimes contended that the only satisfactory way of applying science to agriculture is to give the young farmer a sound scientific training, and leave him to apply the discoveries of scientific men which come before him in his later years. Mhisaenteens assumed, he can do for himself after he has gained experience. The usefulness of a proper early training cannot be questioned, and the worl of the research institutes will make its usefulness even greater in 714 NATURE [ FEBRUARY 27, 1913 future, but however good the early training of the farmer may be, it will not enable him to make full use of the work of research institutes unless he has scientific advisers to guide him. Agricultural science has made such progress in recent years and its depart- ments have become so specialised that the acquaint- ance which a lad may make with it at school or college would no more enable him to dispense with scientific guidance in after-life than a course in veterinary hygiene would enable him to dispense with the veterinary surgeon, or a course in agricultural law would enable him to conduct his own law business. The indifferent success which experimenting agricul- turists meet with has been a subject of remark for two centuries at least by farmers who must pay rents; but the reason for the ill-success has not been so clearly recognised as in the corresponding case of the man who is his own lawyer. It is further a mistake to suppose that the proper way to introduce the results of scientific research to farmers is to spread information by means of lec- tures or leaflets. Information can be spread by these means, but not, as a rule, the results of research as first published by the research institute. Few of the discoveries made by research workers are likely to be immediately applicable to the farm practice of a par- ticular district. Modifications in a well-established art clearly require skilful handling, and when it is desired to utilise the results of research, cooperation between skilful farmers and trained scientific men should therefore be aimed at. When on a particular farm the success of the new method has been established as a result of this cooperation, neighbours will learn by imitation, and the improvement may with advan- tage be brought to the notice of others by lectures and leaflets. In view, then, of the provision now made by the State for research, of the importance of securing for each county the fullest benefit from results available for all, and of the need for caution in introducing new methods, local education authorities should consider the nature and qualifications of the local staff re- quired. For spreading a knowledge of practices which have been shown to be improved practices, in- structors with a good practical knowledge of some branch of agriculture are wanted. The number at present available is small, but the requirements are already known and well defined. Local education authorities need experience no great difficulty in secur- ing suitable men for this particular type of worl: after the supply has had time to adjust itself to the demand. The position as regards the farmer’s scientific advisers is, however, different, and for the most part the types have still to be evolved. For the purpose of trans- lating the results of research into successful practice a highly trained scientific man is required having a special knowledge of some particular branch of science and a sufficient acquaintance with agriculture to com- mand the respect of skilful and enlightened practical farmers. Many branches of science bear on agricul- ture, the research scheme contemplates institutes in eleven subjects, and most of these subjects would provide a field of work for several specialists. It is clear, therefore, that no county could afford to main- tain all the specialists who might usefully be engaged in assisting farmers to apply research. For the present all that is practicable is to lay the foundations of a system having as its object the bringing into existence of a class of well-qualified specialists who shall devote themselves to the service of agriculture. The first essential is that the specialists to be employed should really be specialists; ‘all-round’? men would be of no use for the particular purpose in view. The second essential is that the persons who are to be engaged in the work of promoting agriculture should NO. 2261, VOL. 90] | be of the same calibre as those who have advanced arts like medicine and engineering. It is obvious from the qualifications required in the men to be employed, that the only practicable way of securing their services will be for groups of counties to associate themselves with collegiate institutions providing laboratories and other facilities for scientific workers, and it is with the object of facilitating com- bination and of initiating the system of employing specialists recommended above that the Board’s advisory scheme was drafted. Having regard to the institutions available as centres, the Board arranged the counties of England and Wales in twelve groups or “provinces,” and it has obtained a grant of 12,0001. per annum from the | Development Fund, which will be employed in provid- ing certain trained specialists in each area. The grants are made to the governors of the collegiate centres, who, subject to the approval of the Board, select the officers and are responsible for their work. The teaching staffs of most of the institutions selected are already doing some advisory work, and the officers first selected under the new scheme will be chosen with the view of supplementing the work of the staff already in existence. As the work expands, it is expected that additional advisers will be added to the © staff. While these grants are made to the governors of central institutions it should be clearly understood that their object is to place skilled scientific advice at the disposal of farmers resident in the different groups of counties, and in framing their schemes of work local education authorities will be expected to make provision for securing to residents in their administrative areas the benefits of the provision made by the colleges. In particular, local instructors should be directed to apply to the college in all cases in which the assistance of an expert is desirable. It will be apparent that while the new system is in its early stages many of the questions submitted to institutions may be on subjects other than those on which the advisers have expert knowlege; in such case the advisers would in the first place consult their colleagues on the college staff, and if the neces- sary advice is not obtainable they would then consult advisers at other institutions. By linking the colle- giate centres together in this way it is intended that a farmer in any particular county should be able, | through the centre with which his county is associated, to get the best expert advice on any agricultural ques- tion. A further shortcoming inevitable in the working of a new scheme may be noticed. Since no class of agricultural specialist, corresponding to the medical specialist, exists, it will be necessary to train up men for the work, and therefore to employ at the outset young and inexperienced persons. For the first few years the work must suffer from this lack of experi- ence, but just as well-trained young medical men quickly acquire experience, so will these specialists who are being trained to help agriculturists. It may be convenient in conclusion to give a list of the groups of workers who will in future be provided for the purpose of aiding the farmer to increase the productiveness of land. Group I.—Scientific workers engaged in research— the extension of knowledge—in national research in- stitutes devoted to the study of different sections of agricultural science without reference to the needs of particular localities. Group II.—Scientific workers engaged in consulta- tive work with a view to the application of the results of research to practice. These workers will be stationed at collegiate centres serving groups of coun- ties; as distinguished from workers in Group I. they eee FEBRUARY 27, 1913] will make a special study of the needs of particular localities. Group III.—Teachers engaged in the diffusion of knowledge; of these the following subgroups may be distinguished :— (a) Lecturers in universities and colleges instructing pupils whose age, previous education, and circum- stances enable them to attend college courses. (b) Teachers employed at farm schools in instruct- ing pupils who for various reasons would not benefit from, or could not attend, college courses. (c) Instructors employed in peripatetic work teach- ing those who, because of their age and circumstances, cannot study in schools or colleges. The worl of persons employed in the different groups may overlap. The worker in a research insti- tute may often be asked for advice, a college teacher may frequently be called upon to give extension lec- tures, and at certain seasons of the year the peripatetic instructor may be required to teach in a farm school; but in the main the work of the different groups is distinct, and now that increased funds are available it is to be hoped. that the authorities responsible for selecting those employed under agricultural education schemes will recognise more fully than heretofore the need for a division of labour. The “all-round” agricultural expert is no longer much required, except for the general supervision of local work; to be really useful either to the large farmer or the small-holder the teacher must be a specialist; if he is a scientific man his attainments in some branch of science should be high; if a practical man he must be a more skilful practitioner than the majority of those whom he instructs. UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE. Loxpon.—Mr. T. Ll. Humberstone has been ap- pointed to the Mitchell studentship. The studentship, which is of the value of tool., is awarded to the selected candidate to enable him to study and inves- tigate some definite feature of business or industrial organisation at home or abroad. Mr. Humberstone proposes to investigate a scheme of industrial fellow- ships in the Universities of Pittsburg and Kansas, under which research work in applied science is pro- moted with funds provided by, and to some extent under the supervision of, great industrial and com- mercial organisations. Applications are invited for the newly established Franks studentship in archeology, founded by the Society of Antiquaries in London, in memory of Sir A. Wollaston Franks, K.C.B., sometime president of the society. the student to carry on some research or preparation for research (as distinct from professional training) in the archzeology of the British Isles in its compara- tive aspects. The studentship is of the value of 5ol., and is tenable for one year. Applications should reach the academic registrar not later than March 5. Oxrorp.—Prof. Lloyd Morgan, F.R.S., has been appointed Herbert Spencer lecturer for 1913. By the will of the late Lord Ilkeston, the sum of Sool. is bequeathed to the warden, bursar, or other proper officer of the University of Durham upon trust to apply the income for a ‘‘ Winifred Foster Scholar- ship” for a woman student who requires help to maintain herself at the University. A very well illustrated prospectus of Bingley Train- ing College has been received. The college owes its existence to the public spirit of the County Council of the West Riding of Yorkshire, and was opened NO. 2261, VOL. 90] NATURE The object of the studentship is to enable’ (ais) for the reception of students in October, 1911. It provides accommodation for 200 resident women students, and includes a central educational block, five halls of residence, gymnasium, kitchen, bakery, and laundry. The purpose of the college is to train teachers for public elementary schools, and the training provided is such as to fit the students for their work as teachers. No provision is made for students wish- ing to take a course leading to a university degree. Tue Berlin correspondent of The Morning Post states, in the issue for February 24, that plans for transforming the scientific institutes at Frankfort-on- Main into a university have now been sanctioned by the Prussian Ministry of Public Instruction. In May, 1912, the Emperor commissioned the Ministry to sub- mit to him the draft of the statutes as soon as it was satisfied that the necessary funds for the establish- ment and endowment of a university were in hand. Ample funds are at the disposal of the city of Frank- fort for the purpose, and the drawing up of the statutes is now merely a matter of form. The capital required and subscribed for the scheme is nearly 400,000l. The existing institutes will be enlarged and a medical institute created. It is doubtful whether the university can be opened, as anticipated, in Octo- ber, 1914. The new university will devote special attention to social science. It is announced in Science that Ohio-Miami Medical College of the University of Cincinnati has received 25,000l. from a donor whose name is being withheld. An effort is being made to raise an endowment fund of 200,o001. From the same source we learn that during the past year three wills, involving property valued at 25,000l., have been proved in favour of Knox College. About half of this amount becomes avail- able immediately for the endowment of a professorship in one of the departments of science, while the re- mainder is held in trust during the lifetime of th widow of one of the testators. Mr. Eugene Meyer and his wife, of New York, have given Cornell Uni- versity 20001. to endow a fellowship in memory of their son, Edgar J. Meyer, who graduated from Sibley College, and whose life was lost by the sinking of the Titanic. The purpose of the fellowship is to en- courage research in mechanical and electrical engineer- ing. A Reuter message from Delhi announces that an important State paper on the educational policy of India was issued officially there on February 21. It begins by quoting the King’s speech at Calcutta University and the promises of Imperial grants for education. The needs of every grade and department of educational work are reviewed, and the paper goes on to state that India urgently needs to be equipped with an ethnographic museum. It lays special stress on the formation of character through direct instruc- tion, and indirect agencies such as the betterment of environment, hygiene, physical culture, and organised recreation. It invites local governments to appoint expert committees to ensure satisfactory school and college hygiene. In reviewing university education, the paper contemplates facilitating grants in aid, and frames rules distinguishing the Federal and the affiliating university. The policy is to multiply uni- versities, having one affiliating university for each leading province and developing teaching faculties and research at a university centre, while establishing teaching and residential universities at Dacca, Benares, Aligarh, and elsewhere as the need arises. Special attention is given to the education of the domiciled community and Mahomedans, the training of teachers, and the establishment of an Oriental Research Institute on Western lines. It foreshadows a large increase of the inspectorate and teaching staff, 716 NATURE [FEBRUARY 27, 1913 and indicates the need of better prospects for the educational services and of having expert guidance at every turn. The paper recommends also that primary and secondary education should be more practical, and that provision should be made in India for higher education and research. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. Lonpon. Royal Society, February 20.—Sir Archibald Geikie, Kk.C.B., president, in the chair.—Prof. H. E. Arm- strong, M. S. Benjamin, and E. Horton: Studies on enzyme action. XIX., Urease: a selective enzyme. IJ., Observations on accelerative and inhibitive agents. —Prof. C. S$. Sherrington: Nervous rhythm arising from rivalry between antagonistic reflexes; reflex stepping as outcome of double reciprocal innervation, The paper is in continuation of work on the reciprocal innervation of symmetrical muscles—work recently communicated to the society. The observations have been almost wholly upon the decerebrate preparation. The symmetrical muscles used in the present experi- ments have been the extensors of the right and left knee. It is shown that taking an afferent nerve which produces steady reflex excitation of the muscle, and another which produces steady reflex inhibition of the muscle, it is possible by stimulating both nerves con- currently to obtain regularly rhythmic contractions and relaxations of the two muscles, the rhythm being about 2 per second.—Dr. H. E. Roaf: The liberation of ions and the oxygen tension of tissues during activity (preliminary. communication). The com- bination Ag | AgCl| Muscle | Ringer-Solution | HgC1|H shows an increased negative charge on the sives when the muscle contracts. The combination Pt| MnO, | Muscle | Ringer Solution | HgCl| Hg shows an increased positive charge on the platinum when the muscle contracts. This result must be due to an increase in hydrogen ions. The combination Pt| Muscle| Ringer Solution|HgCl|Hg can be used as an indicator of the oxygen tension in contracting muscle.—W. Cramer and J. Lochhead: Contributions to the biochemistry of growth. The ely cogen content of the liver of rats bearing malignant new growths. Glycogen disappears more rapidly from the liver of tumour-bearing rats than from the liver of a normal rat.—Prof. T, G. Brodie and J. J. Mackenzie: Changes in the glomeruli and tubules of the kidney accompany- ing activity. Geological Society, February 5.—Dr. Aubrey Strahan, F.R.S., president, in the chair.—Dr. A. M. Davies and J. Pringle: Two deep borings at Calvert Station (North Buckinghamshire), and the Paleozoic floor north of the Thames. The two borings are about 370 yards apart in a due east-and-west direction. The eastern boring gives the following section :— Altitude of Surface=about 290 O.D. Thickness ft. in. Soil ea 20% 4 (o) Oxford Clay—Ornatum Zone. oA. 03 3 Non- -sequence. Forest Marble aes es ano, ets 9 Non-sequence. Great Oolite ... nae AA eer 59 6 Non-sequence. Chipping Norton Limestones _ ... a 6 Non-sequence. Lias—Domerian, Algovianum Zone to Charmouthian, Jamesoni Zone 240 6 Unconformity. Lower Tremadoc—Shineton Shales 954 6 1398 oO NO. 2261, VOL. 90} —k. W. Hooley: The skeleton of Ornithodesmus latidens, an Ornithosaur from the Wealden Shales of Atherfield (Isle of Wight). The bones were obtained from blocks recovered from the sea after being washed from a huge fall of the Wealden Shales. Portions of the skeleton missing in the Atherfield specimens are supplemented by bones in the British Museum (Natural History), No. R/176, upon which the late Prof. H. G. Seeley founded the genus. There are remarkable peculiarities in the skull which isolate it from all known families. The wonderful preservation of the bones enables the mechanism of the skull, joints, and movements of the limbs to be described. The paper deals with the morphology, and institutes comparisons with other types. The evidence proves that it is necessary to form a new family, and that Ornitho-~ desmus has descended from a suborder which should” include Secaphognathus and Dimorphodon. Physical Society, February 14.—Prof. A. Schuster, F.R.S., president, in the chair.—Prof. G. H. Bryan; The dynamics of pianoforte touch. The autho: dis- cussed Helmholtz’s and Kaufmann’s theories of the vibrations of a pianoforte wire excited by impact, with special reference to the effects obtainable with the modern pneumatical piano-players and player-pianos, | and the common widespread belief that these can never reproduce the touch of the human fingers. Royal Meteorological Society, February 19.—Mr. C. J. P. Cave, president, in the chair-—W. HH: Robinson ; Periodical variations of the velocity of the wind at Oxford. The author dealt with the annual and diurnal changes in the velocity of the wind as recorded at the Radcliffe Observatory during the last fifty years. The average monthly values “show that there is a rapid fall in the velocity of the wind between March and June, and an equally rapid rise between September and December. The minimum is in Sep- tember. - There is a range in the annual variation of three or four miles per hour. On comparing the wind velocity with the mean monthly temperatures of the air the author fincs that an increase (or decrease) of one mile per hour in the velocity of the wind corre- sponds to a fall (or rise) in the temperature of about 8° F. As regards the diurnal oscillations, the wind increases its velocity with an accession cf warmth, and decreases with a lowering temperature, this peing the inverse of that found in the discussion of the annual variation.—]. S. Dines: Rate of ascent of pilot balloons. The author described some experiments which he had made in the large airship shed at the Royal Aircraft Factory, Farnborough, with the view of deter- mining the rate of ascent of small pilot balloons of the type which he has used for the past two years in his worl: for the Advisory Committee for Aéro- nautics.—\WV. L. Balls: Meteorological conditions in a field crop. The author described the methods which he had adopted for ascertaining the temperature, the humidity, and the force of the wind on the surface of the soil in a field of cotton at Giza. The growth of the cotton plant in Egypt is usually completely arrested by sunshine during the greater part of the day, through the severe water loss necessitated by thermo-regulation of the internal temperature, and growth, during most of the season, is thus confined to the hours of darkness. The usual limiting factor of this growth durine the night is the temperature of the tissues—roughly, the air temperature, with slight modification by clouds; thus any cause making for a rise in temperature at hight involves a higher growth-rate in consequence; this in its turn, in the early part of the season at least, implies more rapid . development of the flowering branches, bringing about earlier appearance and more rapid accumulation of the flowers, and hence of the crop. FEBRUARY 27, I913]| NATURE iXN7 EDINBURGH. Royal Society, February 3.—Prof. Hudson Beare, vice-president, in the chair.—J. S. Anderson and G. B. Burnside: A néw method of starting mercury-vapour apparatus. The vacuum tube was so arranged that liquid mercury filled the region which was subse- quently to be filled with the imcandescent vapour. By an ingenious device the current as it passed by the platinum into the interior of the tube heated the lower end, expanding the mercury upwards past a narrow constriction in the tube. The mercury column became broken at this constriction, and at once a small are light through the mercury vapour was formed. This rapidly grew, pushing the liquid mer- cury to the other end of the tube. The resistance of the circuit being thereby greatly increased, the heating effect in the small outside coil was. correspondingly diminished, and thus automatically the lamp was its own temperature regulator. Important details were given as to the method of making the apparatus.—]J. McWhan: The electron theory of thermoelectricity. This was an application of thermodynamic principles to the electron theory of thermoelectricity, the assumption being that from each metal at all tem- peratures electrons evaporate producing a definite electron pressure in the neighbourhood. Expressions for the Thomson effect and for the thermoelectric power were obtained.—N. P. Campbell: The applica- tion of Manley’s differential densimeter to the study of sea waters on board ship. The differential densi- meter was described in 1907 (see NaTurRE, vol. Ixxvi., Pp 311), and its use explained. Briefly described, it is a modification of Hare’s method for comparing densi- ties of liquids. As originally constructed it was not found very convenient for use on board ship. In the present paper certain modifications are described, and results are given showing that it can be used effec- tively at sea. The density of each sample of sea water may be determined with ease and accuracy at the time it is collected. One great merit is that since the sample being studied is balanced against a standard solution of known density at the same tem- perature, and since the temperature correction is the same for both solutions, there is no necessity for applying this temperature correction. Paris. Academy of Sciences, February 17.—M. F. Guyon in the chair.—G. Bigourdan: Observations of nebulz made at the Paris Observatory.—Paul Appell: The equilibrium of wires the elements of which attract or repel each other as a function of the distance.—L. Lecornu: The cause of a boiler explosion. A discus- sion of the causes of the explosion of a boiler forming part of a hot-water system in a private house.—L. Maquenne and E. Demoussy: The value of the chloro- phyll coefficients and their relations with true respira- tory coefficients. The results of a long series of ex- periments are summarised in eleven conclusions, stress being laid on the variation in the respiratory coefficient of leaves with the stage of growth.—M. Gouy: The ' production of intense magnetic fields at the surface of the sun. A discussion of the possibility of the views currently held regarding the production of in- tense magnetic fields in sun-spots.—W. Kilian and Ch. Pussenot: New data relating to the tectonic in the neighbourhood of Briancon.—J. Violle: The incon- venience which might be caused to telegraphs and telephones in the neighbourhood of certain special lightning conductors called niagaras. Report of a committee on lightning conductors. It is recom- mended that no receiving station or telegraph line should be nearer than 20 metres to this special form of lightning conductor.—M. Vuillemin was elected a correspondant for the section of botany in the place of NO. 2261, VOL. 90| | the late M. Strasburger.—Maurice Gevrey : The nature | of the solutions of certain partial differential equations. —A. Pchéborski: Some polynomials with minimum | deviations from zero within a given interval.—M. | Valiron ; Integral functions of order zero.—Carl Stormer: A mechanical problem and its applications to cosmic physics. The results of a theorem on the trajectories of electrified corpuscles in the field of an elementary magnet. Amongst the applications men- tioned as possible are the theory of the aurora borealis | of Arrhenius, and the experiments of Birkeland bear- ing on the zodiacal light, comets, and Saturn’s rings. —U. Cisotti: The rigid movements of the surface of a vortex.—A, Grumbach: The retardation of electro- | lysis with a polarising electromotive force.—Georges Meslin: The reciprocal influence of parallel antennz on the conditions of reception of Hertzian waves.— André Blondel: The bipolar diagram of synchronised | alternators working as generators or receivers on a network a constant potential—G. Reboul: The influ- ence of the geometric form of solids on the chemical actions which they undergo. When a solid is acted on by a gas the attack is most active at the points where the curvature is greatest.—Jean Bielecki and Victor Henri: A quantitative study of the absorption of the ultra-violet rays by fatty acids and their esters in aqueous and alcoholic solutions. In a body of the formula C,,Hs,.;.CO,R the absorption is determined by the acid group, the alkyl group having slight in- fluence.—A. Sénéchal: The violet chromium sulphates. A study of the water contents of the crystallised salt in various degrees of hydration.—J. Bougault : Phenyl- a-oxycrotonic acid.—P. Lebeau and A. Damiens: The estimation of acetylene and ethylene hydrocarbons in mixtures of gaseous hydrocarbons. An alkaline solu- tion of the double iodide of mercury and potassium is suggested as absorbent for gases of the acetylene type; for ethylene, concentrated sulphuric acid con- taining 1 per cent. of vanadic acid is shown to be a satisfactory reagent.—Pierre Lesage : The curve of the limits of germination of seeds after remaining in saline solutions.—R. de Litardiére : The variations of volume of the nucleus and the cell in some ferns during the heterotypical prophase.—G. André: The migration of the mineral elements and the displace- ment of these elements in leaves immersed in water. —R. Fosse: The formation of urea by the higher plants.—M. Tcherning: A theory of vision.—Jacques Mawas: The asymmetry of the ciliary body and its importance in astigmatic accommodation and move- ments of the crystalline lens.—Jules Courmont and A. Rochaix: Immunisation against Staphylococcus pyogenes aureus by way of the intestine. The intro- duction of the dead organisms into the intestine con- fers a certain degree of immunity, and the infection is profoundly modified in its characters.—Casimir Cépéde : The Cytopleurosporea.—Venceslas Moycho : Study of the action of the ultra-violet rays on the ear of the rabbit.—M. Deprat: The Palzeozoic strata of the Black River (Tonkin).—Maurice Lugeon: A new mode of fluvial erosion. BOOKS RECEIVED. Anatomical Model of the Mare. (London: Vinton and Co., Ltd.) 2s. 6d. net. Streifziige an der Riviera. By Prof. E. Stras- | burger. Dritte Auflage. Pp. xxvi+582. (Jena: G. Fischer.) ro marks. New Log and Versine Altitude Tables. By Lieut. R. de Aquino. Pp. v*+36*. (London: J. D. Potter.) 2s. 6d. net. ~ Siebente Versammlung der internationalen Kom- mission fiir wissenschaftliche Luftschiffahrt in Wien 718 NATURE [FEBRUARY 27, 1913 28 Mai bis 1 Juni, IQI2. Sitzungsberichte und amuses S. H. pepnen —The Backer Resting of deen aS as r See pe tical Criticism T. Kingzett an Joodcock.— uick an \ ortrage Pp: Vitl72. (Vienna : 2 OS i Hot Gund Improved Method for the Estimation of Boric Acid in Milk and Cream : _ Staatsdruckerie.) ‘ Transport de Force: Calculs Techniques et Eco- nomiques des Lignes de Transport et de Distribution d’Energie Electrique. By C. Le Roy. Deux. Partie. Pp. 143. (Paris: A. Hermann et Fils.) 6 francs. Aborigines of South America. By the late Col. G. E. Church. Edited by Sir C. R. Markham. Pp. xxiv+314. ( London: Chapman and Hall, Ltd.) tos. 6d. net. Calendario della Basilica Pontificia del Santissimo Rosario in Valle di Pompei per 1’Anno 1913. (Valle di Pompei: Scuola Tipografica Pontificia.) Canada. Department of Mines. Mines Branch. Report of the Building and Ornamental Stones of Canada. Vol. By W. A. Parks. Pp. xili+376+ vit+Ixxvii plates. (Ottawa: Government Printing Bureau.) Transactions of the Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland. Fifty-sixth Session, 1912-13. Part iv. Pp. 109+diagrams. (Glasgow.) A Treatise on Hydromechanics. By A. S. Ramsay. Part ii., Hydrodynamics. Pp. xiii+360. (London: G. Bell and Sons, Ltd.) DIARY OF SOCIETIES. THURSDAY, FEesrRvuary 27. Roya Society, at 4.30.—The Thermal Properties of Carbonic Acid at Low ‘Temperatures: C. F. Jenkin and D. R. Pye.—Re-reductions of Dover Tidal! Observations, 1853-1884, etc. : E. Roberts.—The Formation of the Anthocyan Pigments of Plants. Part IV. The Chromogens: Prof. F. Keeble, E. F. Armstrong, and W. N. Jones.—The Formation of the Anthocyan Pigments of Plants. Part V. The Chromogens of White Flowers : W. N. Jones.—The Changes in the Breathing and the Blood at Various High Altitudes: Mabel P. Fitzgerald. ConcrETE INSTITUTE, at 7.30.—Economy in Reinforced Concrete Design : J. A. Davenport. Society oF Dyers anp Cotourists. at 8.—Starch and Decomposition Products: Dr. M. Hamburg.—A Method for the Testing of Malt Ex- tracts: R. J. May.—The Valuation of Malt Products: W. P. Dreaper.— A Contribution to the Methods of Testing Malt Extracts: Dr. A. Herz. InsTITUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Fourth Kelvin Lecture— The Ohm, the Ampere, the Volt, A Memory of Fifty Years (1862-1912) : Dr. R. T. Glazebrook. FRIDAY, FEsrRuary 28. Roya INsTITUTION, at 9.—Active Nitrogen: Hon. R. J. Strutt. Puysicat Society, at 5.—Interference by Réntgen Radiation: Prof. C. G. Barkla and G. H. Martyn.—Alternating-current Magnets: Prof. E. Wilson.—A Graphical Method of Optical Imagery : W. R. Bower. SATURDAY, Marcu 1. Roya InstiruTion, at 3 —The Properties and Constitution of the Atom: Sir J. J. Thomson, O.M. MONDAY, Marcu 3. Society OF ENGINEERS, at 7.30.—Presidential Address: A. Valon. ARISTOTELIAN SociETy, at 8.—Does Consciousness ‘‘ Evolve”’?: Prof. L. P. Jacks. Society oF Cuemicat Inpusrry, Ores, Crude and Regulus: J. H. Coste. Victoria INSTITUTE, at 4.30.—Pompei: E. J. Sewell. Roya. Society oF Arts, at §.—Cantor Lecture—Coal Gas as a Fuel for at 8.—Notes on Chinese Antimony W. R. Schoeller.—Notes on Thermometry : Domestic Purposes: F. W. Goodenough. a TUESDAY, Marcu 4. Roya. Institution, at 3.—lhe Stars and their Movements: Prof. H. H. ‘Turner. RGNTGEN Sociery, at §.15.—VThe Physiological Effects of the Magnetic Field : Dr. H. Lewis Jones. —The Rationale of the Static Current: Dr. H. Humpbhris. Royal ANTHROPOLOGICAL INSTITUTE, at 8.15.—A Saxon Graveyard at East Shefford, Berks: H. Peake and Dr. E. A. Hooton. ZooLocicaL Society, at 8.30.—Contributions to the Anatomy and Sys- tematic Arrangement of the Cestoidea.—IX. A New Genus of Ichthyo- teeniids : Dr. F. E. Beddard.—Zoological Results of the Third Tanganyika Expedition conducted by Dr. W. A. Cunnington, 1904-1905. Report on the Branchiura: Dr. W. A. Cunnington.—New Species of Rhopalocera from Costa Rica: W.-Schaus.—Notes on Plankton collected across the Mouth of the St. Croix River opposite to the Biological Station at St. Andrews, New Brunswick, in July and August, 1912: Dr. A. Willey. INSTITUTION oF CivIL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Notes on City Passenger- Transportation in the United States: G. D. Snyder. WEDNESDAY. Marcu 5. Geotocicat Society, at 8.—The ‘Kelloway Rock” of Scarborough : Buckman.—Jurassic Ammonites from Jebel Zorghuan (Tunis): L. F. Spath. ENTOMOLOGICAL Society, at 8. SOcIETY OF Pus.ic AnaLysts, at 8.—The Accurate Determination of Carbon Dioxide in Carbonates: F. S. Sinnatt-—Egyptian Butter and ]| NO. 2261, VOL. 90] "3 i @@) F. W. Richardson and W. K. Walton.—The Moisture in sone English, Colonial, and Foreign Butters during 1910-1912, with a Note on the Mitchell-Walker Moisture Test: L. Gowing-Scopes. Roya Society oF Arts, at 8.—Ordinary Meeting—The Development of Research Work in Forest Products: E, R. Burdon. THURSDAY, Marcu 6. RoyaL Society, at 4.30.—Probable Papers: An Automatic Method for the Investigation of the Velocity of Transmission of Excitation in Mimosa : Prof, J. C. Bose.—The Evolution of the Cretaceous Asteroidea: W. K. Spencer.—A Preliminary Note on the Fossil Plants of the Mount Potts Beds, New Zealand, collected by Mr. D. G. Lillie, Biologist to Capt. Scott's Antarctic Expedition in the Yerva Wova in 1911: Dr. E. A. Newell Arber.—(1) Trypanosomes found in the Blood of Wild Animals Living in the Sleeping Sickness Area, Nyasaland; (2) Trypanosome Diseases of Domestic Animals in Nyasaland. IL. Trypanosoma Caprze (Kleine) ; (3) Morphology of Various Strains of the Trypanosome causing Dieases in Man in Nyasaland. I. The Human Strain: Surg.-Gen. Sir D. Bruce, F.R.S., Majors D. Harvey, A. E. Hamerton, and Lady Bruce- Roya. InsTiTuTION, at 3.—Surface Energy: W. B. Hardy. INSTITUTION OF ELECTRICAL KNGINEERS, at 8.—Recent Developments in the Street Lighting of Manchester: S. L. Pearce and H. A. Ratcliff. Roya Society oF ARTS, at 4.30.—Indian Section—The City of Karachi > J. F. Brunton. itRIDAY, Marcu 7. 5 Royat InstiTuTION, at 9.—Photography of the Paths of Particles Ejected from Atoms: C. T, R. Wilson. SATURDAY, Marcu 8. Royav INsTITUTION, at 3.—The Properties and Constitution of the Atom : Sir J. J. Thomson, O.M. COS) PAGE Botany for Students . . Stet Perms 3. yO!) Modern Physics. By E. R ee RRP oc EEL! Philosophy and Psychology. By J. A. H. - 695 Mathematical Text-books;, : . = ..> . 22) emaum Our Bookshelf’. =... 5. ele, Sit PL Letters to the Editor :— On the Appearance of Helium and Neon in Vacuum Tubes.— Prof. J. NormanCollie, F.R.S.; Hubert S. Patterson . . 699 The Occurrence of the ‘Portuguese Man-of-War (Phy- salia), and of a Giant Spider-Crab, omola (Paromola) cuviert, in the English Channel.— eLiOTton an: 700 Actual Conditions affecting “Icebergs. _W. Bell Dawson .. 700 Fresh Light on the Cause of Cancer. By Dr. E. F. Bashford. . sey Ole The International ‘Aéro Exhibition at Olympia a FOS The Scientific Work of the Local Government. Board. By R. T. HA. oy; F ldits Ye oxy 4) See The Mountains and their Roots. hee 703 SinWalliamiArrol’ 24 502s ce a= el oe a Notes - PPM Pies cs, oe Our Astronomical Column : Astronomical Occurrences S March’... 2° .9,:0r-) Saeed The Solar Activity . 710 Photographic | Magnitudes of Stars in Coma Berenices 710 The Distribution of Spectroscopic Binary Stars 710 High-level Measurement ef Solar Radiation . .. . 710 The Bleaching of Flour. : ep eS 710 Reeves’s Night Marching Watch 711 The Vegetation of the Transcaspian Lowlands. By 1 (Sakis 711 Chex Aéroscope” " Kinematograph Hand Camera. 1357 (Cp eh JER Aue ee 712 The National ‘Physical Laboratory i files Progress in Agricultural Education . . +e a eae University and Educational Intelligence... ... 7I5 Societies and Academies .....:.....+.. 8 910 Books Received os ey Bie oa hp ee Re Teg es, eee Diary of Societies . 718 Editorial and Publishing Offices : MACMILLAN & CO., Lrp., ST. MARTIN’S STREET,,.LONDON, W.C. Advertisements and business letters to be addressed to the Publishers. Editorial Communications to the Editor. Telegraphic Address: Puusis, LONDON. Telephone Number: Grrrarp 8830. has eae > nae nr SS, i LS MR ee PS “ACI 3 9088 01359 68