SL one ae styrene ane OES OTE DATS ts Stein euse erate : aces mee 10 this tea Greate aad tadails Se gf Wao SATURE A WEEKLY ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL OF SCIENCE VOEUME LX. NOVEMBER 1873 to APRIL 1874 “To the solid ground Of Nature trusts the mind that builds for aye.” —WoRDSWORTH PFondon and Hetv Pork: MACMILLAN AND CO. 1874 “R. CLAY, sos 2 revam onne BREAD > tw ‘ Ve ‘ 7 REO WI AA A Ae aa — ae wi, Gita Sees, Vane SY Gas ie et pe) “To the WEEKLY TEEUSTRATED JOURNAL OF SCIENCE solid ground Of Nature trusts the mind which builds for aye.’’—WoRDSWORTH THURSDAY, NOVEMBER 6, 1873 THE GOVERNMENT AND OUR NATIONAL MUSEUMS E referred last week to the intention of the Govern- | ment to transfer one of the Metropolitan Museums under the control of a responsible Minister of the Crown, to the fifty irresponsible Trustees of the British Museum, this step being contemplated without referring the question either for the opinion of the Science Commission, now inquiring into these subjects, or for the authority of Par- liament. We have learnt since that the measures for effecting this change are in active progress. the transfer was to be made ¢f fracticable, Sir Francis Sandford, Mr. MacLeod, and Major Donnelly, on behalf of the Science and Art Department; and Messrs. Winter Jones, Franks and Newton, on behalf of the Trustees of | the British Museum ; are now busy as Commissioners to find out if the transfer de practicable, and they have been exploring the South Kensington Museum for this purpose during the last week, taking notes of its contents, inspecting its refreshment rooms, its waiting rooms and the like. __ What the Commissioners will propose as practicable is _ of course known only to themselves, if it be known even -tothem. Thus much, however, is known: the South Kensington Museum must remain the head-quarters of Science and Art Teaching, unless that too is to be put under the Archbishop of Canterbury and his co-Trustees, and if not, then there must be a dual Government in one and the same building, unless Mr. Lowe’s project be aban- doned. Now the dual Government means that one officer will represent the Archbishop of Canterbury and his co-forty-nine trustees in the Museum, and another the 3 Lord President of the Council. The officer representing _ the Department will take orders from the Lord President. The officer representing the Trustees must from time to _ time go to Mr. Winter Jones to ascertain what the fifty _ Trustees have decided, and to receive his instructions how their decision is to be interpreted. Mr. Winter 7 ; a VOL, 1x.—No, 210 4 Lord Ripon | and the Trustees of the British Museum having agreed that | | Jones’ labours, already said to be ill-remunerated, will be | increased, and his well-known powers of organisation sorely taxed. If there be two things which nature puts in ferocious antagenism one to another, it is two public officers under different responsibilities. No envy, hatred, or malice like that between two public officers. How every officer adores the Treasury! how the Audit Office loves the Treasury ! what models of civil Letters the Treasury always writes to the Officer of Works, and | so on. The public has had already a specimen of this kind of dual Government at the South Kensington Museum, which has had disastrous results for Science. When the “Boilers” were first erected in 1856, the Commissioners of Patents had assigned to them a portion at the south end of the building for exhi- biting those Mechanical and Scientific objects, which | under a fiction were supposed to have derived their origin in “Patents.” It was necessary that the visitors to all | parts of the “ Boilers” and to the Picture Galleries should pass through the “ Patent Division.” The Lord President | made sensible rules for admitting the public on three days, open from 10 A.M. to 10 P.M., and three days called “Students’ days,” when persons not students paid sixpence each, or ten shillings a year, the object being to have three days free from crowds and kept quiet for study. After a while the Commissioners of Patents were scandalised at thus receiving public money (they are the instruments for taking seventy thousand a year from Inventors and misapplying it to General Taxation) and they said they preferred crowds every day as the most convenient public arrangement. The authorities came to open discord on the point, and the matter could only be resolved by separating the “ Patent” from the other collections. So the Patent Commissioners built a sepa- rate entrance for themselves. What has been the result ? | About eight millions of visitors to the South Kensington Museum who would otherwise have seen the “ Patent Museum ” have not done so, and the Commissioners have deprived themselves and their museum of the moral support of these great numbers. And what has been the result of this? The Chancellor of the Exchequer has been allowed B 2 NATURE to sack more than a million of pounds sterling realised from the taxes imposed on inventors’ patent fees, and has not allowed one farthing to be spent for the provision of a suitable building for the “Patent Museum.” Anything more discreditable to the nation than the building now crowded with models cannot be conceived. Many of the passages are not eighteen inches wide! What the present Lord Chancellor, the head Patent Commissioner, would say if he were ever to see it, cannot easily be imagined. We advise his Lordship to hold a Board in the building as soon as possible. It will probably be the first Board of Patent Trustees that ever sat there. We are satisfied that the result would be that he would instantly cause the present exhibition to be closed, and adequate space found elsewhere. Then what have inventors got in return for the tax of a million drawn from them? And what may not invention have lost by this indefensible principle of taxation ? Here then is already avery practical illustration of dual government in the South Kensington Museum already ; one part of that government being composed of Trustees, who, it is reported traditionally, have never once met asa Board in their own Museum to see what was imposed upon a suffering public, upon their responsibility. We do not believe such a state of things would have been suffered under South Kensington administration. Mr, Lowe, when Vice-Presi- dent, of the Council would not have suffered it. The indifference of the British Museum Trustees to some of the best interests of Science in their own museum has been denounced again and again by commissions and committees, who report and report, but make no impression on a corporation of fifty trustees. That alone is a reason why they should not be allowed to meddle with South Kensington. Although, as we have stated, this proposalwas madewith- out reference either to the opinion of those to whom the inte- rests of Science and Art are more precious than they are to the members of the present Government, or to the opinion of the House of Commons, we learn that Mr. Mundella has extracted a promise from Mr. Gladstone that nothing shall be decided until Parliament meets again. Mr. Gladstone is perhaps surprised that there is any public interest in the subject. In the meantime, to assist him to form a correct judgment, we advise every learned society, which takes any branch of Science under its care, to memorialise the Prime Minister, and point out the crying necessity of a Minister, who shall be responsible to Parliament for Science, among other matters, and for all museums; that to transfer a museum already so represented to irresponsible trustees is a step worthy of the Middle Ages ; and finally, that while the South Kensington system represents every- thing that is best in the way of progress, so much, to say the least, cannot be urged in favour of the present manage- ment of the British Museum. We can well understand the reason for the proposed change. It lies in the individual responsibility of a Minis- ter and the energetic executive management which have raised in a fewyears the South Kensington Museum into an institution of which the nation has the greatest reason to be proud; which has made it the centre of the chief intellectual activity of the country, which has utilised its resources for the teaching of hundreds of thousands of our teeming populations. The British Museum Trustees have done [Nov. 6, 1873 none of these things ; they have given no trouble ; they have borne snubbing admirably when they ave moved, which has not been often. They have, in fact, proved an admirable buffer between subordinates anxious for pro- gress and the Government; and, further, they have not been represented in the Cabinet. The moral which the Government has drawn from these facts is, that the South Kensington energy should have such a buffer, and in the existing members of the British Museum have found one ready to their hand. Hence the proposal which, if we mistake not, will, when it is generally known, not find a single supporter out of the Cabinet. It is quite possible that already it finds not many supporters in it. BAIN’S REVIEW OF “DARWIN ON EX- PRESSION” Review of “ Darwin on Expression.” Being a Postscript to “The Senses and the Intellect.” By Alexander Bain, LL.D., Professor of Logic in the University of Aberdeen. (Longmans, Green, and Co.) qpBERe is nothing in this Postscript to “ The Senses and the Intellect” so important to psychology as the declaration and announcement contained in the following sentences : “ In the present volume I have not made use of the principle of Evolution to explain either the complex Feelings or the complex Intellectual powers. I believe, however, that there is much to be said in behalf of the principle for both applications. In the third edition of ‘The Emotions and the Will” now in preparation, I intend to discuss it at full length.” No man can claim to have done more for the study of psy- chology than Prof. Bain; and in now recognising the principle of evolution and in incorporating it with his system, he is doing the science the greatest possible service. This is more than in some quarters was ever hoped from Prof. Bain, and more than was ever feared by those of his disciples who— after the manner of disciples—have clung most tenaciously to the defects of his system. Though accepting the principle of evolution, Prof. Bain does not, it would seem, always look at phenomena from the evolutionist’s point of view, as we understand it. Thus, in speaking of the large extent to which Mr. Darwin uses the principle of inheritance to account for the phenomena of expression, he says :—“ Wielding an instru- ment of such flexibility and range as the inheritance of acquired powers, a theorist can afford to dispense with the exhaustive consideration of what may be due to the primitive mechanism of the system ; he is even tempted to slight the primitive capabilities, just as the disbeliever in evolution is apt to stretch a point in favour of these original capabilities.” But whence the so-called “ primi- tive mechanism” which is here made separate and dis- tinct from, set over against the products of inheritance ? isnot the ‘‘primitive mechanism” the “ original capa- bilities” of every creature the res ults of evolution ? Mr. Darwin is accused of not having given sufficient attention to “spontaneity of movements,” which, accord- ing to Prof. Bain, “is a great fact of the constitution.” Now it may be that a “readiness to pass into movement, in the absence of all stimulation whatever,” is a fact of the constitution ; but we fail to see that Prof. Bain has q Nov. 6, 1873] NATURE 4 given any proof that such is the case. He says :—“ We may never in our waking hours be wholly free from the stimulation of the senses, but in the exuberance of ner- vous power, our activity is out of all proportion to the actual solicitation of the feelings.” What is the right proportion of activity to feeling? the proportion that Prof. Bain takes as his standard by which to discover that at times our activity is out of all proportion to feel- ing. Is not the simple and the whole fact this, that the amount of bodily movement that goes along with a given amount of feeling is different in each individual, and in the same individual from hour to hour. He continues :— “The gesticulations and the carols of young and active animals are mere overflow of nervous energy; and although they are very apt to concur with pleasing emo- tion, they have an independent source? their origin is more physical than mental.” Is not the origin not of these only, but of all movements, entirely physical, though it is also a fact that some movements, and certainly these among the number, concur with pleasing emotion? Mr. Darwin has instanced the frisking of ahorse when turned into an open field, as an example of joyful expression ; on which it is remarked, this “is almost pure spontaneity it does not necessarily express joy or pleasure at all. How curious! One must really be a psychologist before he can see common things in such an uncommon light. Perhaps no movement necessarily expresses any state of consciousness whatever: but no ploughboy, we venture to think, ever doubted that the frisking of his horse, when he turned it loose in the field, was an expression of de- light. But, then, ploughboys have no theories about spon- taneous activity. All mental states correspond to certain physical conditions; that “the nerve-centres and the muscles shall be fresh and vigordus ” is the physical con- dition of much bodily activity, and at the same time of the pleasure that goes along therewith. Granting that “the kitten is not seriously in love with a worsted ball,” it thoroughly enjoys the sport nevertheless. Its amuse- ment being mere play does not preclude its being real pleasure. And if our memories can be trusted, the worsted balls of our childhood were far more delightful than the gold and substantial realities we seriously love in our old age. Ss. “TAHORE TO YARKAND” Lahore to Varkand. By Geo. Henderson, M.D., and Allen O. Hume. (L. Reeve & Co.) n° Mr. Forsyth, the able conductor of the expedition which they describe, the authors dedicate this handsome volume, which, instead of being a continuous narrative, is divided into three separate parts, each of _ which will appeal to a different class of readers. The description of the route, and the incidents encountered on it, are given by Dr. Henderson, who with Mr. Forsyth and Mr. Shaw were the only Europeans that went to - Yarkand on this “ friendly” visit, sent by our Government to the Atalik Ghazi; it occupies two-fifths of the _ work, The natural history of the living forms met with, mostly by Dr. Hume, fills about one-fourth; the rest consisting of meteorological observations taken by Dr. _ Henderson on the journey. The difficulties that had to be encountered ev route were AAS « a 7 many and severe ; the’desert nature of the road between the districts of Ladak and Yarkand made it almost neces- sary to discontinue the expedition, and the great heights that had to be surmounted put a check on rapid progress, in some parts rendering it impossible. Several opportunities occurred for the observation of the physiological effects of higher altitudes and rapid changes of barometric pressure, one pass near Gnishu which had to be traversed, named Cayley’s Pass after Dr. Cayley its discoverer, being 19,600 feet above the level of the sea. From Dr. Henderson’s remarks, however, it appears that mountain sickness is not dependent on the rarity of the air alone, for during the time that the expe- dition was in the pass mentioned, no note was recorded of any of the number suffering from it, whilst previously, on the Chang-la, which is 18,000feet, most of the camp suffered from severe headache, nausea, prostration of mind and body, together with irritability of stomach and temper ; nevertheless observations at the time showed that the pulse was not unusually rapid and the respiration was but little, if at all, increased. The feeling of suffocation occa- sionally experienced on waking during the night usually passed off after a few deep inspirations had been made. It is much to be regretted that, with the opportunities of verifying and extending Dr. Marcet’s observations on the effects of ascending and descending mountains, Dr. Henderson was not ina position to do so, which he un- doubtedly would have done if he had been acquainted with them. Shortly after leaving Patsalung, and when on the southern boundary of Hill Yarkand, “nearly ten miles of the way was over a plain about five miles wide, which was covered to a depth of many feet (in one place where cracks existed, to not less than twenty feet) with sulphate of magnesia (Epsom salts), pure and white as newly- fallen snow.” This shows the abundance of a magnesian limestone in the surrounding higher ground, and as the water-supply of the city of Yarkand was from rivers which rose in this or similar hills, the author’s remark that “about every third man we saw was afflicted with goitre,” is scarcely more than was to be expected, and we think that if, instead of making “over to the Ddd Khwah a quantity of iodine, for the treatment of goitre, at which he was very much pleased,” he had proposed a change in the water-supply, the Yarkandis would have been the gainers in the long run. As the Atalik Ghazi was away at the time Mr. Forsyth arrived at his destination, and as the latter had strict orders to return before winter, the mission was partially unsuccessful. The return journey being later in the year, the cold and discomfort were greater than on the march north ; an idea may be formed of the acuteness of the cold from the author’s note on the Sukat pass. “My ink was constantly hard frozen, and on several occasions when I thawed it before the fire and attempted to write in my pencil notes, it froze at once on the point of the pen. Several times I tried to photograph, and once or twice succeeded, but usually the tepid water used for washing the plate froze as I poured it from the jug, and instantly destroyed the picture.” The illustrations of scenery, which in many books of travel are but indifferently drawn, and disappointingly in- accurate, are in this work replaced} by “ heliotype prints ” 4 NATURE [Mov. 6, 1873 from photographic negatives taken by Dr. Henderson himself, and nothing can, in most cases, be more satis- factory. What is wanted on such occasions is not only a picture, but a representation sufficiently full of detail to enable the reader by simple inspection to form a truthful idea of the country described. Such are found in the photographs of the Valley above Paskyum, and the fort and bridge over the Indus river at Kalsi, and others before us, which, from the contrasts of light and shade, and the evident glare, bring vividly before the mind the intensity of the heat, as well as the desolateness of the locality, a combination scarcely possible in any character of engraving. The Natural History notes are mostly ornithological and botanical. In his 7ésv72é of the ornithological results of the expedition, Mr. Hume informs‘us that “altogether, 158 species were observed, but of these only 59 pertain to the ornithologically unknown hills and plains of Yarkand. . . . Of these fifty-nine species, 7, Falco hendersoni (2 F. milvipes, of Hodgson), Savicola hendersont, Suya albo superciliaris, Podoces hendersont, P. humilis, Galerida magna, and Caccabis pallidus, are probably new to Science.” An excellent illustration, by Mr. Keulemans, is given of each of these new species, except the last, which is very closely allied to C. chwkar, and the colora- tion of the drawing of Sturnus nitens (Hume) exemplifies very successfully the propriety of the specific name. Mr. Gould’s description of S. purpurascens is compared with that of the new species, the former being absolutely speckless and much smaller. Podoces hendersont and P. humilis are both new species of this genus, which the author, following Bonaparte, places with the Choughs and not with the Jays and Magpies, remarking, however, “remembering their ground-feeding, dust-loving habits, _.. 1 cannot avoid the suspicion that these birds may constitute a very aberrant form of the great Timaline group.” On the Chang-la pass above referred to, Mr. Shaw ob- tained a butterfly, which Mr. H. W. Bates places in the mountain genus Mesapia, naming it M. shawz7 ; it closely resembles M/Z. feloria. Several specimens of the moth, Neorina shadula were also obtained. Dr. Hooker and Mr. Bentham have written the de- scriptions of the new species of flowering plants, which are figured ; they include, from the Tamaricacee, Ho/o- lachne shawiana ; from the Composite, /phiona radiata and Saussurea ovata ; and from the Apocynacex, AZo- cynum hendersonii, Dr. Dickie of Aberdeen describes the Algae and Diatomacez, and has also named some new forms. OUR BOOK SHELF The Internal Parasites of our Domesticated Animats. By T. S. Cobbold, F.R.S. (The Fze/d Office.) In this short and concise work Dr. Cobbold has em- bodied a series of articles which have appeared from time to time in the Fze/d. They, having been originally written for the perusal of the non-scientific public, are put in a simple and elementary manner, and much stress is laid on the practical bearing of the science of helminthology, the true value of which the author clearly shows to be but little appreciated by the growers of stock. Several excellent illustrations accompany the descriptions, which will greatly assist the amateur reader. The entozoa in- festing the ox are first described,—flukes, tapeworms, and measle, together with round worms. The importance of more perfect sewage arrangements whereby the ejecta of one animal are not allowed to contaminate the ingesta of another, is laid great stress on. The great carelessness on this point in India evidently leads to the preponder- ance of parasitic diseases in that country, where the heat and attending thirst cause the frequently small supplies of water to be employed for drink when ina very unfit state, on account of the abundance of ova of parasites that it may contain. A description is also given of the manner in which the Burates or Cossacks of the region of Lake Baikal are nearly all infested with tapeworm, from the custom preva- lent amongst them of eating their meat—the flesh of calves, sheep, camels, and horses—in an almost raw con- dition, and in enormous quantities. We think that there is one point in which this. work is particularly suggestive. The great gaps there are in our knowledge of helmintho- logy, such as the imperfect information that can be giver as to the source of-the liver fluke, must cause most readers who have opportunities at their disposal to wish to develop further a subject which has so many obvious practical bearings on the prosperity of this country ; for England in the opinion of many competent authorities is developing more and more into a meat-producing and not seed-growing land. The parasites of the sheep, dog, hog, and cat are those which form the rest of this instructive little volume. Chapters on Trees: a Popular Account of their Nature and Uses. By Mary and Elizabeth Kirby (London ; Cassell, Petter, and Galpin.) The Amateurs Greenhouse and Conservatory. By Shirley Hibberd. (London: Groombridge and Sons, 1873.) WE have here a brace of books on arboriculture and floriculture, each of which will be welcomed by a certain class of readers, and will fill a useful place in popular scientific literature. Both are written in an agreeable and attractive manner, and are bound and generally got up in a style to suit the drawing-room table. The authoress of the first (or authoresses, for though two names appear on the title-page, the pronoun used is sometimes the first person singular) must not be taken too implicitly as a guide in her scientific and structural details. Many of her statements are, to say the least, very doubtful, and bear the marks of a want of acquaintance with the recent results of botanical science. Passing by this defect, we have a great deal of interesting information and gossip about a great number of our forest-trees. There are also very good descriptions, forming the best part of the book, of many other trees of great economic value with which we are not so familiar, as the ebony, the camphor, the nutmeg- tree, &c. The illustrations—one full-sized one for every tree, besides smaller ones—are, with a few exceptions, excellent. The second volume, like all Mr. Shirley Hibberd’s, contains a great amount of practically useful informa- tion on the culture of plants. Indeed anyone who is interested in the matter will find here advice on almost every point connected with the construction and manage- ment of plant-houses, and with the selection, cultivation, and improvement of ornamental greenhouse and con- servatory plants. There are a large number of woodcuts and some well-executed coloured plates. The book comes, however, more within the range of the gardener than of the scientific student. Tenth Annual Report of the Belfast Naturalists Field Club. (Belfast : 1873.) WE are glad to see from the Committee’s report that the condition of this club is in every respect satisfactory, both as to numbers, finances, and, most important of all, amount and value of work done by the members. The Nov. 6, 1873] first part of the Report is concerned with the six summer excursions of the club in 1872, interesting accounts of the history, antiquities, and natural history of the various places visited being given. Of the papers contained in the volume, we mention the following :—“ The Lignite of Antrim and their Relation to the True Coal,” by Mr. William Gray, in which the author considers the subject both geologically and economically. The Rev. Dr. Mac- Ilwaine, in a paper on “Life,” gives an account of the various theories as to the nature of life held by philo- sophers from the earliest times to the present day. A different aspect of the same subject is discussed in Mr. Robert Smith’s paper on “ Darwinism,” in which the author briefly sketches the nature of the Darwinian theory of development, and gives practical exemplifications of its working in every-day life. Mr. William Gray gives an entertaining account of some of the doings of the notorious “ Flint Jack” in Ireland ; and the longest paper in the volume, by the Rey. Edmund M’Clure, is one of considerable ethnological value, on “ Family Names as indicative of the Distribution of Races in Ireland.” The Society offers a considerable number of prizes, competi- tion for which will no doubt tend to encourage the practical study of the various subjects with which the Society is concerned. Altogether it seems to be in a thoroughly healthy condition. SPH ATRGES SOM ENR TION IMO Gs [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. No notice is taken of anonymous communications. | Prof, Young ana the Presence of Ruthenium in the Chromosphere. I HAVE been asked by Prof. Young, of Dartmouth College (U.S.) to say, with reference to the statement made on p. 244 of the third edition of my ‘‘Spectrum Analysis” concerning the pre- sence of Ruthenium (Ru) in the solar atmosphere, that possibly by a /apsus calami he may have written the symbol (Rb) when giving the information of his discovery to Dr. Huggins, from whom I received a note on the subject. Although, in accordance with Prof. Young’s desire, I make these remarks, I cannot help fecling that they are quite unneces- sary, as no one who knows the careful exactitude of Prof. Young’s work could for a moment suppose that he was capable of making a confusion between Rubidium and Ruthenium. H. E. Roscor Owens College, Manchester, Nov. 4 The Miller Casella Thermometer I was surprised on reading Messrs. Negretti and Zambra’s letter published in your journal of October 23. I was under the impression that it had been c_nclusively es- tablished that the principle upon whichthe Casella-Miller or Miller-Casella Deep-Sea Thermometer is constructed is identical with the one originally made in 1857 by Messrs. Negretti and Zambra at the suggestion of Mr. Glaisher, F.R.S., by the late Admiral Fitz-Rsy’s directions for the Board of Trade. I was present when Mr. Scott, F.R.S., Director of the Meteorological Department of the Board of Trade, read a paper upon the subject at the Meteorological Society, January 17, 1872; he said:—‘I submitted one of these instruments, made for the late Admiral Fitz-Roy, to hydraulic pressure; it proved good and trustworthy. The history of these instruments was perfectly familiar to many gentlemen interested in deep-sea soundings in 1869.” I may add that I saw the original instrument at the Hydro- graphic Office ten years ago; in justice I am bound to say that Messrs. Negretti and Zambra were the first manufacturers of a deep-sea thermometer unaffected by pressure, . =, 208, Piccadilly, Oct. 29 P. PASTORELLI Captain Hutton’s ‘‘Rallus Modestus” IN the notice of the current /d7s, which appeared in Vol. viii. Ps 510, reference is made to a paper by Captain ITutton, con- NATURE 5 tending for the validity of his Rad/us modestus, as distinct from R. dieffenbachit. The next number of the 77s will contain my reply to Captain Hutton’s communication. In the meantime I will merely state that the whole of his argument rests on the assumption that Rallus dteffenbachii and R. philippensis are the same, in which he is entirely mistaken. It is a fallacy, therefore, to suppose that because he has shown his bird to be distinct from Radlus philippensis, with which he compares it, he has proved it to be distinct from Rallus dicffen- bachit, which, by his own admission, he has never seen. "A Oct. 18 WALTER L. BULLER Flight of Birds In Naturg, vol. viii. p. 86, Mr. J. Guthrie calls attention to, and asks explanation of, a curious phenomenon in the flight of birds observed by him:—‘‘In the face of a strong wind,” he says, ‘‘the hawk remained fixed iz space without fluttering a wing for at least two minutes. After a time it quietly changed its position a few feet with a slight motion of its wings, and then came to rest again as before, remaining as motionless as the rocks around it.” I have often observed the same phenomenon, but, until re- cently, not carefully enough to warrant any attempt at explana- tion, though always convinced that it was zo due to any invisible vibratory motion of the wings, as suggested by Mr. Guthrie. During the past summer, however, while on a tour through the mountains of Oregon, I had a fine opportunity of watching very closely a large red-tailed hawk (Buteo montanus) while perform- ing this wonderful feat, and of noting the conditions under which alone, I believe, it is possible. These conditions are precisely those described by Mr. Guthrie, viz., a steady wind, blowing across an wpward slope, terminated by a ridge. For a half-hour I watched the hawk, with wings and tail widely expanded, but motionless, balancing himself in a fixed position for several minutes in the face of a strong wind ; then changing his position and again balancing, but always choosing his position just above the ridge. I explain the phenomenon as follows :—The slope of the hill determines a slight «ward direction to the wind. The bird in- clines the plane of his expanded wings and tail very slightly downwards, but the inclination zs/ess than that of the wind, Under these conditions it is evident that the tendency of gravity would be to carry the bird forward and downward, while the wind would carry him dackward and upward. The bird skilfully adjusts the plane of his wings and tail, so that these two opposing forces shall exactly balance. He changes his place and position from time to time, not entirely voluntarily, but because the varying force or direction of the wind compels him to seek a new position of equilibrium. JosePH Lr ConTE Oakland, Cal., U.S., Sept. 19 Collective Instinct IN response to the appeal which closes Mr. Buck’s interesting letter (NATURE, vol. vili. p. 332), the following instance of “ collec- tive instinct” exhibited by an animal closely allied to the wolf, viz., the Indian jackal, deserves tobe recorded. It was communicated to me by a gentleman (since deceased) on whose veracity | can depend. ‘nis gentleman was waiting in a tree to shoot tigers as they came to drink at a large lake (I forget the district) skirted by a dense jungle, when about midnight, a large Axis deer emerged from the latter, and went to the water’s edge. Thenit stopped and sniffed the air in the direction of the jungle, as if suspecting the presence of an enemy ; apparently satished, however, it began to drink, and continued to do so fora most inordinate length of time. When literally swollen with water it turned to go into the jungle, but was met upon its extreme margin by a jackal, which, with a sharp yelp, turned it again into the open. The deer seemed much stariled, and ran along the shore for some distance, when it again attempted to enter the jungle, but was again met and driven back in the same manner. The night being calm, my friend could hear this process being repeated time after time—the yelps becoming successively fainter and fainter ia the distance, until they became wholly inaudible. The stratagem thus employed was sufficiently evident. The lake having a long narrow shore intervening between itand the jungle, the jackals formed themselves in line along it, while concealed within the extreme edge of the cover; 6 NATURE and waited until the deer was water-logged. Their prey being thus rendered heavy and short-winded, would fall an easy victim if induced to run sufficiently far,—z.¢. if prevented from entering the jungle. It was, of course, impossible to estimate the number of jackals engaged in this hunt, for it is not unlikely that, as soon as one had done duty at one place, it outran the deer to await it in the another. A native servant, who accompanied my friend, told him that this was a stratagem habitually employed by the jackals in that place,fand that they hunted in sufficient numbers ‘‘to leave nothing but the bones.” As it is a stratagem which could only be effectual under the peculiar local conditions described, it must appear that this example of collective instinct is due to ‘‘ separate expression,” and not to ‘‘ inherited habit.” Cases of collective instinct are not of infrequent occurrence among dogs. For the accuracy of the two following Ican vouch. A small skye and a large mongrel were in the habit of hunting hares and rabbits upon their own account, the small dog having a good nose and the large one great fleetness. These qualities they combined in the most advantageous manner, the terrier driving the game from the cover towards his fleet-footed com- panion, which was waiting for it outside. The second case is remarkable for a display of sly sagacity. A friend of mine in this neighbourhood had a small terrier and a large Newfoundland. One day a shepherd called upon him to say that his dogs had been seen worrying sheep the night before. The gentleman said there must be some mistake, as the New- foundland had not been unchained. A few days afterwards the shepherd again called with the same complaint, vehemently as- serting that he was positive as to the identity of the dogs. Con- sequently, the owner set one watch upon the kennel, and another outside the sheep-enclosure, directing them (in consequence of what the shepherd had told him) not to interfere with the action of the dogs. After this had been done for several nights in succession, the small dog was observed to come at day- dawn to the place where the large one was chained : the latter immediately slipped his collar, and the two animals made straight for the sheep. Upon arriving at the enclosure the Newfound- land concealed himself behind a hedge, while the terrier drove the sheep towards his ambush, and the fate of one of them was quickly sealed. When their breakfast was finished the dogs re- turned home, and the large one, thrusting his head into his collar, lay down again as though nothing had happened. Why this animal should have chosen to hunt by stratagem prey which it could easily have run down, I cannot suggest ; but there can be little doubt that so wise a dog must have had some good reason. Dunskaith, Ross-shire, Aug. 18 In your number of August 14 (Vol. viii. p. 302) Mr. E. C. Buck alluded to the curious and interesting instances of instinct and gregarious action in lower animals, and men- tioned that this action has been more particularly observed in the case of wolves in India. These remarks remind me of a curious instance of combined action between two foxes for the capture of their prey, which I witnessed myself more than once ; and as similar proceedings, on the part of these ani- mals have been so frequently observed in the hilly country of the department in which I reside, I cannot but conclude that the same habit will prevail among them, wherever they are found. The case is as follows :—One of the two foxes, in the pursuit of a rabbit or hare, continued yelping at short and regular intervals and thus drove the unsuspecting victim in the direction of the appointed bush, where the other fox was concealed and ready to seize its prey as soon as it came within its reach, The capture being effected, they generally divide the prey between them ; but if the ambushed fox, in jumping at its prey, has not gained the end in view, the two baffled compeers alternately repeat many times the unsuccessful leap, in order probably to find out the cause of the miscarriage. The above allusion to foxes leads me to mention another in- stance of the ingenuity of these animals, which is very remark- able, and one, I believe, which is but little known. On one occasion, in early life, when I happened to pass my College vacation at the Chapelle d’Angillon (Department of the Cher), my attention was attracted twice or three times, when rambling by the side of a small stream called the Petite-Saudre, bya float- ing mass of moss, which, when drawn to the bank, was found to be swarming with fleas. An old peasant of the neighbour- hood, who observed my surprise, gave me the following explana- tion of the fact, the correctness of which, said he, he could GORGE J. ROMANES | Nov. 6, 1873 warrant :—Foxes are much tormented with fleas, and when the infliction becomes severe, they gather, from the bark of trees, moss which they carry in their mouths to the side of a stream where the water deepens by degrees. Here, they enter the water, still carrying the moss in their mouths ; and, going back- wards beginning from the end of their tail, they advance by slow degrees, till the whole body of the animal, with the exception of the mouth, is entirely immersed. The fleas, during this pro- ceeding, have rushed successively in rapid haste to the dry parts and finally to the moss, and the fox, when he has, according to his calculation, allowed sufficient time for all the fleas to take their departure, quietly opens his mouth. The floating moss, with its interesting freight, is carried away by the stream, and the animal finds its way back to the bank, with an evident feel- ing of much self-satisfaction at having thus freed himself from his tormentors. Many persons, and very trustworthy ones, confirmed to me the old peasant’s account. Montpellier, Oct. 17 A, PALADILHE Venomous Caterpillars Once before I wrote to you on this subject, and had hoped that the entomological mountain had long since been safely deli- vered of its mouse. But from recent communications such ap- pears not to be the case. Any large caterpillar with tolerably stiff hairs that will not, in different degrees, affect tender skin when brought incautiously in contact, may probably be looked upon as a phenomenon. That any larva with stiff spines will occasion inconvenience by more violent contact is, I should think, evident to any thinking naturalist. That inflammatory symptoms will most probably follow in either case is also evident. The puncture made by a single steel filament would occasion little or no inconvenience ; but if multitudes of these filaments were simultaneously directed ona limited surface of skin, the result would be very different. The best analogue of the irritation caused by larval hairs is, as I before hinted, to be found in that following the handling of cer- tain bobraginaceous plants—Zchium vulgare, Symphytum offici- nale, &c. Mr. Riley, the State Entomologist for Missouri, has, in his fifth annual report, devoted a chapter to this subject, and states that he is acquainted with fifteen indigenous larva having so- called urticating powers, and in every instance the action is mechanical. Those observers who place so much stress upon the fact of contact with a hairy larva causing pain should not let sur- prise get the better of their judgment ; nor, in the case of those residing abroad, should they allow themselves to be influenced by native superstitions. The position is simply this: any hairy larva is likely to cause irritation mechanically, from particles of the numerous hairs piercing the skin; no case has yet been proved in which such irritation is the result of venom, such as that of Urtica among plants. Lewisham, Oct. 10 R. McLACHLAN Harmonic Echoes THE phenomenon mentioned by W. G. M. of notes higher in pitch than the sound producing them being reflected from rail- ings, is not at all uncommon, and is very easy of explana- tion. Suppose a person standing close to a line of upright bars, the distance between the bars being. a. If he now makes any sharp sound, soas to propagate a single wave, this wave will be successively reflected by each of the bars ; so that, in answer to the single wave he propagates, he will have an echo of the pitch corresponding to = vibrations per second a (V being the velocity of sound). If, however, he stands at any distance, say x, from the row of bars, he ought to get a slightly descending ec’:0, as then each wave succeeds the last at a dis- tance increased by twice the difference between 4/x? 4- 2° a and A/«? + (2 — 1)? a2, where z is the number of the bar measured from opposite the observer. ARNULPH MALLOCK Brampford Speke, Oct. 13 Evolution as applied to the Chemical Elements WHEN s0 little is really known about evolution, even in the sphere of organic matter, where this grand principle was first Nov. 6, 1873] a a Se. r: or theoretical, of all known elementary bodies, NATURE ” prominently brought before our notice, it may perhaps seem _ premature to pursue its action further back in the history of the universe. However, it seems but natural that we should apply this hypothesis to explain the close connection that holds:be- tween certain of the so-called elements. Pre-supposing that this theory has not been discussed before, I will just mention the chief ’ grounds for holding it, and leave the examination into its truth or falsity in the hands of more experienced chemists. Herbert Spencer defines evolution as the integration of matter at the expense of force; this integration being accompanied by a loss of polarity, and by specialisation in a certain direction. Thus much being granted let ussee how far this change from simple to complex is traceable in the qualities of certain of the elements, as seen especially in those that fall under natural groups. In the first place, we may call some of the metals more gene- ralised than others. Thus all hydrogen salts are soluble in water ; so, to a less extent, are those of lithium, sodium, and potassium ; but as the atomic weight (or mass) increases, so the salts of those metals become less and less soluble. This is only true speaking generally, for we see that, in particular cases, the hydrate of barium is more soluble in water than that of cal- cium, &c. But, as a rule, the salts of barium are less soluble than those of strontium ; these, again, than calcium salts. But, on the whole, we may say that with increase of atomic mass of the metals, their salts lose their general properties and become more and more specialised, the salts taking their character from the metal in combination. Secondly, according to this hypothesis, increase of atomic mass should be accompanied by absorption of motion. Just as the very complex molecules, of which living organisms are built up, are deficient in polarising or crystallising force, so are also the more massive chemical atoms: for it is evident that the heavy atoms of lead and bismuth have far less of this force, called chemical affinity, than have the light sodium, or the still lighter hydrogen atoms. In colloid bodies, the atomic attractions are mostly used up in keeping together the comparatively great masses of the molecule: hence but little polarity, or attraction among the molecules themselves, is manifested, and the com- pounds from the union of these molecules are unstable. So, too, the more massive atoms of elements enter with more difficulty into combination, and the products formed are unstable. Thus, the chlorides of platinum, or the oxides of lead, &c., are less stable, and more difficult of formation, than the corresponding salts of potassium or magnesium. Whereas colloids and crys- talloids readily unite together: this is paralleled by the strong affinity that hydrogen, or any metal, has for chlorine or oxygen. Here the metal is the light crystalloid, the non-metal, the colloid, so to speak. It is only with the more specialised of the metals, those which we have seen have massive atoms, that hydrogen will unite, viz., antimony and arsenic ; and the com- pound it forms with the former is very unstable, whilst the hydride of bismuth is unknown. ‘These compounds are not alloys like that of hydrogen with palladium, but they show the comparatively non-metallic nature of arsenic and antimony. This consideration leads us to suppose that the non-metals are still more highly evolved than the metals, and that in the special di- rection towards electro-negative polarity. Besides we know that the intermediate links differ in degree, not in kind, The lessening of the atomic heat with increase of mass shows a further absorption of motion, besides the potential energy pos- sessed by the more massive atoms. It might be ob- jected that motion has never been extracted from these massive atoms; on the contrary, as a rule, the heat of combustion is greater as atoms of the element entering into combustion are lighter. But the molecules of organic matter must be decomposed by suitable means before they can do any work; just so with the elements, which receive their name for the very reason that, as far as we know, they are in- capable of decomposition. Perhaps, indeed, the increase in the number of rays in the spectra of highly heated sulphur and nitro- _ gen will be regarded as an instance of such motion. «. Thirdly, if we look at the atomic weight of groups of the ele- ments, it is seen that the increase of mass occurs by a simple proportion. Gladstone, Dumas, Odling and others have shown the close relation of the numbers for particular groups ; whilst lately Mendelejeff has given out a law of periodical recurrence, connecting the properties and the atomic weight, either received Thus we have— Ca = 40 Gyr AC See 88°5 Ba = 137 2 (Sr=87°5) Cl = 35°'5 = 35n5) bb 2 ene Ss i —el27 BE ait tea (Br = 81) 7 pL Veet 3051) en eeRton lk = 391 NA = 2 & (Na = 23) These instances suffice to show how near the calculated atomic weights come to those found by experiment. In the fourth place it is a significant fact, that the elements themselves become changed in properties under different circum- stances ; the allotropic forms that result may be said to corre- spond with ‘‘ varieties” among organised bodies. In the case of the elements greater atomic mass was said to denote evolution ; in the best known allotropic varieties we find change from the normal form to be accompanied by increased density. Thus ozone (allotropic oxygen) and red phosphorus have both a greater density than the usual forms of these bodies. With greater evolution, the so-called elements become more electro-negative ; so in these instances, ozone has a greater affinity for hydrogen and the metals than has oxygen, and amor- phous phosphorus less affinity for oxygen than ordinary phos- phorus. ; The varieties of sulphur would seem to be exceptions, for they are of less density than the usual form ; the specific gravity of crystallised sulphur is 2°05, that of plastic sulphur, 1°95. However Berthellot terms the crystallised octagonal variety, electro- negative, plastic sulphur, on the contrary, electro-positive. Hence the octagonal form is at once denser and more electro-negative, and should be regarded accordingly as more highly evolved. In the fifth place, let us note some of the actions and re. actions of matter and forces. (2) Heat: In any organic group, generally speaking, the greater the vapour density, accompanying greater complexity, the higher is the boiling point. So it is with the elements, taken according to natural groups, the greater the atomic weight, the higher the fusing or boiling point. This is seen in the case of chlorine, bromine, and iodine ; arsenic, antimony, and bismuth, &c. Exceptions to this rule are the three closely allied metals, zinc, cadmium, and mercury, the most volatile of which is the heaviest, the least volatile, the lightest. Again, the more com- plex the chemical constitution of bodies is, the worse, generally, do they conduct heat and electricity : so too the more highly evolved and massive the atoms, the worse conductors are they asa rule. This applies strictly only to groups, as calcium con- ducts better than barium or strontium, but silver, though heavier and of greater atomic weight, nearly five times better than calcium. ‘The difference of conducting power between metals and non-metals is very apparent. Where the atomic mass is greater, as the body verges more towards the electro-negative, this loss of conductibility and the high fusing point is easily accounted for by the mechanics of motion, The heavier atom takes longer to communicate its motion in the one case ; or is more difficult to move in the other. Some natural groups of the elements offer good examples of what has just been stated, e.9. Pas 2 : : lubility of | Electric con- Atomic Weight.| Specific gravity. So ae c. dn Gal a|= 5 40%0: 15 Maximum. 22°14 Sr 87°5 2°5 — 671 Ba 1370 45 Minimum. | Minimum. Atomic weight. | Physical stat Chemical Vapour density c weight. ysical state. activity. Pp! sity. Cl 355 Gas. Maximum. 24 Br 810 Liquid. -- 5°4 I 127'0 Solid. Minimum. 8°7 Hydrogen has the greatest conducting power of all gases. To the principle that lighter atoms have greater polarity or chemical affinity, Bunsen has found an exception, that cesium is heavier and yet more electro-positive than potassium or sodium. The order of solubility or of chemical activity shows that chlorine and calcium are the more generalised of their respective groups, as,we should expect. see 8 NATURE [Wov. 6, 1873 (4) In the case of Light, not much can be said as yet : but with regard to radiation and absorption of radiant heat, Tyndall has shown that the complex molecules of organic vapours are the best radiators, and that uncombined atoms can hardly be said to radiate or absorb at all. So we see that the simple, ‘¢metallic” vapours radiate but ill, whilst the more complex atoms do not reflect, but rather absorb light and heat rays. Indeed, we may suppose, that as in the case of complex vapours, the more highly evolved atoms, requiring a greater supply of force, turn these rays that fall on them to account ; whilst the metals dispense with them by reflecting them. (c) The chief relations of electricity have already been alluded to. The chemical affinity between elements increases as they differ in electric polarity ; and the more highly evolved, the more chlorous or electro-negative are they. Lastly, late researches have shown that the elements nitrogen and sulphur at a high temperature, give more complex spectra. This fact, if it be a fact, has thrown some doubt on their claim to be regarded as absolute elements. In explaining the phenomenon, we should probably consider the sulphur particle to be composed of several groupings of the ultimate element, which, driven apart by the action of heat, are made to vibrate separately with various velocities. Thus the allotropic form of oxygen, ozone, has been represented by a simple formula ‘ O, being made up, as it is supposed, of two groupings of the element oxygen, that being the ultimate atom. The above statements seem to me to agree in showing, that if the hypothesis of evolution is tenable at all, it can be extended to explain all or nearly all the relations between the elements at present existing on this globe. C. T. BLANSHARD Queen's College, Oxford Ancient Balances Apropos of Mr. Chisholm’s interesting account of ancient weighing instruments, in your last number, I venture to call his attention to the representation of an equal-armed balance in an Egyptian papyrus of the nineteenth dynasty, about 1350 B.c. It is to be found in the celebrated ‘‘Ritual of the Dead,” a hieroglyphical papyrus of Hunnefer, of the reign of SetiI. In the ‘‘ Judgment Scene” the heart of the deceased is represented as being weighed in a balance in the Hall of Perfect Justice, and in the presence of Osiris. The balance is of the ordinary equal- beam construction, the final adjustment being attained by a sliding weight on one side of the beam, exactly hke the ‘‘ rider” on our exact balances. The papyrus may be seen in the British Museum. G. F, RopWELL Brilliant Meteors On Saturday evening (Oct. 18), about half-past 8 o'clock, I observed, from Boltsburn, Durham, a meteor of considerable brijliancy in the north-western part of the sky ; it shot down- ward from an elevation of about 40°, and left a streak of very red light on its path. The streak continued visible for nine or ten seconds. Joun CuRRY Boltsburn, Oct. 20 LAsT evening, October 26, when returning home I observed a brilliant meteor stream across the sky. It may be worth while to record it. Not having my watch, I can only guess the time as about 8.20 P.M. ‘lhe first appearance was like a flash of lightning intensely white, arresting attention at once. When observed it streamed fromé Persei above Capella (in altitude)and disappeared in Lynx. For two-thirds of its course its light was very bright, and it left a brilliant train of sparks, but for the remaining third it merely showed its own single expiring light. Later in the evening when observing with the telescope in Cepheus, two shooting siars crossed the field at different times, apparently from the same radiaut. hg tose Thruxton Rectory, Hereford SIR HENRY HOLLAND oh Ee the late Sir Henry Holland, whose name has been familiar to the world during the greater part of the present century, cannot be regarded as a man eminent in scientific research, still, as a Fellow of the Royal Society of nearly sixty years’ standing, as President of the Royal Institution, as one who was ever ready to contribute towards the advancement of scientific research, and as the friend of all the most eminent men of science of his time, which was a long one, we deem him worthy of more than a passing notice. As much as for anything else, Sir Henry was known as an indefatigable traveller ; his fondness for travelling, in- deed, having led to the illness which was the immediate cause of his death on October 27 last, his 86th birth- day. He had very early in his career deliberately deter- mined to set aside two months each year for the purpose of indulging his favourite recreation. This year, imme- diately after his return from a visit to Russia, he set off for Naples in September last, staying a short time at Rome and Parison his way home. He arrived in London on October 25, suffering from a slight cold, which was suffi- cient, notwithstanding the wonderful robustness of his constitution, to cut him off in two days. He began his travelling career by a visit to Iceland in 1810, since which he has explored almost every corner of Europe, and been eight times in America. In his “ Recollections of Past Life,” published in 1872, he speaks thus of his travels :— “The Danube I have followed with scarcely an inter- ruption, from its assumed sources at Donau-Eschingen to the Black Sea—the Rhine, now become so familiar to common travel, from the infant stream in the Alps to the ‘bifidos tractus et juncta paludibus ora’ which Claudius with singular local accuracy describes as the end of Stilicho’s river journey. The St. Lawrence I have pur- sued uninterruptedly for nearly 2,000 miles of its lake and river course. The waters of the Upper Mississippi I have recently navigated for some hundred miles below the Falls of St. Anthony. The Ohio, Susquehanna, Potomac, and Connecticut rivers I have followed far towards their sources ; and the Ottawa, grand in its scenery of water- falls, lakes, forests, and mountain gorges, for 300 miles above Montreal. There has been pleasure to me also in touching upon some single point of a river, and watching the flow of waters which come from unknown springs or find their issue in some remote ocean or sea. I have felt this on the Nile at its time of highest inundation, in crossing the Volga when scarcely wider than the Thames at Oxford, and still more when near the sources of the streams that feed the Euphrates, south of Trebizond.” It was mainly on account of the reputation which even then he had achieved as a traveller, that he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1815. Sir Henry was elected President of the Royal Institu- tion in 1865, and took the very warmest interest in its success, and in the promotion of scientific research, being seldom or never absent from his post, doing much to popularise science among the upper classes, among whom, as our readers know, he was always a welcome guest. For fifteen years Sir Henry contributed 4o/. annually to a fund specially set apart for the promotion of research, and was always ready to take by the hand promising young students who were diffident of their own abilities. Sir Henry himself never knew what it was to struggle, no man ever slid more easily into the highest professional and social position, and no man was ever probably less spoiled by his success. He counted from the very first among his patients, many of whom became his intimate friends, the highest in social and political rank both at home and abroad, and the most eminent in litera- ture, science, and art, knew nearly everyone whose name during the last sixty years has been before the public, and was respected and loved by all with whom he came in contact. Sir Henry had naturally good abilities, great tact and knowledge of the world, a mind stored with knowledge gained from books, from travel, and from his intercourse with men, which, combined with his genial Ev.. 6, 1873 | NATURE 9 bearing, rendered his society wonderfully delightful. As a physician, he was possessed of high skill. Of Sir Henry’s contributions to literature, his “ Medical Notes and Reflections” (1839) and his “ Chapters on Mental Physiology” (1852) are well known to the medical profession. He contributed a considerable number of articles to the Zaindurgh, and other reviews, which, in 1862, were published as “ Scientific Essays.” In 1815, he published his celebrated ‘‘ Travels in the Ionian Isles and Greece,” of which a second edition appeared in 1819 ; a work abounding in classical, antiquarian, and statistical information, interspersed with interesting details respect- ing manners and customs, scenery and natural history. In 1816 he contributed to the “ Philosophical Transac- tions” a memoir on the manufacture of sulphate of mag- nesia at Monte della Guardia, near Genoa, and afterwards papers to various other scientific journals. Last year he published his well-known “ Recollections of Past Life,” a volume which must long keep Sir Henry Holland’s name alive. His memory will be cherished by all who knew him as something ever pleasant to recall. ._ The Royal Institution has thus, within a year, lost its Secretary and its President, not to mention the resignation of its Professor of Chemistry, who has not yet been replaced. Whoever is elected to fill the Presi- dential office will, we doubt not, keep up the traditions of the place, and do what in him lies to carry out the original design of the founders and donors of the Institution, never losing sight of the fact that above everything it is meant to be one of the few temples of original scientific research in the country. Its laboratories have recently been rebuilt, and we hope they will ever continue to be taken ample advantage of for purposes of study and research, not only by the earnest successors of the great men who have rendered them famous, but also by competent members, for whom they were originally equally intended by the enlightened and science-loving men to whom the conception of the Institution was originally due. We conclude this notice by giving a few of the dates, in addition to those already given, which mark Sir Henry Hol- land’s career. He was born at Knutsford, Cheshire, Oct. 27, 1787, and was educated at Newcastle-on-Tyne, and at the school of Dr. Estlin, near Bristol, where he became head boy. In 1804 and 1805 he attended Glasgow University, and in 1806 he entered the Medical School at Edinburgh, where he became acquainted with many of the notable men that then frequented “the grey metropolis of the north”—Sir Walter Scott, Brougham, Sydney Smith, Horner, Jeffery, Dugald Stewart, Sir William Hamilton. In 1816, after spending some time in travel, he established himself in London, and at once achieved high profes- sional success. He became Physician in Ordinary to the late Prince Consort in 1840, and to the Queen in 1852; and next year was created baronet. Sir Henry was twice married, his second wife, who died in 1866, having been the daughter of his old friend Sydney Smith, THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY IN CENTRAL PARK, NEW YORK * LOR many years a large number of the generous and public-spirited citizens of New York had long felt the need of a museum and library of natural history that should be on a scale commensurate with the wealth and importance of their metropolitan city,and would encourage and developthestudy of naturalhistory, advance the general knowledge of kindred subjects, and to this end furnish popular amusement and instruction. In 1868 a remark- able opportunity presented itself of securing a rare col- lection that would form an admirable nucleus for such a * A Paper read by Albert L. Bickmore, Ph. D., Superintendent, at the Meeting of the American Association. comprehensive museum. The most extensive dealer in specimens in the world, Edouard Verreaux, of Paris, suddenly died, leaving in the hands of his widow a collec- tion, which, at the rates he was accustomed to sell speci- mens, would have brought over 500,000 francs, 100,000 dols. in gold... . Dying suddenly, he left the rich gatherings of an industrious lifetime seriously embarrassed with debt. This opportunity it was decided to try to improve, and a subscription of nearly 50,000 dols. was at once made up as a beginning, and since that time about 100,000 dols. have been contributed in money, though the present property of the institution, including the large donations of specimens which have been steadily coming in, could not be replaced, nor could other as interesting and valuable specimens for less than 250,000. A rare and nearly complete collection of American birds, and many fine birds of paradise and pheasants were first purchased by Mr. D. G. Elliott. While negotiations were about to be opened for the Verreaux collection, a second museum unexpectedly became available. Prince Maximilian of Neuwied on the Rhine above Bonn (not the Emperor Maximilian of Austria and Mexico) died, and the young son inheriting the estate had no scientific taste, and offered the results of his father’s life-work for sale. The elder Prince, who formed the collection, passed 1815, 1816, and 1817 exploring Brazil from Rio up to Bahia, and of course a large proportion of the great collections he secured had never at that early date been seen by scientific men in Europe before, and were therefore types of new species. This collection the American Museum purchased entire. An agreement was soon after made with Mme. Verreaux by which all the choice specimens in her cabinet not contained in the Elliott and Maximilian purchases were selected for the museum, and all these specimens have been safely received from Europe, and are now on public exhibition in Central Park. Large donations of shells, corals, and minerals have been received, and one collection of 20,000 insects. The liberal subscriptions first made induced the principal subscribers to consent to act as trustees for the fund and property acquired by it, and bya special Act of the Legislature they were created a body corporate—they and their successors to have entire and unrestricted control for ever over all the museum property. They have limited their number to twenty-five, and the survivors fill every vacancy, thus securing a fixed policy and stable character to the institu- tion. An arrangement has been made between the trustees and the Department of Public Parks in New York by which the city may furnish lands and buildings, while the collections are to be bought and cared for by moneys contributed by the trustees themselves and the generous public. In pursuance of this plan, by which the authorities of the city and private citizens might co- operate toward the common end of establishing a large museum, 500,000 dols. were appropriated by the city to commence a suitable thoroughly fire-proof edifice, and the Department of Parks was authorised to set apart so much of the public lands under their control as they might deem proper and necessary for the proposed struc- ture and its future extensions. The great object of the museum is twofold. First, to interest and instruct the masses which already throng its halls, and occasionally number over 10,000 in a single day; and, secondly, and especially to render all the assistance possible to specialists. These wants are shown to be amply met by the large, palatial saloons for the public, and over the whole building a high Mansard story, containing spacious and well-lighted rooms with every modern convenience, where naturalists from every part of thecountry may pursue theirfavourite studies foranylength of time, and be secure from all possible interruptions. The building will undoubtedly be ready for occupation in the spring of 1875. Io THE COMMON FROG * Ill. O prosecute successfully our inquiry “What is a Frog ?” it will be well now to make acquaintance with the more remarkable forms contained in its Order, after which, by considering the other Batrachian orders, we may arrive at a certain appreciation of its C/ass. The Frog’s own genus (Rana), which contains about 40 species, has its head-quarters in the East Indies and in Africa, but extends over all the great regions of the Fic. 7.—Poison Organ of Thalassophryne reticulata (after Giinther ). 1, Hinder half of the head with the venom-sac of the opercular apparatus in situ, * Place where the small.opening in the sac has been observed. a, Lateral line and its branches ; 4, gill-opening; c, central fin ; d, base of pectoral fin ; e, base of dorsal fin. 2, Operculum, with the perforated spine. world, except Australia, and parts more southerly still, and except countries situate above 66° north latitude. In South America, however, but a single species is as yet known to exist. Amongst the largest species are Rava ¢igrina, of India and the Indian Archipelago, and the bull-frog (2. Mugiens) Fic. 8. Fic. 9. Fic. 8-—Vertical, Longitudinal Section of the Poison-iang of a Serpent (after Owen). g, ueep grove; 0, its lower termination, which affords exit to the poison ; #, pulp-cavity. Fic. 9 —Magnified Transverse Sec- tion of a Serpent’s Poison-fang (alter Owen). g, groove round which the substance of the tooth (containing /, the pulp-cavity) is bent; 7, the point where the sides of the tooth meet and convert the ‘‘ groove” into what is practically a central cavity, of North America. The latter animal may often be seen in the Gardens of the Zoological Society, where it is fed on small birds—a sparrow being easily engulphed within its capacious jaws. The Edible Frog, par excellence (R. esculenta), is found in England as well as on the Continent of Europe. It is as widely distributed over the old world as is 2. tempo- * Continued from vol, viii p, 512. NV ARGOR LE [Nov. 6, 1873 varia, but itis unknown in America. It is easily to be discriminated from the common species (see Fig. 4 on p. 510) by the absence of that dark, sub-triangular patch which extends backwards from the eye in &. temporaria. The male of &. esculenta is further to be distinguished from the male of the common Frog by the fact of its having the floor of the mouth on each side, distensible as a pouch—the pouches, when distended, standing out on each side of the head. These pouches are called “vocal sacs,” and no doubt aid in intensifying these animals’ croak, which is so powerful that (on account of it and Fic. 10.—The female of Nototrema marsupsiatum, with the pouch partly cut open (after Gunther). . because of the country where they are common) they have been nicknamed “ Cambridgeshire Nightingales.” Specimens from Cambridgeshire are preserved in the British Museum. A large South American Frog (Ceratophrys cornuta), which devours other smaller Frogs as well as small birds and beasts, is noteworthy on account of the singular bony Fic, 11.—The Surinam Toad (Pifa americana). plates which are enclosed in the skin of its back: a cha- racter which it shares with a small South American Toad (Brachy cephalus ephippium), and which we shall -here- after see to be a point of special interest. A Frog newly discovered* (of a new genus but one allied to Mana), called Cénotarsus;t has been * The type of this genus is a species which was in my own collection (with no clue to the locality whence it originally came), but is now deposited in the British Museum. It was first described in the Proceedings of the Zoolo- gical Society for 1868, under the name Pachkwvhatrvachkus. + Proc. Zool. Soc., 1869. : 4 ; a tion. Nov. 6, 1873] NATURE II (see Fig. 5, vol. viii. p. 511) represented, in the hope that | _ by the wider circulation of a figure of it, it may be recog- nised, and its habitat so ascertained. The common Toad (Bufo vulgaris) is as widely distri- - buted over the earth’s surface as is Rana esculenta. It _ is less aquatic than the frog, and more sluggish in its motions. In shape it resembles the frog, but is more swollen, with much shorter legs and a warty skin (see Fig.6, vol. viii. p. 511). The toes are less webbed, and the margin of the upper jaw, as well as the lower, is entirely destitute of teeth. The jaws are similarly toothless in @// toads. The toad is provided with an oblong, elongated gland called Parotoid) behind each eye. These glands emit a milky secretion which is acrid and very unpleasant to the Fic. 12.—Dactylethra capensis. mouth of some carnivorous animals. observed a dog attacking a toad can hardly have failed to notice the disgust which the former animal seems io exhibit by the copious flow of its saliva, its many heac- shakings, &c. said to be poisonous, and certainly it is not so in tke mode in which the venom of serpents is poisonous, since a chicken may be inoculated with it, and yet appear to suffer no injury whatever beyond the infliction of the slight wound necessary for the performance of the opera- Vic. 13.—Rhinophrynus dorsalis. frogs and of salamanders are very powerfully affected by being kept in the same water with a toad, if the latter be specially irritated in order to make it discharge its pungent and irritating secretion. , True poison and organs fitted both to inflict wounds and to convey the venom into them are not indeed found ‘in any animals which are even near allies of the frogs and toads. Nevertheless a very perfect organ for both wounding and poisoning has been discovered by Dr. -Giinther to exist in a certain fish (Zhalassophryne rett- culata), belonging to a group which, on account of their | Those who have The toad’s secretion, however, cannot te | Nevertheless the secretion exercises a very decided | effect upon certain animals, since the tadpoles both of | superficial resemblances to frogs, are termed “ Batra- choid.” He found in the fish no less than four spines each per- Fic. 14.—Skeleton of the Flying-dragon. (Showing the elongated ribs which support the flitting organ.) | forated like the tooth of a viper, and each having a sac One such poison-spine was situated on each | at its base. Fic! 15.—The Flying-frog (from Wallace’s “ Malay Archipelago ”) side of the hinder part of the head in front of the gill opening. Two others were dorsal spines placed one behind the other on the mid-line of the back. These I2 poison-organs are probably only used for defence. are formed, however, on the very same as are the poison fangs of vipers. Unlike the latter, however, they are not modified teeth, nor are they situated within the mouth as they always are in poisonous serpents. A Frog (Pelobates fuscus) which is common in France (and which is interesting on account of the form of its skull hereafter to be pointed out), though really harmless enough, has a singular power of making itself offensive. Both males and females of this species utter a kind of croak, and both, if their thigh is pinched, produce a sound like the mewing of acat. At the same time they emit a strong odour, which is like that of garlic, and be- comes stronger as the animals are more disturbed. This emission not only affects the sense of smell, but even makes the eyes water as mustard or horseradish does. This singular power, together with the acrid secretion of the toad, are the nearest approximation to venomous properties possessed by any members of the order, no toad—not even the giant of the order Bufo agua—being really poisonous. A small Frog, by no means uncommon in France and Germany (Alytes obstetricans) has a very singular habit. The female lays its eggs (about sixty in number) in a long chain, the ova adhering successively to one another by their tenacious investment. The male twines this long chaplet round his thighs, so that he acquires the appear- ance of a courtier of the time of James I. arrayed in trunk hose or puffed breeches. Thus encumbered, he retires into some burrow (at least during the day) till the period when the young are ripe for quitting the egg Then he secks water, into which he has not plunged many minutes when the young burst forth and swim away, and he, having disencumbered himself of the remains of the ova, resumes his normal appearance. Certain Frogs (forming a very large group) are termed Tree-frogs, from their adaptatior to arboreal life by means of the dilatation of the ends of the digits into sucking discs, by which they can adhere to leaves. One of them, the common green Tree-frog (Hyla arborea) is spread over Europe, Asia, and Africa, in the same manner as R. eseu- lenta, except that it is not found in the British Isles. A few toads also have the tips of their digits similarly di- lated. Such, 4z., is the case in the genera Kaloula of India, and Brachymerus of South Africa. The female of a peculiar American Tree-frog (Nofo- trema marsupiatum) has a pouch extending over the whole of the back and opening posteriorly. Into this the eggs are introduced for shelter and protection. A dorsal pouch also exists in the allied American genus, Ofisthodelphys. An American species of Hy/odes has the habit of laying its eggs in trees singly in the axils of leaves, and the only water they can obtain is the drop or two which may from time to time be there retained. A still more remarkable mode of protecting the egg is developed by the Great Toad of rey America (Pifa americana). n this case the skin of the females’ back at the laying season thickens greatly and becomes of quite a soft and loose texture. The male,as soon as the eggs are laid, takes them and imbeds them in this thick, soft skin, which closes over them. Each egg then undergoes its process of development so enclosed, and the tadpole stage 1s, in this animal, passed within the egg, so that the young toads emerge from the dorsal cells of the mother com- pletely developed miniatures of the adult. As many as 120 of these dorsal cells have been counted on the back of a single individual, The only instance of a similar cutaneous modification is that pointed out by Dr. Giinther* in the skin of the belly of the Siluroid fish, Aspredo batrachus. Here he found that “the whole lower surface of the belly, thorax, throat, and even a portion of the pectoral fins, showed * See Catalogue of the fishes in the British Museum, vol. v. p, 268. NATURE [Woo. 6, 1873 numerous shallow, round impressions, to which a part of the ova still adhered.” He concludes that “it is more than probable that towards the spawning time the skin of the lower parts becomes spongy, and after having deposited the eggs, the female attaches to it by merely lying over them” “When the eggs are hatched the excrescences disappear, and the skin of the belly be- comes smooth as before. Even in the highest class of animals (Vammalia) we are familiar, in the Kangaroo and Opossum order (Marsupialia), with a special external © receptacle (the marsupial pouch) for the protection and — secure development of the young; but nothing of the kind exists amongst birds or reptiles. In fishes, however, the male of the little Sea-horse (Hipfocampus) is pro- vided with a ventral pouch in which the eggs are shel tered, and the same class presents us with a mode of carrying the eggs still more bizarre than that of Alytes obstetricans just related. In the fish A7ius fissus the male actually carries about the ova in the mouth, protected by the jaws, till relieved of the inconvenience by the hatching of the young fry. ; A South African Toad (Dactylethra capensis) is in teresting, as we shall hereafter see, on account of certam anatomical points in which it agrees with Pifa, and differs from all other Anoura. No interesting facts, how- ever, are known as to its habits, Another noteworthy form is the Mexican Rhinophrynus dorsalis, the exceptional characters of which are the tongue, which is free in front instead of behind, and the enormous spur-like tarsal tubercle. Almost all Frogs and Toads pass the first stages of their existence in water, going through a free, tadpole stage, and all are more or less aquatic when adult. The only exceptions are Pipa, Nototrema, Ofpisthodclphys, and the Hylodes before referred to. Very many kinds, however, are, when adult, inhabitants of trees. The question may suggest itself to some, “Are there any which can be said in any sense to be 2érial animals?” Birds are almost all capable of true flight, as also are those aérial existing beasts the Bats, and as were those extinct reptiles the Pterodactyles. Certain squirrels and opossums can take flitting jumps by means of an exten- sion of the skin of the flank, and a similar, though much greater extension, supported by elongated freely ending ribs, is found in the little lizards (Draco) called Flying Dragons. The class of Fishes supplies us, also, with an of aérial locomotion im the well-known Flying Fish. Since, then, every other class of vertebrate animals (Beasts, Birds, Reptiles and Fishes) presents us with more or fewer examples of the aérial species, we might perhaps expect that the Frog-class would also exhibit some forms fitted for progression through the air. We cannot say with certainty that such is the case; but Mr. Alfred Wallace, in his travels in the Malay Archipelago, encountered in Borneo a Tree-frog (. ) to which he considers the term “ flying” may fairly be applied, and of which he says, it “is the first instance known of a flying-frog.” Of this animal he gives us the following account :— “One of the most curious and interesting creatures which I met with in Borneo was a large tree-frog which was brought me by one of the Chinese workmen. He assured me that he had seen it come down, in a slanting direction, from a high tree as if it flew. On examining it I found the toes very long and fully webbed to their — extremity, so that, when expanded, they offered a surface |. much larger than the body. The fore-legs were also bordered by a membrane, and the body was capable of considerable inflation. very deep shining green colour, the under surface and the — inner toes yellow, while the webs were black yellow. The body was about four inches long, while the webs of each hind foot, when fully expanded, covered — teat an rayed with — { The back and limbs wereofa NATURE eS Nov. 6, 1873] a surface of four square inches, and the webs of all the feet together about twelve square inches. As the extre- mities of the toes have dilated discs for adhesion, showing ‘the creature to be a true tree-frog, it is difficult to imagine _ that this immense membrane of the toes can be for the purpose of swimming only, and the account of the China- man that it flew down from the tree becomes more credible.” The great group of Frogs and Toads, rich as it is in genera and species, and widely as it is diffused over the earth’s surface, is one of singular uniformity of structure. The forms most aberrant from our type, the common frog, have now been noticed, except that perhaps the maximum respectively of obesity and slenderness may be referred to. In the former respect the Indian Toad Glyphoglossus may serve as an example, and for the latter may be selected Hylorana jerboa. ST. GEORGE MIVART (To be continued.) A FOSSIL SIRENIAN FROM THE RED CRAG OF SUFFOLK pAT the opening meeting of the Geological Society, Prof. Flower communicated a description of a fine fragment of a skull of an animal of the order Sivenza, which is of great interest as affording the first recorded evidence of the former existence of animals of this re- markable group in Britain. The specimen forms part of the very rich collection of Crag fossils formed by the Rev. H. Canham, of Waldringfield, near Woodbridge. It was found in the so-called “ coprolite” or bone-bed at the base of the Red crag, and presents the usual aspect of the mammalian remains from that bed, being heavily mine- ralised, of a rich dark brown colour, almost black in some parts, with the surface much worn and polished, and marked here and there with the characteristic round or oval shallow pits, the supposed P/o/as boring. The fragment consists of the anterior or facial portion of the cranium which has separated, probably before fossilisation, from the posterior part at the fronto-parietal suture, and in a line descending vertically therefrom. This portion has then been subjected to severe attrition, by which the greater part of the pre-maxillary rostrum, the orbital processes of the maxillaries, and other pro- jecting parts have been removed. In consequence of this, what may be called the external features of the skull, which are especially necessary to determine its closer affinities, are greatly marred, though enough remains of its essential structure to pronounce with confidence as to its general relationship to known forms. Fortunately, the whole of the portion of the maxilla in which the molar series of teeth are implanted is preserved; and though the teeth have fallen from the alveoli in the front part of the series, and in the posterior part are ground down to mere stumps, so that the form of the crowns cannot be ascertained in any, many important dental characters may still be deduced from the number, form, size and position of the sockets and roots that remain. As the intensely hard, ivory-like rostra of the ziphioid Cetaceans, the tympanic bones of the Balaenidz, and the teeth of terrestrial mammals almost alone remain in these deposits to attest the former existence of their owners ; it is, doubtless, to the extreme massiveness and density of - the cranial bones, as characteristic of the order Sirenia, that we owe the preservation of so large a portion of the skull under the very unfavourable conditions to which it, in common with the other fossils of the formation, must have been exposed. After a comparison of the characters of the cranium with those of the several existing and extinct members of the order, Prof. Flower referred it to the genus Haditherium, and showed its relationship to //. Schinz? of Kaup from the miocene of the Rhine basin, a formation, it will be remembered, in which several of the animals of the Red Crag bone-bed occur. It is, however, of larger size than that species, the teeth are larger, hoth absolutely and relatively to the cranium, and certain other differences occur, though the imperfect nature of the materials makes exact comparison of fossils only known from fragments not altogether easy or satisfactory. Believing, however, that it does not belong to either the above-mentioned, or any other of the hitherto described species of Halitherium, the specific name of H. canhami was proposed. It should be mentioned that there are six teeth in the maxillary or molar series on each side, all present at the same time, the first two with single roots, the third with two roots, and the last three with three roots, precisely resembling in form those of the molar teeth in the existing Manati. ON THE STICK-FISH (Osteocella septentrionatis) AND ON THE HABITS OF SEA-PENS R. COOTE M. CHAMBERS has most kindly pre- sented to the British Museum a specimen of the Stick-fish, from English Bay, Burrard’s Inlet, British America. The specimen was placed alive, immediately it was caught, into a tin tube, filled with a solution of arsenic and salt. Mr. Chambers observes that the Stick-fish are only to be found in Burrard’s Inlet, English Bay, British Columbia, “It has only one bone in it, and appears to live on suction, and is a great prey to dogfish.” Further : “JT would mention that in summer only can they be caught. They are found to the least depth of from 30 to 40 fathoms, they move about rapidly in the water, and when brought to the surface, move for a few seconds like a snake, then make a dart as swift as lightning, and dis- appear.”—July 23, 1873. Unfortunately the specimen did not arrive in a good state for exhibition. The greater part of the animal por- tion had been washed off, probably by the motion of the solution during the transit ; only about a foot of the flesh, which was loose on the axis, and the thick, swollen, naked, club-shaped base without polypes remained ; but it was in a sufficiently good state to afford the means of determining its zoological situation and of examining its microscopical and other zoological characters. Mr. Chambers’ specimen is the animal of the axis, or stick, that I described as Osteocella septentrionalis (Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. 1872, Ix. p. 406), and it proves that the axis belongs to a kind of Pewmatiula, or Sea-pen, nearly allied to the long Sea-rushes named Pavonarius guadrangularis, found on the West Coast of Scotland, and is evidently the same animal as Pavonarta blakei, described by R. E. C. Stearns. The idea of its being a fish, which seems so generally entertained by the people of British Columbia, is clearly a mistake, though one of the observers sent a figure of the Sea-pen, with mouth and eyes like an eel (!), which is copied in NATURT, vol. vi. p. 436. Osteocella.—The complete polype-mass very closely re- sembles Pavonaria guadrangularis, as figured by Jobn- ston (“ British Zoophytes,” t. xxxi.), from Prof. Edward Forbes’ drawings ; but the animal is entirely destitute of calcareous spicules, and the axis is cylindrical, hard, and polished. Two days after I received this specimen, I received by post Mr. Stearn’s description of the Stick-fish (Pavonaria Blake), from the San Francisco Jlining and Scientific Press, August 9, 1873. The description of Mr. Stearn, made from a fresh ani- mal, need not be repeated ; but as he does not mention the microscopic structure, I sent a fragment of Mr. Chambers’ specimen to Mr. Carter to be examined, who kindly writes :—“ The fragment arrived safely, although 14 the Post-office tried to crush the box to the thickness of silver-paper. The bit contains no spicules, nothing but a mass of contorted tubes filled with small nuclei like ova. “ The nuclei are about 1-60oth of an inch in diameter, and I suppose they are in tubes. The part you sent was boiled in Liguor fotasse ; that is how the structure alone came out, but there were no spicules in it, examined in this way or in water alone, but many fat globules, and a few sheaf-shaped calcareous concretions, common in all preparations of animal matter.”—September 5, 1873. The habits of Pennatulide are very imperfectly known and not at all understood. Dr. Johnston observes in the “ British Zoophytes,” vol. i. p. 160, that the fishermen believe that the common Sea Pens, which they call Coxcombs, “are fixed to the bottom with their ends im- mersed in the mud.” The Virgularia mirabilis are believed by the fishermen to have one end erect in the mud, and Pavonaria quadrangularis, according to Profesor Forbes, “ lives erect, its lower extremity, as it were, rooted in the slimy mud at a depth of from twelve to fifteen fathoms.” Mr. Darwin, who observed a species on the coast of Patagonia, which he called Virgularia patagonica, says : © At low water hundreds of these zoophytes may be seen projecting like stubble, with the truncate end upwards a few inches above the surface of the muddy sand. When touched or pulled they suddenly drew themselves in with force so as nearly or quite to disappear. By this action the highly elastic axis must be bent at the lower extremity, where it is naturally slightly curved, and I imagine it is by this elasticity alone that the zoophyte is enabled to rise again through the mud,” Bohadsch, as quoted by Johnston, says that the Penza- zule swim by means of their £zzz@, which they use in the same manner that fishes do their fins. Ellis says : “It is an animal that swims freely about in the sea, many of them having a muscular motion as they swim along.” And in another place he tells us, that “ these motions are effected by means of the pinnules or feather-like fins, these are evidently designed by nature to move the animal back- wards and forwards in the sea, consequently to do the office of fins.” Mr. Clifton describes the Australian species as swim- ming rapidly inshallow water ; and the American naturalists all seem to agree that the Stick Fish, Osteocella septentri- onalis of Burrard Inlet, which has only a slight crest of polyps, and not Ziv, or fins, as Ellis calls them, swims about like a fish, and is eaten by the dog-fish. There seems to be no doubt that the Sea-Pens and Sea- Rushes do live in groups together, erect, and sunk in the mud, and that they are sometimes found swimming free in the sea, but the question is, are the free specimens those that have been disturbed by the waves and currents, and do they afterwards affix themselves in the mud, or are they vagrant specimens that live for a time and then die or are eaten by fish, their struggling being mistaken for swimming? Dr. Johnston observes, that when the Sea- Pens are placed in a basin or plate of water, he never observed a change of position, but they remain in the same place and lie with the same side up or down just as they have been put in. That is my own experience even when they are placed in a deeper vessel, but this may arise from the animal having lost part of its vitality before it was taken. It may be useful to give the synonyma of these animals. Osteocella, Gray, Cat. Pennatulidee, 1870, p. 40. Ann. and Mag. Nat Hist. 1872, ix. p. 405. Pavonaria, sp. Stearns, Mzning and Scientific Press. San Francisco, Aug. 9, 1873. fevillia, Stearns, Californian Acad. Sci., Aug. 18, 1873. 1. Osteocella cliftoni, Gray, Cat. Pennatulidze, 1870, p. 4o; Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. 1872, ix. p. 406. Hab., Western Australia (G. Clifton, Esq.), B.M. 2. Osteocella septentrionalts, Gray, Ann, and Mag. Nat. Hist. 1873, ix. p. 406 (style only). “New Marine Animal,” Sclater, Brit. Assoc., Aug. 20 NATURE [Wov. 6, 1873 1872; NATURE, vol. vi. p. 436 (with figure of fish, of which it is said to be the notochord). “ Axis of Pennatulid,’/H. N. Moseley, NATURE, Sept. 26, 1872, vol. vi. p. 432. “ Pennatulid,” Dawson, NATURE, Oct. 24, 1872, vol. vi. . p. 516; Whiteaves, Nat. Hist. Soc. Montreal, 1872. “New Aicyonoid,” Stearns, Proc. Cal. Acad, Sci., Feb. 1873, v. part I, p. 7. Pavonaria blaket, Stearns, Mining and Scientific Press, San Francisco, Aug. 9, 1873. Verrillia blakez, Stearns, Proc. Acad. Cal. Acad. Sci., Aug. 18, 1873. Hab., Gulf of Georgia, Barraud’s Creek, near New Westminster, Washington Territory: Herd, Claudet, Doane, Stearns, Chambers. Fraser’s River: Dick and Nelson. B.M. Mr. Stearns’s paper in the Proceedings of the Califor- nian Academy of Sciences is a reprint of the paper in the San Francisco JMéning and Scientific Press, with a few additions, and the addition of a new sub-genus, Verrid/ia, although he quotes Osteocella. Since I have seen the proof of this paper, the Hon. Justice Crease has informed me that he has for- warded to me a series of the animals of Osteoced/a, and also an account of the animal from an examination of fresh examples by Dr. Moss ; the latter has arrived, and I communicated it on September 25 to the Zoological Society ; it is illustrated by figures. J. E. GRay THE RELATION OF MAN TO THE ICE- SHEET IN THE NORTH OF ENGLAND ‘Oe the interesting review of Sir Charles Lyell’s “ An- tiquity of Man,” communicated to NATURE of Oct. 2, Mr. A. R. Wallace mentions the fact that “there is as yet no clear evidence that man lived in Europe before the Glacial Epoch, and even if he did so, the action of the ice-sheet would probably have obliterated all records of his existence.” The fact was true when it appeared, but both the fact and the remark which follows it, may now have to undergo considerable modification. The Committee for the Exploration of the Victoria Cave, near Settle, Yorkshire, assisted by a grant from the British Association, have just made a discovery which may prove to be of the greatest importance not only to the geolo- gists of Europe, but to all those who take an interest in the origin and early history of man. In May 1872 the Committee were exploring a bone bed in the cave, which occurred at a considerable depth beneath other deposits. It was full of hyzena-dung, broken bones, and teeth. A quantity of these were sent to Mr. Busk for determination, and he kindly returned the following list :— Elephas primigenius Ursus speleus Ursus priscus Hyena spelea These are well known to represent the fauna of the river gravels in the south of England. Among them was a bone which puzzled even Mr. Busk, and he has only now given his mature and definite opinion on the subject. He writes: “ The bone is, I have now no doubt, human ; a portion of an unusually clumsy fibula, and in that respect not unlike the same bone in the Mentone -skele- ton.” When Mr. Busk has taken some time to consider the question there are few scientific men who will dispute his verdict. The occurrence of the bones of man with this group of animals is a new fact for this part of the kingdom, but one that might be expected from a similar co-existence in the south of England, in Kent’s Cavern, Wookey Hole, and elsewhere. But at Settle this discovery possesses a far greater Rhinoceros tickhorinus Bison Cervus elaphus ee ltcmialln LVov. 6, 1873 | NATURE 15 interest from the evidence there of the relation of these animals and man to the great ice-sheet. This hyzna- bed dips into the cave, and has been worked only a short distance from its mouth; but at the mouth itself, vertically ‘ under the farthest projection of the overhanging cliff, lies a bed of stiff glacial clay containing ice-scratched boul- ders. This bed dips outwards at an angle of about 40°, and evidently lies on the edges of the beds containing man and the older mammals. It has been suggested that it may have fallen from the cliff above, and therefore may not necessarily have come into its position in glacial times, but, on a careful consideration, this is quite im- possible. Upon it lies a great thickness of talus or scree, which is made up of fragments of limestone split off from the cliff above by the frosts of successive winters. If all this were now removed it would be barely possible for the glacial drift to fall from the cliff above to its present position, but if all the talus were’ restored to the cliff, of which it forms the waste, such a fall would be impossible. It is quite clear, from the waste of the cliffs which has taken place since the glacial drift came where it now lies, that the cliff then projected many feet farther out and would prevent such a fall. A strong argument lies also in the fact that the ioose talus alllies above the drift and is quite free from mud, whereas all the deposits below it are heavily charged with it, and the mud is just such a fine impalpable stiff mud as would result from the grinding of glaciers and the flow of glacier water. It seems probable that the drift is really the remnant of a moraine lateral or Jrofonde, left here by a glacier or an ice-sheet, and that the remains of the older mammals and of man disinterred from beneath it are of an age at any rate previous to the great ice-sheet of the Irish Sea basin. But there is another line of argument which tends to the same conclusion. Three years ago it was believed by most geologists that the fauna here disinterred had never existed in this particular area—and why? because their remains had never been found in any of the river deposits of the district. It was supposed that the great extension of the ice prevented their mi- gration hither. It is clear, now that we have found these remains in caves, that they must have peopled the northern district at one time as thickly as they did the south of England, where their bones are so common in river gravel. But their remains in the northern district occur now only in caverns, and have been removed from the open country. When we compare this removal of the mammoth-fauna over certain districts with the presence of evidence of land glaciation on a great scale, we begin to see that they bear a definite relation to one another, and that the ice-sheet was the great “besom of destruction” which swept away all remains of the older inhabitants from those portions of the country adjacent to the great ice centres.* Again, there is another matter relating to this question which has hardly received the attention which it deserves. This is the complete absence of palaeolithic implements and the fauna which is usually associated with them in the river gravels of the south,over co-extensive areas of the north of England, indicating the removal of paleolithic man from those areas by the ice-sheet. If I am not much mistaken, this discovery at Settle may have an important bearing in several ways. It will carry back the proofs of the an- tiquity of man to a time previous to the ice sheet, that is to interglacial if not to preglacial times. It will corrobo- rate the opinions expressed by Mr. Godwin Austen, Mr. James Geikie, and others, that the older valley gravels of the south of England are not of an age subsequent to the Till of the North. And it will give some support to the views of Messrs. Searles Wood and Harmer, that the Till of the north- west of England, though older than the great submergence, is probably of younger date than the greater part of the drifts of the east coast. * Geological Magazine, vol, X. Pp, 140 The Cave Committee will continue their work with redoubled vigour. It is much to be hoped that the scientific public will come to their assistance, and not let the expense of the undertaking fall, as now, almost entirely on the district of Craven.t R. H. TIDDEMAN ATLANTIC FAUNA (ess May the s.s. Hzbevnza belonging to the Telegraph Construction and Maintenance Company, was des- patched to repair the French Atlantic Cable, in which a fault was indicated some 200 miles from Brest. A brief account of some of the animal forms obtained by me in that expedition may not be without interest to some of the readers of NATURE, To Mr. R. London, superintending the expedition, I am greatly indebted for the many facilities that he afforded me, of obtaining specimens of the deep-sea fauna. The first cast was made about 100 miles nearly due west of Brest, at a depth of 83 fathoms. Here we found numerous valves of Pecten, a fine Ophiocoma, with rays nine inches in length, which when handled broke itself into numerous fragments, Echinus lividus, Spatangus purpureus, &c. At the surface we obtained by means of a towing-net a great abundance of a minute Entomostracous crustacean of a greenish-blue colour, with deep sapphire eyes, a Cydippe, two species of Zdotea and Polybius Henslowit. On the Atlantic cable, which was raised to the surface at a point 112 miles west of Brest, were found numerous shells of a small boring mollusc, one of the Pholadide, apparently Xylophaga. The outer covering of the cable, consisting of tarred manilla hemp, was perforated in many places by the round holes which they had formed and in which their shells were found. In places they had penetrated the outer covering, and had passed between the iron wires to the gutta percha core, in which they had made numerous shallow indentations, but in no case had they penetrated this to any depth. This cable, it will be remembered, was laid in 1869. We now steamed about 87 miles westward to the edge of the Little Sole Banks, where the water deepens from 90 to 480 fathoms within a distance of a few miles. Here the cable was again hooked and brought to the sur- face from a depth of about 300 fathoms. Adhering to its surface was a species of Pycnogonum in great abundance. The specimens lived for some time after being brought to the surface, and moved about sluggishly. A few bright red anomourous crustaceans were also obtained. These were very active, and lived for some days in a bucket of water. : They had, while in confinement, a peculiar habit of drawing their claws over their head, antennz, and eyes, which suggested the idea that they were confused and dazzled by the extraordinary amount of light to which they were exposed, A species of 7ibularia of great beauty grew abundantly in clusters on the cable, and throve well in confinement. The cable was thickly overgrown with Sertularias of various species, moored to which by their hinder legs a species of Cafred/a, diabolic in appearance, but sluggish and inactive in nature, abounded. A few miles farther westward the cable was raised from a depth of 480fathoms. Serti#larias, Tubularias, Capretta, &c., were still abundant; but the Pycnogonum was con- spicuous from its absence. In the recent expedition in which the Great Eastern and Hibernia have been employed in endeavouring to repair the Atlantic Cable of 1865, the natural history re- sults have been much more meagre. Perhaps the most interesting objects obtained are some fragments of rock, + Messrs, Birkbeck and Co., Craven Bank, Settle, have kindly consented to receive subscriptions, 16 A TI CW ch a3 consisting of Hornblende with interspersed crystals of quartz, found in lat. 51° 56’ N.,long. 35° 45’ W., at a depth of about 1,760 fathoms. FRED. P. JOHNSON . NOTES Pror. SYLVESTER has recently made a discovery which is likely to create some interest, not only amongst mathematicians, but also amongst mechanicians and instrument-makers. By means of a sort of lazy tongs he has succeeded in converting spherical motion into plane motion, a result, we believe, hitherto looked upon as unattainable. This discovery will form the sub- ject of a communication which Mr. Sylvester is announced to lay before the London Mathematical Society at its Annual General Meeting on Thursday next (November 13). THE two gentlemen recently elected to Science-Fellowships at Oxford, are remarkable instances of success attending most irregular and unusual undergraduate careers. Mr. Yule was at one time a boy at Magdalen College Schocl, he obtained the Brackenbury Scholarship for Physical Science at Balliol College, but was obliged to throw it up after a short time, on account of his failure to pass the classical examinations of the University. He bethought him of the more merciful ordinances of the sister University, and having obtained a Scholarship at St. John’s College, Cambridge, proceeded on his undergraduate course un- checked by the lessened barrier of the previous examination. After being placed senior in the Natural Sciences Tripos, he returns to Oxford, we may hope bringing treasures from the East—and at any rate ready to use his vote for the improvement of the Oxford Examination Statutes. Mr. Macdonald is an individual who has come as near as is possible to achieving the feat of being in two places at one time. In fact, theoretically, he has been in two places at one time. He had the great courage and energy whilst holding a position in the Education Office, to enter as an Undergraduate at Merton College, and by consent of the College authorities he kept his term by sleeping in Oxford, which place he left every morning during term, so as to be at his official post, returning in the evening in time for hall dinner. His office-holidays he employed in practical work in the Oxford laboratories, whilst analytical chemistry had to be studied in his own sitting-room, converted for the time into a workshop. Such a history makes it very certain that the examination system has not failed at Merton College to secure at any rate a most worthy recipient of the fellowship. THE election to the two vacant Fellowships at Merton College, took place on Oct. 30, when the choice of the electors fell upon Mr. John Wesley Russell, Lecturer of Balliol College, as Mathe- matical Fellow ; and Mr. Archibald Simon Lang Macdonald, Commoner of Merton College, as Natural Science Fellow. Mr. Russell was placed in the first class in Mathematics under Mode- rators, in Trinity Term, 1871; and Mr. Macdonald in the first class in Natural Science at the final examination, in Michaelmas Term, 1871. WE are glad to be able to add St. John’s College, Cambridge, to the list of those which have opened their Fellowships to Students of Natural Science. Since 1868, the College has given Exhibitions yearly, and Foundation Scholarships since 1870, for the encouragement of a knowledge of Physics, Chemistry, and Biology. On Monday last the Master and Seniors, in proof of their desire to place the Natural Sciences on the same footing as Classics and Mathematics, elected one of their scholars, Mr. A. H. Garrod, B.A., who was a Senior in the Natural Science Tripos of 1871, to a Fellowship. Axour the end of January 1874, there will be an election to a scholarship in Natural Science at Exeter College, Oxford, can- didates for which will be examined in biology, chemistry, and physics. Candidates are not expected to exhibit sfecia7 knows ledge of more than one of the above subjects, and preference will be given to a candidate who excels in biology, or one of its branches. The candidate selected will have to satisfy the col- lege that he has sufficient classical and mathematical knowledge to pass responsions. ‘There is no limit of age disqualifying can- didates for this scholarship. The scholarship is of the annual value of 80/., tenable for five years from matriculation. The scholar elected will have the use, during term, of a place in the histological laboratory of the college. For further information application should be made to Mr. E. Ray Lankester, Natural Science Lecturer, Exeter College. Mr. Cuar.es J. F. YuLE, of St. John’s College, Cambridge, | wishes us to state that he is not ‘‘the Cambridge B.A.” whose letter appeared in last week’s number. AT the Commitia, held on Thursday, October 30, at the Royal College of Physicians, Dr. Robert Druitt was elected a Fellow of the College. The president announced that the Harveian Oration in the ensuing year would be delivered by Dr. Charles West. The Gulstonian Lectures will be delivered by Dr. J. F. Payne ; the Croonian Lectures by Dr. Murchison ; the Lumleian by Dr. Sibson. WE regret to record the death, on Oct. 24, of Dr. Crace Calvert, F.R.S., F.C.S. The illness which caused it was con- tracted at Vienna, whither he had gone to act as juror in the International Exhibition. The Yournal of the Sociely of Arts furnishes some particulars concerning the work of Dr, Calvert. Asan analytical chemist his renown was European. He left England as a youth to pursue his education in France, and in the schools of that country secured many honours by the awards which he obtained. He subsequently pursued the study of che- mistry, and was appointed assistant chemist at the Gobelin works, under his learned master, Chevreul. Soon after his re- turn to England, he commenced reading a series of papers before the Society of Arts on chemistry applied to industry. At a later date, when the Society of Arts proposed to establish Cantor lectures, he gave the proposition his hearty support, and de- livered two courses of lectures on ‘‘ Chemistry applied to the Arts.” He also delivered courses on ‘‘ Synthesis and the Pro- duction of Organic Substances,” on ‘‘ Aniline and Coal Tar Colours,” and on ‘‘ Dyes and Dye-stuffs other than Aniline.” In 1846 he settled in Manchester, and was soom after appointed Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Institution there. He was also for some time a lecturer at the Manchester School of Medi- cine. His connection with the Manchester Sanitary Association led him to hygienic investigations—one of the principal results of which was a patent for the application and preparation of car- bolic acid. In scientific circles great interest attached to Dr, Calvert’s protoplasmic investigations, some of the results of which were communicated in a paper read at the meeting of the British Association in Edinburgh some years ago, and afterwards published in the Transactions of the Royal Society. Dr. Calvert was a Fellow of the Royal Society of England, a Fellow of the Chemical Society, and an honorary Fellow of the Chemical Society of Paris. He was also a member of the Royal Academy of Turin, and of the Imperial Academy of St. Petersburg. Tue death is announced of Prof. J. A. F. Breithaupt, of Freiberg, the well-known Mineralogist, on October 22, at the age of 82 years. Ocean Highways announces the death from scurvy on the Novaya Zemlya Coast, of the distinguished Norwegian Arctic Explorer, Captain Sivert Tobieson. Av the meeting of the Royal Geographical Society last Monday, Sir Bartle Frere, the President, said that, though there [Vov. 6, 1873, NATURE 17 _ Nov. 6, 187 3] was no further news of Dr. Livingstone, the Jatest accounts of both the expeditions sent out inthe hope of meeting him, tell of satisfactory progress. Of the West Coast Expedition under Lieutenant Grandy, R.N., the latest direct accounts state that the expedition had just left San Salvador, about June 16, in good health, so that we may one day hope to hear of their further progress in their search for tidings of Livingstone, and every step of their progress wll add to our knowledge of that most interesting, but little known, region. Comparing Consul Newton’s dates with those of Dr. Beke’s Portuguese informant, published on Saturday last, Sir Bartle Frere thinks we must await some confirmation of the latter report before concluding that Lieutenant Grandy had turned back. The other expedition started under Lieutenant Cameron on the east coast, and notwithstanding all delays, Lieutenant Cameron made a fair start for the lake region ; and, by the latest accounts, was pushing on with every prospect of reaching a district where he was most likely to obtain tidings of Livingstone.—Mr. C. Markham, the Secretary, read a paper giving some interesting information connected with the voyage of the Po/aris to the Arctic regions, and a discussion followed in which the desir- ability of another Arctic expedition was strongly urged, some of the members proposing that, if Government refused, the society itself should send one, but this view was controverted by Captain Sherard Osborne, who maintained that such an expedition, to be successful, should be under the auspices of the Government. WE have great pleasure ‘in calling attention to a series of science lectures for clerks and working-men, which are to take place in South Place Institution, Finsbury. The first three lec- tures, on November 4, 11, and 18, are by Prof. Duncan, F.R.S., on the Geological History of the Earth, and these are to be fol- lowed by others on Light, &c. The gentlemen who get up these lectures deserve great credit, as they expect to be considerably out of pocket in their endeavour {to place science lectures by the most eminent scientific men within the reach of the classes mentioned, who, we hope, will take ample advantage of the opportunity. The charge for admission is almost nominal, AmoNG the Local Societies, concerning which we have re- ceived information since we published our list, is the ‘‘ Junior Philosophical Society,” a London Society which meets on the second and fourth Friday of each month from October to June, at 8 p.M. The Society seems earnestly bent on work in the way of reading papers, and occasional excursions, no member being admitted who does not prove his willingness to take his share in the work of the Society. Many of the papers to be read this winter are on important scientific questions ; and we would re- commend the Society to the attention of those young men who are within convenient distance of the meeting-place, 6A, Victoria Street, Westminster. His Excellency Senor Don Gregorio Beintes, Minister Pleni- potentiary of the Republic of Paraguay, has appointed Mr. Charles Twite, M.E., late reporter to the Royal Commission on Mines, who explored the mineral resources of Siam ; M. Balanza, botanist, late Commissioner of the French Government to New ‘Caledonia and Egypt; and Mr. Keith Johnston, F.R.G.S., members of a scientific commission to inquire into and report on the natural resources of Paraguay. Dr. Leone Levi, F.S.S., Professor of Commercial Law in King’s College, Consul-General of Paraguay in London, will edit the reports and exhibit them in relation to the economic condition of the country. Such re- ports will be published towards the end of next year. Tue Exhibition which will be held in Manchester, by the Society for the Promotion of Scientific Industry, of appliances for the Economical Consumption of Fuel, will be opened on December 18 next. Inconnection with this subject, a gentle- man has placed a gold medal at the disposal of the Council of the Society for the best specimen of peat fuel that shall come nearest to coal in its use and character, special regard being had to its cheap and rapid production. THE Council of the Institution of Civil Engineers have forwarded us a list of thirty-six subjects, on which they invite communications. Mr. ALBERT MULLER has sent us No. 2 of his ‘‘ Contribu- tions to Entomological Bibliography up to 1862 ;’’ further num- bers will appear as materials accumulate. The list contains a great deal of information, and it will no doubt be valued by entomologists. It may be obtained from Mr. E. W. Janson, Museum-street. THE Director of the Imperial Russian Telegraph has given his consent to the transmission, free of cost, within the boundaries of the Russian empire, of messages announcing new astronomical discoveries. Mr, JAMES DALLAs, of Benakandy, Cachar, writing us on the subject of inherited peculiarities, says that a friend of his has a black-and-tan English terrier dog, two inches of the end of whose tail is folded back so acutely as to come in contact with the upper portion. A pup, of which the dog is the un- doubted father, has inherited the paternal peculiarity, with the difference that, instead of the end of the tail being tured up, it is turned down. A SERIES of methodical observations on the various move ments of a ship affected by waves was carried’ out on board the ship orfo/é during her last voyage from Melbourne to London. The observations during the voyage (from July 24 until October 16) were effected by self-registering instru- ments, under the care of Mr. W. T. Deverell, on behalf of Mr. Spencer Deverell, of Portland, Victoria, who has devoted many years’ study to the mathematical investigations of the movements of ocean waves and to their action upon a floating body. A complete report will constitute no doubt a valuable contribution to naval literature. Ir is stated that the steamer 7vscavora, under the command of Capt. George E. Belknap, has lately been fitted up at San Fran- cisco to undertake the labour of making soundings between the Pacific coast and Japan, in connection with the new cable route. On the detail of the Fziata, for service in the Polaris search, the sounding apparatus, which had been put on board for a simi- lar service between New York and the West Indies, was trans- ferred to the Zuscarora. This included a supply of new steel wire, with Sir William Thomson’s patent reel. The vessel was to proceed early in July to Puget Sound, and thence, by way of the Aleutian Islands, to Hakodadi. It is stated by the Australian and New Zealand Gazette, that the Government has signified its willingness to grant a site for th proposed Adelaide university ; to give 10,000/. towards the cost of its erection, provided an equal amount is raised by private subscription ; and to provide an annual grant equal to 5 per cent. on other subscriptions. THE great Exhibition of Vienna (we learn from the Journal of the Society of Arts) is to be commemorated by the establish- ment of an ‘‘ Athenzeum,” as it is called, modelled after the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers of Paris, and the Museum of Industry at Brussels, for the special instruction of workmen and small manufacturers. It is to be installed in the midst of the industrial quarters of the capital. A large quantity of drawings, designs, models, instruments, machines, tools, raw and partially manufactured materials, have been promised by exhibitors, and Baron Schwarz-Senborn, director of the exhibition, has presented a collection of between three and four thous and volumes of book 18 connected with industrial exhibitions. The establishment starts with acapital of more than 11,500/. On Sept. 1, an earthquake took place at 4.10 P.M. with slight shocks at Drama, in European Turkey. There was an earthquake at about 9 P.M. on Sept. 6, in Armenia, at Erze- roum, and elsewhere. Several shocks of earthquake were felt on Aug. 21, in the City of Guatemela, but very few houses were damaged. La Nature records the recent death of M, Godard, senior, the oldest of French aéronauts. THE additions to the Zoological Society’s collection during the past week include a Bosman’s Potto (Perodicticus potto)\ from Africa, and a Blue Magpie (Cyanofolius cyanus) from China, pre- sented by Rev. A. W. Peter ; two Ursine Dasyures (Dasyurus ursinus) from Australia, presented by the Acclimatisation Soci- ety of Victoria ; an Alpine Marmot (Arctomys marmotta), an Inconvenient Curassow (Crvax incommoda) from S. America, a Red-bellied Thrush (Zurdus rufiventris), a Red Oven-bird (Furnarius rufus), and two Yellow Trupials (Xazthosomus flavus) from Buenos Ayres ; a Hoffmann’s Sloth (Cholopus hoffmannt) from Panama, purchased ; a Sun Bittern (Zurypyga helias) from S. America, deposited. THE SELECTION AND NOMENCLATURE OF DYNAMICAL AND ELECTRICAL UNITS* WE consider that the most urgent portion of the task entrusted to us is that which concerns the selection and nomencla- ture of units of force and energy; and under this head we are prepared to offer a definite recommendation. A more extensive and difficult part of our duty is the selection and nomenclature of electrical and magnetic units. Under this head we are prepared with a definite recommendation as regards selection, but with only an interim recommendation as regards nomenclature. Up to the present time it has been necessary for every person who wishes to specify a magnitude in what is called ‘‘ absolute” measure, to mention the three fundamental units of mass, length, and time, which he has chosen as the basis of his system. ‘This necessity will be obviated, if one definite selection of three fun- damental units be made once for all, and accepted by the general consent of scientific men. We are strongly of opinion that such aselection ought at once to be made, and to be so made that there will be no subsequent necessity for amending it. We think that, in the selection of each kind of derived unit, all arbitrary multiplications and divisions by powers of ten, or other factors, must be rigorously avoided, and the whole system of fundamental units of force; work, electrostatic, and electromag- netic elements, must be fixed at one common level—that level, namely, which is determined by direct derivation from the three fundamental units once for all selected. The carrying out of this resolution involves the adoption of some units which are excessively large or excessively small in comparison with the magnitudes which occur in practice ; but a remedy for this inconvenience is provided by a method of denot- ing decimal multiples and sub-multiples, which has already been extensively adopted, and which we desire to recommend for general use. On the initial question of the particular units of mass, length, and time, to be recommended as the basis of the whole system, a protracted discussion has been carried on, the principal point discussed being the claims of the gramme, the metre and the second, as against the gramme, the centimetre, and the second ; the former combination having an advantage as regards the simplicity of the name mefre, while the latter combination has the advantage of making the unit of mass practically identical with the mass of unit volume of water ; in other words of making the value of the density of water practically equal to unity. We are now all but unanimous in regarding this latter element of simplicity as the more important of the two; and in support of this view we desire to quote the authority of Sir W. Thomson, * First Report of the British Association Committee on Units. NATURE [Mov. 6, 1873 who has fora long time insisted very strongly upon the necessity of employing units which conform to this condition. We accordingly recommend the general adoption of the centi- metre, the gramme, and the second, as the three fundamental units ; and until such time as special names shall be appropriated to the units of electrical and magnetic magnitude hence derived, we recommend that they be distinguished from “absolute” units otherwise derived, by the letters ‘‘C. G. S.” prefixed, these being the initial letters of the names of the three fundamental units. Special names, if short and suitable, would, in the opinion of most of us, be better than the provisional designations ‘* C. G. S. unitof. .... .” Several lists of names have already been suggested ; and attentive consideration will be given to any further suggestions which we may receive from perscns interested in‘electrical nomenclature. The ‘‘ohm,” as represented by the original standard coil, is approximately 10? C. G. S. units of resistance. The “ volt” is approximately 10? C. G.S. units of electromotive force, and the ‘‘farad” is approximately — of the C. G. S. unit of 10 capacity. For the expression of high decimal multiples and sub-multiples, we recommend the system introduced by Mr. G, J. Stoney—a system which has already been extensively employed for elec- trical purposes. It consists in denoting the exponent of the power of 10 which serves as multiplier, by an appended cardinal number if the exponent be positive, and by a prefixed ordinal number if the exponent be negative. Thus :— 10? grammes constitute a evamme-nine, ray , 5 of a gramme constitutes a 2/nth-gramme. The earth’s circumference is approximately four metre-sevens, or four centimetre-nines. For multiplication or division by a million, the prefixes mega * and micro may conveniently be employed, according to the present custom of electricians. Thus the »egohm is a million ohms, and the wcrofarad is the millionth part of a farad. The prefix mega is equivalent to the affix sir. The prefix micro is equivalent to the prefix sixth. The prefixes Arlo, hecto, deca, dect, centi, milli can also be employed in their usual senses before all new names of units. : As regards the name to be given to the C. G. S. unit of force, we recommend that it be a derivative of the Greek duvauts. The form dyvamy appears to be the most satisfactory to etymo- logists. Dynam is equally intelligible, but awkward in sound to English ears. The shorter form dyze, though not fashioned according to strict rules of etymology, will probably be generally preferred in this country. Bearing in mind that it is desirable to construct a system with a view to its becoming international, we think that the termination of the word should, for the present, be left an open question. But we earnestly request that, which- ever form of the word be employed, its meaning be strictly limited to the unit of force of the C. G. S. system ; that is to say the force which, acting upon a gramme of matter for a second, generates a velocity of a centimetre per second. The work done by this force, working through a centimetre, is the C. G. S. unit of work, and we propose to denote by it some derivative of the Greek épyov. The forms ergon, ergal, and erg have been suggested ; but the second of these has been used in a different sense by Clausius. In this case also we propose for the present to leave the termination unsettled ; and we request that the word evgox or erg be strictly limited to the C.G.S. unit of work, or what is, for purposes of measurement, equivalent to this, the C. G. S. unit of energy, energy being measured by the amount of work which it represents. The C. G. S. unit of power is the power of doing work at the rate of one erg per second, and the power of an engine (under given conditions of working) can be specified in ergs per second. For rough comparison with the vulgar (and variable) units bee on terrestrial gravitation, the following statement will be useful :— The weight of a gramme at any part of the earth’s surface is about 980 dynes, or rather less than a kilodyne. The weight of a kilogramme is rather less than a megadyne, being about 980,000 dynes. Conversely, the dyne is about 1°02 times the weight of a milli- _ * Before a vowel, either seg or megal (as euphony may suggest), may employed instead of mega. —_— ss , Nov. 6, 1873 | NATURE 19 | gramme at any part of the earth’s surface, and the megadyne is about 102 times the weight of a kilogramme. The kilogram-metre is rather less than the erg-eight, being about 98 million ergs. ® The gramme-centimetre is rather less than the kilerg, being about 980 ergs. For exact comparison, the value of ¢ (the acceleration of a body fallingin vacuo) at the station considered, must of course be known. In the above comparisons, it is taken as 980 C.G.S. units of acceleration. One horse-power is about three quarters of an erg-ten per second. More nearly, it is 7°46 erg-nines per second, and one force de cheval is 7°36 erg-nines per second. The mechanical equivalent of one gramme-degree (centigrade) of heat is 41°6 megalergs or 41,600,000 ergs, SCIENTIFIC SERIALS IN the current number of the Quarterly Fournal of Microscopic Science, Mr. E. T. Newton commences with a paper on ‘he Structure of the Eye of the Lobster, his observation being the result of suggestions from Prof. Huxley. The structure of the eye is minutely discussed, and the accompanying illustrations are abundant. Asa concluding remark, we read that ‘‘ Notwith- standing all that has been written up to the present time con- cerning the mode of action of the compound arthropod eye, we are still unable satisfactorily to solve this difficult physiological problem.” —A paper by Prof. Betz, of Kieff, on the methods of investigating the structure of the central nervous system in Man, will be found of special interest, the hardening, cutting, and tinting of specimens being discussed.—M. Pasteur’s new con- tributions to the theory of Fermentation, are translated from the “Comptes Rendus,” and Prof. H. L. Smith’s paper on Arche- biosis and Heterogenesis, is reprinted from the Zezs.—A Résumé, by Mr. W. Archer, of recent observations on Parasitic Algz, is followed by Dr. Klein’s Contributions to the Anatomy of Auerbach’s Plexus in the Frog and ‘Toad, and this bya valuable series of observations by Prof. Lister on the Natural History of Bacteria, in which a study of the life of Bacteria under different circumstances as regards the fluid in which they grow, shows that their general appearance, size, and shape depend in great measure on the fluid in which they are growing, their removal from one to another fluid causing them to take on quite a different form, and their replacement the reassumption of the original condition. Many important facts are to be learned from this paper.—Mr. E. R. Lankester describes in detail the microscopic and spectroscopic appearances of a new Peach- coloured Bacterium, named by him Bacterium rubescens. The colouring matter he names Becterio-rubrin. This Bacterium does not generally occur in isolated plastids, but generally forming films, encrustations, or tufts. Most are ‘aggregated in adherent masses, several excellent drawings of which accompany the paper. The Fournal of the Franklin Institute, Sept. 1873.—This number contains a useful paper by Mr. Hugo Bilgram, on the theory of steam governors.—In government reports on the decay and preservation of timber, Generals Cram and Gillmore recommend the Seely process as the best. It consists in sub- jecting the wood to a temperature above the boiling point of water, and below 300° Fahr. while immersed in a bath of creo- sote a sufficient length of time to expel the moisture. When the water is thus expelled the pores contain only steam ; the hot oil is then quickly replaced bya bath of cold oil, by means of which change the steam in the pores of the wood is condensed, and a vacuum formed into which the oil is forced by atmospheric pressure and capillary attraction. Gen. Gillmore thinks a wooden platform, thoroughly creosoted, would last twenty to thirty years, and be better than a stone platform during that entire period.—An important paper by Prof. Thurston (extracted from the /roz Age), treats of the molecular changes produced in iron by variations of temperature.—Mr. Mott points out the conditions of good construction in lightning rods, and Dr. Feuchtwanger gives some information as to nickel and its uses in the arts, coinage, and nickel plating.—An oil discovery of unusually rich character is announced from the neighbourhood of Titusville, Pa. ; the production of the new region being esti- mated at 30,000 barrels per day. Der Naturforscher, September 1873.—We note, in this num- ‘ ber, two striking observations in animal physiology. One of these refers to the torpedo, which has been a puzzle to physiolo- gists, inasmuch as, while giving shocks strong enough to lame or kill another animal, its own muscles do not show the least con- traction. Du Bois Reymond’s hypothesis is, that while the stimulation to discharge goes forth from the central organ, the same organ sends out at the same time a counteractive influence through the nervous system, which neutralises the excitability of the nerves. M. Franz Boll took a recent opportunity of ex- perimenting with the fish on the Italian coast, and, among other things, he tested this theory by cutting some nerves, and watch- ing their muscles when he stimulated the electric nerves. The neutralising stimulation being thus cut off, the muscles should, he thought, contract, if the hyphothesis were true ; and they did so, the muscles of the unsevered nerves remaining at rest. Still, he hardly thinks the experiment decisive, because nerves are more excitable after section.—The other observation is by Prof. Fick, who has found, by manometric measurement, a less pres- sure of blood in the left ventricle than in the aorta; Somm. of mercury in the one case, 104 to 128 in the other (ina dog). He supposes the blood, only partially filling the ventricle, at the apex, to be shot against the semilunar valves, forcing them open by its vis viva. In the neighbourhood of the valves the pressure must quickly rise. In short, as the author puts it, the blood is not pressed, but hurled (gesch/eudert) into the aorta.—There is a use- ful abstract of the chief points in a paper by Prof. Abbé (to Schulze’s Archiv) on the capability of the microscope and its limits. He seeks to show, by physical deductions, that the limit of magnification is as good as reached, in our best systems. Some curious observations by M. van Tieghem are given in a note on the independence of the individual organs of the em- bryo of plants.—M. Ebermayer, we find, has been examining the influence of forests on ozone-contents of the air; he states there is more ozone in and near forests than in the open, but among the denser branches there is somewhat less than in the open closely bordering the forest ; and in the tops of the trees there is more than in the lower parts.—Several French Academy notes are abstracted : on the magnetic force of annealed steel, on development of electricity in liquid mixtures, on the planet Mars, &c. ; also Royal Society papers. Some meteorological observations as to distribution of heat in Switzerland deserve notice. Bulletin Mensuel de la Soctété ad’ Acclimatation de Parts. August.—In a paper on the ‘‘Causes of the Depopulation of our Rivers,” M. C, R. Wattel enters at length into the question of the French river fisheries, which will be read with interest by fish-culturists. Some interesting information as to the effect of navigation and trade on the rivers is given ; but the great danger to the fisheries lies in the unrestricted destruction of immature breeding-fish: and M. Wattel recommends that steps should be taken to prevent over-fishing and to facilitate the erection of fishways on the rivers.—The notes of Dr. P. Marés on the acclimatisation of various sorts of Eucalyptus in Algeria, are interesting.—The results of the experiments to produce different coloured silks go to show that silk- worms fed on cherry-leaf produce a bright chromo-yellow- coloured silk, those on pear-leaves a darker shade of the same colour, those on apple-leaves a nearly white silk, but coarser than that of the silk-worms fed on mulberry-leaves.—An extract is given of a work by M. E. Perris, on ‘‘ Birds and Insects,” in which he considers the advisability of protecting small birds. M. Perris, granting all the birds are insecti- vorous, either continually or occasionally, acknowledges the good they may do, but doubts whether a large proportion of the insects destroyed are hurtful to man ; and he raises the question whether, therefore, itis desirable to protect birds to kill what would other- wise do no harm. The September number commences with a paper by the Secretary on some Australian vegetables, the introduction of which into Algeria is proposed.—An interesting paper on the breeding of ostriches in captivity is contributed by Capt. Crepu, who has kept several pairs of these birds, His observations throw much light on the natural history of the ostrich. M. Comber describes the mortality which has seized the deer and other animals in King Victor Emmanuel’s park at La Mandria. The calamity is attributed partly to over-crowding and partly to the want of shelter and proper protection. In 1865, when the park and grounds were carefully cultivated, 13 deaths occurred. In 1873, the’ park being left in its natural state, 172 deaths are recorded,— An important paper on the production of milk is the 20 NATURE result of a conference at the Jardin d’Acclimatation in July, and appears opportunely at the present moment, when the subject is attracting so much public attention, —M. E, Perris continues his remarks on ‘‘ Birds and Insects.” : SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES MANCHESTER Literary and Philosophical Society, October 7—E. W. Binney, vice-president, in the chair.—‘‘ Atmospheric Refraction and the last rays of the Setting Sun,” by Mr. D. Winstanley. It is recorded in.the Proceedings of this Socicty that a letter dated from Southport and written by Dr. Joule was read at the meeting held on the 5th October, 1869. In that letter it is remarked that ‘*Mr. Baxendell noticed the fact that at the moment of the departure of the sun below the horizon the last glimpse is coloured bluish green.” Dr. Joule also observes that on two or three occasions he had himself noticed the phenomenon in quc~ ion, and that ‘*just at the upper edge where bands of the sun’s disc are separated one after the other by refraction, each band becomes coloured blue just before it vanishes.” During the past eighteen months the writer, from his residence in Black- pool, has had frequent opportunities of observing the setting san, and has noticed the phenomenon of the final coloured ray certainly more than fifty times. To the naked eye its appearance has generally been that of a green spark of large size and great intensity, very similar to one of the effects seen when the sun shines upon a well-cut diamond. The colour, however, is by no means constant, being often, as in the case of Mr. Baxendell’s observation, bluish green, and at times, as mentioned by Dr. Joule, quite blue. The period of its duration, too, is likewise variable. Sometimes it lasts but half a second, ordinarily per- haps a second and a quarter, and occasionally as much as two seconds and a half. When examined with the assistance of a telescope, it becomes evident that the green ray results at a certain stage of the solar obscuration, for it begins at the points or cusps of the visible segment of the sun, and when the “ set- ting” is nearly complete, extends from both cusps to the central space between, where it produces the momentary and intense spark of coloured light visible to the unaided eye. From the fact of the green cusps being rounded I apprehend that irra- diation contributes to the apparent magnitude of what is seen. The range of colour too as seen in the telescope is more varied, and the duration of the whole phenomenon more ex- tended, than when the observation is made only with the naked eye. Respecting the increased range of colours seen when the phenomenon is observed with telescopic aid, I may mention that on the 28th of June the sea was calm and the sky quite cloudless at the setting of the sun. Of the final coloured rays fifteen diameters showed the first to be a full and splendid yellow, which was speedily followed by the usual green, and then for a second and a half bya full and perfect blue. Respecting the increased duration of the colour, I have found that when the atmosphere is sufficiently favourable to allow a power of sixty diameters being employed with a three-inch object-glass, the green effect is seen at that part of the sun’s limb in contact with the horizon even when one half the sun is still unset, and of course from then till final disappearance. The different colours seen, together with the order of their appearance, are suggestive of the prismatic action of the atmosphere as the cause of their production, and the interception of the horizon or the cloud as the cause of their separation. Assuming the correctness of this view, it becomes evident that an artificial horizon would prove equally efficacious in separating the coloured bands, and also that if employed during an inspection of the sun’s lower limb, the least refrangible end of the spectrum would be disclosed. By projecting a large image of the sun into a darkened room I was enabled to get the whole of the spectrum produced by the prismatic action of the atmosphere in a very satisfactory manner. In this case a semicircular diaphram was used, so placed that its straight edge divided the field of view into equal parts, from one of which it obscured the light. The diaphram was placed in the focus of the eyepiece, and by rotating it every portion of the sun’s limb could be in turn examined, and that too in the centre of the field, so as to be equally subjected to the minimum of the peculiarities of the instrument. When the sun’s lower limb was allowed to descend into the field of view the first rays were intensely red. After a momentary duration they gave place in succession to orange, yellow, and green, which were then lost in the ordinary refulgence of the sun. The upper limb gave green, blue, and finally purple, which latter colour I have thus far never seen upon the natural horizon. I apprehend that the results here given sufficiently prove that atmospheric refraction is the cause of the coloured rays seen at the moment of the sun’s departure below the horizon. Cambridge Philosophical Society, Oct. 20.—The follow- — ing communications were made to the Society :—By Mr. J. C. W. Ellis, Sydney College: Mechanical means for obtaining the real roots of algebraical equations. —By Mr. A. Marshall, St. John’s: Graphic representation by aid of a series of hyperbolas of some economic problems having reference to monopolies.—By Mr. H. H. Cunyngame, St. John’s: A machine for constructing a series of rectangular hyperbolas with the same asymptotes, PARIS Academy of Sciences, October 27.—M. de Quatrefages, president, in the chair.—The following papers were read :— Sixth note on guano, by M. Chevreul.—Answer to Respighi’s note on the magnitude and variation of the sun’s diameter, by Father Secchi. The author defended his method from Respighi’s criticisms as regards the effect of heat in distorting the image during the passage through the prisms. He found that the effect of heat on compound prisms was very considerable, and therefore used his object-glass prism ; and stated that in a future letter he intended to show that there were true variations in the solar diameter.—On crystalline dissociation, by MM. Favre and Valson. The authors continued the account of their re- searches, the present portion of the paper dealing with the valuation of the work done in the various solutions.—Note on the tertiary supra-nummulitic formation of the Carcassone basin, by M. Leymerie.—On certain cases of human double monstro- city, by M. Roulin.—Note on the origin and method of development of omphalosic monsters, by M. C. Dareste.— New method of condensing liquifiable substances held in suspen- sion by gases, a reply to M. Colladon, by MM. E. Pelouze and P. Audouin.—M. Gueérin-Méneville sent a letter in which he asserted that the Phy//oxera is not the cause, but a consequence of the vine disease.—Note on the swellings produced on vine rootlets by the Piylloxera, by M. Max. Cornu.—Results of ex- periments on the destruction of the Phy//oxera by means of carbonic disulphide, by M. Bazille. ‘The author found that this agent was very successful, and that the doses could be reduced considerably but that different soils require different doses.—On the action of the condenser on induction currents, by M. Lecocq de Boisbaudran.—On the purification of hydrogen, by M. Ch. Viollette.—On the Cape diamond fields, by M. Hugon —On the sugar contained in vine-leaves, by M. A. Petit. The author found in 1 kilo of leaves as much as 33 grammes of cane sugar and 12 of glucose ; this was, however, exceptional, the latter generaily exceeding the former and the total quantity of both being less.—On the Rhizocephalous Civripedes, by M. A. Giard.— On the irritability of stamens, by M. E. Heckel. The author has distinguished two orders of movement in these organs. CONTENTS PAGE THE GOVERNMENT AND OUR NATIONAL MuseuMS . .« felt Barn’'s Review or “‘ DARWIN ON EXPRESSION” ° 2 [GAHORE) LOMVARICAN D +) Oeetein aiviie) et ites (oN a i=in fe ener ream 3 Our Book SHELF By DOE: SPR OMGeOnOL oc) = em LETTERS TO THE EpITOR :— i Prof. Young and the Presence of Ruthenium in the Chromosphere. —Prof. H. E. Roscogz, F.R.S.. . a en fey Yes Fee OS x The Miller- Casella Thermometer.—P. PASTORELLI . ae 5 Captain Hutton’s ‘‘Rallus Modestus.”—Dr. WALTER L BULLER. 5 Flight of Birds.—Prof. Josepa LE CONTE . . . - . +... S Collective Instinct. —Grorcr J. Romanes; Dr. A. PALADILHE . 5 Venomous Caterpillars—R. McLacuian, F.L.S. . . . 2. 6 Harmonic Echoes.—ARNULPH MALLOcK. © eo ofa, Lele ee Evolution as applied to the Chemical Elements.—C.T. BLANSHARD 6 Ancient Balances.—G. F. Ropweti, F.C.S. . . ... . fa: Brilliant Meteors:—JoHNiCuURRY. 295. 2 2 5). 6 cee Str Henry Hotranp. SL OPO errs THe AMERICAN Museum or NAtuRAL History 1N CENTRAL Park, New York. By Atsert L. Bickmore, Ph.D. . . 9 THE Common Froc, III. By St. GEorGeE Mivarr, ERS. (With Illustrations). . . ©.) ae A Fossit SIRENIAN FROM THE Rep CraG OF SUFFOLK . me woe 1 On THE StTick-Fisu (Osteocedla septentrionalis) AND ON THE HABITS : OF/SEA-PENS.. By Drs BGRAYE-RiS; 3. ss cee Tue ReLaTION OF MAN TO THE IcE-SHEET IN THE NORTH OF Encranp. By R. H. TippeMANN, F.G.S. . . . . . 2... « « ATLANTIC Fauna. By FreD.P. JOHNSON. . . . - . . . «© 25 Nores PORES 6)! OSS ORCCR NOME TBS ce THE SELECTION AND NOMENCLATURE OF DyNAMICAL AND ELEc- TRICALJUNITS,.. . ../ Gipeeep Dena eedestyen REUnCE Ciene(, eit Su mnEERSS SCMSNDIFIC SERIALS Beier wire nie tee nem) Se) ne SOCHENIES AND: ACADEMIES s)Ncl ll.) Giles ts eis) vaccine Ski et GaGa [WVov. 6, 1873 NATURE 21 THURSDAY, NOVEMBER 13, 1873 ON THE MEDICAL CURRICULUM iE a recent number of this journal (NATURE, Oct. 2, 1873) we made some remarks on medical studies, which were intended more for students themselves than in any way to bear on the principles of medical educa- tion. To the latter subject special attention has just been directed by Prof. Huxley, who, as Lord Rector of the University of Aberdeen, has drawn up a series of proposi- tions for the consideration of the Court at the next meeting in February or March, on which occasion he will deliver his inaugural address. The following are the motions that the Lord Rector will propose :— “J, That, in view of the amount and _ diversity of the knowledge which must be acquired by the student who aspires to become a properly qualified graduate in medicine; of the need recognised by all earnest teachers and students for the devotion of much time to practical discipline in the sciences of chemistry, anatomy, physiology, therapeutics, and pathology, which constitute the foundation of all rational medical practice ; and of the relatively short period over which the medical curriculum extends—it is desirable to relieve that curricu- lum of everything which does not directly tend to prepare the student for the discharge of those highly responsible duties, his fitness for the performance of which is certified to the public by the diploma granted by the University. “TJ. That it would be of great service to the student of medicine to have obtained, in the course of his preliminary education, a practical acquaintance with the methods and leading facts of the sciences comprehended by botany and natural history in the medical curriculum ; but that, as the medical curriculum is at present arranged, the attendance of lectures upon, and the passing of examina- tions in, these subjects occupy time and energy which he has no right to withdraw from work which tends more directly to his proficiency in medicine. “TII. That it is desirable to revoke or alter ordinance No. 16, in so far as it requires a candidate for a degree in medicine to pass an examination in botany and zoology as part of the professional examination ; and to provide, in lieu thereof, that the examination on these subjects shall, as far as possible, take place before the candidate has entered upon his medical curriculum. “JV. That it is desirable to revoke or alter said ordi- nance No. 16, in so far as it requires candidates for the degree of doctor of medicine to have passed an examina- tion in Greek, and that, in lieu thereof, either German or French be made a compulsory subject of examination for said degree, Greek remaining as one of the optional subjects.” In considering these points a review of the method by which the present position of the medical curriculum has been arrived at, will throw considerable light on the steps which ought to be taken for its improvement, and will show how subjects which have but an indirect bearing, or none at all, on medicine proper have been gradually made to form an element of the course .of study, without any question having been asked as to whether their introduc- tion does not bring its concomitant disadvantages. The influence of Materia Medica seems to have been great in bringing about the present state of affairs. When Dr. Anthony Todd Thomson and Dr. Pereira, in their enthusiasm for their favourite subject, extended its limits VoL, 1x.—No, 211 so as to include a full account of the source and history of every one of the articles which were mentioned in the Pharmacopceia, and went so far as to give a full descrip- tion of Gaélus bankiva, together with all the steps in the development of its egg, simply because Ow? vitellus is an antidote against poisoning by corrosive sublimate, and is employed in the preparation of Mistura Spiritus Vini Gallici (egg flip), it is evident that as the sciences of zoology and botany became more profound, Materia Medica as a subject would proportionately expand. At last a time came when separate lectures had to be given on the above-mentioned kindred subjects, in order that those on Materia Medica might be more easily comprehended by the student; and, as might be expected, these inde- pendent lectures on zoology and botany, as those on chemistry had done before, became so complete in them- selves, as to reduce the subject which had given rise to their introduction, to a simple formulary for the chemist, with references to the sources of the necessary scientific information. The introduction, however, of zoology and botany as separate independent elements of the curri- culum, brought into the medical education a large mass of matter, which is very valuable no doubt in itself, but to the student entirely irrelevant; and as in the short pupilage of three or four years there is a much larger amount that ought to be learned than can be properly acquired in the time, it becomes a matter worth serious consideration, whether subjects which are not indispens- able to a thorough training should be still taught and be required by the examining bodies. The question there- fore resolves itself into the determination of whether the loss of time necessary for obtaining a superficial know- ledge of a couple of sciences, is counteracted by the advantages of those sciences as a mental training and a basis for higher work? In an Introductory Lecture delivered some time ago at University College, Prof, Huxley throws the weight of his opinion in the scale against retaining the subjects which must be to him most dear, in the medical curriculum ; and most will agree with him, notwithstanding the many difficulties in the way of an improved programme. With regard to Prof. Huxley’s fourth proposition, in which it is considered desirable to omit Greek from the preliminary examination, and substitute German or French in its place, the interest will not be so great to most, as that relating to the scientific qualifications that are neces- sary. The same conservative spirit which has prevented any reduction inthe overloaded Biological portion of the curriculum, has, without question of any kind being asked, never even hinted at any,change in the long-established and well-tried school-course, in which the at one time practically valuable and indispensable Greek and Latin are still retained, though of less importance at the present day. How many of our scientific men find that nothing deters them in every step of their work, more than a want of knowledge of the German language, now that the scientific activity of that country is so considerable and so rapidly increasing. There must be a change with the times, even in primary education, and we hardly think that in his introductory address to the King’s College Medical Society on the 23rd of last month, Prof. Curnow put the case fairly when he disapproved of the substitu- tion of German for Greek, because the one could be c 22 mastered by a few months’ residence in a neighbouring country, whilst the other had done more to develop true culture than almost all other writings since. It is not proposed simply to substitute German or French for Greek, the advantages to be derived from which are now fully absorbed into the spirit of the nation, but, by the change, to leave a sufficient time, in addition to the edu- cation in modern languages, for the study of the Natural Sciences during the school-boy period. That the dead languages form an excellent mental training no one doubts, but that Physics and Chemistry do the same is daily be- coming more certain ; and the time is not far hence when the facts and methods of Physiology and Comparative Anatomy will be so well known and assorted, that they may be placed in the same category. THE SOUTHERN UPLANDS OF SCOTLANT® - HE range of hills, which in Scotland extends from a the German Ocean to the Irish Sea, having a N.E. and S.W. direction, has been aptly designated the Southern Uplands. This range is nearly parallel in its course to that of the Highlands proper. It exhibits hills, some of which attain to an elevation approaching nearly 3,000 feet ; but its physical features, although marked in many localities with scenes of great beauty, are devoid of the stern and rugged grandeur which characterises the more northerly mountains of Scotland. The hills of this range usually consist of rounded and grass-covered undula- tions, or long tracts of plateaux. They have been specially named the “pastoral district of Scotland,” and their scenes have furnished subjects for many a pastoral song, and many a border ballad. The Southern Uplands of Scotland are cut deeply into by some of the streams which flow into the Solway Firth, the Esk, the Annan, the Nith, the Urr, and the Dee being the most important of them. They are drained on the southward side by the Cree and the Luce ; on the north- ward side they are the sources of the Ayr; and the Tweed and its tributaries drain a large portion of their north-east area. In the early period of Scotch geology, the days of Playfair and Hutton, the Southern Uplands were regarded as affording no traces of the evidence of life in the rocks which compose them; and these rocks were referred to the “primary” group. It was not until the discovery of fossils in a limestone which occurs at Wrea in Peebles- shire, in their higher portion, by Sir James Hall, that the rocks which formed these hills were assigned to the “transition” age. The terms “primary” and “transition” have now ceased to be applicable to the nomenclature of geology ; and the discovery by Prof. James Nicol in 1840, jn the flaggy beds of Greiston in Peeblesshire, of grapto- lites, indicated the Silurian age of the strata here. Since the discovery of Nicol, several geologists have added greatly to our knowledge of the rocks which compose the Southern Uplands. Other bands of graptolites have been found richer in fossil contents than those first discovered ; and these, along with a few other forms of organic re- mains, have still further confirmed the Silurian age of the * Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Scotland, Sheets 1, 2,3 and 15, &c. Explanations of, 1871, 1872, 1873, NATURE [WVov. 13, 1873 great mass of strata which make up the hilly country in the South of Scotland. The result of the observations made on the rocks of the Southern Uplands up to the period when they came under the notice of the Geological Survey of Scotland led to the conclusion that the lowest strata exhibited were referable to the Llandeilo age. That these Llandeilo rocks were succeeded by deposits containing fossils, as in the case of the Wrea limestone, indicating the horizon of the Bala or Caradoc rocks, was also known—and certain rocks which occur near the north-western margin of the area in the neighbourhood of Girvan in Ayrshire, have been referred by Sir Roderick Murchison to a still higher position in the Silurian series. The labours of the Geological Survey of Scotland have not only confirmed these conclusions, but have added greatly to our knowledge of the nature of the Silurian rocks of the South of Scotland. They have also fur- nished subdivisions of these rocks, and a more ample account of their arrangement and fossil contents. Every geologist familiar with the lower portions of the Silurian rocks of the Southern Uplands, the Llandeilo strata, had experienced great difficulty in recognising horizons, in this series, such as would enable him to divide these rocks into distinct portions. It is true that bands of anthracitic shale abounding in graptolites were, as regards their petrological nature, very distinct from the rocks in which they were intercalated. The great mass, however, of the Llandeilo beds of the Southern Uplands consist of rocks known in old petrological nomenclature as ‘‘ greywackes ”—a name which is still retained for want of a better—and as these rocks differed only in coarseness, and sometimes in colour, this circum- stance rendered the division of the South of Scotland Silurian rocks into separate groups extremely difficult. And when it is added to this that contortions have greatly folded and denudations have largely planed off the edges of these rocks, the difficulty of making out distinct horizons among the Llandeilo strata of the South of Scot- land becomes very apparent. It is only by a careful, continuous, and long series of observations recorded in maps large enough to show all the contortions, the ins and outs of the strata, that these rocks could be brought into subdivisions enabling them to be recognised. Such have been the work of the officers of the Geological Survey of Scotland ; and now we have in the explanatory notes to some of the sheets which have been published, the results of their work recorded, and the subdivision of these Llandeilo rocks indicated. The explanation to Sheet 15, published in 1871, which includes, among other matters, a description of the Llan- deilo rocks occurring in that portion of the Southern Uplands occupied by the north-west part of Dumfries- shire, the south-west portion of Lanarkshire, and the south-east portion of Ayrshire, contains the results of the labours of the Survey among these rocks. There do not appear, in any portion of the South of Scotland Silurian strata, any rocks which appertain to an age older than the Llandeilo; and these Llandeilo rocks are referable only to the Upper Llandeilo series, the Lower Llandeilo or Shelve rocks of Murchison, the Arenig rocks or Skiddaw slates of Sedgwick, being unknown in the dis- trict. This Upper Llandeilo series exhibits itself in the Nov. 13, 1873 | NATURE 23 form of an anticlinal axis near the southern border of the Silurian area. This axis can be well seen in Roxburgh- shire and Dumfriesshire, having a north-east and south- west direction. It has also been recognised by the officers of the Geological Survey in Wigtonshire ; and the rocks which it exhibits, which are the lowest in the Southern Uplands, have been designated by Prof. Geikie the “Ardwell group.” This group is made up of “hard, well-bedded greywackes and grits, with bands of hard shale or slate. These rocks have a prevailing reddish or brownish hue, especially on weathered surfaces.” As seen in Dumfriesshire and Roxburghshire these low rocks have the same aspect and nature. They have afforded, both in Wigtonshire and Dumfriesshire, mark- ings which have considerable resemblance to the fossil described by McCoy as Protovirgularia, and in Roxburgh- shire they have yielded crustacean tracks, but no other traces of organic remains have been obtained from them. Above the Ardwell group the officers of the Geological Survey recognise a mass of strata to which they have given the name of the “ Lower or Moffat Shale group.” This group is composed of “flaggy greywacke and grey shales,” which are distinguished by the occurrence in them of several bands of black carbonaceous shales. These strata are well developed in the neighbourhood of Moffat, Dumfriesshire, from whence they derive their name. The black carbonaceous shales are very per- sistent, having been traced by the officers of the Survey from near Melrose to the western shores of Wigtonshire, “a distance of more than too miles.” Three bands of carbonaceous shales can frequently be made out, but occasionally they come together so as to form one thick band. These bands are very prolific in graptolites. They have, from their carbonaceous aspect, induced many persons, under the guidance of “ practical miners,” to expend large sums of money in search after coal, and some of the spots where they have been worked are known under the name of “ coal heughs.” Although the Moffat group is well developed through the greater portion of the Southern Up- lands, it is on the coast of Wigtonshire that the best | sections of the series can be seen. Here they are recognised resting on the Ardwell group, having at their base “grey and reddish shales, and clays, with calcareous bands and nodules, and enclosed bands of black shale, the lowest members being hard and flaggy.” The second member of the Moffat group, as seen on the Wigtonshire coast, consists of black shales with interca- lated clays, like the fire-clays of the coal-measures. Cal- careous nodules and lenticular bands are also associated with the black shales, the whole being so intensely plicated as to render an attempt to determine their thickness extremely difficult. Upon the black shales well-bedded greywacke and grits cccur with occasional shaly partings, These are succeeded by black shales so much jumbled and jointed, that their thickness cannot be made out. The next sequence consists of grey flagstones, flaggy sandstones, and grits, in beds of varying thickness up to 3 or 4ft., with abundant partings of grey shale. To these succeed a thick band of finely laminated grey shale, 3 or 4ft. Black shales, bands 12 to 18ft. in thickness, occur next, and the highest members of the group consist of fissile shales, The Moffat group, as represented in Wigtonshire, has a thickness of about 1,000 ft., of which more than half consists of flaggy greywacke beds. The underlying series, the Ardwell group, probably attains to a much greater thickness. The third member of the Upper Llandeilo rocks of the Southern Uplands of Scotland, like the second, derives its name from Dumfriesshire. It is well exhibited in the hill called Queensberry, and has been designated the Queensberry grit group. The characters of this third member, as they are seen in Wigtonshire, “consist of greywacke and grits in massive courses, with occasional bands of grey and greenish shales.” Massiveness and regularity of bedding and jointing are the characters of this group. The sand- stones are often coarse ; and sometimes even coarse con- glomerates appear, in which some of the embedded frag- ments are sometimes from 2ft. to 3 ft. in diameter, a feature which distinguishes the Queensberry group from all the other members of the Upper Llandeilo rocks of the South of Scotland. Fossils appear to be absent from this group, no trace of them having been met with in the three parallel bands which traverse Wigtonshire. In the Dumfriesshire portion of the Upper Llandeilo area of the South of Scotland, there have been recog- nised, above the Queensberry grit group, black shales with graptolites, the thickness of which have not yet been ascertained. To these black shales the name of Hartfell group has been given. As the typical area where these rocks occur is in the higher part of the Annan- dale district, the sheets of which have not yet been pub- lished, we have at present no account of this group from the Geological Survey. The Hartfell group is succeeded by the Daer group, which is made up of hard blue and purplish greywacke, and grey shales. It derives its name from a stream flowing from the north side of Queensberry into the Clyde. Its strata are greatly folded, and no reliable estimate can be formed of the thickness of the Daer group. The Hartfell shales of the Daer group seem to thin out towards the south-west. They have not been dis- tinctly recognised in Wigtonshire, where the Dalveen | group, which in Dumfriesshire succeeds the Daer group, is seen resting conformably upon the Queensberry grits. In Dumfriesshire the Dalveen group consists of fine blue and grey greywacke, and shales having no features distinguishing them from other members of the upper Llandeilo rocks. Their estimated thickness is about 2,900 ft. They are well exposed in Dalveen Pass, Dumfriesshire, whence their name, and in Dinabid Linn they are seen passing under a coarse pebbly rock, “ Haggis Rock.” In Wigtonshire the lower part of the Dalveen group is seen overlying the Queensberry rocks south of Corse- well Lighthouse. Here its lower portion is remarkably shaly, but thick masses of greywacke also occur. Among the shaley beds are some bands worked at Cairn Ryan for slates. These slates have long been known as affording graptolites ; and another thin band of black shale also containing the same fossils appears in this group in Wigtonshire. In Dumfriesshire above the Dalveen group a series of 24 NATURE [Mov. 13,1873 coarse and fine grits and greywacke, having red and green bands of flinty mudstone, conglomerate, and occa- sional breccia associated with them, occur—a persistent band of conglomerate containing quartz-rock pebbles, Lydian stone, and jasper characterise this group. The conglomerate, being locally known as “Haggis Rock,” has furnished the name to the series, which is about 1,800 feet thick. The Haggis group in Dumfriesshire is seen striking across the river Afton, also, along the N.W. flanks of the Lowther hills, and elsewhere in this county. More tothe north it can be recognised along the north-western margin of the Silurian area in Craw- fordjohn, Lanarkshire. The Haggis rock is not per- sistent in its character. To the N.E. this conglomerate becomes much finer in grain, and passes “into a gritty greywacke.” This group has hitherto yielded no fossils, In Wigtonshire the Haggis rock cannot be distinguished as a distinct series ; its characteristic conglomerate being, as already seen, of local occurrence, it does not appear to manifest itself in the Silurians in the S.W. of Scotland. (To be continued.) LOCALE SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES iE very many ways has the general advance of intelli- gence, elevation of taste, and spread of education | been shown during the present century, and more espe- cially during the last thirty years; one of these ways is undoubtedly the increasingly rapid spread of Locay Scientific Societies. What we mean by a “ Local Scientific Society,” as distinguished from the large Societies of London, is an association of individuals in a particular locality for the common study of one or more branches of science, by the reading of original papers, and what is perhaps of more importance, the actual investi- gation of the natural history—geology, zoology, botany, meteorology—and archeology of its district. Of the societies established within the last thirty years, nearly all are marked by these characteristics ; such at all events is their professed object, and we are glad to say that, to judge from the special reports which we have received, and the numerous printed “ Proceedings” of greater or less pretensions which are sent us from time to time, a very large proportion creditably carry out their pro- gramme. In a number of the principal towns of England and Scot- land associations exist, dating, some of them, from the end of last century, known as “ Literary and Philosophical Socie- ties,” or by some similartitle. These are generally compara- tively wealthy, possessed of good buildings containing a library, museum, reading-rooms, lecture-hall, &c., with a large body of members belonging to the middle and upper classes. These, however, so faras their original objects are concerned, with one or two exceptions, scarcely come under the category of Local Scientific Societies, in the sense of the definition given above, though many of them, stimulated by the growing taste for Science, have recently added to their usual courses of lectures on literary subjects, others on subjects connected with Science, and have even organised classes for the study, under competent lecturers or teachers, of one or more branches of Science. In some instances, moreover, a few of the members of these respec- table old associations have united to form societies of a kind which entitle them to be regarded as Local Scientific Societies, and even Field-Clubs. Still, all these older societies, as they existed previous to 1830, differed in many essential respects from the Local Societies and Field-Clubs which began to spring up about that time ; even the well-known Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester, quite on a par with some of the best London Societies, and which has produced original work of the highest value, has been all along confined to the learned and professional men of the city and neigh- bourhood, who have made use of the meetings of the Society for the purpose of making known the results of their independent scientific investigations. So far as can be ascertained, the society just men- tioned is the oldest provincial society which can be considered as in any way scientific, having been estab- lished in 1784, for the purpose of diffusing “literary and scientific intelligence, and of promoting the literary and scientific inquiries of learned men in the town and neigh- bourhood.” “The results of its labours,’ Sir Walter Elliott says, in his valuable address to the Edinburgh Botanical Society, in 1870, on this subject, “were pub- lished in‘ Memoirs,’ the first volume of which appeared in 1785, at which time James Massey was president, and Thomas Barnes, D.D., and Thomas Henry, F.R.S., were Secretaries. Five volumes had appeared up to 1802, In 1805 a second series commenced under the Rev. John Walker, President, and John Hail and John Dalton, Secretaries, which had extended to five volumes more in 1860. A third series was commenced in 1862, and has reached volume xiii. The second series is en- riched with many papers by Dalton, including the first development of the atomic theory.” In 1858 a micro- scopical and natural history section was established ; the latter, however, we regret to say, is since defunct. The next society of this class in order of time was insti- tuted at Perthin 1781, as the Perth Literary and Antiquarian Society ; we need not say that, so far as eminence is concerned, it was never to be compared with the Man- chester Society. It has never done scientific work of any value, though it possesses a handsome building, with a museum, devoted mostly to antiquities, but having a fine natural history collection as well,and a good library. Like many other societies of a similar kind, its building serves as a kind of meeting-place or club, where those members who have nothing to do can meet and have a gossip, and read the papers. This society has published only one volume of “ Transactions” (in 1827), but so far as we know, they have now no transactions to record. A few years ago, as will be seen from our list in Vol. viii. p. 521, a Natural Science Society was established in the county, with Perth as its headquarters, which gives promise of being one of the best working Local Scientific Societies in the kingdom. In 1801 a society of a similar kind was established in the sister kingdom, the Literary Society of Belfast, which has never done anything to call for note here. Previous to this, however, in 1793, the Newcastle-on-Tyne Literary and Phi- losophical Society was established, which, although it has published only one volume of memoirs, and is little more than the owner of an excellent public library, does good work by providing educational courses of lectures for in- Nov. 13, 1873] struction in mathematics, chemistry, and other branches of science as well as literature. Up to 1830, about twenty other societies, more or less “ Philosophical,” which term seems then to have been thought a more dignified term than “ Scientific,” were in- stituted within the three kingdoms, including the Ashmo- lean Society of Oxford, and the Cambridge Philosophical Society. Of these, no less than six were in Yorkshire alone, a county, as we shall see, which continues to hold the foremost place, so far as number of scientific societies is concerned ; the West Riding bristles with little Field Clubs. Among the best of the societies referred to is the Liverpool Literary and Philosophical Society, which, es- pecially since its amalgamation in 1844 with the Natural Science Society, has done some excellent work, as can be seen from its voluminous “ Proceedings,” which con- tain papers that would do credit to any society. The Glasgow Philosophical Society is also oneof high standing ; and the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall, founded in 1814, which has done some good work in connection with the geology of the district. The Royal Institution of Cornwall is also one of the most creditable of these old societies, having been formed in 1818, for the advance- ment of knowledge of natural history, natural philosophy and antiquities, especially in their connection wlth Corn- wall. Besides its valuable antiquarian work, it has pub- ished “ The Cornish Fauna,” a compendium of the natu- ral history of the county. The one of these older societies which in its object and work corresponds most nearly to our definition, is the Northumberland, Durham, and Newcastle Natural His- tory Society, instituted at Newcastle-on-Tyne in 1829. Among its original members were Sir John and Sir Walter Trevelyan, and the late Albany Hancock, and both before and since its junction with the Tyneside Naturalists’ Field Club, it has done much work of a kind similar to that which the recently established Field Clubs aim to do, having between 1831 and 1838 published two volumes con- taining valuable lists of the flora and fauna of Northum- berland and Durham. This society, though somewhat crippled for want of funds, is still in a flourishing condi- tion, and continues, in conjunction with the Tyneside Club, to publish in their Transactions, under the title of “ Na- tural History Transactions of Northumberland and Dur- ham,” excellent lists of the fauna and flora, existing and fossil, of the district which it has adopted as its field for work, It possesses some splendid collections which the Newcastle College of Physical Science is generously al- lowed to use for purposes of study. Had we space, others of these societies founded previous to 1830, as well as some of amore ambitious kind than the simple Field-Club, instituted since that time, could benamed, which stimulated either by the example of the field-clubs, ‘or more probably by the general advance of culture and the growing impressiveness of Science, have done much to foster a love for Science in their respective neighbour- hoods and to investigate the natural history of their several ‘districts. A large proportion of societies of this class are found in the south-west of England, in Devonshire and Cornwall: such are the Cornwall Polytechnic Society, the Devonshire and Cornwall Natural History Society, ‘the Devonshire Association—a peripatetic Society founded in 1862 after the model of the British Association—the NATURE 25 Royal Institution of South Wales (Swansea), and the Isle of Wight Philosophical and Literary Society. Others also we might mention at the other end of England, for an examination of our list shows that the activity of the country in this respect has been developed to the greatest extent in the north and south. These societies, though differing in some essential respects from the simple Field-Club, yet in their own way do good and serviceable work by the establishment of museums, the encouragement of local exhibitions, the occasional publication of papers illustrative of the natural history and archeology of the district, and recently, what we deem of considerable importance, the institution of courses of lectures by eminent men of science, and the establishment of classes for the working and other classes who are engaged during the day. We would urge all of this class of association to bestir them- selves to the performance of more thorough and more extended work in these directions, thereby not only doing a benefit to the members themselves, as well as to the cause of Science, but elevating the district in which they are located, and thus helping the country onward in the general march of improvement. By means especially of continuous series of lectures by eminent men of science and by well-organised systems of classes, the good that might be done by these institutions would, we believe, be inestimable ; and now that the Science and Art Department offers such splendid facilities for the establishment of classes and museums in connection with any institution that chooses to take advantage of them, no local society of any pretensions need any longer be without the material of a comprehensive and high-class education for its members and those in its neighbourhood who are willing to be improved ; only a lazy unwillingness to keep up with the rapid progress of the time can de- prive a neighbourhood of these advantages. The Royal Cornwall Polytechnic Society, the first “ Polytechnic” in the United Kingdom, is an example of what can be done in one way, by the establishment of lectures and classes, and by the institution of medals and money prizes for successful attempts to apply Science to industry. But a model which all literary and philosophic societies, e¢ hoc genus omne, would do well to imitate, though they would find it difficult to rival, is the Birmingham and Midland Institute, an institute of which its originators may well be proud, and for the establishment of which they deserve the gratitude of the busy and important district in the midst of which it is planted. It scarcely comes within the scope of our subjest, and we only mention it to show to the class of societies with which we are at present deal- ing, what they mizht hope to achieve if they only had the will and the generosity to bestir themselves and take the necessary steps. There is no reason why in every county town or other suitable place institutions of this kind should not be establ.shed, forming active centres of intel- letual culture, and to which the smaller s:ientific socie- ties of the s irrounding districts might be affiliated without losing their independenze and with very valuable results. We hope ere long to see this accomplished ; and who are better fitted to take the initiative in the matter than those societies which pretend to represent the culture of the districts from which their members are drawn ? (To be continued.) 26 THORPE’S “ QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS” Quantitative Chemical Analysis. By T. E. Thorpe, Ph.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of Chemistry, Andersonian University, Glasgow. (Longmans.) x E welcome with pleasure a work which in the pre- sent state of our literature on Quantitative Che- mical Analysis, may well be looked upon as a boon to the advanced chemical student. Fresenius’s Quantitative Analysis has been so generally accepted by chemists as the standard book in this branch of Science, that we greatly regretted the unwarrantable liberties taken by the English editor in the late edition of our trusty author's work, The publishers, who did not, in justice to the accomplished author, recall that edition, may yet learn that the chemical public, at all events, know how to appreciate a good work on Quantitative Analysis. We confess to a feeling of relief, speaking as a teacher of chemical analysis, as we perused Mr. Thorpe’s book ; for although we have to differ from the author on some minor matters, we believe that this new work will speedily be found in the hands of every chemical student. Our author has evidently felt what others have experi- enced before him, that Fresenius’s Quantitative Analysis became with every new edition more and more unwieldy (we are speaking of the German editions), and that, at the commencement at least,a simpler guide to quanti- tative analysis might with advantage be placed in the hands of the student. As methods of analysis—especially volumetric methods—multiplied year after year, the teacher and the student looked to the master for some indications which methods should, under given circum- stances, be adopted in preference to others. Mr. Thorpe has evidently been bent upon supplying this want. Inthe treatment of his subject he has followed the example set by Woehler in his “ Practische Uebungen in der Chemi- schen Analyse,” rather than that of Fresenius. It appears to us, however, that he has somewhat fallen into the other extreme, for, inthe place of a series of carefully elaborated methods for the determination of each base and acid, he has contented himself with giving a few examples only of individual determinations, and has preferred to teach quantitative separations almost exclusively by describing, in language both terse and concise, a number of complex quantitative analyses, such as are likely to occur in prac- tice. There is much to be said for this plan of teaching analysis, so to speak, ev d/oc, It involves, however, much repetition, or, at the very best, reference from one ex- ample to another, and leaves the student in considerable uncertainty whenever he has to break new ground, The aim of aJl quantitative teaching should be to enable the analyst to adopt or devise for himself correct methods of separation. The foundation for quantitative methods should, in fact, be laid by careful and accurate qualitative work. A good workable method may often be preferable to a more elaborate although more strictly accurate method. In the endeavour to write as compactly as possible, the author has frequently over-estimated the mental powers and the chemical knowledge, say of second years’ students, for whose use the work is apparently written, and has thus sacrificed clearness for briefness. We refer, for instance, to the methods given for the separation of iron, manganese, &c, in Spiegeleisen, condensed as it appears, NATURE [Mov. 13, 1873 from Fresenius, where the ammonium carbonate method occurs, but where it would be difficult for a student, without the teacher’s assistance, to trace the chemical changes. There is too much of the /ow to doa thing, and too little of the w/y to do it throughout the work, to make it as useful to the beginner as it would otherwise be. Although the several methods for the separation of man- ganese from iron, &c., are to be found in different parts of the book, there are scarcely sufficient hints, why and under what circumstances and conditions the one method is to be used in preference of the other. The same applies to various other methods of separation. Well known and familiar chemical methods, again, are aban- doned, occasionally, for new methods of at least question- able utility. We may mention, among such, the use of hydrochloric acid, as the starting-point in alkalimetry. The same remark applies to the apparatus described and illustrated. The woodcut on p. 142 ex. gv., illustra- tive of the method for taking the specific gravity of ammonia, looks startlingly elaborate. Much credit is due, however, to the author and his coadjutor, Mr. Dugald Clerk, for the care bestowed upon the preparation of the woodcuts. We consider them, for the most part, well selected and well executed. There is that pleasing evidence to the chemical eye, that the illustrations have originated in the laboratory, and that they depict appa- ratus which can be practically used, and are not merely put in to please and catch the eye. In fact, when we compare some high-priced books of the class, which it would not be difficult to enumerate, with the elegantly got- up and cheap volume of Mr. Thorpe, we can only con- gratulate him on the book he has produced. If we may be allowed to tender advice, we should say :—Condense the part on the operations of weighing ; enlarge the number of examples of simple gravimetric analysis, so as to include the more important acids and bases; draw a line between determinations usually required in analyses for practical or commercial purposes, and the more elaborate complete analysis of the same bodies ; and last, but not least, explain more fully, why and when one method answers better than another—if only in compassion for the weaker analyst. We cordially recommend the book, and hope to see these suggestions adopted in the next edition, for which in all likelihood we shall not have to wait long. LETTERS TO THE EDITOR [Zhe Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions exbressed by his correspondents. No notice is taken of anonymous communications. | The Management of the British Museum I BEG to protest against the remarks upon the management of the British Museum contained in your article of November 6. The general question whether a public institution of the sort is best governed by a public official or by a body of Trustees, may very likely admit of much discussion, but the decision should not be prejudiced by totally ignoring the noble work which has been and is being done by the Museum. No scientific man surely can be ignorant that the British Museum exists not so much for the momentary amusement of gaping crowds of country people, who do not understand a single object on which they gaze, as for the promotion of scientific discovery, and the ad- vancement of literary and historical inquiry. We are told about the indifference of the Museum Trustees to the best interests of science, but we are not reminded frequently enough that it is ——— . eee Nov. 13, 1873] NATURE 27 almost impossible to carry out any scientific or literary inquiry in a complete manner, without resorting to the great national museum. There are doubtless many things which the Trustees have not done, but is it a slight matter that they have given us, on the whole, by far the most extensive and complete body of collections anywhere brought together in the world? The library and reading-room alone are enough to do honour to their management, and it is almost impossible to fathom the degree in which this library assists every kind of inquiry. When we are least aware, we are often enjoying the fruits of investigation in that library ; the late Prof. Boole, for instance, spent the last few months of his life in the Museum, pursuing an exhaustive inquiry into previous writings on the subject of Differential Equations. As regards the other collections, I presume that no one will call in question their enormous extent ; and the fact that they are not adequately lodged and displayed as yet, is due to their very vastness, and to the fact that Government would not, until lately, afford the money for the new buildings. As regards the real interests of original inquiry, too, comparatively little harm is done by the want of room for exhibition, since bond fide scientific students can always obtain access to the collections. Iam far from denying that the officials who have conducted the South Kensington Museum have, by an enormous expendi- ture of public money, collected together a great quantity of beautiful objects of art, and have thus not only afforded oppor- tunities for art study, but have made this museum a very agree- able and fashionable lounge. But I must protest against the notion, apparently countenanced in NATURE, that the scientific value and work of a national museum is to be measured by the number of millions of persons who saunter through the galleries. No doubt the utility of a museum in affording popular instruc- tion and elevated amusement to large masses of people is very considerable, but this popular work is altogether of a different order from the strictly scientific object of collecting together all the products of intellect and of Nature. It is an unavoidable misfortune of the best and highest work in science that it is quite unobtrusive, The public is struck by the thousands who crowd the decorated galleries of South Kensington. There is nothing to attract public attention in the two or three hundred bookworms patiently plodding through the books in the Museum library, or the few students turning over the drawers of the zoo- logical, botanical, mineralogical, numismatic, and other collec- tions. But in NaTuRE, which has so powerfully advocated the necessity of promoting original research in this country, I should expect, more than anywhere else, to find a due appreciation of the noble work which is being carried out by the British Museum trustees, and by the staff of eminent scientific and literary men who are employed under their direction in promoting almost every branch of literature and science. We have heard many complaints of the apathy displayed by Government in the promo- tion of science. ‘The existence of the British Museum is the best answer to that complaint. As regards those branches of science which demand the use of large collections, it may be regarded as the great national laboratory ; and if scientific men do not make adequate use of it, that is their fault and not that of the trustees. W. STANLEY JEVONS [Our opinion of the immense importance to research of the col- lections of the British Museum is quite in accordance with the above letter of our esteemed correspondent, and if he will read the article again he will see nothing in it to indicate any differ- ence of opinion. Indeed we regard the positions of the scientific men in the British Museum as positions of endowed research, and positions, moreover, which have amply justified it, miserable as the amount is in many cases. Our objection is to the existence of trustees not represented by a Minister, and to the action of the trustees, who have not expanded the area of the utility of the collections, and who have cared so little for the men of science working under them and the collections themselves that the former are underpaid and the latter are much less useful than they might be. Mr. Jevons concedes the whole point when he refers to the money so properly spent at South Kensington ; for had the British Museum been under the same Minister, money would have been spent there too. The money must be spent unless we are to sink to the level of—well, let us say Morocco ; and it is to prevent this that the proposed transfer has been sug- gested.— Ep. ] On the Equilibrium of Temperature of a Gaseous Column subject to Gravity In Naturg, vol. viii. p. 486, Mr. Guthrie asks the question, «Ts thre no possibility of testing the nature of thermal equili- brium of a column of still air?’ I think to this question an answer may be given, which, though indirect and imperfect, will perhaps decide the controversy on the above subject. If gravity causes in the temperature of a gaseous column the difference, which Mr. Guthrie thinks it does, that difference must be in proportion to the height of the column, and in inverse pro- portion to the specific heat of the gas, Hence it follows that, if two equal columns of different gases, both under the same ther- mal influence, are joined at their lower parts by a thermo-electric pile, the side of this pile, which is surrounded by the gas with the highest specific heat, must be constantly cooler than the other side. The result of my experiments respecting this, is the confirmation of Mr, Guthrie's opinion. The description of these experiments, and a theoretical treatise on the subject, have been in the hands of Prof. Poggendorff since the beginning of last June, and will be published in an early number of his Amsza/en. I hope that my experiments will induce others to try them in the same or in another manner, in order to bring the question concerning the influence of gravity on the thermal equilibrium to a final decision. Should it prove in favour of Mr. Guthrie’s theory, as I believe it will, this theory, represented till now only by a very small minority, although it was broached twenty years ago by Waterston,* will give rise to results}+ which may perhaps clear up many of our ideas about Kosmos. The argument which Prof. Clerk-Maxwell has brought against Mr. Guthrie in Narure, vol. viii. p. 85, does not appear to me to be generally correct. He says:—In a given horizontal stratum of a gaseous column subject to gravity, a greater number of molecules come from below than from above to strike those in the stratum, because the density of the gas is greater below than above. Certainly the number of molecules, which enter into such a stratum during a certain time, depends upon the density of the gas, but besides this, it depends upon the proba- bility of entering into it, which exists for each molecule. Now, this probability is not only dependent upon the distance of a molecule from the stratum, upon its velocity, its direction and its encounters with other molecules, but also upon the very fact of its being above or below the stratum. Gravity continually tends to diminish the dis!ance between any horizontal stratum and each molecule which is above the stratum, and continually tends to increase the distance between the stratum and each molecule which is below. Hence it follows that the probability of entering into the stratum will be greater for a molecule which is above than for one below, if, in the case of both, all other circumstances are equal. For example, con- sider two molecules, which in a given moment move wilh the same velocity and in the same direction on the two sides of the stratum ; if this direction is horizontal like the stratum, and if in the given moment the distances of the molecules from the stratum are both very small, in the next moment the molecule above the stratum will have entered into it, while that one below will have removed from it. In the case of the density being greater below the stratum than above, more molecules would enter it from below, if gravity did not exist. But under the influence of gravity, the effects of the difference in density can be balanced by those of the above- mentioned difference in the probability, which exists for each molecule of entering into the stratum during a certain time. I even consider this last difference to be the dynamical cause of the difference in density. Westend, near Berlin, Oct. 20 Periodicity of Rainfall As far as my own figures are concerned, the reply to Mr. Meldrum’s question is very easily afforded. I agree with him that it is undesirable to use averages deduced from groups of stations variable both in the number and locality of their com- ponents. The observations which I quoted were those of a single station, Halton, St. Philip, Barbadoes. With respect to the general question, I regret being unable to share Mr, Meldrum’s evident enthusiasm, and that a very different opinion has been published in the Zetéschri/t, by Dr. Jelinek, one of the most eminent meteorologists of the present day. It maybe convenient to some readers to be in- formed that an abstract of Dr. Jelinek’s article is given in “ British Rainfall, 1872,” together with a general résumé of the state of the question up to the date ofits publication. Camden Square, Nov. 1 G. J. SyMoNns G. HANSEMANN * In “On Dynamical Sequences of Kosmos.” + Ihave expounded some of these results in an abstract mechanical form in ‘‘Die Atome und ihre Bewegungen” (Ciln Lengfeld’sche Buchhandlung, 1871). oo i] NATURE [ Mov. 13, 1873 THE COMMON FROG* IV. H AVING now passed in review the greatest differences presented by the nearest allies of our common frog (the members namely of its own order), certain facts of interest present themselves respecting the geographical distribution of the group. These facts are interesting, because they point not only to the exceptional nature of the faunas of South America and of Australia, but also to a certain zoological affinity between those two regions of the earth, distinct as they are from one another. Thus, as has been mentioned, it is only in Australia and South America that the typical genus Raza is absolutely wanting, One genus of Tree-frogs, Pe/odryas, is confined to Aus- tralia, but is closely resembled by another genus, PiyZ/o- medusa, which is restricted to South America, and differs from the former only by the absence of a web between Fic. 16.—An American Eft of the genus Ambiystoma. the toes. It should be recollected that the primary sub- divisions of a zoological order are termed /avwzlies. One whole family, called Cystignathide, is (with the exception of two species) confined to Australia and America. The typical Tree-frogs (Hy/a) abound in South America and are also found in Australia, but not in India or in Africa south of the Sahara. On the other hand another genus of Tree-frogs (Polyfedates), is found in India, Japan, and Madagascar, but not in either Australia or America, The typical Toads (Bufo) have, however, their head- quarters in South America, yet are wanting in Australia, Fic. 17.—The though they are found everywhere else where the order exists at all. The earth’s surface, considered as to its population of the frog and toad order, may be divided into three great regions. The first of these is composed of Europe, Northern Asia (with Japan and Chusan), North America, Amphiuma. and Africa north of the Sahara. The second region consists of Africa south of the Sahara, Madagascar, India, and the Indian Archipelago. The third region is made up of South America and Australia, and the resem- blance between these two parts of the earth’s surface as to their frogs and toads is paralleled by that as to their L1G. 18.—The Proteus. mammalian faunas, since marsupial mammals (or pouched- beasts of the opossum kind), are strictly confined to Australia (and its islands) and America. No Frog or Toad has yet been found in New Zealand. Africa, considering its size and climate, is poor in spe- cies of Anoura. We should be prepared for the fact that in South * Continued from p; 13. America Tree-frogs abound, since all kinds ot animals in that region assume an arboreal habit. Monkeys are tree-livers all the world over, but nowhere are all the indigenous species so thoroughly arboreal as in tropical America. There alone do we find monkeys with a prehensile tail capable of serving as a fifth hand, and so affording greater security and facility to locomotion amidst the branches, Only there also do we find beasts so ex- 4 5 Nov. 13, 1873] NATURE 29 clusively constructed to pass the whole of their lives in trees that they can move along the ground only with diffi- culty—such is the case with the sloths. Porcupines, which - in the old world have short tails, in the new world have . long and prehensile ones. An animal allied to the Badger —the Kinkajou (Cercoleptes caudivolvulus)—similarly acquires in South America a long and prehensile caudal appendage. Even the Fowl and Peacock Order of Birds becomes in South America more strictly arboreal than elsewhere (being represented by the Curassows), and the very geese find there a congener (Pa/amedia) specially adapted to dwell in trees and destitute (like the frog Phyllomedusa before mentioned) of a web-like membrane between the toes. We have now advanced a further stage in seeking a reply to the question, ‘‘ What is a Frog?” We have now viewed it in the light to be derived from a consideration of the more noteworthy forms of the frog’s order. We may next inquire what are its next nearest allies ? What other animals of the class Batrachia constitute an order which approaches nearest to the frog’s order Anoura? Fic. 19.—The Sirex. Almost every pond in England which harbours frogs, harbours also those little four-legged, long-tailed, soft skinned creatures termed -/¢s or Mewts (of the genus Triton) familiar to every schoolboy. These Newts which are thus by circumstances placed actually in juxtaposition with the frog are also zoologi- cally his nearest allies outside his own (frog and toad) order. Like the frog they undergo a metamorphosis, at first appearing as Eft-tadpoles (with elongated external gills, but devoid of limbs), subsequently losing the gills and acquiring limbs. Efts, as is manifest, are widely and strangely different in form from frogs and toads. Thus is justified the assertion before made as to the far less exceptional form of the human body than that of the frog. For when, amongst Mammalia, we go outside that o7d@er to which Man belongs, we find in Fic 20.—Menobranchus. his céass other creatures (insect-eating, flesh-eating, and | of the squirrel kind) which more or less closely re- semble some of the lower members of man’s order. When, however, amongst Batrachia, we go outside that order to which the frog belongs, we find in his c/ass no creatures whatever which present anything like such an approximation to any members of the frog’s order as is presented by the mammals above referred to certain members of man’s order. The Efts (or Newts) withtheir allies—hereinafter noticed —constitute the second order Uvodela of the class Ba- trachia. This order is very unlike the first and already described order (Azoura), in that it is composed of creatures which | in many respects are strangely divergent ; and though most of the species more or less resemble our own Efts (or Newts) in shape, yet the Urodeda.are very far from consti- tuting such a homogeneous group as are the Avoura. It will be well now to review some of the more striking forms contained in the order. The Land Eft (Sa/amandra), though common in Holland and France (as well as the rest of Europe), is unknown in this country. Genera allied to the European genera 7é¢on and Sa/a- mandra,and to the American genus Amélystoma, may have the body and tail more and more elongated and the legs reduced, as in Spelerpfes, Chioglopa, and Gdipina, till they attain the condition of Batrachoceps. The greatest excess of this development, however, is found in the North American genus Amphiuma, the minute limbs of which have either three or two toes, according to the species. These creatures are called by the negroes “ Congo Snake,” and are quite erroneously regarded as venomous, The largest existing Urodele—the gigantic Sala- mander (Cryptobranchus)—is found in Japan, where it attains a length of 5 or 6 feet. A closely allied species inhabits China, and during the tertiary period one also inhabited Europe, the fossil skeleton of which being strangely supposed to be that of an antediluvian man received the curious appellation, “‘ Homo diluvii testis.” In Cryptobranchus (as in all the Urodela yet enume- rated except Amphiuma), though the young have gill Fic. 21.—The Axolotl. openings and external gills, the adults are devoid of both. In a North American genus, however (MJenofoma), which, though smaller in size, closely resembles Crypto- branchus in figure, there is a permanent gill opening, though the gills themselves disappear in the adult, and the same is the case with Amhiuma. Thus in these animals the metamorphosis is less complete. In the subterranean caverns of Southern Austria (Carniola and Istria) is found the Profews, This is an elongated Urodele, with’slender limbs, and but two toes 30 NATURE [Mev. 13, 1873 to each hind foot. Passing its whole life in perpetual darkness, it is blind and colourless, except the external gills, which are red. This animal retains during the whole of life not only the gill aperture on each side, but also the external plumose gills which are transitory in the Anoura and in all the Urodela hitherto mentioned. Here then we first meet with an animal which may be said to be a permanent and persistent Tadpole, yet rather like an Eft-tadpole than like that of the Frog. A North American Urodele, misnamed (for it is silent enough) Szvez, also presents us with permanent external gills, and it offers another interesting resemblance to the tadpole of the frog in that it is furnished throughout life with a horny beak, It has also another remarkable cha- racter in which it stands alone in its class. Hitherto every relative of the frog has had, like it, four limbs in the adult condition, In the Siren, however, we for the first time make acquaintance with a creature belonging to the class (though not to the ovder) of frogs and toads, which is devoid altogether of hinder (or pelvic) limbs, being in this respect like the whales and porcupines amongst beasts, and like the little lizard, Chzrotes, amongst reptiles. Another North American Urodele, AZenobranchus, pos- sesses throughout the whole of life both gill openings and external gills. But it is furnished with four limbs, and in other respects more or less resembles in appearance, as it does in size, the genus AZenofoma before noticed. Finally there is a genus of this order (Uvodela) which has of late presented circumstances of peculiar interest. This is the Axolotl of Mexico, which was long considered by Cuvier to be a large Eft-tadpole, possessing as it does permanent gills and gill-openings, with some other cha- racters common to the Eft-tadpole stage of existence. At length, however, its mature condition was considered to be established by the discovery that it possesses perfect powers of reproducing its kind. For some years, individuals of this species have been preserved in the Jardin des Plantes at Paris, and a few years ago one individual amongst others there kept was observed, to the astonishment of its guardian, to have transformed itself into a creature of quite another genus— the genus Amélystoma, one rich in American species, Since then several other species have transformed them- selves, but without affording any clue as to the conditions which determine this change—a change remarkable in- deed, resulting as it does not merely in the loss of gills and the closing up of the gill-openings, but in remarkable changes with respect to the skull, the dentition, and other important structures. There is, moreover, another and very singular fact con- nected with this transformation. It is that no one of the individuals transformed (although we must suppose that by such transformation it has attained its highest deve- lopment and perfection) has ever yet reproduced its kind, and this in spite of every effort made to promote repro- duction by experiments as to diet and as to putting to- gether males and females both transformed, also transformed males with females untransformed, and males untransformed with females transformed. Indeed, the sexual organs seem even to become atrophied in these transformed individuals. Moreover, all this time the untransformed individuals have gone on bringing forth young with the utmost fecundity, no care or trouble on the part of their guardians being required to effect it. A fact more noteworthy could hardly be imagined in support of the view of specific genesis put forward recently.* Here we have a rapid and extreme transfor- mation taking place according to an unknown internal law of the species which transforms itself. No one, moreover, has been able to detect the conditions which determine such transformation (though it takes place under the eyes, and in the midst of the experiments of * See Genesis of Species, chap. xi, its observers). This latter fact affords abundant evidence how obscure and recondite may be the conditions which determine the transformations of specific genesis, and how utterly futile are observations as to an apparent bomo- geneity of readily appreciable conditions. They are so since it seems to be just such recondite ones which really determine the changes just referred to, and probably, therefore, other changes analogous to them. It may be a question whether the genus MWenobranchus may not also be a persistent larval * form, and one which now never attains its once adult form. If so, it is most probable that its lost state was similar to that of the ex- clusively American genus Sfelevfes, the larva of which Menobranchus much resembles. With respect to Profeus and S¢vez no conjecture of the kind can yet be made. Individuals belonging to the common English species (Triton cristalus) occasionally retain some of the external characters of immaturity, in spite of having attained re- productive capability ; and a European species (77z/ox alpertris) often matures the generative elements while still, as to external appearance, more or less in its tadpole stage of existence. The adult condition, however, is normally and generally atiained by it. The geographical distribution of the Urodela is very remarkable. North America is the head-quarters of the order, and, with rare and trifling exceptions, the whole are confined to the Northern hemisphere. The exceptions are certain forms which extend down the Andes into South America, and one or two species of Amblystoma, which similarly descend along the highlands of South Eastern Asia. Urodeles are absolutely wanting in Hindostan, Africa south of the Sahara, the Indian Archi- pelago, Australia, and New Zealand. As might be ex- pected, that part of Asia which is nearest to North America, namely China and Japan, is the region of the old world most richly peopled by species of Uvodela. Al- together the world’s surface may be divided according to its Urodele population into three regions. The first will comprise Europe, Africa north of the Sahara, and North Western Asia. The second will include Japan and Eastern Asia. The third will be formed by North America, with a slight extension southwards into South America—a division which by no means coincides with that indicated by the Anoura. The above two orders (.4zourva and Urodela) comprise all the animals most nearly allied to the common frog, of all those outside its own order. There is, however, another small ordinal group of animals which remains to be here noted, because of all existing creatures they come nearest to the frog, after the Urode/a. (To be continued.) INAUGURATION OF THE LINNEAN SO- CIETY’S NEW ROOMS OPENING ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT nme is now seventeen -years since the Government first recognised the claims of our Society to encourage- ment and assistance on the part ofthe State, as one which devoted itself to scientific pursuits unremunerative to its members, but tending directly or indirectly to public benefit ; and since then a sense of the justness of such claims on the part of pure natural science has become gradually more general. We are no longer in the days when a Peter Pindar could turn the Royal Society and its president into ridicule as boiling fleas to ascertain whether they turned red like lobsters. The Zzmes, in- stead of a short leader dismissing the British Association meetings in a similar strain of banter, devotes daily, during the time of its session, half a dozen columns to the details of its proceedings. And our own department in natural science is now admitted to be one of the most im- * The young of the Frog or Eft is called a larva, ee Nov. 13, 1873 | NATURE 31 o _ portant branches of general science, specially important in its relation to our material prosperity. Our food and raiment, the essentials of life, are derived exclusively from the animal and vegetable kingdoms, and biological pro- ducts contribute largely to many of our luxuries, whilst on the other hand some of the greatest calamities with which we are afflicted are due to the rapid development of animal or vegetable life. Many are the associations, under Government as well as individual patronage, de- voted to the improvement and increase of useful animals and plants ; and of late attention has been also devoted to the arrest of the ravages of the noxious ones, the balance of natural selection being disturbed by the interference of agriculture and animal education. The due study of the means of restoring this balance, of turning it more and more in our favour, of calling in to our aid more and more of the hitherto neglected available species, or of the hitherto latent properties of those already in use, of checking the progress of blights and murrains, requires a thorough knowledge of the animals and plants them- selves, and that thorough knowledge can only be obtained by that scientific study not only of particular animals and plants supposed a fvzoré to be useful or noxious, but of ail animals and plants, which it is the special province of our Society to promote. And in this respect I think it will be generally admitted that we have not been neglect- ful of our duty, and that we have done our part in render- ing effective the support we have of late years received from Government as well as from individuals, and in establishing a sound claim for its increased continuance. Besides the aid afforded to scientific researches by our largely augmented library, the great value of the papers published in the recent volumes of our Transactions and Journal has been acknowledged abroad as well as at home. It is in our Society, for instance, that the great Darwinian theories were first promulgated ; and it must be recollected that the five or six hundred copies of our publications regularly sent out, place the researches they exhibit at once at the disposal of the leading followers of the science in all parts of the world. It is true that these great additions to our efficiency are not entirely due to Government patronage, but are the direct results of the reforms introduced by Dr. Hooker in 1855. Those re- forms, however, would have lost much of their effect had we remained confined to our old quarters in Soho Square. Cramped for space in those obscure and dingy rooms, it required a strong devotion to science to induce an ade- quate attendance at our meetings ; and saddled witha heavy rent, we could neither purchase books for our library nor find room on our shelves for those presented to us. In the spring of 1856, however, an opening was made for our obtaining rooms in Burlington House. I was then on the Council, and joined heartily in the conviction of the importance of availing ourselves of the opportunity, notwithstanding the heavy expense it might entail, which I felt confident we could cover by a subscription amongst our fellows. Our President undertook the preliminary negotiations, and at the meeting of our Council on June 11 a letter was officially communicated to us ad- dressed by the Secretary of the Treasury to the Presi- dent of the Royal Society, allowing the temporary loca- tion in Burlington House of the Linnean and Chemical Societies with the Royal Society, upon certain conditions ; those which affected us being, that the Royal Society should be put in possession of the main building of Bur- lington House on the understanding that they would, in communication with the Linnean and Chemical Societies, assign suitable accommodation therein for those bodies,and that the Fellows of the three societies should have mutual access to their three libraries for purposes of reference. Our Society,lat a special general meeting held on the 17th of the same month, authorised the Council to take the necessary steps for carrying out the proposal of the Government, and in the following February 1857 the Royal Society assigned to us the rooms which we have since occupied under the above conditions. A subscrip- tion was organised which ultimately amounted to nearly I,100/., sufficient to defray all expenses of parting with our old rooms and fitting up the new ones, with a very small surplus, which was carried to the general account. In the same month of February I was associated with our then active and zealous President and Secretary, and with Mr. Wilson Saunders as a Removal Committee, and on Tuesday June 2 the Society was enabled for the first time to meet in their new rooms. Our position, however, although so great an improve- ment upon Soho Square, was not yet quite satisfactory. It was provisional only, and under the wing, as it were, of the Royal Society, and liable at any time to be exchanged for a worse or a better one as the case might turn out. This uncertainty is now removed. The Government, rightly understanding the relations which ought to prevail with the scientific societies judged to be deserving of their support, obtained from Parliament adequate means for providing ample accommodation to the six societies here located, without reserving any right of interference with or control over their scientific operations. Thus our new quarters have assumed a permanent and independent character, the rooms have been built and fitted up ex- pressly for four Society, and, having followed out all the arrangements, I feel bound to acknowledge the effective manner in which the liberal intentions of Government have been promoted and carried out in detail by the architects, Mr. Barry and the late Mr. Bankes. When the plans for the new building were first being prepared, some six or seven years since, we were applied to for par- ticulars of the accommodation we should require for our library and meetings, for the transaction of the business of the Society and for the residence of our librarian and porter. We were not consulted, it is true, about the general arrangements in relation to the cther societies, and we have to regret the cessation of that close juxta- position and intimate intercourse with the Royal Society which was so agreeable to us, but in all other respects our requisitions were fully complied with in the plans prepared and sent to us for approval, and the only alteration since made has been the curtailment of a portion of the base- ment premises in favour of the post-office, which rather inconveniently limits the stowage room for our stock of Transactions. With this sole exception we have the space we asked for, and the bookshelves and such other fittings as have been provided by Government have been worked out in the most satisfactory manner. Our removal here has necessarily been attended with considerable expense, the precise amount of which can- not yet be calculated, but it will probably exceed 600/, The Council have, however, not thought it necessary to call for any special subscription. The investments made during the past year have been partially with a view to the present occasion, and the gradually increasing sale of our publications and general appreciation of the value of our labours has been so far adding to our receipts that we closed last session with a much larger balance in hand than usual, and we hope to clear ourselves of the liabilities we are incurring, without reducing our invested funds much below 2000/7. At the same time, we must not con- ceal from ourselves that we shall be called upon fora considerable increase in our expenditure. Our enlarged accommodation, combined with high prices, will add much to our household expenses. We are threatened with a repeal of the Act which exempts us from parochial rates. Nearly the whole of our library having within the last three weeks passed through my hands, I have become convinced that it will require a large outlay in binding, as well as in filling up gaps to render it really efficient. And, above all, we must bear in mind that the chief means we have of promoting the scientific objects for 32 NATURE which we are associated, the only way in which we can render them available to our numerous Fellows resident in our colonies, is through our publications, and heavy as have been of late years our printer’s and artists’ bills, they will and ought to become heavier and heavier still. To render fully available the assistance we have received from Government, we require continued and increased support from our Fellows, and from the scientific public. We reckon already among our Fellows the great majority of those who have acquired a name in zoology, or botany, and I sincerely hope that all men of means who take a sincere interest in biological pursuits will think it a pleasure as well as a duty to contribute directly or in- directly to the support of the Linnean Society of London. With regard to future arrangements in the new phases of life into which the Society has entered, the Council has kept in view three great objects, the endeavour to render our Meetings attractive, the extended usefulness of our library, and the steady maintenance of our publi- cations. On meeting-nights the library will be open at 7 o’clock, the chair will be taken in the meeting-room at 8 o’clock, as at present, and after the meeting the Fellows will adjourn to teain the Council Room upstairs, opposite to, and in direct communication with the library. The extended shelf-room in the library has enabled a classification of the books which will render those most frequently consulted much more readily accessible than heretofore ; and as evidence that there is no relaxation in our publishing department, I have to announce that besides the two numbers of our Journal, one in Zoology, and the other in Botany, which have been sent out since our last meeting, two new parts of our Transactions are in the course of delivery, the concluding one of Volume XXVIII., andthe second of Col. Grant’s Volume XXIX. The first part of Volume XXX. is in the printer’s hands. INAUGUKATION OF THE CHEMICAL SO- CIETY’S NEW ROOMS oo Thursday night last the Chemical Society met for the first time in the new apartments assigned to it in the right-hand front wing of Burlington House. The event was a notable one, and it is not often that such an occasion happens to the president of a hard-working body of scientific men as last Thursday fell to the lot of Dr. Odling when he rose to welcome the fellows to their new home, and he might well feel it his duty to break for once the tradition which imposes silence on the president on the first night of the session. Dr. Odling accordingly rose and proceeded to bid them welcome to the new rooms, and then to give in a few words a general statement of what had been done in rela- tion to the taking possession of them by the society. This it seems had been by no means an easy matter, as but a few days back the society was still in its old quarters without a book of its library moved, and the present apartments were in a damp and generally unfinished state. Thanks, however, to the exertions of the Council and especially of the Junior Secretary (Dr. Russell), who were most kindly met and aided in their endeavours by Mr. Barry (the architect) and the Clerk of the Works ; the new rooms were got into a habitable condition, the books in great part placed in their cases, and the meeting-room provided with seats in time for the first meeting of the session. The rooms in question at present in use consist of the library, a noble room on the second floor, well capable of holding the books of the society for some time to come. That for meetings, below the library and overlooking Piccadilly, is capable of seating nearly twice the number of listeners that could be provided for in the old quarters. The seats, however, are somewhat crowded, and though the room is provided with double windows there is a consi- derable noise from the street. The president, however, held out hopes of a wooden or asphalt pavement being before long laid down in front of the building, and we hope a point of such importance will not long be neglected by the autho- rities. The most noticeable point, however, isa laboratory, placed on the right-hand side of the meeting-room and opening into it with double doors immediately behind the lecture-table. This, though at present not quite ready for use, is supplied with every fitting of a good laboratory, and will shortly be provided with the neces- sary apparatus and re-agents. According to the president, | “ whatever may be its subsequent use, it is intended at pre- sent to place it at the disposal of those authors who may wish to illustrate their papers with experiments.” We do not know whether the words of the president imply an intention on the part of the society to aid re- search by granting the use of its laboratory in such cases as it may think deserving, but in any case the society deserves the thanks of every scientific man for so admir- able an innovation as a room for the preparation of expe- riments. ? Dr. Odling in his speech alluded to the “ childish plea- sure, childish in its earnestness and simplicity,” with which a chemist looks upon a new experiment. We quite agree with him as to the fact of its existence, but we think that this desire to see answers a far higher pur- pose than that of mere pleasure. The science of the chemist is essentially a science in which, to quote a popular phrase, “seeing is believing,” and nothing can be more wearisome than the constant repetition of the de- scription of reactions, or the recounting of qualitative or quantitative results unenlivened by a single experiment. Such descriptions quite fail to lay hold upon the mind, except at the expense of a wearisome strain, and the con- sequence is that many a valuable paper loses half or all its effect when read (which should be to raise discussion), simply because in an attempt to describe facts the author loses sight of the necessity of succinctly generalising therefrom. In the meantime what have the other societies affected by the changes in Piccadilly been doing to provide for the experimental illustration of papers? and especially what has the Royal Society done in the direction to which we have alluded? We are informed on the best authority —nothing! The rooms of the latter consist as did the temporary ones, simply of those requisite for the accomo- dation of the library and for the veading of papers. Now is the Chemical Society right? If so the Royal Society is wrong. It has not done all when it has provided com- fortable reading-rooms for its members, and a place where its secretaries can read the papers to a few silent Fellows who are sparsely scattered over the benches. The reading and publication of papers is not all that a great and wealthy society can or ought to do for the ad- vancement of science. Why should its laboratories not exist as well as its library? There is no reason why the meetings of the societies instead of being, as some of them now are, dull reunions only attended by the Fellows as a matter of duty, should not be made more useful to men of science. What could be better than to see them attended by the more advanced of the younger students of science, as the meetings of the Chemical Society now very often are,. who might there see how the better known workers de- monstrate their discoveries, and how their papers are examined and discussed. Unless some attempt is made to give the other societies a greater grasp over the seve- ral classes of workers to which they more directly appeal, they will infallibly lose the guiding power they have hitherto had, and the advantages conferred by their orga- nisation in the propagation of scientific knowledge will be lost. It behoves the Royal Society in particular to show the way to the others in following in the steps taken with [Wov. 13, 1873 | ov. 13, 1873] NATURE 33 ‘such signal success by the chemists. If it does not do so, but allows itself to be left behind, it must soon see many of the most important papers sent to the Chemical or to such of the cther societies as may choose to provide the means of properly illustrating them. It may be urged that if papers are to be experimentally illustrated, all cannot possibly be read. We can only say so much the better. Why should not a society’s council exercise a wise discretion, and relegate some classes of ‘papers at once to the “Journal,” the proper place for many amass of numerical data now perforce read, but of which discussion is impossible ? EGS. NOTES WE regret to announce the death, on the 1oth inst., of Mr. B. F. Duppa, F.R.S., well known for his numerous and impor- tant researches in organic chemistry. He was educated at Cam- | bridge, and was afterwards, in the year 1857, a pupil in the Royal College of Chemistry. Within a period of eleven years ‘he published, partly alone and partly in conjunctton with Mr. W. H. Perkin and Dr. Frankland, no less than twenty papers, most of which appeared in the Transactions and Proceedings of the Royal Society. The most important of these researches re- lated to the action of bromine and iodine on acetic acid, the artificial production of tartaric acid, the formation of organic compounds containing mercury, and the synthetical production of numerous acids of the fatty and acrylic series. Mr. Duppa was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1867. Being a man of independent means, he never applied for, nor held, any scientific appointment, but formed one of that small band of enthusiastic _ and disinterested amateur workers of whom England may justly _ feel proud, and to whom she is so much indebted for a very large proportion of the contributions which she has made to the _ progress of science. re Part ae ~~ ey a Mr. MiTcHELL, of Old Bond Street, is, we believe, about to publish a portrait of the late Dr. Bence Jones, engraved by Holl from the beautiful drawing by Mr. George Richmond, R.A. THE following awards have been made by the French Geo- graphical Society :—2,000 francs to M. Dournaux-Dupéré, who has just set out for Timbuctoo; this gentleman has also re- ceived a similar sum from the Minister of Public Instruction ; 2,000 fr. to M. Francis Garnier, to aid him in his explorations along the Blue River in China, and which have Yun-nan and Tibet for their objects ; 1,500 fr. to MM. Marche and Com- piégne, who have already proceeded a considerable distance along the course of the Ogowe with the design of penetrating as far as the great African lakes, and joining Livingstone. ’ THE subject for the Le Bas Prize (Cambridge) for the present year is “ The Respective Functions of Science and Literature in Education.” Candidates must be graduates of the University of not more than three years’ standing from their first degree when the essays are sent in, which date is fixed before the end ofthe Easter Term, 1874. The essays must each bear some motto, and be accompanied by a sealed paper bearing the same motto, and enclosing the name of the candidate and that of his college. The successful candidate is required to publish the essay at his own expense, Messrs. TRUBNER AND Co. will publish, in about ten days, _ Mr. George Henry Lewes’ new work, entitled ‘‘ Problems of Life and Mind.” Wirth reference to the paragraph in last week’s NATURE on the discovery of the conversion of spherical into plane motion, Prof. Sylvester writes: “‘I feel it an act of simple justice to anether to say that I should never have hit upon the instru- ment which effects this, had it not been for the previous, wholly original and unexpected, discovery made nine years ago, by M. Peaucillier, of the conversion of circular into recti- linear motion, with which I was recently made acquainted by M. Tchebicheff, and which seems to have been little noticed in the discoverer’s own country, and to have remained wholly un- known in this. M. Peaucillier has succeeded by the most simple means in solving a kinematical problem which had baffled the attempts ofall mechanicians, from our James Watts downwards, to accomplish, and a simple Captain of Engineers in the French army has actually accomplished by a stroke of inspiration the mathematical solution of a question which many of the most profound and sagacious mathematicians of the age have been long labouring, but necessarily (as it is now obvious) in vain, to prove to admit of none. The conversion of circular into rectilinear motion before M. Peaucillier’s discovery was gradually growing to be classed in the same category of questions as the quadrature of the circle, and by a great number of mathema- ticians was actually deemed to be equally impossible in the nature of things. A working model of Peaucillier’s machine constructed by my friend M. Garcia, the brother of Malebran and the inyentor of the laryngoscope, is in my possession at the Athenzeum Club, and several copies of it have been already made by its admirers, which term comprises all who have seen it. The wonderfully fertile kinematic and mathematical results which I have succeeded in educing from the simple conception involved in this machine may form the subject of another com- munication to NATURE.” PROF. JELINEK, of Vienna, writes us that the death of Prof. Donati is the only unhappy event connected with the Meteorological Congress of Vienna, which in all other respects has proved successful. The fact of all countries of Europe (France exce pted) and the United States of North America being represented at the Congres s, and the conciliatory spirit in which all the proceedings were held, the general desire to arrive at an uniform system of observation and publication make us hope, he thinks, that further decisive steps in this direction will be taken, The Congress has expressed the wish, that an- other Congress of Meteorologists shall meet in three years, and it has appointed a permanent Committee under Prof. Ruys Ballot of Utrecht, as President, and with Prof. Bruhns of Leipzig, Cantoni of Pavia, Jelinek of Vienna, Mohn of Christiana, Direc- tor Scott of London, and Director Wild of St. Petersburg, as members to prepare the solution of certain questions especially relative to the best form of publishing meteorological observa- tions and to the extension of the existing system of mete- orological observations, The permanent Committee has been also charged with the preparatory steps towards the con- vocation of a second Maritime Conference (the first having been held at Brussels in 1853). There will be three editions of the proceedings of the Congress. The one German, the other French, the third under the care of Mr, Robert Scott, in English. RATHER an unusual incident has recently occurred in the Belgian Academy of Sciences, about which, according to the two gentlemen most concerned, erroneous statements have been made in the Belgian papers and Za Revue Scientifique. The common statement is that at the sdazce of June 7 last M. E. van Beneden, son of the well-known Professor of Zoology at the Catholic University of Louvain, and himself Professor of Zoology at Liege, by appointment of the present Catholic Ministry, read a paper on the results of a voyage which he had recently made to Brazil and La Plata. Speaking of the difficulty of obtaining a dolphin on account of the superstitions of the Brazilian fisher- men, he is reported to have referred to the ancient belief in Europe that dolphins were in the habit of bringing dead bodies on shore, and to have said, “‘ The /ad/c of Jonah is an embodi- ment of this belief.” Thereupon, it is said, M. Gilbert, Professor 34 NATURE [Wov. 13, 1873 of Mathematics, and M. Henry, Professor of Chemistry at Louvain, in a letter to M. Quetelet, the secretary, protested against the expression being allowed to pass uncensured, as it was a violation of their religious convictions, and an infringement of the traditional law of the Academy, that nothing be said to hurt the religious convictions of any member. At the next meeting of the Academy, October 18, M. Gilbert insisted on this note being read, but by the vote of the Academy the order of the day was at once proceeded with. Thereupon the two aggrieved professors felt called upon to resign their connection with the Academy. The real facts of the case are stated by MM. Gilbert and Henry ina long communication to the last number of the Revue Scientifigue, from which it appears that the reference to “‘the fable of Jonah” was not in the paper at all as originally read, but was added in a note to the paper when subsequently printed in the Aziletin of the Academy. No doubt the two professors have a greater grievance than the irate Bishop Dupan- loup had in the admission to the French Academy of M. Littré; and no doubt it is well in all scientific discussions in a mixed society to steer clear of ‘‘the religious difficulty” entirely, but after all it must seem to an outsider as if all this pother about “the fable of Jonah” were a case of ‘‘ much ado about nothing.” A MEETING of the local executive of the British Association was held on Monday, at Bradford, and the financial account, which was submitted, showed the total expenses of the late meeting in that town to amount to about 3,300/. The guarantee fund subscribed amounted to 5,200/. AT arecent meeting of the Manchester Scientific Students’ Association at the Royal Institution, Mr. George C. Yates, F.S.A., exhibited a unique specimen of a Neolithic Flint Celt, or axe, which he had obtained at Holyhead a few weeks ago. The specimen, we believe, has been thoroughly authenticated, and Mr, Yates has consented to deposit it in the British Museum. A sertgs of Birkbeck Scientific Lectures for the People was commenced last week at Leeds, by Mr. J. Norman Lockyer, F.R.S., to be continued by Dr. Carpenter, Mr. Miall, and Prof. Martin Duncan, till Christmas. We believe that the action of the Trustees in thus aiding the spread of scientific knowledge throughout the country will be attended with the best results. On Tuesday last a deputation of the Harrow Vestry, repre- senting the residents, tradesmen, and other classes of the parish, had a second interview with the Governors of Harrow School, for the purpose of lodging and explaining thirty-six objections in detail to the proposed statutes for the government of the school. One point most justly insisted on by the deputation is the fact that John Lyon, the founder of the school, intended it mainly for the benefit of the parishioners of Harrow, whereas the Governors, like the Governors of others of our public schools, notoriously throw every possible difficulty in the way of children of common parishioners reaping the benefit of the fund generously left for their education. The Governors try to silence the com- plainants with a pittance of 250/. a year to found a subordinate school. We hope the Harrow Vestry will not cease to agitate the matter, until they obtain all that rightly belongs to them. WE have received a revised list of those who obtained Queen’s Medals at the Science and Art Examinations, May 1873. A CORRESPONDENT at Cannes, France, informs us that on November 4, about 6 P.M., a beautiful and distinct, though faint, lunar rainbow was seen there, which lasted a quarter of an hour, and then suddenly disappeared just as the first drops of rain were (elt. THE forthcoming number of Petermann’s AZiheilungen will contain an article by Messrs. E. Behm and F. Hanemann on the most recent discoveries in South-east Australia, accompanied by a map in which these discoveries are embodied. Messrs. W. AND A. K. JOHNSTON have published a very use- ful war-map of the Gold Coast of Ashantee and neighbouring countries, with a sketch-map of Guinea and a small map of the whole of Africa, all carefully disposed on one large sheet. For several winters past courses of lectures, intended mainly for the industrial classes, have been given on scientific subjects in the Edinburgh Museum of Science and Art, by the professors of the University and other gentlemen eminent in their particu- lar departments. The charge for a course of six lectures, the number given on each subject, is only sixpence, and we believe the results have been extremely satisfactory. The following is the programme for the present winter :—‘‘ Chemistry of the Common Metals,” by Prof. A. Crum Brown, M.D. ; ‘‘Physi- ology and Public Health,” by Dr. John G. M ‘Kendrick, F.R.S.E. ; ‘‘Cosmical Astronomy,” by Prof. Tait; ‘* The Car- boniferous Formation of Scotland,” by Mr. James Geikie, F.R.S.E. ; ‘‘ Weather and Climate,” by Mr. Alex. Buchan, F.R.S.E.; ‘The History of Commerce,” by Prof. W. B. Hodgson, LL.D. THE same journal has the following details concerning the Italian Association of Men of Science :—Inaugurated in 1837 by the Grand Duke of Tuscany (twenty-five years before France had followed the parent movement in England), it fell under the ban of Pope and Bourbon alike, who saw in it the foster-mother of revolution. In spite of police restrictions and other proofs of the dislike with which it was viewed, its meetings gained in attractiveness every year till, in 1846, favoured by the early liberalism of Pio Nono and Charles Albert’s ill-will to Austria, it celebrated the centenary of Balilla’s throwing off the German yoke in the Ligurian capital. Thanks to Piedmont, it outlived the reaction of 1848; and in 1859-60 it shared in the national jubilee it had assisted in consummating. Rome, proclaimed as the capital in 1861, was to be the scene of its reunion in 1862 ; but the Vatican, countenanced by Austria and France, frustrated the attempt. The storming of the Porta Pia in 1870 rendered possible the long-cherished design, and, under the appropriate presidency of the venerable Count Mamiani, formerly Prime Minister of Pio Nono during his short constitutional reign, it met on the 2oth ult. in the capital. One hundred and fifty was the muster of members—not a numerous one, but counting the most distinguished statesmen and savazs in the kingdom. Donati had but lately fallen a victim to cholera, but his science was ade- quately represented by the Padre Secchi, who still clings tc the Society of Jesus. We have received from Mr. D, Mackintosh a reprint of his article from the Quarterly Fournal of the Geological Society, ** On the more remarkable Boulders of the North-west of England and the Welsh Borders.” THE additions to the Zoological Society’s collection during the past week include a Crab-eating Opossum (Didelphys can- crivora) from the West Indies, presented by Mr. G, H. Haws tayce ; a Common Parodoxure (Paradoxurus typus) from India, presented by Mr. C. Maurer ; an Indian Jackal (Camis aureus) from Penang, presented by Mr. F. H. Fredericks ; three Robbin Island Snakes (Covonella phocarum) presented by Rey. G. H. R. Fisk ; a Little Grebe (Podiceps minor), British, presented by Mr. H. P. Hensman ; a Black Wallaby (Ha/maturus Ualabatus) from N. S. Wales, purchased; a Gazelle (Gazel/a dorcas) from Egypt, deposited ; an Axis Deer (Cervus axis) and a Molucca Deer (C. moluccensis), born in the Gardens, Nov. 13, 1873 | NATURE 250) PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND TERRESTRIAL | MOLLUSCA OF THE BAHAMA ISLANDS A PAPER on this subject has recently been communicated to the Lyceum of Natural History, New York, by Mr. _ Thomas Bland. The northern end of the Bahama group lies opposite southern Florida, and from this point the islands stretch off in a double series, nearly parallel to the trend of Cuba and San Domingo, and terminate, properly, in the Turk’s Island Bank, on which are the last and most easterly of the chain, which extends about 600 miles, from within 70 miles of the coast of Florida to within 100 miles of that of San Domingo. Several banks are distinguishable, and the islands are gener- ally on the windward sides of these, never exceeding 2ooft. in height, and being almost universally environed with reefs or shelves of rock, which extend often to a considerable distance and usually terminate abruptly. The geological formation appears to resemble that of Bermuda ; their form and surface condition being largely due to prevailing winds and currents, but also owing much, probably, to the con- figuration of the land on which the coral reefs were built up. Lieutenant Nelson speaks of the Bahamas as the Gulf Stream Delta ; thrown down where the stream receives a check from the Atlantic on emerging from the Gulf of Mexico. In a communication to NATURE, vol. vi. p. 262, Mr. Jones furnished evidence of the subsidence of the Bermudas. In exca- vations made for the great dock e.g., there was found, at 46 ft. below low-water mark, a layer of red earth, containing remains of cedar trees, and resting on a bed of compact calcareous sand- ‘tone. Mr. Bland examines the evidence afforded (as to subsidence), by the distribution of land shells on the Bahama Islands. The total number of species known is about 80. Judging from both operculates and inoperculates, the land- shell fauna of the Bahamas is essentially West Indian, and that of the Great Bank (especially), closely allied to the Cuban fauna. _ Mr. Bland gives a list of inoperculate species common to the Bahamas, the adjacent continent, Bermuda, and certain of the West Indian Islands; which shows ina marked manner the alliance referred to. The banks and islands of the Bahama chain diminish in size to the south-east, indicating greater subsidence in that direction. Similarly, the submerged Virgin Island bank, Sombrero and _ the Anguilla bank, terminate the parallel West Indies chain eastward from Cuba ; and in Anguilla have been found remains of large extinct mammalia which must have inhabited at one time a much more extensive area. The author criticises Dr. Cleve’s geological grouping of the slands north of Guadeloupe (in two groups, one comprising Bahamas, of post-pliocene date, another of the tertiary Eocene, Miocene, and Pliocene), and points out that the land shell fauna of Saba, St. Eustatius, St. Kitts and Nevis, of Redonda and Montserrat, and of Barbadoes and Antigua, is, in common with most of the islands to the south, to and inclusive of Trinidad, distinct from the fauna of the islands between and inclusive of the Bahamas and Cuba, and the Anguilla bank, on which are Anguilla, St. Martin and St. Bartholomew. This well-defined line of separation must be considered in connection with the past and present geological history of the islands. Dana traces parallel bands of greater or less subsidence in the Pacific Ocean, and analogous conditions in the Atlantic; the subsidence was probably, he says, ‘‘much greater between _ Florida and Cuba than in the Peninsula of Florida itself, and _ greater along the Carribbean Sea parallel with Cuba, as well as along the Bahama reefs than in Cuba.” Recent soundings, cited by Mr. Bland, confirm this view. ; SCIENTIFIC SERIALS Ocean Highways, November.—In an article on ‘‘ The Results of the Arctic Campaign, 1873,” it is shown that the right direc- tion for Arctic Exploration has been unmistakeably indicated, further proofs have been afforded of the practicability of attaining an advanced position by following that direction, and additional evidence has been accumulated against the route advocated by “unpractised theorists.” These conclusions are rightly drawn from the eminently successful results obtained from the Polaris _ expedition and from Captain Markham’s fruitful cruise in the i Arctic, as contrasted with the comparatively unsuccessful at- tempts made in the Spitzbergen direction by the Swedish Expe- dition and that of Mr. Leigh Smith. ‘‘The learned societies will be able to make their appeal to the Government with even stronger and more cogent arguments than were at their disposal in the end of last year ; while in the present Prime Minister and Chancellor of the Exchequer they have an old and staunch supporter of Arctic expeditions, and one who has studied their history and appreciated their uses.” There is a carefully con- structed map illustrative of Captain Markham’s voyage in the Arctic. Other articles are, “On the Distribution of Coal in China,” by Baron von Richthofen ; ‘‘ South American Progress” (Argentine Republic), by F. J. Rickard ; ‘‘ Highways and Bye- ways of Naval History,” the first of a series of articles by Mr. R. Lendall. Gazetta Chimica Italiana, Fascicolo V. and V1.—The number commences with a paper on Santonin, by S. Cannizzaro and F. Sestini. Santoninic acid is described ; itis derived from santonin by the addition of one molecule of water to one of santonin. The addition is effected by acting on santonin by means of a warm aqueous alkaline solution. The formula of the acid is C,;H,,04. = C,;H,,03 + H,O. The properties of the acids and its salts are described, and the action of nascent hydrogen on santonin is then considered.—New researches on benzylated phenol, by E. Paternd and M. Fileti—On the chemical analysis of some wines grown in the Veronese province, by Prof. G. Dal Sie. The wines in question seem to be some- what strong, the percentage (volume) of alcohol ranging from 9°4 to 164. Very voluminous tables of analyses are given.—A paper on the dry distillation of calcic formate, by A, Lieben and E. Paterno concludes the original portion of the number, which concludes with 155 pages of abstracts from foreign journals. Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie, Band 168, Heft 2 and 3, August 30.—The number commences with two papers from Prof. Beilstein’s laboratory. The first by W. Hemelian is on a new method of preparing the sulpho acids ; the method in ques- tion is a modification of that of Strecker. Dr. E. Wroblevsky communicates a paper on certain haloid derivatives of toluol ; he describes a number of the meta-brom-toluol compounds, and also deals with the para-brom-toluols and the tri-brom-toluols. — The other papers are: On selenic acid and its salts, by Dr. v. Gerichten. He finds that the seleniates are all isomorphous with the corresponding sulphates, and the double salts also agree with the double sulphates. —On the action of tri-sulpho-carbonate and sulpho-carbaminate of ammonium on aldehyde and acetone, by E. Mulder. A number of the compounds resulting from these reactions are described.—On a new mode of forming ortho- toluilic acid, by R. Fittig and William Ramsay. On meta- toluic acid, by C. Boettinger and W. Ramsay.—On ethyl and di-ethyl-allyamine, by A. Rinne. Ethyl-allylamine is isomeric with methyl! crotonylamine, the two bodies having the formulea— C3H 3 N)C,H;and N H C,H, CH, respectively. H The author?describes several of the salts of the former. Di-ethyl- C;H; allylamine N ; C,H; CH; onallylamine. The author describes it and its hydrochlorate and platino-chloride.—Researches on the isomers of cresol with regard to their occurrence in coal tar, by M. S, Southworth.-— Researches on sorbic acid by E. Kachel and R. Fittig.—The number concludes with a very lengthy paper on the actions oc- curring in the inner non-luminous flame of the Bunsen burner, by R. Blochmann. The author has collected and examined the gases from various parts of the flame, and the memoir is illus- trated with two plates showing the apparatus used, and the flames given by the burner under. various treatments, and a diagram showing the percentages of CO, and H,O, given by flames when burning, at various heights above the burner up to 120 millimetres, is produced by the action of ethyl iodide SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES Lonpbon Zoological Society, Nov. 4.—Prof. Newton, F.R.S., vice- president, in the chair. The Secretary read a report on the ad- ditions that had been made to the Society’s menagerie during the months of June, July, August, and September. Mr. G. Dawson Rowley exhibited a singular malformed variety of the Domestic Duck, and the Secretary a collection of fishes (containing six examples of Ceratodus forsteri) made by Mr. 36 NATURE 7 Ms | Mov. 13, 1873 Ramsay, in Queensland.—A communication was read from Mr. B. Perrin, containing an account of the Myology of the Hoatezin (Opisthocomus cristatus).— A communica- tion was read from Capt. R. Beavan, Bengal Staff Corps, containing a list of fishes met with in the River Ner- budda, in India.—A second communication from Capt. Beavan contained some remarks on certain difficulties involved in the acceptance of the Darwinian theory of evolution. —A communi- cation was read from Mr. Montague R. Butler, containing de- scriptions of several new species of Diurnal Lepidoptera—A communication was read from Mr. R. Swinhoe, H.B.M. Consul at Chefoo, on the Song-Jay of Northern China, with further notes on Chinese ornithology. —Mr. P. L.Sclater, F.R.S., exhibited and pointed out the characters of fourteen new species of birds col- lected by Signor Luigi Maria D’Albertis during his recent expedition into the interior of New Guinea.—A communica- tion was read from Prof. J. V. Barboza du Bocage, on the Ground Hornbill of Southern Africa —Auceros carunculatus cafer of Schlegel. —A second communication from Prof. Barboza du Bocage contained a note on the habitat of Auprepes coctet, Dum. et Bibr.—A communication was read from Surgeon- Major Francis Day, containing descriptions of new or little known Indian fishes.—Mr. R. B,. Sharpe, read a paper de- scribing the contents of a collection of birds recently received from Mombas in Eastern Africa. —A second paper by Mr. R. B. Sharpe contained a list of a collection of birds from the River Congo.—Mr. G. B, Sowerby, jun., communicated the descrip- tions of eleven new species of shells.—A communication was read from Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S., on the skulls and alveolar surfaces of Land Tortoises, Zestudinata. Linnean Society, Noy. 6.—Mr. G. Bentham, president, in the chair.—Before the commencement of proceedings, this being the first occasion of the meeting of the society in its new rooms in Burlington House, the president gave an address on the pre- sent relation of Government towards the learned societies, which will be found elsewhere.—A resolution was then proposed by Dr. Hooker, seconded by Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys, and carried unanimously, recognising the obligations of the Linnean Society towards the Government for the handsome accommodation now for the first time provided independently for it—On Aydnora americana, by Dr. J. D. Hooker. In his monograph of the Rafflesiaceze in De Candolle’s ‘‘ Prodromus,” Dr. Hooker had thrown some doubt on the correctness of De Bary’s de- scription Hydnora, and on the close affinity which he traced between it and Prosobanche. Further investigation has, however, amply confirmed the accuracy of De Bary’s description. A very great difficulty is presented, from the point of view of the theory of evolution, in the occurrence of two species of this genus, one in South Africa and one in South America, so closely resembling one another in every point of their structure, and both root-parasites, that it is impossible to look upon them otherwise than as very nearly related. The only possible con- nection between them would appear to be through Cytinus, another nearly allied genus of root-parasites, species of which are natives both of South Africa and of South and North America. Chemical Society, Nov. 6.—Dr. Odling, F.R.S., presi- dent, in the chair.—The president delivered a short address, to which we refer elsewhere, congratulating the Fellows on taking possession of their new rooms in Burlington House. A paper was then read by Mr. David Howard on the optical properties of some modifications of the cinchona alkaloids, being an elaborate investigation of the variations in the rotatory powers of this class of bodies when examined - by the polarimeter. The other communications were—a prell- minary notice on the oils of wormwood and citronella, by Dr. C. R. A. Wright; on the estimation of nitrates in potable waters, by Mr. W. F. Donkin; and a note on the action of iodine trichloride upon carbon disulphide, by Mr. J. B. Hannay. Royal Microscopical Society, Nov. 5.—Chas. Brooke, F.R.S., president, in the chair. A paper by the Rev. W. H. Dallinger was read, describing some further researches made by himself and Dr. Drysdale on the development of certain monads, in the course of which they had been able to trace the life-his- tory of a species, although in their earliest stages these organisms were so minute as to require an objective of =}; in. for their ob- servation. A number of beautifully executed drawings accom- panied the paper.—Mr. Alfred Sanders read a paper on the art of photographing microscopic objects, in which he described a simple and successful process of manipulation, and showed how the most satisfactory results might be obtained without the aid of expensive and complicated apparatus.—A paper was also read by Mr. S. J. McIntire, entitled ‘‘Some Notes on Acarel- lus,” in which he minutely described a species found parasitic upon Obisium, and which he believed to be identical with Hypopus, described by Dujardin. Specimens both mounted and alive were exhibited under the Society’s microscopes.— Some photographs of Waviculalyra and Amphipleura pellucida, taken by Dr. J. J. Woodward, were also exhibited. PARIS Academy of Sciences, November 3.—M. de Quatrefageas president, in the chair.—The following papers were read :— An analysis and criticism of an “ Essay on the Constitution and Origin of the Solar System, by M. Roche,” by M. Faye.—On the mutual action of voltaic currents by M. Bertrand. On the verification of Baume’s hydrometer, by MM. Berthelot, Coulier, and d’Almeida.—On certain calorimetric values and problems, by M. Berthelot.—Observations of the solar protuberances dur- ing the last six solar rotations (April 23 to October 2, 1873) with some consequences aftecting the theory of the spots, by Father Secchi. In this paper Secchi continued his observations, por- tions of which appeared in the first half of the year. The author again asserted that the spots are the product of eruptions, and ob- served that some metals were more opaque than others, 4g., a sodium eruption gave a very black spot. He admitted, however, that some spots ‘existed without eruptions. —Researches on the thermic effects accompanying the compression of liquids, by MM. Favre and Laurent.—MM. Morin and Phillips presented a report on M. Graeff’s paper on the 7égime of rivers and the effects of a multiple system of reservoirs. —Memoir on experimental terato- logy, by M. C. Dareste.—On a map of the world on a gnomonic projection, &c., by M. B. de Chancourtois.—The following papers were presented to the Academy :—Observations on M. Dubois’ paper on the influence of refraction at the moment of contact of Venus with the Sun’s limb, by M. Oudemans.—On a new volatile saccharine matter extracted from Madagascar rubber, by M. Aimé Girard.—On the cooling effects produced by the joint actions of capillarity and evaporation: Evaporation of carbonic disulphide on porous paper, by M. C. Decharme.-— Crigin and formation of the dental follicule in the mammiferze, by MM. Magitot and Legros.—On capillary embolism and he~ morrhagic infarctus, by M. Bouchut.—Observations on M.Pellarin’s note on choleraic dejections as agents in the propagation of that disease, by M. H. Blanc. —On the different practical problems of aérial navigation, by M. W. de Fonvielle.—On the formation of swellings on the rootlets of the vine, by M. Max. Cornu.— Observations on M. Guérin Meéneville’s suggestion that the FAy/- Joxera isa result of the vine disease.—Note on the best dimen- sions for electro-magnets, by M. Th. du Moncel.—On a proeess for the preparation of active amylic alcohol, by M. J. A. Le Bel. —On the influence which certain gases exercise on the preser- vation of eggs, and on the influence of certain substances in the preservation of eggs, by Mr. C. Calvert.—On the metamorphism and physiological changeability of certain microphytes under the influence of media and on the relation of these phenomena to th initial cause of fermentation, &c., by M. J. Duval.—On the action of the respiratory apparatus after the opening of the thoracic cavity, by MM. Carlet and Strauss.—On the different properties and structures of the red and white muscle in rabbits and in rays, by M. Ranvier.—On scurvy and its treatment, by M. Champouillon. —On telluric intoxication, by M. L. Colin.—On the calcareous spar of the green marles of Chennevitre, by M. Stan. Meunier. CONTENTS PAGE On THE MepicaL CurRICULUM . . . ache? pe z 2r THE SOUTHERN UPLANDS OF SCOTLAND . a Se eae LocaL SCIENTIFIC SocIETIES. , SURES att 5 24 TuHORPE’S ‘‘ QUANTITATIVE Anatysis” |. . « - 0 netgear LETTERS TO THE EpDIToR :— The Management of the British Museum.—Prof. W. STANLEY JEvons, F.R.S. 26- On the Equilibrium of Temperature of a Gaseous Column subject to Gravity.—G HansEMANN . . ome tray Periodicity of Rainfall.—G. J. Symons . . 27 Tue Common Froc, IV. By St. Georce Mivarr. F. R = (With Illustrations) . . s 38 INAUGURATION OF THE LINNEAN Society's New Rooms OrentnG ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT. - . rary es) INAUGURATION OF THE CHEMICAL Society’ 's New Rooms. oes eae Norges . 33 PuysicaL GzoGRAPHY AND TERRESTRIAL Moutusca ‘OF THE Bauama IsLANDS |. Suh a Series i ScienTiFIC SERIALS» (Sega Ghee Secu cic) ar muyekh) ), cl SOGISTIRS AND ACADEMIES. a) (0:0 :0)!s isis: eeiw ) gslye) me ww ac oe SS WAT ORE 37 THURSDAY, NOVEMBER 20, 1873 THE ARCTIC EXPEDITION OF 1874 HE prospect of the Government being convinced of the propriety of despatching an Arctic Expedition, really seems to be brightening. We expressed some appre- hension, when the Royal Geographical Society addressed the late Chancellor of the Exchequer on the subject last year, that sufficient pains were not taken to have all branches of Science represented in the Deputation, and that, consequently, the importance of the results of Arctic Research had not been completely explained. There is no cause for any such doubt on the present occasion. The matter has been most carefully and maturely con- sidered by a joint committee appointed by the Councils of the Royal and the Royal Geographical Societies, and consisting of representatives of various departments of Science as well as of the most eminent Arctic authorities, A memorandum has been drawn up, and submitted to the Council of the Royal Society, in which the scientific results to be obtained from the examination of the un- known area round the North Pole are set forth; the different sections having been prepared by men who are in the first rank as authorities in their particular depart- ments of study—namely, geography, hydrography, geodesy, physics, meteorology, geology, botany, zoology, and anthro- pology. The memorandum also includes a carefully prepared statement, drawn up by distinguished Arctic authorities of the practical aspects of the question, the composition of such an expedition, the precautions that should be taken, and the best route. The Royal Society is a body which, from its high posi- tion and from its strong sense of responsibility, never takes action without very careful and mature previous consideration. When this body once adopts a course on any question, the public can always feel satisfied that it kas first received the closest attention, in all its bearings, from men of the highest attainments. The memorandum of the Committee has been before the Council, and we are able to announce that the value of the scientific re- sults to be derived from Arctic exploration has been recognised, and that the Royal Society is prepared to represent to the Government the desirability of under- taking the discovery of the unknown region, _ With the object of inducing the Government to under- take a North Polar Expedition, the Council of the Royal Society has appointed a deputation to represent their views, consisting of Dr. Hooker, the President-elect, Prof. Huxley, Prof. Allman, Mr. Prestwich, Mr. Busk, Mr. Sclater, and Genera! Strachey. The British Association has also appointed a Com- mittee with the same object. The Royal Geographical Society will be represented by its President, Sir Bartle Frere, Sir Henry Rawlinson, the veteran Arctic explorer, Sir George Back, and Admi- rals Collinson, Ommanney, and Sherard Osborn. The Dundee Chamber of Commerce is also deeply impressed with the practical importance of discovery in the unknown area, and has drawn up a memorial to be presented to the Prime Minister, through the member, Sir John Ogilvy. Dundee is not only the principal VoL, 1xX.—No, 212 whaling port of Great Britain, but is also the centre of a great and thriving industry, namely, the manufacture of jute, the growth of which employs millions of ryots in Bengal. Now, in the process of preparing the jute fibre, the use of animal oil is essential, so that the business of chasing whales and narwhals in the Arctic seas is of the utmost importance to the cultivators of the Gangetic delta. One industry supports the other, and India, as well as Great Britain, has an interest in Arctic discovery. The Chamber of Commerce, considering the vast in- terests at stake, holds it to be most important that the unknown polar region should be explored, in order that a more complete knowledge may be acquired of the haunts, migrations, numbers, and habits of the various oil” yielding “animals. The Chamber also feels the advan- tages derived from Arctic expeditions by the best among the experienced mates and harpooners who obtain em- ployment, and indirectly by the whole seafaring popu- lation of the west coast of Scotland. Nor are the bold seamen and enterprising manufacturers of the northern ports, any more than the naval officers and men of science, indifferent to the old renown of their country, and to the immense advantages which are derived from voyages of discovery. The events of the last year have strengthened the arguments in favour of an Arctic Expedition. We believe that the despatch of a naval officer to Baffin’s Bay last spring was due to the forethought of Admiral Sherard Osborn. The choice was undoubtedly a fortunate one, for Captain Markham entered heart and soul into the spirit of the service on which he was employed. He studied the new system of ice navigation, and of handling powerful steamers in the ice with minute attention. He had the rescued crew of the Polaris on board for several months, and learned from Dr. Bessels and Mr. Chester all the particulars of their extraordinarily successful voyage. Nothing escaped him, and on his return he submitted a full and most valuable report. Thus the fact that a ship can pass up Smith Sound to 82° 16’ N. with- out check of any description, unknown before, is now established, as well as the constant movement and drift of the ice in the strait leading to the unknown region. The revolution in ice navigation, caused by the use of powerful steamers, is also more fully understood and appreciated through the report of Captain Markham. The deputation which is about to seek an interview with Mr, Gladstone and Mr. Goschen, is thus strength- ened with fresh arguments and with a more exact and complete statement of the objects of Arctic research. It will represent interests which cannot be neglected, and bodies whose individual opinions must needs carry great weight. There will be the Royal Society, the recognised adviser of the Government on all matters relating to Science ; the Royal Geographical Society, the British Association, and the Dundee Chamber of Commerce representing the interests of a great industry and of the sea-faring population of Scotland. The navy will also be fully represented, and the leading Arctic authorities will be present, acting in perfect unanimity as regards the route to be taken and the work to be done. We believe that such a deputation must have consider- able influence on the decision of the Government, and that there is every prospect of sanction being given to D 38 NATURE [ Vou. 20, 1873 the fitting out of a naval Arctic expedition in 1874. Mr. Goschen is, we have reason to think, now conversant with the subject, and, as the Minister whose duty it is to ad- vance and foster the interests of the British navy, it is imposible that he can fail to see the advantages of Arctic service. He is supported, at the Admiralty, by Sir Alexander Milne, who has ever been friendly to such enterprises, and sensible of the excellent school for nnval men afforded by voyages of discovery ; and by Admiral Richards, the hydrographer, whose sound judgment and great Arctic experience render his advice most valuable. The Prime Minister, with whom the decision will rest, is a statesman who well knows the general, as well as the scientific uses of Arctic enterprise. He formed one of that Ministry which despatched the last scientific expedi- tion to the Arctic Regions; and, as a member of the Select Committee of the House of Commons on Sir John Ross’s case, he signed a report expressing his approval of Arctic voyages in the strongest terms—“ A public service is rendered to a maritime country, especially in times of peace, by deeds of daring, enterprise, and patient endur- ance of hardship, which excite the public sympathy and enlist the general feeling in favour of maritime adven- ture.” Such were, and we trust still are, the views of Mr. Gladstone with reference to the general uses of Arctic voyages of discovery. When to these general impres- sions are added a knowledge of the important scientifie and practical results to be attained, the assurance that there is no undue risk, that the cost will be comparatively slight, and the good both to the navy and to mercantile interests incalculable, we cannot bring ourselves to believe that the decision of Mr. Gladstone will not be favourable to a renewal of Arctic research, LOCAL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES * Il. LTOGETHER, so faras we have been able to ascer- tain,t the number of existing local societies t which have for their main, or only asa part of their object the cul- ture of Science, that were established in the years between 1781 and 1830, are only 22. We shallsee that the increase since 1830 has been enormous, though the large majority of those established during the last forty-three years are of a much more simple kind, so far as organisation is concerned, than those established during the former period, have to a great extent a different object in view or rather accomplish the intellectual improvement of the members after a different fashion, and are, we think, thoroughly characteristic of the scientifically inquisitive and increasingly intelligent period during which they have been established. Not many “ Literary and Philosophi- cal Societies” have been established during the latter period, most of them being professedly devoted to study and research in Science, especially in natural history, in all or one of its branches, and a large majority of them being Field Clubs, as those associations are called, the whole or part of whose programme is to investigate the natural history (including botany, zoology, and geology) of particular districts, in combination sometimes with * Continued from vol. viii. p. 524. + We regret to say that none of the Edinburgh Societies have seen meet to forward us information, t We do not include in this article the great London Societies, as the Royal, the Linnean, the Astronomical, &c. their archzology. Indeed the last forty years might well be designated the era of field clubs. We have already mentioned the Northumberland, Dur- ham, and Newcastle Natural History Society, established in 1829, which, although it has done some excellent field- club work, was not professedly established for this pur- pose. There can be no doubt that the first genuine field- club was the Berwickshire Naturalists’ Club, founded September 21, 1831, though Sir Walter Elliot traces the true origin of field-clubs to an association of students, formed in 1823 at the University of Edinburgh, under the name of the Plinian Society, for the advancement of the “study of natural history, antiquities, and the physical sciences in general.” They met weekly in the evening during the session, from November to July, for reading papers and discussions ; and also, as the season advanced, made occasional excursions into the neighbouring country. The chief promoters of the scheme were three brothers named Baird, from Berwickshire ; but John, the eldest, must be considered the founder. He drew up an elaborate code of laws in eighteen chapters, and, as the first presi- dent, made a statement of the proposed plan and objects of the society at their inaugural meeting on the 14th January 1823. Among the original members occur the names of James Hardie, J. Grant Malcolmson (both Indian geologists), and Dr. John Coldstream ; and, at a later period, those of Charles Darwin* (of Shrewsbury, 1826), John Hutton Balfour (1827), and Hugh Falconer (1828), with others who have since become distinguished in the scientific and literary world. The latest notice of the society is the session of 1829-30, up to which time the Bairds, although they had left the University, appear as occasional contributors. Nodoubt this Edinburgh Association had considerable in- fluence in originating the Berwickshire Club, for two of the Bairds became parish ministers in Berwickshire, and it was they, along with their brother, the late Dr. William Baird, of the British Museum, Dr. Johnstone, Dr. Embleton, and four or five others, who met at Coldingham on the date above given, and drew up the plan of the Berwickshire Na- turalists’ Club, “a term,” Sir W. Elliot remarks, “now first extended to a scientific body.” Its object was declared to be the “ investigation of the natural history of Berwick- shire and its vicinage ;” in reality its field extends over the whole of Berwickshire, Roxburghshire, and the north- east part of Northumberland, to the limits of the Tyne- side Club’s district. The rules of the club, as all rules should be, are short, providing that the club should hold no property, require no admission fee, and should meet five times in the year at a place and hour to be communi- cated to each member by the secretary. Thus the Berwickshire Club is a field-club pure and simple, having, unlike many other similar clubs, no winter meetings for the reading of papers, whatever papers are read being read after dinner on the days when excursions are made. At the first anniversary it numbered 27 members, and in 1870, when Sir Walter Elliot gave his address, there were 249 members on the roll, including a few ladies, and “ two corresponding members, the last description having been * The first paper contributed by him, entitled “On the Ova of the Flustra,” in which he announces that he has discovered organs of motion, and, secondly, that the small black body hitherto mistaken for the young of Fucus loyeus is in reality the ovum of Portobdella muricata, exhibits his early habits of minute investigation. ne eee Nov. 20, 1873 | NATURE 39 added in 1868 to admit intelligent working-men,” though why this invidious distinction should be maintained in a body solely devoted to scientific research, we fail to see ; surely Science at least is a common ground on which all classes can meet without a shadow of bitter class-feeling to mar the geniality of intercourse. The more that the higher tastes and recreations are common to all classes, the less room will there be for misunderstanding and bit- terness. If a working-man can pay the subscription— and the field-club subscription is usually small, and work- ing-men’s wages are now unusually high—by all means let them be received on a common footing with the other members. Many of our best field-clubs are composed almost entirely of working-men, and every encourage- ment should be given to this class to join such clubs, for, morally and intellectually, we think they will reap more benefit from such associations than any other class. The Berwickshire Club continues to be one of the most efficient and productive in the country, the fruits of its excursions being contained in six goodly volumes, con- taining many valuable papers on the natural history and archeology of its large district, and extensive and care- fully compiled lists of the existing and extinct fauna and flora. As the Berwickshire Club is the model after which, to some extent, all succeeding field-clubs have been formed, we shall here give from Sir Walter Elliot’s address, its simple and inexpensive method of conducting its field- days :—‘‘ Arrangements are made with the railway com- panies for the issue of tickets on favourable terms. The members assemble at breakfast at 9.30, after which the programme of the day is explained, and any objects of interest procured since the last meeting are exhibited and described, At 11 the party proceeds on foot or by con- veyance to the points indicated, breaking into sections for botanical, geological, or antiquarian research, and either meeting again at some convenient spot, or return- ing independently to dinner at 4 o’clock. The members present rarely exceed from 30 to 50, often fewer, Of course. the hive contains a considerable proportion of drones who rarely appear, ladies never. The distances are so great, the excursions so thoroughly directed to in- vestigation, that few but those intent on work attend. After a frugal repast, the staple of which is a fine salmon invariably sent from Berwick, papers are read and dis- cussed, and the members disperse according to the exi- gencies of their trains. The whole expenses of the day vary from four to five shillings per head.” In the decade between 1830 and 1840, other sixteen local societies were formed, many of which, though not professedly field-clubs, have done, through individual members, good field-club work, as is testified by their publications, and have otherwise done much to promote the cause of Science in the neighbourhood. It was during this period that the Cornwall Polytechnic Society (already mentioned), the Penzance Natural Historyand Antiquarian Society, the Royal Institution of South Wales, the Ludlow Natural History Society, and the West Riding Geological and Polytechnic Society, were formed, each of which, in its own particular fashion, does good service to Science, and helps to keep the lamp of culture burning in its neighbourhood. No other regular field-club was instituted until nearly fifteen years after the foundation of the Berwickshire Club, when a sort of offshoot of that Society was formed in 1846 in Newcastle-on-Tyne, under the title of the Tyneside Naturalists’ Field Club, which, “guided by the experience of the parent club, at once assumed a perfect organisation.” The constitution was, however, somewhat amplified, a proviso being put in the rules that should assuredly have a place in the rules of every similar society in the kingdom. Its last rule, we think, worthy of all commendation and universal imitation’; it is as follows :— “That the Club shall endeavour to discourage the prac- tice of removing rare plants from the localities of which they are characteristic, and of risking the extermination of rare birds and other animals by wanton persecution ; that the members be requested to use their influence with landowners and others, forthe protection of the characteris- tic birds of the country, and to dispel the prejudices which are leading to their destruction ; and that consequently the rarer botanical specimens collected at the Field Meet- ings be chiefly such as can be gathered without disturbing the roots of the plants ; and that notes on the habits of birds be accumulated instead of specimens, by which our closet collections would be enriched only at the expense of nature’s great museum out of doors. That in like manner the club shall endeavour to cultivate a fuller knowledge of the local antiquities, historical, popular, and idiomatic, and to promote a taste for carefully pre- serving the monuments of the past from wanton injury.” We have more than once recently in noticing the pro- ceedings of some societies, and it has been animadverted on in other quarters, referred to the pernicious practice of encouraging, by the offer of prizes for rare specimens, especially of plants, the extermination of the rare flora peculiar to certain districts. One of the prime duties of every local club should be the preservation of such rare specimens, the fact of whose existence is often of great value from a scientific point of view, and the destruction of which, by transference to a herbarium, can serve no good purpose whatever. The Tyneside Club is divided into six sections, each charged with a special department for investigation :—1, Mammalia and Ornithology ; 2, Am- phibia, Ichthyology, Radiata; 3, Mollusca, Crustacea, Zoophytes; 4, Entomology; 5, Botany; 6, Geology. This club holds meetings during the winter in Newcastle. Up to 1864, it had published six volumes of very valuable Transactions. In that year an arrangement was come to whereby the members (numbering 429), became associ- ates of the Northumberland, Durham, and Newcastle Na- tural History Society, already referred to. Thenceforth, as we have already said, the proceedings of the two bodies have been published conjointly under the title of “Na- tural History Transactions of Northumberland and Durham,” of which three volumes have been published. “The work of the Club,” Sir Walter Elliott says, “has been most conspicuous in zoology. It has the merit of publishing its lists and catalogues in a separate form for sale, so as to make them accessible to all inquirers.” We cannot mention in detail the foundation of the swarm of field-clubs which have come into existence in the various parts of the country since 1846; we can only allude very briefly to two of the most important, the Cotteswold and the Woolhope, the former an offshoot of the Berwickshire Club. The originators of the Cottes- wold Field Club, which, like the Tyneside Club, was started in 1846, were Sir Thomas Tancred (who had been 40 NATURE [Wov. 20, 1873 Baker (the well-known originator of the “ Reformatory System”), Dr. Daubeny, of Oxford, Hugh Strickland, and some others, who met “at the Black Bull Inn, in Birdlip, avillage on the summit of the Cotteswold range over- looking the vales of Gloucester and Worcester, about six miles south of Cheltenham, and seven south-west of Glou- cester.” There the club was inaugurated, Mr. Baker being elected the first president. “The labours of the club have | been most conspicuous in geological investigation, for which the district offers such a rich field. Many of the members have, by their recorded observations, attained to high distinction. In the words of the president, ‘It will suffice to mention the names of Daubeny, Strickland, Woodward, Maskelyne, Wright, Moore, Buckman, Jones, Lycett, Brodie, Symonds, Maw, and Etheridge, all mem- bers of the club, to recall at once names of writers well known in the scientific annals of the county, and of whom some have by their works obtained a more than Euro- pean reputation.’ ” The Woolhope Club, in Bedfordshire, whose publi- cations are also well known as among the most valuable of those of provincial societies, was formed in 1851, and derived its name from the mass of Silurian rocks described by Sir Roderick Murchison as the “ Woolhope Valley of Elevation.” This club and the Cotteswold have occa- sional joint field days, and their example is followed by several other societies, anc might, we think, with advantage be followed much more extensively than it is. The Worcestershire Naturalists’ Club originated in the same year as the Cotteswold, followed the year after by the Huddersfield Naturalists’ Society, and in 1849 by the Yorkshire Naturalists’ Club. Besides the four field-clubs mentioned, other six societies originated in this decade, most of them distinctly scientific, including the Torquay Natural History Society, the Bristol Microscopic Society, and the Isle of Wight Philosophical and Scientific So- ciety. In the decade between 1850 and 1860, twenty-two local scientific societies were founded, of which six- teen are field-clubs, including such well-known names as the Woolhope, just mentioned, the London Geologists’ Association, the Liverpool Naturalists’ Field Society, the Bath Natural History and Antiquarian Field Club, and the Malvern Field Club. (To be continued.) HARTWIG’S “SEA AND ITS WONDERS” The Sea and its living Wonders. A popular account of the Marvels of the Deep, and of the progress of Mari- time Discovery from the earliest ages to the present time. By Dr. G. Hartwig. Fourth edition, enlarged and improved, with numerous woodcuts and eight chromoxylographic plates. (London : Longmans, 1873.) O other evidence is needed beyond the publication of the fourth edition of this work to prove the de- mand there is in Great Britain for this kind of literature, The reading public want to know what about the sea, and all that is in it ; and, in their eagerness to know, they buy even such books as this. When will scientific men turn their attention towards teaching the public as far as it can a member of the Berwickshre Club), Mr. T. B. Lloyd | be taught, in a correct, yet popular manner, the rudiments of biological-science? When they do the time for such books as the one we must now notice will have passed away, and the resources of the great publishing firm who issue it will be engaged on more truly solid and im- portant work. As an indication of what we mean, let us contrast the popular works of Hartwig or Figuier with Quatrefages’ “Souvenirs d’une Naturaliste,” or Gosse’s “Devonshire Rambles ;” or let the reader imagine what a delightful work the one before us would have been if written by, say Huxley, Allman, Giinther, or Wyville Thomson. But to return to this volume, which consists of three parts ; (1) the Physical Geography of the Sea ; (2) the Inhabitants of the Sea; (3) the Progress of Maritime Discovery. The latter part commences with the maritime discoveries of the Phoenicians, and ends with a reference of sixteen lines in length to the numerous scientific voyages of circumnavigation of the present century. Before proceeding to very briefly notice Parts I. and IL., we have to object most strongly to the woodcuts not being drawn to any scale; thus, on page tor the Rorqual is figured as rather smaller than the Herring, while, on the same page, and just above these figures, will be found a Whale Louse, and a Lepas represented as bigger than either. Surely figures like these must terribly mislead the ordinary reader, who, though he may possibly have some notion of the size of a herring, cannot be supposed to be aware of the dimensions of the whale’s parasites. Many of the woodcuts are very good, but several of them are bad, and the majority of them are not seen in this volume for the first time ; this we would not so much ob- ject to if the woodcuts were selected to illustrate the text, and not, as is too often the case in this work, the text written so as to make some forced allusion to the woodcuts. Though the Dugong is illustrated by copying the woodcut from Tennent’s work on Ceylon, yet scarcely a word is to be found about it in the chapter on the Cetacea. The Tailor birds’ nest is figured on page 143, but no allu- sion whatever is made to it in the text. The great Auk is figured, and in the accompanying explanation is said to congregate in vast flocks on the rocky islets and head- lands of the Northern Coasts. Surely a little careful supervision would have prevented such mistakes as these occurring. But leaving the subject of the woodcuts, we come to consider the letterpress ; and here, too, not only a more careful supervision, but some more acquaintance with the subject would have been desirable. Why, among the Fishes, should the Anchovy have five lines devoted to it, when not one word is to be found about that equally important little fish, the Sardine? and surely half a page would not have been too much to devote to that interest- ing living wonder of the sea, the Whitebait. It would be an easy, but withal a useless task to point out other errors of omission and commission among the other classes. Among the Corals and Sponges the author had enough to guide him, for he has borrowed wholesale the really beautiful woodcuts illustrating Prof. Greene’s Manuals ; if he had borrowed equally largely from their text, he would have made this the most trustworthy portion of his book. No notice is taken of such important new forms as | Rhizocrinus, or Brissinga, nor do we find mention under Nov. 20, 1873 | NATURE 41 the Sponges of such strikingly beautiful ones as belong to the genera Euplectella, Holtenia, &c., though, indeed, some allusion is made to these in the chapter on the geo- graphical distribution of marine life, But perhaps we have said enough to show that while the subject of this work is a good one, it might easily have been treated by a writer more familiar with it in a better, a more original, and a more comprehensive manner. E. P. W. OUR BOOK SHELF The Theory of Evolution of Living Things. G. Henslow. (Macmillan and Co.) SCIENTIFIC men cannot but feel how false is the stimulus given to that form of literature of which the above-named work is an example. If considerable pecuniary reward is offered for the production of treatises in favour of any theory, or of the mutual compatibility of any two or more different doctrines, the work will undoubtedly be produced, however inaccurate the theory, or however dissimilar the doctrines. That mistaken enthusiasm which led to the production of the Bridgwater Treatises and the establish- ment of the Actonian Prize, has resulted in the publica- tion during the last year of two Actonian prize essays, the former of which, by Mr. B. T. Lowne, we noticed on a previous occasion, whilst the latter is the one under consideration. The present author's treatment of his subject is much that which would have been adopted by Paley if he had been living at the present day. Several previously accepted axioms are shown to be incompatible with the existing position of biological science, and their weakness is well brought forward. Other considerations of modern development are introduced, and it is in these that the difficulty of combining the two doctrines appears. For instance, the origin of moral evil is said to be “the conscious abuse of means, instead of using them solely for the ends for which they were designed.” But on evo- lutionary principles, it can hardly be said that there are means for designed ends, because that peculiarity in an organ which is of service is the only one retained, inso- much that if the delicate sensitiveness of the conjunctiva of the eye were to prove of more value to the individual than its sight, the power of vision would most probably become lost at the expense of the developing tactile organ. ‘The continual effort of beings to arrive at mutual and beneficial adjustments” is said to be a great principle of nature ; does not the term “struggle for exist- ence” imply something very different from this? Again, that “animals and plants do not live where circumstances may be best suited to them, but where they caz, or where other animals and plants will respectively let them live,” is quoted by the author as an instance of Nature falling short of that absolute degree of perfection which may be conceived as possible ; however, there cannot be many who think a locality a suitable residence, in which they are prevented from taking up their abode, or perhaps entering, by the animals and plants which inhabit it. In other places similar weaknesses may be found in the argument adopted. In one thing Mr. Henslow has done great good : he has shown that it is consistent with a full dogmatic belief, to hold opinions very different from those taught as natural theology some half century and more ago. By Rev. LELTLERS LO THE EORROR [Zhe Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. No notice is taken of anonymous communications. | Transfer of the South Kensington Museum I Am glad to see that an effective opposition is likely to be made to the ill-advised proposal of the Government to place the | South Kensington Collections under the control of the fifty irre- sponsible Trustees of the British Museum, In common with many other naturalists I had always hoped that the national collections of natural history, when removed to the new buildings in South Kensington, would be freed from the rule of the Trustees and placed under a responsible director. The memorial of which I enclose a copy, and the re- publication of which would, I think, be opportune at the present juncture, will serve to show that I am by no means alone in believing that such a change would be beneficial to Science. It would seem, however, that the Government, so far from acceding to our views, have resolved to proceed in exactly the contrary direction, and to increase the power of the Trustees. I can only hope that we may succeed in preventing them from carrying this retrograde measure into effect. P, L. SCLATER 44, Elvaston Place Queen’s Gate, Nov. 17 * Copy of a Memorial presented to the Right Hon. the Chancellor of the Exchequer **To the Rt. Hon, the Chancellor of the Exchequer ‘« Sir,—It having been stated that the scientific men of the metropolis are, as a body, entirely opposed to the removal of the natural history collections from their present situation in the British Museum, we, the undersigned Fellows of the Royal, Linnean, Geological, and Zoological Societies of London, beg leave to offer to you the following expression of our opinion upon the subject. ** We are of opinion that it is of fundamental importance to the progress of the natural sciences in this country, that the adminis- tration of the national natural history collections should be separated from that of the library and art collections, and placed under one officer, who should be immediately responsible to one of the Queen’s Ministers. “*We regard the exact locality of the National Museum of Natural History as a question of comparatively minor import- ance, provided that it be conveniently accessible and within the metropolitan district. GEORGE BENTHAM, F.R.S. WILLIAM B. CARPENTER, M.D., F.R.S. W.S. Dattas, F.L.S: CHARLES DARWIN, F.R.S. F. DucANE GopMAN, F.L.S. J. H. Gurney, F.Z.S. EpWarRD HAMILTON, M.D., F JoserH D. Hooker, M.D., F. Tuomas H. Hux ey, F.R.S. JouN Kirk, F.L.S. LizForb, F.L.S. ALFRED NEWTON, F.L S, W. KITcHEN PARKER, F.R.S. ANDREW Ramsay, F.R.S. ARTHUR RUSSELL, M.P. OSBERT SALVIN, F.L.S. P. L. SCLATER, F.R.S. G, ScLATER-Boorh, M.P. S. James A. SaLTer, F.R.S. W. H. Simeson, F.Z.S. J. EMMERSON TENNENT, F.R.S. THomas THOMSON, M.D., F.R.S. H. B. TRisTRAM, I. L.S. WALDEN, F.L.S. ALFRED R. WALLACE, F.Z.S. **London, May 14, 1866” LS. R.S. Deep-sea Soundings and Deep-sea Thermometers WILL you allow me to reply to a letter from Messrs. Negrettt and Zambra that appeared in vol. viii. p. 529, in reference to my Caselia-Miller Deep Sea Thermometer, in which they accuse me and the late respected Dr. Miller of “‘ plagiarism.” I presume, by this remark, that they intend to convey the idea of their own introduction haying been imitated, because they state also that “their thermometer is identical in every re- spect except in size.’’ Without venturing to trespass upon your valuable space by now going into more detail to prove the con- 42 trary, I will merely remark that if you, or any of your numerous readers who may feel interested in this subject, will favour me with avisit to my establishment, I shall be happy to give the fullest explanation as well as show the great difference existing between the two, will point out the cause of failure in their arrangement, and also the reason of the complete success of my own thermometer. Though perhaps it is unfortunate for your eorrespondents that their reference to Dr. Miller was not made during his lifetime, yet, admitting that he said he was not aware of their arrange- ment, I must ask in all seriousness, What had their thermometer accomplished to make any one acquainted with it? Facts speak for themselves. Their arrangement still remains without result, whilst my thermometer, which has solved the great problem of the true temperature of the sea even at its greatest depths, has been adopted not only by our own Government, but also by all the principal Governments and scientific authorities throughout the world. Louis P. CASELLA 147 Holborn Bars, Nov. 3 Squalus spinosus On the 9th inst. the fishermen of Durgan, in Helford Harbour, sent for me to look at a fish new to them, which had been caught (with a $d. hook) on the preceding night near its entrance, Congers had been numerous, but suddenly ceased to bite. The fish (a spinous shark) had been hooked in the corner of its mouth, out of the reach of its sharp teeth, had wound the line many times round its body, which was 7 ft. in length, and 30 in, in girth, being longer and more slender than one of which I sent a notice to the Royal Cornwall Institution 38 years ago. The back, sprinkled over with spines, was of a dark grey colour, the belly nearly white. It wasa male fish. The lobes of the liver were 4 ft. in length. In the stomach was a partially digested dogfish, 2 ft. long. The upper lobe of the tail was muscular and long, perhaps to aid its ground feeding, the lower lobe more marked than in Dr. A. Smith’s drawing, as given by Yarrel, and entirely unlike that of the Filey Bay specimen. Twelve hours or more after its capture, when all external signs of life had disappeared, I was surprised to observe the regular pulsations of the heart. Prof. Huxley has not observed a correspondence between the mass and large convolutions of the brain of a porpoise and its intellectual power. Several years ago a herd of porpoises was scattered by a net, which I had got made, to enclose some of them. It was strong enough to catch tigers if set in the straits of Singapore, across which they sometimes swim. The whole ‘‘sculle” was much alarmed, two were secured. I conclude that their companions retained a vivid remembrance of the sea-fight, as these cetacea, although frequent visitants in this harbour previously, and often watched for, were not seen in it again for two years or more. Trebah, Falmouth, Oct. 27 Co rox Zodiacal Light Ir is a matter for regret that with the magnificent oppor- tunities of investigating the character of the “Zodiacal Light afforded to Maxwell Hall by his elevated position in Jamaica, he does not seem to have brought the powers of either the spectro- scope or polariscope to bear on it. I think the full importance of the inquiry is hardly appreciated by many. Taking the generally accepted theory of the light— that of a lens-shaped disc of luminous matter, with the sun for its centre and a diameter exceeding that of the earth’s orbit—its matter, lying as it does in the plane of the elliptic, actually con- nects us with the sun, and may be the medium through which the solar magnetic forces act upon our own. The intimate connection between solar outbursts, auroras, and terrestrial magnetism is an established fact. To the aurora, the zodiacal light is by many conceived to be nearly allied, and I do not think the evidence hitherto adduced against this theory is at all conclusive. The remarkable wave of light seen by Maxwell Hall is strongly in favour of it ; and though spectroscopic observations seem to point the other way, they are as yet so scanty in number that it would be as unfair to argue from them the want of connection between the two phe- nomena, as it would be to assert that the planets have no volcanic fires of their own because they only give us a reflected solar spectrum, NATURE Assume the zodiacal light to consist of solid particles of mat- ter—planet dust—shining by reflected light, and it is not difficult to imagine the aurora playing amongst these tiny worlds, each of which might have its own small magnetic system, swayed like our own by the master magnet, the sun. So far as my own experience goes I can see no objections to this assumption. Though I have seen the light very brilliant in both its branches, I have never yet found it to have a decided outline. Nor have I been able to trace it either east or west to 180° from the sun. Granting that this can be done, however, the apparent vanishing point of the earth’s shadow lies comparatively near us, and far within this again is the point at which the shadow would subtend only a degree or two of arc, and at which it would be very hard to discern mid the feeble light of this portion of the zodiacal light ; so that a slight extension of the diameter of the disc would remove any objection that might be raised under this head. Imagine one of Saturn’s moons revolving in an orbit within his belts, and fairly embedded in the matter, which, for the sake of the argument, we must assume to be illuminated by the planet. To inhabitants of that satellite each night would bring a pheno- menon closely resembling our zodiacal light, only far more bril- liant. At midnight two cones of light would taper upwards east and west, and meet overhead. The brightest portion of each cone would be that along the axis and nearest the horizon. To- wards the summit and on the borders, where the line of sight would lie through less depths of matter, the light would gra- dually fade away, but from the satellite being embedded in the belt, the entire sky would be more or less luminous. Has it not been noticed on our earth that when the zodiacal light has been seen unusually bright, a ‘‘ phosphorescence ” of the sky was everywhere visible? May this not arise from our solar belt in a somewhat similar manner? From my personal observations I see no reason to givea lenticular form to the disc. Parallel faces would afford a per- spective such as the zodiacal light appears to me. I would urge observers who may be fortunately situated, not to neglect opportunities. So faras Iam ableI shall do my best to aid the work of inquiry, and with the powerful instruments that Browning is forwarding me, placed at an elevation of more than 6,000 ft., under the clear skies of our Indian winter, I trust I shall be able to add something to our knowledge of the zodiacal light. I should feel much indebted to any of your readers who would inform me which is the best adapted polariscope for such researches, and whose (amongst makers) speciality such instru- ments are, EK. H, PRINGLE Camp Udapi, South Canara, Oct. 3 Cold Treatment of Gases ALLOW me to submit to your readers the following sketch o an apparatus for producing extreme cold, by which it might perhaps be practicable to liquefy or even solidify the elementary gases which have hitherto resisted the efforts of chemists. The gas to be operated on is compressed to any required degree by means of one cylinder, is cooled to the lowest conve- nient degree in the ordinary way, passes into an expansion cylinder with a properly arranged cut-off, where in expansion its temperature is still further lowered. From the expansion cylinder it returns back to the compression cylinder, extracting the heat from the counter current proceeding from the compression cylin- der, so that the latter will be always arriving at the expansion cylinder with a continually decreasing temperature. As out here I have no possible means of trying whether there is anything in this idea, I offer it to any of your readers who may feel disposed to try it. Graaff Reinet College, Cape Colony, July 19. T. GuTHRIE ‘The Relation of Man to the Ice-sheet Mr. TIDDEMAN has shown for Yorkshire what I proved six years ago for the South of England in a paper in the Geological Magazine (vol. iy. p. 193), that glacial conditions have obtained in this country since its occupation by Paleolithic man. Unfor- tunately an attempt which I made to explain this coincidence between his result and mine in a letter to the same periodical in February last was rendered abortive by a clerical (or perhaps printer’s) error. I would press upon geologists to consider {[Mov. 20, 1873 WNov. 20, 18°73 | NATURE 43 whether the point proved is not that a glacial period has inter- vened since the times of Palzolithic man and the present, rather than that man existed in this country before the glacial epoch, I think Mr. Tiddeman thinks as I do; but I take the liberty ot stating this view more distinctly. O. FISHER Wave Motion In NATUuRE, vol. viii. p. 506, Mr. Woodward has suggested a simple and ingenious iliustration of wave motion. Could he, or any other correspondent, supply, or refer to, a popular expla- nation of the action of the particles upon each other, to which the propagation of the wave is due? In the case of sound waves, the propagation is comparatively simple, and is fully and clearly explained in Dr. Tyndall’s “ Lec- tures on Sound,” and elsewhere. Helmholtz, in his ‘‘ Popular Lectures,” has figured the motion of the individual particles of which a water wave is composed. And in Sir John Herschel’s “* Familiar Lectures,” there is an elaborate and beautiful demon- stration of the motion of the particles of ether in plane and cir- cularly polarised light ; but neither of these expositions appears to deal with the mode of propagation of the motion by which the wave is formed. On the other hand, Sir Charles Wheatstone’s ingenious model beautifully exemplifies the interaction of waves and their results. But here the waves are produced by the wooden wave forms introduced into the machine, the beads representing the particles remaining fixed in relation to each other. Neither, therefore, can this explain the manner and direction of the actual impact of each particle upon the adjacent one (beginning with those in contact with the source of motion itself), to which, combined with the tendency to yield in the direction of least resistance, the water wave must owe its form, and upon which the still more complicated conception of the light wave must ultimately de- end. : Could a reference be given to any practical explanation of this point, it would confer a benefit on many who are not competent to follow the subject into the higher mathematics. Mor. EB. Sussex, Noy. Elementary Biology I, ALONG with many others, who are desirous of obtaining an insight into Nature, would esteem it a great favour, and it would be of the greatest benefit to us, if any of your scientific readers would undertake to give through your columns a short account of the various low forms of life included under the elementary stage of biology of the Science and Art Department. They might give instruction as to where the various objects could be seen, how inspected, names of the best text-books for the students’ guidance, &c. By so doing, they would secure the praise of many who at present cannot find out the modes of studying such subjects. Hull, Nov. 8 BioLocy Black Rain and Dew Ponds Can any of your readers explain the cause of this pheno- , menon? On Thursday, the 4th Sept., about 5 P.M., in the village of Marlsford, in the valley of the Thames, near Wallingford, a | heavy storm of rain occurred : and the water which fell in several parts of the village was found to be nearly black. It is described as being of sucb a colour as would be produced by mixing ink with water. Another of these black water showers fell during the night of the following Friday. Would any reader of Natur also kindly set forth the theory upon which the utility of the dew ponds, found in many of the highest points of the Berkshire Downs, rests. They are circular ponds made with considerable care, and are supposed to receive so much dew as to supply all the water needed for the sheep in their neighbourhood through the driest summer. Tiverton E, HIGHTON ALBANY HANCOCK HE brief announcement by which some of our readers may have first learnt of the decease of one of our greatest biologists is, in its simplicity, in singular har- mony with the life the close of which it commemorates. The retrospect of so serene a career leaves little to the biographer, for its points seem marked rather by phases of study, as indicated by important scientific memoirs, than by incidents which the world regards as striking or noteworthy. Albany Hancock was born at Newcastle-on-Tyne on Christmas Eve, 1806. His father, Mr. John Han- cock, died some six years later, and of the six little children thus left dependent on their mother, Albany was the third. He received a good education as times then went, and on leaving school was articled to a solicitor of good standing in Newcastle. Uncongenial as was the employment, he served his full term, passed the customary examinations in London, and even took an office in Newcastle with the view of esta- blishing himself in practice. But the occupation was irksome, and he gave it up ere long to join a manufactur- ing firm, and this in turn circumstances led him soon to abandon. The simple fact probably was that neither occupation permitted him to follow the bent of his inclina- tion, and that the desk and counting-house were alike dis- tasteful to a mind pre-engaged as was his by other cur- rents of thought. His early taste for natural history pur- suits was probably in part derived from the collections, chiefly conchological, formed by his father, who was in many ways a man of superior ability, and had been some- thing of a naturalist ; and association with the late Mr. Robertson and Mr. Wingate, the one a botanist, the other an ornithologist, of repute ; with the well-known Mr. Be- wick ; and above all with his near neighbour Mr. Alder, confirmed his inclination in this direction. He was, asa boy, clever with his fingers, and that manual dexterity which in later years served him so well when engaged with dissecting needle and pencil, exhibited itself in many of the pursuits of his early life. The first mention we find of Mr. Hancock’s devotion to natural history is in Mr. Alder’s “ Catalogue of Land and Fresh-water shells,” published in 1830, in which the author handsomely acknowledges the obligations he is under to him and to Mr. John Thornhill “for the com- munication of many habitats observed during their active investigation of this as well as other branches of the natural history of the neighbourhood” of Newcastle. His earliest appearance as an author seems to have been in connection with two short papers in the first volume of “ Jardine’s Magazine of Zoology and Botany,” published in 1836, the one a “ Note on the Occurrence of Raniceps trifurcatus on the Northumberland Coast,” the other a “Note on Falco rujipes, Regulus ignicapillus and Larus minutus.” These notices were, comparatively speaking, of trifling significance, but they were the beginning of a long series of contributions to knowledge which only ceased when his last illness deprived him of the power of continuous work. It is unnecessary here to enumerate the successive memoirs that embody the results of his life’s labour. A catalogue of the original papers of which he was author, or joint author, would extend to something over seventy titles. Early association with Mr, Alder in the study of the mollusca led to the production between the years 1845 and 1855 of their magnificent ‘“‘ Monograph of the British Nudibranchiate Mollusca,” which may still be taken as a standard of excellence amongst such publications. Many of Mr. Hancock’s earlier papers were devoted to the elu- cidation of the boring apparatus of the mollusca, and these were followed by similar researches respecting the excavating power of a group of sponges (C/zova and allied genera) which until that time had been but little known or understood. As an anatomist—and after all it was his large know- ledge of minute anatomy and infinite skill in dissection that gave its especial value to most of his work—he was, perhaps, best known by his elaborate memoir on the Organisation of the Brachiopoda, published in the Philo- 44 NATURE [Vov. 20, 1873 sophical Transactions for 1857; but many other papers of the same thorough and original character proceeded from his pen. Amongst them will be remembered the fol- lowing :—“ On the Olfactory Apparatus in the Bullide” (1852); “On the Nervous Systems of Ommsmastrephes todarus” (1852) ; “ On the Anatomy and Physiology of the Dibranchiate Cephalopoda” (1861) ; “ On the Struc- ture and Homologies of the Renal Organ in the Nudi- branchiate Mollusca” (1863); “On the Anatomy of Doridopsis” (1865) ; “ On the Anatomy and Physiology of the Tunicata” (1867). For some years previous to his death Mr. Hancock had devoted much attention to the fish of the Carboniferous period, and in conjunction firstly with Mr, T. Atthey, whose fine collection afforded ample material for the pur- pose, and subsequently with Mr. Howse, published a series of fifteen papers on these coal-measure fossils. The promised Monograph of the British Tunicata, preparations for which had made some progress even before the death of Mr. Alder, had occupied much of his time ; and though probably still unfinished, it may be hoped that the results of his investigations are so far complete in themselves, that the work, as far as it has gone, may be saved to science. A supplement to the Monograph of Nudibranchiate Mollusca had been a matter long on his mind, but one that he had never been able to devote himself to realising, beyond the collection of materials. Allusion has been made to Mr. Alder, Mr. Atthey, and Mr. Howse, as having been associated with Mr. Hancock in certain of his papers; to these must be added the names of Dr. Embleton and the Rev. A. M. Norman as occasional colleagues. On the establishment of the Natural History Society of Northumberland, Durham, and Newcastle-upon-Tyne in 1829, Mr. Hancock became an active supporter, and was one of the original staff of honorary curators ; and on the formation of the Tyneside Naturalists’ Field Club in 1846, he was one of its principal and most influ- ential promoters. When the new College of Physical Science in Newcastle was instituted, his name, almost as a matter of course, was placed on the provisional committee ; and it was only when this body had completed its labours and gave place to a permanent board, that he was per- mitted, on the ground of ill-health, to retire from active service in connection with the institution. He was a Fellow of the Linnean Society, a corresponding-member of the Zoological Society of London, an honorary mem- ber of the Imperial Botanico-Zoological Society of Vienna, and perhaps of some other similar bodies; but honours of this sort, though valued in their way, were thrust upon him rather than sought. Though living a retired life, no man more highly prized social intercourse. His kindly helping hand was held out to every young naturalist : Such were always welcome at his house ; and when ap- pealed to by them, as was often the case, he made their difficulties his own till he could help to solve them. It is yet too soon to attempt to shake oneself free from a sense of his presence, or to essay to weigh in judicial balance the value of his contributions to human know- ledge: considerations of this sort are overwhelmed in the sense of irreparable loss to science, He Be Bs FERTILISATION OF FLOWERS BY INSECT S* iV On the two forms of flower of Viola tricolor, and on their different mode of fertilisation. [IOLA tricolor presents a further example of the same kind of dimorphism as that described ia the last article in the case of Lysimahcia, Euphrasia, and Rhinanthus, * Continued from vol. viii. p. 435. One of its two forms, illustrated by Fig. 15 in natural size, is more conspicuous than the other (Fig. 16), not only by its larger size, but also by the more striking colour of its petals. When the flower has just opened, its two upper petals are light violet, or, in rarer cases, nearly white ; but they gradually become a deep violet, or even dark blue. Far more striking is, ordinarily, the change of colour in the two lateral petals and the lower one, which, immediately after the opening of the flower, are nearly white, while in a fully-developed state they are always violet. The petals of the small-flowered form of Viola tricolor, illustrated in natural size by Fig. 16, are, on the contrary, uniform in colour and nearly white during the whole time of flowering. The attractiveness for insects of the two kinds must therefore be very dif- ferent, whereas those particular marks round the opening of the flower which serve as a guide to insects in search of the honey, the “ Saftmal” of Sprengel, are nearly the same in the two varieties. That part of the lower petal imme- diately before the entrance of the flower (y, Fig. 21, 22) is in both dark yellow, and the lower petal is also marked by black streaks converging towards the same entrance. There is only this difference between the two forms as to their guide-mark (Sa/ta/), that in the large- flowered form seven black streaks on the lower petal, and three on each of the lateral ones point towards the entrance of the flower ; whereas in the small-flowered form there are but five black streaks in the lower petal, and none at all on the lateral ones,* Although these two forms have been generally known, at least since the time of Linnzus, all botanists who have published observations on the fertilisation of Viola ¢r7- color have apparently turned their attention exclusively to the large-flowered form (Fig. 15); whose beautiful adapta- tions to cross-fertilisation by insects, have been, therefore, very accurately described ; while the peculiarities in structure and fertilisation of the small-flowered form have not even been mentioned. If, in this case, we clearly see that even scientific inquirers have been far more at- tracted by the larger violet flowers than by the smaller whitish ones, we need not wonder that insects are influ- enced in like manner, and that from this cause smaller and less conspicuous flowers are so frequently quite over- looked by insects, that they would rapidly become extinct, unless slight modifications of structure and development enabled them to produce seeds by self-fertilisation. Indeed, in Viola tricolor, as in those species hitherto considered, regular self-fertilisation in the small-flowéred form is effected by such slight modifications of structure and development, that by far the larger number of the contrivances in the large and small-flowered forms are identical. In both forms, honey is secreted by two long appen- dages (7) of the lower filaments (/), from which it ascends by adhesion into the uppermost part of the hollow spur (sf) ; the style (s¢y, Fig. 22) is directed downwards on its base, slender and bent like a knee, while above it is straight and gradually thickened, but does not increase at all or only slightly in breadth, ending in a skull-like stigmatic knob (£), thick enough to completely stop the entrance of the flower. This knob is provided with a wide open moist stigmatic cavity (s/,) and is protected from above by two sets of hairs (f7, Figs. 21, 22, Sprengel’s “ Saftdecke ”) on the two lateral petals, which at the same time defend the entrance of the flower against rain, and prevent insects from entering into the flower in any other way than by the lower side of the skull-like knob. In both forms the five anthers open inwards, are narrowed towards their * My description relates exclusively to those varieties of Viola tricolor which grow in the environs of Lippstadt. From Sprengel’s, Bennett’s, and other descriptions and illustrations, Iam aware that in other localities some- what different varieties are found. ButI do not doubt that differences in the manner of fertilisation, identical or closely allied with those here to be described, will be found wherever a large-flowered and a small-flowered form of Viola tricolor co-exist. ie Nov. 20, 1873} NATURE 45 end, and prolonged above into orange-coloured trian- gular appendages of their connectives (c, Figs. 21, 22), and lie so close together round the style, as to form a hollow cone containing the pollen, and over- topped only by the skull-like crest of the style. This position of the stigmatic knob rising out of the anther- cone but immediately below its summit, is secured by a remarkable contrivance, the skull-like knob being prevented from sliding into the anther-cone by two tufts of hairs, projecting like whiskers from its two cheek-like lateral surfaces. Thus a lifting up of the stigmatic knob, which must always be effected by insects seeking for honey or for pollen, and which is easily accomplished by them in consequence of the base of the style being slender and bent like a knee, will be more likely to tear off the filaments than to push the stigmatic knob into the anther-cone. Indeed, we find that by the swelling of the fertilised ovary the filaments are always torn off, whereas the anthers re- main, enclosing like a hollow cone the narrow portion of the style, and the skull-like knob is. never drawn between the anthers. If the anther-cone containing the pollen were densely closed all round, the pollen-grains would not fall out unless the anthers were separated from each other by lifting up the stigmatic knob ; but there actually exists an opening on the lower side of the summit of the cone directed downwards, the appendages of the two lower anthers being cut out (of, Figs. 21, 22), by which nearly all the pollen may fall out spontaneously. When it has fallen out, a great part of the pollen is collected in the close hairy lining of the fore part of the spur. Thus far the two forms of Viola tricolor are iden- tical in structure ; and the same, or nearly the same, in- sects may @ priori be supposed and have really been observed, to visit the two forms. The distance between the closed entrance of the flower and the honey con- tained in the uppermost part of its spur being in both of the two forms 6-7 mm., an insect must be provided, in order to reach the honey, with a proboscis of at least that length, unless it be enabled by its small size to crawl with its whole body into the flower. A proboscis of 6-7 mm. length or larger is only to be met with among all our insects in Lepidoptera, Apidz, and some few Diptera ; insects sufficiently minute to be able to crawl into and out of the flowers, are to be found chiefly in the genera Thrips and Meligethes. It may therefore be supposed, a@ priori, that Lepidoptera, Apidz, and Diptera provided with a proboscis of at least 6mm. long, and very minute insects of the genera Thrips and Meligethes, will visit the two forms of Vo/a ¢ricolor for honey, and that, besides, some other insects provided with shorter probosces will seek for their pollen. By direct observation this supposi- tion has been thoroughly confirmed, as shown by the fol- lowing list of visitors actually observed :— I. As visitors of the large-flowered form, there have been observed :—(a) Lepidoptera: (1) Pzerzs rape L.* (12).}—(6) Apidee : (2) Bombus muscorum L.* (10-15) ; (3) B. lapidarius L.2E (12-14); (4) B.sh.8; (5) Antho- phora pilipes F.\| (19-21); (6) Andrena albicans K.g (2-24), in vain seeking for honey.{—(c) Diptera : (7) Ah¢z- gia rostrata \.§ (11-12) ; (8) Syritta pipiens L. (2-3), eating pollen.{—(d@) Thysanoptera : (9) Thrips.4| Il. As visitors of the small-flowered form, there have * By W. E. Hart (NaTurE, vol. viii. p. 121). + The numbers enclosed between parentheses after the names of the in- sects indicate the length of their probosces in millimetres. t By mysell (“‘Befruchtung der Blumen durch Insecten,” p. 145). § By Ch. Darwin, who writes me, May 30, 1873 :—‘‘ Between twenty and thirty years ago I observed, for two or three years, large beds (of V. trico- Jor) in the flower-garden, and saw several times Rhingia rostrata, and a nearly black humble-bee visit and fertilise the flowers. I say fertilise, be- cause I had watched the flowers for a long time previously, and saw no in- sect visit them ; but two or three days after the above visits a multitude of flowers withered and set capsules.” || By Delpino (“ Ulteriori osservazioni,” p. 62). By Sprengel (‘‘ Das entdeckte Geheimniss,” p- 397), and Mr, A.W. Gen- nett (NATURE, vol. vili. p. 49)- been observed :—(a) Lepidoptera: (1) Pzeris rape L. ;* (12), repeatedly ; (2) P. napfz L.* (11), repeatedly ; (3) Polyommatus Dorilis Hin. *—(6) Apide ; (4) Apis mellz- Jjica L. (6) 83+ (5) Bombus hortorum L.9* (18-21), per- severingly visiting the flowers for honey, although every flower is drawn down by the weight of this large humble-bee ; (6) B. Rajelius Fu.2* (10-13), the same individual visiting sometimes V7. tricolor, sometimes Lamium purpureum ; (7) B. muscorum L. (agrorum F.) 2 (10-14), visiting, with- out distinction, now the flowers of V7. ¢77zcolor, now the nearly equally large and equally coloured flowers of Lithospermum arvense, while omitting the smaller ones of Capsella busra-pastoris, Valerianella olitoria, and Myosotis versicolor ; (8) Osmia rufa L. & * (7-9), but once hastily visiting a flower for honey.—(c) Diptera ; (9) Rhingia rostrata L.* (11-12), several specimens, repeatedly visiting flowers for honey.—(@) Coleoptera ; (10) Medz- gethes* crawling into the flowers. “ Direct observation has thus shown that no essential difference exists between the fertilisers of the large and those of the small-flowered form. But it must appear a striking fact that not only an equal number of different species, but even one more species has been observed on the small than on the large-flowered form. AlJJ the visitors of the small-flowered form, with the exception of only one, having been observed by myself, I must add, as an ex- planation of this fact, that I have repeatedly watched at the most favourable weather, for several hours, a neglected field, in which, besides some other weeds, there grew an abundance of vigorous specimens of the small-flowered form of Viola tricolor; whereas I have never had an opportunity of watching the large-flowered form under favourable conditions. Therefore I have no doubt that, in spite of the incomplete observations hitherto made on this subject, the more conspicuous flowers are in this species also really far more fre- quently visited by insects than the less conspicuous ones. Otherwise the differences in structure and development of the two forms now to be described would be quite in- explicable. These differences are:—1. In the large- flowered form the stigmatic cavity lies somewhat more towards the top of the skull-like end of the style than in the small-flowered one (as shown by the comparison of Fig. 17 with Fig. 18, and of Fig. 19 with Fig. 20.) (1) When the skull-like knob in the two forms is pressed against the lower petal, in the large-flowered form the opening of the stigmatic cavity is directed outwards, so that pollen-grains which have fallen out of the anther- cone spontaneously can never fall into the stigmatic cavity unless carried by insects ; whereas in the small- flowered form the opening of the stigmatic cavity is directed inwards, so that pollen-grains falling out of the anther-cone spontaneously, fall directly into the stigmatic cavity. (2) In the large-flowered form the opening of the stig- matic cavity (s¢, Figs. 17, 19, 21) bears on its lower side, as discovered by Hildebrand, a labiate appendage (4, Figs. 17, 19, 21) provided with stigmatic papille, so that a proboscis inserted into the flower, when charged with pollen of a previously visited flower, rubs off this pollen on to the stigmatic lip (/), thus regularly effecting cross-fertilisation ; whereas, when withdrawn out of the flower, charged with its pollen, the proboscis presses the lip (2) against the stigmatic opening (s¢), thus preventing self-fertilisation. This nice adaptation to those visitors provided with a long proboscis (Lepidoptera, Apide, Rhingia) is completely wanting in the small-flowered form (Figs. 18, 20, 22). (3) In the large-flowered form there is a black wedge- shaped streak (w, Figs. 17,19) on the front side of the style, to which Mr, A. W. Bennett first called atten- * By myself (June 1873). + By Sprengel (doc. cit.) and by myself (June 1873), perseveringly | Visiting the flowers for honey. NATURE r [NVov. 20, 1873 46 tion,* and which he has interpreted as a guide-mark for those visitors, which are diminutive enough to crawl entirely into the flower. This streak is also wanting in the small-flowered form (Figs. 18, 20), (4) In the large-flowered form pollen-grains do not spontaneously fall out of the anther-cone before the flower has been fully developed for several days ; whereas in the small-flowered form, in by far the majority of cases, a great number of pollen-grains fall spontaneously out of the anther-cone into the stigmatic cavity and there develop long pollen-tubes, even before the opening of the flower, in much rarer cases a short time after it has opened. (5) When the visits of insects are prevented by a fine net, the flowers of the small-flowered form wither two or three Fic. 15.—Front view of the more conspicuous flower of Viola tricolor, natural size. Fic. 16.—Front view of the less conspicuous flower. Fic. 17.—Pistil of Fig. 15, viewed on the under side, 12 times natural size. Fic. 18.—Pistil of Fig. 16. Fic. 19 —Lateral view of the pistil of Fig. x5. Fic. 20.—Lateral view of the pistil of Fig. 16. _._ The following explanation of the lettering applies to all the figures :— a, anthers; a‘, upper, @%, lateral, 23, lower anther; ¢f", appendage of the upper sepal ; J, beard, ze. tuft of hairs on the lateral surface of the skull-like crest of the style ; c, appendage of the connective ;_/, filaments ; #, knob of the stigma ; 4, lip, labiated appendage of the stigmatic opening ; 7, nectary, 7.e. honey-secreting appendage of the lower filaments ; 0/, opening of the anther- cone ; 07, ovary; #, petals; A", lower, %, lateral, #3, upper petal ; Ao, pollen- collecting hairs ; Zr, protective hairs (Sprengel’s ‘‘ Saftdecke”); s, sepals ; s*, upper sepal (with the appendage a/'); s*, lateral sepal ; sf, the upper- most part of the spur, containing the honey; s¢, stigmatic cavity; st”, streaks converging towards the opening of the flower; sty, style ; w, wedge- shaped streak of the style ; y, yellow coloured part of the lower petal. days after opening, everyone setting a vigorous seed- capsule ; those of the large-flowered form remain in full freshness more than two or three weeks, at length wither- ing without having set any seed-capsule ; when fertilised they wither also after two or three days. Summary :—The more conspicuous flowers of Vola tricolor are adapted to regular cross-fertilisation by Lepi- doptera, Apidae, and Rhingia ; whereas self-fertilisation by these visitors is prevented, Pollen-eating flies and * In his interesting article on the Fertilisation of the Wild Pansy, NaTurr, vol. viii. p. 49. diminutive insects crawling into the flower may effect both self- and cross-fertilisation ; fertilisation by insects is possible from the opening of the flower for twenty days or more ; spontaneous self-fertilisation never takes place. On the contrary the less conspicuous flowers are Fic, 21.—Lateral view of Fig. 15 after the half of its sepals and petals having been removed, 7 times natural size. adapted to regular self-fertilisation ; although visited now and then by the same insects as the more conspicuous flowers, cross-fertilisation by these visitors is by no means secured ; in most cases it is even prevented by the pollen having previously fallen into the stigmatic cavity; it Fic. 22.—Lateral view of Fig. 16, but one lateral anther and the half of one lower anther have been removed and the pistil bisected longitudinally. is possible only in those cases where the flower has opened before its pollen has filled the stigmatic cavity ; and even in these rare instances the possibility of cross- fertilisation lasts but a few hours. Lippstadt, October 1873 HERMANN MULLER . Nov. 20, 1873] NATURE 47 ON THE SCIENCE OF WEIGHING AND MEASURING, AND THE STANDARDS OF WEIGHT AND MEASURE * VIII. apps ordinary method of commercial weighing by putting the weights in one scale and the commodity to be weighed in the other, and then observing when a sufficient equilibrium is produced, is inadmissible for scientific weigh- ings, as it is subject to errors arising from defects in the balance itself. To avoid any such errors, and obtain scientific precision in the results, a check is required which is found in a system of double weighing. ‘There are two methods of double weighing for the com- parison of two standard weights. One method, known as Borda’s, and generally used in France, is that of substitution, or weighing first one of the standard weights to be compared, and then the other substituted for it, against a counterpoise placed in the other pan. The dif- ference between the mean resting points of the index needle in these two weighings shows the difference of the two weights in divisions of the scale. The second method, known as Gauss’s, but which was first invented by Le Pére Amiot, and is now generally used in England and Germany, except for hydrostatic weighings, is that of a/¢e7- nation, or first weighing the two standards against each other, and then repeating the weighings, after interchang- ing the weights in the pans. By this second method no counterpoise weight is required, and /a/f the difference between the mean resting points of the index needle shows the difference of the two weights, in divisions of the scale. In all scientific weighings of standards with balances of precision, it is necessary that the weights to be compared should be so nearly equal that neither pan shall absolutely weigh down the other. The balance must merely oscil- late so that the pointer does not exceed the limits of the index scale. In order to obtain an equipoise within this limit, it is requisite to provide small balance weights, most accurately verified, to be added to either pan, as may be found necessary. The mode of reading adopted by the best authorities in the process of weighing by Gauss’s method is as follows : —The comparing standard being in the left-hand pan, and the compared standard in the right-hand pan, and sufficient equipoise being obtained by adding small balance weights, if requisite, the balance is put in action, and the movement of the needle observed through a telescope. The reading at the first turn of the pointer is disregarded. The three next turns are noted, and the reading at the third turn of the pointer, and half the sum of the readings at the second and fourth turns are taken as the highest and lowest readings. Their mean is the resting point of the balance, or the reading of its position of equilibrium. The balance is then stopped, and the weights interchanged, when similar readings are taken and dealt with in the same manner. These two observa- tions constitute one comparison. In cases where great accuracy is required, several successive comparisons are taken, in order to obtain a mean result. Some additional weighings are taken after adding a small balance weight to either pan, in order to ascertain the value of a division of the index scale. And if this balance-weight be added successively to each pan the weighings may be used as additional comparisons. In using Gauss’s method of weighing, it is very desirable to be able to transfer the pans and the weights contained in them from one end of the beam to the other without opening the balance case, and thus to avoid sudden changes of temperature of air within the balance case and consequent production of currents of air. For this pur- * Continued from p. 555. pose, the following plan is adopted. A grooved brass rod is fixed inside the balance case over and a little behind the beam. Upon this rod a brass slider is made to traverse by being attached to a slender brass rod drawn backwards or forwards from the outside of the case. A descending wire with a hook at the end is attached to the slider. For changing the weights, the slider and hook are brought to the right-hand end of the beam, when the pan and weight are lifted from the beam and transferred to the hook by means of a brass rod curved at the end and introduced through a small hole at the side of the balance case. The pan and weight are then slid to the other end of the beam, when the left-hand pan and weight are lifted in a similar manner from the beam and the right-hand pan and weight substituted. It only re- mains then to transfer the left-hand pan and weight to the right-hand end of the beam. This method possesses a further advantage. In making a great number of comparisons between two standard weights, they are exposed to some risk of being injured Fic. 18.—Mode of hydrostatic weighing (one-third size). by wear, if they are taken up in the ordinary way with a puir of tongs. This risk is obviated by their being kept in the pans when lifted. Two light pans are used of as nearly as possible equal weight, each of which has a loop of wire forming an arch with the ends attached to the opposite sides of the pan, so that it can be easily lifted with the curved end of a brass rod. The pans are marked X and Y respectively. By interchanging the weights in the pans after a series of comparisons, and making a second series and taking the mean result, it gives the difference between the two weights, unaffected by any possible difference in the weight of the two pans. This contrivance is especially useful, when either of the weights to be compared consists of several separate weights. It was used by Prof. Miller for all his more important weighings during the construc- tion of the imperial standard pound, 48 NATURE | Mov. 20, 1873 The advantage possessed by Gauss’s method of alter- nation over Borda’s method of substitution has been proved by Prof. Miller as follows :-— Let P and Q be two standard weights of the same denomination to be compared, and C the counterpoise of each. For Borda’s method, let the readings of the index be denoted by (C, P), when C is in the left pan and P in the right pan, and by (C, Q), when C is in the left pan, and Q in the right pan. For Gauss’s method, let (0, P) denote the readings when Q is in the left pan and P in the right, and (P, Q), when P is in the left pan and Q in the right pan. Let e be the probable difference between the recorded and the true position of equilibrium, that is to say, the probable error of a single weighing (not of a comparison, which requires two weighings). Then by Borda’s method, (C, P) has a probable error e, and (C, Q) has a probable error ¢; and the two weighings give the value of P — Q with a probable error of N(e" + €*) = er/2. By Gauss’s method, (Q, P) has a probable error ¢, and (P, Q) has a probable error e; and the two weighings give the value of P — Q with a probable error of 2p 2 Thus the probable error of the result of two weighings by Borda’s method is twice as great as by Gauss’s method. To obtain a value of P — Q by Borda’s method with a probable error of = ,/2, we must make four comparisons of two weighings each. Therefore one comparison by the method of Gauss gives as good a result as four compari- sons by Borda’s method. The result of this weighing of two standard weights against each other gives only their apparent difference when weighed in air. In order to ascertain their true difference, it becomes necessary to determine the weight of air displaced by each, from the data which have been already mentioned, and to allow for any differ- ence of weight of air displaced, according to the following formula :— If the weights P and Q appear to be equal in air, the weight of P — weight of air displaced by P is equal to the weight of Q — weight of air displaced by OQ. In determining the weight of ordinary atmospheric air in rooms where standard weights are compared, and con- taining a certain quantity of aqueous vapour and car- bonic acid, the practice has been to take, as the unit of weight of air, a litre of dry atmospheric air free from carbonic acid, = 1'2932227 gramme, at o°C., as determined by Ritter from the observations of M. Regnault in Paris, lat. 48° 50’ 14”, and 60 metres above the level of the sea, under the barometric pressure of 760 millimetres of mercury. Assuming that atmospheric air contains, on an average, carbonic acid equal to o’0004 of its volume, and the density of carbonic acid gas being 1°529 of that of atmospheric air, the weight of a litre of dry atmospheric air containing its average amount of car- bonic acid, under the stated circumstances, is 1°2934963 gramme. Allowance should be made for the difference of the force of gravity in latitudes other than Paris, as well as for the difference of height of the place of observation above the mean level of the sea. Although the absolute weight varies with the latitude and with the height above or below the mean level of the sea, yet this variation is not felt in the comparison of standard weights in a vacuum, because the weights are equally affected on both sides of the beam. But in all weighings of standards in air re- quiring special accuracy, such variation must be taken into account in computing the weight of air displaced by each standard weight. Mr. Baily has shown from his pendulum experiments * that if we take G to denote the force of gravity at the mean level of the sea in lat. 45°, the force of gravity in lat. A, at the mean level of the sea = G (I — 0'0025659 cos 2A). And Poisson + has proved that the force of gravity ina given latitude at a place on the surface of the earth at the height z above the mean level of the sea— , =}1-(2-3°)2h x Dp) where ¢ is the radius of the earth, p its mean density, and p’ the density of that part of the earth which is above the mean level of the sea. If as is probable,— (force of gravity at the mean level of the sea in the same lat.) Papen sy — _ =1°32 nearly ; y=6366198 metres, p it follows that the weight in grammes of a litre of dry atmospheric air containing the average amount of car- bonic acid, at o°, and under the pressure of 760 milli- metres of mercury at 0”, at the height z above the mean level of the sea in lat. A is— 1'2930693 (: — 1°32 =) (1 — 0'0025659 cos 2 A). At Cambridge, where Prof. Miller’s observations for determining the weight of the new standard pound were made, in lat. 52° 12’ 18”, about 8 metres above the mean level of the sea (and for which place his tables were com- puted,) the weight of a litre of dry air containing the average quantity of carbonic acid was found by him to be 1'293893 gramme. This weight of air is therefore a little greater than at Paris. From similar data, after taking a further correction by Lasch of the weight of a litre of dry air at Paris = 1293204 gramme, the weight of a litre of dry air at Berlin (lat. 52° 30’, and 40 metres above mean sea level) has been computed to be 1°29388 gramme. The co-efficient of expansion of air under constant pressure between o° and 50° C. is taken from Regnault’s determination to be 0'003656 for 1° C., in other words between o° and 50° C., the ratio of the density of air at 0° to its density at /° is 1 + 07003656 z. With regard to the barometric pressure of the air and the allowance to be made for the pressure of vapour present in it, the density of the vapour of water is deter- mined to be 0°622 of that of air ; that is to say, the ratio of the density of the vapour of water to that of air is I — 0378. Hence, if ¢be the temperature of the air, 4 the baro- metric pressure, v the pressure of the vapour present in the air, 6 and vw being expressed in millimetres of mercury at o° C., the weight of a litre of air at Cambridge becomes 1°293893 I + 0'003656 ¢ The ratio of the density of air to the maximum density of water is found by dividing the above expression by 1,000, as a litre of water is the volume of 1,000 grammes of water at its maximum density. Prof. Miller’s Table I. gives the logarithms of this ratio at the normal barometric pressure of 760 millimetres, at the several degrees of temperature from o° to 30°. These logarithms require to be diminished only by 0'000026 for weighings at the Standards Office, Westminster, lat. 51° 30’, and about 5 metres above the mean sea-level; and when dimi- a sot 760 * “ Memoirs of the Astronomical Society,” vol. vii. p. a4. + ‘“Memoires de I’'Institut,” tome xxi. pp. 91, 238. er Nov. 20, 1873] NATURE 49 nished by 0000132, they may be used for the reductions of weighings at Paris. The values of the pressure of vapour at the same temperatures in millimetres of mercury at 0°, according to Regnault’s observations, are stated by Prof. Miller in a separate Table II. These values are given on the assump- tion that the pressure of vapour in rooms that are not heated artificially is two-thirds of the maximum pressure of vapour due to the temperature, as shown by the results of experiments on the authority of Biot, Regnault, and Bianchi. The actual mode of ascertaining the weight of air dis- placed by two standard weights may now be described. For determining the temperature of the air and of the two standard weights during the weighings, two standard thermometers are placed in‘ the balance case, and their readings noted at the beginning and end of the weighings. The weight of air displaced by each of two standard weights is to be ascertained by the following formula : Log. weight in grains of air displaced by P = log. 2 + log. Az + log. (1 + eP¢) + log. weight of Pin grains — log. AP. Here ¢ denotes the temperature of the air by the Centigrade thermometer ; é the barometric pressure of the air in millimetres of mercury at o° C. ; v the maximum pressure of aqueous vapour contained in the air, also in millimetres of mercury ; h=b—0373 X24; Aé the ratio of density of air at 7° to the maximum density of water ; eP¢ the allowance for expansion in volume of P, or the ratio of its density at o° to its density at ¢ ; Z\P the ratio of density of P at o° to the maximum density of water. By this formula, the required result is to be obtained. The logarithms of the three first terms may be found in Prof. Miller’s tables, pp. 785-791 of his account of the construction of the new standard pound, Phil. Trans., part iii. of 1856. Reference has already been made to the mode of ascertaining the volume or density of a standard weight by determining the difference of its weight in air and in water. The following practice for all such hydro- static weighings was adopted by Prof. Miller when deter- mining the densities of all the standard weights con- structed under the sanction of the Commission for restoring the Imperial Standards, and is also followed in the Standards Department. In this process it is requisite to employ pure distilled water, and with this object the water used in the Standards Department is twice distilled in a still of the best construction, erected in the office, and the best chemical tests are employed for ascertaining that the water is free from any foreign substances. The vessel for containing the distilled water is a glass jar,rather more than 6 inches in internal height and diameter. A stout copper wire is stretched across the mouth of the jar (see Fig. 18) in such a manner as to leave a circular space in the middle, large enough to admit the passage of the standard weight P, the density of which is to be ascertained. This copper wire supports two thermometers, adjustable as to their height, for deter- mining the temperature of the water at the mean height of B during the weighings. It also serves to sustain a glass tube, open at both ends, and placed close to the side of the jar. A small glass funnel is inserted in the upper part of the tube, and in the lower part are one or two pieces of clean sponge. The standard weight P is suspended from a hook under the right pan of the balance, specially constructed for hydrostatic weighings. A fine copper wire, the weight of which per inch is known, is attached to the hook by a loop, and has another loop at the other end, To this lower loop is attached a stout wire, bent and terminating in a double hook, which fits round P, and holds it securely. The counterpoise of P is next placed in the left pan of the balance. The glass jar is placed under the right pan of the balance, P being suspended in it, and the water is gently poured into the funnel and the jar filled to the requisite height above P. The bubbles of air are arrested by the pieces of sponge, and, ascending up the glass tube, are thus prevented from entering the jar. It is of import- ance to ascertain that no bubble of air is attached to P, and if so, it may generally be removed by the feather of a quill. But it sometimes happens that the weight P has an irregular surface, and air attaching to it cannot be thus dislodged. In such cases a small bell-shaped glass jar just large enough to hold P and its supporting wire, is used. This vessel is filled with water sufficient to cover | P, and is suspended over the flame of a spirit lamp by a stout wire, bent at its lower end into a ring, into which the jar descends to its rim, and the water is allowed to boil until it is seen that the air has been entirely expelled. When cooled, the small jar containing P is immersed iu the water, which nearly fills the large jar, and the small jar, with its wire, is then disengaged and lowered till P hangs clear of it, when it is removed. The transfer of P from the small to the large jar is thus effected without taking it out of the water. For the actual weighing of P in water, after it has been counterpoised in air, weights equal to the difference of weight of P in water and in air, are placed in the right pan till equilibrium is produced, when the readings of the scale are observed. P is next removed, leaving its hook suspended in the water, and a volume of water equal to the volume of P is added to the water in the jar, so as to leave the same quantity of wire immersed as before. The requisite weights are then added to the right pan, until the equilibrium, which has been disturbed by the removal of P, is again produced, when the reading of the scale is observed and noted. This gives the actual weight in water of P. The thermometers in the water are so placed as to give the temperature of the water at the centre of gravity of P. Another thermometer is placed in the balance case to give the temperature of the air during the weighings. The reading of the barometer is also noted. Having determined the weight of P in air of ascer- tained density, its volume and density are calculated according to the following formula, the unit of volume being the volume of a grain weight of water at its maxi- mum density :— Let P in water at /° appear to weigh as much as Q in air. Then the weight of water at 7° displaced by P = weight of P — weight of Q + weight of air displaced by Log. volume of P = weight in grains of the water dis- placed by P + log. W, — log. (1+ eP,); where W, is the ratio of the maximum density of water to its density at ¢, and eP¢ is the expansion in volume of P at ¢. (The loga- rithms of these values are given in tables.) Log. density of P = log. weight of P in grains — log. volume of P. The actual weight of air displaced is to be ascer- tained by the method already stated. As the true weight of P in air cannot be ascertained until its volume or density is known, an approximate value of the volume of P may be found by assuming the weight of P to be equal to its apparent weight in air ; and this value of the volume of P may be used in reducing the weight of P, and thus a more accurate value of the volume of P obtained, by means of which a closer approximation to the values of the absolute weight of P, and of its density may be found. This process should be repeated when greater exactness is required. H. W. CHISHOLM (To be continued.) 50 NATURE [| Mov. 20, 1873 EARTH-SCULPTURE* PNG the questions which may be treated as mat- ters of strict science, and which yet cannot be wholly divested of the strong human, one might almost say personal, interest which belongs to them, is the birth of mountains and valleys. The familiar outlines of his dwelling-place have fixed the attention of man from the infancy of the race up to the present day. Long before science arose to deal with them they had become inwoven with his history, his habits, and his creed. The great mountains had been to him emblems of majesty and eternity, lifting up their fronts to heaven as they had done from the beginning, and would no doubt do to the end. They rose before him as monuments of the power of that great Being who had heaved them out of chaos. It was enough for him in that early time to feel their mighty influences ; he had then no questions or doubts as to how or when they first appeared upon the earth. Happily, in spite of questioning, exacting Science, these first natural and instinctive feelings are not yet dead within us. A knowledge even of all the laws of moun- tain-making cannot, if our minds are healthy and our hearts beat true, deprive us wholly of that first genuine child-like awe and wonder in presence of noble moun- tains,—crag and cliff sweeping in rugged and colossal massiveness above dark waves of pine, far into the keen and clear blue air ;—the vast mantle of snow, so cloud- like in its brightness, yet thrown in many a solid fold over crest and shoulder ; the dark spires and splintered peaks, half snow, half stone, rising into the sky, like very pillars of heaven; and then the verdure of the valleys | below, the dash of waterfalls, the plenteous gush of springs, the laugh and dance of brook and river as they one and all hurry down to the plains—who can see these things for the first time, nay, for the hundredth time, without at least some sparkle of the simple child-like emotion of the olden time, or without appreciating, even if he cannot fully share, the feeling of the poet to whom they bring “dim eyes suffused with tears”? These great dominant features of the land must indeed ever rivet our imagination, and yet when the questioning spirit of modern science asks to know how they came into being, we are no longer permitted to content ourselves with the early belief that they were but parts of the primeval outlines of the earth. The progress of inquiry and knowledge has destroyed that belief. We find, too, that both labour and patience are needed ere we can un- derstand what has been put in its place. But the task of learning this is well repaid. However grandly the moun- tains rose when they were gazed at only in awe and wonder, they gain an added sublimity when the eyes which look upon them can trace some of the steps where- by their grim magnificence has been achieved. We naturally associate the more lofty and rugged parts of the land with the operations of former earthquakes and convulsions by which the solid earth has been broken and ridged into these picturesque forms. This obvious inference was early adopted in geology, and though in many cases a mere belief rather than a legiti- mate deduction from observation, and springing from a conviction of what ought to be, rather than what has been proved to be the case, it has sturdily maintained its hold alike on the popular mind, and also to a very considerable extent in the orthodox geological creed. Towards the end of last century, however, Hutton and Playfair, names never to be mentioned in Edinburgh without gratitude and pride, proclaimed views of a very different character. They maintained that the rocks of the land, originally accumulated under the sea, have been upheaved by underground movements, and with- out pretending to know in what external forms these * The Opening Address for the Session 1873-4 to the Edinburgh Geological Society, delivered Thursday, Nov. 6, by the President, Prof. Geikie, F.R.S. rocks first appeared above the sea, they contended that the present contours of the land had arisen mainly from a process of sculpture,—the valleys having been carved out by rains, streams, and other superficial agents, while the hills were left standing up as ridges between. So satisfied were these bold and clear-sighted men that their idea was essentially true, that they gave themselves no concern in gathering detailed proofs in its support. They were content with general appeals to the face of nature everywhere as their best and irrefragable witness. But, as events proved, they were in advance of their time. The views which they promulgated on this subject were first opposed, then laid aside and forgotten. In the sub- sequent literature of the science for fully half a century they almost wholly disappear. An occasional reference to them may be met with, where, however, they are cited only to be dismissed, as if the writer seemed hardly able to restrain some expression of his wonder that men could ever have been found so Quixotic as to vent such notions, or that others could have been so gullible as to believe them, Apart altogether from the truth or error of the Hut- tonian teaching regarding the origin of the earth’s super- ficial features, no one who has the progress of geology at heart can regard without regret this almost contemptuous dismissal of the question from the range of scientific in- quiry. For together with that teaching went all interest in, and even all intelligent appreciation of, the problem which Hutton had set himself to solve. Men turned back to vague notions about cataclysms, earthquakes, subterranean convulsions and fractures, of which they spoke, and sometimes still speak, with a boldness in inverse proportion to their knowledge of the actual conditions of the problem. They studied with praiseworthy assiduity and success the working of the various natural agents whereby the surface of the land is affected, but it was with the view rather of showing how the materials of new continents are gathered together, than of learning how the outlines of existing continents have been produced. The study of the origin of mountain and valley went out of fashion, and from the time of Playfair’s Illustrations, published at the beginning of this century, received in this country but scant and haphazard attention until in recent years the subject has gradually revived, and has become one of the most prominent and interesting sub- jects of geological research. It is not my purpose to give any historical sketch of the progress of inquiry on this question, although I ought not even to refer to it without an allusion to the names of Scrope, Ramsay, Jukes, Ruskin, Dana, Topley, Whitaker, Greenwood, the Duke of Argyll, Mackintosh, and others, who, though often differing widely in their views, have done so much to renew an interest in what will probably always prove one of the most alluring aspects of geology. Thoroughly convinced of the essen- tial truth on which the Huttonian doctrines were based I wish, on the present occasion, first to define and illustrate some of the leading features of these doctrines as I hold them myself, and as I believe them to be held by the great body of active field geologists in Britain, and secondly, to review certain objections which have recently been reiterated against them. At the outset it is necessary to ascertain what relation the internal arrangements of the rocks bear to the ex- ternal forms of the land, in other words, the influence of what is called Geological Structure. It is obvious, as Hutton showed, that since the rocks have been formed as a whole under the sea, they must have been raised out of that original position into land, so that the first point we settle beyond dispute is that the mass of the land owes its existence to upheaval from below. But though we fix securely enough this starting point in our inquiry, it by no means follows that we thereby settle what was the original outline of the land so upheaved. The non- I a te et te ee ey Nov. 20, 1873 | recognition of this fact has involved not a few of the writers on this subject in great confusion and error. Among the geologists of the present day there is a growing conviction that upheaval and subsidence are concomitant phenomena, and that viewed broadly they both arise from the effects of the secular cooling and con- sequent contraction of the mass of the earth. The con- traction has not been uniform, as if the globe had been a cooling ball of solid iron. On the contrary, owing to very great differences in the nature and condition of the various parts of our planet and perhaps to features of the interior with which we are yet but imperfectly acquainted, some portions have sunk much more than others. These, having to accommodate themselves into smaller dimensions would undergo vast compression and exert an enormous pressure on the more stable tracts which bounded them. It could not but happen that after long intervals of strain, some portions of the squeezed crust would at length find relief from this pressure by rising to a greater or less height, according to their extent and the amount of force from which they sought to escape. These upraised areas would no doubt tend to occur in bands or lines across the direction of the pressure, much as the folds we pro- duce in the sheets of an unbound book are more or less nearly parallel with the two sides from which we squeeze the paper. They would sometimes be broad folds—huge wide swellings of the earth’s surface. At other times they might be long, lofty, and comparatively sharp ridges. In the one case they would give rise to high plateaux or table-lands, in the other they would be recognised as mountain-chains. This is a rough-and-ready statement of what seems the probable explanation of the origin of the elevated tracts upon the earth’s surface. It is evident that the pressure would be vastly greater a few hundreds or thousands of feet underground than at the surface, and hence that though the rocks deep down might be squeezed and crumpled, as we could crumple brown paper, yet that at the surface they might show little or no contortion, Cer- tainly without further proof we could never affirm that a contorted mass of rock which now forms the surface of the ground rose as part of the surface during the time of upheaval and contortion. Intensely crumpled rocks would rather suggest a deeper position, with the subse- quent removal of the rocks under which they originally lay. Tas the earth has been cooling and contracting ever since it had a separate existence as a planet, its surface must have been exposed to a long series of such shrinkage movements as those we are considering. Apait, there- fore, from local evidence, we should expect that ridges and depressions must have been impressed upon that sur- face in a long succession from the earliest periods down- wards, and hence that the present mountain-chains and basins of the earth must be of many different ages. We cannot tell what the first mountains were made of, nor where they lay, although some of the existing ridges of the earth’s surface are undoubtedly, even in a geological sense, very old. In not a few cases the same mountain- chain can be shown from its internal structure to be of many successive dates, as if it lay along a line of weak- ness which had served again and again as a line of relief from the severe earth-pressure. ] These questions have been treated with much ability by Constant Prevost, Dana, Mallet, and others, to whose writings I refer for details. In stating them in this general way my object is to show that those geologists who, like myself, believe in the truth of the Huttonian doctrines of denudation, are most unfairly represented when they are said to ignore the influence of subterranean forces upon the exterior of the earth. None can recog- nise more clearly than they do how entirely have the great surface outlines of the globe been dependent upon the action of these forces, that is, upon the results which NATURE 51 flow from the contraction of the planet and from the re- action of the heated interior upon the surface. But a block of marble is not a statue, nor would a part of the earth’s crust heaved up into land form at once such a surface of ridge, and valley, and nicely adjusted water system as any country of which we know anything on the face of the globe. In each case it is a process of sculp- ture, and the result varies not only with the tools but with the materials on which they are used. You would not expect the same kind of carving upon granite as upon marble. And so, too, in the great process of earth- sculpture, each chief class of rock has its own characte- ristic style. The tools by which this great work has been done are of the simplest and most everyday order—the air, rain, frost, springs, brooks, rivers, glaciers, icebergs, and the sea. These tools have been at work from the earliest times of which any geological record has been preserved. Indeed, itis out of the accumulated chips and dust which they have made, afterwards hardened into solid rock and upheaved, that the very framework of our continents has been formed, The thickness of these consolidated mate- rials is to be measured, not by feet merely, but by miles. If the removed materials are so thick, they show what a vast mass of rock must have been carved away. And even before knowing anything of the way in which the various tools are used, we should be justified in holding it to be, at the least, extremely improbable that any land surface would long retain its original contour or even any trace of it. But when we come to watch with attention how the tools really do their work, this improbability increases enormously. Adopting a method of inquiry suggested by Mr. Croll, I have elsewhere shown that even at their present state of progress the amount of geological change which they would accomplish in a comparatively small number of ages is almost incredible. On a moderate computation they would reduce the general mass of the British Islands down to the level of the sea in five or six millions of years, and might carve out valleys a thousand feet deep in a fourth part of that time. It is evident that though the upheaval of some parts of the continents may go back into the remotest geological an- tiquity, the forms of the present surface must be, com- paratively speaking, modern. There is reason to believe that many, if not most, of the great mountain chains of the globe are, in a geologi- cal sense, of recent origin. The Alps, for example, though they may have undergone many earlier move- ments, were ridged up into their existing mass long after the soft clays were laid down which cover so large an area of the low lands in the south of England, and on which London is built. It would require far more de- tailed work than has ever been bestowed upon these mountains to enable us even to approximate to what was the original form of the surface just after the upheaval, and before the array of sculpture-tools began their busy and ceaseless task upon these great masses of rock. We may believe that a series of huge parallel folds of curved and broken rock rose for thousands of feet into the air, that when, after the earth-throes had ceased, rain and snow and frost first laid their fingers on the new-born summits, these agents of destruction would have a most uneven surface to work upon, and would necessarily be guided by it in their working ; and hence that some, at least, of the dominant earliest ridges and hollows would be perpetu- ated. Such a belief would cany probability in its favour, but it would certainly not amount to a proof of the sup- posed perpetuation. That would require to be corrobo- rated by the internal and external evidence of the moun- tains themselves. In some tracts, as, for instance, among the singularly symmetrical ridges and furrows of the Jura, it would not be difficult to restore the original outline, and to fix exactly how far the subterranean movements had determined the present external forms of the ground, 52 NATURE [ Nov. 20, 1873 though even there, where this connection is so clear, we should see at the same time how greatly the tops and sides of the long saddle-shaped arches of rock have suffered from subsequent waste. But among the contorted, in- verted, and broken rocks of the Central Alps the task would be infinitely more difficult. We could not advance far, however, in such a quest before observing that one feature stands out conspicu- ously enough among the mountains, viz., that whatever might have been their original outlines, these were most certainly not the same as those which we see to-day. No part of the history of the ground can be made more self- evident than that, since the birth of these mountains, millions upon millions of cubic yards of rock have been worn off their crests and ridges, and carved out of their sides. There is not a cliff, crag, or valley along the whole chain of the Alps which does not bear witness to this great truth. If then, even when dealing with the young Alps, we cannot be quite sure what were their first or infant fea- tures, how impossible must it be to decide as to the early outlines of such immensely more ancient uplands as those which date from palzozoic times! For, evidently, the higher their antiquity, and the longer, therefore, their ex- posure to ceaseless waste, the more must these outlines be changed. The general mass of land might still re- main land, but trenched and furrowed and worn down, as the Alps are now suffering, until not a single vestige or indication of its first contour survived, the remaining por- tions being, as it were, merely the stump or base of what once was. Now this is the position in which the question presents itself in Britain. The hills of the Highlands and Southern Uplands of Scotland, of the Lake district, and of Wales, are not mountains in the same sense as the Alps or Pyrenees, or other great continental mountain-chains. However much these long lines of elevated ground may have had their outlines modified by the universal waste of the earth’s surface, their linear character, the general parallelism of their component ridges, the undulations of the strata along their flanks, as well as their internal geo- logical structure, bear witness to the fact that they are but huge wrinkles upon the shrivelled globe—tracts which have been thrust up while the neighbouring regions have sunk down. But in Britain these characteristic features are wanting. In all probability there never was any true mountain-chain in our region. There is good reason to believe that in very ancient times, that is to say, previous to the Old Red sandstone, a wide plateau-like mass of land was upraised onthe north coast of Europe, surviving portions of it being represented by the detached hilly regions of Britain and the great table-land of Scandi- navia. The rocks underlying this upheaved tract under- went, at the time of elevation, enormous compression and consequent contortion, This could not happen without an infinite amount of resistance. The heat thus evolved among the grinding masses may have been amply suffi- cient even to melt them in part. And no doubt it was during this process that they became crystalline over such wide areas, and were injected with granite and other melted products. But all this had been wholly, or almost wholly,completed before the time of the Old Red sandstone, for the deposits of that geological system are formed out of the older altered rocks, and lie undisturbed upon them. Even now, in spite of all the subsequent denudation, the patches of old red conglomerate which remain show to what an extent the older rocks had been buried under it, for they are found rising here and there to a height of 2,000 or 3,000 ft. above the sea. But they prove further, not only that the contortion of the underlying rocks pre- ceded the Old Red sandstone, but that these rocks had suffered a vast extent of waste at the surface, before even the oldest visible parts of the conglomerate were deposited upon them. This waste has been in progress ever since, We need not, therefore, hope to discover any vestige of the aboriginal surface. A geological section drawn across any part of the hills proves beyond question that the general surface of the country has had hundreds or even thousands of feet of solid rock worn away from it. Such a section shows moreover that our present valleys are not mere folds due to underground movements, but are really trenches out of which the solid rock has been carried away. So far, this is a question of simple fact, and not merely of opinion. The language of Hutton may be literally true of Britain :—‘‘ The mountains have been formed by the hollowing out of the valleys, and the valleys have been hollowed out by the attrition of hard materials coming from the mountains.” Our British hills, unlike the chains of the Jura and the Alps, are simply irregular ridges de- pending for their shape and trend upon the directions taken by the separating valleys. The varying textures of the rocks, their arrangements with relation to each other, their foldings and fractures, and the other phenomena comprised under ‘what is termed “geological structure,” have greatly modified this result, but the process has nevertheless, as I believe, been one of superficial sculp- turing, and not of subterranean commotion and upheaval. On the details of this process it is not needful to dwell. From these cursory statements, which express, I believe, the general concurrent opinions of the modern Huttonian school, it should be clear how far that school must be from ignoring the influence of subterranean forces. Hutton himself never did so, and his followers now know far more of these forces than he did. But on the other hand, they claim for the surface-agents in geology a potency great enough to cut down table-lands into moun- tain ridges and glens, to carve out the surface of the land into systems of valleys, and in the end to waste a con- tinent down to the level of the sea. (Zo be continued.) ASTRONOMY AT OXFORD R. DE LA RUE having, in the course of last sum- mer, made a munificent offer of several astro- nomical instruments and apparatus, including a large reflecting telescope, to the University, the subject was brought under the consideration of the delegates of the Museum, who, at their first meeting in this term, ap- pointed a committee to “report on the desirability of accepting the munificent offer of Dr. De La Rue to present to the University his celebrated reflecting telescope, on the probable cost of a building to receive the instrument, and on the precise purposes for which this instrument may be usefully employed, in distinction to the refracting telescope now being set up.” The committee, after full and careful examination of the whole subject, have sent in a report, to which they have unanimously agreed, and which the delegates re- commended, with entire confidence, to the favourable consideration of the council. In consequence of this report, the following forms of decree will be submitted to a convocation to be held on Thursday, Nov. 27 :— 1. That the reflecting telescope and other apparatus offered to the University by Dr. De La Rue be accepted ; and that the Vice-Chancellor be requested to return the thanks of the University to Dr. De La Rue for his munificent gift. And that the curators of the University chest be autho- rised to pay to the delegates of the University Museum a sum not exceeding 1,500/.,to be expended by them on the erection of buildings in the park suitable for the reception and use of the telescope and other apparatus presented by Dr. De La Rue, as also of the instruments at present in the small observatory on the east side of the museum, accor- ding to plans and specifications prepared by Mr. Charles Barry, architect, and adjoining the observatory now nearly completed, NVov. 20, 1873 | NATURE 53 2. That the curators of the University chest be autho- rised to pay annually to the Savilian Professor of Astro- nomy during five years, or until provision is made from some other source, the sum of 200/. for providing an , assistant and defraying the expenses incurred in the maintenance and use of the instruments in the observa- tory, an account of the expenditure of such sum to be annually submitted to the auditors of accounts. We cannot doubt that Convocation will sanction a decree which promises to make Oxford first in the field in this country in the power of aiding the new astronomy which is dawning upon us—thanks to the spectroscope and the application of photography. Such a position may not be thought much of now, but in the coming time Oxford men will refer to it as one of the things of which Oxford has the greatest reason to be proud, NOTES THE Copley Medal and the two Royal Medals in the gift of the Royal Society, have this year been awarded as follows :— The Copley Medal to Prof. Helmholtz, the distinguished physio- logist, physicist and mathematician, of Berlin ; a Royal Medal to H. E. Roscoe, F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in Owens College, Manchester ; and a Royal Medal to Dr. Allman, Pro. fessor of Biology in the University of Edinburgh. Tue Annual Meeting of the Royal Society will be held on December 1, when, after dining together, the Fellows will ad- journ to their new apartments. A DEPUTATION from the Council of the Society of Arts had an interview on Friday last with the Royal Commissioners of Scientific Instruction with reference to museums and galleries of science and art. The deputation consisted of Major-General F. Eardley-Wilmot, R.A., F.R.S. (Chairman of the Council), Mr. E. Chadwick, C.B., Colonel Croll, Mr. Hyde Clarke, the Rev. Septimus Hansard, Admiral Ommanney, C.B., F.R.S., Colonel Strange, F.R.S., Mr. Seymour Tewlon, with Mr. Le Neve Foster, Secretary. The Chairman of the Council stated that the object the Council had in view was to bring before, and ask the support of, the Commissioners to the action the society was now taking in reference to museums, and pointed out that this had special regard to the State giving increasing aid to existing museums, to aid in the multiplication of such museums, and rendering them available for educational purposes. He further pointed out the necessity for all such museums being placed under the control of a Cabinet Minister responsible to Parliament. He handed to the Commissioners a copy of resolu- tions embodying the views of the Council, stating at the same time that a large and influential committee was in the course of formation, and that a considerable number of members of both Houses of Parliament had already given in their names. THE first award of the Grand Walker prize of 1,000dols. was voted by the Council of the Boston Society of Naturai History on October 1, to Alexander Agassiz, of Cambridge, U.S.A., for investigations on the embryology, structure, and geographical distribution of the Radiata, and especially of the Echinoderms, and the publication of the results as embodied in his recent work, The Annual Walker Prize of 60 dols. for 1873 was at the same meeting awarded to A. S. Packard for his essay on the develop- ment of the common house-fly. For the Anaual Prize of 1874, the subject is ‘‘The Comparative Structure of the Limbs of Birds and Reptiles.” Memoirs offered for competition must be forwarded on or before April 1, addressed to the Boston Society of Natural History, for the Committee of the Walker prizes, Boston, Mass., U,S,A., and each memoir must be accom- panied by a sealed envelope enclosing the author’s name, and superscribed by a motto corresponding to one borne on the M.S. In the examination for Foundation Scholarships at Trinity College, Cambridge, to be held at Easter, 1874, one or more Scholarships will be obtainable by proficiency in the Natural Sciences. The Examination in Natural Science will commence on Friday, April ro, and will include the subjects set forth in the regulations for the Natural Sciences Tripos. It will be open to all undergraduates of Cambridge or Oxford, and to persons not members of the Universities, provided that these last are under twenty years of age. Candidates who are not members of Tr inity College must send their names to the Master, together with a certificate of age and good character, on or before Saturday, March 21. WE congratulate the University of Edinburgh on being the first in the United Kingdom to recognise the duty of universities so to frame their regulations for degrees in science as to encou- rage original work in opposition to mere book-knowledge. The University of Edinburgh has just issued a regulation that every candidate for the degree of Doctor of Science shall in future be required to submit a Thesis containing some original research on the subject of his intended examination, and that such thesis shall be approved before the candidate is allowed to proceed to examination. PRoF. CHEVALLIER, for many years Professor of Mathematics and Astronomy in the University of Durham, died on the 4th inst., at the age of 8o years. WE learn from Ocean Highways that Prof. Mohn, of the Meteorological Institute at Christiania, and Mr. O. Sars are preparing a plan for the investigation of the sea between Norway, the Faro Islands, Iceland,‘and Spitzbergen, the expense of which will, it is expected, be defrayed by a grant of the Norwegian Storthing. Dr. RuDOLPHE WOLF has recently published in the Vzerte/jahr- schrift of the Zurich Society of Natural Science, the thirty-third number of his Astronomische Mittheilungen. "The paper is im- portant in reference to sun-spots chiefly, and as bringing out with great clearness the connection of these with variations in declina- tion of the magnetic needle. The author gives a series of daily ob- servations of ‘sun-spots, during?1872, made at Zurich, Peckeloh, Miinster, Palermo, and Athens. The mean relative number obtained [is 101°7; and for the years 1866-72 inclusive, the series runs thus :—16°3,£7°3 (min. 1867), 37°3, 73°9, 139°I (max. 1870), 111°2, 101°7. Dr. Wolf has constructed a formula by which the average yearly variations of magnetic declination, in a particular place, may be calculated from the relative sun-spot number (two constants for the place being given). In this way, for example, he obtains for Munich the quantity 10'"8o as repre- senting the magnetic variation for 1872 ; the number got from observation is 10'°75, showing a close agreement. In the second portion of} his paper Dr. Wolf discusses several points con- nected with the history of the telescope, the vernier, the pendu- lum clock, &c. ; among other things, attributing to Biirgi (who lived in the early part of the sixteenth century), a share in the discovery of the isochronism of the pendulum. The last portion of the paper reproduces some of the earlier sun-spot literature. The same number of Astronomische Nachrichten contains a note by M. von Asten, furnishing evidence against the supposed identity of a cometary object observed by Goldschmidt on May 16, 1855, with Tempel’s comet. (1867, II.) TuE recent meeting of the American Association for the Ad- vancement of Science held at Portland, Maine, was considered on the whole a successful one, 157 papers were entered, and 54 NATURE [Wov. 20, 1873 TY abstracts were received of all but nine ; most of the remainder were passed by the sectional committees for reading, but a num- ber of those that were read were not approved by the committees for publication, an example that might be very usefully followed in the case of our British Association. The general character of the meeting was stated to be decidedly scientific, and the discus- sions to have been carried on with good feeling, and free from personalities ; though complaint was made that less sympathy was exhibited on the part of the citizens with the objects of the Association than at any previous meeting. The next meeting will be held at Hartford, Connecticut, on the second Wednesday in August 1874, when a report will be received from a special committee appointed to revise the constitution of the Association with a view to a better carrying out of its objects. The general officers for the meeting will be Dr. J. L. LeConte, president ; Prof. C. S. Lyman, vice-president; Dr. A. C. Hamlin, general secretary ; and Mr. J. W. Putnam, permanent secretary. Dr. BEKE writes to the Z7es as follows with respect to Dr. Livingstone :—‘‘ If the intelligence from the West Coast of Africa is to be depended on, we may very shortly expect the re- turn of our great traveller, Dr. Livingstone, to his native country On the Ist and 4th inst. you inserted communications from me, to the effect that our countryman was detained a prisoner at a place about 300 miles from Embomma, on the Congo. Accord- ing to the news brought by the last African Royal mail steamer, it was reported at St. Salvador that Livingstone was then in the interior, about 30 or 40 miles from that place. Now, as St. Salvador is only 80 miles from Embomma, the distance to the latter town from the spot at which, according to the later intel- ligence, our adventurous countryman was, is not more than 120 miles ; and, Embomma being 70 miles from the mouth of the Congo, he would have been within 200 miles of the coast. As the hardy and energetic traveller is not in the habit of letting the grass grow under his feet, he may well be supposed to have come on nearly, if not quite, as quickly as the natives who brought the news of his whereabouts. Consequently, on the assumption that the intelligence received is founded on truth, we may not unreasonably look for the veteran traveller’s arrival in England by the next mail steamer from the West Coast of Africa.” WE learn from the Journal of the Society of Arts, that one of the first results in the rise of the price of coal has been the for- * mation of a company in France, whose object is to utilise the power of the ocean tides on the French coast by proper machinery. The first experiment is to be made at St. Malo, where the tide rises nearly So ft., and overflows many square miles of flats. Dr. GEoRGE Burrows, F.R.S., has been appointed one of the Physicians-in-Ordinary to Her Majesty, in the room of the late Sir Henry Holland. Ava meeting of the Trustees of the Hunterian Collection of the College of Surgeons, held on Saturday, 8th inst., George Busk, F.R.S., was elected a member of the board, to fill the vacancy occasioned by the death of the Bishop of Winchester. Dr. Lyon PLAYFAIR, C.B., F.R.S., M.P. for the Universities of St. Andrews and Edinburgh, has been appointed Postmaster-Ge- neral in succession to Mr. Monsell, Dr. Playfair was a pupil of Liebig, was formerly Professor of Chemistry in the University of Edinburgh, and was at one time Government Inspector-General of Schools and Museums of Science and Art. We hope the new Postmaster-General will endeavour to introduce something like scientific method into the postal department. THE promoters of the railway tunnel which is intended to eross the Mersey, the shafts for which have already been sunk, have always believed that they would have only a continuous mass of solid sandstone rock to penetrate. A paper has just been published in the transactions of the Liverpool Geological Society for 1872, by Mr. T. Mellard Reade, C.E., of Liverpool, in which he contends that in all probability a deep gorge, filled up with clay or sand, will be met with, being the (site of an ancient river or torrent formed in or before the times when England was covered with ice, and when its valleys were filled with glaciers. Mr. Reade believes that the ascertained data warrant the hypothesis, that before the boulder clays and other recent strata were laid down, a river draining the land now drained by the Mersey flowed past Runcorn Gap, between land of some considerable elevation, to the sea. WE have received, in the form of a neat little pamphlet of 20 pp., price only one penny, an exceedingly interesting lecture on ‘‘How Flowers are Fertilised,” delivered by Mr. A. W, Bennett, F.L.S., at Manchester, on the 5th inst. It is one of a series of Science-Lectures forthe People, published alter de- livery by Mr. Heywood of Manchester ; they are carefully and neatly printed, and judging from the one before us, purchasers have a very good pennyworth indeed. The enterprise is very creditable to the publisher. AMONG the papers presented to Parliament, says the Zimes, relating to the South Sea‘ Islanders, is a report by Captain C. H. Simpson, of Her Majesty’s ship Alanche, giving an account of his visit last year to the Solomons and other groups of islands in the Pacific Ocean. While at Isabel Island. Captain Simpson, with a party of officers, went a short distance inland to visit one of the remarkable tree villages peculiar, he believes, to this island. He found the village built on the summit of a rocky mountain rising almost perpendicular to a height of Sooft. The party ascended by a native path from the interior, and found the extreme summit a mass of enormous rocks standing up like a castle, among which grow the gigantic trees, in the branches of which the houses of the natives are built. The stems of these trees lie perfectly straight and smooth, without a branch, to a height varying from 50 ft. to 15oft. In the one Captain Simpson ascended the house was just 80 ft. from the ground ; one close toit was about 120ft, The only means of approach to these houses is by a ladder made of a creeper, suspended from a post within the house, and which, of course, can be hauled up.at will. The houses are most in- geniously built, and are very firm and strong. Each house will contain from ten to twelve natives, and an ample store of stones is kept, which they throw both with slings and with the hand with great force and precision. At the foot of each of these trees is another hut, in which the family usually reside, the tree-house being only resorted to at night and during times of expected danger. In fact, however, they are never safe from surprise, notwithstanding all their precautions, as the great object in life among the people is to get each other's heads. THE additions to the Zoological Society’s collection during the past week include an Alligator Terrapin (Chelyara serpen- tina) from North America, presented by the Smithsonian Insti- tution of Washington ; a large Hill Mynah (Gracula intermedta) from North India, presented by Rev. T. Main; twelve Gray’s Terrapins (Clemmys grayi) feom Bussorah, presented by Captain Phillips ; a Changeable Tree Frog (//y/a versicolor) from North America, presented by Prof. Rolleston ; a Ground Rat (Az/aco- dus swinderianus) from West Africa; a Sharp-nosed Badger (Meles leptorhynchus) from China ; a Telerang Squirrel (Sccz«rus bicolor) from the East Indies ; two Mantchurian Crossaptilons (Crossaptilon mantchuricum) from North China, and two Blue- rowned Hanging Parrakeets (Zoriculus galgudus) from Malacca, purchased ; an Agile Gibbon (/7y/odates agilis) from Sumatra, deposited. Nov. 20, 1873 | NATURE 55 SCIENTIFIC SERIALS Tue November number of the Monthly Microscopical Fournal commences with a paper by Dr. R. L. Maddox: on an organism found in Fresh-pond Water, which he thinks to be new. The accompanying illustration, as well as the description, shows that the monads under consideration are of the simplest structure, and amoeboid in character, of a violet tint, and highly refracting. They vary in size, and contain great numbers of little granular bodies embedded in the gelatinous matrix. The name Psewdo- ama@ba violacea is proposed for the new form.—Mr. F. Kitton describes some new species of Diatomacez, including Aw/aco- discus superbus {rom Barbadoes, and others of the genera Svzcfo- discus, Isthmia, Nitzschia, and 7)yblionella.—Mr. Carruthers answers Dr. Dawson’s comments on his interpretation of the microscopic appearances of Vematophycus (Carruthers) or Profo- laxites (Dawson). As he remarks, the question whether the plant under consideration is a sea-weed or a conifer, is entirely an histological one. Dr. Dawson, in his sections of the fossil found ‘‘wood cells, showing spiral fibres and obscure pores ;” Mr. Carruthers finds ‘‘elongated cylindrical cells of two sizes, interwoven irregularly into a felted mass,” and the latter ob- server substantiates the correctness of his observations and his drawings, which prove the accuracy of his views as to the affini- ties of the plant.—Mr. J. J. Woodward explains the optical principles involved in the construction of Mr. Tolles’ new im- mersion objective that has caused the contest between him and Mr. Wenham.—Dr. Braithwaite continues his description of bog mosses, treating of figuring Sphagnum rividum and S. molle.— This paper is followed by one on the investigation of Micro- scopic Forms by means of the images which they furnish of ex- ternal objects, by Prof. O. N. Rood, of Troy, N.Y., which gives an extremely ingenious and simple method of testing with certainty, when the refractive indices of the body examined and the fluid in which it is immersed, are known, of determining whether markings, as of Coscinodiscus triceratium, are depressions or elevations; by regarding the object as part of the optical system, and thence finding whether its influence is that of a con- vex or concave lense. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES LonDoN Geological Society, Nov. 5.—Prof. Ramsay, F.R.S., vice- president, in the chair.—The following communications were read :—‘ On the Skull of a species of Halitherium from the Red Crag of Suffolk,” by Prof. W. H. Flower, F.R.S. A descrip- tion of this has been already given in NATURE, at p. F3 of the present volume. -—‘‘ New Facts bearing on the Inquiry concern- ing Forms intermediate between Birds and Reptiles,” by Henry Woodward, F.R.S. The author, after giving a brief sketch of the Sauropsida, and referring especially to those points in which the Pterosaurians approach and differ from birds, spoke of the fossil birds and land reptiles which he considered to link together more closely the Sauropsida as a class. The most remarkable recent discoveries of fossil birds are :—(I.) Archeopteryx macrura (Owen), (II.) JZchthyornis dispar (Marsh), (III.) Odonto- pleryx toliapica (Owen). The author then referred to the Dinosauria, some of which he considered to present points of structure tending towards the so-called wingless birds. (I.) Com- psognathus longipes (A. Wagner), from the Oolite of Solenhofen. (II.) The huge carnivorous MZegalosavrus, ranging from the Lias to the Wealden. The author next drew attention to the Frilled Lizard of Australia, Chlamydosaurus Kingit (Gray), which has its fore limbs very much smaller than the hind limbs, and has been observed not only to sit up occasionally, but to run habitu- ally upon the ground on its hind legs, its fore paws not touching the earth, which upright carriage necessitates special modifica- tions of the sacrum and pelvis bones. The Solenhofen Lime- stone, in which Pterosauria are frequent, and which has yielded the remains of Archeopteryx and of Compsognathus, has also furnished a slab bearing a bipedal track, resembling what might be produced by Chlamydosaurus or Compsognathus. It shows a median track formed by the tail in being drawn along the ground ; on each side of this the hind feet with outspread toes leave their mark, while the fore feet just touch the ground, leaving dot-like impressions nearer the median line. Hence the author thought that while some of the bipedal tracks which are met with from the Trias upwards may be the ‘‘spoor” of stru- thious birds, most of them are due to the bipedal progression of the Secondary Reptiles.—‘‘ Note on the Astragalus of Leuanodon Mantelli,” by J. W. Hulke, F.R.S. The author exhibited and described an astragalus of Zewanodon from the collection of E. P. Wilkins. The bone was believed to be previously unknown. The upper surface presents a form exactly adapted to that of the distal end of the tibia, so that the applied surfaces of the astragalus and tibia must have interlocked in such a manner as to have precluded all motion between them. The author remarked upon the interest attaching to this fact in con- nection with the question of the relationship between the Dino- sauria and Birds.—‘‘ Note on a very large Saurian Limb-bone, adapted for progression upon land, from the Kimmeridge Clay of Weymouth, Dorset,” by J. W. Hulke, F.R.S. The bone described by the author presents a closer resemblance to the Crocodilian type of humerus than to any other bone, and he re- garded it as the left humerus of the animal to which it be- longed. The author refers it provisionally to a species of Ceteo- saurus, which he proposes to name C. humero-cristatus.—A despatch from Mr, Alfred Biliotti, British Vice-Consul at Rhodes (dated June 16, 1873), communicated by H.M. Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, and relating to a volcanic outburst in the island of Nissiros, one of the Sporades, in which there existed a volcano supposed to be extinct. Shortly before June 10 new craters opened in this volcano, and from them ashes, stones, and lava were ejected; many fissures, from which hot water flowed, were produced in the mountain, and the island was daily shaken by violent earthquakes. Royal Astronomical Society, Noy. 14.—Prof. Cayley, president, in the chair. Sir Geo. {[B, Airy, the Astronomer- Royal, explained the general state of the preparations for the transit of Venus. First, as to the selection of stations. He had originally selected five observing-stations, and in making his choice he had endeavoured to keep in mind what other Govern- ments were likely todo. He had been induced to recommend another station in Northern India for the purpose of taking a series of photographic observations to be used in conjunction with the photographic records to be obtained at the southern stations. As the French would not support the station which he had selected in the Sandwich Islands, by an expe- dition to the Marquesas Islands, he had found it necessary to recommend to our own Government that there should be two subsidiary observing stations in the Sandwich Islands. The station which had originally been chosen was Hono- looloo, at about the middle of the islands; the new sta- tions were to be Ha-wai-i to the east and an island at the western extremity of the group. The three stations would thus be distributed over a distance of some 300 miles—a fact which would greatly add to their chances of fine weather. He had also been considering the propriety of establishing stations at Christmas Island, at Hurd Island, and in Whisky Bay, but at present they knew little of the chances of anchorage or fine weather at these places. The Cha/lenger was, however, about to visit and survey them. It would then proceed to Australia, whence the results of their investigations would no doubt be telegraphed to England. As to the selection of stations in the extreme south, the Admiralty would have nothing to do with any station where there was no anchorage, and where there were no human beings. Any station which laboured under both disqualifi- cations must undoubtedly be rejected as unsuitable. He felt him- self borne out in this determination by the fact that other nations had adopted the same practical view in their selection of stations. The Astronomer Royal then enumerated and pointed out upon a globe the stations which had been selected : 8 American, 5 French, 4 German, 19 Russian, and 8 English, besides the private enterprise of Lord Lindsay. He then proceeded to give a descrip- tion of the now well-known ‘‘ black drop,”’ which was sometimes described as being so large as to make Venus appear ‘‘pear- shaped,” at other times the illegitimate connection between Venus and the limb consisted only of a narrow black strap or band. The Astronomer-Royal had had a working model prepared at Greenwich with a black disc moved by clock-work. The black ligament, or drop, came out as a very marked feature of the contact with the artificial limb. And he hoped that Capt. Tupman would be able, from a discussion of the observations of different observers with different telescopes, to determine in what proportion the phenomenon was due to the aperture of the telescope used, and to what he might call the personal equation of the observer. He then proceeded to explain how when Venus was upon the suu’s limb measures are to be made of the 56 NATURE common chord of Venus and the limb, and how these measures are affected by the formation of a ‘‘black drop” between the two images.— Lord Lindsay then showed some photographs of a model of Venus upon the limb, in which the ‘‘black drop ” was photographed as a remarkable feature. He pointed out that when the exposure was longest the ‘‘ black drop” was most marked ; and he showed that its size might be greatly reduced by using a stop which only permitted the rays from the central parts of the lenses to reach the plate. Dr. De La Rue said it was quite wonderful to see the amount of preparations which were going forward at Greenwich. It was not right to throw out such insinuations as Mr. Proctor had done about “official obstructiveness.” Mr. Proctor’s last paper in the Monthly Notices wasa disgrace to the Society. In former days such papers never appeared.—A paper was read by Mr. Lassell.on the finding of longitude with small instruments.—Mr. Ranyard then read a note upon a remarkable spot observed by Pas- torff upon the sun’s disc of May 26, 1828. In June 1819 Pastorff obsc- ved a nebulous spot with a bright nucleus upon the sun, which has since been recognised as being the comet of 1819 projected upon the bright background of the photosphere. The drawing referred to by Mr. Ranyard contained a similar though smaller nebulous marking, with a bright centre. His object in bringing the drawing to the notice of the society was to inquire whether any small comet or known meteoric stream was between the earth and the sun on May 26, 1828. Anthropological Institute, Noy. 11.—Prof. Busk, F.R.S., president, in the chair—Mr. T. J. Hutchinson, F.R.G.S., H.M.’s consul at Callao, read a paper on “ Explorations amongst ancient burial grounds, chiefly on the sea-coast valleys, of Peru,” Part I. The object of the paper was to describe the **huacas” or burial-grounds, especially those lying beweent Arica and the Huatica Valley, and to expose some popular errors respecting them. Every bit of old wall, every heap of gravel, mound of earth, large or small cluster of ancient ruins of any kind is there called a “huaca.” The term huaca’(Quichua) is synonymous with Quilpa (Aymara) and means ‘‘ sacred ;”’ the title may therefore be considered as much applicable to the burying-grounds of Ancon, Pasamayo, and other places where there is no elevation above the country, as to those of Pando and Ocharan, large burial mounds in the valley of Huatica. The author proceeded to describe in detail the mode of interment and the various articles discovered. The celebrated Pacha-Camac was described. Along the whole course of the Huatica Valley—from Callao to Chorillos—a distance of ten miles direct or sixteen miles round by Lima, there is no natural elevation that could be made available as asub-structure for those colossal burial mounds. He gave at considerable length his reasons for concluding that there was no ‘‘Temple of the Sun” and no ‘‘House of the Virgins” of the Inca religion, and that every huaca was not a ‘‘Huaca de los Incas.”——Dr. Simms, of New York, gave a most interesting and instructive communi- cation on a flattened skull from Mameluke Island, Columbia River, and described minutely the practice of flattening the head in infancy. In reply to questions put to him, he said that the flattening does not seem to cause pain ; that males and females are treated alike, although it had been supposed only males were so treated ; that flattening is not apparently transmitted from parents to children ; and that, judging from the general intelli- gence of the native Indians, the practice does not seem in any way to affect the brain or injure the health of the people. MANCHESTER Literary and Philosophical Society, October 7.—Ed- ward Schunck, F.R.S., vice-president, in the chair. W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S., exhibited a fragment of a post struck by lightning on June 2, 1873. It was completely shattered, fragments being driven as far as the walls of the house, twenty-five yards off, and the downward direction of the loose splinters implied that the explosive force was exerted from below upwards, instead of from above downwards. Mr. Baxendell thought it was most probably due to the sudden con- version of a portion of the moisture in the post into steam of high tension by the heating action of the electrical discharge, and mentioned instances in which condensed vapour was said to have been seen rising from trees immediately after they had been struck by lightning. — ‘“‘ On the Relative Work spent in Friction in giving Rotation to shot from Guns rifled with an increasing, and a uniform twist,” by Osborne Reynolds, M.A., Professor of Engineering, Owens College, Manchester, and Fellow of Queen’s [ Mov. 20,1873 College, Cambridge. The object of this paper was to show that the friction between the studs and the grooves necessary to give rotation to the shot consumes more work with an increasing than with a uniform twist’; and that in the case of grooves which develop into parabolas, such as those used in the Woolwich guns, the waste from’ this cause is double what it would be if the twist was uniform. The following conclusions were arrived at by Prof. Reynolds :— 1. That when the pressure of the powder is constant, Work spent in friction with parabolic grooves _ 3 ‘Work spent in friction with plane grooves ... 2 2. That when the pressure diminishes rapidly the above tatio = 2. 3. That this ratio may have any values between these two, but that it cannot go beyond these limits. PARIS Academy of Sciences, November 10.—M. de Quatrefages, president, in the chair—The following papers were read :— An examination of the law proposed by Herr Helmholtz for the representation of the action of two elements in a current, by M. J. Bertrand.—Remarks on an historical point in relation to animal heat, by M. Berthelot.—On the foundation of a meteorological observatory at the foot of the peak Du Midi by the Ramond Society, by M. Ch. Sainte-Claire Deville.—An extract from a letter from M. de Lesseps to Lord Granville on the projected Central Asian Railway. In the letter M. de Lesseps argued against the supposed danger of a Russian invasion of India, and expressed a hope that the Viceroy would permit his son and Mr. Stuart to commence their surveys.—On the structure of the teeth of the Aelodermata and Ophidians, by M. P. Gervais.—Memoir on the problem of three bodies, by M. E. Mathieu.—Note on magnetism, by M. J. M. Gaugain. This formed the fifth of the author’s notes on this subject.— Researches on the absorption of ammonia by saline solutions, by M. Raoult. The author stated that the difference between the coefficient of solubility of this gas in pure water and in saline solutions of the same salt is pro- portional to the weight of the salt dissolved in a given volume. —On the transpiration of water by plants in air and in carbonic anhydride, by M. A. Barthelémy.—New researches on the up- ward transport of nourishment by the bark of plants, by M. Faivre.—On the development of swellings on the rootlets of the vine, by M. Max. Cornu.—On certain cases of intermittence of the electric current, by M. A. Cazin.—On a process tor finding the nodes of a sonorous tube, by M. Bourbouze.—On the presence and estimation of titanium and vanadium in the basalts of Clermont-Ferraud, by M. G. Roussel.—A method of estimat- ing sugar by means of iron, by M. E. Riffard.—Certain facts re- lating to the development fof bony tissue, by M. Ranvier. —On the Femphigus of Pistacia terebinthus compared with the Phyl- loxera quercits, by M. Derbes.—On a new kind of fossil Lemur recently found in the Quercy deposits of tricalcic phosphate, by M. Filhol.—On the influence of the moon on meteorological phenomena, by M. E. Marchand.—On a method for the deter- mination of the direction and force of the wind; abolition of weathercocks, by M. H. Tarry. CONTENTS PAGE THE ARgcric EXPEDITION GF'x8740 06 ieee Loca Screntiric: SocieTigs SU hie es kok me ss Hartwic’s ““SEA AND ITS WONDERS”. . - - + +» . « = as 4o OUR; BOOKSHELF “.. .! Gpiaiierfetievre os. =) (je. eich a aan LETTERS TO THE EpiToR :— Transfer of South Kensington Museum —P. L. Sctarer, F.R.S.. 41 Deep-sea Soundings and Deep-sea Thermometers.—L. P. CASELLA 41 Squalus ispinosus.—C. Nox is vs. | se «cs ne Zodiacal Light.—E. H. PrinGLe : Cold Treatment of Gases—T. GUTHRIE. . . .- 2... 2 The Relation of Maa to the Ice-shcet.—Rev. O. Fisuer, F.G.S. . 42 ou TL Sees bWave Mobon! 5... . ewes A PRC Elementary |Biology . Saemeemiesestis = lc Acne, ss) heme Black Rain and Dew Ponds.—E. HicHTon. . . . 2 1... 43 Avpany Hancock. . 43 FERTILISATION OF FLowers, IV. By Dr. HERMANN Mutter (With Illustrations)... ON THE SCIENCE OF WEIGHING AND MEASURING, AND THE STANDARDS _ or WeicHT AND Measure, VIII. By H. W. CuisHorm, Warden of the Standards (With I/lustration). . . . . . . . ss * 47 EaARTH-ScuLpTURE. By Prof. Geikiz, F.R.S.. . . . . . . +. 50 ASTBONOMY AT:OXFORD . SO ecn-s isle, sv cs, «oa Renee INOTES! Fwa Ws.) '2, 5. Re Mehee rere he et Rute coke gene, Menem SCIENTIFICISERIALS’ .° | GueaiMaimramre Mraitcl Sake b's Gil ® ccs) balay NOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES simwiie fsbis se soasi is) is ss! 5) 15 6 (ene NAO RE 57 THURSDAY, NOVEMBER 27, 1873 THE SOUTHERN UPLANDS OF SCOTLAND * Il. HE next member of the series of rocks making up the upper Llandeilo series in the Southern Uplands has received from the officers of the Scotch Geological Survey the name of the Lowther group. In its typical area, which is in the N.W. of Dumfriesshire, this group is composed of “fine grey shales and finely laminated fels- pathic greywackes with occasional grit beds.” The esti- mated thickness of this group amounts to 5,000 feet. It is seen overlying the Haggis rock group in the streams which drain the upper portion of the Lowther hills ; with the underlying Haggis Rock group it forms a synclinal trough in which the Lowther hills are contained. In Wigtonshire the Lowther group rests upon the Dalveen group. The strata here generally correspond with those of Dumfriesshire, but shales are less abundant, and flagstones and grit with shale bands become more deve- loped. In this county, however, the proportion of the fine and coarse rocks of this group varies in different localities. The rocks of the Lowther group in Wigtonshire are best exposed on the shores of the Irish Channel. Here be- tween Morroch Bay and Knockienausk Head, cliffs are seen from 100 to 300 feet high composed of strata often very twisted and broken, belonging to the Lowther group ; and in the higher portion of this group, where the flags are well developed, they have been worked for roofing and flooring purposes. Above the Lowther group, and forming the highest member of the Upper Llandeilo series, as these occur in the Southern Uplands, are strata composed of grey shales with bands of fine-grained blue greywacke and flinty mudstones. Numerous bands of dark anthracitic shales with graptolites interstratify these rocks. These strata, with their associated anthracitic beds, have received the name of the “ Upper Black Shale Group.” Their esti- mated thickness is about 3,400 feet. This Upper Black Shale group occurs near the northern limits of the Upper Llandeilo rocks, and is more abundantly developed in La- narkshire than in Dumfriesshire. The Upper Black Shale group, in its typical area, has yielded the officers of the Geological Survey a rich grap- tolitic fauna, no less than 27 species having been obtained from this series of rocks. These species bear a very close resemblance to such as occur in the Moffat Shales, a horizon much below the Upper Black Shale group in position. Two Brachiopods have also been found in con- nection with these Upper Black Shales, viz., Siphonotreta micula,a form also occurring in the Moffat Shales, and likewise in the Upper Llandeilo rocks of Wales, especially in the neighbourhood of Builth; and a Déscéna which has not yet been specially recognised. The Upper Black Shales group, following the persistent strike of the Upper Llandeilo rocks of the Southern Up- lands of Scotland, makes its appearance in Wigtonshire. Two bands of this group lying in a synclinal trough tra- verse the portion of Wigtonshire contained in Sheet 3. One of these bands is well seen in Morroch Bay, about a Continued from p. 24. VoL, 1x,.—N0o, 213 mile and a half south-east of Port Patrick. The other appears south-west of Stranraer, and crossing the moors to the north-east, is seen in the bed of the Luce below Cairnarzean. In Morroch Bay the Upper Black Shale group exhibits a threefold petrological nature. The higher beds consist of thin black shales, having in them lenticu- lar masses and seams of coarse clay, ironstone, and nodu- lar layers of greywacke and pyritous kernals. The strata here are much crumpled, and intrusive masses and veins of felstone have invaded them, It is in this upper portion of the group that graptolites occur, but the number of species obtained from these strata is considerably under what have been found in the Upper Black Shale group of Lanarkshire. The representatives of the Upper Llandeilo rocks in the Southern Uplands of Scotland attain to a very great thickness. Of the lower portion of the series, the Ard- well group, the Lower or Moffat Black shale group, the Queenberry grit group, the Hartfell group, and the Daer group, the officers of the Geological Survey have not given their thickness in Dumfriesshire. Of the other four groups, the Dalveen, the Haggis Rock, the Lowther and the Upper Black Shales, these have an estimated thickness of 13,000 ft. If to this amount be added the five groups below, we have a development of Upper Llandeilo strata in the south of Scotland which must amount to nearly 20,000 ft. This great thickness of strata much exceeds the same series of rocks developed else- where in the British Isles. The Upper Llandeilo recks of the Southern Uplands of Scotland have a greater uniformity in their mineral nature than is usually common to the series. Greywacke in the form of shales, sandstones, grit, and conglomerates, having in some of their sub-divisions black shales containing graptolites, constitute this great thickness of sedimentary rocks, There is an absence of limestone strata, only nodules occurring occasionally, and the calcareous flags which are so characteristic of this portion of the Lower Silurian in its typical area Llandeilo, have no representa- tives in the South of Scotland. The rocks in this district have been originally greyish and reddish muds, grey and purple sands, and pebble-beds, with occasionally dark carbonaceous muds, which may have derived their black colour either from decaying sea-weeds or decomposing Hydrozoa. The presence of carbonate of lime seems to have been very rare in the Upper Llandeilo seas of the areas which are now recognised as the Southern Uplands, during the deposition of their strata, and to this great absence of carbonate of lime we may probably attribute the absence of some of the fossils which are so abundant in Wales in this series of rocks. Graptolites are essentially the characteristic fossils of the Upper Llandeilo of the Southern Uplands. The same species seem to run through whole strata from the Moffat Shales to the highest mem- ber of the series, having a range of probably 18,000 ft. ; and many of these forms of graptolites are common alike to the Upper Llandeilo rocks of Wales and Scotland. The case is, however, very different when we come to compare the crustacea of the two regions. In Scotland the Upper Llandeilo crustaceans are very few, and almost confined to Phyllopods, being Pedtocaris Harknesst, P. aptychoides, and Disinocaris Browniz, while in Wales we have a considerable development of trilobitic life, Of the E 58 NATURE [Mov. 27, 1873 latter only one specimen, in the form of a tail, has yet been obtained from the Upper Llandeilo strata of the South of Scotland ; and this specimen is too imperfect to admit of its being specifically determined. With refer- ence to molluscs, these are nearly equally rare in the Southern Uplands. Only two Brachiopods have hitherto been recognised, while many forms appertaining to several genera have been obtained from the Welsh Upper Llan- deilo strata. Notwithstanding the paucity of varied forms of organic remains in the Upper Llandeilo rocks of the Southern Uplands, their rich graptolitic fauna is at once indicative of their age, and the absence of other forms is most probably referable to want of calcareous strata in connection with these deposits. The labours of the officers of the Geological Survey among the highly contorted and crumpled rocks of the Southern Uplands have afforded further information, were such required, of the causes from whence c/eavage results. In a country so subject to flexures and contortions, where anticlinal axes and synclinal folds have been inverted, we should naturally look for abundant evidence of the super- induced structures from which true slates have derived their origin. The great mass of the Upper Llandeilo rocks of the South of Scotland rarely furnishes anything in the form of slates proper; and when we consider the nature of these rocks, which consist for the most part of greywacke sandstones and grits, we cannot fail to dis- cover that the cause of the general absence of cleavage from these rocks has arisen from their petrological nature. The officers of the Survey have, however, in several instances, pointed out the recurrence of. cleavage among the finer shales ; and this occurrence usually accompanies violent contortions of the strata. Although rocks of an Upper Llandeilo age enter so largely into the composition of the Southern Uplands, they are not the exclusive representatives of the Lower Silurian rocks in this area ; above the Upper Llandeilo strata rocks referable to the Bala or Caradoc age occur. These Caradoc rocks, which occupy a very small area when contrasted with the Upper Llandeilo strata, are marked in the Southern Uplands by a feature which is unknown to their occurrence elsewhere. They are wncon- Jormable to the underlying Upper Llandeilo beds, a cir- cumstance which Prof. Geikie well describes as “a new feature in the geology of Britain.” The Caradoc rocks have not been recognised in Wigtonshire. They are described in connection with Sheet 15. They occur ina trough extending from Wedder Dod N.E., at least as far as the hills on the right bank of the Clyde, below Abing- ton in Lanarkshire. Here they are seen as greywackes, “ passing on the one hand into a crumbling sandstone, and on the other into pebbly grits, with shale partings and with beds of con- glomerate found chiefly at their base.” In one spot a little concretionary limestone is seen, “the only example of limestone met with in the Lower Silurian rocks in Sheet 15.” This limestone has afforded no fossils, but the con- glomerates and the pebbly and gritty beds higher up in the series are abundantly fossiliferous. Denudation has probably removed some higher beds from this group. Its total thickness amounts to about 1,700 feet. From the Caradoc rocks of the Lead Hills the geolo- gical surveyors have obtained a good series of fossils. We miss from their list the whole of the graptolites so abundant in and so characteristic of the Upper Llandeilo strata. In their place we have corals, trilobites, many forms of brachiopods, two lamellibranchiates, several gas- teropods, and an arthorceras. Most of the species are characteristic Caradoc forms; but they have associated with them some which occur also in the Llandovery series. The Southern Uplands of Scotland have other mem- bers of the great Silurian series besides those which have been referred to. These occur along a portion of the south-east flanks of the range, and consist of rocks having a general resemblance to the greywacke strata which form so large a part of the Upper Llandeilo rocks in the South of Scotland. The newer Silurian strata occurring on the south-east margin have, however, a very distinct series of fossils ; and associated with their shales are found calca- reous concretions frequently affording organic remains ; the greywackes flaggy beds also in this higher group often contain fossils, especially graptolites. These grap- tolites belong to species occupying a much higher horizon than the forms which make their appearance in the Upper Llandeilo rocks ; and the organic remains derived from the calcareous nodules also indicate strata-higher in posi- tion than the Caradoc series. The rocks of an Upper Silurian age are well developed on the shores of the Stewarty of Kirkcudbright, especially on the eastern side of the mouth of the Dee. They occur also in Dumfries- shire, being seen near the southern margin of the Silu- rians at Dalton Mill, in the parish of Dalton, where the flaggy strata yield the same forms of graptolites which occur near the mouth of the Dee; and they have been extensively recognised in Roxburghshire. As contrasted with the nearest area where Silurian rocks occur in England, the strata and the organic re- mains of the Southern Uplands of Scotland show great dissimilarity. The distance of the nearest portion of the area where Silurian rocks are seen in England from the south-east side of the South of Scotland strata of the same series does not exceed 30 miles; for the northern flank of the Caldbeck range in Cumberland is not greater than this, in distance from the axis of the Lower Silurian rocks in Dumfriesshire where the Ardwell group occurs. The Lake district of the north of England, occupied principally by Silurian rocks, exhibits strata of a lower position than any of the Silurian deposits of the Southern Uplands. These lower rocks of the Lake district are the Skiddaw slates of Prof. Sedgwick, which in many locali- ties contain graptolites. The facies of this graptolitic fauna is, however, widely different from that of the graptolitic fauna of the Upper Llandeilo rocks of the south of Scotland. In the Lake district there are no strata which can be paralleled with the Upper Llandeilo rocks. Above the Skiddaw slates of the north-west of England there occur great accumula- tions of igneous rocks in the form of traps, ashes, trap- tuffs and similar volcanic products. And it is only when the highest of these rocks is reached, which appear to have resulted from sub-aérial volcanic action, that strata occur in which organic remains are met with. These strata, the Coniston limestones and their asso- ciated shales, are prolific in fossils of a nature indicative of the Caradoc age. Nov. 27, 1873] It is difficult to conceive how all traces of the vast igneous action which occurred within the distance of 30 miles from the Scottish Silurian area should be absent from the rocks of the Southern Uplands. The uncon- * formability of the Caradoc deposits on the Upper Llandeilo strata in the Southern Uplands may per- haps afford some clue to this difficulty. The Skiddaw slates were probably ancient land in the area now occu- pied by the Lake district during the period of the deposi- tion of the Upper Llandeilo rocks of the south of Scotland. This ancient land seems to have been subject to violent sub-aérial volcanic action, being the earlier epoch of the Caradoc series. During the later portion of the same epoch this violent volcanic action ceased, the area covered with igneous products again subsided beneath the sea, and allowed of the accumulation of the materials of the Coniston Jimestone and the succeeding groups, In the Southern Uplands of Scotland the well-marked break recognised by the officers of the Survey points to a lapse of time between the deposition of the highest of the Upper Llandeilo groups and the conglomerates at the base of the Caradoc rocks. Itis probably during this lapse of time that volcanic action was so rife on the other side of what is now the Solway Firth. This lapse of time is still further indicated by the comparative small deve- lopment of the Caradoc rocks of the South of Scotland, as contrasted with those of the typical Caradoc areas of Shropshire and Wales, and also by their fossil contents, which indicate that only a portion of the group is repre- sented in this area, and that this portion appertains to the upper part of the series. From what has been said it will be apparent that the labours of the officers of the Geological Survey of Scot- land have put us in possession of most important infor- mation concerning the very difficult series of rocks making up the strata of the bulk of the Southern Uplands. There are other matters amply detailed in the “ Explanatory Memoirs” such as the metamorphism which the Silurian rocks have in some places undergone, and the intrusive rocks which are associated with them. The Old Red Sandstones as laid down in Sheet 15 are fully described. The important carboniferous areas of New Cumnock and Guelt, of Lugar and Muirkirk, and of Glespin or Douglas Water, with their thin limestone and low coal, are largely detailed. In relation to Dumfriesshire, the Sanquhar coal-field, made up of strata belonging to the true coal measures, and the. carboniferous rocks which underlie it are also fully described. The Permian rocks of a portion of the Nith basin, having porphyries in different beds at their base, and brick-red sandstones with trapean detritus forming their upper portion, and also rocks of the same age occurring on the shore near Corsewall House, Wightonshire. are subjects treated of in the Memoirs. Igneous rocks of an age posterior to the Permian are also referred to. Superficial deposits in the condition of drift sands, and gravels, brick clays, and erratic blocks, also still more recent products in the form of raised sea beaches, blown sands, peat and alluvium are fully alluded to, Finally the explanations afford infor- mation concerning the economic minerals of the several districts, the whole containing a record of an amount of careful observations and inferences such as could only have been arrived at by the labour and experience of such NATURE 59 a staff of officers as that which constitutes the Geological Survey. ROBERT HARKNESS LEVBOLD’S EXCURSION TO THE ARGEN- TINE PAMPAS Escursion alas Pampas Arjentinds : hojas de mt diario: Febrero ae 1871; Seguido de tablas de observaciones baromitricas, un boceto de la ruta tornaaa. Por Fede- rico Leybold. 8vo, pp. 108. (Santiago, 1873.) HE publication of a book relating to Natural History in Chili isa rare event, and therefore well worthy of record. Except Philippi and Landbeck’s “Catalago de las Aves Chilenas,” and some few papers by the same authors in the “ Anales” of the University of Santiago, the present is almost the first that has come before our notice. And these, it must be recollected, are not the productions of native Chilians, but of members of the all- pervading Teutonic race, who have brought their science with them from their distant fatherland. Herr Leybold, or Don Federico Leybold, as we suppose we must call him, for he writes in Spanish, has been long resident in Santiago, and active in investigating every branch of Natural History in his adopted country. During the last few years, as he tells us in the introductory chapter of the present work, he has sent six expeditions over the Andes to explore the natural riches of the “Argentine Tempe,” and finally in the month of February of 1871 was able to make arrangements to proceed him- self upon a collecting tour into the same district. The route taken from Santiago was up the valley of the Maipo, to the junction with it of the “Valle del Yeso,” and thence up this northern branch to the foot of the “Portillo de los Piuquenes,” where the watershed was crossed. But a second and more elevated pass—the “Portillo Mendocino ”—succeeds on this route over the main chain, which is, we believe, that usually taken to Mendoza. From the summit the descent was made over the elevated eastern slopes of the Mendozan Andes to an estancia called Vistaflores, situated at the foot of the range, which was made the headquarters of the party while they explored the surrounding country. Rainy weather and drunken servants much hindered operations during the stay at this place, which appears only to have lasted about a week, when it was determined to return to Santiago by the more southern “ Paso del Diamante.” This pass leads under the volcano of Maipo into the main valley of the Maipo, and thus enabled the travellers to join their former route after about a week’s difficult and occasionally dangerous travel amid the snows and storms of the higher Andes. Herr Leybold’s diary of this interesting month’s ex- cursion is replete with notes and observations in every branch of Natural History—Zoology, Botany, and Geology. Birds, beetles, and plants appear to have engaged his chief attention—but other objects are not passed un- noticed, Not only are frequent references given to known species observed in the Andes and on the adjacent dis- tricts of the Argentine Republic, but descriptions are introduced of species believed to be new to science, and discovered on this occasion. Thus we have characterised 60 NATURE [Mov. 27, 1873 (p. 29) a new Crustacean—g/ea audina (pp. 36, 37), two new Violets, Vola acanthophylla, and V. portulacea (p. 38), a new Pigeon, Columbina aurisquamata (p. 45), Oreosphacus, a new genus of Menthoidece ; and subse- quently two new Snakes, Bothrops ammodytordes and Pelias trigonatus. As regards these and other supposed novelties, it may be remarked that it is not very convenient to scatter such descriptions through the pages of a book of travels, where they are liable to escape notice. Moreover, an isolated worker in a remote part of the earth’s surface is in great danger of not knowing what is already known to others, and should take the precaution of consulting some corre- spondent in the great European centres of scientific activity before publishing what is new to him as new to every one else. Dr. Finsch has already shown that Leybold’s Conurus glaucifrons is a well-known species of Parrot ; and we do not doubt that most of the other supposed novelties will be found to have been previously described elsewhere. ie bs Sy A HEALTHY HOUSE What a House should be, versus Death in the House. By William Bardwell, Architect and Sanitary Engineer, (London: Dean and Son.) HE author of this work is evidently an enthusiast in sanitary matters, but there is much in it worth the attention of the professional architect and builder, as also of the house-owner and occupier. It will be some time before the precepts of hygienic architecture can be ex- pected to pervade all classes of the community ; but reforms in this direction must commence from above, and will gradually be accepted by the poorer classes : this work will assist the dissemination of wholesome rules. The subject of drainage, which necessarily occupies much of the work, has been forced into prominence by the dangerous illness of the Prince of Wales, in the Autumn of 1871; and this work meets to some extent the demand for further and better information on the subject. Our author is not new to the task, having so long ago as 1828 turned his attention to the sanitary conditions of buildings, and has published several treatises on cognate subjects. The work before us, however, is suggestive rather than pro- found, and we find a tendency in it to describe very prosaic details in stilted language. There is alsoa general want of references, so that many of the statements cannot be easily verified—such, for instance, as this, p. 6, art. 10:— “We have progressed some little since 1828, when my first essays on health were published, and public attention has been directed to the subject ; but still, one half of the children born in London and other large towns, die before they are three years old ; while at a parish in Norfolk, where the principles here set forth are rigidly enforced by the excellent rector, a child is never known to die.” After making, however, every abatement—as we are bound to do—the work will not fail to prove very useful, and will assist in leading people to better sanatory arrange- ments. Inp.8 he justly animadverts on many modern cottages, which “from admiration of mediaeval architecture are irregular in plan, and irregular in outline from an idea of being picturesque ; and hence the chimneys are outside, involving loss of heat, the roof all hips and valleys, and dormer windows requiring constant repairs, and exhibiting an utter ignorance of the very first principles of a healthy home.” Some fallacy seems, however, involved in the pas- sage which follows, and which describes the effect of as- phalted ground floors in some Essex cottages. The in- babitants suffered from rheumatism until the asphalte was covered with boards—“ because the boards were conductors of damp, whilst the asphalte was a non-conductor of mois- ture.” It must have been the conduction of temperature, and not of moisture, that led to the inconvenience. Chapter ii. is on bad drainage, and opens sensibly thus :—“ The use of water in. cabinets in disobedience to God’s command to the Israelites to bury excreta in the earth is unquestionably the cause of those alarming modern'diseases—the something in the air—with which the whole country is affected.” It may beimpossible to return to the more primitive practice, but the fact remains that even the old cesspool system was less unhealthy than the modern more artificial one. Some valuable hints are given in pages 12—13, for discovering the inlets of sewer gases into houses. The closet soil-pipe is often the origin of these irruptions ; for the inclosed gases decompose the soldered joints of the lead pipe in a few years’ time, if the pipe is not ventilated, as indeed it seldom is, and the junction of the lead-pipe with the drain is often defective. Every sink, too, which modern luxury has introduced to save the old-fashioned labour of throwing slops away out of doors, opens a pathway for the poisonous gases, of which one part in 260 mixed with common air is fatal to life, and of which no sensible proportion can long be breathed with impunity. There is also a moral aspect to the question. The fol- lowing passage is introduced as a quotation, but it does not appear from what author, p. 19 :— “ A clean, fresh, and well-ordered house exercises over its inmates a moral no less than a physical influence, and has a direct tendency to make the members of the family sober, peaceable, and considerate of the feelings and hap- piness of each other.” In chap. iii. are some valuable remarks about drains stink-traps, and rain-water pipes. Water-closets, it is said in p. 29, should never be in a basement—for if so, the house is liable to draw its supply of air through them —but always in a back-yard. Those that are wanted to be in immediate connection with the house should be in the upper floors only, and, whenever practicable, ap- proached through a greenhouse. At p. 33 are some remarks on the necessity of pure, untainted water; and, in p. 34, on the danger of lead- poisoning. The pipes made by Messrs. Walker, Camp- bell & Co., of Liverpool—lead-cased block-tin pipes—are recommended in those cases where the water acts upon lead. A caution as to the use of these pipes should, how- ever, have been added, as very great care and peculiar arrangements are required in jointing them; other- wise, the combination of the two metals becomes exposed to the action of the water at the joints, when decomposition will take place, and the water will still be affected with lead. In p. 41 the importance of a dry basement is incul- cated, and with a well-merited encomium on Mr. John Taylors clever contrivance of the damp-proof —— Nov. 27, 1873] NATURE 61 course which both keeps down the damp and ven- tilates the ground-floor. Proceeding to fire-proofing methods, Mr. David Hartley’s simple but little known contrivance for protecting dwelling-houses from fire by interposing sheet-iron or copper between the floor boards and the joists is mentioned. The plan described a little farther on, p. 46-47, would probably not be so effective as Hartley’s. In pp. 48-58 fire-grates are mentioned, and with a de- cided preference (perfectly justified in the experience of the writer of these remarks) for Mr. John Taylor’s smoke- consuming grate ; but the author should hardly have left Dr. Arnott’s smoke-consuming contrivances unnoticed ; and when at pp. 61-66 he speaks of ventilation, he should have mentioned at greater length Dr. Arnott’s ventilating valve. Boyle’s ingenious ventilators, however, quite de- serve the praise given them in p. 63. It would be interesting to have had some references given to sanction our author in claiming the authority of the Duke of Wellington, together with that of Aaron and the High Priests, his successors, for the practice of placing their beds nearly north and south so as to be in the line of the magnetic current. The theory no doubt has its advocates, but can hardly be of universal appli- cation, as there are many sound sleepers at all degrees of orientation. Chapter iv. contains some good suggestions respecting London street improvements and the Sanitary Recipes at the end will be found deserving attention. OUR BOOK SHELF Natural Philosophy. Part I. Mechanics. By J. Alfred Skertchley. Pp. 168. (London: Thomas Murby, 1873.) THIs work belongs to a series of small manuals which the publisher calls the “ Science and Art Department Series of Text Books.” It is designed for students who possess but little mathematical knowledge, and each of the theorems discussed is explained in very simple lan- guaze. In some respects the work keeps pace with modern text-books, in others it lags behind them. Thus while we have chapters on Kinetics and Kinematics, and on Actual and Potential Energy, we find some of the units as primitive as possible, and the Metric systern is ignored. The unit of length is given as the yard, and the unit of weight as the grain. The definitions leave much to be desired : thus Mechanics is defined as “the Science which treats of the laws of motion and force, especially as applied to the construction of Machines ;” Hydro- statics “the science treating of the pressure of water.” Again we find the following very loose definition of the force of gravity: “ Every particle of matter has a ten- dency to draw to itself every other particle, and this tendency is called the force of gravity.” The other attractive forces are here ignored, the student is left quite in ignorance as to whether the force acts through a sen- sible or insensible space, whether it acts between particles or masses, whether such particles or masses are neces- sarily of similar or dissimilar substances. A screw is defined as “an inclined plane vevo/ving round a centre.” “ Any body capable of moving freely about a fixed axis isa pendulum.” The chapter relating to Energy requires to be carefully revised, as, indeed, does much of the work ; so far as accurate and logical definition is concerned. The examples are useful, and the questions at the end of the book will be found of service in teaching elementary Science, but the book can scarcely be recommended until the definitions are more precise and absolute, LETTERS TO THE EDITOR [Zhe Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. No notice is taken of anonymous communications. | : The Dutch Photographs of the Eclipse of 1871 IN the account of the proceedings of the meeting of June 13 last of the Royal Astronomical Society, as published in Vol. viii. p- 175, of Natur, I read the following :— ““Mr. Ranyard remarked that the paper copies of the Dutch photographs which he had seen had been printed from enlarge- ments on glass, in which the moon had been stopped out with black paper or some other material. On measuring he had found that the body of the moon, as given in the photographs was by no means circular, and Mr. Davis had pointed out to him that the irradiation under the prominences was perfectly sharp at the edges, asit would be when printed through fpaper: It was therefore unfair to institute any comparisons as to the amount of the irradiation in these and in the other photo- graphs.” I beg leave to state, in opposition to Mr. Ranyard’s and Mr. Davis’s remarks, that no stopping out with black or any other paper has taken place. I enclose hereby copies on paper of the originals and of one of the enlargements. In the first-mentioned everyone may see that the moon is sufficiently dark to render un- necessary every artifice before making a good enlargement. In fact I have seen the enlargements myself, and in them, too, the moon was as dark as the surrounding sky. I think Mr. Dietrich’s merit to be especially this, that he has directed the attention of astronomers again to a method, as it seems already wholly abandoned, if ever earnestly tried, viz. that of taking an image with a photographic lens of short focus but great force, so that a very short exposure might be sufficient. As to the profit his photographs brought to our knowledge of the sun, Col, Tennant says, almost every depression of outline of the Indian photographs could be recognised in the Java ones, and thereby it is proved that in the interval of time needed | by the moon’s shadow to make the traject from India to Java, say 50 minutes, almost no change whatever took place in the solar corona. Of course the method could be improved by moving the camera by clockwork. Then the exposure could last a little longer, ¢.g., one second, and the exterior outline would reach farther ; a larger camera, with photographic lens of the same force would without doubt give more details. As to the not-circular (in fact elliptical) form of the moon in the photographs, I think it pleads more against than in favour of Mr. Ranyard’s remark, for if a disc of paper were to be used to stop out the moon, of course a circular one would have been made, and not an elliptical one. The fact is that the copies of the original c/iché present the same peculiarity, the difference between the longest and shortest diameter being about 25th of a millimeter, as is easily recognised with a lens and a measure of half-millimeters. In the accompanying diapositive the differenc- =imm. As in other photographs of total eclipses, the diae meter corresponding to the poles of the sun is the longer. This phenomenon is in our case only partially explained by the moon’s motion during the time of exposure; perhaps a stronger impres- sion at the equatorial regions of the sun, or a trembling ot the camera-stand has done the remainder. In the glass photographs, of which I have sent a pair to Lord Lindsay and to Messrs. Lockyer, Huggins, Warren De La Rue, and Main, the details are finer and sharper than in the paper ones. J. A. C. OUDEMANS Batavia, Sept. 10 [We have no doubt from an inspection of the photographs sent, that no stop was used.—ED. | Elevation of Mountains and Volcanic Theories THE accompanying letter from Captain Hutton is in acknow- ledgment of my paper on ‘‘ The Elevation of Mountains by Lateral Pressure,” which I read at Cambridge in 1869. I sent it to him in consequence of seeing his lecture on Mountains, in the Geo/o- gical Magazine. Uecould not have received my critique on that lecture at thetime of his writing this letter. In accordance with his suggestion I forward it for publication in NaTuRE without comment. OSMOND FISHER Harlton Rectory, Cambridge 62 NATURE [Nov. 27, 1873 I have to thank you for sending me your paper on the Elevation of Mountains, which I have read with great interest. You and Mr. Mallet have done great service to geology by exploding the old-fashioned idea of cavities existing in the interior of the earth. I quite agree with you that a cooling earth must give rise to great pressure in the outer consolidated layers, and that this pressure must crush the rocks composing it ; but I cannot think that this crushing is the cause of the ele- vation of mountains. My reasons for disagreeing with you are the following :— ; 1. The pressure from a shrinking globe must be uniform, and the lines of least resistance, once chosen, should remain always the same, and the elevation should be continuous. All minor differences would be insignificant in comparison with the flatter arch at the poles. These areas, therefore, would subside, and mountain chains should have had from the first an east and west direction. I see no provision for changing the localities of movement. 2. Where deposition was going on the rocks would be heating and no contraction could occur below them. But mountain chains have been always formed where the deposits were the heaviest, and where, therefore, uplifting would not be likely to occur. 3. All mountain chains are not formed on the same system, but can be divided into two groups, as I have pointed out in my lecture on this subject. 4. Whether a glacial epoch has ever extended over the whole earth or not, it is certain that the northern parts of America and Europe are much warmer now than they were in the Pleistocene period, consequently the rocks under them could not have con- tracted, and yet we know that extensive movements are even now going on in this area. 5. In order to produce a strain on the surface, the lower con- tracting rocks must be solid, consequently there would be nothing to support a large anticlinal, and no rocks to pass into the liquid state ; the result would be a general small crumpling all along the surface. The relief also to the compression of the upper rocks could not be obtained by a single rising at a point, or along a line, without a horizontal movement of one bed over another, which appears to me to be impossible. Consequently I do not think that the shrinking could produce the observed effects, more especially as the Himalayas, &c. are of tertiary age, and the con- traction of the globe, since the cretaceous period, cannot have been very great. These remarks apply also to Prof. Shaler’s theory (Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist. 1866). Mr. Medlicott’s sec- tion of the Himalayas is, to my mind, physically impossible. It is inconceivable that the beds could be engineered into the positions in which he has placed them. 6. The theory does not account for the numerous minor oscil- lations of level that coal measures often prove to have taken place. 7. The theory makes no provision for tension in the rocks. But it is a fact not sufficiently dwelt upon by geologists, that faults just as surely prove tension in rocks as contortions prove compression. I have also a few objections to your theory of Volcanoes, and also to that of Mr. Mallet. They are as follows :— 1. The density of the crust has been shown by General Sabine to increase in volcanic regions, while, by your theory, it should decrease. Mr. Mallet’s theory would account for this, as also would the one proposed in my lecture. 2. To cause avolcano the heat must go to the water, for the water cannot go to the heated rock, as your theory would require. 3. Volcanoes are not found in contorted countries, or where great lateral pressure has existed. In the older volcanic districts (e.g. North Wales) the eruptions occurred before the folding of the strata. This is also a strong point against Mr. Mallet’s theory. 4. By Mr. Mallet’s theory the crushing must be very sudden, or the heat would be conducted away, and as each eruption would require a fresh accession of heat, it ought to be preceded by elevation or subsidence on a large scale. The earthquakes that precede eruptions are just as likely to be effects as causes. 5. Faults show no heating where considerable crushing has taken place, Such are the objections that occur to me, but, after all, we cannot well burke the question as to the state of the interior of the earth, and I must confess that the ‘‘ Viscidists” appear to me to have a better position than the “ Rigidists.” Mr. Hopkins’ argument, drawn from precession and nutation, has proved untenable, and the only stronghold that the ‘‘ Rigi- dists”” now retain is the absence-of-internal-tide argument of Sir W. Thomson. This has not yet been assaulted, but it probably has a weak point somewhere, for its author has allowed that the interior of the earth is probably “at, or very nearly at, the proper melting temperature for the pressure at each depth,” which seems hardly consistent with its being ‘‘ more rigid than glass.” On the other hand, the ‘‘ Viscidists’’ have a very strong point in the fact that faults are known with throws of several thousand feet (which apparently must penetrate into some yielding material), as well as some minor positions, such as the supposed effect of the moon on causing earthquakes, the composition of volcanic rocks (which contain more alkali than could be obtained by merely melting sedimentary rocks), and the mode of occurrence of granitic rocks, none of which have been seriously attacked by the ‘‘ Rigidists.” At this distance 1 cannot take part in a discussion, as I must © always be five months behind hand, but if you think that a pre- liminary skirmish in the pages of NaturRE would do good, although it did not bring on a decisive battle, you are quite wel- come to publish this letter. F, W. Hutton Wellington, N. Z., July 21 P.S.—At the time of writing my paper on Elevation and Sub- sidence (Pil. Mag. Dec. 72), I was not aware that Mr. Scrope had been the first to suggest * the theory there developed, or I should certainly have mentioned his name, and not proposed to call the theory after Herschel and Babbage. I feel that I owe Mr. Scrope some apology for my inadvertence. Deep-Sea Sounding and Deep-Sea Thermometers WE have again to claim your indulgence for occupying space for a few comments on Mr. Casella’s reply to our letter. It is not true that we abstained from drawing attention during the lifetime of Dr. Miller to the fact that he had plagiarised our invention ; on the contrary, we wrote to Dr. Miller as soon as we were told that he had read a paper before the Royal Society on his supposed invention, and we have before us Dr. Miller’s answer, dated Nov. 23, 1869, wherein he writes : ‘*T am sorry if I have inadvertently done anything which may fairly be considered an injustice to you in respect to the deep-sea thermometer,” &c. We believe Dr. Miller did not know of our thermometer, but Mr. Casella did, having had one or more in his possession years previously, and as a fact our thermometer was well known in the trade ; therefore he as the workman employed by Dr. Miller ought to have acquainted that gentleman withthe fact. It is most likely that we should not have taken any further notice had the thermometer retained the modest title given to it by Dr. Miller, viz. the ‘‘ Miller-pattern.” This, however, did not suit Mr. Casella. Mr. Miller died—* mors tua vita mea,” —and forth- with the thermometer is styled the Miller-Casella, then by a little ““progressive development,” the instrument is brought out at the British Association as the Casella-Miller, and to day we have it in Mr. Casella’s letter as ‘‘ sy thermometer.” On reference to the Royal Society’s Proceedings, vol. xvii. p- 482, we find no mention of Mr, Casella’s name except as the workman who took Dr, Miller’s instructions, and we have yet to learn what right a workman has to appropriate to himself an instrument made for Dr. Miller, or any other customer, sup- posing, even for argument’s sake, that we had no priority in its invention. Mr. Casella asks ‘‘ What has Negretti and Zambra’s thermo- meter done that it should be known?” In the first place it served him as a pattern, it showed him how the best deep-sea thermometer was constructed, and how to make others on the same principle ; and we contend that had our instruments been placed in the hands of skilful, careful, and trained observers, such as are now engaged in the Challenger Expedition, they would have given results equal to those now obtained with the instruments supplied by Mr. Casella, and ob- viously so, their principle being precisely the same. Mr. Casella talks about our thermometers having failed. Can Mr. Casella point out where are recorded any of the failures ? Was Mr. Casella able to make them fail when he tried by placing one of them in his hydraulic press in the presence of gentlemen connected with the Meteorological Office? But this is not the point at issue, the sole question is, are the thermometers supplied to the expedition the same in principle as ours, or are they not? Doubtless it would be much more agreeable to Mr. Casella ° that these questions should be decided by himself in private, hence his invitation to your readers “to go to his establishment * “ Volcanoes,” rst ed. 1826, p. 30. re Nov. 27, 1873 | NATURE 63 and hear his explanation.” Surely no such arrangement will satisfy “‘all the scientific men in the world.” We contend that as Mr. Casella has publicly claimed the invention as his own, it ought to be decided with equal publicity whether he has done anything more than copy our instrument. We again give the description of our thermometer (not in our own words, for we might be accused of shaping them to suit our purpose) but in the words of the late Admiral Fitzroy as they appear in the first number of Meteorological Papers, page 55, published July 5, 1857, in referring to the erroneous readings of all thermometers consequent on their deli- cate bulbs being compressed by the great pressure of the ocean, Admiral Fitzroy says :— ** With a view to obviate this failing, Messrs. Negretti and Zambra undertook to make a case for the weak bulbs which should transmit temperature but resist pressure. Accordingly, a tube of thick glass is sealed outside the delicate bulb between which and the casing is a space all round which is nearly filled with mercury. The small space not so filled is a vacuum into which the mercury can be expanded, or forced by heat or me- chanical compression, without doing injury to, or even com- pressing the inner or much more delicate bulb,” &c. &c. Mr. Casella ‘‘did not wish to take up your valuable space to describe his thermometer.” Well, it matters not; the late Admiral Fitzroy has done it forhim. He described it six- teen years ago ; and if the reader will take every syllable of the extract above quoted, and substitute the word ‘‘alcohol ” for “mercury” (which colourable change was effected by Mr. Casella, to the detriment of the instrument), they will have a correct description of Mr. Casella’s thermometer in the most minute details. Hy. NEGRETTI AND ZAMBRA Rain-gauge at Sea I BEG to send you a copy of a letter I received lately from Capt. Goodenough, of the Royal Navy, respecting the use of my rain-gauge at sea. (See NaTuRE, vol. vii. p. 202.) Nov. 8 W. J. BLACK ““HLM.S. Pearl, lat. 6° S., long. 22 W. ‘* Dear Sir,—I should have taken an earlier opportunity of writing to you about the instrument which you were so good as to design for use on board ship, but have not had the good fortune to fall in with any rain up to the present time with which I could at all events in some measure test and chronicle the rain-gauge. It is odd that in a journey of twenty days I have had only ‘o7 in. of rain, and that although I am at this moment in a district in which an average of seven hours’ rain usually falls at this time of the year. On that one occasion ‘07 in. did fall and was duly caught in your instrument as well as in another mounted on gimbals, the measurements being exactly alike in each. I much prefer the mounting of your instrument, and will report to you as to the amount of weight it requires after some experimenting with it. The usually most steady instrument is one which is heavy, and whose centre of gravity is very near its centre of oscillation. I do not think it would be well to increase the size of the instrument, as it would become inconvenient to place, ex- cept for the use of a man who wishes to devote himself very much to that order of observaiion. Our poop is so high here that I do not anticipate any mixture of sea-spray in the gauge, but if it were so your table would be sufficient to clear it, supposing we had Carpenter’s Hydrometer to test with, as we might not expect enough water to float an ordinary one. **T remain, yours very truly, ‘*JAMES E. GOODENOUGH ‘Captain R.N. Command H.M.S. /ear/, proceeding wd the Cape to Australasia.” Glaciers In a letter printed in your number for Oct. 16 (vol. viii. p. 506), Mr. J. H. Rohrs states that he believes that glaciers existed at or near the sea-level in central Hindustan in the glacial period. Glaciers undoubtedly existed in the Himalyas at a much lower elevation than at present ; there are tracesof their action in Sikkim in valleys, the bottoms of which are now only 4,000 ft. above the sea, and in the north-western Himalayas, Mr. Medlicott, I think, considers that in some valleys, glaciers descended to within 1,000 ft. of the sea-level, but I have never heard of any marks of old glacial action in the Indian peninsula south of the Himalayas. There are no mountains in central Hindostan exceeding about 4,oooft. in height, and a careful examination of the portions of the Nilgiri mountains in Southern India, which rise above 8,000 ft., has not afforded any proof of the former presence of ice. Itis very probable that Mr, Rohrs possesses information upon this subject with which I am unac- quainted, and it is without the least wish to express a doubt of . the aecuracy of his information, that I ask for any evidence he can produce in favour of his assertion, as the subject is one in which I am greatly interested. W. T. BLANFORD JOHANN NEPOMUK CZERMAK Wace NEPOMUK CZERMAK was born June 17, 1828, in Prague. His father, Johann Conrad Czermak, was a medical practitioner of high repute in that city, and his uncle, Joseph Julius Czermak, enjoyed a considerable reputation as Professor of Medicine and Physiology, first at Gratz and afterwards at Vienna. Educated at the high school of his native town, Johann Czermak entered upon the study of medicine at the Uni- versity of Vienna in 1845. In 1847 he moved to Breslau, where he had the great advantage of living with the dis- tinguished physiologist Purkinje. From Breslau he passed on in 1849 to Wiirzburg, where in 1850 he received the degree of M.D., publishing on that occasion an inaugural dissertation. on “The Microscopical Anatomy of the Teeth,” in which he called attention to the larger “ inter- globular” spaces so often found in the upper part of the dentine. After a visit to England he settled at Prague, where he became assistant to Purkinje, who then held the chair of Physiology in that place. In 1855 he left Prague to take the chair of Zoology at Gratz ; but zoology was not his proper province, and he gladly accepted in 1856 the offer of the Professorship of Physiology at Krakau, which however he left in the following year for the like chair in Pesth. In both these universities he established physiological laboratories and gave a decided impulse to physiological research ; but the political agitations then rife made life distasteful to him there, and in 1860 he resigned his chair and returned to Prague. Such frequent changes must have interfered greatly with sustained research, but by this time Czermak had made his name known as well by several investigations in experimental physiology and in subjective vision, as especially by his researches on the laryngoscope, his treatise on which (“Der Kehlkopfspiegel und seine Verwerthung”) embodying the results made known in various papers in 1858 and 1859, he published shortly before his return to Prague. Here he resided some years, visiting at times En gland, Holland, and France, in order to make the value of the laryngoscope better known to his fellow-workers in science and medicine. There are many in England who retain pleasant memories of these visits. The ample means brought to him by the gifted lady whom he had the happiness to marry, enabled him to build in Prague and furnish at his own expense a private laboratory for research, in which he not only worked himself, but which he also placed at the disposal of others. Many would have envied, and few would willingly have let slip, such an oppor- tunity for quiet labour; but Czermak, conscious of the power he possessed of lucid exposition, delighted in teaching, and felt perhaps the want of the stimulus which pupils afford. Accordingly, when in 1865 he was offered the chair of Physiology in Jena, vacated by the removal of von Bezold to Wiirzburz, he at once accepted it. Here he continued until, in 1869, finding the disease to which he eventually succumbed (and the beginning of which he himself attributed to the irritation caused by the 64 NATURE [Wov. 27, 1873 controversies which arose out of his laryngoscopic work), was rendering him unfitted for the energetic performance of his professorial duties, he withdrew to Leipzig, where he was made Honorary Professor at the University, and where he continued to reside until his death, on Sept. 16 in the present year. Carried off while yet in the prime of his life, and the energies of his last few years impaired by an insidious disease, Czermak has perhaps left a mark on the scientific progress of his time incommensurate with his talents or his promise. He will doubtless be best re- membered through his laryngoscopic labours. We owe to him the real introduction into medical practice of this valuable instrument. But his other researches, such as those on the action of the vagus, the pulse, the sense of touch, the manége movements resulting from injuries to the brain, those on dyspncea, and others, show remarkable acuteness and clearness of insight. Two talents he possessed deserve special notice. He had remarkable aptitude in devising apparatus for ob- serving or for demonstrating physiological phenomena. It was this faculty which made him successful where others had failed in the use of the laryngeal mirror ; and would be difficult to exaggerate the immense help to experimental physiology which has been afforded by the ingenious “holder” which bears his name. The other faculty, that of popular exposition, less com- mon in his country than in ours, he possessed to a very high degree. And his popular lectures, which were origi- nally delivered at Jena, and which were reviewed in an early number of NATURE, achieved and deserved great popularity. Perhaps had his love of teaching been less strong, his work as an investigator would have been more sustained and weighty. But while in this country we might with profit often lose a lecturer and gain an investigator, Ger- many could well afford that one whose powers of rigorous and yet clear and popular demonstration were so excep- tionally great, should somewhat slacken in his work as an inquirer. Or perhaps we should not so much say that Czermak slackened in inquiry, as that the consciousness of his power as an expositor, and the delight he conse- quently took in exposition, drew much of his energy in that direction. In the grounds of his residence at Leip- zig he had built and fitted, at his own expense, a large hall, or “ spectatorium,” as he called it, in which he pro- posed to deliver lectures on physiology, richly illustrated with experiments. In connection with the hall, the con- struction of which was admirably adapted in every way for its purpose, he had also erected a private laboratory for research ; and on both he had spent much time and labour. They were intended to be a supplement—not a rival—_to the more technical institute of Prof. Ludwig in the same city. The writer will never forget the delight with which Czermak showed this “ Erklarungs-Tempel,” —as he was fond of calling it—to Dr. Sharpey and him- self inthe summer of 1871, and pointed out all its in- genious contrivances, and the enthusiasm with which he looked forward to the lectures which would be delivered, and the work which would be carried on init. He lived to open it by an inaugural lecture in December 1872 ; but the effects of his fatal disease were already painfully evi- dent ; and after a vain struggle during the following summer, Czermak—just as the British Association was gathering for its meeting at Bradford—was taken away from his unfinished work. He was a man of broad cul- ture, outside his professional attainments. In philosophy especially he was well versed; and his last contribution to scientific literature—a pap=r in “ Pfliiger’s Archiv,” on the mesmerism of animals—was doubtless prompted by his interest in psychological questions. His straightfor- ward, generous, and unostentatious manner formed a fitting frame for his intellectual attainments. A widow and children mourn his death, He is also mourned for by many friends in many lands, both by those who had known him long and by those who knew him for a short while only. M. FOSTER THE ATMOSPHERIC TELEGRAPH oes Times of the 15thinst. contained an article on the Pneumatic Despatch, which has never been used to any extent in this country. From that article we learn the following particulars as to the working of this method of conveyance in London :— The pneumatic tube extends from the London and North-Western Railway Station at Euston Square to the General Post Office in St. Martin’s-le-Grand. The central station is in Holborn, where is also the machinery for effecting the transit of the trains. Here the tube is divided, so that in effect there are two tubes opening into the station, one from Euston to Holborn, and the other from the Post Office. The length of the tube between Holborn and Euston is 3,080 yards, or exactly a mile and three-quarters, a greater length than was originally con- templated, but which was rendered necessary by the avoidance of certain property on the route. The tube is of a flattened horse-shoe section 5 ft. wide and 4 ft. 6 in. high at the centre, having a sectional area of 17 square feet. The straight portions of the line are formed of a continuous cast-iron tube, the curved lengths being constructed in brickwork, with a facing of cement. The gradients are easy ; the two chief are I in 45 and 1 in 60, some portions of the line being on the level ; the sharpest curve is that near the Holborn station, which is 70 ft. radius. The tube between Holborn and the Post Office is 1,658 yards in length, or 102 yards less than a mile, and is of the same section, and similarly constructed to the first length. Two gradients of 1 in 15 occur on the Post Office section, but this steep inclination is in no way inimical to the working of the system. The Holborn station is situated at right angles to the line of the tubes, which are therefore turned towards the station into which each opens. All through trains, therefore, have to re- verse there, and this is effected in a very simple manner by a self-acting arrangement. A train upon its arrival runs by virtue of its acquired momentum up a short in- cline, at the summit of which it momentarily stops, and then quickly descends by gravity.. In its descent it is turned on to a pair of rails leading to the other tube, into which it enters and through which it continues its jour- ney, the whole process of reversing occupying barely 30 seconds. Trains containing goods for the Holborn station are simply run down from the top of the incline on to a siding. The waggons, or carriers, as they are termed, weigh 22cwt., are 1oft. 4in. in length, and have a transverse contour conforming to that of the tube. They are, how- ever, of a slightly smaller area than the tube itself, the difference—about an inch all round—being occupied by a flange of indiarubber, which causes the carrier to fit the tube exactly, and so to form a piston upon which the air acts. The machinery for propelling the carriers consists of a steam engine having a pair of 24-in. cylinders with 20in. stroke. This engine drives a fan 22 ft. Gin. in dia- meter, and the two are geared together in such a manner that one revolution of the former gives two of the latter, or, in technical terms, the engine is geared at 2 to £ with the fan. The trains are drawn from Euston and the Post Office by exhaustion, and are propelled to those points by pressure. The working of the fan, however, is not re- versed to suit these constantly varying conditions ; it works continuously, the alternate action of pressure and exhaustion being governed by valves. The engine takes steam from three Cornish boilers, each 30ft. long and 6ft. 6in.indiameter, ‘Telegraphic signalling is carried on between the three stations by means of needle instru- ments, Nov. 27, 1873 | NATURE 65 The system of Pneumatic Despatch, or “ Atmospheric Telegraph,” as the French call it, is utilised to a much greater extent in Paris than in London, though with some important differences in construction and object. We have thought that some details concerning the working of this system in Paris might be useful and interesting at the present time, and we therefore give an abstract of some articles on the subject which have re- cently appeared in La Nature. The question of the distribution of messages in the interior of towns has revived the systems of pneu- matic transport, which, after having had their day of celebrity, seemed for twenty years doomed to oblivion. In following the aspects of this question, we shall show in what way the atmospheric telegraph is a result of the electric telegraph; we shall afterwatds consider the former more specially, and aftet havihg shown its present condition, shall inquire what future is if store for it. The telegraphic despatch has become an article of every- day use; as the age is a fast one, it is natural that it should utilise with eagerness so handy a means of trans- mitting almost instantaneously its impressions or its wishes to all distances, It is necessary to remember that a city like London or Paris sends out and receives every day an immense number of telegrams, The wires which serve as conductors of electricity are multiplied in all directions for the purpose of meeting the demands of this traffic. They meet in the interior at the central office. This central station speaks uri e¢ orbi; in other words, it receives the messages of the city for the purpose of spreading them over the entire world, and it accomplishes also an inverse movement. The aspect with which we are here concerned is the distribution throughout the city itself ; let us see what has been done in Paris to accom- plish this purpose. As each house cannot be put in immediate communica- tion with the telegraphic network, it became necessary to adopt some other convenient plan. In the case of Paris, the city is divided into districts of a mean radius of 500 metres in order to limit the journeys of the foot-messen- gers. The application of this rule gave fifty points, distant one kilometre from each other, where are esta- blished so many branches of the chief office. This system was found, however, not to work well, and was moreover very expensive, for reasons which we need not detail here ; and after wortwves were tried for some time as a means of sending despatches from the head office to the more important branches, it was resolved to have recourse to the pneumatic tube. We have just referred to the extent to which it has been carried in London. Paris and Berlin followed the example of London in 1865: we shall speak here of the system of Paris. In Paris there are fifty stations, distant from each other about a kilometre, connected by an iron tube, which is interrupted at each station. The central station, by which the transit of messages is effected with the interior, is in the Rue de Grenelle ; there are seventeen district stations, in the Rue Boissy-d’Anglas, Grand-Hétel, Bourse, &c. _ How is this network managed? Like a diminutive subterranean railway, in which the waggons are cylindri- cal boxes and the motive power compressed air prepared in the stations. At the central bureau the trains are formed, composed of as many boxes as there are branch offices to supply. The trains are omnibus when they stop at the intermediate stations, exfvess when they shoot past them. Every quarter of an hour an omnibus train leaves the Rue de Grenelle, and accomplishes the distance which separates it from the Rue Boissy-d’Anglas (1,500 metres) in a minute anda half. There it is received in a ver- tical column, and the box which carries the mes- sages to be distributed in the district having been taken out, the others are put into the section of the line which runs towards the Grand Hotel, a new box having been added containing messages to be transmitted, which have been deposited since the last train. The train again takes its departure, composed of as many boxes as before ; it goes through the same operations at the Grand Hotel, the Bourse, the Théatre Francais, and at the Rue des Saints-Péres. It re-enters the Rue de Grenelle twelve minutes after its departure, having changed all its boxes and carried back messages for distribution. Besides this there isa secondary network, the details of which, however, we need not now enter upon. There is a direct line which goes from the Rue de Grenelle to the Bourse, and to branches in the Champs-Elysées, the Place du Havre, and the Rue des Halles. On the first run the express trains going and returning, the depar- tures. of which are intercalated between those of the omnibus trains; for the purpose of supplying those stations which ate busiest; twice every quarter of an hour. The depattute is accomplished by pressure, the return by aspiration. The same method of working is applied to the branches, which correspond with the omnibus trains of the principal network. The tubes which compose the lines are of iron, the in- terior diameter being 0065 metre. They are connected by bridle joints (@ d7zdes), and admit of curves having a radius of from 5 to 20 metres. Various systems for the production of compressed or rarified air are employed. The first in date is an application of the principles of the apparatus known as Hiero’s Fountain, Atmospheric airis decanted from a first receiver B (Fig. 1) into a second receiver com- municating with the first by means of the tube 44, by the introduction of water into the receiver B. The air thus forced is drawn into the receiver for the purpose of being dispersed in the tubes. Where the machines are not allowed to be used, the employment of steam is much more economical for the compression of air, Recourse is then had to ordinary pumps, which insure an active service and are subject to fewer causes of irregularity. The latter method has been preferred in recent estab- lishments. Trains composed of ten Boxes weigh about four kilograms, they are either pushed or sucked along by a difference of pressure of three-fourths of an atmosphere, which gives a mean speed of a kilometre per minute. The travellers which take theit places on the Lillipu- tian carriages already desctibed are closed envelopes containing messages ; they are piled in groups of thirty or forty in a cursewr, or box. This box is formed of two cylinders, the interior one of sheet-iron, the outer one, enveloping the former, of leather. To make up a train, a piston must be affixed after the last box, for the purpose of enabling the compressed air to take éffect. The piston is a piece of wood provided with a leather collarette, which assumes the shape of the interior of the tube, and forms an almost hermetical joint, without much friction. The apparatus at first adopted for receiving and des- patching the boxes having been found neither sufficiently rapid nor convenient, 4 much more.comiplete system, shown in Fig. 2, is now employed. The figure explains itself: two lines enter thé office, each attached to separate apparatus. In the first place, for the purpose of despatch- ing messages, a man opens the doot A by means of the lever @; the boxes and the piston are thrown into the tube, and await at the bottom the current of air which will propel them. This current is produced as soon as the cock ¢ is opened, which commands the head of the apparatus opposite to the tube. The cock c’ distributes the air upon the second line, In the second place, the receiving door B is opened by a second attendant, who finds the train at the station, and takes out the boxes in order to bring the telegrams tolight. The entire appara- tus has somewhat the form of a cannon, only the effect is more blessed, the artillerymen are not exposed to death ; 66 NATURE [ Mov. 27, 1873 the worst accident they have to fear is the bursting of the | and answers, orders and the execution of orders, which tube. To this drawback, which happens very rarely, we | can at once be exchanged between any point of the city shall refer by-and-by. and any point of the interior, in the provinces, or abroad, The messages are divided into two classes,—questions | —or inversely. All that is necessary in this case isa SaaS Fic. 1.—Apparatus for the production of compressed air. centre, as the Hétel des Télégraphes in the Rue de/| with the interior by the network of pneumatic tubes Grenelle is called. Connected in the one part with These tubes are, moreover, well adapted for the service the exterior by the network of electric wires, and | of the local post, z.2. for the exchange of messages within. Dae | , | . | | biG. 2.—Apparatus tor recepuion and uespatch. the city. The great advantage in this case is that the | thananhour. Every year the development of the lines despatch can be sent. On the plan adopted, when the | increases, and the number of Paris telegrams meant for networkis complete, a letter may always be sent from one | the city, and of which the originals themselves can be quarter to another at any distance within Paris in less | transmitted, is getting greater and greater. eS ae Nov. 27, 1873] NATURE 67 THE COMMON FROG* V. ee third order of the class Batrachia is made up of a few creatures the distribution of which is limited to the warmer regions of the earth, where one of the genera (Cecelia) comprising the group is distributed over both hemispheres, being found in India, Africa, and South America. Two other genera (Szphonops and Rhina- trema) are exclusively American, while a fourth genus (Epicrium) is only found in Asia. The order is called Ophiomorpha. These creatures are singularly unlike the frog in external appearance, as they are entirely destitute of limbs and have quite the appearance of earthworms, because they are not only very long and slender, but have also a skin which is soft and naked. By earlier naturalists, | and even by Cuvier, they were classed with snakes. In spite of this striking dissimilarity between the Ophiomorpha and Anoura, the former are really more _ like frogs than they are like efts in one important respect. Fic. 22. This is because, for all their elongated figure, the tail in | them is quite rudimentary or altogether absent. The Ofhiomorpha would by many be supposed to present an analogy with serpents, from their long and elongated bodies, and from the utter absence of limbs. There are, however, but very few snakes (the “ rough- tails” Uropeltide and the Tortricide) which have long bodies and very short tails. It is rather the singular family of lizards, Amphishenide (with one exception completely limbless) that the Ophio- morpha resemble. 4 —Skeleton of the Plesiosaurus. Fic. 23.—Skeleton of the Icthyosaurus Fic. These Amphisbenians have a softer skin than any other ‘Saurians except chameleons. It is also marked in grooves which are arranged in transverse rings. They have an exceedingly short tail which is blunt, so that, the | head being small, one end of the bodyis as large as the -other. The Ofhiomorpha also have the body marked with numerous transverse grooves or rings; they are utterly ‘devoid of limbs, and the head is scarcely, if at all, larger ‘than the hinder end of the body. These creatures burrow beneath the soil (which habit * Continued from p, 30. —Cecilia. increases their resemblance to earth-worms) and feed on worms and other small animals and mould, To turn now to another aspect of our subject, let us consider the relations of the Frog to past time. If, ex- tending our survey over the records of past epochs, we search the tertiary and all other rocks above the Lias for fossil allies of our Frog, we shall (judging by what we yet know) fail to find any not at once referable to one or other of the three ordinal groups above enumerated. Fossil frogs and toads have as yet only been found down to the miocene, the oldest being some found in the so-called “brown coal” which is not a carboniferous deposit | Fic. 25.—Much enlarged horizonta section of the tooth of a Labyrinthodon at all. The remarkable thing, however, is that the differ- ence between these oldest known Frogs and the existing forms is so very trifling. They are as complete and thorough frogs as any that live now. Again, the fossil Urodeles similarly resemble their ex- isting representatives, and no one extinct species exhibits characters in any way tending to bridge over the chasm which separates the Urodela from the Axoura. When, however, we descend to the Lias, Trias, and Carboniferous rocks, we come upon a rich variety of extinct species of animals evidently allied to those forming the three Batrachian classes already described. They form, however, an order by themselves, to which the term Lady- vinthodonta has been applied, and thus our search into the past has brought us a rich and important harvest, 68 NATURE [Wov. 27, 1873 and has introduced us to the fourth and last Order be- longing to the frog’s class of vertebrate animals. The Labyrinthodonts were creatures with long tails and mostly two pairs of limbs, but these members were always relatively small with slender toes. Some species attained a greater size by far than does any existing Urodele, even the gigantic Salamander. To what existing animals can these huge monsters be considered to have affinity? It is impossible to say that they in any way bridge over the chasm separating the Frogs from the Efts. They appear indeed to have been almost equally removed from both—for the possession of short limbs and a long tail (characters common to so many widely different animals) cannot be regarded as any good evidence of affinity. It is not improbable that they find their nearest allies in the existing insignificant Ofhiomorpha. The latter, though apparently naked, have minute scales imbedded in the skin and arranged inrings at intervals, and the skull is provided with certain extra ossifications. The Labyrinthodonts have similar extra cranial ossifications, and though they have not rings of scales, the ventral region was protected by minute plates arranged in linear series converging inwards and forwards towards the middle line. Moreover, some forms appear to have been entirely devoid of limbs ; at least no remnant of such parts has yet been discovered. Nevertheless the degree of development of the tail constitutes a marked distinction between the Zadyrinthodonta and the Ophiomorpha. Certain Labyrinthodonts had great formidable teeth in elongated jaws like those of crocodiles. Altogether these singular remains tempt us to speculate as to the succes- sion of life upon this planet’s surface. We know that as to the later secondary period that part in the life of the globe which is now played by beasts was then played by reptiles. Instead of the existing bats, Pterodactyles of all sizes flitted through the air. The ocean was peopled not by whales and dolphins, these had not yet appeared, but by huge Ichthyosauri and Plesiosauri. Reptiles of huge bulk (Iguanodons, Megalosauri, Notosauri, &c. &c.) fulfilled the parts of herbivorous and carnivorous beasts, and altogether the Mammalian fauna of to-day was repre- sented by analogous reptilian precursors. May it not have been similar in yet older periods with regard to animals of the Frog class? We have seen the possibility of aérial locomotion in even the existing Aha- cophorus. It is true that all existing Urodeles are fresh- water forms, but it may well be that marine creatures once bore the same relation to them as the great marine Ganoid fish fauna bears to the few existing Ganoids* which now constitute a fresh-water group. The great crocodile-like Labyrinthodonts must have been no ignoble predecessors of the rapacious reptiles which were to succeed them, and the fossil form Ofphzderpeton suggests that the existing Ofhéomorpha may be the last remnants of a racewhich preceded and represented the subsequently developed serpents. This, however, is but a conjecture which future dis- coverers will probably ere long establish or refute. The name Ladyrinthodonta was bestowed upon the great fossil group on account of the beautiful and singu- larly complex structure of-the teeth of some members of the order. These teeth are conical, and exhibit slight vertical grooves on their surface. A horizontal section shows that these surface-grooves are the external indi- cations of deep indentations of the substance of the tooth. All these indentations converge towards the centre of the tooth, but not in straight lines, each indentation being elaborately inflected. Radiating from the centre of the tooth are a corresponding number of processes of the central pulp cavity—the radiating processes undu- lating like the converging folds. * Existing Ganoids are the sturgeon, bony pike (Lepidosteus), mud-fish (Lepidosiren), and others as noticed earlier, A similar structure of tooth is found in some Ganoid fishes, and an incipient stage (as it were) of the same condition existed in the Ichthyosaurus. We have now reviewed the closest as well as the more remote allies of our Frog, and have seen how the Frog is a species of a group (Amzoura) which is one of three existing and widely divergent orders, supplemented by an extinct ordinal group of the carboniferous period—the four orders (1. Anoura, 2. Urodela, 3. Ophiomorpha, and 4. Labyrinthodonta) being embraced in a higher unity termed a “Class,” which is the Frog’s class, as “ Anoura” is his order. This class is with propriety spoken of as the Frog’s class, since the Frog is the species from which its scientific derivation BATRACHIA is derived. This class may now be considered as a whole. The Batrachians (of all three existing orders) are in the main aquatic animals, inasmuch as the greater num- ber, even when adult, frequent, at least at intervals, ponds and streams, or delight in humid localities. Water also is necessary for the larval stages of almost all ; and abso- lutely all, at one period of lite, possess gills, while some (as we have seen) retain gills during their whole existence, and are permanently and constantly inhabitants of water. The extinct forms (Ladyrinthodonta) were, no doubt, also aquatic, as, besides their general relation to other Batrachians, traces or indications of the hard parts which supported the branchiz of some Labyrinthodonts appear to have been actually found. It is somewhat singular that in spite of this predo- minating aquatic habit, all Batrachians, both living and fossil, appear to inhabit, and to have inhabited, fresh water only. No Batrachian of any period is yet known to have been marine. This is the more remarkable since the most nearly allied class, that of fishes, is much more rich in salt-water than in fresh-water forms ; while even existing /eptilia have (in the true sea-snakes and in che- lonians) representatives which inhabit the open ocean, while in the secondary geological period marine reptiles (Ichthyosaurt and Plestosaur7z) abounded. Indeed, of all classes of vertebrate animals, this aquatic class (Batrachia) has the least to do with the ocean, for many birds, and a still greater number of Mammals (e.g. the whales and porpoises), are constant inhabitants of salt water. All the adult Batrachians feed on animal substances, generally small worms, insects, or slugs, and animals allied to slugs. The larger Frogs and Toads will, however, as has been said, devour vertebrate animals, such as mice and small reptiles and'birds. The existing large, tailed Batrachians devour fishes. The extinct tailed Batrachians, in their adult condition, were also un- doubtedly animal feeders, but they may, in their young state, have been vegetarians. At any rate the tadpoles of the existing Urode/a will eat vegetable matter, and indeed probably sustain themselves mainly upon it. In cold latitudes the Batrachia, like the Reptilia, go into the winter sleep called Azdernation, as also do the hedgehogs and bats amongst Mammals. The Frogs and Toads sometimes hide and shelter them- selves by creeping into out-of-the-way holes and corners, but more generally they (as also the Newts) bury them- selves in mud at the bottom of ponds and streams, In hot latitudes, some forms pass the dry season in a similar state of lethargic inactivity. Many beasts, birds, and fishes, range in flocks. The Batrachians, however, usually wander about in a solitary manner, and only congregate in the breeding season. It is then that their vocal powers find utterance, though only in the Anourous order; the tailed Batrachians never make more than a very feeble sound. As regards the geographical distribution of the whole class, the northern hemisphere, and especially the Ame- rican portion of it, is the more richly furnished. Africa, India, and Australia, are the most poorly supplied on the whole, because, though possessing very many kinds of Nov. 27, 1873 | NATURE 69 frogs and toads, the whole Eft order is unknown in those regions. ‘ Our question “ What is a Frog?” has now been some- what further answered ; but it cannot be completely so | until the organisation of the animal has been more fully surveyed, and not only the relation of the frog to other Batrachians thus more clearly seen, but also the relations and affinities borne by the several orders of Batrachians and by the whole class to the other orders and other classes of the Vertebrate sub-kingdom. Accordingly, we have now to make an acquaintance with more than those ebvious and external characters which are found in the Frog, and to penetrate into its inner anatomy, surveying successively its bony framework and the various parts and organs which subserve the several actions necessary to its continued existence. At the same time the more noteworthy resemblances presented by the Frog to other creatures will be pointed . out. Thus we shall become acquainted with the relations existing first between the Frog and other members of its order ; secondly, between the members of its order (Anoura) and its class fellows—z.e. other Batrachians ; thirdly, we shall comprehend the degree of relationship existing between the Batrachia and the other classes of the Vertebrate sub-kingdom; and fourthly, we shall come to recognise certain singular resemblances which exist between the various groups of Batrachians (the Frog’s order of course forming one), and some of the orders into which other vertebrate classes—especially the class of Reptiles—have been divided. The skeleton of the Frog, both external and internal, naturally comes first as the support and foundation of the other structures. The internal skeleton (or evdo-skeleton) will include the bones of the head, ze. the skull, back- bone (already referred to), and the bones of the limbs. The external skeleton (ex0-ske/efon) will consist of the skin only. ; St. GEORGE MIVART (To be continued.) ASTRONOMICAL ALMANACS* V.— The “ Connatssance des Temps” under the continued ‘ . . direction of the old Academy eee us return to the Conmazssance des Temps of the old Academy. Jeaurat, who succeeded Lalande in 1775, adopted exactly the same principles as the latter ; he, however, extended - considerably the ephemerides of the moon, giving its de- clination for every six hours, to facilitate the calculation of the altitude, when at the same time only the distance could be observed. Méchain succeeded Jeaurat in 1788; he followed the example of his two predecessors, and like them, continued to take from the “ Nautical Almanac” the distances of the moon, which Maskelyne had the kindness to send him even in manuscript. Moreover, besides the ephemerides and the lunar dis- tances, the Connaissance des Temps still contained obser- vations, memoirs on various astronomical topics, an abridged notice of new books likely to be of interest to astronomers and navigators, and a brief history of astro- nomy during the past year, due to the skilful and well- informed pen of Lalande. This state of things continued until 1794, the year when Méchain left Paris, to take part in the meridian work. Soon after, the suppression of the academies having dispersed the astronomers, the Cox- natssance des Temps for 1795 was compiled and published by the temporary Commission of Weights and Measures. Finally, on June 25 of the same year, 1795, the publica- tion of this work was placed under the eminent direction of the Bureau des Longitudes. Here we may conclude * Continued from vol. viii. p. 531. | interruption, : ; | dent of the Bureau des Longitudes, a position which he the first part of our account of the Connazssance des Temps—a work at first completely independent, then published with the approbation of fhe Academy, which included at the time nearly all those who were occupied with astronomy ; and afterwards entrusted to the care of the Bureau des Longitudes, a commission which still con- tinues to be charged with its publication, VI. The “ Connatssance des Temps” under the Bureau des Longitudes The first care of the Bureau was to entrust one of its members with the publication and direction of the Com- naissance des Temps, thus showing, from the first, the true course which ought to have been adopted from the beginning, that a work of this kind demands strictly personal superintendence. Its choice fell upon Lalande, then Astronomer of the Observatory of ?Ecole Militaire. As to the calculations, however, the superintendence of this astronomer was more nominal than real; he was occupied mainly with the Addztions which he had com- menced in 1760, and towards which the bent of his mind, —“ more of a collector than an inventor”— carried him. Thanks to the great quantity of material which he had acquired, he made of these additions a work really useful, for at this time periodic scientific publications were very rare. His Yournal d Astronomie (history of astronomy during the preceding year), contains a mass of information of great value, even at the present day, to all who take an interest in the history of the science of astronomy. As to the calculations, they were made partly by Bouvard, whom Laplace had appointed adjoint to the Bureau des Longitudes, and partly in the bureau of the Cadastre, under the direction of Prony, its chief. It wa: in the office of this celebrated engineer that the distance. ofthe moon from the sun and from the principal stars were calculated, distances which ceased from that time to be taken from the Wawtical Almanac. Let us, however, add, that up to the year 1806 the greater part of the other calculations of the Connazssance des Tenups were drawn from the WVautical Almanac, “ with the view,” according to the preamble, “ of accelerating the publica- tion.” Despite this assistance, nevertheless, this work appeared only about a year andahalf or two years in advance ; it was then, at that time, completely useless to navigators who had to make a long round. The atten- tion of the Bureau des Longitudes was not however turned in this direction. Its president was then the iliustrious Laplace, one of the glories of the mathematical sciences, and who first knew how to deduce from the great dis- covery of Newton, all the consequences which it was calculated to yield. Pierre Simon Laplace was born March 23, 1749, of a family of poor farmers of Beaumont-en-Auge (Normandy, Calvados). It is not known where he got the elements of his education, for when later he was raised to the highest honours, he had the weakness to wish to conceal his humble origin. Appointed in 1770, on the recom- mendation of d’Alembert, Professor of Mathematics at VEcole militaire of Paris, he became in 1772 adjoint member of the Academy of Sciences, next succeeded Bezout as examiner of the pupils of the royal corps of artil- lery, and in 1785 was made titular Academician. During this time, his beautiful memoirs on which he founded his Mécanique céleste, succeeded each other almost without Finally, in 1795, he was nominated presi- held till his death, March 5, 1827. Under his leadership the Bureau was occupied mainly in perfecting and re-constructing the tables, by means of which are calculated in advance the positions of the dif- ferent stars. The tables of Delambre (the sun, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and the satellites of Jupiter, 1792), of Mayer (corrected by Mason, 1787), for the moon, of 70 NATURE [Mov 27, 1873 Lalande for Venus and Mercury, showed with the obser- vations very great errors which the theory of Laplace promised to eliminate, or at the very least to diminish. It was to the solution of these questions that Laplace directed the forces of the Bureau, and it was to their practical execution that he applied the resources which the budget granted him. “To accelerate the work, the different parts were dis- tributed to various members of the Bureau. The tables of the moon, on account of the constant use made of them in astronomy and navigation, were those which it was of special importance should be completed promptly ; but the length of the researches, the magnitude of the calcu- lations, which so complicated a theory required, only per- mitted the hope to be cherished that in the distant future errors might be made to disappear which had gone on increasing from day to day. This was the occasion of making an appeal to all astronomers, national and foreign, who might have sufficiently advanced works upon the lunar tables. With this object the Bureau des Longi- tudes was authorised to offer a prize.” * This prize of 8,000 francs was awarded by the Bureau to an astronomer of Vienna, Biirg, whose tables, based upon 2,500 observations, made at Greenwich from 1765 to 1795, were deemed the most accurate and convenient. At the same time, Delambre published new tables of the sun ; Bouvard, pupil of Laplace, whom he had assisted in the publication of the A/écanigue céleste (Laplace resigned to him entirely the detailed investigations and astronomical calculations), published Mozvelles Tables des planétes Fupiter et Saturne (1808),a new edition of which he brought out in 1824, to which were added tables of Herschel’s planet, Uranus; Delambre published his Tables écliptiques des satellites de Fupiter (according to the theory of Laplace and the totality of the observations made from 1662 to 1802) ; Burckhardt, a German astro- nomer, whom the conquests of Napoleon had given to France, published new Tad/es de la lune (1812), which, in the estimation of some astronomers, took the place of those of Biirg. However, the impulse given by the splendid works of Laplace was not confined within the French frontiers. In Italy, a celebrated astronomer, Francisco Carline, published, in 1810, new tables of the sun, which were soon employed everywhere except in France.t In Germany, a man of Science, who was at one and the same time an eminent lawyer, a distinguished captain, and an excellent astronomer, Bernhard von Lindenau, published, according to Laplace’s theory, tables of Venus, Mars, and Mercury. {£ Unfortunately these excellent works, due to the power- ful initiative of Laplace, were not made use of in the publication of the Coxnazssance des Temps. In 1808, Delambre, one of the most eminent French astronomers, undertook the direction of the Conzazssance des Temps, No essential change was made in the work till 1817 ; at that time the right ascension of the moon, which had until then been calculated only to a minute, was given to a second for noon and midnight. Sailors could thus determine the longitude of their ships with more ex- actness ; and astronomers, instead of finding in the Connaissance des Temps only the indication of the time at which they ought to observe our satellite, could thus .compare the results of their observations with those which the tables gave, and prepare the material for their im- provement. Finally, in 1820, were introduced the diffe- * Report of the Bureau des Longitudes, 1800. t ‘‘Esposizione di un nuovo methodo,di construire le Tavole Astromische applicato alle Tavole del Sole” (Milan, 1810). T “ Tabule Veneris nova et correcte ex theoria gravitatis, clarissim: de Laplace, et ex observationibus recentissimis in specula astronomica Seeber- gensi habitis erecte” (Gotha, 1810). ‘Tabula Martis nove et correctz ex theoria gravitatis, clarissimi de Laplace, et ex observationibus recen- tissimis erecta” (Essenberg, 1811). ‘‘ Inyestigatio nova orbitz a mercurio circa soli descripta, accedunt Tabulz Planeta ex Elementis recens repertis et theoria gravitatis, 7/dustvisstmi de Laplace constructz ” (Gotha, 181 3). rences in right ascension and in declination of the sun, differences useful in calculating the preceding co-ordinates at an hour other than that of noon. This was still another advantage to sailors. But these improvements were of very little consequence in comparison with those which astronomy, geography, and navigation demanded. Germany was the first to set an example in this direction, and the Royal Astrono- mical Society of London, after a long and learned discus- sion, came to the conclusion that they were necessary. Moreover, besides being incomplete, the Connazssance des Temps was full of errors from beginning to end, errata being found even among the errata themselves. Radical reforms were indispensable ; but to make this clearly evident, we must return to the history of the “ Nautical Almanac” and the Berlin “ Jahrbuch.” (To be continued.) MAN IN THE SETTLE CAVE (Up eee the appearance of Mr. Tiddeman’s paper in NATURE, vol. ix. p. 14, I had not fully realised the important issues which, according to him, depend upon the proper identification of the fragment of bone from the Victoria Cave to which he refers ; nor was I aware that he was about to commit me in such very absolute terms to the opinion that it was human, but of this, as it turns out, I have no reason to complain. Looking, however, at the apparent gravity of the state- ment, and knowing, also, that opinions might, and as I believe did, differ as to the origin of the bone, I have been induced to go into the matter again, and am now ina position to affirm that there is no room for the slightest doubt on the subject. Mr, James Flower, the excellent and estimable articu- lator to the College of Surgeons, to whom I am under many obligations for assistance in such questions, and who at one time suggested, and had almost convinced me, that the bone was elephantine, has, after much search, found amongst the Museum stores of human osteology, a /iduda which places the question beyond all doubt, and fully confirms the opinion I had come to, especially after seeing the Mentone skeleton, that the Victoria relic, pre- or post-glacial as it may be, is human. It is further important as showing that bones of the same conformation may occasionally be met with at the pre- sent day. Gro. BUSK Harley Street, Nov. 14 NOTES Dr. A. Drew-SmirH and Francis M. Balfour of Trinity College, Cambridge, have been nominated by the Board of Natural Science Studies, in accordance with the grace of the* Senate (May 1, 1873), to study at the Zoological Station at Naples under Dr. Dohrn, until the end of July 1874. Ar the General Monthly Meeting of the Royal Institution to be held on Monday first, a President will be elected in the room of the late Sir Henry Holland, Bart. PROFESSOR TR‘QuatR, of the Royal College of Science in Dublin, has been appointed to the Keepership of the Natural History Museum in the Edinburgh Museum of Science and Art. This gentleman was formerly one of the Demonstrators to the Professor of Biology in the University of Edinburgh, and is the author of several important contributions to Science. Mr, W. F. Barrer, F.C.S., has been appointed Professor of Physics to the Royal College of Science, Dublin, in succession | to the late Professor W. Barker. We feel sure that this appoint- a ‘ Nov. 27, 1873 | NATURE 71 ment will give great satisfaction. Sir Robert Kane, F.R.S., having resigned the post of Dean of Faculty to the College, for the purpose of spending his winters in the south of Europe, Professor Galloway has been selected to fill this post. It is said that there either are, or will very shortly be, a vacancy in the Professorship of Chemistry owing to Professor Sullivan’s appointment to the Presidentship of the Queen’s College, Cork. Dr. E. H. BENNETT has been elected Professor of Surgery in the University of Dublin, in succession to the late Dr. R. W. Smith ; and Dr. Thos. E. Little has been elected to fill the post of University Anatomist. In connection with news from the Dublin University, we may mention that it is understood that the authorities have determined to build a new museum for their anatomical and zoological collections. At present, in connection with the Medical School, there is a small collection of human and comparative anatomy, and, in the Arts’ School a very good collection of zoology. It is intended to combine these two ina new building. The College authorities would confer a great boon on natural science in Dublin if they would venture to go a step further and make their new museum contain all their bio- logical collections. The advantages would be great of having the distribution of animals in space and time shown in con- neclion the one with the other ; and there is something incon- gruous in separating the specimens illustrating the past and present races of mankind from the zoological collection, and combining the specimens illustrating the anatomy and physiology of the human species with those illustrative of the other animals. For the convenience of the students, we trust that the extensive herbarium of the College may also be lodged under the roof of the new building, which, to be useful, need contain no lofty halls or grand corridors, but should consist of a series of well- lit rooms, after the fashion of, we would suggest, that nicest of museums, the one for Economic Botany at Kew. Tue following memorandum on the Whitworth Scholar- ships, prepared by Sir Joseph Whitworth, has been ap- proved by the Lords of the Committee of the Council on Education :—‘‘I wish that candidates for my Scholarships in 1874, who, owing to the shortness of the notice, may not have been able to be in a mechanical shop for six months before the competition takes place, should be allowed to com- pete, but that if successful, their scholarship should not begin until they have worked six months in a mechanical shop. I think the same privilege should be accorded to candidates in 1875, who have not served eighteen months in a mechanical shop, the scholarship not beginning until this period is com- pleted.” Tue 120th session of the Society of Arts was opened on the Tgth inst. with an address by the Chairman of the Council, Major-General I’, Eardley-Wilmot, F.R.S. THE magnum opus of three generations of botanists, De Can- dolle’s ‘‘ Prodromus Systematis naturalis vegetabilium,” con- taining a diagnosis of every known species of flowering plant, has now been completed as far as Dicotyledons are concerned, and it is notintended to continue the work into the Monocoty- ledons. In commemoration of the completion of the work, the Horticultural Society of Belgium has awarded M. de Candolle a special medal. The publication of the work was commenced in 1818. THE trustees of the Gilchrist Educational Fund offer a scho- larship of the value of 50/. per annum, tenable for three years at Girton College, Cambridge, to be competed for at the General Examination for Women, conducted by the University of London in May, 1874. From the commencement of next year, Zhe Gardeners’ Chro- nicle and Agricultural Gazette will be divided into two papers, each weekly, to be devoted to the interests of the two sister sciences. Dr. WILLIAM WALLACE, in opening recently the session of the Chemical Section of the Philosophical Society of Glasgow, spoke, among other things, of the endowment of research. From what he said on this subject, we think the following pointed re- marks worthy of attention :—With regard to students who at- tended evening lectures and classes, a very great deal had been done for them by the Society of Arts, and by the examiners of the Science and Art Department, both of which had given great encouragement to the class of students whom they were intended to benefit. What was lacked most was a stimulus to men of the highest educational class. In this country, apart from professor- ships, there were no means of assisting that class except, perhaps, a few sinecures and the conferring of empty titles. In France, at least under the Imperial 7¢gzme, when a man acquired renown in a particular line of investigation, a laboratory with all the best and most suitable appliances was immediately fitted up for him. Hence Paris was provided with a series of the most complete laboratories for metallurgy, for agriculture, for the sugar manu- facture, and for many other branches of the science; and students might go to study a particular subject with the certainty that they would have a most efficient teacher and the advantages of a laboratory fitted up specially, and, as one might say, regard- less of expense, with the apparatus and requirements necessary for the teaching and study of the subject. It appeared to him (Dr. Wallace) that the endowment of research would form a de- sirable stimulus for chemists, many of whom had the necessary education and talent, but couid not afford the time nor the ex- pense, often considerable, of obtaining the apparatus and ma- terials required. A Society of Physical and Natural Science was founded four years ago at Caracas, Venezuela; but the political agitations of the country have, until recently, hindered its development. Meanwhile it has commenced the publication of a Bulletin under the title of Vargasia, so named in honour of the American botanist Vargas. Z’Zrstitu¢t learns, by a letter from Dr. Ernst, who is at once president, secretary, and treasurer of the society, that the present Government of Venezuela intends to promote, as much as it can, the growth of scientific studies, mainly by the establishment of various institutions for public instructior. Dr. Ernst, appointed Professor of Botany in the University of Cara- cas, where hitherto there has been no such chair, has been charged with the direction or rather the creation of a botanic garden and a museum of natural history. In the museum Prof. Ernst intends to collect—ist, a herbarium of Venezuela ; 2nd, a general herbarium ; 3rd, a collection relating to economic botany. He intends to publish in a few years a Flora of Caracas. Dr. Emst appeals to European botanists and collectors for exchanges to assist him in the formation of these herbaria. Tr is not often that Mr. Disraeli says anything which calls for particular notice in a journal of this kind, therefore it is with peculiar pleasure that we quote the opinion he uttered last week at the Glasgow banquet as to the share which Science has had during the present century in moulding the world. Coming from a man of his shrewdness and sentimentality withal, the words have a striking force. Speaking of the last fifty years, he said :—‘* How much has happened in these fifty years—a period more remarkable than any, I will venture to say, in the annals of mankind. I am not thinking of the rise and fall of empires, the change of dynasties, the establishment of Governments. I am thinking of those revolutions of science which have had much more effect than any political causes, which have changed the position and prospects of mankind more than all the con- quests and all the codes and all the legislators that ever lived.” Art the first meeting of the Edinburgh Botanical Society for m0 NATURE the winter, Mr. James McNab, curator of ‘the Royal Botanical Gardens, delivered an address on the change of climate in Scotland, which, during the last fifty years has undergone a considerable lessening of the summer heat. From this cause peaches and nectarines cannot be ripened to the same perfection in the open air as formerly, while asparagus, mushrooms, and tomatoes are gradually disappearing. The larch, in spite of the enormous quantities of seed annually imported, if de- clining in vigour, and there is a talk of substituting for is the Wellingtonia as a nurse-tree. Mr. McNab proposes that a central committee should be appointed to investigate the whole subject of the change of climate in Scotland. Tue following is an ephemeris (for ob Berlin time) of the comet discovered by M. Coggia at Marseilles, on the evening of the roth inst: November 22, 14h 51™ 255—6° 82; November 30, 145 14™ 305—22° 43/0; December 8, 145 0™175 —32°1'.8. Its elements are:—T=Dec., 471348, Berlin mean {ime 5 1 =04° 23' 1475 Q =254° 14'9"; 2= 27° 2' 7". Mean Equinox, 18730 dag. g. = 9°83810. One of the special results of the United States geological and geo- graphical survey of the Territories, in charge of Prof. F.V. Hayden. during the past summer, has been the discovery that Co.orado Territory is the centre of the greatest elevation of the Rocky Mountain chain. In Central Colorado the chain proper is about 120 miles broad, made up of three lofty parallel ranges, running nearly north-north-west, and flanked from the west by great plateaus and groups of peaks. Between the ranges lie the great elevated basins known as ‘‘parks.” The front range, which rises abruptly from the plains, is seen from Denver in a grand panorama 120 miles long. From its snowy serrated crest rise many peaks between 13,000 and 14,000 ft. high. On the west side of the parks is the Park Range, whose highest group is at Mount Lincoln, this and Quandary Peak each rising to about 14,000 {t. The survey has established a permanent meteorological station at Fairplay, 10,000 ft. above the sea, and another at Cafion City, about 6,000 ft. These stations are all connected by a spirit-level line, and the comparison of their observations will be of remarkable interest. The National Range lies east of the Park Range, and is separated from it by tae Arkansas Valley. West of the National Range rises the great group of Elk Mountains, five of whose peaks are 14,000 ft. high. So faras known, there arein the district explored during the past season by the survey 72 peaks, ranging from 14,000 to 14,200 ft. in height. In the article on Local Societies (vol. ix. p. 24) we inadver- tently confounded the Manchester Natural History Society with the Microscopical and Natural History section of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, The former of these is ex- tinct—having handed its collections over to the Owens College— and also contributed a handsome sum of money to promote, permanently, the study of Natural History in the Literary and Philosophical Society. This endowment now enriches the Natural History section of that society. Manchester science will gain rather than lose by these changes. The defunct society was never more than the creator and guardian of a museum. That museum will still be preserved and increased, as well as utilised, by the College, whilst the Natural History section affords promise of a healthy career of scientific work. M. CHARREL, of Marseilles, writes as follows to the Bulletin International, of the Observatory of Paris, on the invention of balloons :—In the literary history of the City of Lyons, published by Father Colonnia (1830, vol. i. p. 112), it is stated that in the reign of Louis le Debonnaire, the Archbishop of Lyons learned that some aérial navigators had fallen with their boat on the banks of the Saone, and were going to be put to death as sor- cerers. He ordered them to be brought into his presence, and after having heard them, he caused them to be nonsuited (/e fi¢ mettre hors de proces). The memoir of the prelate bears such a charac- ter of authenticity as leaves no doubt of the fact. The following words are taken verbatim from the memoir: ‘‘ Videmus exhi- bere vinctos quatuor Aomines; tres viros et unam feminam, quasi qui de ipsis navibus ceciderunt, quos . . . exhibuerunt in nostra presentia tanquam lapidandos.” It follows, then, from this memoir, that already, in the ninth century, aérial navigation was known ; how it was accomplished the memoir does not give any indication. THE first Annual Exhibition of the West London Entomo- logical Society, established 1868, will be held on December 2 and 3, at the ‘‘Mason’s Arms,” Tichborne Street, Edgware Road. : A Times telegram from Teheran, November 24, says that Colonel Baker and Lieutenant Gill have arrived at Teheran, and leave immediately for England, v@ Tabreez and Erivan, Tra- yelling to the north from Meshed, they passed along the Turco- man frontier by Kelat, Abiverd, Dereguez, Annau, Astrabad, and Nissa. Striking south, they discovered the source of the Attrek at Karakazan, an extraordinary spring near Shirvan, and followed the course of the river ca considerable distance north- west of Bojnoord, until stopped by hostilities between Bojnoord and the Turcomans. Striking into the mountains, they were enabled to trace the course of the river until it fell into the plains, and also to observe the great range of mountains which runs along the whole Persian frontier from Sarakhs to Kizil Aryat. Existing conjectural maps of this country are quite incorrect. On the ist inst. the Earl of Dalhousie formally opened the Art Exhibition and Museum of the Albert Institute of Dundee, which, with the previously opened portions— free library and lecture-hall—form one handsome block of buildings. In the list of towns, with their scientific socie- ties, published by us a week or two ago, we were surprised to see Dundee, so rapidly advancing in population and wealth, occupy so humble a place. We cannot see how towns like Leeds, Newcastle, Manchester, Glasgow, and others should have their flourishing and well-equipped scientific societies, while Dundee has only one small struggling society of young men, the Naturalists’ Field Club. The neighbouring and comparatively stagnant town of Perth, with its large and efficient society, puts Dundee to the blush in this respect. Weshall be disappointed if the opening of the Albert Institute in Dundee, a town so dependent for its commercial and manufacturing success on the applied re- sults of Science, does not give an impetus to the study of Science. There are already Science and Art Classes in the town, and we hope to hear soon of the establishment of regular courses of scien- tifie lectures, such as those which are found in several of the large English manufacturing towns, and the formation of at least one flourishing scientific society and field club around the small nucleus already existing. We hope also that the collections in the museum will be made worthy of the wealthy town and be really representative of the treasures of the various king- doms of Nature. We feel sure that the citizens of Dundee only need their attention to be drawn to the backward state of their town in the matter referred to to rouse them to put it on a level in this respect with the large English towns. THE additions to the Zoological Society’s collection during the last week include an Eagle (Sfzzaé/ws ?) from Burmah, pre- sented by Mr. H. Fielder; a Macaque Monkey (AZacacus cynomolgus) from India, presented by Mr. Gore; a pair of Jaguars (Fe/is onga) born in the Jardin des Plantes, Paris, re- ceived in exchange. 3 [Wov. 27, 1873 . Nov. 27, 1873 | ON SOME RECENT RESULTS WITH THE TOWING NET ON THE SOUTH COAST OF IRELAND * 1.—Aitraria OXLY a single specimen was obtained of the little AZitraria, which formed the subject of the present communication, and neither its structure nor development was made out as com- pletely as could have been wished. From the Mediterranean species described in a former communication (British Association Report for 1872), it differs in some points of structure and in the mode of annulation of the developing worm. It possesses the usual JZitraria form, that of a hemispherical dome having its base encircled by a band of long vibratile cilia. In the side of the dome a little above the ciliated band is the mouth which leads into a rather wide pharynx clothed with a ciliated epithelium. The pharynx runs through the dome parallel to its base and opens into a capacious stomach which continues in the same direction until it joins the intestine. This then turns down abruptly at right angles to the previous portion of the alimentary canal, and then projects for a slight distance beyond the base of the dome, carrying with it hernia-like the walls of the base. The true body walls of the future worm, of which the Mftraria is the larva, seem as yet confined to the intestinal segment of the alimentary canal. They already present the commencement of annulation, which, however, exists only on the dorsal and ventral sides, while two broad bands of very distinct fibres may be seen, one on the right and the other on the left side, extend- ing transversely from the dorsal to the ventral surface. The ciliated band which runs round the base of the dome pos- sesses a rather complex structure. It consists of two concentric rings : an outer one composed of large oval distinctly nucleated cells, and an inner one of a granular structure and yellowish colour, in which no distinct cells could be demonstrated. The cilia form two concentric wreaths borne by the under side of the band, an outer wreath consisting of very long cilia, and borne by the inner edge of the outer portion of the band, and an inner wreath of much shorter cilia borne by the inner edge of the inner portion. The band with its cilia is interrupted for a very short space at the aboral side of the dome. ‘There is probably at this spot an entrance into a water- vascular system. No such system, however, was observed in the specimen, though the author had described in another species of Mitraria a system of sinuses which appear to exist in the walls of the dome, and which he regarded as representing;? water- vascular system (Brit. Assoc. Report for 1872). Occupying the very summit of the dome is a large, somewhat quadrilateral ganglion, from which two distinct filaments are sent down, one on each side of the alimentary canal, but he was not able to follow these filaments to their destination. The bilateral symmetry of the ganglion suggests its formation out of two lateral halves. Though its very superficial position gives it the appearance of being a mere thickening of the walls, the view here taken of its being a nervous ganglion seems to be the only one consistent with its relations to the surrounding parts. On each side of the pharynx, a little behind the mouth, is a small oval ganglion-like body from which a filament runs to the ciliated band. Some delicate filaments may also be seen lying between the pharynx and the walls of the dome on which they seem to be distributed, but the author could not trace them to any distinct ganglionic centre. j The great apical ganglion carries two very obvious black ocel- liform spots, and besides these two clear vesicles enclosing each a clear spherical corpuscle. The two vesicles may probably be regarded as auditory capsules. The further development of this larval form has not been ob- served. It probably consists chiefly in the continued prolongation of the alimentary canal beyond the base of the hemispherical dome, the completion of the annulation by its extension to the right and left sides, and the gradual contraction of the dome and final absorption of the ciliated band. 2.— Tornaria Two specimens of the larval form originally discovered by Johann Miiller, and described by him under the name of Zorna- via, were obtained, but these unfortunately perished before a sufficiently exhaustive examination of them could be made. On the whole their structure agrees closely with what has been * Paper read at the Meeting of the British Association, Bradford by Prof. Allman, F.R.S. 2% NATURE 73 pointed out by Alex. Agassiz in his valuable and elaborate memoir on 7ornaria and Balanoglossus. The species appears to be different from those hitherto described. The gills had not begun to show themselves, and there were but traces of the ‘*lappets ” described in other species as appended to the poste- rior extremity of the stomach. The author believed that he could distinguish a minute gang- lion on each side of the cesophagus ; filaments were sent off from it to the neighbouring parts, and the two were connected to one another by a sub-cesophagal commisure. The water-vascular chamber was very distinct, but the so-called heart was not ob- served ; while within the body-cavity, lying close to the dorsa pore and over the canal by which the great water-sac commu- nicates with the external medium, was a small, closed, rather thick-walled vesicle containing numerous oval corpuscles. Of the nature of this vesicle the author could not offer any opinion. The cushion-like body which occupies the summit of the larva exactly as in AZitraria, and supports the two ocelliform spots, was very distinct, and so also was the contractile chord which extends from this to the walls of the water-sac. The author, however, could not here, any more than in J/traria, regard the cushion-like body as a mere thickening of the walls ; he believed it to be a nerve-mass, and thought he could trace two fine fila- ments proceeding from it and running down, one towards the right and the other towards the left side of the alimentary canal, but he was not able to follow them for any distance, and he does not regard their existence as confirmed. The extremely super- ficial situation of this body, which makes it resemble a mere thickness of the walls, is paralleled by that of the great ventral nerve-mass in Sagzéfa. The contractile chord which runs to the water-sac is probably attached to a capsular covering of the ganglion, rather than directly to the ganglion itself, This chord, though showing strong contractions by which the summit of the larva is drawn down towards the water-sac, is of a homogeneous structure, pre- senting no appearance of distinct fibrillae or of other contractile elements. The author instituted a comparison between Zornaria and Mitraria. We have in both the external transparent pyramidal or dome-shaped body, with a lateral oral orifice, and a basal anal orifice, enclosing an alimentary canal which is divisible into three regions, and takes a partly horizontal and partly vertical direction in its course from one orifice to the other ;* we have in both, near the base of the body, the circular band which carries long vibratile cilia accompanied by a row of pigment spots, and in both the cushion-like ganglion carrying ocelli. From JMitraria, Tormaria chiefly differs in the presence of the thick sinuous and convoluted bands which give it so close a re- semblance to certain Echinoderm larvze, and which are entirely absent from AZz/varia, and in its water-vascular system with the contractile cord which extends from this to the apical ganglion. If a water-vascular system is present in JZitvaria, it consists there of a system of sinuses excavated in the walls of the dome, but without any representative of the great central sac. In Mitravia the great apical ganglion carries not only the two ocelli, but also two capsules, probably auditory ; these capsules do not exist in Zornaria. In Mitraria the two nerve chords which the apical ganglion sends down one on each side of the alimentary canal are very distinct ; in Zovaria, if they exist at all, they are by no means obvious. Finally, the ciliary circlet is simple in Zorzaria, while in Mitraria it is double. According to Alexander Agassiz’s account of the development of Zornaria into Balanoglossus, the great transverse circlet of cilia becomes, by the elongation of the body, gradually pushed backwards, so as to form the anal ciliated ring of the young worm ; in A/itvaria the great ciliary circlet remains unchanged in position, and is probably ultimately absorbed, the worm during its development acquiring a new anal wreath of cilia. 3. Ametrangia hemispherica (nov. gen. et spec.) Among the most abundant products of the towing-net was a little hydroid medusa, remarkable for the want of symmetry in the distribution of its gastro-vascular canals. It is of a hemi- spherical form, with the base about half-an-inch in diameter, and provided with very numerous (more than 100) marginal ten- tacles, which are very extensile, and may at one time be seen floating away to a length of three or four inches and at another coiled into a close spiral against the margin of the umbrella. * In the species of A/z¢ravia described by J. Miiller and by Metschnikeff, both oral and anal orifices are basal, and the alimentary canal presents a v- shaped curvature 74 Each tentacle originates in a bulbous base with a distinct ocellus, No lithocysts are visible on the margin. The velum is of mode- rate width. The manubrium forms a small projection from the summit of the umbrella, and terminates in four rather indistinct lips. From the base of the manubrium three rather wide offsets are sent off at equal intervals into the walls of the umbrella. These gradually contract in diameter, and then, as three narrow tubes of uniform diameter, run towards the margin, where they open into the cir- cular canal. The symmetry of the radiating canals is confined to these three primary trunks. From their wide proximal ends each sends off branches, some of which may be traced to the margin where, like the three primary canals, they enter the cir- cular canal, while others can be followed for various distances in the umbrella walls, in which they terminate by blind extremities without ever reaching the margin. These branches are very irregular in the number sent off from each primary canal, as well. as in their length and directions. The generative elements are formed in oval sporosacs deve- loped one on each of the three primary canals at the spot where the wider base passes into its narrower continuation. The ova may be seen within them in various stages of development ; they increase considerably in size before the commencement of segmentation, always showing up to that period a large and dis- tinct germinal vesicle with germinal spot and with a distinct nucleolus in the interior of the germinal spot. The development of the ovum proceeds within the sporosac to the segmentation of the vitellus and the formation of the planula, which now breaks through the outer walls of the sporosac and remains for some time adhering to their external surface. The planula differs re- markably from the typical hydroid planula. It remains of a nearly spherical form, never acquiring cilia, and possesses little or no power of locomotion. The gastric cavity, however, is fully formed. The author was unable to follow the ova in their further development. The little medusa now described, departs in several im- portant points from the typical hydroid medusa. From this it differs in the ternary disposition of the primary radiating canals, and in the irregular non-symmetrical arrangement of those which are subsequently formed. Among the very many specimens exa- mined, the author never found any in which the canals had become regular in their disposition, even in those which had dis- charged the contents of their sporosacs, and had evidently attained the term of their existence. It differs also from the typical medusa in the form and non-ciliated condition of the planula ; and still further in the fact that while the generative elements are borne on sporosacs, developed on the radiating canals, the marginal bodies are ocelli and not lithocyst. 4.— Circe invertens (noy. spec.) Among the hydroid medusze captured in the towing-net, were two or three specimens of a species referable tothe genus Circe of Mertens. It measures about half-an-inch in its vertical dia- meter, and about a quarter of an inch transversely. It is cylindrical from its base upwards, for about two-thirds of its height, and then contracts abruptly, and arches dome-like towards the truncated summit, which is surmounted by a solid cone of the gelatinous umbrella substance. From the summit of the umbrella-cavity, a solid somewhat fusiform extension of the roof hangs down in the axis of its cavity for about two-thirds of its depth, and at its free end carries the manubrium, which ex- tends nearly to the codonostome. The margin of the umbrella carried eighty very short and but slightly extensile tentacles, which were connected at their bases by a very narrow mem- braneous extension of the margin, with rather irregular free-edge. Lithocysts are situated at irregular intervals upon the margin, There are about sixteen of them; they consist each of a minute spherical vesicle with a single large spherical concretion, There are no ocelli. There is a moderately wide velum. The radiating canals ‘are eight in number. They spring from the base of the manubrium, run up the sides of the solid process which hangs from the summit of the umbrella ; pass from this to the walls of the umbrella, and then run down towards the margin in order to open into the circular canal. The generative elements are borne in pendent sporosacs, which spring from the radiating canals close to the summit of the umbrella cavity. The motion of the medusa takes place by means of sudden jerks, reminding us of the way in which certain Diphydee dart through the water. NATURE [Mov. 27, 1873 The medusa possesses also a very singular habit of partial in- version. This takes place along the line which separates the dome-like portion of the umbrella cavity from the lower cylin- drical portion, and consists in the withdrawal of this dome-like summit and the lower portion of the cavity. When thus inverted the little animal presents a drum-shaped form, with the manubrium hanging far out of the codonostome. Alexander Agassiz considers the genus Czvce, of Mertens, as synonymous with 7rachynema Gegenbaur, and points out that the name of Czrce had been already used for a genus of mollusca. He further removes it from among the true hydroid medusz, and regarding it as closely allied to the gzxidz, places it along with those in the /aflostomee Agassiz, a sub-order of the Dés- cophora. The author, however, could not see sufficient grounds for the removal of Mertens’ genus from the true Hydrozda, with which the medusa now described agrees in all essential points, including the form and disposition of the gastro-vascular and generative systems and the structure of the marginal lithocysts. Neither could he agree with Alexander Agassiz in identifying it with Trachynema. The greatly developed solid peduncle by which the manubrium in Cz7ce is suspended from the summit of the umbrella-cayity in a way, however, which has its parallel in Zima among others, is of itself a character of generic importance by which Civve must be kept apart from Zyachynema. It is true that Gegenbaur’s 7yachynema has the character of a young form, and until we have further evidence of its adult state its affinities cannot be regarded as established. A Gegenbaur believes that he has established the direct develop- ment of Zrachynema from the egg without the intervention of a hydriform trophosome, but unfortunately we have no data by which to compare in this respect Circe with 7vachynema. It must be admitted too that in the imperfect contractility of the marginal tentacles and in the somewhat greater firmness of the umbrella walls the little medusa described in the present communication possesses characters which look towards the Aginide, but these are by no means sufficiently strong to justify its separation from the ordinary hydroid medusze. 5.— Tomopteris A few young specimens of this beautiful little worm were ob- tained, and the author was enabled to confirm the statements of Grube and of Keferstein, who describe in it a double ventral nerve chord, though other observers have failed to discover this part of the nervous system and throw doubt upon its existence. In adult specimens examined some years previously by the author no ventral chord could be detected. The ventral portion of the neryous system consists of two flat ribbon-shaped chords which are given off from the in- ferior side of the nerve ring which surrounds the pharynx just behind the mouth, These run parallel to one another, separated by a narrow interval; they lie on the ventral walls of the animal, and may be traced through the narrow tail- like termination of the body as far as its extremity. They present no ganglionic swellings, but opposite to every pair of feet each sends off a filament which passes to the foot of its own side in which it is distributed. Dr. Anton Dohrn has just informed the author that he too had distinctly seen the ventral chord of 7omopteris. SCIENTIFIC SERIALS AmonGsT the papers in the October and November numbers of the American Naturalist, are included Dr. J. L. Smith’s Address to the American Association for the Advancement of Science, on Science in America and Modern Methods of Science. —Mr. R. Ridgway describes some new forms of American Birds, which he considers as geographical races, and not distinct species. Included are Catherpes mexicanus, var. conspersus ; LHelminthophaga celata, var. lutescens ; Dendroica vieillotit, vax. bryanti; D. dominica, var. albilora; D. gracia, var. decora ; Myrodioctes pusilus, var. pileolata (Pallas), and Collurio ludovici- anus, var. robustus (Baird), which are described and followed by a synopsis of the genera of Certhiola, Funco, and Cardinalis.— Prof. C. A. Riley has a paper on the Oviposition of the Yucca Moth, in which he shows that the female conveys her eggs into the young fruit by a lateral puncture. The Structure and Growth of Domesticated Animals, forms the subject of a popular lecture by Prof. Agassiz, which is followed by one on Staurolite ee Nov. 27, 1873] NATURE 75 Crystals and Green Mountain Gneisses of the Silurian Age, by Prof. Dana.—The Rey. D. T. Hill gives instances of intelligence in Bufo americanus.—Mr. G. W. Morehouse analyses the struc- ture of the scales of Zefisma saccharina.—Mr. D. Scott gives a popular explanation of the differences between the two genera of North American Goatsuckers, the Whippoorwills (Aztrosto- mus), and the Nighthawks (Chordetles), which is followed by a short note from Mr. Packard, jun., on the Embryology of Li- mulus, with remarks on its affinities. His results are confirma- tory of those of M. Alphonse Milne-Edwards. The fourth and concluding part of vol. xxvii, of the Zazsac- tions of the Linnean Society, is chiefly occupied by a supple- mentary paper by the Rev. O. P. Cambridge, on New and Rare British Spiders ; but also contains some short papers of importance.—Prof. Oliver describes a new genus of Begoniacez from New Granada, under the name of Zegontella, a monotypic genus of great interest as respects the geographical distribution of the order ; and three new genera of Malayan plants from the her- barium of Dr. Maingay—/%eleocarpa and Ctenolophon (Olacine), and Maingaya (Hamamelidez).—Dr. M‘Nab publishes his im- portant paper on the Development of the flowers of Welwitschia murabilis. Dr. M‘Nab considers that in the male flowers of this very remarkable plant we have a very close approach to the Angiosperms, the axis of the flower ending in a mass of tissue which, in the female flower, is the terminal ovule ; while, in the female flower, we have the truly gymnospermous condition, there being no carpels, but a terminal ovule, the modified end of the axis of the flower, with a single ovular integument, the pollen grains being applied directly to the naked nucleus. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES Royal Society, Nov. 20.—‘‘ Note on the Electrical Pheno- mena which accompany irritation of the leaf of Dionea musci- pula,” by Dr. J. Burdon Sanderson, F.R.S. 1. When the opposite ends of a living leaf of Dionea are placed on non-polarisable electrodes in metallic connection with each other, and a Thomson’s reflecting galvanometer of high resistance is introduced into the circuit thus formed, a deflection is observed which indicates the existence of a current from the proximal to the distal end of the leaf. This current I call the normal leaf-current. Jf, instead of the leaf, the leaf-stalk is placed on the electrodes (the leaf remaining united to it) in such a way that the extreme end of the stalk rests on one electrode and a part of the stalk at a certain distance from the leaf on the other, a current is indicated which is opposed to that in the leaf. This I call the sta/k-cuxrent. To demonstrate these two cur- rents, it is not necessary to expose any cut surface to the electrodes, 2. In a leaf with the petiole attached, the strength of the cur- rent is determined by the length of the petiole cut off with the leaf, in sucha way that the shorter the petiole the greater is the deflection. Thus in a leaf with a petiole an inch long I ob- served a deflection of 40. I then cut off half, then half the remainder, and soon. After these successive amputations, the deflections were respectively 50, 65, 90, 120. If in this ex- periment, instead of completely severing the leaf at each time, it is merely all but divided with a sharp knife, the cut surfaces remaining in accurate apposition, the result is exactly the same as if the severance were complete ; no further effect is obtained on separating the parts. 3. Effect of constant current directed through the petiole on the leaf-current.—lf the leaf is placed on the galvanometer elec- trodes as before, and the petiole introduced into the circuit of a small Daniell, a commutator being interposed, it is found that on directing the battery-current down the petiole (7.2, from the leaf), the normal deflection is increased ; on directing the current Zowards the leaf, the deflection is diminished. 4. Negative variation.—a. Tf, the leaf being so placed on the electrodes that the normal leaf-current is indicated by a deflection leftwards, a fly is allowed to creep into it,’ it is observed that the moment the fly reaches the interior (so as to touch the sensitive hairs on the upper surface of the lamina), the needle swings to the right, the leaf at the same time closing on the fly, b. The fly having been caught does not remain quiet in the leaf; each time it moves the needle again swings to the right, always coming to rest in a position somewhat farther to the left than before, and then slowly resuming its previous position. ¢. The same series of phenomena present themselves if the sensitive hairs of a still expanded leaf are touched with a camel- hair pencil. d. If the closed leaf is gently pinched with a pair of forceps with cork points, the effect is the same. ; e. If the leaf-stalk is placed on the electrodes, as before, with the leaf attached to it, the deflection of the needle due to the stalk-current is zcveased whenever the leaf is irritated in any of the ways above described. J; Tf half the lamina is cut off and the remainder placed on the electrodes, and that part of the concave surface at which the sensitive hairs are situated is touched with a camel-hair pencil, the needle swings to the right as before. g. If, the open leaf having been placed on the galvanometer electrodes as in a, one of the concave surfaces is pierced with a pair of pointed platinum electrodes in connection with the op- posite ends of the secondary coil of a Du Bois-Reymond’s in- duction apparatus, it is observed that each time that the secon- dary circuit is closed, the needle swings to the right, at once re- suming its former position in the same manner as after mechani- cal irritation. No difference in the effect is observable when the direction of the induced current is reversed, The observation may be repeated any number of times, dat no effect ts produced unless an interval of from ten to twenty seconds has elapsed since the preceding irritation. hk. If the part of the concave surface of the leat which is nearest the petiole is excited, whether electrically or mechan- ically, the swing to the right (negative variation) is always preceded by a momentary jerk of the needle to the left, 2e. in the direction of the deflection due to the normal leaf-current ; if any other part of the concave surface is irritated, this does not take place, z, Whether the leaf is excited mechanically or electrically, an interval of from a quarter to a third of a second intervenes between the act of irritation and the negative variation. “On the Algebraical Analogues of Logical Relations,” by Alexander J. Ellis, F.R.S. The object of this paper is to examine the ‘‘mathematical theory of logic,” thus laid down by Dr. George Boole in his ‘*Laws of Thought,” p. 37 :—‘‘ Let us conceive of an Algebra in which the symbols «, 7, 2, &c. admit indifferently of the values o and 1, and of these values alone. The laws, the axioms, and the processes of such an algebra will be identical in their whole extent with the laws, the axioms, and the processes of an Algebra or Logic. Difference of interpretation will alone divide them.” For this purpose, first the laws of such an algebra have been investigated independently of logic, and secondly the laws of primary and secondary logical propositions as laid down by Dr. Boole, have been developed in an alge- braical form, and compared with the former. ‘The main results presumed to be established are :— 1. That there is a fundamental difference between such an algebra and logic, inasmuch as the algebra admits of only ¢wo phases, 0 and 1, and logic admits of ¢/vce phases, namely, not only zone and all, corresponding to 0 and 1, but also some, ‘which, though it may include in its meaning a//, does not include zone” (cid, p. 124), and hence has no analogue in such an algebra; that is, an algebra of 0 and 1 can correspond only to a logic of zome and a//. 2, That, notwithstanding this difference, there are certain formal relations of equations which allow the algebra of 0 and 1 to be used as an algorithm for the purpose of arriving at certain logical forms, which, however, have then to be interpreted on a basis which has not even any analogy to the algebraical. 3. That the introduction of this algorithm introduces theo- retical difficulties, adds to the amount of work, and is entirely unnecessary even for the purposes of the theory of probabilities founded upon it by Dr. Boole, Mathematical Society, Nov. 13.—Prof. Cayley, and sub- sequently Prof. Sylvester, in the chair.—The following gentlemen have been elected officers of the new council :—President, Dr. Hirst ; Vice-Presidents, Prof. Cayley, and Messrs. Spottiswoode and Sylvester. The retiring members were Prof. Crofton and Mr. J. Stirling, in whose room Mr. Sylvester and Lord Rayleigh were elected.—Mr. Sylvester then gave a description of a new instrument for converting circular into general rectilinear motion, and into motion in conics and other plane curves. (A brief sketch of the historical aspect of the communi- cation, from the pen of Mr. Sylvester, forms the subject of a paragraph in NaTuRE of Nov. 13.) Several instruments were placed on the table for inspection—Mr, W. Marsham Adams 46 NATURE | Nov. 27, 1873 exhibited his Mensurator and Czlometer, and gave a short account of the objects to which they could be applied. The Mensurator is an instrument designed primarily for the instan- taneous solution of triangles, but capable, from its construction, of many other uses ; such as illustrating most of Euclid’s theo- rems with regard to the triangle, of performing addition, sub- traction, rule of three, and extraction of square roots, of solving quadratics and simple binomial equations, and of reducing to mechanism some part of analytical geometry. The Czlometer is an apparatus consisting of a stand carrying a globe mounted somewhat like a sea compass, and illustrates celestial longitude and latitude, the phenomena of the seasons, the correspondence of the calendar with the solar year, the precession of the equi- noxes, the times of sunrise at any place on any day, the position of the principal stars during the night, and the general relations between the conceptions necessary for nautical astronomy. Me- dals were awarded for both instruments at the Vienna Exhibition. Mr. S. Roberts (treasurer) read a short note ‘On the ex- pression of the 2°: of a Cartesian by elliptic functions.” The author showed that the hyper-elliptic part of the integral which gives the value of an arc of a Cartesian, is reducible to the form which Jacobi has shown to depend on elliptic functions. Zoological Society, Nov. 19.—Dr. A. Giinther, F.R.S., vice-president, in the chair. Mr, Sclater exhibited and pointed out the characters of two new species of birds obtained by Mr. Salmon during his expedition to the State of Antioquia, Colum- bia. These were named Chlorochrysa nitidissima and Grallaria ruficeps.—A letter was read from Mr. R. Swinhoe, H.B.M, Consul at Chefoo, containing a note on the White Stork of China, and stating that he had recently obtained a live Pitta in China, which appeared to be Pitta nympha of the Fauna Japo- nica.—Mr. A. H. Garrod exhibited and pointed out certain peculiarities in the czecum of a Crab-eating Fox (Cazzs cancri- vorus).—Mr, Sclater exhibited and made remarks on a pair of horns of the new Bubaline Antelope from the Bogos country, lately named Alcelaphus tora by Dr. Gray.—A paper was sent by Dr. Edward L. Moss, Surgeon in charge R.N. Hospital at Esquimalt, on a singular Virgularian Actinozoon taken at Bur- rard’s Inlet, close to the northern mouth of the Fraser River.— A communication was read from Dr. O, Finsch, containing the description of a most remarkable and interesting new Passerine Bird which he had received from Mr. T. Klinesmith of Levuka, Ovalou, Feejee Islands. This little bird, which was not only new as a species, but also the type of a new genus, he proposed to call Lamprolia Victorig.—A communication was read from Mr. W. S. Atkinson, of Darjeeling, containing the descriptions of two new species of Butterflies from the Andaman Islands, which were named respectively Papilio mayo and Euplaa anda- manensis.—Dr. Cobbold communicated the first of a series of papers entitled ‘‘ Notes on the Entozoa ;” being observations -based on the examination of rare or otherwise valuable speci- mens contributed at intervals by Messrs. Charles Darwin, Robert Swinhoe, Charles W. Devis, the late Dr. W. C. Pechey, Dr. Murie, and others.—Mr. Edwin Ward exhibited and gave the description of a new Bird of Paradise, of the genus ZAimachus, which he proposed to call £. e/ioti—A communication was read from Surgeon-Major Francis Day, containing remarks on Indian Fishes, mostly copied from the original manuscripts of the late Dr. Hamilton Buchanan.—Mr. J. W. Clark read a memoir on the Eared Seals of the Auckland Islands, one of which he recognised as O¢aria hookeri, thus fixing the locality of this species. Linnean Society, Noy. 20.—Mr. G. Bentham, president, in the chair.—Prof. Dyer exhibited a specimen of the fruit of Zufz @gypliaca, a gigantic species of gourd, grown. in this country.— An account of the flora of Monte Argentaro, on the borders of Tuscany, by Mr, Henry Groyes, of Florence, was read.—On the Algze of Mauritius, by Dr. Dickie. The total number of species recorded is 155. These include 17 well-known European species, most of which are cosmopolitan ; 23 South African species ; 12 Australian ; 15 East Indian ; 14 species found in the Red Sea ; 12 being peculiar to the island.—On a peculiar embryo of Del- phinium, by the Rev. C. A. Johns. The interesting point in the structure was the non-separation of the two cotyledons, the plumule forcing itself through a chink in the undivided cotyledon. Dr. Masters stated that this peculiarity is well known to occur occasionally in Ranunculacez, as weil as in some other plants.— On the buds of Malaxis, by Dr. Dickie. This is supplementary to the paper already published in the ‘‘ Journal” of the Society. —On the Algze of St. Thomas and Bermuda, by Mr. H. N. Moseley. These were the results of the explorations on board the Challenger, one marine flowering plant being also found in flower for the first time. Chemical Society, Nov. 20.—Dr. Odling, F.R.S., presi- dent, in the chair.—A paper on ‘‘the coefficient of expansion of carbon disulphide,” by J. B. Hannay, was read by the secretary. —Dr. Russell then communicated his researches on the action of hydrogen on silver nitrate, giving an account of the precipitation of metallic silver in the crystalline state by means of hydrogen. —There were also a note on the action of zinc chloride on co- deine, by Dr. C. R. A. Wright ; on the chemical properties of ammoniated ammonia nitrate, by E. Divers, M.D. ; and on the analysis of a meteoric stone and the detection of vanadium in it, by R. Apjohn. PaRIS Academy of Sciences, Nov. 17.—M. de Quatrefages, president, in the chair—The following papers were read: —An answer to M. Tarry’s remarks on the theory of the sun’s spots, by M. Faye. M. Tarry’s objection to M. Faye’s theory was that, instead of a down-rush, he ought to have em- ployed an up-rush as the cause of the spots, as a terrestrial cy- clone rushes up, and not down. M. Faye answered the objec- tions in detail.—Second memoir on the way in which water inter- venes in chemical reactions, and on the connection between electro-motive force and affinity, by M. Becquerel.—Studies on beer ; a new method of brewing it and rendering it unchange- able, by M. L. Pasteur. The author considers the spoiling and souring of beer to be due to germs, and suggests methods for preventing their access or destroying them during the processes of brewing.—An answer to M. Oudemans’ observations on the influence of refraction, &c., during the transit of Venus, by M. E. Dubois.—On the use of the prism for the verification of the law of double refraction, by Prof. G. G, Stokes, —On certain me- tallic spectra (lead, chloride of gold, thallium, and lithium) by M. Lecocq de Boisbaudran. The author found that the com- bination of a metal was attended with the loss of some of the lines it exhibited when in the free state.—On the maximum density of water, by M. Piarron de Mondesir.—On the cooling effects of the joint actions of capillarity and evaporation, by M. C. Decharme.—On the quantity of ammonia contained in atmospheric air at different altitudes, by M. Truchot. The author stated that the ammonia increases as the cloud region is approached, and gave tables of determinations in support of his views—Remarks on the paper of Pelouze and Audouin on the condensation of liquifiable matters held in suspension by gases, by M. D. Colladon.—Remarks on the paper of M. Derbés on the Pemphigus of Pistacia terebinthus compared with the Piylloxera qguerciis, by M. Balbiani.—On the swellings produced on vine rootlets by the Phyl/oxera, by M. Max. Cornu.—On triple planes tangent to a surface, by Mr. W. Spottiswoode.—On the direction of the propagation of electricity, by M. Meyreneuf.—An answer to M. Mercadier’s last note on the study of the vibratory movements of an elastic wire, by M. H. Valerius.—Observations on the molecular structure of meteoric iron and on solid ferrous chloride in meteo- rites, by Mr. J. Laurence Smith.—On the tertiary supra- nummulitic formations of the department of Hérault, by M. Rouville.—The death of M. Cl. Burdin, correspondent of the mechanical section, was announced. CONTENTS PAGE ees Up.anps oF ScorLanp, II. By Prof. R. HARKNESS, 3 eR OS St aS io OM ode bs Py peny f Leryxpoip’s ExcuRSION TO THE ARGENTINE PAMPAS. . . . ~. « + 59 AVELRAL THY LLOUSE: ae And agais, where the retaining barrier is supposed to be con- stituted by a marine terminal moraine, 7.c. by a moraine depo- sited under the sea, the observations I have made seem not to apply. My questions apply to ordinary terrestrial terminal moraines. They are so simple and go so to the root of the whole notion that such moraines can form lakes that I presume they have been answered long ago by geologists. Can any of your readers tell me where such answers are given or what they ought to be? Bryn Gwyn, Penmaenmawr, Oct. 13 Epw. Fry The Elevation of Mountains and the Internal Condi- tion of the Earth I HAVE just read in NATURE, vol. ix. 62, Captain Tiutton’s letter to the Rey. Osmond Fisher on the “ Elevation of Mountains and Volcanic Theories.” I was also indebted some time since to the courtesy of Captain Hutton for a copy of his lecture on the Formation of Mountains, delivered at Wellington, New Zealand, November, 1872. Without entering at present into a discussion upon the particular theory which finds favour with him, I may be permitted to call attention to the fact that Sir William Thomson’s views as to the rigidity of the earth have been distinctly called in question in a former number of this journal, which has probably not reached Captain Hutton. I reier to my communication entitled ‘‘The Rigidity of the Earth,” printed in Narurg, vol. vii. p. 288. Captain Hutton expresses his belief that the theory of internal rigidity has pro- bably a weak point somewhere. I venture to think that its weak points are so many as to make it a theory too brittle to form a support to any geological superstructure. Dublin, November 28. H. HENNESsY METEOROLOGIC SECTIONS OF THE ATMOSPHERE je primary object of meteorology is to record the pressure, the temperature, the moisture, the elec- tricity, and the movements of the atmosphere. It is desirable, however, that observations on these subjects should be combined with the elements of time and distance. At the general meeting of the Scottish Meteo- rological Society on June 26, 1867, I proposed the method, since generally adopted, of reducing the intensity of storms to a numerical value by the calculation of baro- metric-gradients, or in other words by dividing the diffe- rence of reading of any two barometers by the distances between the stations where such barometers are placed, thus introducing a nomenclature of universal application, by which the movements of any aérial current, and par- ticularly the wind force of storms, may in every part of the world be reduced to one standard of comparison ; and the calculation of thermometric, hygrometric, and electric gradients was subsequently proposed. Since then 1 suggested to the same society the extension of this system by the establishment of a series of barometers placed at short distances from each other in one or more than one direction in azimuth, so as to give horizontal atmo- spheric sections for pressure. By means of such lines of section the maximum gradient during storms might, from the nearness of the stations to each other, be ascertained, and thus the phenomena of local storms and other local atmospheric disturbances investigated with some hope of success ; and since then a horizontal section extending landwards from the sea-shore has been proposed for tem- perature and moisture, chiefly with the view of determining the extension inland of the influence of the sea on climate. It would be important were the system of meteoro- logical sections «xtended to the vertical as well as the horizontal plane. If a string of stations were placed at short horizontal distances from each other and extending from the bottom to the top of a high hill or mountain, the section thus obtained would show the relative distribu- tion at different times, of pressure, temperature, humidity, &c., in the vertical plane. In Scotland, the existing station of Drumlanrig is 191 feet, and that at Wanlock- head 1,334 feet above the sea, so that the difference in elevation is 1,143 feet. The horizontal distance between them is 9 miles, and in all probability the necessary number of intermediate stations could be established. In Hong Kong the town of Victoria is 1,666 feet below that of Blockhouse Victoria Peak, while in Switzerland 504 NATURE | Dec. 11, 1873 and other mountainous districts many other suitable places might no doubt be found. Would it not be possible to secure funds for establish- ing at least one such atmospheric section on the slope of some steep hill or mountain in connection with a station or two on an adjoining level district of country ? THOMAS STEVENSCN ON THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ACTION OF OZCNE rae a meeting of the Royal Society of Edinburgh on the Ist inst., a communication was read from Mr. Dewar and Dr. M‘Kendrick on the physiological action of ozone. The authors, in the first place, pointed out that little was known regarding the action of this sub- stance, except its peculiar smell and the irritating effect it had on the mucous membrane of the respiratory tract. Schénbein had shown that a mouse died in five minutes in an atmosphere highly charged with ozone ; and it was this distinguished investigator who asserted that there was a relation between the quantity of ozone in the air and the prevalence of epidemic diseases. The action of ozone was therefore a subject to be elucidated ; and having occasion to employ ozone in another experi- mental inquiry, the authors resolved to investigate the matter. The ozone was made by passing a current of dry air or oxygen from a gasometer through a narrow glass tube, bent for convenience like the letter U, about 3{t. in length, and containing a platinum wire 2 ft. in length, which had been inserted into the interior of the tube, and one end of which communicated with the out- side through the wall of the tube. ternal surface of this U-shaped tube, a spiral of copper wire was coiled, and the induction current from a coil giving half-inch sparks was passed between the external copper to the internal platinum wire, so as to have the platinum wire as the negative pole in the interior of the tube. After the stream of gas was ozonised by the transmission of the induction current, it was washed by passing through a bulb-tube containing caustic potash, when air was employed, or water when pure oxygen was used, in order to eliminate any traces of nitrous and nitric acids that might have been formed. By means of the gasometer, the volume of gas passing through the tube could be ascertained. The action of ozone was determined (1) on the living animal enclosed in an atmosphere of ozonised air or of ozonised oxygen ; and (2) on many of the individual living tissues of the body. Numerous experiments were made on frogs, birds, mice, white rats, rabbits, and on the authors themselves. Two experiments may be given here as illustrating the action of ozone on (1) a cold, and on (2) a warm-blooded animal. 1. Ona Frog.—A large, healthy male frog was intro- duced into the air chamber, through which a current of air was passing sufficient to fill a litre jar in three minutes. At the end of two minutes, the respirations were ninety- six per minute. The induction machine was then set to work so as to ozonise the air. In half a minute, the eye- balls were retracted, so as to appear deeply sunk in the orbits, and the eyelids were closed ; the respirations were now eight per minute. At the end of six minutes, the animal was motionless, and there were no respiratory movements, Pure air was then introduced. In half a minute, there was a slight respiratory movement, and in eight minutes there were eighty-five respirations per minute, At the end of other twelve minutes, ozone was again turned on, with the same result. A frog will sur- vive in a dormant condition in an atmosphere of ozonised air for several hours. In one case, the animal died. The heart was found still pulsating, It was full of dark blood. The lungs were slightly congested. The blood was venous throughout the whole body. In ozonised oxygen the effects were, on the whole, the same as in ozonised Round the whole ex- | air, with this difference, that in ozonised oxygen the respiratory movements were not affected so quickly, and were never completely arrested. 2. On a White Mouse.—A full grown and apparently healthy white mouse was introduced into a vessel through which a stream of air was passing at the rate of eight cubic inches per minute. Five minutes thereafter, the animal was evidently at ease, and the respirations were over 100 per minute. The air was then ozonised. One minute after, the respirations were slower, but the number could not be ascertained owing to the animal moving uneasily about. In four minutes from the time of the introduction of the ozone, the respirations were thirty-two ina minute. The mouse now rested quietly, occasionally yawned, and, when touched by a wire, moved,—but always so as to remove its nose from the stream of ozonised air. At the end of fifteen minutes, the animal had slight convulsive attacks, which increased in severity until it died—nineteen minutes after the introduction of the ozone. The post-mortem appearances were great venous congestion in all parts of the body. The heart pulsated for several minutes after systemic death. In ozonised oxygen, death was delayed for a much longer period. Instead of dying at the end of fifteen or twenty minutes, as happened to mice in ozonised air, they lived for forty or sixty minutes. It is noteworthy that even after death in ozonised oxygen, the blood was found to be in a venous condition. On breathing an atmosphere of ozonised air themselves, the authors experienced the following effects :—a suffo- cating feeling in the chest ; a tendency to breathe slowly ; irritation of the fauces and glottis ; a tingling of the skin of the face and conjunctive. The pulse became feebler. The inhalation was continued for eight minutes, when they were obliged to desist; and the experiment was followed by violent irritating cough and sneezing, and for five or six hours thereafter by a sensation of rawness in the throat and air-passages. The general result of the inquiry may be briefly stated as follows :— 1. The inhalation of an atmosphere highly charged with ozone diminishes the number of respirations per minute. 2. The cardiac pulsations are reduced in strength and this organ is found beating feebly after systemic death. 3. The blood is found after death to be in a venous condition, both in those cases of death in an atmosphere of ozonised air and of ozonised oxygen. 4. The inhalation of an ozonised atmosphere is followed by a lowering of the temperature of the body to the extent of at least 3° to 5° C. 5. The inhalation of ozone does not exercise any appre- ciable action on the capillary circulation, as seen in the web of the frog’s foot under the microscope (200 dia- meters). 6. In the bodies of frogs killed in an ozonised atmo- sphere, the reflex activity of the spinal cord is not appre- ciably affected. 7. By means of a myographion, the work done (in gramme-millimetres) by the gastronemius muscles of frogs subject to the action of ozone was noted. The muscles were stimulated by a single opening or closing induction shock produced by Du-Bois-Reymond’s appa- ratus and a Daniell’s cell. The result was that the con- tractility and work-power of the muscle were found to be unaffected. : 8. Ozone has an action on the coloured and colourless corpuscles of human blood and of frog’s blood resembling that produced by.a weak acid; and in the case of the coloured corpuscles of the frog like that of a stream of carbonic acid. The corpuscles of animals killed in an’ ozonised atmosphere are normal in appearance. g. Ciliary action is not affected by a stream of ozonised air or oxygen, provided there is a considerable amount of Dee. 11, 1873] NATURE 105 fluid covering the cilia ; butif the layer of fluid be very thin, the cilia are readily destroyed. In conclusion, the authors stated that it would be pre- mature, at this stage of the inquiry (which opened up many points of interest in the physiology of respiration), to generalise between physiological action and the phy- sical and chemical properties of ozone; but they pointed out the fact that the density of ozone (O, = 24) is slightly greater than than that of carbonic acid (CO, = 22) ; and that although the chemical activity of the substance is much increased, yet, when inhaled into the lungs, it must retard greatly the rate of diffusion of carbonic acid from the blood, which accounts (from the accumulation of CO,) for the venous character of that fluid after death. From this point of view, destruction of life by ozone (with the exception of its irritant action) resembles that caused by an atmosphere surcharged with carbonic acid. This has been found to be the case more especially as regards the diminished number of respirations per minute, and the appearance of the blood after death. If, however, the analogy were perfect, the inhalation of an atmosphere of ozonised oxygen would not have produced death, because it is now well known, as shown by Regnault and Reiset,* that animals can live in an atmosphere containing a large per-centage of carbonic acid, provided there is an excess of oxygen present. ‘The amount of oxygen in these experiments converted into ozone cer- tainly never exceeded ten per cent. But the authors have observed that an animal lives only a somewhat longer time in ozonised oxygen than in ozonised air; and they are thus induced to regard ozone as having some specific action on the blood that their future experiments may elucidate. They are now prosecuting a series of researches (a) on the action of smaller percentages of ozone ; (4) on the action of ozone on noxious gases and effluvia ; and (c) on any therapeutical or hygienic influences it may have on the origin and treatment of zymotic diseases. THE ATMOSPHERIC TELEGRAPH t Il. VERY common question with visitors who witness the departure of a train is,—If the boxes stick on the road how do you manage to disengage them? To answer this question we shall notice in detail the various au aN Fic. 3.—Diagram of the Chronograph. 1. Line of the electric ¢vembleur. L t 3. Line of the membrane. 2. Line of the seconds’ pendulum. means employed in transmission, and thus we shall clas- sify the derangements. Let us commence with the tubes. These may cause an obstruction by a defect of the interior polish, by pro- jecting joints, or by the escape of air through these joints. In the Paris system, however, precautions have been * © Air and Rain,” Dr. Angus Smith, p. 182. (London, 1872.) + Continued from p. 66. taken against these three sorts of danger. The degree of polish is sufficiently perfect, being obtained without ham- mering, by pushing the tube along a mandril before it becomes completely cooled. The joints represented in Fig. 2 (p. 66), give an almost mathematical continuity to the interior surface, and they are rendered air-tight by means of India-rubber fittings. In this direction, then, there is little risk of damage and the consequent stoppage of the trains. In fact, since 1866 there has not been a single accident caused by any defect in the tubes, and the experiment is made upon a length of twenty kilometres of pipes so constructed that joints occur every five metres. The derangements arising from the machinery for com- pressing the air are not of a special character, and need not be particularised here. There remain the boxes. Numerous types were tried before the system of the two cases in tin and leather, which can be hermetically closed and are easily opened; from its simplicity this method has been adopted. Nevertheless it does sometimes happen that the boxes open during the journey ; how this is caused is not easy to explain in each particular case. Sometimes the collarette of the piston is in a bad condition, and the air divides the train; the cases are separated, and the despatches are scattered in the tube. At other times wrinkles are formed in the envelope of leather, the effect of which is to wedge the train so firmly that it is impossible to make it move. Another form of derangement is when the piston breaks and the pieces are lodged between the boxes and the tube. It is scarcely possible to exhaust the series of accidents of this nature ; the mean number of derangements in the working of the system during the year is eight, and it is rare to find the same cause occurring twice. When accidents do occur, it Is necessary to make all haste to relieve the train. Often alternate manceuvres with compressed and rari- fied air removes the obstruction ; at Berlin, for the same purpose, IM. Siemens employs water with which he forcibly inundates the tube. The great thing is to extricate the train without having to take the line to pieces. When such means fail it is necessary to have recourse to the operation of excayation ; and the necessity will be evi- dent of a preliminary and sufficiently exact determination of the place of derangement. The first means is indicated by the method on which the system is worked, There is at hand a reservoir of compressed air of a certain pres- sure ; if this air is partly distributed in the section of the tube comprised between the reseryoir and the obstacle, the new pressure is in a known ratio to the original pres- sure. In a word, Mariotte’s law, which regulates the ratios of the pressures and volumes ef the same mass of gas in two different circumstances, furnishes the means of finding exe of the elements, volume, when we know the three others, two pressures and one volume. M. Siemens prefers to measure the quantity of water which it is necessary to distribute in order to flood the line as far as the obstacle ; the accuracy ought to be very great, but it must be acknowledged that the process, in spite of its apparent simplicity, has a somewhat primitive aspect. It is not difficult to understand how this great mass of water is introduced, but it is very difficult to con- ceive that it can easily remove the obstacle. We may speak, finally, of an indirect means which is illustrated in Fig. 4. The reader knows that when a concussion is produced at the end of a tube filled with air, this concussion is propagated in the air of the tube ata speed of 330 metres per second. When the concussion encounters an obstacle, it is reflected and returns to the point of its origin at the same rate of 330 metres per second. If then the time is noted which elapses between the departure and the return, the period thus obtaine dcor responds to the passage of the concussion along a distance equal to double the distance of the obstacle ; from an ob- servation of the time, the distance can be easily calculate 106 For example :—The interval of time between the de- parture and return of the wave produced by the concussion is of asecond; the double journey is represented by 330m. F 5 i) = 110m., and the distance of the obstacle is —— = 55 metres. The times of the departure and of the return of the wave are graphically registered on a chronograph, by the interruption of an electric circuit obtained by the motion of a-membrane of caoutchouc placed at the extremity of the tube. It is known that an electric current magnetises a horse- shoe magnet. The magnetisation of the magnet com- municates to a palette placed above the poles, an attrac- tion which ceases as soon as the current is broken. Without entering into further explanation of this well- known arrangement, which is the basis of nearly all | telegraphic apparatus, it will be granted that with conveniently placed conductors it will be possible NATURE | Dec. 11, 1873 to make the armature of the magnet move like the elastic membrane; in other words, if the membrane is raised 2, 3, 4 times ina second, the armature will be connected 2, 3, 4 times, and the durations as well as the intervals of the contacts will be identical in the two apparatus. Let us return to the chronograph. The time is marked by it, and is recorded by means of electro- magnets. The oscillations of a seconds pendulum are repeated electrically and registered on a line, No, 2 in Fig. 4, which is described by a point fixed to the electro-magnet, upon a smoke-blackened cylinder, to which is given a movement of continuous rotation. The electro-magnet whose point describes line No. 2, is moveable on a carriage that advances along the cylinder in the same time as the latter takes to turn. The carriage bears two other electro-mag- nets: one corresponds to a sub-divisor of the time which gives fractions less than a second. It is this which MT TI T MTT i traces line No. I, representing by its tracings sub-divi- sions equal to 3rd of a second ; this division into frac- tions corresponds to the oscillations of the palette of an electric ¢vembleur, a contrivance in which the interrup- tions and re-establishment of the current take place at the rate of 33 per second in the model here represented. The third electro-magnet, in connection with the mem- brane of caoutchouc, corresponds to the movement of the wave in the tube; it furnishes line No. 3 in the figure. It may be remarked that the same wave undergoes many successive reflexions. It will be easily seen from the diagram how the result sought can be obtained from the experiment. Suppose the obstacle to be placed at 62 metres ; the interval be- tween two successive marks of the membrane is about 12 sub-divisions. A comparison of lines 1 and 2 shows that there are 33 sub-divisions in eve second ; the indica- tions of line 3 then are equal to }# of a second. The i | Fic. 4.—Chronograph for determining the point of stoppage of a train. double distance represents 42 X 330m, and the simple length given by the experiment is thus about } x 12 x 330 = 60 metres, the result sought to within 2 metres. — Fig. 4 shows the method adopted for producing the wave. On the left T is the tube in which a small pistol V is placed to produce the detonation which gives rise to the wave. On the table in the centre of the figure is the chronograph ; M is the clock-work which turns the regis- tering cylinder, on the surface of which are traced the lines I, 2, 3; S is the carriage bearing the three electro- magnets, each of which traces its line. The electro- magnet on the right, line I, is the ¢ve//ewr, in connection with the pile PP”. The middle electro-magnet, line 2, is connected with the seconds pendulum R._ Finally, the electro-magnet on the left, line 3, communicates electri- cally with the caoutchouc membrane that surmounts the tube T, and exactly fits the opening, on which it is- stretched like a drum-skin, Dec. 11, 1873} NATURE 107 THE COMMON FROG* VI. The Skeleton of the Frog I? may cause surprise to speak of the skin of the com- _ mon Frog as part of its skeleton, consisting as the skin does of soft membranous structures only. ic) Fic. 26.—Dactylethra capensis. The term “skeleton,” however, should properly include all the membranous and gristly, as well as the bony struc- cee i) Fic. 27—Dorsal surface of the Carapace of a Fresh-water Tortoise (Emys) 1-8, expanded neutral spines ; 7"—75, expanded ribs ; #, first median (or nuchal) plate ; Ay, last median (or pygal) plate ; », marginal scutes ‘The dark lines indicate the limits of the plates of the horny epidermal tortoise-shell; the thin sutures indicate the lines at the junction of the | bony scutes. tures.* Moreover, more or less of the skin may attain to so solid a condition as fully to justify its comprehension cay CS te kp Fic. 28.—Diagram of a vertical section of both Carapace and Plastron of a Tortoise, made transversely to the long axis of the skeleton c, vertebral centrum; xs, neural spine which expands above into a median dorsal scute; ”, rib which forms one mass with a lateral scute and terminates at a marginal plate ; c, inter-clavicular scute; Zy, hyo-sternal scute. under the name “skeleton,” even in the popular signifi- cation of that term. * Continued from p. 69. ° + See ‘‘ Lessons in Elementary Anatomy,” Lesson II., p. 22, qi The skin of Vertebrate animals consists of two layers : an outer layer (the epidermis or ec¢eron), and an inner layer (the dermis or exdevon). The epidermis, and any projections or processes developed from it when they take on a dense or hardened structure, become horny. Of such horny nature are hairs, feathers, nails, and scales, they are more or less dense efzdermal appendages. The Fic. 29.—A Mud-tortoise (7yio7xyx), showing the dorsal} Iates. dermis when hardened becomes dovy, and of such nature are the bony skin-plates or “scutes,” and teeth. They are dermal appendages. Now both layers of the skin of tha common Frog are entirely soft and utterly destitute of any Fic. 31. Fic. 31.—Backbone of Fic. 30. Fic. 30.—Backbone of the Frog (dorsal aspect). the Frog (ventral aspect). of these appendages. Allied forms, however, present us with examples of some interesting epidermal conditions - Thus in old male Toads, in Dactylethra and in one of the Japanese efts, the epidermis of some of the finger-tips becomes hardened and horny, in other words we begin to meet with incipient “nails.” “Incipient” because, in ascending from the lowest vertebrates, “nails” are first 108 NATURE [ Dee. 11, 1873 met with in the Frog’s class, and these only very rarely and in an imperfectly developed condition. As has been mentioned, in two kinds of Frog (Cerato- phrys and Ephippifer) the skin of the back is furnished with bony plates. These are found in the deeper layer or dermis, and are therefore “ scutes.” The remarkable circumstance, however, is that we have here a lower stage (as it were an zuczpient condition) of that more developed dermal skeleton which exists in tortoises and turtles. In most of these reptiles both the back and the belly are protected by bony plates which adjoin one another, and together form a solid box in which the body is enclosed. Moreover the bony plates of tor- toises and turtles are invested by large horny epidermal scales (“tortoise-shell”), which scales do not agree in either size or number with the bony plates on which they are superimposed. Again, the middle series of bony plates of the back are continuous with the subjacent joints of the backbones, and the lateral series of dorsal plates are continuous with the ribs beneath them. There are certain Chelonians, however—“ mud-tortoises” —(of the genus Zyzonyx), which have the dorsal plates Fic. 33 Fic. 32. Fic. 32.—The Axis Vertebra. c, centrum; s, neural spine ; d, tubercular process ; #, capitular process; a, anterior articular surface for atlas ; 2’, postzygapophysis; 0, odontoid process; 4y, median vertical ridge beneath centrum. Fic. 33—The Atlas Vertebra. s, rudiment of neural spine; d@, tubercular process ; #, capitular process ; a, articular surface for skull ; Zy, plate of bone holding the place of a cranium, and articu- lating with the odontoid process of the axis vertebra. much less developed and not connected with the ventral plates save by means of soft structures. Here then we have in reptiles an interesting approxi- mation to the condition we have seen to exist in those exceptional Anourans, Cervatophrysand Ephippifer. More- over this resemblance is still further increased by the fact that in Zrzonyx the bony plates are not covered with any tortoise-shell, but are merely invested by soft skin as in the genera of dorsally-shielded Batrachians. Have we then here a true sign of genetic affinity? Are these tortoises to be deemed the more specially modified descendants of shielded frogs or of some as yet unknown slightly-shielded animals which were the common ances= tors both of frogs and tortoises ? Certainly tortoises cannot be the direct descendants of frogs, they agree with all reptiles in characters which are both too numerous and too important to allow such an opinion to be entertained for a moment. The other opinion is hardly less untenable ; for if all the multitudinous species of frogs (together with a number of reptilian forms more closely allied to the tortoise than any frogs are) descended from slightly shielded animals, how comes it that all frogs and toads, save one or two species in no other way peculiar, have every one of them lost every trace of such shielded struc- ture which nevertheless cannot easily be conceived to have been in any way fvejudicial to their existence and survival ? On the other hand, it cannot but strike us with surprise that structures so similar—extending even to the con- tinuity of the dorsal plates with the subjacent joints of the backbone—should have arisen twice in nature spon- taneously. Here we seem to have a remarkable example of the independent origin of closely similar structures ; and if so, what caution is not necessary before concluding that avy given similarity of structure are undoubted marks of genetic affinity ! The skin of the frog is also interesting from a physio- logical point of view. Our own skin is by no means popularly credited with the great importance really due toit. “Only the skin!” is an exclamation not unfre- quently heard, and wonder is very often felt when death supervenes after a burn which has injured but a com- paratively small surface of the body. Yet our skin is Fic. 34.—Lateral, Dorsal, and Ventral view of first Vertebra of A saphiuma. really one of our most important organs, and is able to supplement, and toa very slight extent even to replace, the respective actions of the kidneys, the liver, and the lungs. * In the frog we have this cutaneous activity developed in a much higher degree. Not only does its Jerspiratory action take place to such an extreme degree that a frog tied where it cannot escape the rays of a summers sun speedily dies—nay, more, is soon perfectly dried up— but its vespiratory action is both constant and important. This has been experimentally demonstrated by the de- tection of the carbonic acid given out in water by a frog over the head of which a bladder had been so tightly tied as to prevent the possibility of the escape of any exhal- ation from the lungs. The fact of cutaneous respiration has also been proved by the experiment of confining frogs in cages under water for more than two months anda half, and by the cutting out of the lungs, the creature continuing to live without them for forty days. Indeed it is now certain that the skin is so important an agent in the frog’s breathing that the lungs do not suffice for the maintenance of life without its aid. it is no less true that in Batrachians which breathe by means of permanent gills—as, e.g. the Axolotl—such gills are not necessary to life, as the late M. Aug. Duméril and Dr. Giinther have established by cutting them away without inducing any apparent injurious effects. In the whole class of Batrachians skin respiration seems, then, to be of very great importance. Fic. 35. Fic. 36. Fic. 35.—Coccyx of Frog, lateral view, a black line indicates the course of the sciatic nerve. Fic. 36.— Anterior aspect of Coccyx, showing the double articular concavities placed side by side beneath the neural arch. The zxéernal skeleton (or the skeleton commonly so called) of the frog presents some points of considerable interest, especially as exhibiting its intermediate position between fishes on the one hand, and hicher vertebrates on the other. First, as regards the dackdone, it may be remembered that it is made up of distinct bony joints (or vertebre), in which it agrees with all animals above fishes and with bony fishes ; its hinder termination, however, is essentially fish-like. It is fish-like, because the terminal piece, as it is called, or “coccyx” (unlike the coccyx in man or in birds) is not formed of rudimentary vertebra which subsequently blend and anchylose together, but is formed by the ossification continuously of the membrane investing (or sheazh of ) the hindermost part of that primi- tive continuous rod, or notochord, which, as has been said, * See ‘Elementary Physiology,” Lesson V., § 19. + From Narog, back, and Xopdn, chord. | Dee. 11, 1873] NATURE 109 precedes, in all vertebrate animals, the development of the backbone, making its appearance beneath the primitive groove. The vertebrze are shaped like rings, and enclose within _their circuit the spinal marrow upon which, as it were, these rings are strung. From the side of each ring (except at the two ends of the backbone) there juts out a bony prominence called a “transverse process,” and to a certain number of these a bony “rib” is in most verte- brate animals attached (though there are none in the frog), often extending round to join the breast-bone in front, and being capable of more or less motion, so as (by their simultaneous movement) to be able to enlarge or to contract the cavity of the chest, which they thus enclose and protect. That part of each vertebra which is placed next the body cavity is generally the thickest part, and is called the “body,” or “centrum.” The series of bodies (or centra) occupy the position which was at first filled by the primitive notochord, the rest of the vertebral rings having been formed in the sides and roof of the canal formed by the upgrowth and union of the two sides of the primi- tive groove of the embryo. The frog order is distinguished amongst vetebrates as that which has the absolutely smallest number of joints in the backbone. In the frog there are but nine in the front of the coccyx. In the Pipa toad there are but seven, the eighth vertebra (to the transverse processes of which the haunch bones are attached) having become solidly joined in one bone with the coccyx. In all higher vertebrates, ze. in all beasts, birds, and reptiles, the head is supported on an especially ring-like vertebra which—because it so supports—is called the atlas, and this (in almost all) can turn upon a peculiar vertebra termed (from this circumstance) the aazs, and provided with a toothlike (edonzoid)* process, round which, as round a pivot, the “atlas” works, Nothing of the kind exists in any fish. In the frog (and in all its class) we find but a single vertebra representing these two, but in some allied forms, eg. in Amphiuma, this vertebra develops a median pro- cess, reminding us of the odontoid process of the axis. The frog, as has been said, has no ribs, in spite of the long “ transverse processes” which project out on each side of the backbone. Ribs are not necessary to it, for it could apply them to none of the purposes to which ribs are ever applied. In all beasts ribs aid importantly in respiration, serving by their motions alternately to inflate or empty the lungs by enlarging or contracting the cavity of the chest in the way before mentioned. The frog, however, breathes ex- clusively, as regards the lungs, by swallowing air by a mechanism which will be described shortly. Jn serpents the ribs are the organs of locomotion, as also in the Flying Dragon before referred to ; but in frogs locomotion is effected exclusively by the limbs. In the very aberrant species, Pzpa and Dacty/ethra there are on each side of the anterior parts of the body two enormously long transverse processes, each process bearing at its ex- tremity a short flattened, straight osseous or cartilaginous rib. These little ribs can, however, take no part in such functions as those just referred to, Ribs, moreover, are found in the other existing orders of the frog’s class, z.2. both in the Uredela and Ofphio- morpha. Innone, however, do they join a breast-bone, or sternum, another character in which Batrachians agree with fishes, though they differ from fishes in that they have a sternum at all. In ascending from fishes through the vertebrate sub-kingdom, a sternum first appears in the class Bratrachia. In a certain North African Salamander named Plew- vodeles the ribs are not only elongated, but their apices, * Brom ddorg, a tooth, and eidog, form, if they do not actually perforate the skin, are so prominent as to seem to do so when the finger is drawn from behind forwards along the side of the animal’s body. The several joints of the backbone are connected to- gether by surfaces which are not the same on both the anterior and posterior sides of the centrum, or body, of the same vertebra. Each of the first seven vertebra is furnished with a round prominence, or head, on the hinder side of its centrum, and each of the p:ecoccygeal vertebree, except the first and last, has the anterior surface of its centrum excavated as a cup for the reception of the ball of the hinder surface of the vertebra next in front. The first vertebra has in front two concavities, side by side, to articulate with the skull. The eighth vertebra has a concavity at each end of its “ body.” The ninth vertebra has a body provided with a single convexity in front and a double convexity behind, to articulate with the con- cavities placed side by side on the front end of the coccyx. These arrangements are not constant in the frog’s order, still less in its class. In Bombinater and Pipa the vertebrae are concave behind each centrum, instead of in front: and the same is the case in Sa/amandra. In many tailed Batrachians the vertebrae are biconcave, as e.g. in Spelerpes, Amphiuima, Proteus and Siren. The biconcave shape is an approximation towards the condition which is almost universal in bony fishes, though not quite universal, since the bony pike (Zefzdosteus) has a ball at one end of each vertebra and a cup at the other. Moreover, even in some reptiles (¢.g. the lizards called Geckoes) the vertebrze are biconcave, and the same was the case with the majority of those species of crocodiles the remains of which are found in strata older than the chalk, and even in existing crocodiles the first vertebra of the tail is biconcave. Vertebrz with a cavity in front of the centrum and a ball behind it are found in the crocodiles now living as well as in the frog, while vertebrae with a ball in front and a concavity behind are found even amongst beasts, as in the joints of the neck of Ruminants, e.g. the sheep. Thus though the vertebrae of the frog’s class exhibit no very decided signs of affinity, they show more resemblance to those of fishes than to those of any other non-batrachian class, The transverse processes of the ninth or last vertebra in front of the coccyx, articulate with the haunch bones, but are not very remarkable in shape. In some frogs and toads the transverse processes of this vertebra become enormously expanded, and the expanded or non-expanded condition of this part is a character made use of in zoological classification. The coccyx is made up mainly, as has been said, of a continuous ossification of the sheath of the notochord, and never consists of distinct vertebra. Nevertheless, the small bony arches which are at first distinct coalesce with it. These arches are called “ neural” because they arch over the hinder part of the spinal marrow. The great nerve of the leg (the sciatic nerve) proceeds outwards on each side through a foramen situated at the anterior end of the coccyx from the spinal marrow—the spinal marrow being that structure which gives origin to the great mass of the nerves pervading the entire frame. St. GEORGE MIVART (To be continued.) [The author sincerely regrets, that by an inadvertence for which he is exclusively answerable, two cuts introduced into the second of these articles, namely, the figures representing Rina esculenta and Bufo vulgaris, were copied, without sanction, from two illustrations in Professor Bell’s ‘‘ History of British Reptiles,” published by Mr. Van Voorst, to whom, therefore, this apology is due. | Iio EARTH-SCULPTURE * DBI: I DO not consider it necessary to defend my facts. They are familiar enough to the geologists of this country, as displayed more or less plainly in every district of our island. I am at present concerned with the counter- statements which the Duke of Argyll would put in their lace. : He states his belief that the Highland mountains have had their contour mainly given to them by “upheavals, subsidences, and lateral pressures, which have folded them and broken them into their present shapes.” A be- lief of any kind must be founded on evidence of some sort, and that evidence must be produced if the owner of the belief desires that it should be accepted by others besides himself. What evidence, then, does his Grace furnish as the basis on which he expects that his “belief” is to supersede what he is pleased -to term “the extravagant theories of the younger glacialists”? Having shown “the antecedent improbabilities in- volved in the extreme theories of erosion,” he states that he “proceeds to test them on the field of fact.” We follow him anxiously to the field in question, and find that his so-called facts are stated in such words as these: “ Loch Fyne . . . occupies, as I believe, the bed (sic) of an immense fault.” “The transverse valley of Loch Eck lies across a steep anticlinal, and is due, in my opinion, to the extreme tension to which the crystalline rocks have been subjected.” “The Pass of Awe is a rupture and chasm.” ‘These, and other similar assertions regarding various parts of the Highlands are confidently expressed, but they are accompanied by no evidence by which their accuracy may be tested. In truth, the “facts” which his Grace adduces in support of his “belief” are only other “beliefs” and “opinions” of his own. They may be correct or the reverse, but they cannot legiti- mately be adduced as evidence ina scientific argument. But they are very far from correct. I utterly deny, for example, the assertion that Loch Fyne lies along the bed of an immense fault, and I ask the Duke of Argyll to try to prove that it does so, Nay more, I challenge him to produce a geological section which would bear a mo- ment’s examination on the ground, in which he can show the coincidence of a valley with a line of fault in any part of his own county of Argyll. That cases of this coin- cidence may be found I do not doubt, but the search for them will be useful in teaching his Grace how excep- tional they are. The Duke of Argyll does indeed offer some explanatory statements regarding some of his assertions of fact. For instance, with regard to Loch Awe, he dwells on the in- clinations of the slates and the intrusion of the porphyries among them as evidence that the present contour has been directly the result of subterranean convulsion, and he triumphantly adduces these and similar appearances “ignored” by myself as a demonstration of the truth of his “belief.” But any one who knows the Highland rocks at all may well smile when he is told that a geologist who had ever been over the ground, eyen in the most cursory way, requires to have these phenomena pointed out to him. In reality I had already granted the existence of these, and far more wonderful evidences of underground move- ments, for I knew the Highland rocks well, and had mapped their structure over leagues of ground from the mountains of Sutherland to the moors of Forfar, and the headlands of Islay. I was therefore perfectly familiar with the phenomena to which the Duke of Argyll so con- fidently refers. But I had learned more about them than merely their tale of subterranean turmoil. I had found that they did not bear directly on the origin of hill and valley at all. I had traced everywhere evidence that what * Opening Address to the Edinburgh Geological Society, by Prof. Geikie, »R.S. (continued from p, 97). ; NATURE ce | [Dec. 11, 1873 we now see of intruded granite or curved slate has been laid bare only after the removal of hundreds and thou- sands of feet of rock under which they once lay. His Grace, it would seem, has still this lesson to learn, and until he has mastered it, and, apart from any theory but simply as a matter of demonstrable fact, has realised what it involves and how vain is the attempt to connect the con- torting and hardening of the rocks with the Zresenz¢ sur- = F 2 t a) face features of the country, argument with him on this — question seems hardly possible. ae Again, I had quoted the mountain Ben Lawers, with its flanking hollow in Loch Tay, as a typical example of the kind of evidence which could be abundantly adduced from all parts of the Highlands to.show the relation be- tween geological structure and external form, and to prove from under what an enormous mass of removed rock the present surface of the Highlands has appeared. I gave a section to show at a glance the broad facts of the case—a section from which no conclusion is pos- sible but that which I drew. But here, once more, the Duke of Argyll’s belief in the all-powerful effi- cacy of granite and igneous rocks, or his thraldom to what he calls “the influence of a preconceived theory,” brings out in well-marked prominence that obliquity of vision which prevents him from seeing anything but convulsion and fracture. He scents intru- sive rocks of some sort along the south bank of Loch Tay. It would be vain to remonstrate that this alleged influence of the igneous rocks is, to say the least, as pure “invention and imagination” as anything which the “‘younger school” could readily supply, or that the denu- dation of that region is a momentous fact to be looked in the face and explained, not to be dismissed or denied, no matter what our “theory” or “ belief” may be regarding the origin of granite. Without further ceremony, the proofs of enormous denudation at Ben Lawers and Loch Tay, together with their luckless advocate, are all bundled off with the summary judgment, so happily appropriate to its own author, “I attach no value whatever to a theory which passes over and ignores this class of facts alto- gether.” The dogmatic assertions which the Duke of Argyll makes regarding the influence of granite and other rocks upon the surface, and as to the existence of fractures and depressions along the line of valley and glen, are really most flagrant examples of the feditio principii. In effect, = J a eee his Grace tells us, “The ‘inventions and imaginations’ - of these younger men are based upon ‘assumed facts’ which ‘ are, in my opinion, to a large extent purely hypo- thetical.’ I am ‘suspicious of the influence which a pre- conceived theory has had on their estimate of evidence.’ I therefore ‘attach no value whatever’ to their state- ments, and do not consider it necessary to lose time in weighing what they actually mean by this denudation of theirs, and all which, as they contend, must flow from it. My belief is that valleys are due to fractures and depres- sions. The Highlands abound in valleys, and therefore it must be evident to everyone capable of forming an opinion on the subject, that they abound also in proofs of fracture and depression.” In the foregoing remarks I have been dealing only with the Duke of Argyll’s paper of February 1868, which in his recent vigorously-worded address he cites as still un- answered, and which, therefore, we may suppose still to express his views. And yet no one can peruse that ad- dress without perceiving that it betokens a considerable change of opinion. Especially gratifying must it be to that “younger school” of geologists against which the Duke has so vehemently lifted up his protest, to observe that the lapse of time which he would not allow to have had much denuding effect upon the rocks, has yet been able to strip off from himself some of that crust of pre- conceived “theory” against which no argument or ad- verse fact could once make any impression. It is true —— Dec. 11, 1873] NATURE Tit that his Grace formerly thought it necessary to assure us that Time could do nothing by itself, ‘‘nothing except by the aid of its great ally Force—Force working in Time.” Well, we shall not quarrel about the use of words, but cheerfully admit that the change which has become per- ceptible in the opinions of the Duke of Argyll is wholly the result of “ Force working in Time,” and not a very long time, for it cannot be stretched out beyond five years. Surely if the lapse of so brief a space, with all the amount of Force which we can crowd into it, can have modified geological opinions which certainly seemed as solidly and unalterably fixed as his own Ben More itself, it can hardly be too much to hold that by the end of another us¢rium still further modification may justify the confident belief that his Grace may still come to join the “younger school” heart and hand. We can assure him a jubilant welcome. But it may be asked what is the nature of this present | alteration of view? In brief, it may be put thus: the Duke of Argyll finds that, after all, denudation is one of those disagreeable facts which will insist on being promi- nent—“ chiels that winna ding.” He has discovered that it really has had some share in the shaping of the present outlines of the land. He now admits in words “that the forms of hill and valley which preceded the coming-on of glacial conditions [during the Ice age] had been them- selves determined in a large degree by previous denuda- tions.” And even though this general admission is neutralised by statements which follow it, it is most welcome as an indication doubtless of the effect of those “more extended opportunities of observation” which his Grace tells us he has since enjoyed, and on the continu- ance of which our hopes of his secession to the ranks of the “ younger school” are mainly based. The Duke of Argyll appeals once more to the details of geological structure. Most gladly do we accede to the appeal. He points to the contorted condition of the older rocks as evidence of the extent to which they have been affected by subterranean movements. But no geologists are more familiar with these facts than his maligned “younger school.” He conceives that it was after such movements that the forces of denudation began to work. Most assuredly ; this has been explained over and over again. He affirms that “so long as such hills and moun- tains last at all, and wherever they are exposed to view, they bear upon them the unmistakeable impress of their origin and of the mighty subterranean forces to which their structure is due.” This sentence is rather ambiguous. If it means that contorted rocks retain evidence of contor- tion, such an obvious truism was hardly worth a sentence to itself. Ifit means that a mountain made of contorted rocks has had its form determined at the time of contor- tion, the statement is mere assertion and a begging of the very question to be proved. In the same address the noble president declares that “denudation has done its work along the lines deter- mined by upheaval, by fracture, and by unequal subsid- ence.” This has never been denied by anyone. A main object of my book was to show how, by means of denu- dation along such lines, much of the present contour of Scotland has been produced. Again we are told—“ All sedimentary beds must have had an edge somewhere ; and if they are lifted into a vertical position and the edges come to be exposed, the removal of a small amount of material may result in a horizontal surface, or in sur- faces cutting across the lines of structure at every variety of angle.” If the Duke intends this explanation to apply not to a mere hand specimen, but to any district of con- voluted and vertical rocks, such as the hills of Wales or the Southern Uplands or Highlands of Scotland, he cannot have noticed the string of physical absurdities which it involves. The rocks are often vertical, or nearly so, for miles at a stretch. Could we put them into some- thing like their original horizontal or gently inclined posi. tion their present edges would end off in a cliff many miles high. Can his Grace expect anyone to believe that the beds, which certainly “ must have had an edge some- where,” ever ended off in that fashion? But this would be only a part of the feat. In actual fact the rocks have been violently contorted, so that a series several hundreds or even thousands of feet in thickness is folded again and again upon itself. The present surface has been cut across these foldings, and in great part has its inequalities inde- pendent of them. If we could flatten these curved rocks out again from their present condition they would show a series of deep sharp troughs separated by steep pyra- midal ridges of flat strata. And from the Duke of Argyll’s teaching we should learn that this wonderful arrangement was the normal plan in old times of laying down sediment which, instead of always going to the bottom and filling up the hollows as it does nowadays, contrived then to ascend, layer after layer, like the tiers of the Great Pyramid, as if it were under the impulse not of mere gravity or of the play of ocean currents, but of the methodical action of organisms like the coral polyps. We should further learn that these neatly-shaped sand and mud ridges and troughs were so accurately laid down that when subterranean forces came into action and crumpled the whole up, every ridge popped conveniently into a trough below, as if a trap-door had been opened for its reception, and with such nice adjustment as to bring its top to the same general level as the bottom of the former troughs ! . The truth is, and, in common fairness I am bound frankly to state it, that such assertions as these with which I am dealing, could never be made if geological structure were really understood and kept in view. This is a matter of science, and is only to be mastered by the same patient toil which is required in other scientific inquiries. Moreover, it is by no means so easily mastered as it seems to be. The first absolute requisite for over- coming our ignorance, is to reduce our facts to the test of ocular proof and measurement. Let us construct a sec- tion across the tract of which we would master the struc- ture, and to avoid risks of error from exaggeration of proportion, let us begin by making the section as nearly as possible on a true scale, that is, giving the same value to length as to height. With the outline of the ground accurately traced we may then, section in hand, insert upon it at the proper places, and with the true angle of dip, such rocks as we be able to see exposed. Having fixed these data in this patient way, we may expect with some confidence to understand and fill in the geological structure of the ground for ourselves, and to make it in- telligible and credible to others. Until we have gone through such a training ourselves, or have learnt ade- quately to appreciate what it is from the labours of others, we have no right to utter an opinion on the relations between geological structure and external form, for we are destitute of one of the necessary qualifications for dealing with the problem. s The greater part of the recent address of the president of the Geological Society deals with the traces of ice- action inthis country, and the manner in which they are to be accounted for. In his remarks upon this subject, the Duke again places himself in opposition to the views of the “younger school,” and expresses opinions from which every member of that school would, I am sure, em- phatically dissent. It is no part of my present purpose to enter upon these. I cannot, however, pass by one statement in the address. His Grace asserts that these restless “ younger geologists” have recently made a most complete change of front. He therefore directs his attack against this new position, He says that they no longer maintain the existing systems of hill and valley to have been cut out of the solid by an enormous glacier, but admit the general contour of the country to have been very much the same before the Ice age as after it, all the 112 NATURE | Dec. 11, 1873 work of the ice having been to deepen valleys, degrade hills a little, and fill up the plains and hollows with clay and sand. ‘Such as I understand it,” says the Duke, ‘‘is the new glacial theory.” But surely he can have paid but scant attention to the subject if he imagines that this idea isin any sense new. I really cannot recall that the geo- logists of the “‘ younger school” have for many years past held any other view than that which they are now said to have adopted only recently. If, for example, his Grace will turn to the little volume which he abused so heartily in the spring of 1868, he will find the “ new view” stated as plainly there as words can express it (see page 150). And yet in this address he thinks it needful to adduce evidence to disprove that valleys have been gouged out by an universal ice-sheet—a notion which, according to his own showing, the “ younger schcol” does not hold. + These remarks have been extended this evening beyond the length to which I had originally proposed to confine them. My excuse must lie partly in what to myself is the ever fresh charm of the subject, and partly in the desire to vindicate the fair fame of the modern Huttonian school of geology from attacks which had been in some measure called forth by writings of my own. I have again to express my regret that it was impossible to avoid an appearance of personal conflict, and I am con- - scious that a man who does his best to give as good as he gets in such conflict is apt to do more than he meant. I can only hope that this consciousness has kept me far within the bounds of legitimate reply. Of one thing I feel securely confident. When the din of strife has ceased and men come to weigh opinions in the dispassionate light of history, the profound influence of the Huttonian doctrines of the present time on the future course of geology will be abundantly recognised. By their guidance it will be possible to reconstruct the physical geography of the continents, in successive ages back, perhaps into some of the earliest periods of geolo- gical history. This work indeed is already in part accom- plished. But much more remains to be done before the history of the land on which we live has been wholly un- ravelled. This is the task to which we have set ourselves, in which we have found ample scope for enthusiasm and hard work, and out of which we trust that there will eventually come a story of permanent interest to all whose range of vision extends beyond the present condi- tion of things, and who would fain understand what now is by the light of what once has been. EXTERMINATION OF MARINE MAMMALIA *7T-HROUGH the kindness of a friend, there has been placed in my hands a little book—one of the few ‘copies in England—which though not much bigger than a pamphlet, seems to me more deserving of notice than I | fear itis likely to obtain. Of its author, I may say, I know nothing. Its title is ‘* Mammalia, Recent and Ex- tinct ; an Elementary Treatise for the use of the Public Schools of New South Wales. By A. W. Scott, M.A.” It is published at Sydney by Thomas Richards, Govern- ment Printer, and bears date 1873. One’s first wish on looking at it was that such a book might be wanted “for the use of the Public Schools of ” the old country ; but it is not my object now to enlarge on this theme or even to call attention to, or pass judgment upon it from a scientific point of view—though some of the author’s opinions are, if not novel, such as have not been generally received. Mr. Scott’s treatise is confined to the “ Pzzaza, Seals, Dugongs, Whales,” &c, and he tells us in his preface why he has so limited it :— “Whatever information we possess upon the natural history of the finned mammals, particularly in a popular, yet scientific form, has been so scantily and unequally dis- tributed, that in this direction a comparatively new feld may be said to be open to the teacher as well as to the youthful inquirer. “Tnfluenced, also, by the great commercial value of several species of the pinnata, I have felt anxiously desir- ous to direct, without further delay, the attention, and thus possibly secure the sympathy, of readers, other than stu- dents, to the necessity of prompt legislative interference, in order to protect the oil and fur producing animals of our hemisphere against the wanton and unseasonable acts committed by unrestrained traders; and thus not only to prevent the inevitable extermination of this valuable group, but to utilise their eminently beneficial qualities into a methodical and profitable industry. “ Keeping steadily in view these two objects, whose im- portance, I trust, will bear me out in deviating from my original intention in the order of the issue of publication, I have endeavoured .. . by devoting as much space as my limits would permit to the consideration of the animals whose products are of such commercial value to man, and whose extinction would so seriously affect his interests, to point out the pressing necessity that exists for devising the means of protection for the Fur Seals and the Sperm and Right Whales of the Southern Ocean. “To evidence what great results may be effected by considerate forethought, I refer the reader to pages $ to 13 of this treatise [containing extracts from the excellent paper on Ofariid@ by Messrs. Allen and Bryant (Bulletin Harvard College, ii. pp. 1-108)], where he will see that, under the fostering care of the United States Government, the Northern Fur Seals of commerce, which but a few years ago were nearly extinct, have already, by their rapid in- crease and mild disposition, developed themselves into a permanent source of national wealth. “The islands of the Southern Seas, now lying barren and waste, are not only numerous, but admirably suited for the production and management of these valuable animals, and need only the simple regulations enforced by the American Legislature to resuscitate the present state of decay of a once remunerative trade, and to bring into full vigour another important export to the many we already possess.” Mr. Scott’s designappears tome eminently praiseworthy ; nnd the question it raises is, without doubt, one which must imperatively demand (and will, I trust, in time) the attention not only of the naturalist, but of everyone who is interested in the commercial prosperity of this country and its colonies. Though to some extent their place has been supplied by mineral and vegetable oils, for certain purposes it is, I believe, admitted that animal oils are ab- solutely required, and the demand for these oils increases with the increase of civilization. Now no one who has at all closely investigated the subject of the extermination of animals by man can come to any other conclusion than that unless, by some legislative restriction (which from the nature of the case will probably have to be z7¢ernatzonat) it is prevented, all the Marine Mammalia are inevitably doomed to early extinction. Who can read of the butcheries whichare yearly perpetrated onthe breeding Seals of theice- floes in the North Atlantic, and as yearly recorded with more or less zest in the newspapers, without feeling certain that the same fate awaits them as has overtaken, or is over- taking, so many of theirfellow-denizens of the deep ? Where is the A/ytina of Behring’s Island? Absolutely abolished from the face of the earth! Where are the Manatees that played in the waters of the Antilles, when those “ isles of the sun ” were first visited by Europeans? Limited to some three or four muddy creeks in as many of the larger islands! Where is the Right Whale that used to throng the Greenland seas, the Walrus that haunted the Gulf of St. Lawrence? Driven so far to the northward that ships in the pursuit of either are now led to encounter the greatest perils! Where is that smaller Whale which furnished employment for all the navies of Biscayan ports? You have to seek its remains in the museum at Dec. 11, 1873] MAIR ORL. 113 Copenhagen! Whereare the Dugongs of Rodriguez so charmingly described by Leguat? Vanished! Where are the Sea-elephants of Ascension, Tristran d’Acunha and the Crozettes? So hunted down that it is not ‘ worth a skipper’s while to seek them! Where are the countless and mighty Otaries that Péron found in Bass’s Straits? Not there assuredly!* The list of questions migh} be extended indefinitely. Surely it is time to stop such wanton, such short-sighted destruction. Let me not be misunderstood, however. No one believes more firmly than I do in the right which man has to turn animals to his wse. Itis the aduse of which I complain. It is an abuse of power to slaughter these creatures in such places and at such times of the year as must lead to their utter extinction ; and I know there are many naturalists, some of high standing, who think with me, though per- haps their acquaintance with the facts has not been sufficient to make them see so clearly as I do that inter- ference with the abuse must speedily be adopted or it will be too late. Naturalists, as a rule, are rare in the legislature of this country, but is there not one, at least, to call upon the Government to take the necessary steps? Granted that these steps are beset with difficulties—so much the more honour to him who surmounts them. The Russians and the Americans have been before us, and through their wise measures there is now every chance that the Seals of the Northern Pacific will continue to exist for many a long year to the great profit of all con- cerned. In this matter, as in similar cases, the present gene- ration will deservedly be reproached by posterity if we steadily shut our eyes to what has taken place and to what Is going on now. ALFRED NEWTON NOTES S1GNoR SCHIAPARELLI, Director of the Milan Observatory, has been appointed Director of the Florence Observatory in place of the late Signor Donati. The Florentine Observatory, which stands near Galileo’s Tower at Arcetri, is in every way superior to that of Milan, and we may look for considerable re- sults from an astronomer who has already done much with small opportunities. ON Monday evening Sir Samuel Baker met with an enthusi- astic reception at the meeting of the Geographical Society, from a large, distinguished, and brilliant audience, which included the Prince of Wales and the Duke of Edinburgh. Sir Samuel spoke mainly of what he had done to suppress the slave-trade, and of the almost overwhelming difficulties he and his brave wife had to face in bringing the lawless African tribes to reason. After Sir Samuel sat down, the Prince of Wales said a few words, and testified to the sincerity of the Khedive. In his address at the opening meeting of the Newcastle-on- Tyne Chemical Society, the president, Dr. Lunge, spoke of his visit to the Vienna Exhibition, and of the rapid progress which the Continent is making in the manufacture of the finer chemi- cals. The reason, he says, is not far to seek. “ You find in every chemical works on the Continent, I may say, without exception, one, sometimes several, chemists of thoroughly scientific training, who have acquired their theoretical basis by three or four years’ studying at a University or a Polytechnical Institution. One “works,” to which I havefalready alluded, certainly one of the largest in Germany, keeps something like half-a-dozen such chemists (not practical managers), with salaries varying from 300/. to 400/., and it retains the services of an accomplished chemist, of scientific reputation, at a salary of nearly 2,000/, per annum, exclusively for theoretical work in the laboratory, with- out any trouble or responsibility connected with the manufactur- * See Mr. Charles Gould’s remarks in the Monthly Notices, &c., of the Royal Society of Tasmania for 1871, pp. 61—67. ing work outside. But then, they do constantly invent new things there, and make them in tons, or hundreds of tons, when the chemical world outside has, perhaps, barely heard of the discovery of a new compound, with a barbarous name, appa- rently only obtainable at the rate of a few grains in a sealed tube after many weeks’ patient work. What I, maintain, after a visit to the Vienna Exhibition, and at a few German and Austrian chemical works, is, that foreign countries are taking the wind out of our sails very fast in this line, and that both their rate of oes and the means of attaining it are very much superior to ours.’ Se A PRELIMINARY meeting was held on November 29 in the Physical Laboratory of the Science Schools, South Kensington, to consider the formation of a Physical Society. The chair was taken by Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S. Thirty-six gentlemen were present, including most of the physicists of London. It was resolved that the following yentlemen be requested to serve as an organising committee:—W.G. Adams, E. Atkinson, W. Crookes, A. Dupré, G. C. Foster, J. H. Gladstone, T. M. Goodeve, F. Guthrie, O. Henrici, B. Loewy, Dr. Mills, A. W. Reinold, and H. Sprengel. A letter was read from the Lords of the Committee of Council on Education, granting the use of the Physical Laboratory and apparatus at the Science Schools, South Kensington, for the purposes of the Society. THE Photographic News says that a curious and important dis- covery has been made by Dr, Vogel during the last few weeks. It consists, as he describes it in a private letter, inmaking the non- actinic rays under certain circumstances actinic. “ I have found,” he says, “ that bodies which absorb the yellow ray of the spec- trum make bromide of silver sensitive to the yellow rays. In like manner I find bodies which absorb the red ray of the spec- trum make bromide of silver sensitive to the red rays. For example, by the addition of cora//in—which absorbs the yellow ray--to a bromide of silver film it becomes as sensitive to the yellow ray as to the blue ray.” This is one of the most impor- tant and interesting observations in connection with actino- chemistry which has been made for several years. AN examination will be held at Queen’s College, Oxford, on April 14, 1874, and following days, for the purpose of filling up four open scholarships of the yearly value of go/. tenable for five years. Candidates must not have attained the age of 20 years, One of the open scholarships will be awarded for mathematics and one for natural science in case competent candidates offer themselves. Candidates offering in natural science should be pro ficient in either physics, chemistry, or physiology, and possess some acquaintance with a second physical science. These candi« dates are requested to signify by letter to the Provost, as early as may be in March, their intention of standing, and to state at the same time the subjects they propose to offer, in order that the necessary arrangements may be made for their examination, Candidates are to call on the Provost in the College-hall at 9 p.M. on Monday, April 13, bringing with them satisfactory evi- dence of date and (where necessary) place of birth, and testi- monials of good conduct from their schoolmasters or tutors. THE following alterations have been made in the programme of lectures at the Royal Institution :—In consequence of Prof. Tyndall’s desire to give six lectures on the Physical Properties of Gases and Liquids on Tuesdays before Easter, Prof. Ruther- ford will give five lectures on Respiration before Easter, and six lectures on the Nervous System after Easter. At the Friday evening meeting, March 6, Sir Samuel Baker will lecture on the Suppression of the Slave Trade of the White Nile. Dr. Burdon- Sanderson will lecture after Easter. Mr. HENRY LEeEreports the development of a new calcareous sponge ‘in the Brighton Aquarium. In its early condition it 114 NATURE [Dee. 11, 1873 closely resembles, in its mode of growth, Leucosolenia botryoides, but afterwards, in some instances, becomes massive and semi- globose. It has been submitted for examination to Dr. Bower- bank, who describes it as follows :—‘‘In the young state, a con- geries of thin fistule, like a Leucosolenia ¢ when adult massive ; furnished with numerous thin conical or cylindrical cloacal organs, very variable in size and length. Surface of the mass mooth and even; small cloacee furnished with numerous long, slender, acerate, external defensive spicula, projected ascendingly at small angles to the surface; large cloacze nearly destitute of external defensive spicula, furnished with a few long, slender, ace- rate, procumbent spicula; internal defensive spicula of cloacz spiculated, equi-angular, tri-radiate ; spicular ray, slender and attenuated. Oscula minute, distributed on the inner surfaces of the cloacee. Pores unknown. Dermal membrane pellucid aspi- culous. Skeleton spicula, equi-angulated and rectangulated, tri- radiate ; radii slender and unequal in length, distorted ; colour, cream white. Habitat, Brighton Aquarium, Henry Lee. Ex- amined in the dried state.” This sponge will be figured in three several conditions of its development, in the forthcoming third volume of Dr. Bowerbank’s valuable monograph of the British Stongiade, published by the Ray Society, and will be known as Luconia Somesii ; Dr. Bowerbank {having named it after Mr. Somes, the chairman of the Brighton Aquarium Company. A CORRESPONDENT of the Sco¢sman points out how desirable a thing it is that a marine aquarium should be erected in Edin- burgh. ‘‘ The city,” he rightly says, ‘‘abounds in educational establishments, to which such an institution would be an invalu- able accessory. Great local facilities exist for the creation of an aquarium, and were a scheme for that purpose but set on foot, many willing hands would aid in its realisation. The cost would not be great, considering the advantages to be obtained ; and it is certain the establishment would be self-supporting.” We hope to see the matter earnestly taken up by proper hands. Tur fifth part of the illustrated work on Lepidoptera, domestic and foreign, by Mr. Herman Strecker, of Reading, Pennsylvania, has made its appearance. In the present part the illustrations relate entirely to the genus Cafoca/a, of which one supposed new species is presented under the name of C. ferflexa, from the vicinity of Brooklyn. Mr, Strecker merits particular commenda. tion from the fact that this work is prepared exclusively by his own hand, the illustrations being drawn on stone, printed, and coloured by himself—and, if we mistake not, the type of the text is set up by him likewise—all done in the intervals of his daily labour as a mechanic. The expense of the work—fifty cents per number~ is such a mere trifle that we trust he will be encouraged by a sufficient subscription list to continue it to com- pletion, increasing the number of plates, as he promises to do, without any change in the price, should he receive the desired patronage. Tue London Association of Correctors of the Press held a conversazione on Saturday last under the presidency of Mr. B. H. Cowper, editor of the Qucen. We are glad to notice that the principal items of the programme were of a scientific cha- racter. Mr. E. R. Johnson, Chairman of the Association, read a paper on the past work of the Association, enumerating some of the papers and discussions on philological topics which had engaged its attention, and while commending the study of philo- logy, the advantage of an acquaintance with one or other of the exact sciences was set forth. Mr, G. Chaloner, late Secretary of the Association, and lecturer on Chemistry at the Birkbeck Institution, enlightened the meeting as to some of the properties of hydrogen, accompanying his remarks with appropriate experi- ments. Mr. J. T. Young discoursed on the glacial period, and microscope and stereoscope also contributed to the enjoyment of the evening. THE two scientific papers in the last number of the Quarterly Journal of the Meteorological Society are :—‘‘ On some Results of Temperature Observations at Durham,” by Mr. J. J. Plummer ; and ‘‘Notes on the Connection between Colliery Explosions and Weather in the year 1871,” by Messrs. R. H. Scott, F.R.S., and W. Galloway. The subject of the latter article is of the greatest importance to miners, and, in connection with it, we would call attention to a letter in yesterday’s 77mes warn- ing colliery managers of the present high reading of the baro- meter. We are glad to see from the Report of the Council that the Society has attained an exceedingly prosperous and alto- gether satisfactory condition. No. XI. of Petermann’s Wittheilungen, contains a brief letter from Dr, Richard v. Drasche, concerning his geological voyage to Spitzbergen in July and August last. The letter contains a few very valuable details as to the physical and geological cha- racteristics of the west coast of the island. S1r GrorceE Ross, F.R.S., died at Brighton on the 3rd inst. © in the g2nd year of his age. Dr. Sperer, of Fulda, has been appointed by the Japanese Government as Professor cf Natural Sciences at Yeddo. A very handsome salary has been guaranteed to him by the Japanese Embassy at Berlin. Other appointments are expected to follow in the departments of Experimental Physics and Medicine. Apropos of the letter in this week’s number on the British Museum, we take the following from an article in a recent number of Zo on ‘‘ Our National Museums :”— As at present constituted, Museums may be broadly di- vided into three types: first, that of the South Kensing- ton, Jermyn Street, and Bethnal Green Museums in London, and the Albert Museum in Exeter,—a type of the actually useful museum, where the artisan may see illustrations of manufactur- ing operations, and the artist may find examples of the master- pieces of old. Here everything is neat, orderly, and simple ; no object is without a label, which explains clearly what it is ; and spectators need net wander about among collections of in- comprehensible curiosities, which excite in their minds wonder but no interest. The second type is that of the British Museum, which is purely scientific. Museums like this are scattered over the country, containing vast numbers of useful specimens buried in drawers and cases, adorned with Latin Jabels; museums wherein the populace rove about with awe, partly at the mon- strous objects displayed to their gaze and partly at the tre- mendous names which they bear. These museums are only fitted for scientific persons ; they are next to useless to others, unless, as has been lately done in the British and Ipswich Mu- seums, superintendents and curators are willing to descend from their high level and escort bodies‘of the simpler folk through the collections, giving as they go some plain account of the more prominent objects. A third type of museum is scarcely to be found in any national collection. It is usually seen in small country towns, where dusty cases are arranged in ill-lighted rooms, and are made the receptacle of rubbish brought by resi- dent gentlemen from all parts of the world—one giving a collec- tion of minerals for which he has not room; another a few drawers of butterflies of which he has grown tired. South Sea islanders’ weapons, elephants’ tusks, and other spoils of the chase are scattered about in corners and on walls, and the col- lection of oddments is dubbed a ‘‘ museum.” Our readers can draw on their own experience for other details on this subject, and we are much mistaken if they do not agree with us that the energy that is expended with but little useful result on our exhibited some fossils illustrative thereof. The wonders of the | local and national museums is almost or entirely thrown away. > ay ' the capital. Dee. 11, 1873 THE little town of Massa Marritima (Tuscany), says the Yournal of the Society of Arts, sets an example which would be well to be followed by many larger and better known towns, both in Italy and this country. In 1867 the municipality of Massa purchased ‘the interesting collection of minerals, models of mining machi- nery, and specimens of tools used in mines in various coun- tries from Signor Teodoro Haupt, a well-known mining engineer of Florence, together with a complete series of maps and plans of most of the mines in Tuscany. This forms the nucleus of the museum, which has since been enriched by a collection of the birds and animals found in the province, the donation of a medical man residing in the town, and their value is considerably enhanced by being well arranged and tabled with both common and scien- tific names. The library now contains about 6,000 volumes, some of which are of great value, as being extremely rare, and relating to the history of the republic of which Massa was once The archzeological department contains a very beautiful Etruscan funeral urn. THE additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens during the past week include four Bull Frogs (Rana mugiens) from Nova Scotia, presented by Dr. B. Sanderson, F.R.S.; two white-handed Gibbons (/j/odates Jar) from the Malay Penin- sula, presented by Sir H. Ord, C.B.; two {Griffin Vultures (Gps fudus) and a Golden Eagle (Aguila chrysaetos), European, presented by Mr. A. J. White; two Rough-legged Buzzards (Archibuteo lagopus), European, presented by Mr. A. B, Hepburn ; a Green Monkey (Cercopithecus callitrichus) from India ; and a Bonnet Monkey (MJacacus vadiatus) from India, presented by Miss Bradshaw; a Barasingha Deer (Cervus duvaucelii) from the Himalayas, received in exchange ; anda Hairy Armadillo (Dasypus villosus) from La Plata, deposited. SCIENTIFIC SERIALS Der Naturforscher, Oct. 1873.—Among the abstracted matter in this number we find an account of recent experiments by M. Exner, to determine the ‘‘reaction time” of the sensorium. Some part of the body having been stimulated, the person imme- diately made a signal by pressing a key with the right hand. Marks were produced on a blackened cylinder, both at stimula- tion and at signalling, and the interval was noted. ‘The reaction time (which ranged between 01295 and 0°3576sec. in 7 persons) seems independent of age, and is shortest in those who have the habit of concentration. The tables also show it to have been shortest in stimulation of the eye with an induction shock ; then follow, in order, electric shock to finger of left hand, sudden sound, electric shock to forehead, shock to right-hand finger, sight of an electric spark ; and lastly, shock to toes of left foot. M. Exner analyses the reaction time into 7 ‘‘moments,”—In chemistry we have some important observations on the non- luminous flame of the Bunsen burner, by M. Blochmann, and on vinegar-ferment and its cause, by MM. Mayer and Knierim, who think the action of mycoderma aceti probably physiological, and that it is a kind of bacterium which shows a mobile and an immobile state ; the latter producing rapid acetification. Further, the vinegar-production occurs without the presence of nitro- genous substances, though less slowly than where they are pre- sent.—An interesting question in plant-geography is that as to the transport of seeds by ocean-currents, and in other ways inde- pendent of human agency. M. Thuret has been experimenting on this in Antibes. Having tried 251 different species, he knows of only two kinds of bare seed which are capable of float- ing, Maurandia and Phormium. A long immersion in sea-water does not always destroy the vitality of seeds. Out of 24 species immersed more than a year, at least 3 germinated afterwards as vigorously as seeds kept quite dry.—We find astronomical notes on the spectra of the two new comets, III. and IV., of 1873, and on the connection of solar protuberances with auroras (Tacchini) ; and in meteorology there is a notice of Dr. Koppen’s valuable researches on an eleven years’ period of temperature.— In physics, the subjects are : short galvanic currents and elec- trical discharges (Edlund), armatures of magnetic bundles (Jamin), and molecular rotatory power of vinous acid and its salts (Landolt).—A review of Hiackel’s Die Kalkschwamme, by M. v. Martens, is worthy of notice. NATURE 115 SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES Lonpon Zoological Society, Dec. 2.—Dr. A, Giinther, F.R.S. vice-president, in the chair. A communication was read from Dr. James Hector, containing an account of the complete skele- ton of Cxemiornis calcitrans, Owen, and showing its affinity to the Natatores.—Prof. Owen, F.R.S., read a paper containing a restoration of the skeleton of Cremiornis calcitrans, Owen, with remarks on its affinities to the Lamellirostral group, and forming the twentieth part of his series of memoirs of extinct birds of the genus Dixornis and its allies. —A communication was read from Mr. W. H. Hudson, containing an account of the habits of the Pipit (Avthus correndera) of the Argentine Republic.—A communication was read from Mr, A, G. Butler, containing a revision of the species of the genus Protogonius.—A communi- cation was read from Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S., on the skulls of some seals from Japan, with description of a new species, pro- posed to be called Aumetopias clongata.—Mr, P. L. Sclater read a paper on some birds collected in Peru by Mr. H. Whitely, being the seventh of the series of articles upon this subject. —A communication was read from Mr. Henry Whitely, containing additional notes on humming-birds collected in High Peru.—A communication was read from Mr. R. Swinhoe, containing re- marks on the Black Albatross with flesh-coloured bill, of the China Seas.—Mr. Garrod read a paper on the visceral anatomy of the Ground Rat (Auwlacodus swinderianus). Linnean Society, Dec. 4.—Mr. G. Bentham, president, in the chair.—Revision of the genera and species of Tulipex, by Mr, J. G. Baker. In this tribe of Liliaceze the author includes the caulescent capsular genera with distinct perianth-segments and leafy stems bulbous at the base, viz., Fritillaria, Tulipa, Lilium, Calochortus, Erythronium, and Lloydia. The cha- racters presented by the different orders were described seriatim in the paper. In the structure of the underground stems there are four leading types, viz., (1) a squamose perennial bulb, con- sisting, when mature, of a large number of thin flat scales tightly pressed against one another, and arranged spirally round a cen- tral axis which is not produced cither vertically or horizontally, as exemplified in all the Old-world species of Lilium ; (2) in most of the species of Fyiti//aria we have a pair only of hemis- pherical scales, half as thick as broad, pressed against the base of the flower-stem, these scales being the bases of single leaves which die down before the flower-stem is produced; (3) an annual laminated truncated bulb occurs generally in Zwdipa, Calo- chortus, and ELu-Lloydia ; (4) in theysection Gageopsis of Lloydia we have a truncatedscorm. The leaves are very uniform through- out the tribe, with the exception of a section of Li/iem, Cardio- crinum, with long clasping petioles. ‘The perianth leaves are all coloured except in Ca/ochortus, when ihe three outer segments are sepaloid and lengthened into points. The stamens are al- ways six in number and nearly equal in length, hypogynous, and the dehiscence of the anther never properly introrse, but lateral, exactly as in Colchicum. In the capsule, Calochortus differs from the other genera in its septicidal dehiscence. As regards the connection between Liliacize and Colchicaceze Mr. Baker is dis- posed to lay less stress than before on the evidence of any sharp line of demarcation between the orders, all the characters usually ascribed to the latter order being found in some of the genera of Liliaceze. In its Geographical Distribution the tribe is spread throughout the north temperate zone ; only one species, L/oydia serotina, is really boreal and Alpine; the southern limits are Mexico, the Philippines, South China, the Neilgherries, and the southern borders of the Mediterranean ; the principal concen- tration of species is in California and Japan ; nearly all are hardy in this climate. Lilium with 46, and Fritillaria with 55 species, have the distribution of the tribe ; the latter stopping eastwards at the Rocky Mountains, while the former reaches the Atlantic sea-board ; Tulipa, with 48 species, is restricted to the Old World, reaching jrom Spain, Britain, and Scandinavia to Japan and the Himalayas ; Calochortus, with 21species, is confined to Mexico and the west side of the Rocky Mountains ; of the 5 species of Erythronium, 1 is confined to the Old World and 4 to the New ; the 3 species of Gageopsis are Oriental and Siberian ; while Z/oydia serotina is the most widely spread of all the Lili- aciex, and a unique instance of a petaloid Monocotyledon of the North Temperate Zone with almost universal high moun- tains and Arctic distribution. Chemical Society, Dec. 4.—Dr. Frankland, F.R.S., vice- president, in the chair.—A paper entitled Mineralogical Notices, 116 NATURE | Dec. 11, 1873 by Prof. Story-Maskelyne and Dr. W. Flight, was read by the former, treating of the composition of caledonite and lanarkite.— Mr. John Williams then exhibited some fine specimens of crys- tallised phosphorous acid and metallic phosphites, and gave a short account of their reactions.—Prof. Church made a com- munication to the society on the composition of the mineral autunite.—Prof. Lawrence Smith of the United States, whilst describing a modification of the Bunsen gas burner employed by him for heating the crucible in determina ions of the alkalis in silicious minerals, gave a short sketch of the process he had de- vised for that purpose.—In the course of the evening a gas burner by Mr. Fletcher of Warrington was also exhibited. Royal Microscopical Society, Dec. 3.—Chas. Brooke, F.R.S., president, in the chair.—The list of donations to the society included a valuable binocular microscope with apparatus complete, from Mr. Charles Woodward, for which the special thanks of the meeting were returned.—A paper in continuance of the one read at the November meeting, was read by the secre- tary.—On some further researches into the life history of the Monads, by Rev. W. H. Dallinger and Dr. Drysdale, in which the complete process of fission was described in all its stages, and also the conjunction of two or more bodies, the whole course of internal division, of final rupture of the containing envelope and escape of minute free organisms.—Mr. Charles Stewart ex- hibited a section of Ficus elastica showing cystoliths, described the method of preparation and mounting, and stated it to be his belief that they were rather deposits of a gum-like substance, than actual concretions. Society of Biblical Archzology, Dec.2.—Dr. Birch, F.S. A., president. The following papers were read :—Future Punish- ment of the Wicked, a Doctrine of the Assyrian Religion, by H. Fox Talbot, F.R.S.—Notes fom Borneo, illustrative of Passages in Genesis, by A. M. Cameron. In this paper the author cited a Dyak radition, that at an archaic general inundation, the ances- tors of the Chinese, Malay, and Dyak had to swim for their lives ; and (possibly foisted on this tradition) the Dyak preserved his weapons, and the Chinaman his books. A second tradition stated that an ancestral Dyak madea ladder to yo up to heaven ; unhappily one night a worm ate into the foot of the ladder and brought all down. Mr, Cameron further stated that one of the two Dyak names for the Supreme Being is Yaouah : the author refers to the similar soun.'ing Jehovah and Yahveh of the Bible. PHILADELPHIA Academy of Natural Sciences, June 17.—The presi- dent, Dr. Ruschenberger, in the chair.—Zaws of Sex in Fuglans nigra.—Mr. Thomas Meehan said he had at various times during the past few years called the attention of the Academy to specimens of numerous plants which illustrated the principle that sex in plants was the result of grades of vitality ; or, as it had been sugyested, viabilty ; and that this power of life was a mere matter of nutrition; the highest yrades of vitality only producing the female sex. He now exhibited specimens of the common black wal- nut, Fuglans nigra, which furnished excellent illus rations of wha: had been said on other occasions. Examining the tree at the flowering season, it woud be plainly seen, by even a_ superficial observer, that there were grades of growing buds. The largest buds made the most vigorous shoots. These seemed to be wholly devoted to the increise of the woody system of the tree. Lower down the strong last year shouts, were buds not quite so large. These made shoors less vigorous than the other class, and bore the female flowers on their apces. Below these were numerous small weak buds, which either did not push into growth at all, or when they did bore simply the male catkins. He was fully satisfied that there is not so great expenditure of vital force on the production of male flowers as there is in female flowers. PARIS Academy of Sciences, Nov. 24.—M. de Quatrefages, president, in the chair.—The following papers were read :— On the development of polyps and their corals, by M. H. de Lacaze-Duthiers. The author described some results obtained by him in a cruise on board the Varval, off the North African coast of the Mediterranean during the summer.—Remarks on the South American fauna, with anatomical details of some of its most characteristic types, by M. P. Gervais. —Observations on the expansion of water below 4°, in relation to M. Piarron de Mondesir’s note, by M. F. Hement. The author suggests that the phenomenon in question is due to a re-arrangement of the molecules of the water just as a box of pims when shaken up will occupy more room than they did when arranged in regular layers.—A long extract from a letter by M. A. Poéy was read relating to his observations of the relation between so!ar spots and terrestrial hurricanes. The author stated that during the last 125 years there have been 12 maximum periods of hurricanes and 10 of these correspond to sun-spot maxima and 11 periods of hurricane minima, of which 5 correspond to sun-spot minima. —-Observations on the analogies which exist between the solar spots and terrestrial cyclones, by M. Marié Davy.— Note on solar and terrestrial cyclones, by M. H. de Parville.—On the discharge of electrified conductors, by M. J. Moutier.—On the variable state of electric currents, by M. P. Blaserna, an answer to M. Cazin.—Application of the phosphates of ammonium and barium to the purification of saccharine products, by M. P. Lagrange. —On the physiological and therapeutic action of hydrochlorate of amylamine, by M. Dujardin-Beaumetz. During the meeting Dr. A. W. Williamson and M. Zinin were elected Correspondents. December 1.—M. de Quatrefages, president, in the chair.—On solar and terrestrial whirlwinds, by M. Faye. The author argued against Reye’s ascending axes in the cases of these cy- clones, and urged that both by theory and observation there is a down-rush about the axis.—On the conclusion of the note, General Morin made some remarks on the small eddies observed in rivers as examples of the descending current in the centre of similar vortexes.—On the directions of the vibrations in the rays refracted in uniaxial crystals, by M. Abria.—Analytical and experimental investigations of the interference of elliptical rays, by M. Croullebois.—On the return of carrier pigeons during the siege of Paris, by M. W. de Fonvielle—On the habits of the P/y//oxera, by M. Max. Cornu.—On a theorem of celestial mechanics, by M. F. Siacci.—Note on magnetism, by M. A. Treve.—On the difference of physiological action caused by induced currents from coils formed of different metals, by M. Onimus. The author stated that, with a coil made of a badly conduc’ing metal the conrracrion of the muscles was greater and the effect on the cutaneous nerves smaller than when the coil is made of a good conductor.—Un the conjunctive elements of the spinal marrow, by M. L. Ranvier.—On the A zthracotherium, discovered at Saint Menoux by M. Bertrand, by M. Gaudry. —On the secre- tions of the flowers of Eucalyptus globulus, by M. Gimbert. BOOKS RECEIVED EnGLisH.—The Pearl o: the Antilles: Walter Goodman (H. S. King and Co.).—The Internal Parasites of our Dome-ticated Animals: Dr. Spencer Cobbold (Fzedd Ofhce) —A Phrenologist among the Todas: Col. Marshall (Longmans)... The “ible and the Doctrine of Evolution: W. Woods Smyth (H. K. Lewis).—The Threshold of the Unknown Region: Clements R, Markham (Sampson Lew).—Easy Introduction to Chemistry : Arthur Rigg (Rivingt ns).—Chemistianity: J. C. Sellars (Author),—The Romance of Peasant Life: Francis George Heath (Cassell).—Cholera, how to Avoid and Treat it ; Henry Blanc, M D. H. 5. King & Co.).—Centrifugal Force and Gravitation, Supplement B: John Harris (Triibner & Co.) —Kant’s History of Ethics Translated by T K. Kingsmill (Longmans).— Physical Geography in its relation to the Prevailing Winds and Currents; J. K. Laughton (J. D. Potter).—A Treatise on Medical Electricity : Dr. Althaus (Longm-ns).— Weather Folk-Lore: Rev. C. Swainson (Blackwo.d, —Ganot’s Physics. Vranslated by Atkinson. 6th edition (Longmaus).—Waste Products and Undeveloped Substances: P. L. Simmonds Hardwicke)—Man and Apes: St. George Mivart (Hardwicke).—Body and Mind : Alex. Bain (H. S. King & Co.).—Metamorphoses of Insects: Sir John Lubbuck (Macmillan & Co.). CONTENTS Pace Tue Arctic ExPeDITION . . b tosses Oe et 3 97 LOCAL 'ScIENTIFIC SOCIRGIES, EIT S ye 0. 5 te cee, 6) eee 97 MansuHacu's To as oF SoutH InpiA. By E. B. Tytor, F.R.S. . 99 Our Book 5HELF . : . - own Boh ae eee 10L LETTERS TO THE Eritor:— Effects of Temperature on Reflex Action —Prof. M. Foster, F.R.S. ror Meyer's Exploration of New Guinea.—A: R. Wactace, F.ZS. . 102 Deep-sea Soundings and Deep-sea ‘hermometers.—R. H. Scort, FIR-S:, Director MebeDept- ne) 2°. 1. 5S ee The Dutch Photographs of the Eclipse of 1871.—A. C. RANYARD, LOE eT >. SDSS oF DMO MOAB akg Saas oo I02 The British Museum SD Ce cicrutie CeO Od rc + 103 Movyaines—E’ Pry eres |) 70. ee The Elevation of Mountains and the Internal Condition of the Earth—H. Hennessy . mae ¢ er ene METEOROLOGIC SECTIONS OF THE ATMOSPHERE. By T. STEVENSON. 103 ON THE PuySIOLoGICAL ACTION OF OZONE . A ks « «| X04 ATMOSPHERIC TELEGRAPHS, II. (With [llustvations) . . . . . . 105 Tue Common Froc, VI By St. Georce Mivart, F.R.S. (With Tllustrations).» . . «i+ 3 HOES tee Sane Fein G +s «© O07 | EakTu-Scucpture, III. By Prof. A Gerxig, F.R.S, . a. 110 EXTERMINATION OF MARINE MAMMALIA... . . . . 6. . « 2I2 NOTEs . Oem = be . mre ai! 12} SCIENTIRIC/SERIALS, qh CM msh le) QU riewinges |=. Seine eee SOcIETIES AND ACADEMIES . « . »- 2». « s « « eis rms Booxs RecHIveD. . ., ++ ’ ‘3 eis o + = /3xG NATURE 117 THURSDAY, DECEMBER 18, 1873 THE TRANSIT OF VENUS EXPEDITIONS OME time ago we called attention to the admirable opportunity which would be afforded by the ap- proaching Astronomical Expeditions for the observation of the Transit of Venus to investigate the Natural History of several little-known islands of the Pacific. The addi- tion of one or two members to these expeditions could make but a comparatively trifling addition to the expense, and while the Astronomers were observing, the Naturalists would be busily employed in collecting. We are glad to be informed that at a recent meeting of the Council of the Royal Society it was determined to take action in this matter, and to advise the Government to attach a small staff of Naturalists to the two expeditions destined to observe the transit in the Island of Rodriguez and Ker- guelen’s Land. There can be little doubt, we presume, that the Government will readily accede to the advice thus offered to them. Rodriguez, an outlier of the Mascarene group, is in many ways specially worthy of thorough investigation. As a general rule oceanic islands lying at a distance from the great continents are of volcanic origin. The Seychelles and the island of Rodriguez are almost the only known exceptions to this rule. Rodriguez, so far as the slight information we possess on the subject extends, is believed to be composed of granite overlaid by limestone and other recent rocks, It is, therefore, of great importance that an accurate geological examination should be made of this island, more especially as its nearest neighbours Bourbon and Mauritius follow the ordinary rule of being volcanic. A second rich field of biological research in Rodriguez will be found in the fossil remains to be met with in the caves of the limestone rocks. These have already yielded good fruit to the investigations of Mr. Edward Newton. the Colonial Secretary of Mauritius, aided by grants from the British Association. The complete skeleton of Pezophaps solitaria, a bird allied to the Dodo of the Mauritius—has been restored from these remains, as is well-known from the excellent memoir upon this extinct bird published by Mr. Newton and his brother, Prof. Newton of Cambridge, in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. But besides additional bones of the Solitaire, which will be welcome to many Museums, it will be desirable to become acquainted with the other animals which were the Solitaire’s fellow-creatures when in existence. Some of these are also obscurely known through the exertions of the Messrs. Newton, but it cannot be doubted that ample materials of this kind are still lying hid in the caves of Rodriguez for the benefit of future explorers. The recent Zoology and Botany of Rodriguez also merit thorough investigation in order to ascertain whether they show any parallel differences to that of its geological structure as compared with the rest of the Mascarene group of islands. Kerguelen’s Land, the second point selected for biolo- gical investigation, is also likely to give ample occupation for a naturalist who will be able to devote several months to its exploration, while the necessary preparations are VoL, 1x.—No, 216 being made for the observation of the great astronomical event. In 1840 Kerguelen’s Land was visited by the Antarctic Expedition under Sir James Ross. The dis- tinguished naturalist who accompanied the expedition ascertained that it contains a scanty land-flora of flower- ing plants, some of which belong to types elsewhere un- known, and an extraordinary profusion of marine forms of both the animal and vegetable kingdoms. Of the land-plants a good series was obtained, but as regards the marine flora and fauna much must remain to be done—especially as Sir James Ross’s visit took place in mid-winter. The Challenger will visit Kerguelen’s Land early next year in order to ascertain the best statien for an Astronomical Observatory, and her excellent staff of naturalists will, without doubt, not neglect the opportunity thus given to them. But looking to the great size of the island, which measures nearly 100 miles by 50, and to what is reported of the excessive richness of the marine forms of life, there will certainly be ample occupation left for the naturalist whom it is proposed to send there along with the Transit expedition. There is, in fact, no doubt that it would be difficult to find two spots on the earth’s surface where investigation is more likely to lead to satisfactory results than in the case of these two little-known islands. Noris the oppor- tunity now offered of obtaining these results at a very small cost to the nation likely to recur, if now neglected, We trust, therefore, that on the part of the Government there will be no hesitation in acceding to the scheme put before them by the Council of the Royal Society. ELLIS’S LIFE OF COUNT RUMFORD Memoir of Sir Benjamin Thompson, Count Rumford, with Notices of his Daughter. By George E. Ellis. (Published in connection with an edition of Rumford’s complete Works by the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Boston.) aie! S biography supplies a want that has been sorely felt by all who have desired to obtain a reliable account of Count Rumford’s eventful life. It is, I think, impossible to name any equally eminent man of modern times concerning whom so little was known before the publication -of this work. The only preceding sources of information, Prof. Pictet’s letters, Prof. Renwick’s sketch in “ Sparks’s Library of American Biography,” Cuvier’s E/oge andj the Cyclopedia biographies made up from these and each other, are most vexatiously contradictory on points of primary interest. Aided by Rumford’s own correspondence, and other original and direct sources of information, Mr. Ellis’s industry has at last rescued us from these perplexities. The career of scientific notables is usually of a simple and uneventful character, but that of the poor school- master of New Hampshire is sufficiently adventurous and romantic to supply materials for a_ sensation- novel writer. He married early ; to quote his own words—“I took a wife, or rather she took me, at 19 years of age.” He describes his married life as both happy and profitable, but it lasted scarcely three years, during which he became a prominent public man and a full-blown soldier, with H 118 NATURE [ Dee. 18, 1873 the rank of major at 20 years of age. The part he took in connection with the American rebellion excited popu- lar indignation against him, led to his imprisonment, the confiscation of his property, and his subsequent flight from home shortly after the birth of his daughter. He never saw his wife again, nor did he see his daughter until 20 years afterwards, when she rejoined him in Europe. At the age of 23, he appears in a new character upon another scene. He is nowa diplomatist, presenting his first state paper to Lord George Germaine in London. He steps at once into a responsible position in the Colonial Office, and presently becomes the “Secretary of Georgia.” In the meantime he is doing important scientific work, is elected Fellow of the Royal Society in 1779, when 26 years of age, and suddenly appears on board the Victory as a volunteer sailor under Sir Charles Hardy, experi- menting with ship’s guns, and writing treatises on naval signals and naval architecture. In the following year he is promoted to the office of “ Under Secretary of State for the Northern Department ” (Colonial). Thirteen months after this he re-appears in military uniform as Lieut.-Colonel Thompson commanding “ The King’s American Dragoons,” and profoundly occupied with experiments upon light artillery, &c. Before 1781 is ended, we find him on the other side of the Atlantic with his dragoons on Long Island, and fighting in the neighbourhood of Charleston at the beginning of 1782. In April we hear of him in New York, and presently find that he has returned to England promoted to the rank of full colonel, and otherwise honoured for his American services, In the midst of all this activity and excitement he is busily engaged in scientific research chiefly upon subjects connected with gunpowder, bullets, and artillery. With his characteristic exaltation of present pursuits he is now consumed by military ardour, and, dissatisfied with his late inglorious outpost skirmishing in America, obtains appointment for active service in the defence of Jamaica against the French, but is frustrated by the temporary pacific re-action that suddenly prevails. He offers to serve in India, but the Government has become economical. Determined to fight somebody, he selects the Turks, with whom Austria is temptingly disposed to quarrel, and, having obtained the King’s permission, proceeds to Vienna, with war-horse, arms, and uniform. Halting on his way he creates considerable sensation by appearing as a visitor on the garrison parade at Strasburg, displaying his handsome figure, brilliant English uniform, and his skil- ful management of an English blood-horse. Field-Mar- shal Prince Maximilian de Deux Ponts rides up to the stranger, salutes, and asks a few questions. Thompson, with the polished courtesy and tact of which he is so accomplished a master, turns this introduction to good account, secures the friendship of the Prince, who is so strongly impressed with the varied attainments of the brilliant soldier, that he presses him to pass through Munich on his way to Vienna and visit the reigning Elector of Bavaria, an uncle of the Prince. The visit is made most successfully, and, with ad- ditional introductions, Thompson proceeds to Vienna with a ready-made continental reputation, though only a few weeks old. Here, as he says, “ I owe to a beneficent Divinity that I was cured in time of that martial folly.” The agent or Divinity of this reformation, was a lady, who, as he says, “ formed an attachment to me, gave me wise advices, and imparted a new turn to my ideas, by pre- senting me in perspective other species of glory than that of conquering battles.” It is proper to add, in expla- nation, that the lady was seventy years of age. In the meantime the Elector of Bavaria invites Thompson to enter his service. For an English officer to do this, permission from the king was necessary. This was obtained in London, and with it the honour of knighthood, which was conferred in February 1784, with a continuance of half-pay as colonel. Sir Benjamin Thompson proceeds immediately to Munich, and there enters upon the most remarkable part of his extraordinary career. The task which he set before himself in Bavaria was nothing less than a com- plete reformation and re-organisation of the army, and a general improvement of the physical and social condition of the whole nation. Invested with full powers by the Elector he sets about bis work in a strictly philosophical manner. The first four years—1784 to 1788—are devoted to a cool, impartial, and systematic investigation of the social statistics and general condition of all classes, civil and military, in Bavaria. Having thus inductively col- lected and generalised his data, he now proceeds deduc- tively to devise his remedies for the evils thus demon- strated. In all his efforts, from the improvement of saucepan-lids and gridirons to the moral reformation of a whole nation of human beings, he is rigidly methodical and strictly scientific, and his success follows as a direct and visible consequence of this scientific mode of pro- ceeding. His well-known and important researches on the Convection and general Transmission of Heat were undertaken and carried out mainly for the purpose of determining the best and most economical means of clothing the Bavarian soldiers, and the construction, warm ing and ventilation of their barracks. Another equally im- portant though less known series of researches were insti- . tuted for the purpose of learning how to feed in the most economical manner the beggars, rogues, and vagabonds, whose sustenance and reformation he had projected. His success in reorganising both the men and mate- rials of the army was marvellous. It was in the course of his work in erecting cannon foundries and remodelling the Bavarian artillery that his celebrated demonstration of the immateriality of Heat was suggested. ; It !may safely be affirmed that the foundation of the present military system and of the recent military suc- cesses of Germany was laid by Benjamin Thompson in Bavaria. He tells us that the fundamental principles upon which he proceeded were “to unite the interest of the soldier with the interests of civil society, and to render the military force, even in times of peace, subser- vient to the public good ;” and further, “ that to establish a respectable standing military force which should do the least possible harm to the population, morals, manufac- tures, and agriculture of the country, it was necessary Zo make soldiers cttizens, and citizens soldiers.” Besides the important technical reforms of discipline, arms, barracks, quarters, military instruction, &c., which he carried out, “ schools were established in all the regi- ments, for the instruction of the soldiers in reading, Dec. 18, 1873] NATURE 119 writing, and arithmetic, and into these schools not only the soldiers and their children, but also the children of the neighbouring citizens and peasants were admitted , gratis.” Military schools of industry were also established where the soldiers learned useful trades; thus the military clothing was spun, woven, and made up by the soldiers themselves ; roads and other public works were made and erected, and the men were permitted to hire them- selves out in garrison towns. Besides this the soldiers were used as industrial missionaries for the introduction of improvements in agriculture, manufactures, &c. The potato, until then almost unknown in Bavaria, was thus introduced by the aid of Thompson’s military gardens or model farms. One of these gardens still remains, viz. the well-known “ English Garden ” at Munich. Still more remarkable was his success in radically curing the overwhelming curse of Bavaria, which was infested with hordes of beggars and vagabonds that had defied every previous effort of suppression or diminution Here again the same strictly philosophical method of pro- ceeding was adopted. Human materials and motives were handled precisely as we manipulate the physical materials and forces of the laboratory, and the results weve similarly definite, reliable, and successful, The scientific social reformer not only cleared the country of its rogues, vaga- bonds, and beggars, but made their industry pay all the expenses of their own feeding, housing, and clothing, be- sides those of the industrial and general education of themselves and their children. In addition to all this they made clothing for the military police who took them into custody, and earned a handsome net profit in hard cash. It is not surprising that such success should have earned for him a long list of Bavarian honours and titles which need not be here recounted, and that he should now appear as “Count of the Holy Roman Empire and Order of the White Eagle,” or, as better known to us, in the title of his own choice, “ The Count of Rumford.” Neither need we be surprised that his health should fail, and that in spite of repose and change of scene we next find him lying dangerously ill at Naples. On his recovery he returns to England, and while busily engaged there in literary and scientific work, is suddenly recalled to Munich, which now has the Austrians at its gates, and is simultaneously threatened by the French. Matters become so serious that the Elector saves himself by flight, only eight days after Rumford’s arrival ; but before leaving the monarch hands over to the philosopher the command-in-chief of the army, and the practical dictatorship of the capital. During the three months of this supreme command Rumford succeeds in overawing and checkmating both French and Austrians, and saving the city, after which the Elector returns. This is the climax of the great philosopher’s career, and now we find him a second time stricken by dangerous illness. On recovering he returns to London, founds the Royal Institution, publishes his essays, and then leaves England for the last time to reside in Paris, where he marries the “ Goddess of Reason,” Madame Lavoisier. Here the curtain falls upon all his greatness, for though but fifty-two years of age, the brilliant career of the Count of Rumford is ended, and the subsequent scenes of his life display a miserable contrast with all that preceded them, | His biographers are evidently puzzled by what follows, and painfully seek apologies for his matrimonial squabbles, his general irritability, his morose seclusion, and the small results of the fussy labours of the last ten years of his life. My own theory is that the illness at Munich —where he describes himselfas being “ sick in bed, worn out by intense application, and dying, as everybody thought, a martyr to the cause to which I had devoted myself ”—was followed by chronic and permanent cerebral disease, and that the gradually developing change of character which he displayed from the date of his return to England in 1798, until his death in 1814, was but a natural symptom of this growing malady. Present space does not permit me to state in detail the evidence upon which I base this conclusion, but I can- not conclude without protesting against the explanation of Cuvier, who in his A/oge states that “‘ It wouldjappear as if, while he had been rendering all these services to his fellow-men, he had no real love or regard forthem. It would appear as if the vile passions which he had observed in the miserable objects which he had committed to his care, or those other passions, not less vile, which his success and fame had excited among his rivals, had em- bittered him towards human nature.” Cuvier, if I am right, only knew the diseased wreck of the brilliant, courteous, and even fascinating “soldier, philosopher, and statesman,” and I suspect that the unjust oblivion of his merits which so speedily followed his death, was largely due to the bad impression made, not only upon the French Academicians, but also upon his Royal Institution associates, by the moral obliquities and eccen- tricities due to a diseased brain. The main interest of the career of this wonderful man appears to me to lie in this, that it affords a magnificent demonstration of the practical value of scientific training, and the methodical application of scientific processes to the business of life. I have long maiatained that every father who is able and willing to qualify his son to attain a high degree of success either as a man of business, a soldier, a sailor, a lawyer, a statesman, or in any other responsible department of life, should primarily place him in a labo- ratory where he will not merely learn the elements of science, but be well trained in carrying out original physical research, such training being the best of all known means of affording that systematic discipline of the intellectual and moral powers upon which all practical success inlife depends. The story of Count Rumford’s life, and the lesson it teaches, afford most valuable evidence in support of this conclusion, and cannot fail powerfully to enforce it. This subject is specially important at the present moment, particularly to those Englishmen whose minds are still infested with the shallow foolishness that leads them to believe that scientific men are dreamy theorists, and disqualified for practical business. Let them follow in detail the practical triumphs of this experimental philo- sopher, and ask themselves candidly whether such success could have been possible had he been trained in the mere word-exalting study of the Greek and Latin classics, instead of the practical school of experimental research. W. MATTIEU WILLIAMS 120 GARRETT’S FISHES OF THE PACIFIC Andrew Garrett's Fische der Siidsee beschrieben tind redi- girt. Von Albert C. L. G. Giinther, Heft i. (Hamburg : L. Friederichsen & Co., 1873.) HE house of Hr. Cesar Godeffroy & Co. of Hamburg have for several years employed scientific collectors in various parts of the Pacific to prepare and send home specimens of natural history. These have been stored up at Hamburg, in what is now a well-known scientific insti- tution, the “ Museum Godeffroy,’ under the care of an active superintendent, whose services have been engaged to take charge of and arrange the various objects thus ac- cumulated. But not content with thus bringing the rari- ties of the Pacific within the grasp of European naturalists, Herr Godeffroy has obtained the assistance of some of the best known workers in Science for examination of these materials. The extensive collections of birds made for him by Dr. Edward Graffe were submitted to the well-known ornithologists Drs. Finsch and Hartlaub of Bremen, and formed the basis of their excellent work on the “ Birds of Central Polynesia,” published a few years since. For the working out of the Polynesian Fishes, of which we believe, Herr Godeffroy’s collection is still more complete, the co-operation of Dr. Giinther of our National Museum, the most distinguished of living ichthyologists, has been obtained, and the book now before us contains the first-fruits of Dr. Giinther’s labours, The brilliant colours which adorn many of the Poly- nesian fishes have been well known to travellers in those regions since the days of Cook, and have been frequently described in lively terms. Unfortunately, however, these colours entirely disappear in fishes preserved in spirit after the ordinary fashion, so that their beauty can only be appreciated by visitors to the distant seas which they inhabit. In order to exhibit these colours in the present work, Herr Godeffroy has acquired a large series of drawings, taken from living specimens, by Mr. Andrew Garrett, who has been many years resident in the Sand- wich and Society Islands, and in other parts of Polynesia. Under these circumstances we may well anticipate the production of a first-rate work, more especially as the ser- vices of the unrivalled lithographic artist, Mr. G. H. Ford, have been secured to put the drawings on the stones. Dr. Giinther commences his work in systematic order with the Serranidee, of which numerous brightly coloured forms inhabit the various Archipelagoes of the Pacific. Twenty splendid plates illustrate the letterpress, and it is only wonderful how they can be produced at so small a cost. Nine similar parts will complete the work, which bids fair to become one of the most perfect icthyological monographs ever issued. OUR BOOK SHELF Manual of Comparative Anatomy and Physiology. By S. M. Bradley, F.R.C.S. Second Edition. (Man- chester : Cornish ; London: Simpkin, Marshall and Co.) ENCOURAGED by the success of an earlier and much smaller edition of this work, the author has entirely re- written the new one. In so doing, we think that he could not have made a greater mistake, as the small size of the NATURE | Dec. 18, 1873 original precluded the introduction of detail with which he is not acquainted, and so prevented his exposing his ignorance to the world at large. The impression which remains after the perusal of a few pages is, that the author, after reading rapidly through some one of the standard text-books on Zoology, wrote down his im- pressions as far as his memory served him. Faults of omission are not uncommon in text-books, especially when they are written by those who are not practically acquainted with their subject, but faults of commission are, fortunately, much less common. In the work before us there are several of the former, and they cannot all be laid down to want of space ; for in the case of the Myria- poda, respecting the peculiarities of the main divisions of which the position of the legs is not referred to, two- thirds of the page on which they should have been found is left blank before the commencement of the following chapter. The faults of commission are so numerous that they admit of easy classification. There are those of sheer carelessness from inattentive reading, otherwise, how is it that we are told that the Dugong has six cervical vertebra, and that the Zvaguline, or Musk Deer (!) have all the tarsal bones anchylosed. Others arise from a want of power to realise the meaning of the ordinary descriptions of well-known anatomical facts, as when it is indicated that the ventricles of the Crocodile’s heart are not completely separated, and the marsupium, or pouch of the female Kangaroo in the male is everted, and supports the penis. Absolute and inexcusable errors it is difficult to explain, but among such we are told that the Nummulites are Cephalopoda ; the Marsipobranchii have more than one nasal sac; that in the Lepidosiren the nasal canals are not open at both ends, and the vertebree are ossified ; and that in the Bear the clavicles are more developed than in other Carnivora, when they are in reality absent altogether. Peculiarities found in one division are omitted with regard to them, and referred to others entirely different, as when it is stated that among the Marsupialia “ each oviduct in the female leads into a perfectly distinct uterus, which opens into a separate vagina, which is also the passage of the urine,” and that in the male the vasa deferentia “open into a cloaca com- mon to the urinary and generative secretions.” These remarks apply to the Monotremata well enough, how is it they are omitted in speaking of them, and stated of their allies, which in these respects are quite differently con- structed. We rarely remember to have seen a work so carelessly undertaken, and by so incompetent an author. Seventeenth Half-Yearly-Report of the Marlborough College Natural History Society for the Hadlf- Year ending Midsummer, 1873. (Marlborough : Perkins.) ALTHOUGH the tone of the Preface to this Report is not quite so desponding as that of the previous one, still it contains a good deal of complaint. It seems to be the rule, for which we cannot see any reason, that members on entering the fifth form resign their membership, Is it because their schoolwork occupies all their time? or is it considered beneath the dignity of a fifth-form boy to be- long to such a society? Probably no satisfactory reason could be assigned for the practice, therefore we hope it may not be continued. Another discouragement to the society has been the difficulty of getting papers except from avery few, who, after a time, “struck work,” because they “felt that others ought to help in keeping up the in- terest of the meetings.” We think the few workers would have been more likely to attain this end had they continued to prepare and read papers amid all discou- ragements ; by this means, we think, they would be more likely “ encourager les autres.” We see no reason why the reading of papers should not be combined with the exhibition of objects and with discussions. Is not the Marlborough College Society too sensitive? From the reports of the field-work done and the collections Dee. 18, 1873] NATURE [21 made, it seems to possess a few admirable workers, who possess energy, knowledge, and earnestness enough to keep any such society from collapsing. The Botanical list is a model one. The papers in the Report are,— “ Heraldry,” by Mr. F. E. Hulme, F.L.S.; “On the Perception of the Unseen,” by Mr. G, F. Rodwell ; “ A Walk across the Karst,” by the Rev. J. Sowerby ; and “ The Luschari (Heilige) Berg in Carinthia,” by the same gentleman. LETTERS TO THE EDITOR [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. No notice is taken of anonymous communications. | Prof. Agassiz Tue sad intelligence received in London this morning of the death of Prof. Agassiz adds another illustrious name to the long roll of victims to the insidious demon, “ over-work.” May I ask you to give room in your next issue to the following passage from a letter (probably one of the last he penned) received from Prof. Agassiz only last week, which may be interesting to his many sorrowing friends on this side the Atlantic, as attesting in- directly to the cause of his death, viz., excess of mental and physical exertion. P. De M. GrEY EGERTON Athenzeum Club, Dec. 16 “ Museum of Comparative Zoology, “*Cambridge, Mass., Nov. 26, 1873 ‘A feeling of despondency comes over me when I see how long a time has elapsed since I received your last letter, which at the time I meant to answer immediately. With returning health, I have found the most frightful amount of neglected work to bring up to date, with the addition of a new institution to organise. Ihave given myself up to the task with all the energy of which I am capable, and have madea splendid success of the Anderson School, which cannot fail henceforth to have a powerful influence upon the progress of Science in the) United States. But this has driven out everything else, and I should have neglected even the Museum had not a constant appeal to my attention arisen from the close connection in which the An- derson School stands to the Museum, of which it is, as it were, the educational branch. So School and Museum have made gigantic strides side by side; but I am down again. At least I feel unable to exert myself as usual, and sucha feeling in the beginning of the working season is disheartening. When I last wrote I had strong hopes of an easy summer with my family, and confidently expected to be able to pass the greater part of the win- ter in Europe, and to have prepared the volume on Selachians of the ‘ Poissons Fossiles’ for a new edition, or rather an English work on thesubject. Now that hope is gone ; the immense acces- sions to our Museum make even the progress of the Coal Fishes from Iowa slow and almost hopeless. With 22 assistants and 14 sub-assistants in the Museum, I have my hands full with administrative duties and responsibilities, and science and friends suffer. ** Ever truly your friend, ‘* (Signed) LL. AGassiz” Experiments on Frogs WILL you grant me the space in your journal for a few words called forth by Mr. Lewes'’s letter in your number of December 4, on “ Sensation in the Spinal Cord”? In that letter the writer describes some experiments on frogs of such excessive cruelty that I cannot refrain from entering a protest against the princip’e which justifies such actions, The right to perform such actions as vivisection, &c., in the cause of Science, has often before been questioned ; but the pre- sent case—a case in which the infliction of pain is not an un- avoidable a/fendant on the experiments, but the very essence or object of them, and the slowness and prolongation of agony a necessary part—stirs and revolts the whole mind, and brings the question again prominently to the front. The question then is—are either the possible or probable benefits to a portion of mankind, or the advancement of Science for its own sake, sufficient reasons for the infliction of intense suffering on our fellow-animals? Of course much may be urged in favour of vivisection. It may be said that without its assist- ance Science, and especially the science of medicine, could never have advanced to the point it has now reached; and mankind urges that the good of mankind is of such paramount importance that that of all other animals must be subordinated to it unconditionally, and consequently that the smallest good to mankind balances the greatest evil to other animals. To many this would be considered an amply sufficient reason for answering the question in the affirmative, but at least it should be remembered at what tremendous cost to one portion of creation these benefits to another portion are purchased. As time and Science advance it is becoming more recognised ‘that other animals have their rights as well as men ; and perhaps it may some day be found that the right which mankind assumes to himself of supremacy over his fellow-animals (including the right to inflict deliberate torture, for whatever purpose) is, after all, but the right of the strongest or most powerful. It seems to me so shocking that such things should be written of and read with indifference, and without evoking one word of protest on the other side, that on this ground alone, ze., that the assumption of the right to inflict torture may not pass quite unchallenged, I venture to bez for the insertion of this letter. Dec. 8 >. Proposed Alterations in the Medical Curriculum In a recent number of NATURE, remarks are made in regard to the present Medical Curriculum, more especially in connection with the proposal of Prof. Huxley to alter the Curriculum for medical graduation in the University of Aberdeen. His object is to remove the subjects of Botany and Narural History from that Curriculum, and to put them in the category of a prelimi- nary examination, without any compulsory at endance upon lectures. Such a proposal if carried into effect would tend in no small degree to limit the medical student’s acquirements in the biological sciences, as he will not be required to take full scientific courses on these subjects. The tendency of sucha system will be to encourage what is commonly called ‘‘ cram,” inasmuch as there will be no guarantee for methodical practical instruction under a qualified teacher. While it may be true that f’:.se who take the diplomas of the medical corporations are not culled upon to attend courses of lec- tures on these subjects, and rarely undergo an examination on them, the case is quite different with those students who aspire to university degrees. The latter look not merely for a license to prac- tise, but desire also a university honour. Animportant distinction at the present day, between the licentiates of colleges and the graduates of universities, 1s that the latter are expected to have a higher literary and scientific knowledge. In place of reducing the qualifications for degrees, so as to compete with colleges, we ought to keep up the standard, and send forth medical men who are not only well fitted for the practical duties of the pro- fession, but who can also occupy a prominent position in the scientific world. In accomplishing this object we should arrange the curriculum in such a way as to put the study of the sciences in its proper place. ‘The student ought to commence the study of botany and natural history in summer, before entering upon anatomy, surgery, and other purely medical sub- jects. This is nowto a large extent carried out in the Uni- versity of Edinburgh, and by so doing a three months’ course of scientific study is added to the curriculum. The student might be encouraged to take his science examination at an early period of his curriculum, say at the end of his first year of study. The training which these studies give to the mind of the young medical student, is most important. They call forth his powers of observation and diagnosis ; they present to him the principles of classification, and they enlarge his views of anatomy and physiology. In primary schools of the present day we frequently find that the elements of botany and zoology constitute a part of the teaching, and most properly so. But this is not enough for the graduate in medicine. He must supplement this by going through the higher University Curriculum. 122 NATURE [Dec. 18, 1873 The commissioners for visiting the Universities of Scotland, remark in their report “‘that it is desirable that graduates in medicine should have that degree of literary and scientific attain- ment which will prevent them when mingling as they must do with mankind, in the exercise of their profession, from being looked upon with contempt ; or from committing errors in conversation and in writing, for which others would be despised ; because even upon the supposition that they have high professional ac- quisitions, the law of association will operate, and the conclu- sion will be drawn that much confidence cannot be placed in them.” The value of university training was strongly insisted on by the late Prof. Edward Forbes, when speaking of the relation which scientific studies bear to medicine. The following are his remarks :—* It is the training of the mind in correct methods of observation that gives the Natural History Sciences so much value as instruments for preparation in professional education. Not unfrequently do we hear the short-sighted and narrow- minded ask—what is the use of zoology or botany or geology to the physician and surgeon? what have they to do with beasts or lants or stones? Is not their work among men healing the sick? Of what use save as remedies, are the creeping things, or the grass that grows upon the earth, or the minerals in the rock ? Vain and stupid questions all—yet they are sometimes put by persons who profess to promote the spread of education. They want something, but the best of them mistake the end for the means. The best want knowledge, but have not learnt that the mind must be trained ere it is prepared to gather and digest knowledge. They want science, but science turns mouldy and unwholesome in our unprepared mind. ‘They forget or do not know that education consists chiefly in training, not in informing. “We must counteract the natural tendency of purely profes- sional studies—the tendency to limit the range of mental vision. We can do this most beneficially through the collateral sciences, which are sufficiently different to give them a wider sphere of action. It is from this point of view that we should regard the natural history sciences as branches of medical educa- tion. For my part,” continues Forbes, ‘‘ after much inter- course with medical men who had studied at many-seats of professional education, some collegiate, some exclusively profes- sional, I have no hesitation in saying that, as a rule, the former had the intellectual advantage. There are noble and notable exceptions old and young, but the rule is true in the main. The man who has studied at a seat of learning, university or col- lege, has a wider range of sympathies, a more philosophical tone of mind and a higher estimate of the objects of intellectual ambition, than his fellow-practitioner who, from his youth up- wards, has concentrated his thoughts upon the contractedly pro- fessional subjects of an hospital school. I will not believe that the practitioner of medicine, any more than the clergyman, or the lawyer, or the soldier or merchant, is wiser, or better able to treat the offices of his calling, because his mind takes no note of subjects beyond the range of his professional pursuit. It is a great pleasure, both to patient and neighbour- hood, to find in our doctor anenlightened friend, one who, whilst he does his duty ably and kindly, has a sympathy and an acquaintance with science, literature, and art.”’ In Scotland a university isnot merely a board authorised to exa- mine students and grant degrees, it isan educational institution, in- tended to exercise a surveillance over the studies of youth, to train their minds for the proper acquisition of knowledge, and to direct their energies in such a way as to insure that mental culture which will fit them for all the duties of life. We speak of our University in Scotland as our Adma Mater because she acts the part of a mother to her a/umnz, educating them and superintend- ing their progress in liberal studies. Tt appears to me that a great injury would be inflicted on the character of our medical degrees if the required curriculum did not embrace the natural sciences. To study these properly some- thing more than books is required. There must be practical training under an able teacher, examination of living objects both with the naked eye and with the microscope, and a certified course of study. I am sure that everyone, in Scotland at all events, who desires to make graduation in medicine a University honour will aid in keeping up a scientific curriculum under quali- fied teachers. Edinburgh University Joun H. BALFOUR Ancient Egyptian Balances THAvE to thank Mr. Rodwell for calling my attention, in Nature, vol. ix. p. 8, to the curious representation of an equal-armed Egyptian balance in a papyrus, now in the British Museum. This papyrus, which is perhaps the most beautiful in the whole collection, all the colours and lines being as bright and distinct as when originally painted, has been shown to me by Dr. Birch, who also informed me where I could procure a photo- graph of it, being one of a series of photographs from the collec- tion at the British Museum, taken by S. Thompson, and pub- lished by Mansell and Co., 2, Percy Street. By Mr. Mansell’s permission the following drawing has been made. From an ancient Egyptian papyrus in the British Museum, of Hennefer, superintendent of the cattle of Seti I., roth Dynasty, about 1350 B.c., representing the “Ritual of the dead.” The heart of the deceased is being weighed in an equal-armed balance, and found lighter than a feather. In the papyrus, the weighing is being made in the Hall of perfect Justice, in presence of Osyris. It may be seen that what Mr. Rodwell mentions as a sliding weight on one side of the beam, appears rather to be a loop or ribbon for limiting the oscillation of the beam. In the original papyrus the middle and both ends of the beam, as well as the lower part of the column, are coloured to represent polished brass, whilst the other parts of the balance are dark, as if of bronze. It should be observed that the balance beam has box- ends for suspending the pans. Judging from the height of the human figures, the length of the balance beam represented is about six feet, and the height of the column of the balance is nearly the same. Several similar, though rougher, representa- tions of weighing the heart of the deceased may be seen in the papyrus drawing on the staircase leading from the Egyptian sculpture room to the upper Egyptian room in the British Mu- seum. Hi, W. CHISHOLM Stalagmitic Deposits In a former number of NATURE (vol. viii. p. 462), Mr. A. R. Wallace, in reviewing Sir Charles Lyell’s last edition of the ‘* Antiquity of Man,” makes use of the rate of deposits of stalag- mite as data for ascertaining the age of animal remains which arefound buried in caves. It is evident that the variations of rate will render unreliable data for arriving at correct conclusions ; still, calculations based thereon may be of service. : Some thirty years ago I procured a piece of lime deposit from a lead mine at Boltsburn, in the county of Durham ; it measured about 18in. in length, loin. in breadth, and fully {in. thick ; it was compact and crystalline, and showed distinct facets of crystals on its surface, over which the water was running. I had indisputable evidence that the deposit had taken place in fifteen years. The water, from which it was produced, issued from an adit driven in the Little limestone, which is about 9 ft. thick. After leaving the adit, the water ran down the perpen- dicular side of a rise, for some fathoms, on to some rock ddbr7s, which was lying on the bottom of a hopper, whence it proceeded from the upper part of the hopper mouth, then perpendicularly down over two narrowish wood deals, which were set on edge, and put across the mouth of the hopper to retain the worked materials. It was from off these deals that I obtained the speci- men above described. Onits back side the forms of the deals Dec. 18, 1873| NATURE 123 1 were well defined ; on the front one the crystals were best de- veloped where the stream was most active. In accordance with the above rate of increase of deposit, namely, {in. in fifteen years, 5 in. would require 100 years, 4 ft. 2in. 1,000, and 41 ft. 8in. 10,000 years. The data given to arrive at these results may be relied on as being accurate. In the case now related, the rate of increase of deposit was likely to continue tolerably uniform; as the surface water could have no appreciable influence in augmenting or lessening the flow from the adit. Boltsburn, Nov. 26 JoHN CuRRY Shooting-stars in the Red Sea ON my way’to India, in November 1872, I witnessed in the Red Sea the splendid phenomenon of a star-drift, a note about which may be of interest, in comparison with the observations at the same time in Europe. November 24, at 8 P.M., about 600 miles to the south of Suez, I first saw a series of shooting-stars falling from about 70° W.N.W., but notin such a quantity that my attention was much attracted ; I only made a note about it in my diary. In the night of the 25th—26th I noticed nothing particular, but in that of the 26th-27th again many shooting-stars were to be seen. But in the night of the 27th-28th, about 100 miles to the west of Aden, the phenomenon reached its height. Through the whole night many thousands of shooting-stars were falling from every quarter of the heavens, and in all directions. It was impossible for me to count the average number falling in one minute, although I tried several times to do so, because the eye could not be everywhere, and the shooting-stars did not come from one point cnly. Isat the whole night on deck, to witness this sublime phenomenon of nature, which cer- tainly was far more splendid here in the tropics than in Europe, on account of the generally greater brightness of the stars in these latitudes. A. B. MEYER Cuckoos In vol. v. p. 383 of NATURE, you were so good as to publish a note of mine, in which I tried to describe exactly all that took place when I saw a young cuckoo throw a young pipit out of the nest. I am much flattered to find that Mr. Gould has thought my note fit to be transferred to the introduction of his magnificent “ Birds of Great Britain,” and a rough sketch of mine worthy to be made the foundation of one of his large coloured plates. As, however, I have always tried in my drawings of facts in natural history to express neither more nor less than what I saw, I think it right to say that Iam not the authority for many of the details in the large plate. None of us saw the parent pipit looking on while the young cuckoo behaved so naughtily ; we saw only two young pipits besides the young cuckoo, and no egg-shells. The young cuckoo was absolutely naked and blind, the young pipits partly fledged and bright eyed. One curious point I tried to call attention to in my former note in these words:—‘‘ The nest . . . . was below a heather-bush on the declivity of alow abrupt bank . .. . The most singular thing of all was the direct purpose witl which the 2/nd little monster made for the ofex side of the nest, the only part where it could throw its burthen down the bank.” This peculiarity my rough sketch could not, and Mr. Gould’s plate does not, express. j.H:. B: VII.—Continuation of the History of the “ Nautical Almanac.” NTIL towards the end of the life of Maskelyne, its founder, the Nautical Almanac had the appro- bation of the English, and knew how to deserve the praise of foreigners ; it was, according to Lalande, the most per- * Continued from p. 70 fect ephemeris that had ever existed.* But, in 1808, death deprived Maskelyne, who was then about 76 years of age, of his pupil and industrious col/aborateur, R. Hitchins, upon whom he had depended for ten years for the most important part of his work, the verification of the calcu- lations, and who was during that time the real editor of the Wautical Almanac. The advanced age of Mas- kelyne no longer permitting him to undertake any active occupation, the work passed into irresponsible hands, the calculations fell into great confusion, and “while as- tronomy advanced, the Mautical Almanac remained stationary, and even retrograded.”+ Maskelyne died shortly afterwards, in 1811, and Brown of Tiedeswill (Derbyshire), was appointed to succeed him. The new director did not improve the Waztzcal Almanac, and English mariners and astronomers complained loudly ; a reform was necessary. The Board of Longitude being incompetent to improve the work of which it had charge, Government abolished that body in 1818, by advice of the Admiralty, to which the publication of the work was entrusted, and which replaced the former body (which numbered sixteen members) by another much less nu- merous. This new Board of Longitude was ingeniously formed ; it was composed of a Resident Committee “of three persons well versed in mathematics, astronomy, and navigation, nominated by Government,” to which was added, a Commission of the Royal Society, consisting of the president and three members, charged to support it, and, if need be, to control it. The members of the resi- dent committee had to live in London, or its neighbour- hood, and to lend their aid to the Commissioners of the Royal Society for the scientific questions within the domain of the Commission. They received a salary of too/,, and the secretary of the committee, who was charged with the publication of the Mazdtzcal Almanac, a salary of 5007. Captain Kater, Dr. Wollaston, and Dr. Young were appointed resident members, and the latter, the secretary of the committee, had the editorship of the Nautical Almanac. Young did much to improve the work, to restore to it the reputation for accuracy which Maskelyne had given it, and to render it capable of satisfying the constantly in- creasing wants of navigation. Thus, he introduced into the A/jmanac, in 1822, the apparent position, for every ten days, of twenty-four fundamental stars, which number was increased to sixty in 1827; mariners had thus con- stantly at their command the exact position of their refe- rence points. Moreover, it is to him that we owe the publication of the elements by means of which we can predict occultations of stars by the moon, phenomena so useful to astronomers on an expedition, and to sailors whose ships are in a foreign harbour. But these improvements were by no means the only ones which English astronomers and mariners demanded ; as it was, the Wawtical Almanac satisfied neither the one nor the other of these; sailors stood in need of the ephemerides and planetary distances of Schumacher, and astronomers of the supplement to these ephemerides.t Moreover, it often happened that these ephemerides ap- peared too late to be of any service to mariners who were setting out on along voyage. Thus Young was exposed to criticism, very just, no doubt, but sometimes extremely violent. The result was an excessively sharp contr¢- versy, which, although sustained by most of the English y * “© Correspondance astronomique francaise,” of Baron de Zach, vol. iv. pp- 87, e# seq. : 4 + Sir James South’s Addressto the Royal Astronomical Society, February 12, 1830. t The first of these ephemerides was due to the Baron de Zach, and Rear-Admiral Hévernérn caused them to be adopted by the Danish Go- vernorin 1800. ‘Lhe Director of Copenhagen Observatory, Thomas Bugge, was then entrusted with their editorship; they were continued by Schu- macher, and a little later were published, partly at the expense of the British Government. ‘They gave the position of the planets Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn for every day in the year, and their distances from the moon every three hours. 124 NATURE [ Dec. 18, 1873 astronomers, was concentrated in two eminent men, espe- cially remarkable for their intense love of astronomy. The one was Sir James South, a rich landowner, who carried his love of astronomy so far as to devote the greater part of his income to the construction and main- tenance of his observatory of South Villa. The other was Francis Baily, who, by dint of his persevering efforts, got the Board of Longitude to publish, in 1825, the original observations of T. Mayer, and who was, at a later period, the promoter of the measures taken for the publication of the numerous observations of Lalande. Behind these was the Royal Astronomical Society. The end to be attained was as clear as it was legiti- mate ; it was sought to make the astronomical part of the Nautical Almanac more complete and make it an- swer all wants. Young and the other members of the Board of Longitude opposed to these attacks a resist- ance unhappily too energetic. But public opinion was formed, and the first satisfaction it obtained was the sup- pression of the Board of Longitude in 1828. Young was then in very bad health; indeed, it was seen that he could not live long, and it was not thought right to sad- den his last days by taking from him the direction of the Nautical Almanac. In the meanwhile, an event of the greatest importance took place on the Continent, which rendered reforms more urgent than ever. We speak of the radical change which the illustrious Encke had introduced into the “Jahrbuch” of Berlin, a change which embodied the greater part of the desiderata named long before by Baily and Sir James South, and for which was awarded to its author the gold medal of the Astronomical Society. To comprehend this completely, it is necessary to go a little further back, and learn the history of the “ Jahrbuch” from the point where we left it. VIII.— Continuation of the History of the “ Fahrbuch” After the death of Lambert, Bode was entrusted with the care of the Yahrduch under the direction of the Berlin Academy. But soon the difficulties which resulted from the publication of this special work, under the orders of anumerous assembly, “in which everybody had the right of criticism, but in which no one had the effective responsibility,” difficulties which, during the life of Lam- bert, had not had time to manifest themselves, became such that in 1783 the Academy of Sciences of Berlin de- cided of its own accord to give up the direction of the Fahrbuch, and to leave to that member who had the actual editorship the complete responsibility as well as the honour of that publication. It was, besides, by the advice of the celebrated Lagrange that Bode was con- sulted. The latter then became editor of the Fahrbuch, which was now published only “ with the approval of the Academy.” This astronomer, however, followed religiously the plan traced by Lambert, not attempting any essential modifica- tion in the form of the Fahréuch. But in attempting to render perfect the ephemerides, he sought chiefly to collect in the second part the most remarkable astronomi- cal results of Germany and foreign countries. For this purpose he entered into correspondence with nearly all the astronomers of Europe, and the Fahrbuch of Berlin soon attained, in this respect, such a renown that, “from this time,” says Lalande in his “ Bibliographie Astronomique,” ‘all astronomers are obliged to know German, for this work cannot be dispensed with.” In the ephemerides the only modification of any importance on the plan of Lambert which Bode allowed himself during the whole of his editorship, was the addition of a table giving the corrections which it was necessary to make on the times of the rising and setting of the heavenly bodies at Berlin to obtain the times of the same phenomena in other latitudes. During this time, however, astronomy had progressed. The beautiful memoirs of Bessel on the determination of the apparent positions of the stars, the improvement made on instruments, the convenience of the methods by which Bessel had learnt to correct and revise the results of these, had increased the wants of astronomers. On the other hand, the theory of the planetary movement had made immense advances, and the planetary system itself had been enriched by four telescopic planets—Ceres (Piazzi, Jan. 1, 1801), Pallas (Olbers, March 28, 1802), Juno (Harding, Sept. 1, 1804), and Vesta (Olbers, March 29, 1807). All presented the same peculiarity, that of re- volving between Mars and Jupiter. It became necessary then to publish the ephemerides of these new planets, in order that astronomers might be able to observe them. But Bode, who held for nearly half a century the astro- nomical sceptre of Europe, had then reached an advanced age, when the mind does not take easily to reforms.* Bode died at Berlin, Nov. 23, 1826. J. F. Encke, then astronomer of the Observatory of Seeberg, near Gotha, Saxony, was called to the direction of the Observatory of Berlin and of the Fahrbuch.t From the first volume which he published (Fahrbuch for 1830, May 1828), he realised all the reforms that German astronomers demanded. What then were those reforms universally called for ? IX.— Programme of Reforms If we wish to understand them, it is enough to recall to mind that for a maritime people, ephemerides such as the Wautical Almanac and the Connatssance des Temps have a double purpose: to be serviceable to mariners and travellers, and also to astronomers, that is to say, to observatories. At the very outset, it was evidently very useful to all that all the data of the work should be connected with the same kind of time, instead of giving for some the mean time, and for others the true time. And as astronomical tables are necessarily arranged on mean time, as on the other hand it is the most convenient for all the uses of navigation, it was good to take this mean time as the only time of the tables. It was, however, necessary to make an exception for the co-ordinates of the sun at the moment of his passage on the meridian, which, very evi- dently, ought to be calculated for the apparent noon or the true noon. Besides, from the purely astronomical point of view, it was evidently convenient to calculate the places of the sun, of the moon, and of the planets, with all possible precision, so that the comparison of the observations with the tables might serve to amend the latter. It was necessary then to calculate to the rooth of a second the co-ordinates expressed in time, and to the roth those expressed in arc. On the other hand, it was necessary to give, for every day in the year, at mean noon, the geocentric (AR, and D), and heliocentric co- ordinates of all the principal planets, and to publish in advance ephemerides of the telescopic planets near their opposition, an epoch favourable for their observation. Again, the observation of the eclipses of the satellites of Jupiter being one of the best means of determining the longitude of a station, it was evidently of importance that * Johann Elhert Bode was born at Hamburg on Jan. 19, 1747. He studied under the guidance of his father, who kept a boarding-school, and at first intended him for a teacher. Mathematics, and particularly astronomy, were at an early age his favourite studies. He made his first astronomical obser- vations in a granary, by means of a telescope which he had himself made; at 18 years he knew how to calculate, with considerable precision, eclipses and the course of the planets. Some time after, Dr. Bush, with whom chance made him acquainted, lent him his books and instruments; the vocation for which he was originally destined was from that time abandoned. In 1768 he published his treatise on Astronomy, ‘* Die Anleitung zur Kenntniss des gestirnten Himmels,” which had an imense success; shortly after he was made fersionnaire of the Berlin Academy. His most important astronomical work is his “‘ Uranography,” containing in 20 charts a list of 17,240 stars, double stars, nebula, &c. ; ze. 12,000 more than in the ancient charts. t Encke was born at Hamburg, Sept. 23, 1791. Son ofa protestant pastor, he studied under the celebrated Gauss at Gottingen; in 1814 he was ap- pointed by B. de Lindenau, Minister of State of Saxony, director of the Observatory of Seeberg. — Dec. 18, 1873 | NATURE 125 the tables of these satellites should be brought to a high degree of perfection ; and as, according to the opinion of the most distinguished mathematicians, the observation of all the phenomena which are presented by one of these satellites in superior or inferior conjunction is the best means of determining certain elements of the theory of the satellites of Jupiter, it was useful to give in the col- lection of ephemerides not only the epochs of the eclipses, but also those of the contact of the shadow of the satellite with the planet. Tables for the observation of the satel- lites at the time of their maximum elongation would also be very desirable. From the mariners’ point of view, for whom the moon is the principal heavenly body, the positions of the moon calculated for noon and midnight of every day would be insufficient on account of the considerable proper move- ment of our satellite. To obtain the longitude of a place by means of the observation of the passage across the meridian of one of the limbs, there would be required an excessively laborious calculation ; the use of that method, however convenient, was then illusory. It was necessary to give the right ascension and the declination for every hour of the day, for the purpose of avoiding the employ- ment of second differences except in cases where very great precision was sought for. Then, when accurate tables of the movements of the planets were obtained, it was useful to add to the distances of the moon from the sun and from the stars, the distances of that body from the principal planets, the observation of which is more convenient and more certain than that of its distances from the stars. But it was necessary to consider not only astronomers in observatories and sailors on board their ships, it was useful to enable astronomers on an expedition, and sailors when in a foreign harbour, and also geographers, to obtain the geographical co-ordinates of their station with ease and accuracy. From this point of view the method known as that of the Lunar Culminations holds the first rank, a method to which a beautiful work by Nicolai* gave a capital importance. The learned director of the Observatory of Mannheim showed with what facility the observations of the passage of the moon combined with those of a certain number of stars, called “stars of the moon,” bordering on its parallel, and passing the meridian a little before or a little after (half- an-hour at the most), could give, sufficiently approximately, the difference of the longitudes of two places, even with a meridian instrument which was not perfect. On the other hand, Bessel and Hansen had given simple methods for calculating the horary movement of the moon. To apply this method of lunar culminations, it was then necessary to choose “stars of the moon,” and to publish their posi- tions every year, day by day, at the same time as those of the moon at the moment of its passing the meridian. This addition had, moreover, this advantage, that by indi- cating by an asterisk the stars comprehended between 4° and 14° of declination, the observers of the two hemi- spheres would have the elements most useful for im- proving continuously (d@’une fagon continue) the value of the lunar parallax. The phenomenon of the occultation of the stars of the moon offers, besides, an excellent means of determining longitudes. It was then important thus to calculate in advance and to publish all the elements likely to serve for predicting all the occultations in a given place, for the purpose of rendering the employ- ment of this method easy to the navigator. Finally it was indispensable, as well for the astrono-. mical operations of observatories as for those connected with an astronomical ora geodetic expedition, that the collection of ephemerides should contain, for epochs suffi- ciently close to permit calculation for intermediate dates * “Uber die Methode, langen durch Rectascensions-Differenzen Sel wahlten Vergleichsterne vom Monde zu bestimmen” (4stronomiésche Nachrichten for 1823 and 1824.) by simple proportion, the apparent positions of a very large number of stars of the greatest magnitude, and distributed both in the north and south hemispheres. It was useful, moreover, to join to this catalogue the values for very close epochs of the constants of Bessel, which enable one to pass from the mean position of a star at the commencement of the year to its apparent position on any day whatever. ? For the principal circumpolars, a and 6 Ursz Minoris, the importance of which is so great in determining the various constants of a meridian instrument, and whose apparent positions vary much wore rapidly than those of stars at a distance from the pole,—the apparent positions ought to be given every day. Such is, with the exception of a few unimportant details, the list of reforms which the general opinion of astronomers demanded in England and Germany. (To be continued.) ON THE SECONDARY WAVES IN SPHYGMOGRAPH TRACE ye a letter printed in this journal a short time ago (vol. viii. p. 464), Dr. Galabin refers to a paper which has been since published in the Yournal of Anatomy and Physiology (No. XII. p. 1), for a fuller account of his views as to the theory of the pulse, of which we gavea short notice and criticism in a former number (vol. viii. p. 330). This second and more detailed description calls for further remark, especially as the author has found reason somewhat to modify his opinion on one important point. As is well known, the sphygmograph trace of a pulse beat (see Fig. 1) consists of a primary rapid rise, followed by amore gradual fall, broken by a considerable undu- lation, termed the dicrotic wave, which varies in its dis- tance from the next primary rise according to the rapid- ity of the pulse. Between the primary and the dicrotic rises in the trace, the descending curve is sometimes interrupted by another small undulation termed the “tidal” wave, by Mr. Mahomed, though the name pred- crotic is better, as it does not involve any theoretical conceptions. It is the development in the trace of these predicrotic and dicrotic waves that Dr. Galabin dis- cusses and his explanation of the former is the fol- lowing.—The separation of the primary and tidal (predicrotic) waves is due to an oscillation in the Sphygmograph, caused by the imertia of the instrument. . . . In some cases the lever may be separated slightly from the knife-edge on which it rests, but generally the oscillation takes place in the instrument as a whole, and it may be followed by others in a descending series. With reference to this interpretation, it may be first re- marked that it seems almost impossible that the whole sphygmograph should acquire a momentum in each pul- sation, for it should be so adjusted on the arm that no part except the tip of the spring is in any way in contact with the artery, and when such is the case it is difficult to conceive of any shock being communicated to the whole. Again, any sudden upward impulse given to the instrument itself would be attended with a descent in the trace, for as the lever is only attached at one end, and there only on points, its pen would be slow to participate in the general movement of the framework, and would not rise so rapidly as the recording paper. The momentum acquired by the lever is a different thing. Marey and Sanderson have both shown that the primary rise in the trace may be attended with a sudden sharp- pointed wave, in the production of which the lever leaves the knife-edge on which it rests, returning to it after a very short excursion. Zo prevent the excessive develop- ment of this imperfection Marey has employed a small secondary spring to depress the lever ; this spring Dr. THE 126 NATURE (Dec. 18, 1873 one Galabin persists in not employing, because he thinks— though the evidence he brings forward on the subject is extremely small—that it increases the number of minor vibratory undulations. Nothing of the kind, however, is the case. : t pulse in health present, if there is a secondary spring employed, no percussion wave at all; and when it is present the true predicrotic wave is quite independent, as may be seen in Fig. 2, which is from a powerful, healthy pulse of 44 a minute, in which the rise a is the percussion, 6 the primary, c the predicrotic, and @ the dicrotic wave. This true predicrotic wave {varies in development with Fic. 1.—Sphygmograph tracings of hea'thy pulses, drawn to one scale, with rates between 44 and 170 a minute. They read from left to right. different pulse rates, being much more conspicuous in very slow pulses, and entirely absent in very quick ones, in which last a slight percussion wave is frequently found (see Fig. 1). Dr. Sanderson has previously described these two waves as co-existing, and he is undoubtedly right, as any who have had any considerable experience in Sphygmography in health will agree. It is Dr. Galabin who is in error, and it is but little compliment to other workers in the same field even to suppose that they have been sufficiently simple-minded to study and describe as physiological phenomena, instrumental errors so uncom- plicated in origin and so readily comprehended. The Fic. 2,—A tracing of a healthy pulse beating 44 a minute. chief argument he brings forward in favour of his expla- nation is that by placing a weight on the lever at different parts, and so altering its moment of inertia, the length of the predicrotic wave is varied. That the percussion wave which is developed when no secondary spring is employed is so affected, no one will doubt, because the resistance of the pen is less significant when the lever is heavy than when it is light, and therefore the wave is of shorter dura- tion when it is weighted. This wave, however, is even then of such considerable length that it has not ceased be- fore the true predicrotic wave has commenced, and it therefore disguises the true nature of the trace. It is, therefore, only when the secondary spring is employed Nearly all properly-taken tracings from the | that a proper trace can be obtained ; because then only is it possible to see the full extent of the true predicrotic wave, uncomplicated by the superposition of the extraneous percussion wave. The latter does not appear as an extra element of the curve, but entirely disguises its true nature, on account of its being developed quite independently, when the lever is no longer in connection with the rest of the instrument, and therefore unaffected by whatever change may be occurring in the artery. The cause of this predicrotic wave, which Marey gives of the similar one that appears in the hemadromometer trace (Fig. 3, 8) though considered by Dr. Galabin scarcely worthy of refutation, is supported by a large number of facts, especially by the hemadromometer trace itself (Fig. 3, a,8). Its commencing in the radia] artery as well asthe carotid, at the moment of closure of the aortic valve, is also strongly in favour of the supposition that it is of shock origin; and that a shock may be transmitted through a column of fluid, which Dr. Galabin and some others seem to doubt, can be easily proved by suddenly closing an ordinary tap through which a large volume of water is passing, whereupon several oscillations of the retained liquid occur, producing a series of blows against the tap and perhaps the side of the tube, which are heard without difficulty. The hzemadromometer trace (Fig. 3) shows also how completely the dicrotic wave is the result of the closure of the aortic valve, as Dr. Galabin also thought a, Curve of direction and force of blood current, all above the dotted line indicating an onward Fic. 3-—Hzmadromograph trace rom the carotid. and all below trace. a heartward stream, §, Simultaneous sphygmograph in his earlier paper ; but in his second he attributes it to the oscillatory result of the inertia of the arterial walls, and the lateral momentum acquired by the blood. The mass of the arterial walls, and the lateral move- ment of the blood during distension are so slight, that neither are in any way competent to explain a move- ment so constant and so considerable as the dicrotic wave, especially when one so much more reasonable is to be obtained as the result of the valve closure. At all events no theory can be considered at all satisfactory which does not explain, in oneway or another, the hema- dromometer trace, which is one of the foundations of arterial dynamics, and has been verified in all its details by Dr. Lortet of Lyons. Neither Dr. Galabin’s theory, nor that of Mr. Mahomed, can be said in any way to take cognizance of the facts which it discloses, and they are in- capable of doing so, therefore they must be considered inaccurate. Both these authors complicate their results by arguing from the analogy of a schema or model of the circulation constructed with elastic tubes ; the arteries, however, are not simple elastic tubes, but tubes cut in elastic solids, being surrounded on all sides by yielding tissues, and they are not therefore comparable with tubes experimented on in air, and will not allow of comparative deductions being drawn from them.* 7 Ng GC * The blocks for Figs. I and III. are kindly lent by Prof. Humphry, Dec. 18, 1873] POLARISATION OF LIGHT 1 E jee is said to be polarised when it presents cer- tain peculiarities, hereafter to be described, which it is not generally found to possess, These peculiarities, although very varied in their manifestations, have one feature in common, viz. that they cannot be detected by the unassisted eye; consequently, special instrumental means are required for their investigation. Fic. 1, Fic. 2 The origin and meaning of the term polarisation will be better understood when some of the phenomena have been witnessed or described, than beforehand, and I therefore postpone, for the present, an explanation of it. The subject of polarisation may be approached by either of two roads, the experimental or the theoretical. The theoretical method, which proceeds upon the prin- ciples of the Wave Theory of Light, is remarkably com- plete and explicit ; so much so that it not only connects :