NATVRE AND SCIENCE ON THE PACIFIC COAST NATURE AND SCIENCE ON THE PACIFIC COAST PLATE I Mount Shasta, California. A Rare Cloud Formation Over This Volcanic Peak (Eleva- tion 14,162 Feet), Which Stands at the Head of the Central Valley of California. Copyright 1914, by C. A. Gilchrist. NATURE SCIENCE ON THE PACIFIC COAST A GUIDE-BOOK FOR SCIENTIFIC TRAVELERS IN THE WEST. EDITED UNDER THE AUSPICES OF THE PACIFIC COAST COMMITTEE OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED WITH NINETEEN TEXT FIGURES, TWENTY-NINE HALF-TONE PLATES AND FOURTEEN MAPS PAUL ELDER AND COMPANY PUBLISHERS -SAN FRANCISCO / 7/5" Copyright, 1915 Paul Elder $ Company San Francisco DEDICATED TO JOHN MUIR MAN OF SCIENCE AND OF LETTERS WIDELY TRAVELED OBSERVER OF THE WORLD FRIEND AND PROTECTOR OF NATURE UNIQUELY GIFTED TO INTERPRET UNTO OTHER MEN HER MIND AND WAYS The words of the dedication are those used by President Benjamin Ide Wheeler of the University of California in conferring the degree of Doctor of Laws upon John Muir, May 14, 1913 INTRODUCTORY NOTE THE Pacific Coast region of the United States contains many distinctive natural features and much unique material for scientific research. Many of the problems presented here are peculiar to the West, but in their larger aspects they have a significant bearing . upon fundamental questions of world-wide concern both in the field of natural sci- ence and in the relation of these problems to the affairs of men. However interesting western mate- rials may be, the traveler wishing to know of them has little time for study, and sources of information which might be used are frequently scattered or inaccessible. Recognizing the need for ready information on nature and science in the West, the Pacific Coast Committee of the American Association for the Ad- vancement of Science has considered it desirable in this year of the two expositions celebrating the opening of the Panama Canal to bring together in hand-book form concise data upon matters of gen- eral interest for the use of travelers in this region. A special committee was appointed to assemble the material and to enlist the assistance of men well informed upon the subjects to be discussed. The descriptions contained in this book have been pre- pared with care by specialists, and the volume is addressed to all travelers in the West who wish to know the significant features of the land through which they pass. The sub-committee charged with the preparation of this guide-book desires to express its sincere ap- preciation of the generous aid of the contributors. To many others who have assisted by supplying illustrations, maps, and information upon facilities for travel, the committee is also greatly indebted. Only wide co-operation such as has been accorded could make possible the completion of an under- taking of this character. The volume is presented with the hope that it may increase the value of the journey for those who visit the Pacific Coast for the first time and that it may be of service also to the people residing within the region which it describes. Sub-Committee in Charge: JOHN C. MERRIAM, Chairman, H. FOSTER BAIN, VICTOR H. HENDERSON, VERNON L. KELLOGG, March 20, 1915. JOSEPH GRINNELL, Editor. CONTENTS PAGE Introductory Note vii The Approaches to the Pacific Coast .... 1 FREDERICK J. TEGGART. Associate Professor of Pacific Coast History, University of California. Spanish Settlements on the Pacific Coast ... 9 CHARLES E. CHAPMAN. Sometime Traveling Fel- low in Pacific Coast History, N. S. G. W., Uni- versity of California. Historical Sketch of the Panama Canal .... 15 EUDOLPH J. TAUSSIG. Secretary, Panama-Pacific International Exposition, San Francisco. Weather Conditions on the Pacific Coast ... 19 ALEXANDER McAoiE. Abbott Lawrence Rotch Professor of Meteorology, Harvard University. Physiographic Geography 31 EULIFF S. HOLWAY. Associate Professor of Physical Geography, University of California. Geology of the West Coast Region of the United States 41 C. F. TOLMAN, JR. Associate Professor of Eco- nomic Geology, Stanford University. Earthquakes 62 J. C. BRANNER. President, Stanford University. Mines and Mining 65 H. FOSTER BAIN. Editor, Mining and Scientific Press, San Francisco. Petroleum Resources and Industries of the Pa- cific Coast 75 RALPH ARNOLD. Consulting Geologist and Petro- leum Engineer, Los Angeles. Significant Features in the History of Life on the Pacific Coast 88 JOHN C. MERRIAM. Professor of Palaeontology and Historical Geology, University of California. The Vertebrate Fauna of the Pacific Coast . . .104 JOSEPH GRINNELL. Director, Museum of Verte- brate Zoology, University of California. Fishes of the Pacific Coast 115 DAVID STARR JORDAN. Chancellor, Stanford Uni- versity. Marine Biology on the Pacific Coast 124 CHARLES ATWOOD KOFOID. Professor of Zoology, University of California. VII CONTENTS PAGE Oceanic Circulation and Temperature Off the Pacific Coast 133 GEORGE F. McEwEN. Scripps Institution for Bio- logical Kesearch, La Jolla, California. Insects of the Pacific Coast 141 VERNON L. KELLOGG. Professor of Entomology, Stanford University. Flora of the Pacific Coast 147 HARVEY MONROE HALL. Assistant Professor of Botany, University of California. Forests of the Pacific Coast 159 WILLIS LINN JEPSON. Associate Professor in the Department of Botany, University of California. The Deserts and Desert Flora of the West . . .168 LEKOY ABRAMS. Associate Professor of Botany, Stanford University. The Marine Flora of the Pacific Coast . . . .177 WILLIAM ALBERT SETCHELL. Professor of Botany, University of California. Burbank's Gardens 185 VERNON L. KELLOGG. Professor of Entomology, Stanford University. Ethnology of the Pacific Coast 189 T. T. WATERMAN. Assistant Professor of Anthro- pology, University of California. Astronomical Observatories 197 E. G. AITKEN. Astronomer, Lick Observatory, Mount Hamilton. Museums of the Pacific Coast 207 BARTON W. EVERMANN. Director of the Museum, California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco. Agricultural Development of the Pacific Coast . 214 E. J. WICKSON. Professor of Horticulture, Uni- versity of California. Some Notable Irrigation and Hydro-Electric De- velopments 228 C. E. GRUNSKY. President, American Engineering Corporation, San Francisco. Chemical Resources and Industries 237 HARRY EAST MILLER. Consulting Chemist and Metallurgist, San Francisco. Mountaineering on the Pacific Coast .... 246 JOSEPH N. LECONTE. Professor of Engineering Mechanics, University of California. VIII CONTENTS PAGE Outdoor Life and the Fine Arts 252 JOHN GALEN HOWARD. Director, School of Archi- tecture, University of California. Literary Landmarks on the Pacific Coast . . . 263 S. S. SEWARD, JR. Assistant Professor of English, Stanford University. Legal and Political Development of the Pacific Coast States 267 ORRIN K. MCMURRAY. Professor of Law, Uni- versity of California. Scenic Excursions 276 A. O. LEUSCHNER. Professor of Astronomy, Uni- versity of California. Index . 295 IX ILLUSTRATIONS PLATE PACING I Mount Shasta . . . Frontispiece PAGE ii Mission San Carlos Borromeo de Mon- terey 14 in Gorge of the Columbia River . . . . 15 iv Relief Map of Washington and Oregon . 30 v Relief Map of California and Nevada . 31 vi Lassen Peak in Eruption 46 vii The Fault Scarp of the Sierra Nevada . 47 vin Oil Wells at Summerland, California . 86 ix Cambrian Fossils from British Colum- bia 87 x Reconstruction of a Triassic Fish- Lizard 102 xi One of the Rancho La Brea Fossil Pits . 103 xii California Condor and Wren-tits . . . 110 xiii Chuckwalla and Desert Tortoise . . . Ill xiv Oregon Ground Squirrel and Mountain Beaver 118 xv Trout of the Pacific Coast 119 xvi Puget Sound Marine Biological Station, Friday Harbor, Washington .... 126 xvn Scripps Institution for Biological Re- search, La Jolla, California .... 127 xvm Abalone Shells and Pearls 134 xix A Mountain Meadow 135 xx Chaparral, with Spanish Bayonet . . 150 xxi Tree Yucca 151 xxn The Grizzly Giant 166 xxin Monterey Cypress 167 xxiv Desert Palms 174 xxv Lake Spaulding Dam near Emigrant Gap, California 175 xxvi Mount Wilson Solar Observatory . . . 206 xxvn Lick Observatory, Mount Hamilton . .207 xxvin Mount Rainier 262 xxix The Stevenson Monument, Portsmouth Square, San Francisco 263 XI MAPS PLATE xxx Portland, xxxi Seattle. xxxn Puget Sound and Vicinity, xxxin San Francisco, xxxiv West Central California. xxxv Los Angeles, xxxvi Los Angeles and Vicinity, xxxvn San Diego, xxxvin San Diego and Vicinity, xxxix Geological Map of Washington and Oregon. XL Geological May of California and Nevada. XLI Salt Lake City. XLII Western and Pacific States. XLIII Life Zone Map of California. NATURE AND SCIENCE ON THE PACIFIC COAST THE APPROACHES TO THE PACIFIC COAST BY FREDERICK J. TEGGART Associate Professor of Pacific Coast History, University of California THE name "California" antedates the discovery of the territory to which it is now applied. It seems to have been created by a Spanish ro- mancer to signify an island lying beyond the Indies, remarkable alike for its women and its gold — a last effort, apparently, to find a home upon the map for the Hesperides and their golden apples. Viewed from Europe, indeed, California was the most re- mote, the farthest of all lands, and some remnant of the wonder of the voyages of Bran, of Hercules, and of Pantagruel even yet lingers about the west- ward Thule. Now, however, that Europeans have actually reached and settled this ultimate coast, the outlook changes, and we may survey the efforts of the long line of adventurous explorers from a new point of view. To appreciate the significance of these endeavors it is necessary to disabuse one's mind of the idea, expressed in its accepted form by Bishop Berkeley, that the expansion of the nations follows the patn of the setting sun. This idea may suitably interpret the experience of the nations that border upon the Atlantic, but in no circumstances could it have originated upon the shores of the Pacific Ocean. For as we stand here facing the Orient the old conception of a westward line of advance gives place to another view — that of civili- zation spreading east and west from some original seat in eastern Asia, traversing the world in opposite directions, and drawing at length to a new focus on this opposite side of the globe. From this stand- point the picture is not merely that of Spaniards, English, French, and Dutch crossing the Atlantic Ocean and founding settlements upon its American seaboard; it includes the far more arduous struggles of these same Europeans to find a way around the land masses of America and Asia. What is of equal importance, moreover, is that this newer outlook includes also the sight of oriental peoples over- flowing into the great emptiness of the west, and the spectacle of Russians making their way with an irresistible sweep across Asia, to leave, above high-water mark as it were, the wreckage of a 1 APPROACHES TO THE PACIFIC COAST "Ross" or Russian fort upon the banks of a Russian River in California. Indeed, the reflective student can never lose sight of the fact that Asia has always tended to overflow eastward. Migrations remote in time have stamped their impress upon the native population of the American side of the ocean, and it may even be to this source that the American Indian owes his origin. Again, whether or not the land of Fusang is to be identified with Mexico, this in- terpretation of the Chinese story of Hiu Shen has at least a suggestive interest in the history of the Pacific. Hiu Shen was a Buddhist missionary from Cabul who appeared in 499 A. D. at King-Chow on the Yang-Tse. To the emperor Wu Ti he brought presents from Fusang — thought to be the land of the agave or century-plant — and the record of his voyage was incorporated in the imperial annals. It is, indeed, no more than might have been ex- pected that the extraordinary zeal of the Buddhist missionaries should have brought them in the fifth century to America; and while linguistic scholars continue to disagree, others may, for the time, ac- cept the story as an additional illustration of the fact that waves caused by upheavals in the life of Asia break ultimately upon the American shore. So, too, the advance of the Russians across north- ern Asia in the sixteenth century reached Alaska, through the discoveries of Vitus Bering, by the middle of the eighteenth; and it is of interest to observe that there were moments in the opening years of the nineteenth century when it seemed as if the Pacific was about to become a Russian sea. Later still, the inauguration of steamship communi- cation across the Pacific Ocean showed how easily the Chinese overflow might set towards the Cali- fornia coast, while today an immigration problem presents itself that acts of Congress may prove inadequate to solve. The North Atlantic stores of America are dom- inated by European civilization. Granted the dis- covery of eastern North America, the way there from Europe lay open for all who cared to take it. The interest of Atlantic Coast history lies in the vicissitudes of the settlers in their struggle with nature, and in the varying relations they have main- tained with sovereign powers in Europe that could not be brought to take the settlers' view of the problems of a new land. The interest of Pacific Coast history is alto- gether different. Far from being easily accessible to Europe, California was, in the first instance, 2 APPROACHES TO THE PACIFIC COAST to be reached only by dint of extraordinary efforts; and the present routes hither have been created by engineering works of unprecedented magnitude. The land is remote, and for the maintenance of connections, even with the country of which politically it forms a part, all the mechanical re- sources of western civilization are necessary. Once here, moreover, the man of European descent finds himself looking out upon an alien and incompre- hensible Asia. So the dominating consideration in the affairs of the Pacific Coast is that here a de- tached outpost of European civilization finds itself face to face, in perpetuity, with the Orient. It is unnecessary to dwell upon the fact that from the point of view of anthropogeography the coasts of the Pacific— Asiatic and American — constitute a unit. The seas unite, the land masses separate, men. Here before us lies the ocean, easily traversed; there behind us rises the great mountain barrier, threaded only by occasional passes, separating us from the eastern part of the continent. Considered in terms of humanity at large, the situation is arti- ficial; we close an avenue in the face of millions, and open a path by which only tens arrive. The significance of this anomaly is unmistakable: Euro- peans, having by their daring and alertness won a title to a coast which would seem to be the natural area for the overflow of Asia, propose to hold it as the frontier of their own civilization. The su- preme difficulty of this attempt should not be under- estimated. The ingenuity of the European has abridged distances by means of railroads and canals, and so has made his position here seem- ingly tenable. On the other hand, his inventiveness has placed steamships at the disposal of his com- petitors, and, while the land on this side remains unfilled, the millions in Asia do not decrease. It is obvious that the study of history inevitably forces upon us a realization of the circumstances in which European man finds himself placed when he undertakes to hold the western border of the Pacific Ocean; but history itself does not seek to elucidate the future; it takes account only of the steps by which the present situation has come to be as it is. From the point of view of the history of occidental peoples, the juxtaposition of west and east upon the Pacific is the outcome of the hardihood and adventurous spirit of successive generations of European seafarers and frontiers- men. In whichever direction one looks out from Europe, California lies beyond an ocean and a conti- 3 APPROACHES TO THE PACIFIC COAST nent. To reach it from Europe, therefore, it would be necessary to pass around — either to the north or to the south — one of the two great land masses of the globe. Less than four years after Columbus discovered the New World, John Cabot, sailing a Bristol ship, reached the coast of Labrador (1497), and from that time onward the English nation seemed committed to the task of finding a north- western passage to the Pacific Ocean. Untiring explorers matched themselves in vain, however, against the ice, until 1907, when the Norwegian Amundsen completed his four years' voyage by sailing into San Francisco Bay. (His ship now rests within a stone's throw of the ocean in Golden Gate Park.) As early as 1553, English ships were sent to try out the possibilities of a northeastern route, but again the accomplishment of the voyage was long deferred, being effected by the Swedish Nordenskjold in the Vega in 1879. The recommendation of the northeast and north- west passages would have been their shortness — had they been practicable. Of the open sea routes, that by the Cape of Good Hope had been made known by the voyages of Bartholomew Diaz (1487) and Vasco da Gama (1498), but its extreme length has always left it out of consideration as a way of getting to the American Pacific Coast. In 1520, Magellan discovered the strait named after him, and in 1578 Drake followed the southwestern route into the Pacific Ocean. Drake's voyage may be said to have opened the Pacific to Europeans of every nationality, while his visit to California in 1579 pointed out what remained the only feasible sea route to the coast for three centuries and a third. The path thus indicated by hardy voyagers, pre- pared to lose two-thirds of their number on the way, was no practicable road for colonization; and hence the European foothold on the Pacific Coast had to await the long and arduous process of in- terior exploration. As might be supposed, the earliest land-approach was not across the American continent at its widest part. The first knowledge of the California coast was a sequel to the conquest of Mexico. The ef- forts of Cortes, persistent as they were, can scarcely be called successful. The ships for the voyage had to be built upon the Pacific side, and the two he sent out in 1532 never returned. In 1533, the Con- cepcidn and San Ldzaro discovered the extremity of the peninsula, but were otherwise unfortunate. The expedition of 1535, led by Cortes himself, 4 APPROACHES TO THE PACIFIC COAST landed at the bay of Santa Cruz, possibly La Paz, but failed in the purpose of establishing a colony. Finally, the supreme effort of Cortes, the expedi- tion under Francisco de Ulloa in 1539, succeeded so far as to explore the Gulf of California to its head and the outer coast of the peninsula for about half its length. The viceroy, Antonio de Mend9za, next took up the burden of northward exploration. To co-operate with Coronado in the search for the famous Seven Cities of Cibola he sent Hernando d'Alarcon, in 1540, by sea to the head of the gulf. Mendoza had no better fortune than Cortes in dis- covering fabulous lands and cities, but by his next venture, the expedition of Cabrillo and Ferrelo in 1542, the California coast was explored to Cape Mendocino. The return of Ferrelo marks the con- clusion of the first period of California exploration. Whatever the policy of Spain may have been at any time in regard to the northern Pacific Coast, her activities upon it may be traced in practically every instance to the movements of foreigners. Even the explorations of Cortes, inevitable as they would appear, seem to have been influenced by his discovery in 1524 that a foreign-built ship — presumably Portuguese from India — had been wrecked upon the Jalisco coast. It was, similarly, the voyage of Drake, followed by that of Cavendish in 1588, that impelled the Spanish government to a new burst of energy. The voyages of Sebastian Vizcaino in 1596 and 1602 were the Spanish re- sponse to the English incursions into the Pacific Ocean. Vizcaino was directed to search for a harbor that would serve as a refuge or port of call for the Philippine ships on the return voyage from Manila, and to discover the strait that was supposed to lead to the Atlantic Ocean. On the second voyage he reached the vicinity of Cape Blanco (without finding the strait) and visited and described the ports of San Diego and Monterey, but a hundred and sixty-five years were to elapse before the government was moved to act upon his recommendation that these places should be occu- pied. The council that met in the City of Mexico in 1768 to take measures for the occupation of Alta California recognized as the reason for the under- taking the approaches of foreign powers towards this unoccupied territory. To Joseph Galvez, visitador-general — one of the most remarkable fig- ures in American history — and the other members of the junta it seemed as if the English, French, Russians, and Dutch were converging upon Califor- 5 APPROACHES TO THE PACIFIC COAST nia from the four corners of the earth. The records of the council show that consideration was given to the Russian advance eastward across Asia, and to the French progress overland from Canada; to the activities in the Pacific Ocean of the Dutch who arrived by way of the Cape of Good Hope, and of the English who came round Cape Horn. The danger was in no sense chimerical. In the first half of the eighteenth century such famous sailors as William Dampier, Woodes Rogers, George Shelvocke, and Lord Anson (1740) had, at different times, lain off the coast of Lower California in watch for the Manila galleon. During the sixteenth century the Russians had advanced from the Ural Mountains to Kamchatka; and in 1741 Bering had sailed to explore the coast of Alaska. Between 1737 and 1746 three English expeditions had re- newed the effort to find a northwest passage, with the deliberate intention that "if a discovery should be made of this passage, a considerable settlement should be made in California." Meanwhile the French advance from Canada across the American continent had reached its farthest point west in La Verendrye's discovery of the Rocky Mountains in 1743. Following the Treaty of Paris in 1763 — which had witnessed transferences of colonial ter- ritory on a colossal scale — the European powers set themselves to the systematic exploration of the un- occupied parts of the earth. Thus Byron, Wallis and Carteret, and Cook all sailed for the Pacific between 1764 and 1768, while the Russians sent out Krenitzen and Levashef, in 1768-69, on an ex- pedition that the Empress Catherine had set on foot in 1764. The occupation of Alta California in 1769 was but one of a number of steps taken by Spain, in face of this general advance of European nations, to protect her outlying possessions against aggres- sion. The decision having been made, Galvez took charge of despatching the necessary forces. These, under command of Gaspar de Portola, were divided into four parts — two going by sea and two by land. In June, 1769, San Diego was occupied and a year later a post was established at Monterey. The ex- perience of this expedition showed the hazard in- volved in maintaining communication between Mexico and Alta California by sea, and the im- practicability of the land route up the length of the Baja California peninsula. In these circum- stances, Juan Bautista de Anza was directed, in 1773, to survey a route overland to California by way of the Gifa and Colorado rivers. This havin'g 6 APPROACHES TO THE PACIFIC COAST been accomplished, he was further authorized in 1774 to convey a party of soldiers and settlers for the purpose of taking effective possession of the Bay of San Francisco; with the result that a pre- sidio was established there in 1776. The new land route from the south, though difficult and unin- viting, might have led to noteworthy results, but owing, almost immediately, to the incompetent man- agement of the Chevalier de Croix, comandante- general of the frontier provinces, the Indians on the Colorado revolted in 1781, killing some mem- bers of an expedition then on its way to the new settlements. With this incident the attempt to ap- proach California from the south was effectively blocked, and the prospect of any extensive coloni- zation from Mexico and the south was at an end. Henceforward the problem of an approach to California narrows down to the discovery of a route across the continent. Owing to the elimina- tion of the French from North America by the treaty of Paris, the exploration of the continent between 1763 and 1803 was conducted by the rival traders of the Hudson Bay Company and the North- west Company of Montreal. In 1769, Samuel Hearne was sent out by the former, and before his return in 1772 had reached the Arctic Ocean at the mouth of the Coppermine River. The activities of the Montreal company did not rise to importance until after the American Revolution. In 1789, Alexander Mackenzie explored to its mouth the river that bears his name, and four years later completed the first overland journey across the continent by reach- ing the Pacific Ocean, opposite Queen Charlotte Island, on the 22d of July, 1793. It was not Mackenzie's route, however, but the more southerly one of Lewis and Clark that proved to be the long-sought substitute for a northwest passage. Following immediately upon the purchase of Louisiana from Napoleon, Lewis and Clark, at the orders of President Jefferson, made their jour- ney overland, by way of the Missouri and Columbia rivers, between 1804 and 1806. With the acquisi- tion of Louisiana, the American frontiersman promptly overran this vast new territory, and passed unheeding the ill-defined boundaries of the Mexican possessions. By the end of the third de- cade of the nineteenth century the pioneer, in the person of Jedediah Smith, had entered California. The contrast between the Spanish and English methods of colonization is nowhere more apparent than in the respective approaches of the Spaniard and American to California. Not so much as a 7 APPROACHES TO THE PACIFIC COAST solitary wanderer had traversed Alta California when, in 1769, a military expedition was sent out to occupy San Diego and Monterey. On the other hand, the personal initiative of the English-speaking adventurer has carried him across the continent — across an ocean and a continent — and has more than once created embarrassment for the govern- ment to which he owed allegiance. So, in Texas, Oregon, and California, the United States appears as following with hesitation the leadership of an in- significant number of westward-moving frontiers- men. Following this leadership, however, the Euro- Eean advance to the Pacific has been consolidated y the completion of the overland railroad in 1869, and of the Panama Canal in 1914. It is due to the personal initiative of many gen- erations of Westerners — the Pilgrim Fathers among the number — that the West now confronts the East across the open space of the Pacific Ocean. At every step in the approach to the present situation two great difficulties have been continually growing clearer: it is irksome for a government to admit that the sparse population of a far-lying outpost may intrude itself into the complexities of inter- national policy; it is hard for the man on the frontier to remember always that territory not fully occupied in proximity to overpopulated lands must needs be filled up. SPANISH SETTLEMENTS ON THE PACIFIC COAST T BY CHARLES E. CHAPMAN Sometime Traveling Fellow in Pacific Coast History, N. S. G. W .^University of California HE only enduring Spanish settlements on the Pacific Coast north of Mexico were those of A California. Yet they have an interest greater even than that of their own idyllic charm, for they bore an important relation to the history of the entire northwest coast, and indeed to that of the United States. From the first, after Cortes had reached the Pa- cific in 1522, Spain was one of the principal con- tenders for the far northwest. The Cabrillo-Ferrelo voyage (1542-3), that of Vizcaino (1602-3), and the occasions when the Manila galleon passed the Cali- fornia coast on the way to Acapulco were the only known voyages of Spaniards to our Pacific Coast prior to the occupation by them in 1769. Yet there was little that Spain more keenly desired than to possess herself of that coast. There was an almost continuous stream of royal decrees calling for its conquest, and considerable expenditure of treasure to that end, though not until 1769 were per- manent establishments made. Spain became just strong enough in California to keep out the casual voyagers of other nations. She did not develop her holdings in such a way as to lead to discovery of gold. Had she done so, it is doubtful whether the United States would now have a foothold on the Pacific Coast. With the development of California would have come a like advance farther north. Spain could not have held the land, and the United States would not have been strong enough to take it, but a stronger European power than Spain could have entrenched herself and remained. Spain's failure to reach California earlier, and to develop it after 1769 was due primarily to her European entanglements and her poverty. From the moment that Pedro III of Aragon (1276-85) started on a career of conquest in Italy, Spain's retention of her yet undiscovered colonies was doomed. All went well until the sixteenth century; then, wars in Europe for possessions outside of the Iberian Peninsula began to call for more funds than Spain itself could supply. The Americas were drained and projects of development or conquest became second- ary to Spain's policy in Europe. 9 SPANISH SETTLEMENTS ON THE PACIFIC COAST Yet, by a fortunate accident, viewed from the standpoint of the United States, development of California under Spain was narrowly averted. What California most needed was communication with the outside world. Natural resources there were in plenty, but everything else was lacking, settlers with families, domestic animals, seeds for planting, and manufactured articles of every variety. Existing routes from San Bias, Mexico, by sea direct or by way of Baja (Lower) California were never ade- quate to supply the needs of California. One other possibility remained, that of opening a route over- land from Sonora, Mexico. This was done in 1774, resulting in a pronounced advance of the Cali- fornia settlements. But the old difficulty, lack of funds or unwillingness to apply them in so distant a part of her realms as Sonora, caused Spain to lose the advantage of this route only seven vears after it was opened. Weak establishments hacTbeen made on the California side of the Colorado River opposite what is now Fort Yuma. Ill-provided for by Spain they became an annoyance to the Indians of that vicinity, who in 1781 destroyed both settle- ments. No serious attempt was ever made again by Spain to reopen the Sonora route to California. Thus the colonies in California had to go ahead with what they had, supplemented to some extent by shipments from San Bias and by illicit traffic with foreign ships. This then is the meaning that lies behind the picturesque life of Spanish California. Had there been no 1769 or 1781, there would have been no 1848, insofar as that marks California's formal entry into the Union. Spain would almost inevitably have discovered gold, but for the Yuma massacre, although she might not have reaped the benefit for herself. But, these things did not happen, and Cali- fornia and the entire Coast were held by Spain and Mexico, as it were in trust, for later delivery to the United States. There were five principal elements in the social and administrative organization of Spanish Cali- fornia: the presidios, pueblos, ranches, missions, and Indian tribes. The last named were connected with each of the other four, but also existed in great numbers beyond the pale of Spanish settle- ments. It has been estimated that there were 700,- 000 Indians in California when the Spaniards first came. This figure may be too high, but the number was certainly very great, far in excess of what it was at later periods or is today. To hold them in check there was a total Spanish population of little 10 SPANISH SETTLEMENTS ON THE PACIFIC COAST more than 3000 at its greatest and less than 1000 during the crucial days of the eighteenth century. Under Mexico, population increased, but t&ere were certainly not more than 10,000 people of white race in California at the time of its acquisition by the United States. It is usual to speak of California's early history as if it were all summed up in the missions. This is due, perhaps, to the fact that the mission ruins are almost the only tangible remains from that period, and also that the mission fathers left more records of their works than did the others. In fact, the backbone of the establishments here as else- where in Spanish colonies was the military element, whose principal manifestation was the presidio. Each mission also had its guard, usually a corporal and six soldiers, quite enough to keep the Indians in subjection, but a very necessary part of the mis- sion establishment. There were four presidios, San Diego (1769), Monterey (1770), San Francisco (1776), and Santa Barbara (1782), the most important being Monterey, whose commander was also civil and military gov- ernor of the province. Around each presidi9, but more especially at Monterey, centered the life of the colony. Towns grew up around the presidios, ranch owners came there to visit, foreign traders stopped to enjoy Cali- fornia hospitality, and close at hand there was in each case a mission. Life was one continuous round of hospitality and social amenities, tempered with vigorous outdoor sport. There were no hotels in California. Every door was open, and food, lodg- ing, a fresh horse, and money, even, were free to the guest, whether friend or stranger. No white man had to concern himself greatly with work, and even school books were a thing apart. Music, games, dancing, and sprightly conversation — these were the occupations of the time — these constituted education. Also men and women were much in the open; all were expert horsemen, could throw a lasso, and shoot unerringly, even the women, ac- complishments which fitted their type of life, and made hunting a general pastime. When foreign ships came, there were balls and the gayest of fes- tivals, nor were these visits the only occasion for that type of entertainment. This happy life was possible because there were Indians to do the work. Virtual slavery existed, sometimes by direct bargain with a chief for mem- bers of his tribe, or by willing submission of the Indians who found themselves better clothed and 11 SPANISH SETTLEMENTS SAN f RAMCISCO SOLANO Figure 1 Spanish settlements in Cali- fornia. The dates of the founding of the two pueblos and of the four presidios are given on pages 11 and 12. 12 ON THE PACIFIC COAST fed than in their tribal mode of life, and with perhaps greater personal liberty and less work than at the missions. Aside from those at the presidios there were but two pueblos proper, San Jose (1776) and Los Angeles (1781). Another on the site of Santa Cruz, Branciforte, had a brief existence. The inhabi- tants at San Jose and Los Angeles were regarded as of lower social rank than those at the pre- sidios, and indeed many of them had but a small proportion of Spanish blood, being part Indian or part negro. They, too, enjoyed an idle liie, al- though somewhat more addicted to gambling and other forms of vice than others in the colony. The private rancho was not in accord with the aims of the Spanish government, which de- sired Spanish settlers in remote provinces like California to live in com- munities. But it grew to be a recognized institu- tion, getting official sanc- tion under certain re- strictions, as that it should not exceed three leagues in extent or in- fringe upon the terri- tories of missions, pueb- los, or Indian towns. Under Spain there were probably not more than twenty such grants, these usually being made to re- tired officers of the pre- sidial aristocracy. Under Mexican rule the number increased to about 600, a SPANISH SETTLEMENTS ON THE PACIFIC COAST single individual being allowed to own as many as eleven square leagues. There the proprietor with his family lived a life of ease and plenty, surrounded by numerous servants, and there he entertained as lavishly as did those of the towns. Occasionally the proprietor rode over his land to see his animals, for grazing was the only great industry of the ranches. There was no agriculture nor even dairy- ing of any consequence. Mission fathers thundered against the rancheros, claiming that they were in- vading mission territory, and causing dissatisfac- tion among mission Indians, but their protests were without avail. The missions* came to be almost completely self-sufficient establishments, having not only the mission church, but also mission flocks and nerds, gardens and fields, warehouses, dormitories, etc. The object of the fathers was to civilize and Chris- tianize the Indians. But the Spanish kings employed missions primarily as an effective agency of con- quest, to which conversions and the mission system among the backward peoples conduced. In theory the lands and personalty of missions belonged to the Indians, to whom they were to be turned over when the Indians were sufficiently civilized and Chris- tianized to leave the mission and take up settled life. The length of time before this could happen was supposed to be but a few years, but in fact the day of emancipation never came. The Indians of Cali- fornia were unable to compete with a civilized race; the attempts to civilize them were from the first hopeless. In the early years the Indians were treated with great kindness. Later, when danger of an Indian uprising was no longer a dread possibility, kindness was tempered by correction, whether by the lash or by imprisonment, it being recognized oy the au- thorities of that day that instruction of Indians and punishments to them were inherently inseparable. The Indians were virtually slaves of the missions. They spent most of the daylight hours at work, and the rest of their time, whether at church service, eating, sleeping, or play, was planned for them by mission rules. Nor were the missionaries able to check the appalling death rate of the Indians, for at the missions as elsewhere more died than were born. Perhaps, in a measure, they put off the fatal * Not including the ill-fated Purlsima Concepci6n and San Pedro y San Pablo of the Colorado and mission visitas (In- dian towns near a mission, to some extent under authority of the missionaries), there were twenty-one missions in Cali- fornia, all established by the Franciscans of the College of San Fernando, Mexico. (See text fig. 1, and PI. II.) 13 SPANISH SETTLEMENTS ON THE PACIFIC COAST day; certainly when the missions were, at length, discontinued the emancipated Indians in great part rapidly passed away. The spirit of the days of Serra, first father-president of the missions, seems 19 have waned as the years wore on, for the mis- sionaries drove a thriving trade with foreign ships, which was against the law. In this they were not alone, but were the most successful, for theirs were the largest flocks and herds, and tallow and hides the chief products sought by foreign traders. But let it be said that they were distinctly a part of the delightful life in California, for none were more hos- pitable than the mission fathers of the Camino Real. If they failed to do the impossible, to civilize the Indians in the time available, they did make Chris- tians of them, and have left an impress upon Cali- fornia art, literature, and sentiment. But in some respects their greatest service was that they helped to hold the land for Spain. Such was California under Spain, beside which Acadia and Utopia were unattractive, a dream life for over half a century. But, like dreams, it had to have its awakening, and, almost as evanescent as they, has disappeared, save only for scattered records and the mission ruins. With the independ- ence of Mexico came freedom of trade, increase in the number of ranches, and entry of foreigners, notably the Americans. It was then a brief race to the discovery of gold. That came in 1848, and the scene changed as if touched by a magic wand. By that time America was ready. Today, as she looks forth upon the Pacific from California, Oregon, Washington, and Alaska, she is still more ready. If the world's future problems are to lie around the Pacific, and if the United States is to play a leading part in them, we may well look back in gratitude to Spanish California, which gave us the chance. For the reader who would like to get a general survey of early California history, in a fairly read- able book of one volume, the works of Richman, McGroarty, Norton, and Mrs. Gertrude Atherton may be mentioned, all recent publications. The older but more voluminous historians, Greenhow, Hittell, and Bancroft, still rank, however, as the best, al- though it is also true, as often stated, that the his- tory of California "is yet to be written." But those who may read the narratives of eye witnesses, as for example in the works of Richard Henry Dana, Alfred Robinson, Walter Colton, Alexander Forbes, and William Heath Davis, will get more of the at- mosphere of early California than can possibly be conveyed by any writings of a later day. 14 ^ — 3 3 o ,-K 5> S i o ^ iia -s-gir «W £§ Irlt!ii!ir^iil 3A •— • w «-> jp » g « K'OIO r^|l 's^ II ^ ± -G ^ s »T . S ^ 02 'S ^ & HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE PANAMA CANAL BY RUDOLPH J. TAUSSIG Secretary, Panama-Pacific International Exposition, San Francisco THE water highway westward from Europe which Columbus set out to find over four hundred years ago, but could not because it did not then exist, has now become a reality through the skill, ingenuity and labor of man. For all practical purposes the surmise of the fifteenth cen- tury will become true that the ocean to the west of Europe and to the east of Asia is the same body of water — the interposition of the continents of North and South America being merely an incident en route. Columbus died in the belief that he had reached the coast of Asia; and long after Balboa discovered the Pacific Ocean in 1513, the search for the so- called "Secret of the Strait," the short and direct route to Cathay, was continued. The discovery of the Pacific Ocean, the conquest of Mexico by Cortez, De Soto's discovery of the Mississippi River, may all be attributed to this effort. As early as 1523, only thirty-one years after the discovery of America, Cortez, while still searching for the strait, was con- vinced of the desirability and practicability of cre- ating the strait if it did not exist. In 1529, Alvaro de Saaveda Ceron, a cousin of Cortez, had prepared plans for the construction of a canal where Balboa had crossed the isthmus. It is therefore safe to say that the idea of constructing the Panama Canal is almost as old as the discovery of America itself. It may be of interest to note also that a canal at Nicaragua was spoken of at the same time, and the rivalry has continued to the present day. In speaking of the difficulties of its construction, the historian Gomara, writing in 1551, says: "There are mountains, but there are also hands. Give me the resolve, and the task will be accomplished. If determination is not lacking, means will not fail; the Indies, to which the way is to be made, will furnish them. To a king of Spain, seeking the wealth of Indian commerce, that which is possible is also easy." Phillip II, however, decided that it would be contrary to the Divine Will to unite two oceans which the Creator of the world had separ- 15 HISTORY OF THE PANAMA CANAL ated, and he decreed that no canal should be con- structed. This action was, however, probably due to the fear of the maritime strength of England. Phillip III of Spain again caused surveys to be made for a canal. In 1701 William Paterson of Scotland, in his book on Central America, speaks of the great benefits to be derived from the building of it. Alexander von Humboldt, who spent several years in Central America in the beginning of the nine- teenth century, spoke of the feasibility and desira- bility of constructing an artificial waterway between the two oceans. The German poet Goethe, alluding to the canal at Panama, is reported to have said: "So much, however, is certain, that if they succeeded in cutting such a canal that ships of any burden and size can be navigated through it from the Mexican Gulf to the Pacific Ocean, innumerable benefits will result to the whole human race, civilized and un- civilized. But I should wonder if the United States were to let an opportunity escape of getting such a work into their own hands." He was, indeed, a prophet! When the Central and South American republics came into existence, the construction of the canal claimed their immediate attention, and was the cause of considerable diplomatic activity. In 1850 the much discussed Clayton-Bulwer treaty was ratified. It provided that neither England nor the United States should exercise exclusive control over any inter-ocean canal. The wrangling over the interpretation of its provisions commenced be- fore the ink was dry upon its signatures. Secretary Elaine's comment upon it in 1881 is worthy of repe- tition. He says: "It was misunderstandingly en- tered into, imperfectly comprehended, contradicto- rily interpreted, and mutually vexatious." The treaty was finally abrogated in 1901, but only after strenu- ous efforts upon the part of the United States, as England was naturally not disposed to give up the advantages her diplomacy had given her. Meanwhile Ferdinand de Lesseps, inspired by his success at Suez, where he had completed the canal in 1869, turned his attention to the Isthmus of Pan- ama. A French company was formed in 1876, and three years later a congress was called together at Paris to consider all questions concerning the build- ing of the American canal. The Panama route was decided upon and the Universal Interoceanic Canal Company was organized. The following year De Lesseps reported to the company that the plans for a tide-level canal were perfected, that its cost would be $132,000,000, and that it was proposed that its neutrality should be guaranteed by Europe. 16 HISTORY OF THE PANAMA CANAL On February 1, 1881, the work was inaugurated with due ceremony. It was to be a great work, and was to be handled upon a magnificent scale. It is startling to read of the purchases that were made and how they were made. Everything was done in an extravagant and showy manner and corruption reigned supreme. After seven years, in 1888, hardly half of the work had been done, the company had spent $400,000,000, and was bankrupt. New com- panies were organized to save what could be saved from the wreck. The scheme of a tide-level canal was abandoned and the construction of locks de- cided upon. It was announced that the canal could be and would be completed for an additional $180,- 000,000, and the work was continued. Meanwhile the government of the United States had been negotiating with the Nicaraguan govern- ment in regard to the construction of an inter-ocean canal on her territory. The spectacular voyage of the Oregon at the outbreak of the Spanish-American war called the nation's attention to the necessity for a shorter waterway between our Atlantic and Pacific Coast states, and the canal question again became an active one in Congress. A commission was appointed to report to Congress upon the matter. It looks al- most as though the commission acted under instruc- tions to scare the French company at Panama. Their first report favored Nicaragua, after rejecting the offer of the Panama company to sell out its inter- est for $100,000,000. When, however, the French company, alarmed at the prospect of the Nicaragua Canal, reduced its price to $40,000,000, the commis- sion changed its recommendation, and in June, 1902, Congress accepted the offer of the French company under certain conditions, and a law was passed authorizing the completion of the canal at Panama. Then came the vexatious negotiations with the United States of Colombia, of which Panama was one of the states. The government of Colombia endeavored to prolong the negotiations until such a time that the concessions to the French company would be forfeited and Colombia would be in a position to possess herself of the purchase price. Treaties were rejected and obstacles put in the way of final adjustment until the State of Panama be- came alarmed at the action of the central govern- ment, fearing that the United States would again turn her attention to Nicaragua. Panama had once been an independent state and, if independent now, could bring the negotiations with the American gov- ernment to a quick and satisfactory conclusion. It 17 HISTORY OF THE PANAMA CANAL is a matter of surmise to what extent these ideas were inspired and also the source of the inspiration. At all events, a revolution took place in Novem- ber, 1903, and Panama became an independent re- public without the necessity of bloodshed. Diplo- matic relations were established, and the United States having acquired the canal zone by treaty, the construction of the canal was taken up, the first commission being appointed in February, 1904. The commission appointed by President Roose- velt consisted of Admiral J. G. Walker, Judge Geo. W. Davis, Professor W. H. Burr, Mr. Wm. Barclay Parsons, Colonel F. J. Hecker, Major B. M. Harrod, and Mr. C. E. Grunsky. Plans had been prepared and the work under American control was commenced on May 4, 1904. The lock plan was decided upon, after two years' study, as the most practical one, raising the canal eighty-five feet from the level of the Atlantic to Gatun Lake, and lowering it again near Panama to the Pacific Ocean. The canal was practically completed under the direction of Colonel Goethals during the year 1914, at a cost of close to three hundred and seventy- five million dollars. Slides have interfered seriously with the use of the canal, but it is predicted that the year 1915 will find it ready for its formal open- ing to the ships of the world. At its lowest point the canal has a depth of 42 feet, and its length from deep water to deep water is about 49 miles. The commercial world is looking forward to inter- esting trade developments owing to the change of communications by the establishment of new steam- ship lines with various new routes. Surely the Pan- ama Canal is but another link in the chain binding the nations of the world closer together in their governmental, commercial and social relations. 18 WEATHER CONDITIONS ON THE PACIFIC COAST BY ALEXANDER MCADIE Abbott Lawrence Kotch Professor of Meteorology, Harvard University IT MAY pay us to begin right by realizing that in discussion of the weather, not only of the Pacific Coast, but of any section, we must first free our minds of the impression that we definitely know the causes of those rather abrupt atmospheric changes which we call weather, as distinguished from the slower and more uniform changes which combine to make the climate of a place. Scientific men are partly responsible for the confusion that exists regarding cause and effect in weather phenomena; and too much has been advanced regarding the structure of storms, gen- eral and planetary circulation, rainfall distribution, and other problems, based on assumptions which modern soundings in the air are disproving. In- deed we have much to unlearn even in so funda- mental a matter as the distribution of heat. Many instances could be given of explanations published in text books which are inadequate and out-of-date. Then there are numerous popular misconceptions for which scientific men are in nowise responsible, and which are due to press headlines. One of these which is widespread is that the Kuroshiwo, or black current, more popularly called the Japan current,* warms the northern Pacific Coast. This current, even off the coast of Japan, is only a few degrees warmer than the surrounding water; it fans out into a drift as it moves eastward, and later divides. Except for that return branch known as the California current, the Japan current does * The principal currents in the North Pacific are the north equatorial, the equatorial counter- current, the Kuroshiwo, the California current, and the Bering Sea current. The north equatorial flows westward in the region of the trade winds and reaching the islands off the Asiatic coast is de- flected northward. The equatorial counter-current flows eastward a little north of the equator. The Kuroshiwo is a portion of the north equatorial current, passing north of Formosa and southeast of Japan. Leaving the Japanese coast, the current becomes more a drift, fanning out and flowing eastward past the Aleutian Islands, dividing into north and south drifts on the Alaska coast. The California current is that portion of the Kuroshiwo flowing southeast- ward some distance from the Oregon -California coast. Be- tween this current and the shore is a narrow counter-current known as the Davidson current, flowing northward. (See flg. 2.) The California current is colder off the California coast than the water of the Pacific farther west. 19 WEATHER CONDITIONS ON THE PACIFIC COAST not come near the coast and could not very well raise the temperature. The California current moves from north to south and, as will be seen LEGEND Air Temperatures. Temperatures . Ocean Currents. Figure 2 Oceanic temperature chart for the Pacific Coast. by the chart of ocean and air temperatures (fig. 2), from a colder to a warmer region, and so evidently does not warm the coast. The really effective factor 20 WEATHER CONDITIONS ON THE PACIFIC COAST in controlling the temperature along the coast is the general and steady drift of the surface air from west to east, that is, from a water surface to a land surface. The specific heat of air at constant pres- sure is about one-fourth that of water, which means that it requires four times as much heat to raise a given volume of water one degree as for air. £83* A fSO'F) Figure 3 Temperature chart for California, showing mean annual isotherms and direction of prevailing winds. The specific heat of water vapor, however, is twice that of air, or half that of water. The water vapor is free to move and does move in the form of invisible vapor or in the visible form of condensed vapor which we call fog. This is a matter of much importance, but to it little attention has been given heretofore in explaining temperature control in coast regions. If, as is the case on the Pacific Coast, the prevailing winds are from the water surface to the land, and the circulation is strong and steady, 21 WEATHER CONDITIONS ON THE PACIFIC COAST the reason why the temperature is comparatively uniform is plain. There is little doubt but that if our surface circulation were to be reversed and the air moved from land to sea, there would be decided changes in temperature; and the isotherms would run east and west instead of north and south as they now do (fig. 3). It is the practice of meteorologists to regard the weather of the coast section of California, Oregon and Washington as irregular and to try to account for the irregularity by ocean currents, up-welling waters, etc. A more rational view, it seems to us, is to regard the weather of this section as regular and of a simple type; and consider the weather of other sections, especially our Atlantic Coast, as irregular. The first control, then, of weather on this coast is the quantity of water vapor brought in by the prevailing west winds. Other factors are, distance from storm tracKs of maximum frequency, and the orography of the coast. For detailed informa- tion regarding the first of these factors the reader may consult various Weather Bureau publications showing average storm-tracks; and particularly Climatology of California (McAdie, 1903). Regard- ing the other factor, one may refer to the physio- graphic features of the coast as discussed elsewhere in this volume. Two conspicuous illustrations of a direct con- nection between weather and physiographic fea- tures may be found in California; first, the forced draft through the Golden Gate and the deflection of the surface air northward through the Sacra- mento and northern bay valleys, also southward through the Santa Clara and the San Joaojiin val- leys; and second, the draft through El Cajon Pass. Through the latter, under certain pressure distri- bution, the dry, sand-laden air pours into the Colton-Riverside-Ontario section. Known locally as Santa Anas, these wind storms constitute the most disagreeable feature of the weather in the great valley of the south. They are trying to man, beast and vegetation, and at times interfere with traffic. The last weather control of importance is the location of the particular hyperbar or infrabar de- termining the general surface circulation. These more or less permanent pressure areas have been called "centers of action;" but the newer names are more appropriate. The best known of the infrabars is the Aleutian low, which in a normal winter ex- tends from latitude 40° N to 60° N and from longitude 130°W to 140° E. In the summer this 22 WEATHER CONDITIONS ON THE PACIFIC COAST infrabar disappears. The most marked hyperbar is the one over the Pacific extending from latitude 25° N to 40° N and from longitude 125° to 160° W. There is also a marked continental hyperbar. It has been found (McAdie, 1914) that typical wet winters on the coast of California occur when the Aleutian infrabar is displaced eastward, overlying in part the continent west of a line drawn from Alberta to central California. And, as further il- lustrating the control of weather, it is found that dry winters occur with a displacement north and west of the normal center of the Aleutian infrabar and a westward extension of the continental hyper- bar. In summer the Aleutian infrabar practically disappears and the oceanic hyperbar moves north with the result that the winds are northwest and the days and nights rainless, although fogs (day) are prevalent. Compared with other sections of the United States the Pacific Coast south of Cape Mendocino has few storms. The zone of maximum storm fre- quency lies north of latitude 45°, and California, therefore, is practically out of the storm belt. In the extreme south there is, however, a storm track, that of storms of the Sonora type, and during July, August, September and occasionally other months storms are not infrequent. Such storms seldom affect the weather north of the Sierra Madre. In the central and northern portions of the State, there are few storms in June, July, and August. In a period of 64 years only 13 disturbances have been recorded. In September the frequency increases and in the 64-year period 14 storms have been noted. The most noteworthy of these early storms was that of September 22-26, 1904, which stands unparalleled in the history of summer and early fall rains. At San Francisco, for example, the rain- fall amounted to 129 millimeters (five inches). In October the number of storms reported amounts to 40; November, 60; December, January and Feb- ruary, about 200 each; March much less, and April and May about as in November. Occasionally there will be a winter month without a single storm, as in December, 1876, and February, 1864.* * In a recent publication of the Weather Bureau (Bowie and Weightman, Storms of the United States), there is given in table 1 the number of lows for various sections for a period of twenty years. Storms of the North Pacific type have occurred as follows: January, 53; February, 48; March, 44; April, 33; May, 27; June, 16; July, 14; August, 12; Sep- tember, 23; October, 28; November, 48; December, 53. This table, however, is misleading for California, as many of these storms pass far north of the State. The storm fre- quency is much less for the central and southern portion of the Pacific Coast than indicated in these figures. 23 WEATHER CONDITIONS ON THE PACIFIC COAST The reader can obtain detailed information re- garding the weather in various parts of the State by referring to the bibliography at the end of this ?aper: For San Francisco (McAdie, 1912), (McAdie, 913); for Berkeley (Reed, 1913); for Lick Ob- servatory (Reed, 1914); for San Diego (Carpenter, 1913). The following condensed data for San Francisco may prove of interest: Pressure. — Mean annual pressure 1017 kilobars (763 mm. or 30.03 in.); highest pressure 1036 kb. (777 mm. or 30.60 in.) ; lowest pressure 985 kb. (739 mm. or 29.10 in.). The absolute range of pressure 51 kilobars, i. e., in equivalent force units, 51,000 dynes or 5 per cent of an atmosphere. Temperature. — San Francisco has a compara- tively small range of temperature. The annual mean, based upon records covering a period of forty years, 1871 to 1911, and obtained from the mean of the daily maximum and minimum read- ings, is 286° A. (56° F.). A truer value determined from the 24-hourly readings for a period of twenty years, 1891 to 1910, is 285.6° A. (54.6° F.). The departures from the mean are comparatively small in all months. The warmest month is Sep- tember, with a mean of 288° A. (59.1° F.), and the coldest month, January, 282.6° A. (49.2° F.). The warmest month has practically the same departure above the mean as the coldest month has below. The annual amplitude is 5.5° A. (9.9° F.). The monthly mean temperatures determined from hourly readings are: January _ 283 49 July 289 56 February 284 51 August 287 67 March ..„ 285 52 September 288 59 April 285 54 October 288 58 May 286 '56 November 286 55 June _ 287 56 December 283 50 The coldest month was January, 1890, when the mean temperature was 281° A. (46° F.), and the warmest month, September, 1889, when the mean was 291° A. (65° F.). In an average year there are approximately 1311 hours when the temperature is above 289° A. (60° F.) ; 4111 hours when the temperature is above 286° A. (55° F.); and 7625 hours, or about 87 per cent of the entire year, when the temperature ex- ceeds 283° A. (50° F.). Differences between day and night tempera- tures are small. The warmest hour, 2 P.M., has a 24 WEATHER CONDITIONS ON THE PACIFIC COAST mean temperature of 288° A. (59.2° F.). The cool- est hour, 6 A.M., has a mean temperature of 273° A. (50.9° F.). The highest temperature ever recorded in San Francisco is 311° A. (101° F.). This occurred September 8, 1904, during a prolonged period of warm weather. For four consecutive days maxi- mum temperatures exceeded 305° A. (90° F.). This was the warmest spell of which there is record in San Francisco. The lowest temperature recorded since 1871 is 271° A. (29° F.), which occurred January 15, 1888. In the last twenty years the temperature has not fallen below 273° A. (32° F.). The absolute range of temperature from 1871 to 1911 is 40° A. (72° F.). Sunshine. — The amount of sunshine received at San Francisco is not as large as might be expected, but nevertheless compares favorably with that of other cities in the United States. The average num- ber of hours in a year, based upon hourly records from 1894 to 1910, is 2807, or 63 per cent of the possible. The average number of hours of sunshine for different months is: Per Cent Per Cent Hours of Hours of Possible Possible January 147 50 July 308 68 February „ 163 63 August 258 61 March 213 67 September i 252 68 April 256 66 October _ 236 68 May 294 67 November 175 58 June 34'5 75 December 160 54 It is interesting to compare the number of hours of sunshine at Mount Tamalpais for a year with the number at San Francisco, fourteen miles away. In 1910 the total number of hours of sunshine at Mount Tamalpais was 3258, or 70 per cent of the possible; at San Francisco, 3019 hours, or 66 per cent of the possible. The difference, amounting to 239 hours, equivalent to the total sunshine of an average month, shows how much sunshine is lost at San Francisco through the summer after- noon fog. In some years there is a difference of as much as 500 hours in the annual amounts of sunshine at the two stations. In some seasons the lower station receives more sunshine than the upper, the clouds forming and remaining on the mountain crest. The fogs can be seen to great advantage from the station at Mount Tamalpais. The fogs are caused by the mixing of air streams of different temperatures and different vapor con- tent. Some are caused by cooling due to elevation 25 WEATHER CONDITIONS ON THE PACIFIC COAST and some by excessive loss of heat by radiation. It is interesting to note that in summer San Fran- cisco receives but 68 per cent of the possible sun- shine, while at Mount Tamalpais more than 90 per cent is recorded. The Winds. — The prevailing drift of the sur- face air along the California coast is from west to east. Briefly, the summer winds may be grouped as follows: West to northwest, 75 per cent; north to northeast, 4 per cent; east to southeast, 3 per cent; south to southwest, 3 per cent; and calms, 15 per cent. The winter winds show a greater per- centage of motion from the south. Southerly gales are not infrequent, and there is a common belief that southeast is the prevalent direction in winter months. This, however, is not true. West to north- west winds have a frequency of 30 per cent; north to northeast, 18 per cent; east to southeast, 17 per cent; south to southwest, 22 per cent; and calms, 13 per cent. It is plain from the above figures that north- west is the predominant direction along the coast in the vicinity of San Francisco. Owing to the topography there are certain deflections and changes in the direction of the wind, especially through the Golden Gate from northwest to west or even west by south. These are referred to else- where. During certain portions of the year, especially May and June, the northwest wind attains a re- markably high velocity. Another type of high wind experienced at San Francisco is the north-northeast wind of November, December, and occasionally January. This wind differs from the northwest wind of summer and is distinctly a mountain wind. The highest wind velocity recorded in San Francisco, 28.6 meters per second (sixty-four miles per hour), from the northeast, occurred on November 30, 1906.* The most prevalent high wind of winter is from the southwest, closely followed by the southeast. The latter is the well-known wind preceding winter storms in this section. At San Francisco south- east winds will sometimes prevail for several days; but in most storms the wind after blowing for twelve or more hours increases in velocity to 18 meters per second (forty-one miles an hour), more or less, and then shifts suddenly to the southwest, * The velocities used here are Weather Bureau instru- mental records. These are only approximately correct. For conversion into meters per second it may be convenient to remember that one meter per second equals 2.2 miles per hour. 26 WEATHER CONDITIONS ON THE PACIFIC COAST attaining a slightly higher velocity. After a few hours the velocity decreases and, with the change to northwest, the weather clears. At such times the air is remarkably pure and the distant moun- tains can be seen distinctly. The average hourly wind velocity in San Fran- cisco is nearly 4.5 meters per second (ten miles per hour), and the prevailing direction west. The wind attains its greatest velocity about 4:30 P.M. and its least about 6 A.M. The average movement during the twelve hours from 7 A.M. to 6 P.M. is approximately 4.9 meters per second (eleven miles per hour), and from 7 P.M. to 6 A.M., 4 meters per second (nine miles per hour). Fog. — One of the most marked climatic features of San Francisco is the prevalence of fog. In sum- mer afternoons sea fog moves through the Gate, appearing about 1 P.M. and covering the whole sky by 3 P.M. The average depth of the fog layer is 518 meters (1700 feet). Comparing the percent- age of possible sunshine at San Francisco and Mount Tamalpais, it is at once apparent that the summer afternoon sea fog shuts out 50 per cent or more of the possible sunshine between 3 and 7 P.M. during June, July, and August. There is also curtailment of sunshine between 7 and 9 A.M. dur- ing May, June, July, August, and September. In the winter, morning fogs, or, as they are commonly called, "tule" fogs, frequently occur. These are low-lying banks of condensed vapor formed by cooling due to radiation and contact. The land surfaces are much cooler than the water surfaces, and hence these fogs have a decided mo- tion from the land to the sea. The average number of foggy days is twenty-four per year. In addition to the summer afternoon sea fog, moving from west to east, and the land or tule fog of winter mornings, there is a third kind of fog, which may be called smoke fog. Under certain atmospheric conditions the smoke of the city moves seaward during the forenoon and returns about 1 P.M. as a dense black pall. This is the cause of the so-called dark days. The phenomenon is of brief duration, seldom exceeding two hours; but while it lasts causes some apprehension. Humidity. — Relative humidity is a term fre- quently used in attempts to describe relative damp- ness of a locality. The term is misleading and while generally used can not give a proper basis for comparison unless temperatures are also given, inasmuch as relative humidity is only a ratio and does not indicate a fixed amount of water vapor. 27 WEATHER CONDITIONS ON THE PACIFIC COAST Thus at San Francisco relative humidity through- out the year is high; but during the summer months, owing to low temperatures, the absolute weight of water vapor per unit of volume and the vapor tension are much less than at coast stations of the Atlantic. Notwithstanding high relative humidity in summer, the vapor tension and absolute humidity are low at San Francisco. Rainfall. — Rainfall records have been main- tained in San Francisco for a period of sixty-five years. The greatest 24-hour rainfall occurred on O tog&wl I o to 10 inches £50 ' 500 • P E! 10 • to ' 500 • ISO • 750' 1000- 1000-1250' Over CSC* tO • 30 30 ' 40 40 • 50 Ovzr 50 Figure 4 Eainfall chart for California. January 28, 1881, when 118.6 millimeters (4.67 in.) fell. The next greatest 24-hour rainfall was on September 24, 1904, when 909 millimeters (3.58 in.) fell. The longest rainless period was in 1903, when no rain fell from April 16 until October 9, 175 days. In 1911 there was no rain from June 6 to October 1, 116 days. 28 WEATHER CONDITIONS ON THE PACIFIC COAST In connection with the absence of rain during December, 1876, it may be noted that there was no rain between November 16, 1876, and January 16, 1877. Or, in other words, there was a period of sixty consecutive days without rain in mid- winter. Some of the months of heaviest rain were Jan- uary, 1862, when 618.8 millimeters (24.36 in.) of rain fell, and eighteen days of the month were rainy. In January, 1911, 350.3 millimeters (13.79 in.) fell, distributed over eighteen days. In Jan- uary, 1909, 267.0 millimeters (10.51 in.) fell, but there were twenty-six rainy days, making it in this sense the rainiest month known at San Francisco. August, like July, is practically a rainless month. The mean rainfall is 0.5 millimeter (0.02 in.). There has never been an August when the total rainfall exceeded 6.4 millimeters (0.25 in.). Only fourteen of the sixty-two months under considera- tion have had a rainfall exceeding 0.2 millimeter (0.01 in.). The greatest 24-hour rainfall was 3.0 millimeters (0.12 in.) on August 26, 1858. In the past sixty-two years, 1850 to 1911, there have been 4207 rainy days. The yearly distribu- tion is: January, 11; February, 10; March, 11; April, 6; May, 4; June, 1; July, 0; August, 0; Sep- tember, 2; October, 4; November, 7; December, 11. For the year, average number 67. Thunderstorms occur infrequently at San Fran- cisco. In the past twenty years there have been twenty-nine, distributed as follows: January 2 April 3 July 1 October 3 February 3 May 1 August 2 November 3 March 1 June 1 September 2 December 7 The greatest number recorded in any one year was eight, in 1906. During the past twenty years there have been eight years without record of a thunderstorm. The storms are mild in character, the lightning flashes of moderate intensity, and the thunder usually limited to a few peals. Damage from lightning is rare, although flagpoles have been shattered and trees struck. There have been fifty-six hailstorms in the past twenty years. January and December are the months of maximum frequency. There is no record of any hailstorm occurring during June, July, Au- gust, and September. During winter storms the tops of the hills in the southwestern portion of the city are occasion- ally whitened by snowflakes. These melt rapidly and snow of appreciable depth is rare. However, snow can be seen frequently during winter months 29 WEATHER CONDITIONS ON THE PACIFIC COAST on Mount Tamalpais, Mount Diablo, and the peaks of the Mount Hamilton Range. The heaviest snow- fall in the bay section occurred January 9, 1913, when Mount Tamalpais and Angel Island were covered. REFERENCES CARPENTER, F. A. 1913. The climate and weather of San Diego, California. (Chamber of Commerce, San Diego), 118 pp., pis. McADIE, A. G. 1903. Climatology of California. U. S. Weather Bur., Bull. L, 270 pp., 12 pis., diagrams. 1912. The clouds and fogs of San Francisco. (A. M. Robert- son, San Francisco), 106 pp., 16 pis. 1913. The climate of San Francisco, California. U. S. Weather Bur., Bull. 44, 33 pp. 1914. The rainfall of California. Univ. Calif. Publ. Geog., vol. 1, pp. 127-240, pis. 21-28, maps. REED, W. G. 1913. The rainfall of Berkeley. Univ. Calif. Publ. Geog., vol. 1, pp. 63-79. 1914. Meteorology at the Lick Observatory. Monthly Weather Rev. (Washington), vol. 42, pp. 339-345, pi. 30 PLATE IV Relief Map of Washington and Oregon. Constructed by S. Shedd, 1896 and 1898. From the Geological Museum of Stanford University. PLATE V Eelief Map of California and Nevada. California Portion Constructed by X. F. Drake, Department of Geology, Stanford University. Nevada Portion Constructed by Lloyd and Simkins, Reno, Nevada. PHYSIOGRAPHIC GEOGRAPHY BY RULIFF S. HOLWAY Associate Professor of Physical Geography, University of California THE physiographic geography of the Pacific Coast region is far from being uniform in character; in fact the type areas of the various subdivisions cover almost the entire range of the phvsiographic scale outside of the torrid zone. Differing thus widely among themselves the sub- divisions must also DC in strong contrast to the physiographic provinces of the Atlantic Coast from Maine to Florida. Some few suggestions of these contrasts may make this brief outline of the physi- ography of the Pacific Slope stand out more clearly. On the north the forests of Washington and of Maine are both growing in regions bearing the scorings of ancient glaciers, but in the western state, although the winters are extremely mild in comparison with those of Maine, the forests rise on the higher peaks until they meet the ice fronts of still living glaciers. In the extreme southern portion of both the Pacific and the Atlantic shores the orange and the lemon flourish under subtropical conditions. On the western coast, however, the thriving citrus groves extend as far northward in the Sacramento Valley as the latitude of the south- ern boundary of Pennsylvania, yet the growers are subject to no more if as much risk of serious loss from frost as are the growers of southern Cali- fornia and of Florida. The contrasts in tempera- ture between north and south on the Pacific Coast are less than those on the Atlantic, but if the gen- eral physiographic conditions are examined on an east and west line in each case, geographic contrasts more vitally controlling man's movements and oc- cupations are found on the western shore. For example, in going directly inland from Norfolk, Vir- ginia, for a distance of three hundred miles the area at first traversed is a low coastal plain which gently rises to an elevation of only five hundred feet above the sea in a hundred and fifty miles. The remaining half of the line extends up the Pied- mont slope and over the Blue Mountains among peaks from three to four thousand feet in elevation. Throughout the entire three hundred miles the annual rainfall is uniformly from forty to fifty 31 ' PHYSIOGRAPHIC GEOGRAPHY inches and the difference in the mean temperature of January and July is 35° to 40°F. Turning now to the Pacific Coast, Santa Cruz, on the same parallel of latitude, has within a fraction of a degree the same mean annual temperature as has Norfolk, but the difference between January and July is less than 14°F. instead of 38°F. Inland from the Pacific the same distance as from the Atlantic, we find rapid changes in rainfall and in temperature, with rapid changes in the elevation which varies from over fourteen thousand feet above to nearly three hun- dred feet below the level of the sea. Starting at Santa Cruz, where surf bathing is possible in January and where July is pleasantly cool, there is no coastal plain, the mountains rising abruptly from the sea to elevations of over three thousand feet within twenty miles. Close to the coast the redwood groves thrive under from twenty to fifty inches of rainfall; but continuing inland over the alternate mountain ridges and intervening valleys, one descends suddenly within sixty miles from the ocean to the low-lying wide plains of the Great Valley of California with less than ten inches of rain along its western border. In this interior valley the annual range of mean temperature is only slightly less than in Virginia but the winters are ten degrees warmer. On the eastern side of the Great Valley, near Merced and Fresno, the 37th parallel passes through irrigated vineyards and citrus orchards growing on the extensive alluvial slopes at the foot of the mountains. Eastward again the rainfall rapidly increases up the long gentle slope of the Sierra Nevada through the mining dis- trict to the great forest belt. Still upward the now lessening precipitation is largely snow and at the crest line of the High Sierra, fourteen thousand feet above the sea, is found the Palisade Glacier.* Standing on the top of the high cliff of the two-mile- wide amphitheater at its head, the observer may look over the yawning crevasses in the green ice, down the steep eastern front of the Sierra Nevada fault scarp, across the narrow green irrigated belt at its foot, to the sage-brush marking the edge of the arid plateaus. Eastward for another seventy-five miles, over high ranges and across arid basins, brings him to Death Valley, in places at least 278 feet below sea level, this valley, with its burning summer heat rising sometimes to 137°F. in the shade, and its dry sandy and salt-incrusted waste slopes fully satisfies one s early conception of a desert. * Palisade Glacier is fifteen miles from Big Pine on the railroad running northwest from Mohave through Owens Valley. 32 PHYSIOGRAPHIC GEOGRAPHY That physiographers do not agree on definite boundaries to the subdivisions of this great western region, the varied characteristics of which have been barely suggested in the foregoing paragraphs, is not surprising. Sometimes one province almost imperceptibly grades into another. As a usual thing reasonably sharp limitations seem possible, but exact knowledge is lacking as yet in these extensive and thinly settled regions largely because geograph- ical science necessarily views tne earth from so many standpoints that criteria for classification are many and varied compared with the relatively simple conditions used as determinants in the more specialized sciences. There is, however, fair ap- proach to unanimity in dividing the Pacific Slope primarily into four major physiographic provinces each roughly parallel to the ocean: the Coast Ranges, the Pacific Valleys, the Sierra Nevada-Cas- cade ranges, and the Arid Plateaus. This classifi- cation is based largely on a consideration of topog- raphy, climate and vegetation; but these three fac- tors, each involving many details, have no fixed relative value in determining boundary lines of the various provinces. The resulting subdivisions, how- ever, have a general and easily recognized physiog- raphic unity which justifies the use of varying criteria in classification. The four primary regions, on more detailed study, are themselves subdivided by lines that sometimes roughly depend on climate, sometimes on geologic structure as expressed in topography or soils, or on vegetation which may be taken as the surface expression of both topography and climate. Two important and absolutely necessary condi- tions for the appreciation of the different physiog- raphic provinces of the west coast are, first, their position on the east of a great ocean in such lati- tudes that the winds prevailing from the west bring inland the moderate and nearly constant tempera- ture of the sea; and, secondly, the fact that the two great mountain systems lie squarely athwart these moisture-laden west winds. The result is an alter- nation of belts of greater or less rainfall. This varying amount of rain helps in determining the limits of the first three provinces and is the chief determinant of the Arid Plateau Province — the "rain- shadow" area of the Cascade-Sierra Nevada ranges. With this parallelism of the major physiographic provinces and their extent practically from Canada to Mexico, it follows that the visitor to the Panama- Pacific International Exposition traveling through the United States must cross all four of the major 33 PHYSIOGRAPHIC GEOGRAPHY provinces. Furthermore, it is significant that he sees first of all the Arid Province placed by nature as a definite boundary and barrier marking off this western region with its distinctive individuality. The peculiarities of the west coast, its problems and its needs, would have been better understood in the eastern portion of the United States had com- munication been more free, and the Panama Canal in a vital, if not in a literal sense, cuts away part of the desert barrier between the two great sections of our country. The Arid Province, by reason of its very aridity, has great areas of soil exceptionally rich in plant food and wonderfully productive in the localities where water may be obtained for irrigation. To many visitors the arid region is "a desert" — unin- teresting and disagreeable, to be at least partially escaped by travel at night. But viewed either as a lost paradise to be regained by irrigation, or viewed as a physiographic barrier to perfectly free inter- course, which the non-irrigable areas must always remain to a large degree, or viewed as a region fortunately either bare or thinly covered with vege- tation that man may study the forces and processes by which nature evolves scenery from the raw ma- terials, it is full of interest and of charm. Even the discomfort of the heat and dust found in passing through the extreme types of this province in the hottest or windiest day is a valuable experience. The characteristic distinction in the physiographic processes of the type arid region compared with those of the humid climate of the Mississippi Valley and the East is that owing to scanty rainfall the rivers are unable to maintain their courses to the sea. The streams drop the greater part of their load of sediment at the foot of the mountains, forming great alluvial fans, and only the finer material and the matter in solution are carried to the bottom of the various basins where more or less temporary salt lakes are formed. The general result is that while the mountains are being lowered the low- lands around them are being built up, covering their basal slopes, and the amount of relief becomes less and less. The tendency is finally to approximate a plain from which rise the resistant tops of the yet unburied mountains. In contrast with the humid regions where erosion at first deepens the valleys, thus increasing the relief but constantly lowering the average elevation of the entire region and tend- ing ultimately to form a peneplain close to sea level, the typical arid basin levels up as well as down and tends to form a peneplain at the average level of 34 PHYSIOGRAPHIC GEOGRAPHY the original land surface — less whatever material the winds may export altogether from the region. The Arid Plateau Province is naturally sub- divided into three parts, the Columbia Plateau, the Basin Plateau, and the Lower Colorado Plateau. The central division which most travelers enter at Great Salt Lake is typical in having no drainage to the sea, but is not to be thought of as a single drain- age basin, for in reality there are still hundreds of separate depressions notwithstanding the tendency to integration through filling. The Columbia Plateau is least typical of the arid or desert province because of its slightly greater rainfall and its drainage to the sea by the Columbia River, and also because its to- pography is so largely controlled by the nearly hori- zontal beds of the great Tertiary lava flow. The southern third of the Arid Belt is also traversed by a large river, the Colorado, but many depressions of considerable size are undrained and the tempera- ture and aridity make it in many ways more repre- sentative of arid provinces than is the Columbia Plateau. (See Pis. IV and V, and fig. 5.) The Great Basin region may possibly be traversed at least one way by more visitors to the Panama- Pacific Exposition than any other section of the Arid Province, and it offers more examples of typical topography already familiar in scientific and popular literature. Great Salt Lake is but the last remnant of its great predecessor, and from the car windows may be seen many fragments of terraces marking the shore-lines of successive levels of Lake Bonneville, the extensive lake of glacial times (Gil- bert, 1890). In northwestern Nevada similarly are found fragments of the shore-lines of the contem- poraneous Lake Lahontan (Russell, 1885). These shore-lines are visible from either the Southern Pacific or the Western Pacific railroad and both lines pass through or near several of the character- istic playa lakes, sometimes partially filled with thin sheets of water, but nearly always showing por- tions of the mud flats of their beds incrusted with the salts deposited from the evaporating water. The traveler by the Sunset Route at the extreme south will find much typical arid province scenery through Arizona. Entering California at the head of the old delta of the Colorado River which makes the rich lands of Imperial County, he will have the exDerience of descending below sea level in passing Salton Sea. Throughout the arid region the peculiar vegetation, sage-brush, grease-wood, or cactus, con- stitutes no small part of the characteristic scenery; but this is described in a later chapter. 35 PHYSIOGRAPHIC GEOGRAPHY Adjoining the Arid Plateaus on the west is the Sierra Nevada-Cascade Province. The southern range is a great block sharply uplifted on the east and sloping gently westward to the central plain of California (Le Conte, 1907). Starting from Mohave Station, just within the Basin Province, the automo- bile road, "El Camino Sierra," skirts the base of the steep fault scarp forming the eastern front of the Sierra Nevada as far as Lake Tahoe, practically tracing thus far the boundary between the two provinces. For the first third of the way the Los Angeles aqueduct follows nearly the same route to the intake on the Owens River. The southern end of Owens Valley contains Owens Lake, the alkaline sink in which the unused waters of the river evaporate. A short distance northward of Owens Lake is Lone Pine, the most convenient outfitting place for the ascent of the highest mountain in the United States outside of Alaska, Mount Whitney, which although but thirteen miles away in an air line, towers nearly 11,000 feet above the little vil- lage. Northward the road crosses the aqueduct, and, passing through Big Pine, fifteen miles from the Palisade Glacier, leads to Bishop, the commercial center of Owens Valley. The middle third of the road from Bishop to Mono Lake rises in places to an elevation of over 7000 feet, the magnificent snow- capped wall of the Sierra Fault Scarp always on the left with the moraines of its ancient glaciers fre- quently found at the very road-side. (See PL VII.) Mono Lake, the "Dead Sea of America," is 6412 feet above the sea, but having no outlet is intensely alka- line. Here the great glacial moraines, the old shore lines of the lake, and several volcanic craters form an interesting field for physiographic study (Russell, 1897). The last third of El Camino Sierra ends at the famous Lake Tahoe, 6225 feet above the sea, but, un- like Mono Lake, it has an outlet and its waters are fresh and pure. Near Tahoe the Sierra has no longer a single fault scarp and the lake lies between two of the separate fault blocks. The main rivers of the uptilted Sierra block are on its long western slope where the rejuvenated streams have carved canons, since modified by ice. Wonderful as are Yosemite and Kings River canons, it is believed that the trip along "El Camino Sierra," with the ascent of Mount Whitney and the climb to Palisade Glacier, is no less enjoyable either for mountain scenery or for general physiographic interest.* * This scant reference to the well-known scenery of the Sierra Nevada is supplemented by Professor Le Conte's de- scriptions of mountaineering in another chapter. 36 PHYSIOGRAPHIC GEOGRAPHY The Sierra Nevada Range terminates at the North Fork of Feather River not far from the line of the Western Pacific railroad. Its correlative, the Cas- cade Range, has some common features in past physiographic history, but in a hasty view it may be sufficient to call attention to the greatest con- trast, namely, that in the northern range upbuilding by volcanic flows has played a vastly more import- ant part than in the Sierra Nevada. At the extreme southern end of the Cascade Range stands Lassen Peak (Diller, 1895), an old volcanic cone which sud- denly became active on May 30, 1914, and which has now been in intermittent action of the explosive type for nearly eight months (Holway, 1914). (See PI. VI.) As this page was written, January 23, 1915, the newspapers announced that at nine o'clock in the morning the 74th eruption took place from a new crater on the east side of the mountain.* Northward the well known extinct (?) volcanic cones of Mount Shasta, Crater Lake, Hood, and Rainier serve to emphasize further the contrast between the Cascades and the Sierra Nevada. The next of the four parallel physiographic belts of the west coast region is the Pacific Valley Prov- ince— a depression, not continuous however, be- tween the Cascade-Sierra Nevada Range and the Coast Ranges. The valley of Puget Sound in the State of Washington is continued southward through the greater part of Oregon as the Willamette Valley, and although the Cascade and Coast ranges for a short distance practically meet in southern Oregon, the same type of depression reappears beyond and is known as the Great Vallev of California. As com- monly described, the Pacific Valley Province ends where the Sierra Nevada turns westward to meet the Coast Ranges. The different portions of the Pacific Valley are the lowland plains of the west coast in which must always center the most important agri- cultural interests. In the Pacific Valleys possibly the side trip avail- able to the greatest number of visitors on the line of approach to San Francisco may be made by changing from the railroad at Sacramento, the capitol of California, and continuing to San Fran- cisco by steamboat on the Sacramento River and through Suisun Bay and the northern half of San Francisco Bay. The Sacramento River throughout most of its course in the Great Valley has by floods built up natural levees and these, strengthened by * The best railroad points from which to visit the peak are Redding or Red Bluff on the west, or Susanville on the east. An auto ride of fifty to sixty miles Is necessary to reach the base of the mountain. 37 PHYSIOGRAPHIC GEOGRAPHY artificial levees, hold the river channel in the center of the low alluvial ridge built by the river itself. The fine silt of the alluvial land on either side is ex- tremely rich, and from Sacramento down stream is subject to flood unless leveed. As Suisun Bay is ap- proached, many of the most valuable farm lands, some of them largely peat, are five to ten feet below sea level. This region, the Netherlands of Cali- fornia, may all be seen bv daylight if a morning steamer from Sacramento is secured. The Coast Ranges, as has already been stated, usually rise abruptly from the sea. In Washington they are known as the Olympic Mountains, and in southwestern Oregon and northwestern California the structure and topography have caused another subdivision to be set off as the Klamath Province. The other sections are commonly spoken of as the Coast Ranges of Oregon or of California. The Coast Ranges, as a whole, somewhat exceed the Appalach- ian Mountains in elevation. The peaks of the Olympic and the Klamath ranges rise to 9000 feet and over, and south of Monterey Bay, Santa Lucia Peak of the California Coast Ranges is about six thousand feet above the sea. In southern California the Sierra Madre is commonly accepted as part of the Coast Ranges, notwithstanding a change in trend and their distance from the sea. In the ranges of the Sierra Madre the highest peak is over eleven thousand feet in elevation. Space for physiography in this guide book has been pages where volumes are needed. The Coast Range Province, like the others, must be passed with brief reference to features of special interest. Possibly the most striking fact is that the Coast Ranges have been so recently uplifted from the ocean that the seaward front still shows at intervals from San Diego to Portland the successive shore- lines deeply scored by the waves during the stand- still of the land between successive uplifts. Yet if Mpunt Tamalpais, just north of Golden Gate, be climbed, the magnificent panoramic view from the top shows San Francisco Bay most plainly as a drowned valley made by recent subsidence which has admitted the sea through the gorge that was formerly the old mouth of the Sacramento (Lawson, 1914). In contrast with this view of local subsid- ence, if the railroad be taken to Santa Cruz (three hours away), the coast for ten or fifteen miles to the westward shows four broad old ocean strands with their former sea cliffs at the rear, the whole rising like steps of a giant stair-case to some seven hundred feet from the present ocean level (Lawson, 38 PHYSIOGRAPHIC GEOGRAPHY 1913). Fragments of older and much eroded ter- races are found up to two thousand feet above the sea at other places. The excellent preservation of the major terraces near Santa Cruz is due to a shale formation which, though easily eroded by wave action, is yet quite resistant to ordinary weathering. Series of marine terraces may be seen also at San Pedro Hill, Los Angeles, and at Soledad Hill near San Diego. Another peculiarity of the Coast Ranges affects largely the life of the people. The successive mountain ridges from the Pacific to the interior valleys are roughly parallel to the coast line and to each other, but frequently they coalesce. Transverse valleys are very rare. Lines of travel are up and down the valleys rather than over the intervening ridges. Few main wagon roads run from east to west and they have heavy grades. Between Los An- geles and Puget Sound only two passes through the Coast Ranges from the ocean to the interior low- lands are so available for traffic that they have be- come great trade routes — the Columbia Kiver and the drowned valley of the lower Sacramento River forming the Golden Gate and San Francisco Bay. Through railroad communication from north to south on the Pacific Slope is as yet confined to the Pacific valleys. Not only is there no extensive coastal plain on the Pacific Coast of the United States, but it is literally true that for many miles at a stretch, and for possibly hundreds of miles in the aggregate, there is no flat land at the coast of sufficient width for a right of way. The modern geographer is trying to describe the regions of the world in their various physical as- Eects as they affect the surface of the earth as the qme of man. It is to be hoped that the reader will find in the rather impressionistic picture of the physiographic aspect of the Pacific Coast region, here sketched, a framework into which will fit the more detailed information he may gather in plan- ning and in making a visit to this coast. REFERENCES DILLER, J. S. 1895. Lassen Peak folio, California. U. S. G. S., Geologic Atlas of the U. S., no. 15, 3 pp., 2 pis., 3 maps. 1902. Topographic development of the Klamath Mountains. U. S. G. S., Bull. no. 196, 69 pp., 13 pis. GILBERT, G. K. 1890. Lake Bonneville. U. S. G. S., Monograph I; 438 pp., 51 pis., 1 map. HOLWAY, R. S. 1915. Volcanic activity of Lassen Peak, California. Pop. Sci. Mon., vol. 86, pp. 290-305. 39 PHYSIOGRAPHIC GEOGRAPHY LAWSON, A. C. 1893. Post-Pliocene diastrophism of the coast of southern California. Univ. Calif. Publ. Geol., vol. 1, pp. 115-160, pis. 8-9. 1914. San Francisco folio, California. U. S. G. S., Geologic- Atlas of the U. S., no. 193, 24 pp., pis., 1'5 maps. LE CONTE, J. N. 1907. The High Sierra of California. Amer. Alpine Club, Publ., vol. 1, no. 1, 16 pp., pis. 1-6. RUSSELL, I. C. 1889. The Quaternary history of Mono Valley, California. U. S. G. S., Eighth Ann. Rep., pt. 1, pp. 261-394, pis. 16-44. 1885. Geological history of Lake Lahontan. U. S. G. S., Monograph XI, 288 pp., 46 pis. 40 GEOLOGY OF THE WEST COAST REGION OF THE UNITED STATES BY C. F. TOLMAN, JR. Associate Professor of Economic Geology, Stanford University NATURE has left voluminous records of the geological history of the west coast of the United States in the numerous and thick sedimentary formations of the region. The records are fragmentary and incomplete for the pre-Cam- brian eras, those antedating the appearance of life on the earth or at least containing no evidence of the teeming population that existed in the oceans from the Cambrian period on. Beginning with the Cambrian and extending down to the present time, each period is represented by marine deposits which register the geography, climate, and some- thing of the denizens, of the times in which they were formed. The story of vulcanism and earth movements is read not only in the character and distribution of the igneous rocks of this region, but also in the metamorphism and deformation of the sedimentary rocks. This second record, imprinted by metamorphism, often erases, partially or com- pletely, the earlier records of the sea. The history of the relatively recent periods, of the geologic yesterday, is written in more detail than elsewhere in the world. It treats of marine, terrestrial, and glacial conditions, of the base leveling of mountain ranges followed by vulcanism, earth movements and the re-birth of mountain systems. In the attempt to select and describe a few of the salient features of this long and complicated history, it has been difficult to make the treatment accurate, or to give alternate interpretations which may be as worthy of consideration as those pre- sented here. The limited space allotted to this article has rendered it inadvisable to cite the con- tributions of each of the geologists who have added to our knowledge of west coast geology. The brief bibliography includes a few important papers bear- ing on the subjects emphasized in this summary. In the accompanying geological map the formations have been grouped according to the divisions adopted in the text of this article. (See Pis. XXXIX and XL.) 41 MAIN STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS OF THE PACIFIC COAST REGION 42 Figure 5 GEOLOGY OF WEST COAST REGION OF UNITED STATES THE PRE-CAMBRIAN OF THE WEST COAST. — For- mations of pre-Cambrian age doubtless exist in numerous localities in this region, but in most cases the proof of the suspected antiquity of these strata is lacking. East of the region under consideration, intense and widespread metamorphism is generally considered a proof of great geological age. In the Pacific region such metamorphism merely indicates an age antedating the intrusion of the Sierra Nevada batholith. Patches of known pre-Cambrian occur north- west of Owens Lake, where a metamorphosed series appears underneath strata carrying an Olenellus (lower Cambrian) fauna. Numerous areas of prob- able pre-Cambrian occur in the desert mountain ranges of the region adjoining Arizona, as proved pre-Cambrian is found in the Grand Canon of the Colorado, and neighboring areas. All other com- ponents of these ranges are of later age, including Palaeozoic formations, chiefly quartzites and lime- stones, granitic intrusions of post-Palaeozoic age, contemporaneous with, or possibly somewhat later than, the batholiths to the north and west, and also stillyounger deformed but unmetamorphosed strata. Tlie granitic core of the Sierra Nevada forms the largest of the batholiths mentioned above. The granite masses of the Sierra Madre, San Jacinto and San Bernardino ranges of southern California, are now generally considered as outlying members of the main batholith. Most batholitnic masses, when studied in detail, have been found to be complex, consisting of rocks of varying ages, the older mem- bers of which have been caught up and fused into the later intrusives. It is not improbable, there- fore, that the older gneisses and schists appearing within the less metamorphosed granites, are of pre- Cambrian age, but until these are studied in detail, the entire complex is best classified as late Jurassic in age. Certain apparently ancient schists of Siskiyou County, California, have been provisionally assigned to the pre-Cambrian, and the somewhat similar Colebrook schists of Oregon may belong here. The basin in which the late pre-Cambrian formations of the Belt series were deposited, lies just east of the boundary line between Washington and Idaho. Certain still older gneisses and schists which form the basement upon which the Belt sediments were laid down occur in northeastern Washington. These scattered fragments of the ancient rock formations furnish few data from which we may reconstruct the geography of the west coast region, 43 GEOLOGY OF WEST COAST REGION OF UNITED STATES immediately preceding the great invasion of the sea during the succeeding Palaeozoic era. We know in general that the American continent was elevated above the sea, probably far bevond its E resent boundaries, and was gradually reduced in jvel. Towards the close of the pre-Cambrian a great trough, east of Washington, was filled with sediments. Early Cambrian times witnessed an ex- tension of the Great Basin Sea of Nevada and ad- joining states into eastern California. There ex- isted at this time, perhaps, an archipelago of small islands in southeastern California, and low land masses in the region now occupied by the Sierra Nevada Mountains. The Pacific Ocean lay to the west of the present coast line, a condition which probably existed on through Palaeozoic, Triassic, and Jurassic times. THE PRE-CRETACEOUS METAMORPHICS. — During Palaeozoic times the western strands of the Great Basin Sea occupied the eastern portion of Califor- nia, now advancing, now retreating, and finally, towards the close of the era, reaching well into western California, possibly as far west as the present coast line in the vicinity of Monterey, where the extensive Santa Lucia limestone of Palaeozoic age is well developed. The northern Palaeozoic Ocean occupied a considerable portion of Oregon, but its full extent is not known, as much of both Oregon and Washington are covered by the Colum- bian lavas. The Palaeozoic strata are largely the metamor- phosed equivalents of shales and sandstones, but in Devonian and Carboniferous times extensive strata of limestone were deposited. The late Palaeozoic sediments are interstratified with large amounts of volcanic material, lavas and tuffs. The total thickness of this series of coastal deposits is at least 10,000 feet in California. The Triassic and Jurassic sediments were laid down in a relatively small inland sea or sound, ex- tending over only the western portion of the region occupied by the former Great Basin Sea. These early Mesozoic seas were undoubtedly connected with the Pacific Ocean, but a great island, includ- ing the western portion of California and Oregon, and probably extending west of the present coast line, separated the inland sea from the Pacific Ocean. The maximum thickness of the marine Triassic and Jurassic of northeastern California is not less than 8000 feet. This suggests that there was a nearby land mass, although no mountain ranges were formed as yet. 44 GEOLOGY OF WEST COAST REGION OF UNITED STATES Along the west coast there is a thick and wide- spread series of rocks known as the Franciscan series, which, with the exception of certain gran- ites and limestones that occur in the southern ranges, is the oldest of the formations exposed in the Coast Ranges. This series is of interest to visitors of the Panama-Pacific Exposition, as it forms the rock foundation of the city of San Fran- cisco, as well as much of the higher and scenic portions of the Coast Ranges. In spite 9f wide distribution and easy access, many difficulties have been encountered in the study of these rocks. Few fossils have been found except tests of radiolaria and foraminifera, which furnish little data suit- able for geologic correlations. Close folding and the general prevalence of a double cover of soil and brush have hindered structural studies. One of the best sections is found in Corral Hollow, southwest of the old coal mining camp of Tesla, and can be reached by automobile from San Fran- cisco. Here a measured section includes 15,000 feet of sedimentary rock without exposing either the top or the bottom of the series. The lowest formation exposed is a dense blue sandstone cut by innumerable intersecting quartz veinlets. Above are the Corral Hollow shales which contain massive beds of crumpled and folded cherts, and, especially in the vicinity of serpentine intrusions, of law- sonite, chlorite, and glaucophane bearing schists, which seem to be peculiar to the Franciscan series and similar metamorphics in Greece, Asia Minor, and Japan. The upper member is the slightly meta- morphosed Oakridge sandstone. The geologists who have studied the Franciscan formation are not in agreement as to its age. It has been assigned in part to the Cretaceous; but its position under the Knoxville series (Early Cre- taceous) suggests a pre-Cretaceous age. A portion of the series lies unconformably on granite, and if this granite is contemporaneous with the last of the granites of the Sierra Nevada, a post-Jurassic age is indicated; but the history of the batholith is as yet undeciphered in detail, and possibly may have occupied several geological periods in the forming. We conclude, therefore, that an important trough, in which deposition was active, was located west of the Sierra Nevada Mountains. On the east side of this trough the Mariposa formation (Jurassic slates) was deposited, and the Franciscan series to the west. This trough was probably post-Palaeozoic and pre-Cretaceous in age. To the west the more 45 GEOLOGY OF WEST COAST REGION OF UNITED STATES important types of marine life were rare, but large amounts of organic siliceous ooze were deposited. The land mass from which the terrigenous sediments were derived may have existed to the west of the present coast line. THE CORDILLERAN REVOLUTION AND THE SlERRA NEVADA BATHOLITH. — The intrusion of the Sierra Nevada batholith and most of the outlying members took place in late Jurassic times. The main batho- lith occupies the eastern portion of California, ex- tending northward in a direction a little west of north. It disappears under the lava cover of north- ern California and Oregon. In the northern part of California and southern Oregon, small granitic masses may be outlying members of the same great intrusion. Towards the south the batholith ends in a hook which curves around the southern rim of the great valley of California. The irregular masses of the Sierra Madre, ban Jacinto and San Bernar- dino ranges of the southern part of California, as well as the smaller granite areas of the Coast Ranges south of San Francisco, may be closely related to the main batholith. The intrusion was accompanied by metamorphism so intense and widespread that it resembles regional rather than contact action. As a result much of the pre-Cretaceous rocks appear as schists, slates and recrystallized limestones. The small granitic masses of the desert region of south- eastern California belong to the Great Basin pro- vince, and a close relationship to the Sierra Nevada batholith has not as yet been proved. In north- eastern Washington, the granitic intrusives are re- lated to the Idaho batholith rather than that of the Sierra Nevada, while in central Washington a batho- lith of proved Miocene age is reported. Sills and dikes of serpentine were intruded along the axes of the present Coast Ranges. These may have been contemporaneous in part with the later phases of the batholithic intrusions of the Sierra Nevada, which also include basic derivatives. The intrusion of the Coast Range serpentines continued, however, into early Cretaceous times. Prior to the intrusion of the last of the Sierra Nevada granites, the earth movements which brought about the Cordilleran revolution were well under way. The pre-Cretaceous sediments west of the batholith were closely appressed into isoclinal folds. The axes of the folds are nearly vertical, occasion- ally overturned, and trend northwestward well into Oregon, where they swing to the northeast as if to round the point of the main batholith, and dis- appear under the cover of Tertiary lavas. 46 PLATE VI Lassen Peak in Eruption on June 14, 1914. The Point From Which This Photograph Was Taken Is About Six Miles Northwest of Lassen Peak. The Foreground Is Nearly 5000 Feet Above Sea Level. The Elevation of Lassen Peak Is 10,437 Feet Above Sea Level. Photograph hy B. F. Loomis. GEOLOGY OF WEST COAST REGION OF UNITED STATES The Coast Ranges of California received their first and greatest folding at this time. The Fran- ciscan series is pressed into a regular system of folds which often consist of open synclines and broken, compressed anticlines, but locally of isoclinal struc- tures. Throughout the region affected the trend of the folding is northwestward. The folds of the Coast Ranges of California are cut diagonally by the present coast line, the system disappearing under the ocean in the neighborhood of the boun- dary line between California and Oregon. The Klamath Mountains, which may be considered as a mountain knot connecting the Coast Ranges with the Sierra Nevada-Cascade system, belong structur- ally with the folded complex of the latter range. The Oregon and Olympic mountains west of the Puget Sound trough have been considered as the continuation of the Coast Ranges. They are, how- ever, gentlv folded, and possibly were affected only by the middle Miocene revolution, which was much less violent than the one under consideration. In the southern Cascades, the folded structures produced by the Cordilleran revolution are buried under the thick Tertiary lavas, but in a few places a closely folded complex of the older rocks has been uncovered by erosion of the lavas, indicating that the folded zone persists under the later cover. In the northern Cascades, the rocks are even more closely crushed and folded than in the Sierra Ne- vadas. Here we have the super-imposition of the movements and metamorphism accompanying the intrusion of batholiths of Cretaceous and later age, upon the effects of the Cordilleran revolution. The Cordilleran revolution impressed upon the west coast region its present structural pattern, and outlined the positive (rising) and negative (sinking) elements which persist today (fig. 5). The main negative element is the great central trough extending from Puget Sound to the Gulf of Mexico, via the Willamette Valley, the Valley of California, and the Salton Sink. This trough is separated into three main basins by the mountains north and south of the Valley of California. The positive elements are the highlands and mountain ranges on either side of the trough. In California, especially, the folded zones initi- ated during late Jurassic times have governed sub- sequent deformation. The great faults, for the most part of subsequent origin, show a general parallel- ism to the trend of the folds. The Cordilleran revolution also resulted in a complete re-arrangement of the distribution of the 47 GEOLOGY OF WEST COAST REGION OF UNITED STATES land and water. The Great Basin Sea was drained, the Pacific Ocean advanced eastward, and from now on we have to do with the advances and retreats of the epicontinental stages of the Pacific Ocean, the records of which form the final volume of the geo- logical history of the west coast. THE GEOLOGICAL HISTORY OF THE WEST COAST SINCE THE CORDILLERAN REVOLUTION. — The early Cretaceous (the Shastan of the west coast) was marked by the rapid advance of the Pacific Ocean over the western portion of the Pacific States. The recently folded Coast Range stood but a brief in- terval above the ocean, which also crossed the site of the present Cascade range in southern Oregon. The enormous thickness of the combined Knox- ville and Horsetown of the Shastan system (maxi- mum thickness 25,000 feet) suggests that the high- lands east of the Shastan trough were eroded rapidly. There was considerable shifting of areas of sedimentation between the Knoxville and the Horsetown, and also between the latter and the Chico (upper Cretaceous). The Chico sediments register a second great advance of the Pacific Ocean which occupied the western portion of the Pacific States, and covered the bevelled Klamath Mountains, bathed the western foothills of the Sierra Nevada, and reached the Blue Mountains of eastern Oregon. No revolution comparable with that which af- fected the Rocky Mountain region to the east, separated the Cretaceous from the Tertiary. In numerous localities, especially in southern Califor- nia, no pronounced break can be recognized be- tween the Chico and the Tejon (Eocene). The Eocene strata reach their greatest thickness in the Puget Sound embayment, where at least 10,000 feet of sediments were deposited, including the thickest and best coal strata of the Pacific Coast region. Elsewhere along the coast local Eocene basins were converted into swamps for brief in- tervals, the organic accumulations of which are preserved as lignite, or a poor grade of bituminous coal. Oligocene strata have been recognized, es- pecially in Washington and Oregon. The Miocene is supposed to represent a brief period of geologic time compared with earlier geo- logic divisions. In California it was marked by the deposition of great thicknesses of sediments, and embraces a mountain-making epoch of no mean dimensions. The thick lower Miocene sediments include many thousand feet of diatomaceous ma- terial— one of the principal sources of California oil. The second folding of the Coast Ranges of 48 GEOLOGY OF WEST COAST REGION OF UNITED STATES California is generally dated as middle Miocene and was accompanied by a partial elevation of the region affected. However, local but pronounced folding occurred in the late Miocene or early Plio- cene east of San Francisco Bay. Important dis- turbances of probable Miocene age also took place in northern Washington, accompanied by the in- trusion of a granite batholith. Thick upper Miocene marine strata occur in central and southern Cali- fornia. In the vicinity of San Francisco Bay thick lacustrine deposits of upper Miocene and lower Pliocene age appear. In the Pliocene and Pleistocene periods lacus- trine and terrestrial deposition has been active, resulting in the filling of the larger valleys to a depth of several thousand feet. During this time marine deposition was confined to a narrow coastal strip. From Miocene times on, northeastern Cali- fornia, eastern Oregon and Washington have been affected by enormous volcanic eruptions, which have resulted in the construction of a great plateau composed of from 3000 to 5000 feet of lava flows, and covering an area exceeding 200,000 square miles. This plateau slopes towards the northwest from an elevation of about 5000 feet in southeast- ern Oregon to 1500 feet in central Washington. It is sentineled on the west by lofty volcanoes, such as Mount Shasta, Mount Hood, Lassen Peak, etc. The last mentioned is now in a state of mild ac- tivity, which, according to Mr. Diller, may prove to be preliminary to more violent eruptions. In southeastern California deposition was ter- restrial and lacustrine throughout all the Tertiary and Quaternary. In the Quarternary period the continental ice sheet covered the northern portion of Washington, an important lobe invading the Puget Sound region. Mountain glaciers occupied the higher portion of the Sierra Nevada and Cas- cade ranges, remnants of which are preserved as the small mountain glaciers of today. The com- plete study of the glaciation of the Sierra Nevada- Cascade ranges has not as yet been undertaken. It is an important and much needed work. The dynamic history of this great region since Jurassic times is variea and complicated, and does not lend itself to simple summary statement. Dur- ing the Cretaceous, the Sierra Nevada-Cascade ranges underwent erosion, and at the close of the period, portions at least were reduced to an ap- proximate base level as in the Klamath Mountains. In the Sierra Nevada, base leveling was delayed by a number of elevations of the mountain region, 49 GEOLOGY OF WEST COAST REGION OF UNITED STATES which may be considered broadly as a great fault block, with an important zone of faulting on the east side. The movements consisted in a tilting of the block towards the west, the eastern portion being elevated above the desert basin region of Nevada. In early Tertiary times erosion gained the upper hand and the Sierras were reduced in part to a peneplain. In late Tertiary and Quater- nary times uplifts culminating in great elevations during the Quaternary period gave birth to the present Sierra Nevada, and subsequent erosion is as yet in its youthful stage. Except for this tilting, this great mountain block has acted as a resistant buttress and has not suffered the intense deforma- tion that affected the weaker regions to the east and west in Tertiary and Quaternary times. The early Tertiary history of the Cascade ranges is largely hidden under the great lava mantle. The southern Cascades owe their present height in part to constructional processes, majestic volcanic cones dominating the range. Since Miocene times these ranges seem to have suffered a gentle upwarping but no important folding. The history of the north- ern Cascades and adjacent regions is much more complicated, folding probably occurring in the Cretaceous, at the close of the Eocene and in Mio- cene times. The present elevation, as in the other ranges, is largly the result of relatively recent up- The Klamath Mountains received the full force of the later compressive movements, intensified pos- sibly by the resistance offered by the unyielding Sierra Nevada block. The boundary between the Coast Ranges and the Klamath Mountains is marked by a great thrust, along which crystalline schists have overridden the Jurassic and Cretaceous rocks to the west, and similar thrust faults have been described in Oregon. Along the Coast Ranges compressive stresses ac- cumulated throughout the Tertiary. Locally the relief and crumpling took place at various times, the most pronounced folding occurring in the mid- dle Miocene. In this same region great faults de- veloped in general parallel to the trend of major folds. Some of the faults are old and date back to early Tertiary or possibly Cretaceous times. The fault movements seem to have reached a maximum during the elevation of the entire west coast region in Quaternary and Recent times, and are continuing with perhaps undiminished intensity at present. The elevated beach lines show that recent eleva- tions of the coast have been important. Local 50 PACIFIC RECORD COAST RANGES SIERRA NEVADA Terrac* Terrace irravel* San Pedro sand- atone Carton-cutting epoch Glacial beds I 1 Sa-UaBarbar. Santa Clara lak beds Tulare lake beds Orlnda formation e'M.pU£ Etchegoln sand- atone ) Santa Margarita and San Pablo sandstone - Lake beds of Tesla with Upper Mlo cene leaves Post- volcanic gravels.wlthUp- Coast Range rev- olution f 2 o Chle^vouamcp.. Monterey shales and Temblor sandstone 0lX&mZ£ti marine fossils Vaqueros sand- | Astoria sand- stones and shales 1 I Tejon sandstone Lake beds of Cor ral Hollow, with Eocene plants 1 ^raVcoat WrinV ^7: STKS. M- Martlnei sand- stone Wanting 1 Chlco sandstone P Plant beds In northern Cali- fornia associat- ed with Chlco marine species ] 0 Chlco sandstone of Butte Coun- ty^wlth mar,n. It 52 of°nsnastal> and ties""1* |1 Plant beds of northern Cali- fornia and south- ern Oregon, as- sociated with Knoxvllle am rlne species "" 1 § it Erosion period. Record wanting Cordilleran revo- lution if Knoxvllle shales and conglomer- ates 1 Cordllleran revo- lution U Plant beds of northern Call- fornlahnd south- ern Oregon, sup- posed to be of Jurassic age I 1 £ u Colfax shales and a He red tuffs. rocks. Marine de^V'™'1 Cherts.llmestones, schfsts* 'without definite fossils fn?r ""af ngl"eat rock's. B" "pVe- Cretaceous, and In part pnislblv even Trlasslc In ^^ntarlf^s8: S'urasslc &»' !-s Oiovllle flora, with cycads of Mid- dle Jurassic age Wanting? lit M Bailor Canon shales Genesse* Vallev limestone and ! 1 i Sanu Lucia lime, stone without deflnlt* fosefli i: 1 evo ilan I n I! LS'ieS with Carbonif- erous fossils Talorsvllle forma- tion — quaruit. and shale | Montgomery lime- County. with1??!" •Kara faun» J 1 Pre • Cambrian schists of the Slsktyou Mts. ^ Older gnelsms and siuard'ss; have Desert 51 GEOLOGY OF WEST COAST REGION OF UNITED STATES downwarpings, however, have occurred, which have let the ocean into Puget Sound, drowned the mouth of the Sacramento River, forming the beauti- ful San Francisco Bay, and isolated Santa Catalina and other islands from the main land. Professor J. P. Smith has kindly revised his table* summarizing the Pacific geologic record, which ap- pears on page 51. ECONOMIC GEOLOGY. — In the following para- graphs I shall attempt merely to call attention to those episodes of the geologic history that have developed valuable characteristics in certain of the rocks, or resulted in the introduction of metallic substances, and note some of the more important mineral belts, with a list of their economic products. These belts do not lie at hap-hazard, but appear as units of the giant earth pattern which is repro- duced in the geological map. ECONOMIC PRODUCTS OF THE PRE-CAMBRIAN ROCKS. — The scattered pre-Cambrian rocks have furnished only a small portion of the mineral pro- duction of the west coast. We might expect to find such products as slate, graphite, marble, etc., in the metamorphosed rocks of this age, but, as a matter of fact, all the production of this class of substances has come from Palaeozoic and early Mesozoic rocks, metamorphosed by the Jurassic batholiths. A few unimportant copper and gold deposits, which bear certain characteristics of great age, are believed by Lindgren to be of pre-Cambrian age. These include gold prospects near Hedges, Imperial County, and of Whipple Mountain, San Bernardino County, California. THE MINERAL DEPOSITS OF PRE-CRETACEOUS AGE — The sediments deposited in the vanished ocean of the Great Basin region contain an impressive array of economic products. The sedimentary rocks con- sist chiefly of argillaceous and sandy material, but contain great belts of limestone of late Palaeozoic age and strata of basic tuffs. The limestone belts west of the Sierra Nevada furnish excellent marble, which is quarried in Amador, Calaveras, Mariposa and Tuolumne counties. These outcrops broaden towards the north, where they reappear from under- neath the lava cover of northeastern California, and while Shasta and Siskiyou are registered with the producing counties, untouched mountains of white marble, inaccessible at present, are reported in the northern part of the State and continue into Oregon. In southern California the small broken desert ranges often expose upturned strata of limestone * Published in the Jour. Geol., vol. XVm (1910), p. 225. 52 GEOLOGY OF WEST COAST REGION OF UNITED STATES and marble, and even in the extreme west, south of Monterey, limestone of probably Palaeozoic age appears in massive strata, and the Pico Blanco of this region is reported to be formed of massive limestone strata which can not as yet be utilized on account of isolation in the heart of a rugged country. This wide distribution of limestone gives California her practically inexhaustible resources for the manufacture of Portland cement, an in- dustry which is rapidly assuming importance. The heat and pressure that accompanied the intrusion of the Sierra Nevada and related batho- liths developed various rock products of economic value, the most important of which are the marble deposits mentioned above. In addition to these is the excellent slate found in the Mariposa slate formation, especially in Mariposa and El Dorado counties of California. The demand for this article, however, has diminished greatly in the last few years. Small amounts of graphite, also formed by contact action, are produced in Calaveras County. The rocks of the batholith are of considerable value. Granite is used as a building stone, as rubble, etc., in cement work, and in the construction of roads. The value at the quarries of the granite pro- duced in 1913 exceeded half a million dollars. The gem mines at Pala, San Diego County, distinguished for their beautiful two-colored tourmalines, and beryl, hyacinth, kunzite, etc., are found in pegmatite dikes in the granite. Lithium-bearing mica has been mined at this locality, and sent to Germany for reduction and preparation of salts of lithium. The chief contribution of the batholith to the wealth of the west coast, however, was the result of the chemical activity which accompanied and followed the intrusion, and which resulted in the concentration of the major portion of the metallic wealth for which California is famous. The batho- lith is flanked on the west by compressed belts of rocks with a northwestward trend in California, swinging around to the northeast in Oregon. The metallic zones are oriented according to these belts. The groups of gold deposits, as well as the indi- vidual veins, lie, in general, parallel to these direc- tions, as do the copper belts mentioned below. During both late Jurassic and early Cretaceous times the Coast Ranges were intruded by extensive belts of serpentine rocks, which are characterized by mineral deposits of varied character. The gold belt of California is the most famous of the mineral zones of the west coast. This con- 53 GEOLOGY OF WEST COAST REGION OF UNITED STATES sists of a well-defined zone of gold-bearing quartz veins, including the important group to which the name "Mother Lode" has been applied. It starts in Tulare and Kern counties, broadening to a width of sixty miles in Plumas and Butte counties. In Tehama, Lassen and Plumas counties the belt dis- appears under the lava, reappearing near Redding and extending into Oregon. The veins in general are in the metamorphic rocks, especially the Mari- posa slates, west of the batholith. In the southern part of the State gold veins appear in or near schists included in the granites of Los Angeles, Riverside and San Diego counties. The Grass Val- ley, Nevada City and Mother Lode districts have been the most productive of this great zone of gold veins. Placer deposits skirt the western margin of the entire belt, the economic value of which, especially in the northern portion, is often confined to these secondary deposits. The total gold product of California, which is derived very largely from this belt, from 1848 to 1913, is estimated at $1,588,- 087,904. The maximum production was reached in 1852, when the pioneer placer miners produced over eighty-one million dollars, a figure which com- pares well with the total gold production of the United States at the present time. An extensive copper belt lies west of the gold deposits, the most productive portion of which is known as the "Foothill Copper Belt," and includes such mines of note as the Copperopolis and the Campo Seco in Calaveras County, and the Dairy Farm mine in Placer County. Separated from the main copper belt by the lava tongue mentioned above, are the copper de- posits of Shasta County, which include the largest copper producers of the west coast, such as the Mammoth, Iron Mountain, Bully Hill, Balaklala, etc. These occur in the margins of an acid intrusive rock, which is perhaps an outlying member of the main batholith. The second belt containing copper occurs in the northern Coast Ranges and Siskiyou Mountains of California, and reaches well into Oregon. The ores are found chiefly in serpentine and related rocks. Although the belt is extensive, it has not as yet produced important mines. It furnishes to geologists, interesting, puzzling, and as yet unan- swered questions as to the origin of these high- grade lenses of copper ore in serpentine. Nickel ores in Baker and Josephine counties, Oregon, are also found in the serpentine. Southeast of the main Sierra Nevada batholith 54 GEOLOGY OF WEST COAST REGION OF UNITED STATES lies the desert region of California, which presents scores of irregular ranges, half buried in the sur- rounding mantles of desert debris. Many of these ranges contain small granitic masses which intrude the upturned Palaeozoic strata. Each of these small intrusives has its "metallic aureole," or boundary zone, in which deposits of gold, copper, silver, and iron, with subordinate lead and zinc, are developed. Near Randsburg, Kern County, tungsten and gold- bearing veins of importance occur in genetic rela- tion to one of these small granitic masses. This complex group belongs to the general type of Ari- zona contact deposits. While no deposit of magni- tude has been developed in California, this type is destined to produce a larger proportion of the min- eral wealth of the State than it has up to the present. In Oregon the mineral regions are confined^ to two small areas, one already mentioned lying im- mediately north of California and containing the continuation of the California gold belt. The second area appears in the Blue Mountains in the north- eastern portion of the State. Here a number of intrusive masses occur, similar in age and type to those mentioned for southeastern California, and are bordered by groups of gold veins best known in the Cracker Creek district and the adjacent min- ing districts of Baker County. The rest of the State is either covered by the great Tertiary lava flows already mentioned, or near the coast r>y the later Tertiary sedimentary rocks, which contain few me- tallic deposits in this State. Similarly the southern half of Washington and the Olympic peninsula are either covered by lavas or contain Cretaceous and Tertiary sedimentary rocks without important de- posits of metals. The Cascade Ranges and the strip of country adjacent to the Canadian boundary line in the eastern part of the State, however, contain many ore deposits of various types, especially in Ferry, Stevens and Okanogan counties. All tnese deposits lie in or near granitic intrusives (granodio- rite) , which are probably related to the great Idaho batholith. In addition to copper and nickel mentioned above, the mineral products of the older metamor- phosed rocks of the Coast Ranges and of the in- trusive serpentines include manganese, occurring in small amounts in bedded cherts; chromite occurring as lenses in the serpentine; magnesite, found in large amounts, but as yet only slightly developed; talc and soapstone. We also must include here the gem mineral benitoite, which not only has great beauty of color and crystal form, but also is the only 55 GEOLOGY OF WEST COAST REGION OF UNITED STATES mineral representative of a particular class of crystal symmetry, and further is known to occur in no other locality in the world. As this locality is largely worked out, it seems probable that the mineral will assume additional value as a minera- logical curiosity. Mercury is one of the most important products of the Coast Range. Becker and Lindgren believe it to have been formed at a later date than the mineral deposits discussed above, and it is, there- fore, included among the products formed during the Cretaceous and later periods. MINERAL DEPOSITS IN CRETACEOUS AND POST- CRETACEOUS ROCKS. — These include products of great value, such as oil, coal, borax, silver and gold. Of these oil is the most important. It is treated at length elsewhere in this volume. Geol- ogists have long puzzled over the fact that enormous quantities of oil are concentrated in the Tertiary strata of southern California, while northern Cali- fornia, Oregon, and Washington contain only rela- tively small amounts of oil. A suggestion of Dr. Branner possibly gives a clue in regard to this con- centration. He lias pointed out that an archipelago existed in Tertiary times in the Pacific epiconti- nental sea along the axis of the present Coast ranges terminating in a cul-de-sac in southern California with the opening towards the north. The cold arctic currents which favored the development of the diatoms, etc., were caught, and the diatomace- pus material accumulated to the landward of the islands and in this bay. In the southeastern portion of California, east of the Sierra Nevada Range and its continuations, the sedimentation of the period occurred in lakes rather than in the ocean. The character of the deposits suggests that conditions of marked aridity occurred throughout the Tertiary. The deposits formed by evaporation include borax, nitrate, sodium carbonate, salt, etc. The world's greatest accumu- lation of borax occurs in ancient lake beds of prob- able Miocene age. These beds are now turned up on end, so that the miner considers them as ledges rather than bedded deposits. The mining law is applied according to this interpretation. Secondary deposits have been leached from these strata, ancl deposited by evaporation in present day lakes and playas. Other economic products, concentrated under the conditions of aridity, include not only sodium and magnesium salts, but also those of potassium, notably in the case of Searles Lake, San Bernardino County, California. 56 GEOLOGY OF WEST COAST REGION OF UNITED STATES Coal is an important product of the Tertiary strata. In California the coal is of poor quality and erratic in distribution. Better deposits occur in Coos Bay, Oregon; and in Washington and the adjoining portions of Canada, the great deposits of the Puget Sound region occur. Washington coal, to some extent, has been replaced by California fuel oil, but at some future date the former will assume increased importance when the necessity of conserving the vast California oil deposits becomes more evident. Other non-metallic products of Cretaceous and Tertiary age include asphalt, bituminous rock, onyx, and travertine, bauxite, clay, fullers earth, diatomite, and pumice, road metal and construction material. MINERAL PRODUCTS OF CALIFORNIA, OREGON, AND WASHINGTON, FOR THE YEAR 1913, FROM "MIN- ERAL RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES" (1914), PUBLISHED BY THE U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. Values Product California Oregon Washington Asphalt $ 1,680,179 $ $ Borax 1,491,530 Cement 8,896,734 ..„ 2,853,260 Chromite 2,854 Clay products 5,344,958 771,79'5 2,390,226 Coal 84,073 116,724 9,243,137 Coke 432,770 Copper 5,359,126 6,716 147,883 Gems and precious stones.... 26,507 2,975 500 Gold , 20,406,958 1,627,710 696,275 Gypsum 230,936 Lead 154,631 3,837 8,909 Lime 569,874 30,704 178,945 Magnesite 77,056 Mineral paints 3,174 Mineral waters 531,925 19,409 18,834 Natural gas 1,883,450 Petroleum 45,709,400 Platinum 17,802 675 Pyrite ., 218,'525 Quicksilver 627,228 Salt 745,708 Sand and gravel .. 439,009 432,938 385,'S86 Sand-lime brick 38,839 Silver 832,553 108,139 200,068 Stone 4,118,935 357,498 1,399,475 Talc 6,000 Tungsten ore 226,260 Zinc 59,219 Miscellaneous* 1,213,377 181,200 92,345 Total value eliminating duplications $100,791,369 $3,563,919 $17,579,743 *For California: Other products, briquets, feldspar, ful- lers earth, infusorial earth, iron ore and pig, manganese ore, pumice, quartz, sulphuric acid, and tungsten ore, are included in miscellaneous. *For Washington: Briquets, mineral paints, sand-lime brick, are included in miscellaneous. 57 GEOLOGY OF WEST COAST REGION OF UNITED STATES Metallic products of Tertiary age also are of impressive value. The great belt of mercury de- posits of the Coast Ranges of middle California were formed along a zone of fracturing which was probably initiated at the close of the extensive basaltic eruptions of middle Miocene times. Anti- mony is found in connection with some of the mercury deposits. Valuable deposits of gold and silver are found at certain favorable localities in the Tertiary volcanic rocks of the three Pacific Coast states. These were deposited by heated mineral-bearing currents formed subsequently to the enclosing lavas. The more notable examples occur at Bodie and Calico in southern California, in the Bohemia district, Douglas County, Oregon, and in the Republic district, Ferry County, the Monte Cristo district, Snohomish County, and the Pierre Lake district, Stevens County, in Washington. Mineral springs, of value for medicinal and less often for potable properties, are distributed along the major structural lines of the west coast. Finally, we may mention the underground water resources of the west coast. The amount, direction of flow, and availability of many of the underground currents have been studied by numerous geologists. It is to be hoped that the men engaged in the de- velopment of the agricultural resources of the vast Pacific Coast empire may become more familiar with the data already available. How to Peach the Important Mines of California. — Mr. H. M. Wolflin, mining engineer for the Indus- trial Accident Commission of the State of California, has recently visited most of the mines of the State. At my request he kindly furnished the following information as to how the most interesting mines may be reached. I. Copper and Iron Mines of the Northern Part of the State: These can be reached from Redding on the main line of the Southern Pacific Railway from San Francisco to Portland. 1. The largest mine at present in operation is the Mam- moth. The smelter and main office of the company are located at Kennett and can be reached by rail from Redding. 2. Other important mines in this district are: Balaklala near Coram, which can be reached by rail from Redding. 3. Mountain Copper Company at Keswick. 4. Heroult Iron Mines, situated near the town of Heroult, which is reached by Sacramento Valley Railroad, which connects with the Southern Pacific at the town of Pit. 5. Bully Hill Mine, reached by Sacramento Valley and Eastern Railroad from Pit. 58 GEOLOGY OF WEST COAST RECION OF UNITED STATES II. Principal Gold Mines of Trinity and Neighboring Counties: 1. Gladstone Mine, situated near French Gulch, reached by stage from Redding. 2. La Grange Hydraulic Mine, near Weaverville, reached by stage from Redding. 3. Globe Consolidated, near Dederick, reached by auto- mobile from Weaverville. III. Grass Valley District: Grass Valley is reached by Narrow Gauge Railway from Col- fax, which is located on the main line of the Southern Pacific between Sacramento and Reno. 1. The principal mines at Grass Valley are the Empire, North Star, Pennsylvania, Brunswick, and Golden Center. These are all within walking distance of the Grass Valley hotels. 2. The Champion Mine is located near Nevada City and may be reached by interurban from Grass Valley. 3. The Plumbago and Tightner mines are located at Al- leghany, which may be reached by stage from Grass Valley, except during the winter months. IV. Mother Lode District: It would probably be best for the visitor to the Mother Lode District to go to Jackson, California, and make this tem- porary headquarters from which he could visit the mines lying between Plymouth and Angels Camp, for there are plenty of stage lines and numerous opportunities for livery and automobile hire. 1. The following mines are within driving distance, say twelve miles of Jackson: Plymouth (at Plymouth), Fremont, Treasure, Bunker Hill, Original Amador, Keystone (Amador), Central Eureka, South Eureka (Sutter Creek, four miles from Jackson), Kennedy and Argonaut, within one mile of Jackson. 2. Angels Camp, reached by railway from Stockton via Jamestown: Utica and Gold Cliff mines, located near the town. 3. Jamestown: Harvard Mine is within walking distance of the town. The Dutch Mine is about six miles out and will have to be reached by livery team or automobile. The Eagle Shawmut is some six miles south of James- town and can be reached by livery team or auto- mobile. 4. The Campo Seco Copper Mines can be reached by automobile or livery team from Valley Springs, California. 5. Melones Mine, located at Melones, California, reached by railway from Angels Camp or Jamestown. V. Quicksilver Mines: 1. New Idria, reached by stage from Tres Pinos, near Hollister, or from Mendota, on the valley line of the Southern Pacific, or preferably by automobile from Hollister, except in the winter months. This is the largest operating quicksilver mine in Cali- fornia at present. 2. New Almaden and Guadalupe, near Los Gates, can be reached by livery team or automobile from Los Gates or San Jose. 3. Oceanic Quicksilver Mine, near Cambria, can be reach- ed by automobile stage from San Luis Obispo. A daily auto stage meets the south bound Southern Pacific train which arrives at San Luis Obispo about 6:30 a. m. 59 GEOLOGY OF WEST COAST REGION OF UNITED STATES 4. There are a number of quicksilver mines in Lake and Napa counties, which can be reached by livery team from Calistoga or Middletown. VI. Randsburg-Johannesburg Mines and Searles Lake: Headquarters at St. Charles Hotel, Johannesburg. From this point the following may be reached by stage or auto- mobile: 1. Yellow Aster Gold Mine at Randsburg. 2. Tungsten Mines at Atolia. 3. Searles Lake, Trona, where the American Trona Com- pany is operating. Trona may also be reached by a new railroad from Searles. 4. Skiddoo Mine, reached by stage or automobile from Trona. There are a number of other isolated mines which probably would not be of particular interest to the average visitor; for instance, the American Girl Mine near Ogilby, California, twelve miles west of Yuma; the mines of the Julian district, about sixty miles east of San Diego, reached most con- veniently by automobile; the Dairy Farm Mine, reached by automobile or livery team from Lincoln, California; the mines near the line of the Western Pacific through Plumas County; etc. REFERENCES AUBREY, L. E. 1906. The structural and industrial materials of California. Calif. State Min. Bur., Bull. 38, 412 pp., maps. 1908. Copper resources of California. Calif. State Min. Bur., Bull. 50, 366 pp., maps, illus. 1910. Gold dredging in California. Calif. State Min. Bur., Bull. 57, 312 pp., maps, illus. DILLER, J. S. 1893. Cretaceous and early Tertiary of northern California and Oregon. Geol. Soc. Amer., Bull., vol. 4, pp. 205-224, pi. 4. (An excellent summary of Cre- taceous stratigraphy.) 1894. Tertiary revolution in the topography of the Pacific Coast. U. S. G. S., 14th Ann. Rep., pt. 2, pp. 397- 434, pis. 40-47. (An important paper on the topo- graphy and structure of the Pacific Coast.) 1902. Topographic development of the Klamath Mountains. U. S. G. S., Bull. 196, 69 pp., 13 pis. 1914. The eruption of Lassen Peak, California. Seis. Soc. Amer., Bull., vol. 4, pp. 103-107, illus. DILLER, J. S., and PATTON, H. B. 1902. The geology and petrography of Crater Lake National Park. U. S. G. S., Prof. Paper no. 3, 167 pp., 19 pis. (A classic description of this interesting region.) FAIRBANKS, H. W. 1895. Review of our knowledge of the geology of the Cali- fornia Coast Ranges. Geol. Soc. Amer., Bull., vol. 6, pp. 71-102. (Discusses the Franciscan series and serpentine intrusives, and the stratigraphy and structure of the Coast Ranges.) FORSTNER, W. 1903. Quicksilver resources of California. Calif. State Min. Bur., Bull. 27, 273 pp., pis., maps. 60 GEOLOGY OF WEST COAST REGION OF UNITED STATES GILBERT, G. K., and others. 1R 1907 The San Francisco earthquake and fire of April IB, 1906. U. S. G. S., Bull. 324, 170 pp., 57 pis. 1896. The ' gold-quartz veins of Nevada City and Grass Valley districts, California. U. S. G. S., 17th Ann. Rep., pt. 2, pp. 1-262, pis. 1-24. (An important paper on the geology and veins of a portion ot me gold belt of California.) 1901. The gold belt of the Blue Mountains of Oregon. U. S. G. S., 22nd Ann. Rep., pt. 2, pp. 551-776, 1911 TheS'Tertiary gravels of the Sierra Nevada of Cali- fornia. U. S. G. S., Prof. Paper no. 73, 226 pp., 28 pis. (Discusses the physiographic history of the Sierra Nevada and the gold placers of Cali- fornia.) T "P 1910. The geological record of California. Journ. Geol., vol. 18, pp. 216-227. TURNER, H. W. 1896. Further contributions to the geology of the Sierra Nevada. U. S. G. S., 17th Ann. Rep., pt. 1, PP. 521-762, pis. 17-47. 1900. The Pleistocene geology of the south central Sierra Nevada with especial reference to the origin of Yosemite Valley. Calif. Acad. Sci., Proc., 3rd ser., geol., vol. 1, pp. 261-321, pis. 31-39. (An important paper on the glaciation of the Sierra Nevada.) BIBLIOGRAPHY BARTON, WEEKS, and NICKLES. 1896-1914. Bibliography of North American geology. U. S. G. S., Bulls. 127, 188, 189, 301, 372, 409, 444, 49'5, 524, 545, 584. VODGES, A. W. 1904. Bibliography relating to the geology, paleontology and mineral resources of California. Calif. State Min. Bur., Bull. 30, 290 pp., map. FOLIOS The folios published by the United States Geological Survey are the authoritative descriptions of the local geology of the regions they treat. Twenty- seven California, Oregon and Washington folios have been published. Two of these treat of the geology of the region in the vicinity of San Fran- cisco, and one contains the only scientific descrip- tion available on the great "Mother Lode" gold veins. BRANNER, J. C., NEWSOM, J. P., and ARNOLD, R. 1909. Santa Cruz folio. U. S. G. S. Folio no. 163, 11 pp., 2 pis., 3 maps. LAWSON, A. C. 1914. San Francisco folio. U. S. G. S. Folio no. 193, 24 pp., 15 maps. RANSOME, F. L. 1900. Mother Lode district folio, California. U. S. G. S. Folio no. 63, 11 pp., 8 maps. STATISTICS For statistics of mineral production see Mineral Resources of the United States, published annually by the U. S. G. S., and Mineral Production of California, published annually by the California State Mining Bureau. 61 EARTHQUAKES BY J. C. BRANNER President, Stanford University ALL parts of the earth are subject to earth- quakes, but they are notably more common in some regions than in others. Some earth- quakes are felt all over the entire globe, others are confined to areas of only a few square miles. It is a matter of common knowledge that the Pacific Coast is a region in which earthquakes are more frequent than they are in other parts of North America. It is not uncommon for those who have had no experience of earthquakes or whose imagina- tions have been impressed by stories about them to suppose that earthquakes are, one and all, mys- terious and disastrous cataclysms, while exaggera- tions of the most extravagant kinds often add to their fancied terrors. To suppose that earthquakes are necessarily disastrous, however, is as far from the truth as it would be to suppose that all rains produced disastrous floods or that all winds were destructive tornadoes. As a matter of fact, earthquakes are natural phenomena, and there is no more reason for being alarmed by them than there is for being alarmed by wind or rain or snow. Earthquakes are directly related to the geology of the regions in which they are felt. The shocks are simply vibrations, jars, or elastic waves, propa- gated through the rocks of the earth's surface. The vibrations are caused directly by the breaking of the rocks or by the slipping of them against each other. This breaking is due to uneven strain or pressure within the rocks themselves, and of suf- ficient energy to cause the displacement or slipping. FAULTS. — When a fracture is produced and the beds or rock masses are dislocated these breaks are known technically as faults. The dislocations of the rocks along faults may be small or great, and the faults may be long or short, shallow or deep, and the movements may be vertical or horizontal or at any angle or in any direction whatever. The depth of faults is probably limited to the outer ten or eleven miles of the crust of the earth for the reason that below that depth the rocks yield to the pressure of the overlying rocks and act somewhat like plastic bodies. Faults are not to be thought of as open gaping cracks, however, for, 62 EARTHQUAKES as a rule, the two sides of a fault are pressed closely against each other, and the stories of yawning chasms, and the swallowing up of people and build- ings are the veriest fabrications. Indeed, faults do not necessarily appear at the surface of the ground at all, or, if they are visible, they are not necessarily conspicuous. The dislocation along the main fault on which the movement took place at the time of the 1906 earthquake in California was about eight feet, but in many places this movement was taken up in the crushing of the surface soil, while at others it appeared as a mere furrow. Nor is it to be supposed that all faults are liable to slip and to cause earthquakes. Some faults have long been inactive, and the rock faces have been re- cemented, and the rocks are now practically solid. Others, however, may be regarded as active faults and it is along them that the strains in the earth and in the immediate vicinity are relieved. EPICENTER. — Earthquake shocks must necessarily originate well below the surface of the ground, and spread as elastic waves from the centers or planes of disturbance in all directions. From the points where they reach the surface (called the epicenters) they spread out on all sides, gradually dying out or becoming less severe as they get far- ther and farther from the epicenters. Once the rocks are broken or faulted the strains within the earth and within a limited adjacent area, are relieved along the same faults, for the reason that on account of their being broken, move- ments are easiest and strains are most readily re- lieved and adjusted along those fractures. Within a given region the earthquakes, therefore, tend to repeat themselves in the same places. INTENSITY. — The intensity or destructiveness of earthquakes is determined to some extent also by the nature of the ground. Loose materials contain- ing water are more violently disturbed than are the solid rocks. This violence or high intensity is due to the fact that loose wet materials do not move as promptly as the solid rocks, but are tossed about like loose objects upon a table when the latter is jerked beneath them. The earthquakes of California are almost in- variably felt over limited areas only, and they are rarely severe enough to cause damage. And when damage is done it is quite as often due to faulty construction as to the violence of the shocks. DISPLACEMENT. — The amount of actual move- ment of a point on the surface of the earth at the time of an earthquake is not as great as is generally 63 " EARTHQUAKES supposed. The displacement is rarely more than five millimeters or two-tenths of an inch. A move- ment of three-hundredths of an inch is quite per- ceptible. The destruction caused by such slight movements is due not so much to the amount of displacement as to the time occupied in the dis- placement. These statements regarding movement do not relate to swinging or loose objects, however, or to the displacements along faults or to the slip- ping of unsupported banks of loose earth. "EARTHQUAKE WEATHER." — One sometimes hears the expression "earthquake weather," implying that either the weather causes the earthquakes, or that an approaching earthquake modifies and determines the weather. But inasmuch as the weather is due to atmospheric conditions, and as earthquakes are produced by disturbances in the rocks of the earth's crust, evidently the relations between them must be very remote and certainly no such relations have been apparent from personal observations. REFERENCES CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON, D. C. 1908-10. The California earthquake of April 18, 1906. Rep. State Earthquake Investigation Commission, A. C. Lawson, chairman; 2 vols., pis., maps, diagrams and atlas. DAVISON, C. 1905. A study of recent earthquakes. (Walter Scott Publ. Co., London), 355 pp., illus. DUTTON, C. E. 1904. Earthquakes. (G. P. Putnams Sons, N. Y.), 314 pp., illus. HOBBS, W. H. 1907. Earthquakes. (D. Appleton & Co., N. Y.), xxx+336 pp., 24 pis. KNOTT, C. G. 1908. The physics of earthquake phenomena. (Clarendon Press, Oxford), 283 pp., illus. MILNE, J. 1903. Earthquakes and other earth movements. (D. Apple- ton & Co., New York), 376 pp., illus. MONTESSUS DE BALLORE, COMTE DE. 1907. La science s6ismologique. (A. Colin, Paris), 579 pp., illus. WALKER, G. W. 1913. Modern Seismology. (Longmans, Green & Co., N. Y.), 88 pp., 12 pis. 64 MINES AND MINING BY H. FOSTER BAIN Editor, Mining and Scientific Press, San Francisco GOLD was the magnet that drew population to the Pacific Coast of North America and set in operation the forces which transformed a region of forests and half-tenanted ranches into one of varied and important industries. But time is bringing changes in mining along the Pacific Coast. Only in Alaska and Oregon do the gold mines now make the largest contribution to the annual output. In California, petroleum now outranks it; while in Washington coal takes first place, and even in British Columbia, that province of marvel- ously varied mineral wealth, coal outranks not only gold, but copper, which there takes second place. Using for convenience the more complete fig- ures for 1913, and following the statistics compiled by the United States Geological Survey, it appears that the mineral output of the three Pacific Coast States is now as follows: California . ....$100,791,369 Washington 17,579,743 Oregon 3,563,919 $121,935,031 To this may be added the production of Alaska and British Columbia, $19,636,213 and $32,440,800 respectively, making a total of $184,012,044. The present production is at an even larger rate. The total is impressive even in these days of large sums. What is still more significant, however, is the large portion of the total which represents fuels and structural materials; the former accounts for $64,478,524, and the latter for $21,904,369. Of these the expenditure on structural materials — in- cluding clay products, stone, cement, and lime — represents money spent at home largely in building up permanent structures. In a sense, it stands for savings of the present for the future. The fuel, too, is largely consumed at home. Each barrel of oil or ton of coal represents work done by un- seen hands; labor that does not eat and does not consume. The waterfalls, oil wells, and coal mines make up in part for the small population in the large area. 65 MINES AND MINING Ninety per cent of the mineral 9utput of the Pacific Coast is represented by four items: Fuel $64,478,524 Gold 44,407,282 Structural materials 21,904,369 Copper . 16,288,741 The remainder of the production is in widely varied form. California is the most important North American producer of quicksilver, and Alaska has the only important tin mine. Silver and lead are not mined in any large quantities on the Pacific Coast, though in eastern British Co- lumbia there is a thriving industry and in the Coeur d'Alene, barely outside the state of Washington, is one of the world's great lead-silver districts, and at Tonopah, in western Nevada, there is a large silver production. The Comstock lode, nearby and easily accessible en route to or from California, produced so much silver as to disturb seriously the world's financial balance. On the Coast itself, however, silver is not common, though almost all the metals and non-metallic minerals of economic importance occur in the region and many of them are produced. It is not likely that in any period of present character the dominance of fuels, gold, copper and building materials will be challenged. While the days of gold easily W9n from shallow placers have gone, gold mining is still a great indus- try and it is now based upon deposits that assure it a long life. The dredging fields, it is true, will be exhausted in a few years by the great 16-cubic-foot buckets used on modern boats, but the quartz mines grow in importance rather than the reverse. The reason is that each new device, each increase in scale of operations, so lowers the cost of production as automatically to convert into ore much that was previously too lean to rank as more than waste. When mining began at Juneau, small veins of quartz containing gold to the value of $20 per ton or more were worked, just as even richer veins have been, within a few years, opened near Sitka. Such veins are quickly exhausted, but the Alaska Juneau is now preparing to mine ore worth but $1.35 per ton net, and is counting on treating 12,000 tons per day. On this basis the supply is considered adequate for 300 years. Two neighboring mines, the Alaska Gastineau and the Ebners, are likewise arranging for whole- sale production.* * Juneau is easily accessible by comfortable steamers through the famous inland passage from Seattle and Van- couver. Connections from San Francisco by boat and train are excellent. 66 MINES AND MINING Approaching the Pacific Coast through Canada, the traveler has the choice of two routes of the Canadian Pacific. Both traverse regions of much scenic beauty and scientific interest. The more southerly one carries the traveler more directly into and through the mining regions. Leaving the great plains and crossing the mountains, the route tra- Figure 6 Mineral map of British Columbia. verses the Crows Nest Pass coalfield, one of the most important in the West, and the source of the coking coal used in nearby smelters. West of the coalfield, in the Kootenay and Slocan region are important lead-silver mines such as characterize the Rocky Mountain province. Still farther west, at Green- wood, Phoenix, and Grand Forks, is a copper min- ing and smelting region of much interest. Southwest from Grand Forks an easy excursion may be made to Republic, the only, as yet, large gold mining dis- 67 MINES AND MINING trict in the state of Washington. From Grand Forks, also, one may travel north and west to Vancouver and Victoria, from which latter place the Nanaimo coalfields are easily accessible. At present these fields are the most important sources of coal for the coast cities. Turning south from Grand Forks to Spokane, Washington, or reaching the same city over the Great Northern or Northern Pacific, me traveler finds himself within an easy side journey distance of the Goeur d'Alene mining district in Idaho. This may also be reached direct from the East by taking the St. Regis Pass route of the Northern Pacific. However it may be approached, it will be found a district of much technical interest, aside from hav- ing the second largest output of lead in the United States. The lead, with silver and in places zinc, occurs in a pre-Cambrian quartzite and is prepared for smelting elsewhere in immense concentrating mills belonging to the Federal, Bunker Hill & Sulli- van, and other famous companies. From Spokane the route may lie direct west to Puget Sound, where coal mining may be seen in the vicinity of Tacoma, or southwest to Portland where the interests are agricultural, commercial, and lum- bering, rather than mining. Indeed in Oregon min- ing is as yet but little developed though a traveler by way of the Oregon Short Line has opportunity by stopping over at Baker City to make a side trip to Sumpter, where gold-silver ores are mined. South from Portland on the main route to San Francisco there is little of especial mining interest to see until Shasta County, California, is reached, though near Grants Pass, Oregon, and in Siskiyou County, Cali- fornia, both placer and lode mining may be seen if one has time to pause. Shasta County is California's most important copper mining district. It has produced about 450,000,000 pounds of copper and ranks tenth in the United States. According to L. C. Graton the ore bodies are in intrusive alaskite porphyries of Meso- zoic age. The ore minerals replace this along shear- ing zones. The ore is mainly pyrite with chalco- pyrite admixed and, in the eastern mines, the Bully Hill and Afterthought, important amounts of zinc- blende. Mining in the district has been depressed owing to trouble over smelter fume. The Bully Hill smelter, at Winthrop on a branch line from Pit, is closed; as is also the Balaklala at Coram. The Mam- moth smelter, using a bag-house, may be seen to the west near Kennett, as may also the idle works at Coram. At Keswick another branch road leads off 68 MINES AND MINING to the mines of the Mountain Copper Company, Ltd., which smelts its ore at Martinez, on San Francisco Bay, making sulphuric acid and fertilizer as by- products. At Heroult, on the branch line lead- ing to Winthrop, are the furnaces of the Noble Electric Steel Company, where electric smelting of iron and manganese ores is undertaken. In passing through the Shasta River canon also the traveler may glimpse an ill-fated gold dredge struggling not any too successfully against the stiff current and hard rock bottom. Below the canon at Redding is MAP ehorfin Principal Mines and Smelters 3 3|i t: °^ 3* k;s« a. .2 ^J j.«C -- ? -- ^i 03 H- iy g .52^ || J S a, f25 MUSEUMS OF THE PACIFIC COAST BY BARTON W. EVERMANN Director of the Museum, California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco THE Pacific Coast has its fair share of museums. There are general museums of history, science, and art, and there are special museums, chiefly in connection with the different departments of the universities and colleges of the coast. There are museums of natural history, of anthropology, of history, and of geology, some of which rank with similar institutions in the eastern states. A brief statement giving the more important facts regarding each of the museums of the Pacific Coast for which data are available is here given. IN SAN FRANCISCO. — Museum of Anthropology, Affiliated Colleges. An integral part of the Uni- versity of California. Principal departments: An- cient Egypt, Greece and Rome, Peru, California Indians, Indians of Alaska and the Southwest. The largest museum of its kind west of Chicago, and one of the most complete collections of anthro- pology in the world; contains 75,000 specimens illustrating the history and development of civiliza- tion from the earliest times. The Egyptian col- lections go back to the dawn of civilization and are extraordinarily varied. This museum possesses also a remarkable collection from the site of the oldest American civilizations, namely, Peru, the country of the Incas. There are also very large collections from the savage tribes in the South Seas, the Philippines, Africa, and North and South America. There is, among other exhibits, one of the finest collections of Indian baskets in the world. The collections of baskets, implements and speci- mens of all kinds from every Indian tribe in Cali- fornia is of special interest and value. And the collection of actual Greek and Roman antiquities is unusually complete and instructive. Reached by Market and Hayes street car (line No. 6). A. L. Kroeber, curator. Memorial Museum. Contains large and valuable collections of paintings (including the famous Keith collection), tapestries, antique furniture, arms and armor, art metals, the Bardwell collection of 700 Japanese wood and ivory carvings, and in ethnology, mineralogy, forestry and produce, and 207 MUSEUMS OF THE PACIFIC COAST a collection pertaining to early California history. It also maintains a reference library. In Golden Gate Park. Reached by various Park cars. George Haviland Barren, curator. California Academy of Sciences. Founded in 1853. Maintains a general museum of natural his- tory, including all departments. Although all the collections and the library of the Academy were lost in the great fire of 1906, large and valuable collections have been assembled since that time. The collection of birds embraces about 20,000 specimens, among which is included what is per- haps the most complete and valuable collection of sea birds in the world. The Academy's collection of reptiles and am- phibians contains more than 31,500 specimens and, excepting that of the National Museum and that of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, is the largest and most valuable in America. It is particularly rich in Pacific Coast species and those of the islands off the Pacific Coast of the Americas. It includes 266 specimens of the gigantic land tortoises of the Galapagos Archipelago, a more complete representa- tion of that interesting fauna than is found in any other museum in the world. The collecti9ns in mammalogy, entomology, con- chology, and invertebrate paleontology, are also large and important. The museum has recently received by gift from Mrs. Charlotte Hemphill Hosmer the conchological collection made by the late Henry Hemphill, which embraces 60,000 to 70,000 specimens, representing between 12,000 and 15,000 species of marine, fresh-water and land mollusks. It has, through the generosity of Wm. M. Fitzhugh, Esq., also acquired the Lowe collec- tion of Indian baskets, pottery and Indian imple- ments, perhaps the most complete collection of West Coast Indian baskets in existence outside the National Museum. The Academy's herbarium contains more than 18,000 sheets and is very rich in West Coast spe- cies and in exotics growing in California. The collections are now in temporary quarters at 343 Sansome street, but will 59011 be installed in the Academy's new museum building, now under construction in Golden Gate Park. Barton Warren Evermann, director. San Francisco Institute of Art. This organiza- tion maintains a museum illustrative of the fine arts, principally examples of paintings and draw- ings, in all mediums, and of sculpture. The paint- ings and drawings are by artists of repute of all nationalities, chiefly of the last century. 208 MUSEUMS OF THE PACIFIC COAST Location, Mason and California streets; reached by California street car line. Robert Howe Fletcher, director. California Slate Mining Bureau. Located on the third floor of the Ferry Building. Is under the direction, of the State Mineralogist and en- deavors to promote the interests of the mineral industry in California. This is done through its bureau of information, its publications, library and reading room, laboratory, statistical department, and museum. The museum contains some 20,000 mineral specimens attractively arranged and repre- senting fully the varied mineralogical resources of the State. The museum is open to the public. R. P. McLaughlin, curator. IN OAKLAND AND BERKELEY. — University of Cali- fornia, Berkeley. Several departments maintain extensive collections of specimens pertaining to their fields. These have been gathered with refer- ence to their value in research and class work. The more notable of these department collections are: The paleontological, consisting of more than 150,000 invertebrate fossils, with several hundred types, 15,000 vertebrate fossils, with more than 100 types, and 3000 plant fossils, with about fifty types; the botanical, containing an herbarium of more than 135,000 sheets; a geological, of rocks, minerals, and slides, many of them of rare value; zoological, con- sisting of specimens of invertebrate animals, plank- ton, etc.; and a large archaeological collection where may be found casts of famous statuary. California Museum of Vertebrate Zoology. Located in a corrugated iron building immediately north of football field, campus of the University of California, Berkeley. An institution devoted to the study of problems in natural history, geographic distribution, and speciation of the higher verte- brates of the western coast of North America, with special reference to California. There are three notable exhibition groups — one of the Steller sea lion, one of the California sea lion and one of the Kenai mountain sheep. The major part of the collection is solely of a research character. There are catalogued to date 53,186 specimens, distributed as follows: Birds' nests and eggs, 1384; reptiles and amphibians, 5558; mam- mals, 21,304; birds, 24,940. Adding to the value of these, are series of photographs, maps, and field note-books. Joseph Grinnell, director. Oakland Public Museum. Maintained by the city of Oakland. Contains exhibits of natural history, ethnology, American history and antiquities. 209 MUSEUMS OF THE PACIFIC COAST In natural history there are over 26,000 speci- mens, including nearly 1000 mounted birds, 1700 selected minerals, 350 fossils, 16,000 shells, 500 insects chosen because of special interest or at- tractiveness; also a special exhibit of blossoming native flowers, that is maintained throughout the year, the number varying from thirty to forty in winter to 200 or more in other seasons. In ethnology, about 5500 articles, chiefly Indian, embracing excellent exhibits illustrating the primi- tive life of several California tribes; also a valuable collection of Pacific island material. In history, nearly 4000 specimens, including a colonial exhibit that illustrates the home life of the pre-revolutionary era in the Eastern United States, undoubtedly the best colonial exhibit west of Chicago; there is also valuable material illustra- tive of California history and American history in general. There are also more than 2500 specimens of money and medals. Location, 1426 Oak street; reached by East Twelfth or Thirteenth street cars, or Key Route East Oakland train. C. P. Wilcomb, curator. Piedmont Art Gallery. A private art gallery in Piedmont Park and owned by Mr. Frank C. Havens. Contains some 350 pictures, principally modern, representing various European and American schools. Reached by Piedmont car line from Oakland. Richard L. Partington, curator, in charge. AT STANFORD UNIVERSITY, VIA PALO ALTO, CALI- FORNIA.— Leland Stanford Junior University. Main- tains no separate public museum but has very large and complete research collections of fishes, mam- mals, birds, reptiles and amphibians, insects, min- erals, fossils and plants. The collection of fishes is one of the largest and most valuable in the world and is the largest in America outside that of the United States National Museum. These are located in various buildings according to the department concerned. Leland Stanford Junior Museum. Founded in 1891 as a memorial to Leland Stanford, Junior, the only son of Senator and Mrs. Stanford. The museum is now part of the university. Special features: Chinese, Japanese and Korean collections, Danish stone and bronze implements, Cyprian material, porcelains, paintings and Cali- forniana. The earthquake of 1906 destroyed the newly- erected additions, entailing a very heavy loss of 210 MUSEUMS OF THE PACIFIC COAST material, particularly Egyptian and fine arts. The latter is still rich in certain lines and contains some fine examples of Keith and Hill, Benjamin West, Gustave Richter, Meissonier, Bonnat, Brozik and others. The present installation is but temporary. H. C. Peterson, director. AT PACIFIC GROVE, MONTEREY COUNTY, CALIFOR- NIA.— Pacific Grove Museum Association. Maintains a museum containing collections as follows: Bot- any, an herbarium of about 1000 cryptogams, 2500 phanerogams, and a forestry collection of fifty species of cones and a large number of seeds; geology and paleontology, more than 200 minerals and invertebrate fossils; zoology, about 2900 shells; and collections of birds, reptiles, fishes, etc. Mrs. Mary E. Hesser, curator. IN Los ANGELES, CALIFORNIA. — Museum of His- tory, Science and Art. One building, 270 feet front by 50 feet, with one wing to rear 100 feet, in Exposition Park. Funds furnished by the Board of Supervisors of Los Angeles County. Has important collections as follows: About 12,000 bird skins, mostly western; 2000 birds' eggs; small but constantly growing collections of mam- mals, reptiles and shells; the Daggett collection of about 3000 species of Coleoptera, mostly western, and a good exhibition of exotic Coleoptera; the Davidson collection of about 2000 species of plants; a large collection of great value of fossil skeletons, and remains from Rancho La Brea; the Johnson col- lection of Chinese porcelain, second only to the Morgan collection, installed in a gallery 50 by 100 feet, beautifully lighted and said to be the best equipped in the west; large historical collections, covering the history of California, also the Cherry African collection, and a large collection of weapons from the English cross-bow to modern guns. There is also a library of about 2000 volumes and 4000 pamphlets. Frank S. Daggett, director. The Southwest Museum. Incorporated in 1907, supported largely by the Southwest Society, which has 400 members. Was presented by the South- west Society with a $50,000 site of twenty acres on Museum Hill, a bequest of $50,000 for me first building, and collections valued at about $300,- 000. Has since largely increased its collections, has completed the first building, costing $115,000, which has been in use since July 1, 1914. Open every day in the year from 12 to 5 p. M. Has large collections of California and South- west archaeological specimens (over 100,000); the 211 MUSEUMS OF THE PACIFIC COAST J. A. Munk Library of Arizoniana, 15,000 items; the flag, medals, paintings and other relics of John C. Fremont; the Caballeria collection of paintings from the old Missions, thirty-four canvases; oil studies of the Missions in 1882 by Wm. Keith, seven pieces; Wm. H. Golisch collection of conchology, about 75,000 specimens, etc. Charles F. Lummis, in charge. University of Southern California. Has collec- tions embracing about 3000 fossils, 3700 minerals, 1000 geological specimens, 5000 plants, 730 ethno- logical, 22,500 zoological specimens, 19,500 mol- lusks, 525 birds, 125 birds' eggs, 350 other verte- brates. Southern California Academy of Sciences. Main- tains a museum containing a collection of local pleistocene fossils and other material. Board of Education of the City of Los Angeles. Maintains a Science and Art Museum, containing collections chiefly in anthropology. J. Z. Gilbert, in charge. AT PASADENA, CALIFORNIA. — Throop College of Technology. Has no museum building, but owns some excellent collections of minerals, etc. Charles F. Holder, honorary curator. AT CLAREMONT, CALIFORNIA. — Pomona College. Maintains a museum consisting chiefly of teaching collections, comprising about 200,000 phanerogams, 10,000 cryptogams, synoptic collections in geology and paleontology, and extensive collections in zo- ology, including about 5000 shells, 250,000 insects (many types), 10,000 other invertebrates, and 5000 vertebrates. Wm. A. Hilton, in charge. ON SANTA CATALINA ISLAND, CALIFORNIA. — Tuna Club, at Avalon. Has a museum of mounted game fishes of southern California and Texas, and a library on angling. A. L. Beebe, honorary curator. Zoological Station, at Avalon. Maintains an aquarium, and an alcoholic collection of rare fishes; also a collection representing the archae- ology of the Channel Islands, a part of which is on exhibition in the Chamber of Commerce at Los Angeles. SACRAMENTO, CALIFORNIA. — E. B. Crocker Art Gallery. Contains a notable collection of paintings, also collections of minerals, coins and Indian relics. Situated on O street, between Second and Third streets; reached by Third street car line. W. F. Jackson, custodian. 212 MUSEUMS OF THE PACIFIC COAST IN OREGON. — Oregon Agricultural College. Lo- cated at Corvallis. Maintains exhibition and re- search collections in connection with the science departments. The herbarium contains 10,000 pha- nerogams and vascular cryptogams and 1500 fungi. In zoology there are collections of birds, mammals, fossils, and miscellaneous specimens. Geo. F. Sykes, in charge of zoological museum. University of Oregon. Located at Eugene. Has the Condon collection of vertebrate fossils from the John Day beds, a mineralogical collection of about 4000 specimens, and considerable collections in botany and ethnology. Portland City Free Museum. In City Hall, be- tween Fourth, Fifth, Madison and Jefferson streets, Portland. Started in 1903; general in character, containing much valuable material not catalogued. C. F. Wiegand, curator. State Fish and Game Commission. Is accumu- lating collections of the vertebrate animals of Ore- gon. Located at Reed College, Portland. William L. Finley, in charge. IN WASHINGTON. — State College of Washington, Pullman. The general museum contains collections of mounted birds, mammals, fishes, etc. Other scientific collections are maintained by the depart- ments of entomology (200,000 specimens), botany (about 85,000 herbarium sheets), geology and agri- culture. The State University. Located at Seattle. Con- tains the State Museum, in which are valuable col- lections as follows: Anthropology, 27,000 speci- mens; botany, 13,000; minerals, several thousand; paleontology, 12,000; shells, 14,000; insects, 31,000; other invertebrates, 11,000; fishes, 1500; amphibians and reptiles, 5000; birds, 1000. IN IDAHO. — University of Idaho. Located in Moscow. The university museum was destroyed by fire in 1906, with the exception of the mineral collections. There are collections of value in the different departments of the university. IN UTAH. — Deseret Museum. Located in Salt Lake City. Contains important collections as fol- lows: Anthropology; archaeology, native, 500; foreign, 50; ethnology, native lOfo; foreign, 500. There is a large collection of desiccated human re- mains and artifacts from the cliff dwellings of Utah. Geology, several hundred specimens, in- cluding a large collection of geodes from Wayne County; also more than 4000 fossils. Zoology, shells, 2500; insects, 1000; many other invertebrates and some 800 vertebrates. 213 AGRICULTURAL DEVELOP- MENT OF THE PACIFIC COAST BY E. J. WICKSON Professor of Horticulture, University of California ALTHOUGH the region of the United States west of the Rocky Mountains is rather new in the eyes of the present generation, there are sev- eral grounds upon which its agriculture may be claimed to be old — possibly older than what we now regard as "American agriculture," which proceeded westward from settlements by Europeans upon the Atlantic Coast. THE PREHISTORIC PERIOD. — The Pacific Slope has, in its S9uthern parts, vestiges of prehistoric agri- culture in irrigation canals and connections which indicate the existence of irrigation systems of un- determined origin and antiquity/ But such vestiges did not alone remain. Professor George F. Freeman of the University of Arizona makes this statement: "Among the native economic plants of this region may be found varieties of agricultural plants which have been grown within the confines of Arizona for hundreds or perhaps even thousands of years — years when the ruins that now crumble in the des- ert sands were populated with a happy and pros- perous race: years when canal systems which still can be distinctly traced, ran on higher levels and covered more lands than those which at the present time distribute the waters of the Gila and Salt rivers. Here, among the Pima and Papago Indians, descend- ants of or successors to these former builders, may be found varieties of corn, beans, pumpkins and squashes which have survived the race under whose husbandry they originated.! Professor Freeman has isolated forty-seven types of such prehistoric beans among the Papago Indians — the very name of their tribe signifying "bean- men" from remote antiquity; therefore to call the Bostonese of the Atlantic side "bean-eaters" is merely recrudescent. Perhaps the original use of the term provoked resentment as keen as that of the present day. One gets a broader view of the antiquity of Pacific Coast agriculture from Professor Mead's study of the * Irrigation Institutions, by Elwood Mead (Macmillan & Co., 1903), p. 41. f "Southwestern Beans and Teparies." Bulletin 68 Univ. of Ariz. Exp. Station. 214 AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT "beginning of irrigation" in the course of which he writes : "Even modern irrigation is comparatively old. It began seventy years before the English colony landed at Jamestown, when Spanish missionaries gained an enduring foothold in the valley of the Rio Grande. They built churches which still stand, and planted gardens which still flourish, but in watering these gardens they taught nothing new to the native inhabitants. The Spanish explorers, who rode up the valley of this river, in the first half of the sixteenth century found Pueblo Indians irrigat- ing the thirsty soil as their forefathers had done for centuries before them and as their descendants are still doing. The ditches of Las Gruces, New Mexico, have an unbroken record of three cen- turies of service the history of which is written in the banks of the canals by the sediment with which the waters of the Rio Grande is laden. Year after year this has been deposited on the sides and bot- toms of these ditches, until from being channels cut out below the surface, they are raised two or three feet above. It is here that one can yet find agriculture almost as primitive as that of the "days of Pharaoh, where grain is reaped with the sickle and threshed by the trampling of goats."* When one gets behind the trenches at James- town he surely precedes the birth of "American agriculture" of the Atlantic type, and when he storms the Pharaonic line he challenges the an- tiquity of the world. It was on the Atlantic side that the tourist bemoaned the absence of ruins. It is on the Pacific side that the claim can be established that, even for antiquities, one should "see America first." THE SPANISH PERIOD. — The allusions by Professor Mead to the incursion of Spanish explorers and mis- sionaries upon the vestiges of the prehistoric period, which may be said to have been found surviving amidst its ruins, serve to mark the beginning of a new period in the development of Pacific Coast agri- culture— the achievements of the Spaniards. But the greatest agricultural work of the Spaniards was not accomplished in the valley of the Rio Grande nor among the most ancient ruins of Arizona. They accomplished most in California where they found no signs of preexisting agriculture and where the only antiquities were the mounds of the clam- diggers — a low grade of aborigines who knew not whence they came nor where they were going, until the missionaries advised them! This work * Elwood Mead, loc. cit., p. 42. 215 AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT was begun in Lower California in 1697; and, in 1769, Junipero Serra and his Franciscan associates coming from Lower California established their first mission at San Diego. Thence the padres proceeded northward along the coast and established their twenty-first and last California mission in Sonoma valley, north of the Bay of San Francisco in 1823. At all these missions agriculture was invoked as a sustaining industry. They grew a large variety of fruits, made wine in such quantities that exports thereof were made to Mexico from one of the Lower California missions in 1707 — thus establishing the export trade in California wine. In addition to fruits and their products, the missions produced vast quantities of grains and accumulated verv large herds from which hides and tallow went to Europe in trading ships which combed the California coast of such properties, following the visit of Sir Francis Drake to San Francisco Bay in 1759, until the force- ful advent of Americans in 1849 — when California was really born to the world, with a golden spoon in her mouth. Many of these missions still remain in good con- dition and are very interesting to tourists, but their agriculture practically disappeared with the secu- larization of their properties by the Mexican gov- ernment in 1834. The large field properties then passed from the ownership of the padres but the gardens attached to their churches remained in their possession and these still contain a few wor- shipful fruit trees and grape vines which are ven- erated as the pioneer plantings of the million acres of fruits which are now growing in California. The Spanish occupation of the southwestern dis- trict of the United States, whether parochial or secu- lar in its character, was not widely significant in the subsequent agricultural development of the region. It is chiefly interesting historically. The animals and plants they introduced were probably good, ac- cording to the Spanish standards prevailing when the missionary expeditions departed from Spain early in the eighteenth century; but the agriculture established with them was too distant and isolated to profit by later European improvements and it was not at all affected by the progress made by the colo- nials and early citizens of the American republic. The local agriculture had become anachronistic be- fore the American occupation and nothing was learned from it except the very important sugges- tion of the wide adaptation of California to fruit growing. All the plants grown by the padres have been abandoned except one variety of grape which 216 AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT is of little value and one variety of olive, which hap- pens to be the best we have. Even their methods of tillage and irrigation were wrong, as will be cited in another connection later. Their spiritual labor and sacrifice are rightly venerated, but their agricul- ture had permanent value only in its suggestiveness. During the mission rule, and after the seculariza- tion especially, men from Spain and from Mexico secured large grants of California land in return for personal services and otherwise, but the rude feudal system which was thus inaugurated was of no per- manent value to the possessors nor to the develop- ment of the country — in fact the flock of Mexican grants which were ratified by the admission of Cali- fornia to the United States were birds of ill-omen for decades after the American occupation. The agriculture on these old grants was primitive and unworthy of the land which it encumbered. Inducted in the Spanish period are the ventures of the Russians to establish themselves on what is now the Pacific Coast of the United States, but they contributed practically nothing to agricultural de- velopment. THE AMERICAN PERIOD. — From a modern point of view the true pioneers of the development of the Pacific Coast as we now see it, were the continent- crossing stalwarts, who braved the perils of the "Great American Desert," during two decades pre- vious to the gold discovery in 1848. Technically the "pioneers" included all who arrived in California by any means of locomotion "during '49 and the spring of '50." All the histories of the Coast States record their names and describe their exploits. Three names lead in all narrations: Fremont for California; Lewis and Clark for the north coast regions. Accompanying or following them practic- ally all the pioneers of the first class were explorers, hunters and trappers. Some were actuated by pa- triotism, some by peltry, some by pure adventure. Agriculture was not in their thoughts, and although many did take a quick suggestion from what they saw at the California missions, the prevailing idea was that California was not a farming country. This was a pardonable mistake because they had never seen such a country before. Knowing what havoc a few weeks of summer drouth would work with crops on the mid-continent prairies, they could not conceive how the same crops could endure months without rain and really be the better for it. The latter fact was slowly recognized, and retarded the development of California agriculture even after the State was thronged with gold-seekers. Oregon 217 AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT was more fortunate in impressing strangers. Ore- gon did have able farm-seeking pioneers a decade, perhaps, before California began to be recognized as agriculturally desirable, and western Oregon had grains, stock, fruits, and even fruit trees to sell when the earliest agricultural awakening came in California. Those were the true agricultural pio- neers who first saw that one was surer to get gold with the plow in the new land of the valleys than with a pickaxe in the rocks and gravel of ttie foot- hills; and some who were pioneers in Oregon and took their hint of fruit-adaptations from seedlings planted by the Hudson's Bay Company's agents near the mouth of the Columbia, came to California where the hungry market was to be found and took some new hints from the missions and from a few plant- ings which their influence had previously induced. Thus in the light of the gold-gleam California be- came the real planting-place for American agricul- ture on the Pacific Slope; drawing farming wisdom, energy, and enterprise from near and far; bringing the best materials from everywhere; and devising methods of husbandry to meet new conditions. Thus, too, men were found wise to forget all they thought they knew when its ill-adaptation showecl clear, demonstrating new uses for old principles, discovering new principles involved in new condi- tions and materials; in short, manifesting the Ameri- can spirit — bold, venturesome, and alert — seeing large and implanting that quality in the minds of all with whom they came into contact, no matter what corner of the world they came from; for the pioneers of the Pacific Coast were the true cosmo- politans. Even the farm implements and machines manufactured at the east for shipment to the Pacific Coast had to be made larger than those commonly used elsewhere, so that the California or Oregon types of farm wagon, plow, or threshing machine were generally recognized as such. It was because such things were used in a large way, with large teams on large lands. Pacific Coast people had no time for small things. This attitude was manifested in all which they thought and did and has resulted in the occurrence of what is sometimes called: 'The Pacific Coast point of view." But while such agencies were laying the founda- tion of agricultural development on the western rim of the Pacific Slope, an event was transpiring on its eastern edge which pointed the way and demon- strated the method by which the development would include the thirstiest lands and banish the term "American Desert" from the map. Professor Mead writes : 218 AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT "For the beginnings of Anglo-Saxon irrigation in this country we must go to the Salt Lake valley of Utah, where, in July, 1847, the Mormon pioneers first turned the clear waters of City Greek upon the sun-baked and alkaline soil. Utah is interesting not only because it is the cradle of our modern irriga- tion industry but even more so as showing how important are organization and public control in the diversion and use of rivers."* Thus are suggested the conditions and agencies which are fundamental in the development of agri- culture upon the Pacific Slope. To specifically enumerate them and even briefly outline their opera- tion would pass the limitations of this writing. A few only can be emphasized, namely: FIRST : THE CLIMATIC ADAPTATIONS OF THE AREA. — These will be mentioned only in terms of economic plants which produce commercial crops. The list comprises all that are grown in the United States in the classes of grains and forage plants and field crops, while in some of the latter, and especially in the categories of commercial vegetables and fruits, large values are secured from some plants which thrive in the semi-tropical parts of California and Arizona and not elsewhere in the United States. SECOND: THE SUPERIORITY OF THE SOILS OF THE ARID REGION. — This matter has been technically dem- onstrated by analyses made by Professor Hilgard and those associated with him during his forty years of activity at the California Experiment Sta- tion, and by other investigators in the several States of the Pacific Slope, as well as by the practical dem- onstrations which the crops themselves have made by their acre-averages so freely published. The superiority of soils formed under arid conditions when compared with those formed elsewhere, even in tropical regions, is, however, more broadly dem- onstrated in the ancient and modern history of man- kind, as stated by Professor Hilgard in these words: On both sides of the Mediterranean Sea, we find that, instead of the humid forest- country, it was in the arid but irrigable coast coun- tries that n9ted centers of civilization were developed and maintained *. In humid countries, as is well known, cultivation can only in exceptional cases be continued profitably for many years without fertilization. No such need was felt by the inhabitants of the arid regions for centuries, for the native fertility of their soils, coupled with the fertilizing effects of irrigation water bringing plant-food from afar, relieved them * Elwood Mead, loc. cit., p. 42. 219 AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT of the need of continuous fertilization; while in the humid regions, the fertility of the land is currently carried into the sea by the drainage waters, through the streams and rivers, causing a chronic depletion which has to be made up for by artificial and costly means. What with the greater intrinsic fertility and the great depth of soil available for plant growth, much smaller units of land will suffice for the main- tenance of a family in arid countries : a fact which is even now being illustrated in the irrigated regions of the United States in what we are in the habit of calling 'deserts;' the very sands of which usually need only the life-giving effects of water to transform them into fruitful fields and gardens."* Specific superiority of arid land soils will be cited in connection with tillage, below. THIRD : THE ACHIEVEMENTS OF IRRIGATION ENTER- PRISE.— The local application of the teaching of the world's experience concerning irrigation as an agri- cultural art was at first believed to be indispensable to the development of agriculture on the Pacific Slope. This early conception was soon found to be defective, as will be noted later. Irrigation is not essential everywhere on the slope, though in some locations it may be; nor is it essential to all crops, though for some crops it may be. And when it is remembered that somewhere on the slope may be found every food crop grown in civilized countries except those of strictly tropical climates, it must be realized that the artificial use of water, with ref- erence to natural conditions of climate and soil, and with reference to the requirements of the particular crop undertaken, is perhaps the broadest and most needful of wisdom of all the agricultural arts. The fact is that Anglo-Saxon people, born to the farming of the humid countries of the world and unused to any artificial use of water, except perhaps in the irrigation of brandy, have within half a century not only mastered an art unknown to them, that of farming an arid country, but are producing food products to a farm-value upwards of half a billion dollars a year — not to pursue the value thereof to the market places of the world. Moreover, these people have not only mastered an art to which they were not born, but have discovered truer policies and devised improved methods in the use of water to such ends that representatives of the most an- cient irrigated countries attend American irrigation congresses to learn American ways with water. There is probably nothing in American agriculture * Soils, by E. W. Hilgard (Macmillan & Co., 1906), pp. 417-420. 220 AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT more striking, dramatic, and economically signifi- cant than this achievement. Let it be briefly measured : In its consideration of what is designated as "the arid region as a whole" the United States Census of 1910 determines the total irrigated area to be 13,738,485 acres, of which the Pacific Slope States include the following: Acres Arizona 320,051 Utah ."!....."............!.... '. 999,410 Nevada .......... '. I!!!!.!!....!! 701,833 Idaho "„..!........! '. ! 1,430,848 Washington '.'. "...'. 334,378 Oregon , 686,129 California „ 2,664,104 Total .7,136,753 In addition to the above States the "whole arid region" includes Montana, North and South Dakota, Wyoming, Colorado, Kansas, Nebraska, New Mexico, Oklahoma and Texas, and the aggregate area is about 1.8 millions square miles, of which the six Pacific Slope States enclose .7 of one million. By comparing areas it appears that about 40 per cent of the area has more than 50 per cent of the irri- gated acreage. In view of the impression created in the public mind by popular publications, that irrigation de- velopment is largely due to the beneficent work of the government in the "reclamation of arid lands," it should be noted that, of the 13,738,485 acres of land irrigated in 1909, the government enterprises irrigated in that year, directly or indirectly, but 857,111 acres, or one-sixteenth. It is important to emphasize this fact lest the visiting observer should entertain the thought that the wonderful achievements, of which he may see the operation or the results, are the product of paternalistic, promotive generosity on the part of the general government. The sources of irrigation achievements are very accurately measured by the census of 1910 in this way, with reference to the "whole arid region:" PERCENTAGES OP ACHIEVEMENTS BY PUBLIC AND PRIVATE ENTERPRISES. Acreage Acreage capable of of capacity irrigation of all 1910 projects U. S. Reclamation Service 4.1 6.3 U. S. Indian Service 1.9 2.8 Corey Act enterprises 5.6 8.3 Irrigation districts _ 4.1 5.1 Co-operative enterprises 32.0 28.4 Individual and partnership enterprises. 39.6 32.6 Commercial enterprises -12.5 16.5 221 AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT The first three items are, directly or indirectly, government enterprises, the last four otherwise. The lesson of the figures is, of course, that the building up of the far west is due to individual, corporate, and co-operative enterprise — just as other parts of the country have been developed and built up by the American spirit and purpose. The government projects are professedly to cover conditions which can not be subdued by individual or associated enterprises, and they are therefore grandly supplementary to various forms of private enterprise in the development of the country, but to the people, either individually or in a self-organ- ized way, is due the credit of bringing the American Desert to its present estate of prosperous and pro- gressive commonwealths. FOURTH : THE MASTERY OF TILLAGE. — Tillage may be characterized as the one indispensable thing and therefore most fundamental in Pacific Coast agri- culture. It sustains the closest possible relations both to irrigation and to farming by natural mois- ture, or "dry-farming," as it has come to be called. Tillage is the sheet anchor of dry farming and optimistic estimation of its services is naturally leading to some misconceptions and possibly to dis- appointments and hardships. Because some are claiming that tillage will produce water and gather to the soil moisture which does not fall in rain or snow, and are, therefore, undertaking farming op- erations in places where the total precipitation is less than the requirements of even the most drought- enduring crop. The fact is, of course, that tillage does not produce water, but saves the greater part of it for the uses of the crop — the greatest possible part of it, if the tillage be the best and most timely. The recent agitation of the subject is calculated to advance a notion that tillage is of enormously greater value in its contribution to dry farming lands than to lands cropped by irrigation. Possibly it may produce a greater total value because the area which must be farmed in that way, if profit- ably farmed at all, is much greater than the area which can be brought under irrigation even if all flowing waters and available subterranean waters are brought upon the land by gravity ditches and by pumps. It must, however, be claimed that tillage has as important relations to irrigation in general as to dry farming, and, when the measure is made by equal acreage, tillage and irrigation will produce immensely more than tillage and drv farming can produce — and this will be found true in regions where the rainfall is ample for certain 222 AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT Cr0ps — So great is the difference in the ability of different plants to transform water into "dry sub- stance" during an exceedingly long growing season. The Spanish irrigation farmers of the south- west, both in the interior and at the missions on the coast of California, did not understand the efficacy of tillage in increasing the duty of water. They ran the water on the land and when it baked and cracked they turned on more water, and when the whole soil mass became hateful, they either hewed it out with mattocks and hauled in fresh soil from the outside (in the case of fruit trees and vines) or they turned the water some other way upon new land which natural processes had made loamy and friable. The early American settlers in California soon found that by the use of the cultivator and hoe, as practiced in eastern corn- fields, they could get a crop by using less water and at the same time keep the soil in good con- dition. They also found that they could get crops of plants which would grow during the rainy sea- son, without irrigating at all; or, on some retentive soils, they could conserve the winter rainfall by cultivation so as to use it for summer crops and bring them through also without irrigation. And so there were in California many "non-irrigators," who made a virtue of their creed and their practice, and though they often claimed too much relatively, they did demonstrate the feasibility of dry farming by tillage, and for half a century or more, grain crops (which at one time made California the greatest grain State of the Nation), forage crops, winter truck farms, summer crops of beans, toma- toes, etc., and the greater area of orchard and vine- yard, except of citrus fruits and raisins, were grown by dry farming with an average rainfall of 15 to 18 inches, taking the whole area together. This was the earliest large scale demonstration of the efficacy of tillage to render a small rainfall enough to pro- duce a valuable crop. It was incidental to the progressive demonstration of the relations of tillage to irrigation, as has already been claimed, but it was fundamental in the dry farming movement which has recently attained such prominence in the interior. California is probably capable of doing more by dry farming than the interior States be- cause tne season of precipitation is the season of growth, through the high temperatures prevailing during the so-called "winter months" — hardy grains and grasses and in some places potatoes, etc., do not encounter frost enough to injure them. This brings maturity of grain, hay, etc., in April and 223 AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT May — before the dry season acquires its cutting- edge. For these reasons a crop of ripe barley can be made with an annual rainfall of ten inches, well distributed from December to March. The practice of bare-fallowing and alternate year cropping, with its saving of moisture by tillage, has also prevailed in California for half a century. But great as are the advantages of tillage in the effort to grow a crop with a scant precipitation, it is an interesting fact, which is not sulficiently well known, that tne supreme efficacy of tillage in moisture conservation was demonstrated in the west upon irrigated areas and not upon dry lands, and that tillage as a substitute for irrigation was an incidental, though immensely valuable, suggestion from experience in irrigation. The popular under- standing of the matter is probably otherwise. It can be safely claimed that farmers operating by irrigation are more diligent and thorough culti- vators than those operating by rainfall. In an investigation made by the writer for the Irrigation Investigations of the United States Department of Agriculture, and published in Bulletin 108 of the Office of Experiment Stations, the experience of about 225 individual fruit growers is given in detail and the following conclusion is drawn: "Very diligent cultivation is practiced both by those who rely upon local rainfall and by those who irrigate. Irrigators cultivate more frequently. Frequency of irrigation is in itself not desirable if it can be avoided; frequency of cultivation with irrigation simply indicates that so often as the soil is thrown out of good condition for moisture retention, so often must such good condition be restored." The efficacy of tillage in moisture retention, which is the secret of arid land production, either from rainfall or irrigation, has been accurately determined. Dr. Samuel Fortier, who has charge of the Irrigation Investigations of the United States Department of Agriculture, has recently shown by actual test on the University Farm, Davis, Califor- nia, that land allowed to become compacted by drying after irrigation lost by evaporation more than one-third of the water applied within a month after the application, while land which received good tillage to the depth of nine inches lost less than 1 per cent by evaporation. Nine inches depth of finely pulverized surface layer is greater than desirable in orchard or vineyard practice, but it is desirable to know what it will accomplish. Sim- ilar experiments conducted by Dr. Fortier at Wenatchee, Washington, in June, 1908, showed the 224 AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT following losses in twenty-one days, with and with- out a soil-mulch by tillage: No mulch, 14 1/3 per cent of water applied; 3-inch mulch, 4 per cent; 6-inch mulch, 2 per cent; and 9-inch mulch, 1 per cent. Dr. Fortier concludes: "From the foregoing it is evident that western orchardists can prevent the greater part of the evaporation losses by cultivating orchards to a depth of at least six inches as soon as practicable after each irrigation." These results give quite sufficient reason to in- sist upon the mastery of tillage and irrigation in moisture conservation. Besides there is, of course, the efficacy of tillage in giving the plant soil aera- tion and other conditions essential to vigorous and free root action — including restoration of fertility by action of soil bacteria which in the arid region has been demonstrated by Dr. G. B. Lipman of the University of California, to be in operation "at much greater depth in soils of the arid than in soils of the humid region.* Dr. R. H. Lough- ridge, of the same institution, demonstrated "the distribution of humus-nitrogen through twelve feet, thus giving the soil in the arid region a higher total of humus-nitrogen than is found in humid soils." The distinctive characters of the soils, and the relations thereof to irrigation and tillage, are of determinative importance in the development of the arid region, as may be readily inferred even from the foregoing fragmentary discussion. FIFTH: THE QUALITY OF MANHOOD. — Of course the ruling factor in the development of the far west has been the quality of manhood involved in the achievement, but this need only be suggested in this connection. The earliest of the pioneers were chiefly natives of the middle west, where they had been born to heroism, adventure, and un- precedented achievement. They were strong in initiative, resourceful, venturesome, full of the American spirit and cherishing American ideals of equality of manhood and of opportunity. Those who followed the first run of pioneers were also possessed of an exceptional average of spirit and capacity — the very difficulties of the approach to the arid region set up barriers of exclusion against both physical and spiritual weakness. Though the venture for gold in California brought a motley crew, the weaklings were soon excluded by the * University of California Publications in Agricultural Science, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 17, 20; Idem, Vol. 1, No. 8, p. 179 et seq. 225 AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT selective processes of pioneer life and the strong remained to build up the State. Of these either the first comers themselves, or their offspring, figured largely in the upbuilding of the interior states of the Pacific Slope. It was a common way among those seeking their fortunes in the farthest west to throw themselves straight at the Pacific seaboard, even if some of them did bounce backward from it to homes east of the Sierra Nevada Mountains. Even the Mormons made a trail to California after the gold discovery, but they retired later to what was at that time the seclusion of the Salt Lake region. Of course many from foreign lands joined the ranks of the pioneers and helped notably to develop and pppulate the country; but it is a fact that free immigration has always been prevented by distance and cost of transit — so that in direct foreign immigration a rigid selection has always prevailed : only the best, and relatively few of them, passing this barrier. Of indirect immigration, Americanized aliens and their offspring, we have received a large percentage of our present popula- tion, but with them the same selective process pre- vailed as with native-born Americans, and with the same results. Without argument, then, it may per- haps be conceded that the Pacific Coast States have a population incidentally selected for purpose and efficiency, and this has proven a ruling factor in development. STATISTICS OF PACIFIC COAST DEVELOPMENT IN AGRICULTURE. — Those who have preceded me in this "Division of Natural Resources and their Develop- ment" have emphasized achievements which have a mineral basis. The relative percentage of rural population in the Pacific States and the value cre- ated by farming is determined by the United States Census of 1910 as follows: POPULATION OF PACIFIC STATES AND AGRICULTUR- AL VALUE. Population* Per cent Value of all rural farm property* Arizona 204 69.0 75,124 Utah 373 53.7 150,795 Nevada 82 83.7 60,399 Idaho 326 78.5 303,317 Washington 1142 47.0 637,543 Oregon 673 54.4 528,244 California 2378 38.2 1,614,695 * Expressed in thousands, three figures being omitted. The last five years have been very active in development in the Pacific States, and present at- tainment is much greater than that of the last census year, but no authoritative measure of it is avail- able for all the territory in the above table. 226 AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT The farm products of the several States, and the values of the farm animals therein, in the following table are mainly from the Year Book of the United States Department of Agriculture for 1913, and the figures are for that year, except as noted otherwise in the footnotes: VALUES OF VARIOUS FARM CROPS AND OF FARM ANI- MALS IN PACIFIC COAST STATES. (In thousands of dollars, three figures being omitted.) Crop Ariz. Utah Nev. Idaho Wash. Ore. Calif. Corn 524 238 40 305 762 419 1.597 Wheat _ 1.021 3,358 302 5,351 23,652 9,229 3,990 Oats 150 1,656 307 4,836 5,700 5,787 3,982 Barley vl,082 635 443 3,629 3,791 2,310 22,542* Rye 122 38 101 262 90 Potatoes 101 2.088 1,197 2,890 4,428 3.915 5,664 Sweet Potatoes 1,020 Hay 5,940 8,272 7,106 14,717 19,555 15,588 48,600 Cotton „ „ 1,119 Rice : t „ _.. 293 Beet Sugar1 .... . 57,231' 29,620 171,208 Horses and Mules 8,424 12,555 ' 6,525 22,300 32,890 28,908 54,827 Milch Cows 2,368 5,192 1,432 7,818 17,316 12,740 31,930 Other Cattle 24,018 12,638 16,999 14,585 7,104 17,860 46,530 Sheep 5,764 7,683 6,826 12,520 - 2,226 10,413 9,694 Swine . . 230 926 416 2,696 3,607 3,300 8,368 Hops2 _ , ..; 665 2,839- 1,731 Beans2 4'5 10 76 9 23- 6,295« Peas' , ' 6 9 116 16 101 Fruit Crops 250 1,000 1,000 5,250 4,000 60,500 « Vegetables* 379 717 204 1,\)07 2,988 2,448 6,886 1 Thousands of tonsj California product second only to Colorado. 1 From U. S. Census, 1910. • Second only to Michigan. 4 Greatest state product in United States. All the valuations in the preceding table are "farm values:" that is, no increment is attached for transportation or trade handling, and they do not therefore represent the market values which are usually included in statements of this kind. The table shows, however, the classes of farm prod- ucts produced in each of the states and thus serves as an index to the kinds of farming which are chiefly followed and their relative importance, in each State and in the group of States. Obviously the limitations of this writing do not admit specific characterizations of the physical features of the States which determine products and determine also their geographical distribution. Condensed descriptions along these lines may be found in volume I of the Cyclopaedia of Ameri- can Agriculture. Published descriptions can also usually be obtained through application to the agri- cultural experiment station in each State, i. e.: Arizona at Tucson; Utah at Logan; Nevada at Reno; Idaho at Moscow; Washington at Pullman; Oregon at Corvallis; and California at Berkeley. 227 SOME NOTABLE IRRIGATION <$ HYDRO-ELEC- TRIC DEVELOPMENTS BY C. E. GRUNSKY President, American, Engineering Corporation, San Francisco THE water resources of the Pacific Slope are of exceptional importance. The conservation and use of the water obtainable from streams, underground sources and lakes contribute in no small degree to its prosperity. Vast developments have resulted from irrigation. The light and power so generously supplied and so widely distributed often have their source hundreds of miles away, where human ingenuity has converted the power in the flowing water into electric energy and trans- mitted it to far distant places of use. Such streams as the Columbia and the Willamette in the North, the Sacramento and the San Joaquin in California, and the Colorado River, between California and Arizona, attracted attention first by their navigability. But with the improvement of other methods of transportation, some of these streams, such as the Colorado, lost importance as navigable waters but gained enormously, as popu- lation grew, in importance for irrigation. Space will not permit enumeration of the many successful irrigation enterprises in California or the other Pacific Coast states. The visitor who will stop off for a day or two in any irrigated section can easily find local works of note. Underground 'Water Supply. — The extensive use of water for irrigation from sub-surface sources can not be noted here except to say that there is a growing draft upon sub-surface waters with in- genious artificial replenishment of sub-surface sources, involving sometimes the spreading out of the freshet flow over pervious areas that it may find its way into the natural underground reservoirs. So important has this matter become that Los An- geles County, for example, is at work on a project that will be of general benefit both in controlling floods and in safeguarding and increasing the sub- terranean supply of water. The Imperial Valley Irrigation System. — The Colorado River, commanding the depressed area now known as the Imperial Valley, has there made a phenomenal development possible. Several hun- 228 IRRIGATION AND HYDRO-ELECTRIC DEVELOPMENTS dred thousand acres of land have been brought under cultivation in an almost rainless region, the mean annual rainfall being only three to five inches. The irrigation canal which has here transformed the desert into a highly productive region, now under intense cultivation, has its head in the south- eastern corner of California. A concrete structure controls the flow into the canal. A few hundred yards below, the canal enters Mexico, but re-enters California forty miles farther west. The capacity of the canal is several thousand cubic feet per second. The region irrigated is nearly all below sea level, the lowest point being about 280 feet below the sea. In 1905 and 1906, as the result of open unprotected cuts from the river to the canal and unusual high waters, the river changed its course, cut a new channel, and discharged its en- tire flow for a time across the Imperial country into the Salton basin, where the water accumulated to a depth of about eighty feet. The turning of the river back into its original channel at a time when its flow was about 20,000 cubic feet per second, and with works that rested upon an un- stable sand and silt foundation, was a notable feat, for which the engineer in charge, Mr. H. T. Cory, and the Southern Pacific Company, which financed the enterprise, deserve particular credit. UNITED STATES RECLAMATION SERVICE IRRIGATION PROJECTS: Salt River Valley Project. — In the Salt River Valley, Arizona, near Phoenix, the disastrous shortage of water in the irrigation canals, due to the irregular water supply from an unregulated river, has been relieved by the construction of a great masonry dam, sixty miles up stream, which has converted the Tonto Basin into a great reser- voir which holds back the entire flow of ordinary freshets and makes the water, under natural con- ditions wasted, available for use as needed. This Roosevelt Dam was constructed by the United States at a cost of about $3,000,000, under the co- operation authorized by the United States Reclama- tion Act, which permits the Secretary of the In- terior to undertake such works with the under- standing that their cost, without interest, will be repaid in the course of twenty years. Phoenix, population in 1910 was 11,134. Sources of water: Salt and Verde rivers, and wells. Reservoir: Roosevelt on the Salt River at the Tonto Basin has an area, when full, of 16,320 acres. Its capacity is 1,284,000 acre feet. The Roosevelt Dam has "been constructed of rubble concrete masonry. It is arched, has a crest length of 1125 229 IRRIGATION AND HYDRO-ELECTRIC DEVELOPMENTS feet, a maximum height of 280 feet and a volume of 342,000 cubic yards of masonry. At the Granite Reef on the Salt River is a rubble concrete divert- ing weir which has a maximum height of 38 feet, is 1000 feet long, and required 40,000 cubic yards of masonry in its construction. The canals of the system aggregate 32 miles with capacities greater than 800 cubic feet per sec- ond; 64 miles with capacities 300 to 800 cubic feet per second; 71 miles with capacities 50 to 300 cubic feet per second, and 409 miles with capacities less than 50 cubic feet per second. Tunnels: There are twenty-three tunnels con- nected with the project works, aggregating two miles in length. Power development: The project will ulti- mately yield about 19,000 horse power; the present power development exceeds 6000. The area under rental contracts for water or other arrangements, including 10,000 acres of In- dian lands, aggregates about 170,000 acres. The net cost of this Salt River Project was reported in 1912 as $9,508,831. Yuma Project. — Another notable irrigation work carried out by the United States Reclamation Ser- vice, in which both Arizona and California are interested, is the Yuma Project. Some ten miles up-stream from Yuma a low masonry diverting dam has been constructed across the broad bed of the Colorado River and out over the adjacent sub- mersible flats to the base of granite hills. The length is over four-fifths of a mile. It sends enough of the river to meet the irrigation requirements into a large canal, which is crossed by the railroad just west of the river at Yuma, where a glimpse may be had of the entrance to the concrete inverted siphon, probably the largest of its kind in the world, which carries the canal water under the Colorado River from the California to the Arizona side. Truckee-Carson Project. — In Nevada the traveler coming west on the Central Pacific may note on the Truckee River, about twenty-five miles after passing Hazen, a concrete structure which turns water from this stream south into the region of Fallen, near Carson Sink, where this supply, to- gether with the water of the Carson River, is "being used to conquer the desert. A feature of this Truckee-Carson irrigation project is the great La- hqntan Dam on the Carson River, about eighteen miles above Fallon. This is an earth and loose rock structure with elaborate and well-constructed 230 IRRIGATION AND HYDRO-ELECTRIC DEVELOPMENTS spillway and outlet works. There have already been expended on the Truckee-Carson Project about $5,000,000. Source of water: Truckee and Carson rivers. Reservoirs: Limited control of Lake Tahoe and Lahontan on the Carson River. The Lahontan Dam of earth and gravel will be 124 feet high, 1600 feet long and will require 770,000 cubic yards of ma- terial in its construction. Its water surface area will be 11,000 acres and its storage capacity 290,000 acre feet. The estimated cost is about $8,500,000. The first unit being brought under irrigation is 96,500 acres and the total area which it is hoped ultimately to irrigate, 206,000 acres. About 50,000 acres are now covered by water right application and rental contracts. Orland Project. — At Orland, in California, some of the results of co-operation with the United States may be seen from the car windows. At Orland the soil is gravelly, and owing to the scant rain- fall, only about ten inches in an ordinary year, it is unproductive under natural conditions. The United States Reclamation Service was requested to undertake the construction of irrigation works. Finding that Stony Creek, under some regulation by a storage dam at East Park, would afford ample water and that the soil would respond, the work was undertaken. Lands that had a speculative value of about $20 per acre are now worth several hun- dred dollars per acre, and comfortable homes have been established where but a few years ago the land was used for grazing and here and there for a little unprofitable dry farming. Orland, population about 1200. Source of water : Stony Creek. A storage reser- voir has been constructed at East Park. The dam at this point is of concrete. Its maximum height is 139 feet, the length of its crest 250 feet. It contains 12,200 cubic yards of concrete. The ca- pacity of the reservoir formed by it is 45,600 acre feet. About 14,000 acres are to be irrigated by this project, tjie irrigable land being located on both sides of Stony Creek. The total estimated cost of the project is about $600,000. Klamath Project. — In southern Oregon, lapping over into California, is another enterprise under- taken with some success by the United States Reclamation Service. The problem here was to utilize for irrigation the water of the Upper Klam- ath Lake, to supplement the water supply of this lake with water from a reservoir constructed at Clear Lake, and to reclaim by drainage, or by the 231 IRRIGATION AND HYDRO-ELECTRIC DEVELOPMENTS interception of inflow, some of the marsh lands around Tule and Lower Klamath lakes. The growth of Klamath Falls, stimulated by the improved use of the lands in the surrounding country, speaks for itself. Klamath Falls, population about 3000. Sources of water: Upper Klamath Lake and Clear Lake. Upper Klamath Lake, area 60,000 acres, storage about 200,000 acre feet. Clear Lake, area 25,000 acres, capacity 462,000 acre feet. The dam at Clear Lake has a height of 33 feet, is 790 feet long and is built of earth and rock aggregating 46,600 cubic yards in volume. A notable structure is the diversion dam on Lost River. It is con- structed hollow of reinforced concrete. Its maxi- mum height is 40 feet. The length of masonry is 290 feet, the length of earth fill 385 feet. It con- tains 5550 cubic yards of concrete and 13,100 cubic yards of earth fill. The tunnel through which water is drawn from Upper Klamath Lake is 3300 feet long. The irrigable area of the first unit of the pro- ject is 30,000 acres; the reclamation of Tule Lake will add 35,000, and the entire project area is 72,000 acres. The irrigable lands opened exceed 30,000 acres, nearly all in private ownership. Upwards of $2,000,000 have been expended on this project. The Yakima Project and the Okanogan Project, Washington. — In Washington the United States Reclamation Service has invested in the Yakima project about $6,000,000, and in the Okanogan, about $600,000. Space will not permit inclusion of a description of these works nor of others on the Pacific Slope. Nevertheless, they will repay a visit. SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENTS: The irrigation development on the Kern and the Kings rivers, typical of that on other streams in the southern San Joaquin Valley, California, is a spe- cial credit to the engineers who directed the early enterprises. Here irrigation commenced half a century ago, at a time when the products of the soil were not as valuable as at present and when to make a success of irrigation the cost had to be kept down. Massive masonry structures were out of the question. Weirs and dams were constructed of brush, cobbles, and wood, and though of only limited life, admirably served their purpose and the foundation was laid for prosperous develop- ment under irrigation, which has gradually ex- tended from the region of least rain northerly until now all east-side streams of the San Joaquin Valley are under draft for irrigation water. The 232 IRRIGATION AND HYDRO-ELECTRIC DEVELOPMENTS extension of irrigation was accompanied, of course, with the substitution of more permanent structures, and fine examples of good engineering practice can be seen on almost any of the rivers. IRRIGATION DISTRICTS IN CALIFORNIA: The right to use the water required for irrigation should go with the ownership of the land. To carry out this idea the law permits the formation of irrigation districts. Many such districts have been formed and some of them are in successful operation. Notable in California are the Alta Irrigation District on the south side of Kings River, Turlock Irrigation District on the south side and Modesto District on the north side of Tuolumne River, and the Qakdale and the South San Joaquin Irrigation districts on the two sides of Stanislaus River. The LaGrange Dam, 127 feet high, with a crest length of 300 feet and containing 30,000 cubic yards of rubble con- crete masonry, on the Tuolumne River about thirty miles above Modesto, is at the head of the irri- gation canals which supply the Modesto and Tur- lock districts. A bold double arch dam, six miles above Knights Ferry on the Stanislaus River, diverts the water of this stream into the canal which sup- plies Oakdale and South San Joaquin districts. HYDRO-ELECTRIC DEVELOPMENTS: As in the case of the irrigation works, so in the case of the hydro- electric installations, the notable achievements are too many to be here enumerated. Mention can be made of a few only. Long distance transmission of power over the electric wire was first success- fully demonstrated on this coast, and some of the most notable enterprises in the world are to be found here. The Spaulding Dam, Pacific Gas & Electric Company, California. — The Pacific Gas & Electric Company operates through a wide field in central portions of California and the power which is de- veloped at a number of points in the Sierra Nevada is widely distributed and may at times be used hundreds of miles from its point of origination. Among the latest additions to this system is the Spaulding Dam, a massive concrete structure, which closes a gorge in solid granite on the South Fork of Yuba River, about two miles northeasterly from Emigrant Gap on the Central Pacific Railroad, and forms a storage reservoir from which the water will flow through a succession of power houses as it descends from the Spaulding Lake, at an ele- vation of 5050 feet, to the Sacramento Valley, which is but a little above sea level. The dam will ulti- mately have a height of 305 feet. It has been com- 233 IRRIGATION AND HYDRO-ELECTRIC DEVELOPMENTS pleted to a height of 225 feet and will remain in use at this height until additional storage is needed. (See PL XXV.) The importance of this installation will be ap- preciated from the bare statement that the ultimate generator capacity in these several stations will aggregate about 1*16,000 kilowatt, or about 155,000 horse power. The Mount Whitney Power Company, California, supplies most of its power to irrigation plants. In the San Joaquin Valley, as elsewhere in the arid West, the area that is irrigated with water pumped from sub-surface sources is rapidly increasing. The pumping by the use of steam or gasoline is in many localities being superseded by the use of electric power. The Mount Whitney Power Com- pany develops power at three stations in the Sierra Nevada on the headwaters of Kaweah River and another on Tule River, and the power there gener- ated is carried westerly into the valley for use. The generator capacity on this hydro-electric system aggregates about 11,000 horse power and this will be doubled by contemplated additions. The San Joaquin Light & Power Corporation, California, was the first to successfully transmit power by electricity a distance of thirty-six miles. The old plant of this corporation came into use in 1896. The hydro-electric power output of this plant is used from Bakersfield as far north as Snelling. The power generating stations are on the San Joaquin River and on the Kern River. The Kern River power station is located at the point where Kern River breaks from its granite gorge out into the San Joaquin Valley. This station is located about twelve miles easterly from Bakers- field. The Great Western Power Company, California, has found its source of power in Feather River. This river in its descent from the higher mount- ains, at one point of its course, makes a great horseshoe bend. A dam at the upper end of the horseshoe and a tunnel through the narrow neck make a fall of about 430 feet available, which will at some time be increased by a higher dam to 535 feet. This fall has been utilized. The diverting and intake works and the power house are pointed out to travelers on the Western Pacific. In the power house there were originally installed four 10,000 kilowatt generators, to which further addi- tions have recently been made. Feather River has a large low-water flow, some 800 cubic feet per second, but even this can be in- 234 IRRIGATION AND HYDRO-ELECTRIC DEVELOPMENTS creased as required out of storage, there having been constructed a large storage reservoir at Big Meadows on the North Fork of Feather River. The dam forming this reservoir is an earth dam with concrete core. Other Hydro-Electric Developments in Califor- nia.— Other notable hydro-electric developments in California are those on the southern streams which supply power to Los Angeles and vicinity, as also in the northern part of the State the Northern Electric Company and the Snow Mountain Power Company. Reference may be made, too, to the power development proposed for the Los Angeles water supply system. On the new city aqueduct, which has a length of 235 miles and a capacity of about 400 cubic feet per second (250,000,000 gallons per day) there are several points where the fall in the line is to be utilized for the genera- tion of power. Some 80,000 horse power are to be thus ultimately made available. Washington Water Power Company, Washing- ton.— In the State of Washington at Spokane, easy of access, is a noteworthy hydro-electric plant. There are three developments in operation and an- other in course of construction. The Spokane River has a minimum or low-water flow of about 1500 cubic feet per second. This is considerably in- creased by controlling the outflow from Coeur d'Alene Lake above Spokane, in which Spokane River has its source. The controlling works are located about ten miles below the lake at Post Falls. Here the river separates into three channels, on the southerly of which is the power house. The four turbines installed at this point operate gen- erators which have a combined capacity of 8800 kilowatts. At Little Falls, about thirty miles north- west of Spokane, the company has another power station at which the water wheels, also four in number, can develop a maximum of 44,000 horse power. In the same vicinity there is being added to the system the Long Lake development where the water power installation will reach 89,000 horse power. The Portland Railway Light & Power Company, Oregon. — Electricity for light and power are sup- plied to Portland, Oregon, by the Portland Railway Light & Power Company. This company has five hydro-electric and five steam generating plants. Tnese have a combined capacity of 76,980 kilowatts. The hydro-electric plants have a capacity of 53,230 kilowatts, and produce over 90 per cent of the power consumed. The oldest of the hydro-electric 235 IRRIGATION AND HYDRO-ELECTRIC DEVELOPMENTS plants is located on the Willamette River, at Oregon City, where five units have been in service since 1894, seven since 1897, and two since 1903. The combined generating capacity of these fourteen ma- chines is 7230 kilowatts. Another hydro-electric plant is at Cazadero, on the Glakamas River. The installation is here for 14,250 kilowatts. The River Mill plant is on the same river several miles farther down stream and is notable for the fact that the first hollow concrete dam of the Ambrusen tvpe on the Pacific Coast was constructed here. The sta- tion capacity is 9900 kilowatts. A fourth hydro- electric plant is at Bull Run, about forty miles from Portland. The capacity of this station is 11,250 kilowatts of hydro-electric power. REFERENCES ANON. 1912. Development along Puget Sound. Electric World, vol. 59, pp. 1161-1182, figs. 1-51. (Description of the sys- tem of the Puget Sound Traction, Light & Power Company on the Snoqualarie, Puyallup and White rivers.) EASTWOOD, J. S. 1913. The new Big Bear Valley dam. Engineering News, vol. 70, pp. 1284-1290, figs. 1-7. (Description of a dam of the multiple arch type.) FINKLE, F. C. 1909. Arrowhead hydraulic fill dam. Engineering Record, vol. 59, pp. 451-454, figs. 1-6. (Description of high- est earth dam in the world.) HALLORAN, A. H. 1913. Portland Railway, Light and Power Company. Jour- nal Electricity, Power & Gas, vol. 30, pp. 1-21, illus. (Detailed description of the several plants and sys- tems of this company.) HEINLY, B. A. 1910. Carrying water through a desert; the story of the Los Angeles aqueduct. National Geographic Magazine, vol. 21, pp. '568-596, illus. SMITH, C. W. 1910. Construction of the Roosevelt Dam; an account of the difficulties encountered in constructing a high ma- soriry dam in Arizona. Engineering Record, vol. 62, pp. 756-762, illus. STEVENS, G. C. 1910. Patterson Ranch. Irrigation by pumping on the Pat- terson Ranch. Engineering Record, vol. 62, pp. 284- 286, illus. UHDEN, C. F. 1914. System of Washington Water Power Company. Jour- nal Electricity, Power & Gas, vol. 33, pp. 213-224, illus. (Description of entire system including Long Lake development.) VAN NORDEN, R. W. 1910. Great Western Power Company's System. Journal Electricity, Power & Gas, vol. 24, pp. 315-333, illus. (Description of Big Bend installation and trans- mission.) 1913. Lake Spaulding-Drum power development. Journal Electricity, Power & Gas, vol. 31, pp. 525-541, illus. (Description of the largest Pacific Coast develop- ment on a single watershed.) 236 CHEMICAL RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES BY HARRY EAST MILLER Consulting Chemist and Metallurgist, San Francisco A)ESCRiPTiON of, and comment on, the chemi- cal industries of any region should precede the enumeration of its chemical resources. The chemical resources are, of course, all impor- tant; but the climatic conditions, shipping and transportation facilities, cost of fuel, electric power and labor, all play a very important part, and if these are favorable for manufacturing, the raw ma- terial may be brought in from other sources. And then the capitalist or manufacturing chemist would surely want to know who was in the field before contemplating starting an industry. California has been especially blest by its natural advantages. It has a climate, shared to some extent by its sister states on the Pacific Coast, which permits operating a factory 365 days of each and every year. It produces an abundance of cheap fuel oil, crude petroleum, not only cheap as to initial cost, but effecting a great saving of labor in the firing of boilers, furnaces or kilns. It may be said that in all manufacturing plants fuel oil has replaced coal and that in virtually all oilice buildings and apartment houses, and even in some private resi- dences, either the crude oil or heavy distillate is now being used for heating purposes. Fuel oil is also used in locomotives and steamships where the radius of travel does not take them away from a source of supply. It would not be out of place to give here some statistics regarding the production of petroleum in California. In 1895 the amount first exceeded the million mark, namely, 1,245,339 barrels. In 1900 there was produced 4,329,950 barrels; in 1905, 34,- 275,701 barrels; in 1910, 77,697,568 barrels; in 1912, 89,689,250 barrels, and in 1913, 98,494,532 barrels, the output of the wells increasing every year. Again a number of large corporations are now operating extensive hydro-electric plants and power may often be advantageously purchased. Where steam is not required for drying or heating, a saving can often be effected by operating the machinery by a motor. SULPHURIC ACID. — Sulphuric acid plays a very important part in a great many of the chemical 237 CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES AND RESOURCES industries. However, its production on this coast can not be taken as an index of the chemical ac- tivities, as a very large portion is used in the re- fining of petroleum. There are, at the present time, seven different companies with a total daily production equivalent to 400 tons of monohydrate or 100 per cent sulphuric acid. Large capital has been invested in its production and there can be no question as to the possibility of the shortage of this acid. Many large plants are burning pyrites and it is safe to say that from 90 per cent to 95 per cent of the acid produced is derived from this source. The pyrites are mined either in Shasta or Alameda County, and in 1913 there was shipped for the manufacturing of acid 79,000 tons. This amount will not account for the estimated pro- duction of acid from this source alone, but it must be borne in mind that both mines and smelters are now shipping pyritic ores and concentrates to be roasted by the acid works and that this source must be taken into consideration. During the last few years the public has been paying considerable attention to smelter fumes, and the smelters are endeavoring to turn over all their roasting ores to the acid works which also increases the revenue of the smelter. On the other hand, the acid works are purchasing a cheaper sulphur, but the ores should not have too high values in gold, silver or copper contents, for the cinder or roasted ore must be returned and any loss paid for. The large plants are all operating the contact system and all three, the Schraeder- Grillo, Mannheim and the Badische, have been tried out around the Bay of San Francisco. Two separate Mannheim installations are still operating, and a third corporation has developed the Badische- Herreshof, which is said to be the best of them all. The high explosive works and oil refineries are now using almost anhydrous and fuming acids, respectively, and such acids can only be produced by the contact system, which is at present respon- sible for at least 90 per cent of all the sulphuric acid. Practically the entire production of nitric acid is taken by the high explosive works, and on the recovery of the spent acid (the mixed acid which has been used for nitration) the nitric acid is recovered as a weak acid or as ammonium nitrate. The nitre cake, which remains in pot or retort after distilling the nitric acid, is thrown away and daily some seventy-five tons are disposed of in this man- ner. The nitre cake is almost a bisulphate of soda, 238 CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES AND RESOURCES having one free acid valance, and at one time a small quantity was used for producing muriatic acid by a very simple process of roasting this cake with the proper amount of common salt. The small oil refineries throw away the spent sulphuric acid. One large refinery is operating a recovery. Owing to the large amount of carbonaceous matter retained by the spent acid the yields are very poor unless the recovery is run in conjunction with a separate contact system unit. The carbon reduces the sul- phuric acid to sulphurous acid gas and the recover}' of an oil refinery must also comply with the acicl fume regulations. The sulphuric dcid industry has been developed to a high degree on this coast and presents but few unsolved problems. An economic use of the nitre cake should be sought. PETROLEUM REFINING. — There is one very large plant and a number of smaller ones engaged in the production of the various grades of gasoline, kero- sene, lubricating oils and paraffine and in the com- pounding of greases. The process of distillation is not as a rule carried on until the "cracking" of the oil, which then yields unsaturated compounds, and these are not desirable. By proper regulation of the distillation, the residuum may be made to yield several grades of an excellent asphaltum and a large trade has been worked up for this product. It is used in a number of roofing compounds, forms the basis of roofing paints and the better grades make printers' ink. It is brought on the market under various names, maltha being the first name by which it was known. Maltha has excellent acid and alkali resisting qualities. The California petro- leums belong to the marsh gas or paraffine series; but it is interesting to note that from some localities petroleums have been obtained in which were found members of the benzol or aromatic series. Some of these members have been separated and characterized, the whole investigation being carried on solely as of scientific interest. HIGH EXPLOSIVES. — There are, in this State, three plants manufacturing high explosives, two black powder mills, one cap or detonator factory and one fuse factory; these supply not only the demands of the Pacific states, but also some of the contigu- ous territory. These different works manufacture nitroglycerine, nitrocellulose both as collodion and gun cotton, nitrostarch, nitroglycol, nitromannite and at times fulminate of mercury. The Bureau of Mines, which is gradually regulating the ex- plosives employed in coal mines, has created a Permissible List of explosives, and it is the en- 239 CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES AND RESOURCES deavor of all the factories to have some of their products pass and be entered on this list. Dyna- mite or straight nitroglycerine explosives freeze at a temperature a number of degrees above the freez- ing point of water, and the high explosives fac- tories are now vying with each other in producing "low freezing" high explosives. Great strides have been made in the manufacture of all explosives and a good deal of pioneering in this field has been done on this Coast. The explosives are now built on a much better balance, giving the minimum amount of fumes. They can not only be had in various grades or degrees of strength but also of various speeds or velocity of detonation for the same grade, filling all requirements. CEMENT INDUSTRY. — California is the third State regarding its output of Portland cement and the productive plants are fairly well scattered all over the State, the locations depending more on trans- portation facilities than the source of raw materials. There is no dearth of lime or clay. For a number of years it was thought that certain constituents of the cement had to be held within very narrow bounds, for instance the magnesia content. There is a chemical ratio for the different ingredients which must not be lost sight of; but experience has shown that a greater latitude may be given to the magnesia content 9f the limestone and that a variety of alumina silicates may be used for the clay. The necessity of burning to a proper clinker has always been recognized, but it has been found that it is essential that the raw materials must DC first ground to an impalpable powder, and of course also the finished product. In some parts of the State the cement industry has been threatened with litigation on account of the cement dust nuisance. This nuisance has been abated, the flues lead to a chamber in which are hung a number of iron plates, electrodes. A silent, very high tension electric discharge rids the gases of all solid particles, the dust adheres to the cathode, which is cleaned by a simple device from time to time. The writer nas used the following simple method of judging of the chemical activity of a cement which only requires a pair of letter scales and a few six or eight ounce oil sample cyl- indrical bottles. Weigh off one ounce of cement, put into a bottle and fill the bottle with water which will be in large excess. Shake from time to time and finally note increase in volume of cement. LIME AND MAGNESIA. — There is an abundance of limestone on the Pacific Slope, and in California 240 CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES AND RESOURCES the country rock of one of the counties is almost entirely composed of limestone. This State pro- duces all the lime it needs for home consumption and also much for exportation. About the only special comment needed on the industry here is that it first successfully introduced crude oil in firing the limekiln. Magnesite, in commercial quanti- ties, is only found in California and this gives the State peculiar advantages over the rest of the Union regarding all magnesia products. There are a great many different deposits and it is unfortunate that some of the best are quite a distance from a railroad. For a number of years there has been considerable activity in magnesia cement products such as tloor- ings, tiles, wash trays, etc., but it is only within the last year that a factory has been producing light magnesia carbonate which is almost indispensable for steam pipe covering where the highest degree of heat insulation is to be maintained. Light mag- nesia carbonate is being produced in the East from dolomite. This process is not only more compli- cated and expensive, but the disposal of the huge piles of dirty and impure lime has been a problem. MANUFACTURE OF GAS. — The manufacture and consumption of gas has increased enormously of late years despite the inroads of electricity. Elec- tricity is gradually replacing gas for lighting, but gas is more than keeping pace, making rapid strides with the introduction of heating and cooking ap- pliances. The old coal bench, in the far West, has disappeared, and in turn the water gas is fast van- ishing and being displaced by the oil gas. The whole industry has received its impetus from the petroleum production, and the development of the oil gas may be credited to California. Oil gas has an excellent illuminating power and it is interesting to note that the illuminants contain a small amount of acetylene. Ammoniacal liquor and tar are no longer a by-product of the gas works. A small amount of tar is produced, but this is not separated from the large quantities of lampblack and serves as a binding medium when briquetting the latter. The disposal of the lampblack became a problem until it was briquetted and sold for fuel and it has now become a source of profit to the gas company. During the early stages of the development of the oil gas, the gas companies had considerable trouble due to the filling up of service pipes and small mains with naphthalene. It was all a question of temperature, the runs had been made at too high a temperature and this nuisance was abated. What was once a nuisance may be turned into a source 241 CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES AND RESOURCES of profit, and some day the companies may modify the process so as to produce naphthalene as a by- product. Some petroleums are rather high in sul- phur and a large amount of this sulphur finds its way into the resultant gas. A process has been devised but not generally introduced which re- lieves this situation, for a large proportion of the sulphur exists as organic compounds and is not removed by passing the gas through the purifying boxes. The gas is reheated, breaking up the or- ganic compounds, and then again passed through the purifying boxes and all excess of sulphur is thus removed and this operation is accomplished with only a very slight loss in the illuminating power of the gas. COMMON SALT, BORAX AND SODA. — Most of the salt is obtained by evaporation of sea water and by the plants situated around the Bay of San Francisco or at Long Beach and San Diego. The salt produced in this manner represents a large quantity of mother liquor or bittern and some day an economic use may be found for the same. The writer has seen a very small gold bead which was worked up from one of the bitterns from Alameda County and gives this fact merely as a chemical curiosity. The total production of salt in California for the year 1913 was 204,407 tons. This State produces all the domestic borax in this country and at present obtains the same from colmanite ore deposits which are easily mined and treated. There appears to be no limit to the quan- tity of colmanite mineral and the three different companies which are mining and working the same are endeavoring to find new uses for borax and its products. The pure food law has been a blow to the industry. The production of borax for 1913 was 58,051 tons. Soda is produced both in California and Nevada and the former State has 1861 tons to its credit for the year 1913. There are several companies work- ing up the natural soda and imported soda which is brought in as soda ash, producing washing soda, for which there is still a demand, and bicarbonate nearly all of which is taken by the baking powder factories. Caustic soda is not manufactured on the Coast and what with the large quantities of salines and cheap electric current there should be a field for electrolytic caustic soda. A strong competitor to the present borax and soda industries has lately appeared in the field, namely a large corporation operating at Searles Lake. It is rumored that already over half a million dollars have been spent, 242 CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES AND RESOURCES and this does not include the cost of acquiring title or for the railroad which has been built. The products are obtained from the water of the lake and the process was worked out and demonstrated with an experimental plant having a capacity of 20,000 gallons per day. The working plant will consist of four units, each treating 500,000 gallons per day or with a total capacity of 2,000,000 gal- lons. One of these has already been constructed and the other three will be finished before the end of 1915. Based on yields of the experimental plant the yearly output of the entire plant when com- pleted should be 90,000 tons of borax, 170,000 tons of muriate of potash and 185,000 tons of soda ash. SULPHITE PULP. — The paper industry on this Coast consumes a large amount of bisulphite pulp and it has been estimated that 95,000 tons are being annually produced. The paper mills are in Cali- fornia, Oregon, Washington and British Columbia, the location depending on an almost unlimited water supply and proximity to a forest of conifers, the hemlock being preferred. A bisulphite of lime and magnesia is now being used for the liquor in the digester cooks and ground magnesite as a paper filler. The ground magnesite must be free from spicules of silica as they cut the fine wire screens on the paper machines. This industry, save for the aniline dyes and perhaps these fine wire screens, is entirely independent of all foreign supplies, ob- taining all the raw materials from this Coast. BEET SUGAR AND CANE SUGAR. — Before the new tariff went into effect California was producing from 100,000 tons to 120,000 tons of beet sugar annually. This production might still be kept up if the sugar factories would maintain the same chemical control as in Europe and prosecute the same intensive farming. In Europe from 15 to 16 tons of beets are grown per acre, while here the factories are satisfied with 8 tons per acre. Of the 550,000 tons of cane sugar produced by the Ha- waiian Islands some 300,000 tons are refined in California. FERTILIZERS. — Sugar plantations of the islands have always drawn on the fertilizer industry and now the orange and lemon groves, asparagus and other agricultural interests are making an ever in- creasing demand. It is a little over ten years since there has been a State fertilizer control. Manu- facturers and dealers are compelled to furnish guaranties showing actual composition of all goods sold, and the consumer may verify the same by having an analysis made at the Agricultural Ex- 243 CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES AND RESOURCES periment Station at Berkeley, at a nominal cost. The phosphate rock on this Coast is too rich in limestone to be worked, and the southern States must be given credit for more than 99 per cent of the production of this entire country. There are a number of fertilizer works, some producing their own sulphuric acid. Most of the packing houses and abattoirs are putting bone meal, dried blood and tankage on the market. The bone and fertilizer works are at present the sole producers of sulphate of ammonia. CARBONIC ACID. — The manufacturers of liquid carbonic acid gas have again commenced using magnesite rock. For a time the calcined magnesite could not be sold and the companies were forced to use limestone as there was a ready sale for the quick lime. CREAM OF TARTAR AND TARTARIC ACID. — The Cali- fornia wine industry does not furnish sufficient lees and crude argols for the one factory producing cream of tartar and tartaric acid, and raw goods have to be imported. It may be said that the en- tire output of this factory is made into baking powder. TREE SPRAYS, INSECTICIDES AND COPPER SULPHATE. — A number of different companies are manufac- turing tree sprays, insecticides, deodorizers, sheep dip, etc. Some have small plants while others are a part of a large factory. One large establishment producing acid from pyrites contrives to save some of the arsenic and utilizes it in the manufacture of insecticides. A smelting works on the bay saves all its copper in the ores as bluestone or copper sulphate. BARIUM PRODUCTS. — There are a number of de- posits of barytes in California and the production for 1913 amounted to 1600 tons, this being prin- cipally used for, and as an adulterant of, white lead paint. One company is producing barium peroxide which in turn is used for producing hydrogen peroxide. MINERAL RESOURCES. — A great many mineral re- sources are identical with the chemical resources of the locality. Mineral spring waters, and there are a great many in the State and some of decided medical value, if evaporated and the salts brought on the market would come under the latter class. In 1913 there were produced 2,350,792 gallons of mineral water, actually bottled and sold and the greater part for drinking purposes. Metallurgy is the chemistry of those minerals or ores yielding metals; but when metals are won as 244 CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES AND RESOURCES metallic salts, that part of the industry may be claimed by the chemist. In 1913 there was pro- duced in this State 7592 tons of tungsten ore; still a factory making incandescent electric light bulbs obtains its entire supply of tungsten filament from the East. All the chromite, 1180 tons mined in 1913, was shipped East. The old California pros- pector sought only gold, and then silver and copper and after that halted. The mineral riches of the far West are only just being uncovered and will lead eventually to all kinds of metallurgical and chemical activities. REFERENCES CALIFORNIA STATE MINING BUREAU. 1914. Mineral Production for 1913; Bulletin no. 68. U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. 1914. Mineral resources of the United States. Calendar year 1913; 2 vols. 245 MOUNTAINEERING ON THE PACIFIC COAST BY JOSEPH N. LE CONTE Professor of Engineering Mechanics, University of California TRUE Alpine climbing may be found in America only among the great Cordilleran Ranges of the West. Of these ranges none surpass the Cascades of Washington and Oregon and the Sierra Nevada of California. These magnificent mount- ains have been little frequented as compared with the Swiss Alps. Hence the difficulties of pene- trating their wilder portions are still great, though the facilities for travel are increasing yearly. The Cascades consist of an extensive though rather low series of complex mountains roughly paralleling the coast of Washington and Oregon. Rising far above the general level are a number of high extinct volcanic cones of great interest to the mountaineer. The most northerly group of peaks is that dom- inated by Mounts Baker and Shuksan. The former, a typical volcanic cone, 10,827 feet in height, has been ascended frequently of late by the Mazama and Mountaineer clubs. The usual route, by way of Bellingham, Washington, gives the easiest approach to the base, though the ascent from this side is rather difficult. If approached from Baker Station on the Great Northern, the ascent is easier. The mountain is a true snow peak, covered with glaciers to its very foot. About sixteen miles northeast of Baker rises Mount Shuksan (10,000 feet). Very difficult of approach, it has been ascended but once. Next southward is the magnificent Mount Rain- ier, easily first among the mountains of the United States when height, bulk, and Alpine character are all considered. A perfect volcanic cone, 14,408 feet in height, it towers a clear 10,000 feet above all the surrounding country. It has the largest and most perfect glacier system of any of our mountains, the twelve or more great ice tongues radiating from the summit neve field being barely included within a circle twelve miles in diameter. Some 320 square miles about Mount Rainier constitute a National Park. The mountain is usually reached by the Tacoma and Eastern railway from Tacoma to Ash- ford, whence a good road leads easterly to Long- mires' Springs hotel, within the park. The new Government road runs thence to Paradise Park 246 MOUNTAINEERING ON THE PACIFIC COAST (5600 feet). Here there is a public camp. The usual route of ascent, by way of Gibraltar Rock, starts there. The ascent, long though not danger- ous, is well worth while. A night is sometimes spent among the rocks at Gamp Muir, though a good climber can make the entire trip in one day. (See PL XXVIII.) Half way between Rainier and the Columbia River is Mount Adams (12,470 feet), also a volcanic cone. It may be reached by the White Salmon rail- way station on the north bank of the Columbia, and by stage to Guler or Glenwood, twelve or fifteen miles from the snow line. The actual ascent is made without difficulty by either the north or south slope. West of Mount Adams stands the beautiful St. Helen's, a wonderfully symmetrical cone rising 10,000 feet above the sea and 8000 or 9000 feet above the surrounding country. This mountain is generally reached by way of Gastle Rock station on the Northern Pacific, wnence an excellent wagon road runs to Spirit Lake. Trails lead to the camp ground at the snow line. The Olympic Range is a fine group on the peninsula between Puget Sound and the ocean. While not of great height — Mount Olympus being but 8250 feet — the snowfall is exceptionally heavy, and the glacier system very fine. Grossing the Columbia southward, the highest and by far the finest peak in Oregon is Mount Hood — 11,225 feet. It may be reached by automo- bile from Portland to Government Camp on the southwest side, or by rail to Hood River station and thence by stage to Cloud Cap Inn on the northeast side. The ascent from Government Camp is com- paratively easy and is over smooth snow for the most part. The last 250 feet is extremely steep and may require step-cutting. The route by Cloud Cap Inn, over the Eliot Glacier, is shorter, but has a long stretch of very steep snow at the top. Mount Hood, more easily reached than any other volcanic cones of the Northwest, has been ascended hundreds of times. Crossing the California boundary, the next im- portant mountain is Shasta (14,162 feet), one of the highest and finest of the volcanic cones. It is the only mountain in California which boasts a real system of glaciers. In spring and early summer, clad with snow, it is the most imposing mountain in California. Rising from a rolling plateau, whose altitude averages 4000 feet, it lifts clear 10,000 feet above its base. Shasta is usually ascended from 247 MOUNTAINEERING ON THE PACIFIC COAST Sisson, on the main line of the Southern Pacific. There guides, horses, and camp equipment can be obtained. The trail from Sisson runs easterly for eight miles through a deforested area, rising from 3550 feet at the railway station to about 8000 at Horse Camp, the extreme timber line. The night is usually spent there and the ascent of the moun- tain and return to Sisson made next day. The climb of 6200 feet is not dangerous, but very fatiguing, being all over snow or yielding volcanic material. At Mount Lassen, an active volcano of the steam explosive type, 75 miles southeast of Shasta, the Sierra Nevada begins. (See Pis. I and VI.) This magnificent Sierra extends along the east- ern border of California as a single isolated mount- ain mass. For 385 miles the crest line — the hydro- graphic divide between the Pacific Ocean and Great Basin — is nearly straight, as also the lines, about eighty miles apart, which terminate its slopes upon the east and west. The range is one of the grandest known examples of the "Basin type" of formation. It is a single block of the earth's crust, upheaved along its eastern edge. Westward, a long, gradual rise covers nine-tenths of its entire area; eastward projects a precipitous front of imposing dimen- sions. Southward the crest line rises while the range becomes narrower, so that the most rugged portions are at the extreme south, about Lat. 36° 30'. Space forbids even mentioning more than a very few of the abundant points of interest in this range. From Mount Lassen to Lake Tahoe, the range is relatively low, and in most places the forest belt crosses the main crest. Though beautiful, it offers few attractions to the mountaineer. Lake Tahoe is a famous and easily accessible resort just south of the main line of me Southern Pacific. Its northern end is reached by rail. Thence steamers ply. Several excellent automobile roads lead in from both the California and Nevada sides. The lake, 22 miles north and south by about 12 wide, lies between two parallel ridges of the Sierra. The main crest to the west contains several fine peaks, notably Mount Tallac (9785 feet), Pyramid Peak (10,020 feet), Rubicon Peak (9193 feet), Squaw Peak (8960 feet), Tinkers' Knob, and many others. On the eastern ridge are Job's Peak (10,600 feet), Freel's Peak (10,900 feet), and others lower to the north. Numerous hotels and taverns on and near the lake make the spot particularly attractive to the tourist or automobilist. Passing southward, the next easily accessible point is Yosemite Valley, on the Merced River. 248 MOUNTAINEERING ON THE PACIFIC COAST This famous spot, a starting point for exploration of the higher portions of the range, well deserves sev- eral days of climbing about its rim. To reach the head-waters of the Merced and Tuolumne rivers, which drain the summit peaks, saddle and pack horses must be hired, usually a packer too, and a regular camping trip undertaken, since, except for the Sierra Club camp in the Tuolumne Meadows, no public stopping places of any kind, nor even shelter huts, will be found. Horses and guides can some- times be found in Yosemite Valley itself, or better at Sequoia post-office, 23 miles to the northwest, on the Big Oak Flat road, or at Wawona, 30 miles south. Starting from Yosemite the usual route is by trail to the Tuolumne Meadows (8500 feet). Here a cen- tral camp can be made, and higher points in the vicinity visited. Directly east is Mount Dana (12,- 990 feet), very easily climbed from the southwest. North of the meadow is Mount Conness (12,550 feet), commanding a splendid view over the north- ern portion of the Tuolumne watershed. By fol- lowing the main Tuolumne River to its source, ten miles southward, Mount Lyell is reached. Its ascent is preferably made the day following. Mount Lyell (13,090 feet), the highest point on the Tuolumne watershed, is altogether the roughest and most in- teresting climb in this district. The ascent is di- rectlv across the small residual glacier on the north- ern face. From the Tuolumne Meadows one can "knap- sack" (but not take pack animals) down the canon of the Tuolumne River 22 miles to Hetch Hetchy Valley. This rough scramble generally requires two or three days, so the mountaineer should go prepared. The canon, one of the finest in the Sierra, in some places is over 5000 feet deep. Hetch Hetchy Valley, the "Yosemite" of the Tuolumne River, is well worth visiting. It can be easily reached by road and trail from Sequoia. The most magnificent portion of the Sierra Ne- vada is south of the Yosemite in the wild region drained by the San Joaquin, Kings, Kern, and Kaweah rivers. This region is practically devoid of wagon roads, and the higher portions even of trails, so it can not be visited without a complete camping equipment, and generally a guide, or at least a packer familiar with the country. The only access is by mountain trails. The range here reaches its greatest elevation, and the river canons cut to their greatest depths. The first stream south of Yosemite is the San Joaquin River, which breaks through the foothills 249 MOUNTAINEERING ON THE PACIFIC COAST near Fresno. Near its source it divides into two great branches, the Middle and South Fork. The Middle Fork region is best visited by way of the Mammoth Trail, starting from \\awona, near Yosemite. The finest mountain group in the Yosemite region is on the watershed of the Middle Fork. This consists of Mount Ritter (13,156 feet) and Banner Peak. South of this splendid group the range drops off toward Mammoth Pass, but soon rises again toward Red Slate Peak (13,067 feet). The great area drained by the South Fork of the San Joaquin is one of the least frequented por- tions of the range. Along the main crest for a dis- tance of 30 miles there is no gap or pass lower than 11,400 feet, and the great peaks such as Mount Abbott (13,736 feet), Seven Gables (13,066 feet), Mount Humphreys (13,972 feet), Mount Darwin (13,841 feet), and Mount Goddard (13,555 feet), are the very finest summits the Sierra affords. The South Fork region is best reached by way of Fresno. An automobile to Shaver or Big Creek brings one to the beginning of the Mono and Red Mountain trails. It may also be reached by way of the Mono or Piute passes from the town of Bishop on the east. At least two weeKs should be allowed for a trip into the San Joaquin Sierra. Still southward is the Kings River Basin, the climax of the California High Sierra. This great stream is formed by the junction of a South and Middle Fork. The latter drains a wonderful region from the Goddard Divide to Mount Pinchot. Its basin contains such peaks as North Palisade (14,254 feet), Mount Sill (14,128 feet), Split Mountain (14,- 067 feet), Mount Pinchot (13,471 feet). The basin of the South Fork is almost as rugged as that of the Middle, particularly the southern portion, where a wonderful group of peaks at the head of Bubb's Creek is easily accessible and comparatively well known. The Kings River Basin is generally reached by way of Fresno from the west; the Middle Fork through Shaver and the Tehipitee Trail, and the South Fork by way of Hume and the Independence Trail. A regular automobile stage runs from Sanger, near Fresno, to Hume, where pack outfits can be obtained for the trip into Kings River Canon. This latter is a good starting point or permanent camp for the South Fork region. Here also is located a public camp, as well as a small supply store. The Kings River Canon is also reached from the town of Independence via the Kearsarge Pass. The canons of the Kings River Basin are among the finest in the Sierra. That of the Middle Fork 250 MOUNTAINEERING ON THE PACIFIC COAST contains Tehipitee Valley, with its great dome ris- ing 3700 feet above the river, while below Tehipitee the canon is 7000 feet deep. The South Fork Canon, or Kings River Canon, is of the Yosemite type, though by no means so fine. It averages 3000 feet in depth, has a fine level forested floor, but lacks the splendid waterfalls and meadows of the Yosemite. The basin of the Kern contains the highest peak in the United States, Mount Whitney (14,501 feet). Mount Williamson (14,384 feet), "Mount Tyndall (14,025 feet), Mount Langley (14,042 feet), Kaweah Peak (13,816 feet), and a host of other high points fringe the rim. The basin is reached either by way of Visalia, Three Rivers, and Mineral King on the west, or by Lone Pine and the Hockett Trail on the east. The mountaineer who wishes to visit these glorious mountains and who is unfamiliar with routes and topography should consult the Moun- taineers' Club of Seattle (522 Pioneer building), the Mazama Club of Portland (Chamber of Commerce building, or the Sierra Club of San Francisco (402 Mills building). The excellent contour maps of the United States Geological Survey will be of the greatest possible assistance. REFERENCES LE CONTE, J. N. 1907. The High Sierra of California. Amer. Alpine Club PubL, vol. 1, no. 1, 16 pp., illus. MAZAMA CLUB. 1896-1905. A record of mountaineering in the Pacific North- west. Vols. 1, 2, illus. MOUNTAINEERS' CLUB OF SEATTLE. 1907. The Mountaineer; vols. 1-3. MUIR, J. 1907. Mountains of California. (Century Co., New York), 381 pp., illus. SIERRA CLUB, SAN FRANCISCO. 1893-1912. The Sierra Club Bulletin; vols. 1-8, pis., illus. WHITNEY, J. D. 1865. The High Sierra. Report on geology; Calif. Geol. Surv., pp. 364-450. WILLIAMS, J. H. 1910. The mountain that was "God." (J. H. Williams, Tacoma), 111 pp., pis., figs. 1912. The guardians of the Columbia: Mount Hood, Mount Adams and Mt. St. Helens. (J. H. Williams, Ta- coma), 142 pp., illus. 1914. Yosemite and its High Sierra. (J. H. Williams, Tacoma and San Francisco), 145 pp., illus. 251 OUTDOOR LIFE AND THE FINE ARTS BY JOHN GALEN HOWARD Director, School of Architecture, University of California PEOPLE have been busy so long making shelter for themselves that nouses of one sort or an- other have come to seem a necessary condition of life. Doubtless they are. But Californians believe that a good many things can be done just as well or better out of doors. In this favored region every- thing contributes to make outdoor life not only readily possible but enchantingly agreeable, and those who live here manage to spend a large portion of their time in the open air. All existence is affected by this. You admire the brilliant complexion of the women; they have their fresh-air life to thank for it. You honor the breezy down-rightness of the men; it comes from camp and ranch and mountain for- est. You wonder at the proportion of talent in writ- ing and in other arts which California has sent out to fame and fortune; it is the natural result of plenty of room. It seems hardly 109 much to say that a new type of civilization is being developed on this coast, one which is built up out of much the same cosmopolitan elements as the rest of the country, but under conditions of rare isolation and freedom, new as compared with the earlier American life, along the eastern seaboard, new in contrast with later European history, but strangely like the old Greek life, in its isolation, its place over against the Orient and in touch therewith, its study of problems on its own account and without precedent. But, most of all, this life resembles Hellas in its combina- tion of open-air existence with fresh intensity of feeling. Californians are not jaded. The world is new and keen for them. And whencesoever it may come, the art impulse, the impulse to express emo- tion, is supreme. Everywhere up and down the State, and in only a less degree northward to Puget Sound and beyond, the people are extraordinarily fond of celebrations. These are not considered religious rites, naturally, as the festivals of the Greeks mostly were; but they arouse and satisfy the spirit of the people in much the same way, and perhaps they arise from not un- like psychological causes. Joy of existence, impulse for expression, freedom from the trammels of prece- dent— these are classical conditions. And similar 252 OUTDOOR LIFE AND THE FINE ARTS conditions, even though operating on an unlike peo- ple, are bringing about results which in certain re- spects remind one of Greek achievement. It is of course easy to carry the analogy too far. Califor- nians themselves would be the first to protest against any attempt to set them up, or their art, as Greek. Yet they have aspirations that way. The dry season, when fine weather is to be C9unted on, is the time for long outings. The gen- uine Galifornian returns as near to a state of nature as he may. He finds it good to feel the hard earth under his bones at night and to gaze upon the wheel- ing stars. Even at home he may sleep in the yard by preference; or, if the yard is too exposed, he will have a sleeping porch. Old houses fairly sprout with these excrescences, and no new country house seems quite fit without enough such provision for every member of the family. It is in these and like features that the fresh air cult has made its mark on California architecture most ubiquitously. But here and there motive has been given to more monumental expression, as in the open-air theater, of which there are now several examples, at Berkeley, Bakersfield, Pomona College and elsewhere. The largest and earliest of them all is the Greek Theater, at Berkeley. The history of this building recalls the development of the ancient theaters. It consisted of the regularization and treatment with permanent masonry, of a hollow in the hills which had become in its natural state a traditional place for holding dramatic performances. The students of the University of California had been accustomed every year to give the "Senior Ex- travaganza" in what was known as "Ben Weed's Amphitheater," a nook in the woods named after the man who discovered its fitness for the purpose. Miss Jessica Peixotto, now Professor of Social Eco- nomics in the University of California, Gelett Bur- gess, the unquenchable contributor to the joy of nations, and the late Frank Norris, the famous nov- elist, were among the rare group of enthusiasts who Earticipated in the first performance on the site, i 1894. An altar for that production, which was based on the German Vehmegerichte, was the stump of a great eucalvptus tree which was cut down for the purpose. Tnis stump became the center of the orchestra when, nearly ten years later, President Wheeler, soon after he came to the University, saw the possibilities of the site and urged the importance of developing it. Funds were provided for the con- struction through the munificence of Mr. William Randolph Hearst. 253 OUTDOOR LIFE AND THE FINE ARTS The first ceremony held within the still unfin- ished building was on Commencement Day, May 14th, 1903, when the address was made by President Roosevelt. The theater was finished and dedicated on September 24th, the same year, with a student performance, in Greek, of "Tlie Birds" of Aristo- phanes. Since that time the "Eumenides" of Aeschy- lus, and the "Ajax" and "Oedipus Tyrannus" of Soph- ocles, have been produced by the students; the first two in Greek, the last in English. A magnificent performance of the "Antigone" of Sophocles was given in English by Margaret Anglin and her com- pany of players, who later produced the "Electra" of Sophocles, with equal success. The Greek The- ater has also twice witnessed superb productions in French, of Racine's Greek play "Phedre," with Sarah Bernhardt in the title role. Among other noteworthy events here have been the appearance of Mr. Crane in "She Stoops to Conquer;" Miss Nance O'Neill in "Ingomar;" Miss Crawley in "Mid- summer Night's Dream;" Mr. Ben Greet in "Hamlet;" Miss Maud Adams in "L'Aiglon" and "As You Like It;" and Mr. E. H. Sothern and Miss Julia Marlowe in "Macbeth." The above have, of course, been professional pro- ductions, and of the highest order. But the amateur work in the Greek Theater has been hardly less important. The English Club of the University has since 1906 given two performances a year; among them: Shakespeare's "Merry Wives of Windsor," "Winter's Tale," "King Henry Fifth," "Twelfth Night," and "Much Ado About Nothing;" "The Little Clay Cart," an ancient Hindu drama by King Shad- ruka; "Abraham and Isaac," "Thersytes," and the "Hue and Cry After Cupid," three Old English plays, the last by Ben Jonson; Dr. Van Dyke's "House of Rimmon;'y "The Shoemaker's Holiday," by Dekker; "Nero," and "Paolo and Francesca" by Stephen Phil- lips; Shaw's "Caesar and Cleopatra;" Schiller's "Mary Stuart," in English; Ibsen's "Vikings of Helgoland;" Sudermann's "Teja;" and Yeats' "Count- ess Cathleen." These productions have been brought out under the eye of Mr. Garnet Holme, as "coach," and owe much of their success to his good counsels. To this great body of dramatic work of the first rank should be added, to give a fair idea of the significance of the Greek Theater, the long line of orchestral, choral, vocal and instrumental con- certs, which have made it an ever richer place of pilgrimage. The Greek Theater did not mark the beginning of such performances, but it established the tradi- 254 OUTDOOR LIFE AND THE FINE ARTS tion, and gave it dignity. Its influence on the devel- opment of drama and pageantry through the State is very great. California, fertile, humanly speaking, for celebrations, only needs such a lofty and stable standard as the Greek Theater has long maintained under the wise chairmanship of Professor William Dallam Armes, to raise the festivals of the State to a higher and higher level. The University and State owe Professor Armes a great debt of gratitude and recognition for his untiring efforts to keep this work on the loftiest possible plane. Nearly every county in the State, and many a town, holds an annual fair for the display of its products of field or range, and at not a few of them there are features which come fairly within the limits of the fine arts, such as music, drama, pag- eantry and the dance. Not all of these affairs are of a high order of merit; strangers must not be shocked or disappointed if they find some of them poor or commonplace. They are, however, at least sincere strivings toward adequate expression on the part of a people young and inexperienced in art, to be sure, but who must do and say something to give vent to their feelings; and here and there, when conditions are favorable, these local fetes flower into charming naive affairs, great in promise if not in perform- ance. It is from this rich soil of joyous revel that the better art, in favored spots, will grow. Many places make the harvest the motive of a festival. Thus Bishop, Elmhurst, Healdsburg, Santa Rosa and others celebrate autumnal rites. Vacaville has its Fruit Carnival; Cloverdale, Oroville, San Bernardino, have Orange Fairs; Concord waxes festive over its walnuts, Escondido and St. Helena celebrate their grapes, Fresno its raisins, San Lean- dro its cherries, Sebastopol and Watsonville their apples, while Ukiah makes merry over its hops. Festivals of Spring and flowers are held at Hay- wards, Holtville, Los Banos, Santa Cruz and Santa Rosa; Pasadena, Redlands and Portland glory in their Tournaments of Roses, and Los Angeles in its Fiesta de las Flores. San Jose and Saratoga dedi- cate several davs to the enjoyment of their magnifi- cent show of fruit blossoms, when the Santa Clara Valley is snowy white with bloom; and later in the Spring San Jose gives a Poppy Carnival. Water Carnivals are held at Crescent City, Monte Rio, Oak- land, and Victoria, British Columbia. Truckee, high in the Sierras, enjoys an Ice Carnival, for California is not to be outdone even in winter sports. Salinas holds an interesting Rodeo; Pendleton, Oregon, a Wild West Show. And so on — every little com- munity has its fling. 255 OUTDOOR LIFE AND THE FINE ARTS On a higher plane artistically are the Historical Pageants of Carmel Mission, at Garmel-by-the-Sea, that of the Southwest at Los Angeles, and that of Fra Junipero Serra at Monterey. The religious or Mission plays, too, at San Gabriel, San Jose and Santa Clara are events of genuine artistic import- ance. Oakland is planning a Pageant of the Landing of Columbus for October, 1915, which should be well worth seeing. The Cabrillo Celebration at San Diego, the Aztec Sun-Fete at Phoenix, Arizona, the Montamara Fiesta at Tacoma, the G9lden Potlatch at Seattle, the Lantern Festival at Pacific Grove, and the Portola Festival at San Francisco are variously interesting and distinctive. The last named celebra- tion takes place every four years and is becoming more spectacular and popular at each recurrence. Not a little of the freer opportunity for art to develop in the open comes from the growing custom of "tramping" and "camping." There are many clubs, large and small, whose chief interest is in social excursions afoot. Perhaps the most impor- tant are the Mazamas of Portland and the Sierra Club of San Francisco, both of them mountain- climbing clubs with summer outings of a month or more in the Sierra, whose activities include many day or week-end walks as well. The "camp fires of these organizations in the wild are famous for song and story, bringing out much artistic talent among the membership. No visitor can gain a full insight into Pacific Coast life who has not seen a typical summer camp. Reference is made not so much to the tent hotels, like those which are established in the Yosemite and elsewhere, as to the private or club camps which abound everywhere, from San Diego to Seattle. In these establishments there may be tents or shacks, for the more fastidious and old-fashioned to live or sleep in, but not a few sleep absolutely in the open, screened from profane eyes by canvas or boughs, but roofed only by the sky. These camps are often veritable fairy-lands, with dancing Japanese lan- terns, and gay canvas. In the midst the camp-fire offers cheer and welcome warmth, for the evenings and early mornings are often cool, even during the hottest spells of dry day-heat. The camp-fire, here again, is the scene of many an evening of delightful entertainment. There are numerous clubs which have made the summer camp a special feature of their life. The greatest function of this sort, and one which is a ver- itable "date" for the whole local community, is that of the Bohemian Club in its grove at Bohemia near 256 OUTDOOR LIFE AND THE FINE ARTS Guerneville, in Sonoma County. This "grove" is a redwood forest of two hundred and eighty acres on the Russian River and running back something more than a mile of level valley floor between steep hills. The heart of the grove is one of the finest of the few remaining stands of virgin redwood timber. It is open throughout the year for club members, but the annual "Encampment" proper is for two weeks previous to the Saturday night nearest the full of the moon nearest the first of August. On that night the "High Jinks" takes place. Since 1878 these celebra- tions have been held annually in the open air, and from comparatively simple and informal entertain- ments have gradually developed into dramatic and musical productions of a very high order. In 1902 the Jinks assumed for the first time the character of an organic poetic drama, in the hands of three of the members of the club who have most contributed to the evolution of the tradition; the play was writ- ten by Charles K. Field, the music was composed by Joseph D. Redding, who was also musical director, and the Sire was Richard M. Hotaling. The play is presented on an exquisitely lovely sylvan hillside "stage," which lends itself with singular charm and impressiveness to such productions. The attend- ance has been keeping pace, in point of numbers, with the increasing beauty of the performance; last year (1914) the Jinks was witnessed by some eight hundred members and guests of the club. It is impossible to speak too highly of the artistic character of these Grove Plays. Written, composed and performed entirely by members of the club they stimulate to vigorous activity and give an oppor- tunity for expression to the best gifts of a large group of artists in various lines, such as few organi- zations afford. An occasion for the emergence of talent is offered by the frequent informal camp-fire entertainments, at which singing and instrumental music, poetry, story-telling, recitations, etc., play a prominent part. Some of these "camp-fires" have shown a tendency of late years to assume a special character of their own, in the same way as the High Jinks, but with different color. Thus the Friday night preceding the Jinks has established itself as a definite type; lighter and less unified, but scarcely less lofty in tone than the Jinks themselves. Sim- ilarly the impressive ceremony of the "Burial of Care," originally an epilogue to the High Jinks, has set up for itself as a separate evening, being now given usually on the Saturday night a week before the play, appropriately ushering in the period of abandon, instead of terminating it. Thus are the 257 OUTDOOR LIFE AND THE FINE ARTS traditions of the club established, little by little, the fitting and significant form and time being found for each element of the great revel. Not the least enjoyable and satisfying feature of the Bohemian Encampment is the orchestral con- cert which is always given in the grove on the Sun- day morning following the play. Classic pieces are interspersed with compositions by musician mem- bers of the club. Notably successful selections from former Jinks music are repeated thus from time to time under the baton of the respective composers. In this way a choice repertory of Bohemian music has been built up and a body olf tradition established which serves as a point of departure for future work. While there are naturally ups and downs in the quality of the Jinks from vear to year, the standard of the performances is always high and the tend- ency constantly upward. The blend of professional and amateur talent is productive of extraordinarily good results. The character of the club member- ship is largely artistic, using that term in its widest sense. Professional musicians, writers, actors, paint- ers, sculptors, and architects form the nucleus round whom are grouped an equally enthusiastic throng of men whose central interest in life is supposed to be business or a learned profession, but whose artistic sympathies and talents render them not less effective as true Bohemians than the artists par excellence. The influence of the club has perhaps done more than any other single thing to preserve and develop the artistic festival spirit that is inherent in California life. And while the club's activities are year-long, and are not confined to its open-air celebrations, yet these latter, and most of all the Jinks itself, are the culmination of all its entertainments; so much so, that it seems almost distinctively to be an open-air organization. Those who desire a more extended knowledge of these most important activities are referred to Mr. Porter Garnett's excellent illustrated treatise on "The Bohemian Jinks." The Family Club, a somewhat similar organiza- tion on a smaller scale, is a direct descendant of the Bohemian Club. The Family owns a tract of fifty-five acres among the redwoods near Woodside, where in addition to various sports, it enjoys each year, usually in September, a "Farm Play" as it is called, written and orchestrated by club members. The Nile Club of Oakland, too, claims kinship. Its yearly symbolic plays and pageants, Egyptian in motive, are presented among the redwoods of Santa 258 OUTDOOR LIFE AND THE FINE ARTS Cruz. Other clubs, too numerous to mention spe- cifically here, devote themselves to similar affairs. Important and significant as is the work of the organizations mentioned above, they are of a private or semi-private nature, and their fetes are open solely to club members, and those holding guest- cards. The enjoyment of this sort of thing, how- ever, is by no means limited to so small a public. Of late years two important movements have mani- fested themselves toward public open-air perform- ances of a like character — "The Forest Theater" at Carmel-by-the-Sea, and "The Mountain Play" on Mount Tamalpais. The idea of the Forest Theater was conceived by Mr. Herbert Heron, and developed by Mr. Perry Newberry. The first play presented was "David*' by Constance Skinner, followed a year later by Shakespeare's "Twelfth Night." Since that time the following plays have been produced: "The Toad" by Mrs. Perry Newberry, "Runnymede" by William Greer Harrison, "The Sons of Spain" by Sidney Coe Howard, and "Fire," and "The Arrow Maker" by Mary Austin. These Forest Theater plays have been under the direction of Mr. Garnet Holme. Last year "Montezuma," a poetic drama by Herbert Heron, was produced by Mr. Porter Garnett. An amusing series of children's plays has also been given here, — "Alice in Wonderland," "Aladdin," and "Shockheaded Peter." All these plays are numerously attended and have aroused wide interest. The Mountain Play has been given twice, in May, in a natural theater high on the flank of Mount Tamalpais. The founder of these plays was Mr. John Catlin. Last year "Shakuntala," an ancient Sanskrit play by Kahdasa, charmingly translated by Professor A. W. Ryder, was presented with great splendor. The year before "Abraham and Isaac" and scenes from "Twelfth Night" were given under the management of Mr. Garnet Holme assisted by the late Austin Ramon Pohli, being repeated here after an initial performance in the Greek Theater at Berkeley. This year the play will be "Rip Van Winkle. ' It is hoped that these presentations will be continued in the future. The site is one of ex- treme beauty, commanding magnificent views over the wooded nills and valleys to the Pacific, the Bay, and San Francisco, and lending itself readily to the accommodation of the several thousand spectators who on these occasions quite people the mountain. Several of the colleges and universities up and down the coast bring out al fresco plays or pageants, usually about Commencement time. Thus Pomona 259 OUTDOOR LIFE AND THE FINE ARTS College celebrated its twenty-fifth anniversary last year by the presentation of a fine historical pageant. Among the most notable regularly recurring events of this kind are the May-Day Fete and the College Play given at Mills College in the spring and autumn respectively. Since 1908 the students have given Lyly's "Alexander and Campaspe," Tennyson's "For- esters," Yeats' "Countess Cathleen," Shaw's "Dark Lady of the Sonnets," Rostand's "Romancers," Shakespeare's "Love's Labor Lost," and Jonson's "Sad Shepherd;" a list of exceptional breadth and interest. In the May-Day Fete great attention is given to expressional dancing in the Greek spirit, with allegorical interpretation. Appreciative men- tion must be made, as well, of the very noteworthy Pageant of May, produced in 1913 at 'Walla Walla, Washington, by Mr. Porter Garnett. But the most important and unique artistic event of the sort in this part of the world is undoubtedly the "Partheneia" at the University of California, — most important at any rate among those to which the public may gain admittance, and in its own way ranking with the Bohemian Jinks, exclusively re- served as that function is to the favored few. The Partheneia, the Maiden Rite, as its name signifies, was originated in 1912 by Miss Lucy Sprague, then Dean of Women in the University, now Mrs. Wesley Clair Mitchell, of New York. It may be describee! as a Pageant Masque, and is given annually by the women students of the University in a beautiful oak- grown glade within the campus. An original com- position is used each year, selected bv a special jury from schemes submitted in competition by any of the women students who desire to do so. The title of the first performance has been perpetuated as the general name of the celebration, in recognition of its special fitness and beauty. "The Partheneia, a Masque of Maidenhood," was written by Miss Anna Rearden; it was accompanied by music appropriate to the theme by McDowell, and presented on April 6th, 1912. It ' portrayed symbolically in poetry, music, pageantry and the dance the blossoming of the girl into the woman. This theme has become established as the motive of all succeeding produc- tions. On Anril 12th, 1913, Miss Evelyn Agnes Steel presented "The Awakening of Everymaid," with music bv Edward Stricklen, and on Ar>ril 14th, 1914, Miss Helen Marion Cornelius gave "The Dream of Derdra, a Celtic Masque," with music by Miss Ruth Cornell. The Partheneia for 1915, on April 9th, is "The Queen's Masque," by Miss Mary Van Orden, with music by Professor 'Charles Louis Seeger, Jr. 260 OUTDOOR LIFE AND THE FINE ARTS Nothing could well exceed the charm of these "games." The loveliness of the young women them- selves, hundreds in number — the beauty, brilliancy and fitness of the costumes — the sweetness of the music — the grace and dignity of the interpretative dancing and pageantry, combine with the sylvan beauty of the scene to make up an experience rare indeed. All of the special artistic aptitudes and opportunities of California life seem here to reach their finest expression. The Bohemians have created a genre by the ex- clusive participation of men, such as could hardly have come about if women had been concerned. The University has created a genre exclusively for women. For the perfect result these two phases of the poetic drama must sooner or later be united in a symmetrical form to which men and women will contribute equally, and in which all the arts will be blended and combined into a rounded whole. Mean- time these two great organizations are preparing the way, by working each in its own province and train- ing an ever increasing number of devoted neophytes. The augury for the future is bright indeed, and it must not be forgotten that this flower of artistic promise, and already indeed of artistic achieve- ment, springs and necessarily draws its nourish- ment from the countless celebrations which have a kindred purpose, even when they are crude and misdirected. Ignore the poorer manifestations and you lose the clue to the significance and true great- ness of the most successful ones. They are all gen- uine social expressions. Note. — Strangers who wish to obtain further information may do so by applying to the California Celebrations Com- mittee, 590 Pacific Electric Building, Los Angeles. Following is a partial list of celebrations endorsed by this committee: JANUARY Tournament of Roses .^Pasadena, Jan. 1. Mission Play San Gabriel, entire month Polo Games ..Coronado, 1st week in month Opening of a series of fiestas and celebrations to be given by the City of Los Angeles and covering every month, 1915 Los Angeles FEBRUARY Citrus Fair „ -Cloverdale, date unset Orange Show San Bernardino, Feb. 17-24 MARCH Mission Play San Gabriel, entire month, cont. throughout year Annual Blossom Festival Saratoga, March 17-29 California Orange Day Entire State, March 21 State Poppy Day San Diego, March 30 State Poppy Day San Francisco, March 30 261 OUTDOOR LIFE AND THE FINE ARTS APRIL Poppy Carnival — San Jose, April 1-2-3 Orange Fair Riverside, April 13-17 Raisin Festival Fresno, April 30 Spring Flower Show Redlands, April 8-9 Historical Pageant Redlands, April 10-11 Celebration 40th Anniversary of Navel Orange Industry .Riverside, April 13-17 Homecoming Week JBakersfield, middle of April California Raisin Day Entire State, April 30 MAY May Day Celebration Los Bafios, May 1 Rice Festival ..Oroville, 1st week in month Rose Festival Santa Rosa, date unset Spring Festival Berkeley, date unset Kings Kounty Karnival Hanford, May 20-21-22 Mountain Forest Play. .Mount Tamalpais, May 27 Redwood City Flower Festival and Carnival Redwood City, May 8 JUNE Cherry Festival , Santa Clara, June 2-6 Water Pageant Santa Cruz, June 22-27 JULY Historical Pageant, Forest Theater Carmel-by-the-Sea, July 2-3-4 Lantern Festival ....Pacific Grove, July 25 Fiesta de las Flores in connec- tion with Elks' Grand Lodge....Los Angeles, July 12-16 Russian River Water Camival..JHealdsburg, date unset Big Week and California Rodeo..Salinas, July 28 to Aug. 2 Meeting State Music Teachers' Association and Water Carni- val _ Oakland, 2nd week in month AUGUST Gravenstein Apple Show Sebastopol, Aug. 18-24 Historical Pageant and landing of Junipero Serra, Pilgrimage to the Tomb of Serra Monterey, Aug. 28-31 SEPTEMBER Harvest Festival Santa Rosa Vintage Festival St. Helena, Sept. 6-7-8-9 State Fair Sacramento, Sept. 12-19 Poultry Show _Petaluma Cabrillo Celebration San Diego, Sept 26-27 Grape Day Festival Escondido San Miguel Day Ventura, Sept. 29 Annual Fair Pleasanton, Sept. 21-26 Ventura County Fair .Ventura, Sept. 28-30 OCTOBER Riverside County Fair Riverside, Oct. 12-16 California Apple Show San Francisco, Oct. 1-11 Owens Valley Harvest Festival-Bishop, Oct. 2-3-4 Kings County Fair Hanford, Oct. 6-11 Landing of Columbus Oakland, Oct. 12 Portola Festival San Francisco, Oct. 22-25 California Apple Day Entire State, Oct. 3 Flower Show Redlands, Oct. 29-30 NOVEMBER Imperial County Fair El Centre, 2nd week in month Yucaipa Apple Show Yucaipa, Nov. 1-2 DECEMBER Olive and Orange Exposition Oroville, 1st week in month 262 ~ PLATE XXIX The Stevenson Monument, Portsmouth Square, San Francisco. Bruce Porter Designed the Little Ship, and Willis Polk the Pedestal. Photograph by Gabriel Moulin. LITERARY LANDMARKS ON THE PACIFIC COAST BY S. S. SEWARD, JR. Assistant Professor of English, Stanford University WHEN we prosaically count the years, the space of California's literary history is absurdly short. But when we set foot on a literary pilgrimage, the earlier scenes we would recall seem to retire to a surprisingly remote dis- tance. A few years, and a swarming mining camp is deserted; but its empty houses and abandoned diggings seem older than the scarred hills them- selves. American occupation soon sweeps away the hacienda life of Spanish days; but the memory, after that brief time, gropes back as if to an almost legendary past. And when a whole city burns — . Perhaps the most distinctive of California's literary traditions are linked with the section that we think of as the Bret Harte country. It lies along the slopes of the Sierra sixty miles or so south of the railroad route across the mountains, and is penetrated by a branch line that runs up the valley. Hither Bret Harte came, about the middle fifties, to Sonora, the county seat, and then to the hamlet at Tuttletown, where he is said to have taught in the little country school. But it was the whole district that he knew, — not only the mining camps that straggled up the valley of the Stanislaus, but those that lay in the canons farther north, — a half-open country of oaks and cedars and magnificent sugar pines, with roads scratched roughly in the red soil. The names of the camps in Bret Harte's stories are those that he found : Poverty Hill, Whisky Diggings, Rough and Ready, Red Dog, Poker Flat, Gouge-eye, and so on; but he owned no obligation to geo- graphical accuracy. Some of the names remain, and the region still shows the scars from the primi- tive placer mining that a later law has abolished. But Jimtown has now become respectable as James- town, and the important mines today are the deep shafts that penetrate the hills about Angels. We have cause to remember one of the men for whom Jim- town was named, for it was Jim Gillis, "Truthful James of Table Mountain," who, tradition has it, first told Bret Harte the story of the Heathen Chinee, and from whom Mark Twain, during a later visit, heard the diverting episode of the Jumping Frog. But it was not in the mountains that these tales 263 LITERARY LANDMARKS ON THE PACIFIC COAST of mining life were written. It was after some years of knocking about northern California, especially about Eureka, that Bret Harte drifted back to San Francisco, and as compositor, then contributor, for the Golden Era brought out M'liss and some of the Condensed Novels. During this time Mark Twain came to the city from Nevada, and while reporter for the Call contributed to the Era and met Bret Harte. The two men became interested in starting the Weekly California*, which appeared in 1864 and held the center of the stage for over three years. When the Overland Monthly was founded, in 1868, Bret Harte was the editor, and it was in an early number of this magazine that he shocked California, and delighted Boston, by bringing out The Luck of Roaring Camp. It is impossible, of course, in the newly built city of San Francisco, to find physical traces of this pioneer literary life, but the city has its magazines still, whose names recall this interesting past. The Argonaut carries one back to the vigorous traditions of Pixley and Harte; and with the Wave we connect the brilliant work of Ambrose Bierce and the stories with which Frank Norris began his literary career. And even if the Lark's career was a brief thing of months, has not the Purple Cow made that joyous little sheet the sharer of its own immortality? Then there is Stevenson. That is truly a loss, that we cannot now visit the haunts of his brief visit in the city. But instead, San Francisco expresses its affectionate loyalty in the annual commemorative dinners of the Stevenson Fellowship, and keeps fresh whatever memory it has of the crude, quaint city Stevenson knew. Very different from the Bush Street of today was the little street in which he lodged at number 608, with a quiet, cheap restau- rant conveniently by. And if we go south of Market street in search of the Rincon Hill that he used to explore — the Rincon Hill of aristocratic traditions, the scene that Gertrude Atherton used later, from her own girlhood memory, as the setting for The Californians — we find today not even a hill, only a dreary district of warehouses. Stevenson's descrip- tion of it is in The Wrecker; that "place of pre- carious, sandy cliffs, deep, sandy cuttings, solitary ancient houses, and the butt-ends of streets." There it was that he used to search out Charles Warren Stpddard's little house for friendly chat, and where first he was roused to longing for the South Seas. But Portsmouth Square, another haunt of Steven- son's, we have still and will always have; and with it the first monument ever erected to him, and per- 264 LITERARY LANDMARKS ON THE PACIFIC COAST haps the most beautiful. In the center of that dingy little park, oddly set between Chinatown and the old courthouse and jail, a place that seems provided for the down and outers to drift to and rest in, the swelling sails of a little Spanish galleon take the breeze in search of brave adventure, and on a ped- estal are graved the words of Stevenson's well- known message of kindliness and fortitude. (See PL XXIX.) We can follow Stevenson, too, to Monterey, where he came on first reaching California to be near his future wife, and though the town is some- what changed, Simoneau dead, and the little restau- rant gone where he used proudly to display his autograph set of his patron's works, the Stevenson home is still pointed out; and, what is best, the old adobe Custom House still stands at the point, exactly as Dana found it in his Pacific voyaging before the American occupation. The woocfs are there, too, where we can wander in hearing of the beating surf. But it would not do to set fire to one of the forest redwoods! A Stevenson pilgrimage would take us also north of San Francisco to Calistoga, near St. Helena, whither he went in May, 1880, to spend the first months of his married life. A little shack, — "three rooms plastered against the hill," in a "deserted mining camp eight miles up the mountain," now reduced to a few boards marked by a memorial tablet, — was the house that later he described under the title of The Silverado Squatters. And one does not know California until he knows at first hand the effects of hill and fog so vividly described in those sketches. Here and there through central California are other places that we connect with well known or well remembered names. On the crest of the hills overlooking Oakland, Joaquin Miller built the char- acteristic home in which he lived his later years. And it was in Oakland that Edwin Markham pre- sided over his influential little school; here also that Edward Rowland Sill served in the high school, be- fore he took the chair of English literature in the State University. Beyond the upper stretches of the bay is Martinez, where John Muir lived on his farm; though it is the whole Sierra range, particularly the region about Yosemite, that we think of as more truly his home. Jack London has a residence at Glen Ellen, some miles north of San Francisco; while on the coast, a few miles below Monterey, is Carmel, where in recent years has gathered a little colony of writers including in its number George Sterling and Mary Austin. 265 LITERARY LANDMARKS ON THE PACIFIC COAST The literature of southern California has its own individuality, through having interpreted the dis- tinctive features of that unique locality. It was from her earlier home in the Inyo desert that Mary Austin wrote The Land of Little Rain, and it has been through a long residence in and about Los Angeles that Charles F. Lummis has made himself an authority on the Indians of the Southwest. But it is chiefly through Ramona that the early days in south- ern California are remembered. Fortunately there are some places remaining that not only are connected definitely with the story itself, but, more than that, carry into our own times some of the flavor of the old life of which the story tells. Camulos lies in a fertile valley, through which a branch railway line penetrates the mountains back of Ventura, it was to this rambling adobe casa, true to the old Spanish type, with its courtyard and bells hung in their frame, that Helen Hunt Jackson paid a brief visit in 1884, when eagerly planning her novel; and though legend has gone far beyond the truth in ascribing historical actuality to the characters of the story, the description of Ramona's home was written 'from the accurately recorded memory of this old rancheria. Throughout the southern coun- try are ancient Indian villages that have furnished yet other scenes for the story; and San Diego points to the old Estudillo estate in Old Town, as the place of Ramona's marriage. Very slight at best are the remains that carry down to us the memory of California's colorful youth; but what we have we cherish. For although our coast may, and probably will, later develop new aspects of literary interest, never again will it be isolated. And that is much the same as saying that it will never again be unique. REFERENCES BEASLEY, T. D. 1914. A tramp through the Bret Harte country. (Paul Elder & Co., San Francisco), pp. xv+96, 23 pis., map. DAVIS, C. C., and ALDERSON, W. A. 1914. The true story of Ramona. (Dodge Publ. Co., New York.) JAMES, G. W. 1909. Through Ramona's country. (Little, Brown & Co., Boston), pp. xvii+406, pis. OSBOURNE, KATHARINE D. 1911. Robert Louis Stevenson in California. (A. C. McClurg & Co., Chicago), pp. vii-fl!2. 69 illus. 266 LEGAL AND POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE PACIFIC COAST STATES BY ORRIN K. MCMURRAY Professor of Law, University of California THE legal and political conditions of a State are to a large though undefined extent the product of a multitude of social and economic forces. These forces are themselves, in turn, the result of the operation of others, often purely physi- cal, such as climate, geographical location, geological structure and the like. It is a fascinating task to attempt to trace a particular institution to the social conditions which called it into being, and from thence to the natural forces which determined these social conditions. But by reason of the complexity of the problem, because of the ever present per- sonal element, which eludes classification, it is a task fraught with the danger of rash generaliza- tion. It is believed that the legal history of the Pacific Coast States, and particularly that of California, affords excellent material for the study of the in- fluence of natural conditions upon legal and po- litical institutions. Take, for illustration, the fact that gold existed in a free form in the creeks and river beds of the State. Its discovery found the community in the pastoral stage of civilization, without fixed legal principles or definite institu- tions; it transformed the social system, as if by magic, into a group of vigorous, independent units, struggling for some sort of law and social order. As free gold created the mining camp, so the mining camps gave birth to law all their own. Their popu- lar courts, administering a rude criminal justice, and framed to meet only a temporary exigency, left, it is true, little trace on the future jurispru- dence of the State. But the customs evolved in the camps with reference to property rights had more permanent results, and were unique contributions to the legal development of the entire United States. The American law with respect to the discovery, location and development of mining claims owes its character and form to these customs; the law with regard to the appropriation and use of water in the arid and semi-arid States, west of the Mis- sissippi Valley, has been evolved from them. The miner's needs required that water be taken from 267 LEGAL AND POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT the streams and carried in flumes, often a consider- able distance, to enable him to work his placer claim. The rule of the older States and of England, whereby the use of running water was limited to him whose land was bounded by the stream, was unsuitable to economic needs and yielded to the greater force. The evolution of vague and in- definite custom into positive law finds no better illustration in modern times than in the process by which the unwritten usages of California gold miners became a most important part of the law of mines and waters. In many other branches we may trace the direct influence of the frontier civilization which resulted from the sudden settlement of the State by ad- venturous gold-seekers. The criminal law, as laid down in later statutes and judicial decisions, affords illustrations of miners' conceptions of justice. For many years, the theft of any horse, regardless of its value, was grand larceny, though, generally, to constitute this crime the property stolen must have been worth at least fifty dollars. Even to the present day, the law of California sustains the right of self-defense to an extent not countenanced in most of the older communities — the right of one feloniously attacked to maintain his ground, even if he has to take his assailant's life to do so, rather than to flee, if P9ssible. These illustrations from the field of criminal law may be supplemented bv others from the law which deals with the rights of the citizen. People, including lawyers and judges, are often heard to speak of the right of property as if it were an absolute right, the same in all times and places. A little study of legal history would convince them that property does not mean the same thing in all places and at all times, and its concept is based on social forces. For example, any elementary treatise on general law will point out that under the com- mon law of England and of the States of the Ameri- can Union any unauthorized entry upon one's land by another, or by another's cattle, gives the right to an action at law in favor of the land owner. But the land owner's property right was never so extensive as this in California. It never was the common law of that State that a man was liable for his cattle's trespasses. The pastoral conditions which preceded the stage of the gold miners, and which continued to exist side by side with the miners' social system, would have made the appli- cation of the common law to the situation in Cali- fornia intolerable, and the courts early recognized 268 LEGAL AND POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT that fact. It is only as the agricultural interests have become predominant that the law with regard to trespassing cattle has, by gradual statutory amendment, been placed on a basis similar to that in communities where agriculture was always an important industry. Even with respect to the other branch of the land owner's fundamental right — his right to sue in a court of record for another's mere entry on his land, though the entry be effected by mistake and without actual damage — the law of California has never been precisely like that of England, which prevails in most of the States. It is true that, theoretically, one may sue in a court of record for a trespass on his land against another who enters even without doing actual damage, and may recover nominal damages. But nominal damages recovered in a district or superior court in California never have carried the right to costs in actions of tres- pass, as was the case under the common law of England. On the contrary, the party who is awarded only nominal damages must pay the tres- passer's costs of suit. Moreover, no general right exists to have the appellate court reverse a case where the jury refuses to give a verdict for the plaintiff, who has only technically suffered an in- fringement of his right. For a mere trespass, there- fore, the land owner may justify his right only at the expense of paying his own and his adver- sary's costs, and even that slight satisfaction is accorded him at the uncontrolled discretion of a jury of his neighbors. He can not review a jury's refusal to award such damages. The practical ab- sence of legal remedy has a tendency to cause the remedy of self-help to be invoked at the risk of provoking quarrels and breaches of the public peace. The rule as to costs has discouraged resort to the courts for the redress of slight injuries not only in respect to property but to personal rights, such as assaults, slanders and the like. Its effect is practically to remove from the domain of posi- tive law a large and important class of rights. This attitude of the law indicates the frontier in- fluence, the spirit of the gold miner and the herds- man, the willingness to sacrifice legal forms to "rude justice." We may almost date the beginnings of legal his- tory in the Pacific States from the coming of the gold-seekers to California. Their incursion was so sudden, their personalities so vigorous, that most of the half-formed and primitive institutions of the Mexican era were swept away. So far as concerns 269 LEGAL AND POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT the constitution and frame of government and fundamental rights of the citizen, the older system has contributed nothing to legal history. The po- litical institutions are, it is believed, as if Spain and Mexico had never been. Some elements, how- ever, of the older system in the field of private rights survived the shock of the American invasion, the most important of which are in the field of family law. Considering the disparity between the male and female population in 1850, it was natural that a svstem of marital rights, fairer in its treat- ment of woman than the English common law, should have been left undisturbed by the pioneers. Had the settlers come with their wives and families, they would probably have brought with them the common law, as well as the social conditions of the older States, based upon the English law. But the remoteness of the new Eldorado was such that those who came were either young, single men, or they left their families at home — transient gold- seekers. They found already existing a tolerably well established system of marital rights. Neither selfish instincts nor a desire to improve conditions prompted them to change the property rights of the few women in the State. Consequently the Spanish law of the community of goods remained a permanent part of the legal system of California. The wife became to a certain extent a partner with her husband in the gains made during the marriage — an idea far removed from the concep- tion then at the basis of the American law generally, that the husband was the sole owner of such prop- erty. To attribute, however, the permanent adop- tion of the community system in California ex- clusively to social conditions, based upon the dis- covery of free gold and the geographical isolation of the territory by ocean, mountains and deserts from the center of population, would, perhaps, be unwarranted. The vitality and force of the system, inherent in the fact that it is based upon more humane conceptions, has enabled it to conquer the common law under conditions not so favorable for its triumph as those that existed in pioneer Califor- nia. In Washington, for instance, though French and Spanish institutions had but little opportunity of striking root, the State adopted this system of property between the spouses. The same causes that contributed to perpetuate the community were operative with respect to the subject of marriage in general. Each of the con- stitutions of California, that of 1849 and that of 1879, has a provision that marriage is a civil con- 270 LEGAL AND POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT tract, enunciating in this respect the theory of the Spanish-Mexican law, which, like the early canon law, permitted the establishment of marriage with- out either civil or religious ceremony. Until 1895, the statutory law of the State remained in this con- dition. Since that date solemnization is required to constitute a valid marriage. In the matter of the legitimation and adoption of children, also, Spanish law has had an important influence. The Spanish-Mexican law theoretically governed the civil rights of all persons in California from the conquest in 1846 until the formal adoption of the common law of England in 1850. Many questions, therefore, have necessarily come before the courts involving rights acquired prior to 1850, especially with reference to land titles, and neither the his- torian nor the lawyer can afford to neglect the system. But it has affected private rights rather man the main outlines of the law, save in respect to the important survivals noticed. The work of lawyers and publicists played an important part from the beginning in the moulding of juristic ideas, and the formal bases of the written law were laid by men of experience and learning in public affairs. But these men themselves were colored by the opinions and prejudices of the so- ciety in which they lived; they were young, vigor- ous, untrammeled by precedent, adventurous. The constitution of 1849 was, it is true, an instrument pretty much of the traditional kind. The over- shadowing importance of the slavery question made the time one unfavorable to political or social in- novation. It was not in the Constitutional Con- vention, but in the legislature of 1850, that the vigorous and independent public men of the in- fant State found their expression and tried experi- ments. From New York came the idea of reform in legal procedure, just introduced by the efforts of David Dudley Field, whose brother, Stephen J. Field was one of the dominant personalities of early California. The distinction between forms of pro- ceeding at law and in equity was abolished, and a fusion of the two systems effected. California was the first State outside of New York to try this experiment, a tremendous forward step in juris- prudence, fundamental in all true legal reform. In the development of its jurisprudence, the State, thanks to this reform, has from the beginning been unhampered by the existence of forms which stand in the way of complete justice. New York also provided the model for the law of real property and conveyancing in the statutes adopted upon this 271 LEGAL AND POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT subject. The desire was for greater simplicity and for greater restrictions upon the power of the in- dividual to withdraw land from commerce by com- E Heated wills and settlements. Traces of New Eng- md influence may be found in the laws relative to commercial matters, such as the liability of di- rectors in corporations. The South, too, contributed its share. The system of administration of estates of decedents came from Texas. From the South also came what some foreign jurists regard as one of America's most important contributions to legal concepts — the laws providing for an exemption from execution for debt of a portion of the debtor's property, an application on the positive side of the conception which underlies the principle of the abolition of imprisonment for debt. Home- stead and exemption laws are now found in nearly every civilized country in the world. Perhaps, however, the most important statute of the first legislature was that adopting the common law of England rather than the civil law of Spain as the fundamental law of the State. Professor Royce in his story of California has pointed out how the development of the mechanical methods of the miners reacted upon social con- ditions, how the evolution from the "pan" through the "rocker" and "cradle," to hydraulic mining and lastly to quartz mining caused a correspond- ing evolution from a disorganized, anti-social in- dividualism into an economic and political organi- zation which might serve as a true basis for a State. The period of the 50's was that during which this process was taking place. Out of the wreck and chaos of unrestrained individualism, something like order had been brought by the be- ginning of the Civil War. California was ceasing to be the land of the gold-seeker. The era of agri- culture had begun. The rich soil of California's great plains formed the basis of the State's next era of development, that of the great farms, of railroad building, of commercial expansion. The climate had much to do with the history of this period. The large farm, before the application of irrigation, was an eco- nomic necessity. The uncertainty of the rainfall, the dangers of drought, the necessity for transpor- tation to distant markets, required the farmer to be a financier, a man of affairs. Often he was neither. The element of chance controlled almost as it did in the days of gold; the wheat farmer was the slave of the elements. Nor were the great farms conducive to a satisfactory social development. They 272 LEGAL AND POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT tended to the encouragement of a class of wander- ing laborers, undesirable in the structure of the State, to the employment of the Chinese and the alienation of the white population from agricultural labor, to the intensification of race hatred. The period was not fertile in improvement of legal and political institutions. One of the most notable events during the period was the adoption of the codes in 1872. The attempt to state the law, es- pecially the complicated portion which deals with respect to civil rights, in the form of a code has not often been made in English-speaking countries. The willingness to try experiments which has al- ways characterized the Pacific States is illustrated by the readiness with which the codes were adopted in California, and, once adopted in rather crude form, subsequently neglected. This readiness to resort to new ideas so char- acteristic of the optimism of the people, an op- timism perhaps in part the result of the even and moderate climate, is well illustrated in the consti- tution of 1879, the most striking political document of the agricultural era. This instrument is frankly expressive of the farmer's point of view, the farmer who had been the victim of natural and economic forces. The legislature, for example, is directed "to encourage by all suitable means the promotion of intellectual, scientific, moral and agricultural im- provement." The temper of the constitutional conven- tion found nothing absurd in the climax. The crude theory that the legislative department should be man- acled in order that it may be honest finds full expres- sion. Thirty-three cases are enumerated in which the passage of special laws is forbidden. To prevent fraud, every act must contain the true title, and must deal with only one subject under penalty of being void. No gift of public moneys can be made, no power shall exist to pledge the public money in favor of any private or municipal enterprise. We may smile at these remedies for the purpose of making the people's representatives honest, but the document is a tragical commentary on the public corruption that preceded the date of the convention. Hostility towards corporations is the keynote of this constitution. It perpetuates the radical pro- visions of the civil code of 1872, which forbade the creation of corporations with strictly limited liability, and made each stockholder liable for his proportion of the debts of the corporation. An aggregation of persons with strictly limited liability, which the most eminent jurists tell us is an 273 LEGAL AND POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT essential for the proper conduct of modern un- dertakings, is theoretically impossible under this constitution. Practically, however, the provision regarding stockholders' liability has proved inef- fective. Though it has doubtless deterred capital from investment in the State, it has not restrained reckless finance or protected honest creditors. In spite of its defects, the second constitution of California is instructive to one interested in the larger problems of legal development. The crea- tion of a State Railroad Commission with the power of fixing rates was an innovation in American law. That the commission failed of practical result was due in large part to the fact that the office was elec- tive, and the commissioners for the most part incom- petent. It served, nevertheless, as a guide for future legislation, not only in the Pacific States, but throughout the nation. But the most revolutionary feature of the new constitution was its fundamental theory. It recognizes the written constitution as a means of direct legislation. The original theory of the federal and early State constitutions is re- pudiated, and from a negative instrument defining the powers of the departments of government, the constitution developed into a code of law adopted directly by the people. That the people came to regard it as such a code is apparent from the fact that between 1898 and 1911, one hundred and one amendments were made. Since then the initiative and referendum have become a part of the funda- mental law. The line between constitutional amend- ment and referendum or initiative law is shadowy, and will doubtless become even more vague. In effect, it may be said that California, as well as Oregon and Washington, are living under a system of government far removed from that of New' Eng- land. The earlier period of legal development had been marked by independence of thought in the field of private law, the more modern period by the same characteristics in the field of public law. In the latest phase of the development of her law, California has passed out of the economic stage of the wheat farmer into the stage of inten- sive cultivation of the soil, of the irrigated farm. Horticulture and dairying have become more im- portant than agriculture and mining, while the dis- covery of petroleum has served to develop many new industries. A marked tendency towards urban growth has come with improved means of trans- portation. A more complex state of society has been evolved, and with it have come new and different problems. 274 LEGAL AND POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT The recent years have produced the initiative, referendum and recall; woman suffrage; a com- mission to supersede the former ineffective rail- road commission, with powers extending over public utilities other than railroads; workmen's compensation legislation; a direct primary election law; a minimum wage law. The last decade has been an era of fundamental reorganization. We have traveled far from the individualism of the first "diggings" to modern "social insurance." But the daring and venturous character of the miner that, carried too far, often led him to offenses against society, is at the basis of the social and political experiments of the present day — the spirit of optimism, of faith in the future, of trust in humanity. It would perhaps be unprofitable here to trace the legal history of the other States of the Pacific Coast in detail. Their settlement has been more recent, their development more regular, their de- partures from normal types generally less marked, and they have largely fallen under the influence of California, so that the history of the law of that State is the key to most of what is novel in their law. In the more recent developments in the line of radical legislation, it is true that Washington and Oregon have in many respects preceded Cali- fornia. The most radical and fundamental piece of modern popular law-making, however, that pro- viding for the making of laws directly by the peo- ple, was, as we have seen, the product of the California constitutional convention of 1879. REFERENCES ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA 1910-11. (Articles on California, Oregon and Washington.) Vol. 5, pp. 7-20; vol. 20, pp. 242-250; vol. 28, pp. 353-358. GOODWIN, C. 1914. The establishment of state government in California, 1846-1850. (The Macmillan Co., N. Y.), pp. xiv+359. HUNT, R. D. 1895. The genesis of California's first constitution (1846-49). Johns Hopkins Univ. Studies in Historical and Political Science, vol. 13, pp. 359-417. 1898. Legal status of California, 1846-49. Amer. Acad. Pol. & Soc. Sci., Annals, vol. 12, pp. 387-408. McMURRAY, O. K. 1914. Some tendencies in constitution making. Calif. Law Rev., vol. 2, pp. 203-224. ROYCE, J. 1886. California, from the conquest in 1846 to the second vigilance committee in San Francisco (1856). (Houghton, Mifflin & Co., N. Y.), pp. xv+513. 275 SCENIC EXCURSIONS BY A. 0. LEUSCHNER Professor of Astronomy, University of California NORTHERN TRANSCONTINENTAL ROUTES. The Grand Trunk Pacific Route from the eastern part of the United States and Canada to the Pacific Coast at Prince Rupert, British Columbia, is the most northerly and the newest of the several transcontinental routes, and has been completed for through travel in time for the season of 1915. The low altitude of the pass, 3700 feet, enhances the grandeur of the peaks of the Canadian Cordillera on either side of the railroad. From Prince Rupert, connections are made by steamer with Vancouver and Seattle, as well as with nearby Alaskan ports. The route from Prince Rupert northward by steamer skirts the south shore of Digby Island, enters Chatham Sound, and continues through Dixon Entrance and the sheltered waters of Port- land Arm to Stewart, near the dividing line be- tween British Columbia and Alaska, or to Anyox and Granby Bay on Observatory Inlet, past the Indian village of Metlakahtla, to the east, and then to Port Simpson, thirty-seven miles from Prince Rupert. There is a fine glacier near Stewart. Port Simpson was established as a Hudson's Bay Com- pany post more than one hundred years ago. Round trip fare from Prince Rupert $10.00, including meals and berths; two sailings each week; length of trip twenty-six hours. The Queen Charlotte Islands are extremely pic- turesque, rich in minerals, forests, and fisheries products. The totem poles of the Haida Indians of these islands are especially fine. Round trip fare from Prince Rupert approximately $20.00, depend- ing on the number of points visited; two sailings per week; length of trip twenty-eight hours. (See below for trip to Juneau and Skagway.) Some of the wildest and most beautiful moun- tain scenery in the world is to be seen from the Canadian Pacific Railway, which passes for 600 miles through the Canadian Rockies of Alberta and NOTE. — This chapter gives in a condensed form authori- tative information kindly furnished by transportation com- panies, chambers of commerce in the several cities of the Coast, and by tourist associations. Further information may be obtained from books mentioned in the list of references appended. 276 SCENIC EXCURSIONS British Columbia. Banff, on the eastern margin of the Canadian Rockies, is the station for the Canadian National Park, which covers 6000 acres. (Hotel rates, $4.00 per day, American plan; bath house at the Hot Sulphur Springs near the hotel.) About one hour's run west of Banff is the Chateau, on the border of the beautiful Lake Louise, one of the "Lakes in the Clouds." The Victoria Glacier lies two miles from Lake Louise. The tourist may also visit Paradise Valley, Moraine Lake, and the Valley of the Ten Peaks. Just west of Lake Louise the train crosses over the Great Divide and shortly afterwards reaches Field (Mt. Stephen House, $4.00 per day, Ameri- can plan). Seven miles from Field is Emerald Lake (Swiss Chalet and two tent camps), and nearby the Yoho Valley (rates at Chalet and camps, $3.50 per day, American plan). The Yoho Valley reminds one of the Yosemite, with the Takakkaw Falls 1200 feet high, the Twin Falls, and the Wapta Glacier. The finest scenery on this route lies west of Field in Kicking Horse Canon, Illecillewaet Canon, and in the canons of the Thompson and Fraser rivers. Near Glacier (Glacier House, $3.50 per day, American plan) are two of the largest valley glaciers in the world, the Illecillewaet and the Asulkan. The Glacier National Park, with its main en- trance at Glacier Park Station on the main trans- continental line of the Great Northern Railway, is a reservation of 1525 square miles in a splendid portion of the Rocky Mountains. Within its borders are eighty glaciers, 250 mountain lakes and scores of beautiful mountain streams and cataracts. Trips about the park made by auto-stage and horseback. The Park season extends from June 15th to October 1st. Two large mountain hotels, Glacier Park and Glacier, and a chain of chalets, $3.00 per day, American plan. Spokane, Washington. Within the city limits of Spokane are two falls on the Spokane River, totaling 150 feet in height. An hour's ride from Spokane by the electric trains through the well- developed agricultural lands of the Inland Empire System, is Hayden Lake in the Coeur d'Alene Mount- ains (Bozanta Tavern). Lake Chelan, Washington. Reached by a Great Northern branch line thirty-seven miles from Wenatchee, a beautiful mountain lake, sixty miles long, of great depth and hemmed by peaks 7000 to 8000 feet in height in the Cascade Mountains. 277 SCENIC EXCURSIONS Excellent hotel resorts, and good bear and deer hunting, and fishing. Scenic, Washington, is the station for that de- lightful mountain resort among the western spurs of the Cascades, Scenic Hot Springs. Round trip week-end rail rate from Seattle $2.80, daily rate $3.20. The Cascade Tunnel, elevation 3375 feet, nearly three miles long, is the highest point of the Great Northern Railway in central Washington. A direct route from Chicago and the Middle West across Montana, Idaho, and Washington to Puget Sound ports is offered by the Chicago, Mil- waukee & St. Paul Railway, which runs through magnificent portions of the Rocky Mountains and the Cascade Range. The Northern Pacific Railway follows a similar route, and is one of the roads leading to the Yellow- stone National Park. The Yellowstone National Park may be reached by a branch line of the Northern Pacific from Livingston to Gardiner at the northern boundary of the Park. An excursion has been provided by the Northern Pacific Railway for a trip of five and three-fourths days through the Park, at an expense of $53.50. The Park is also reached by a branch line from the Union Pacific Route, terminating at Yellowstone on the western border of the Park. A four-day tour of the Park, starting from Yellow- stone, is provided at an expense of $45.00 in ad- dition to the transcontinental fare. A six-day ex- cursion from Yellowstone is also provided. The Wylie Permanent Camping Company offers a six-day tour from Gardiner or Yellowstone for $40.00, and a five-day tour from Yellowstone for $35.00. The round trip fare from Livingston on the Northern Pacific Line to Gardiner is $3.20, and the additional charge upon the transcontinental rate for the digression to Yellowstone from the Union Pacific Line at Granger, with return to Ogden, is $9.25, Pullman reservations extra. The eastern entrance of the Park is reached by stage (ninety- four miles to Yellowstone Lake) from Cody, which is reached from Billings on the Northern Pacific Route or from Cheyenne by a line of the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy. TRIPS IN THE VICINITY OF PUGET SOUND. A beau- tiful ten-day trip may be made from Seattle or Vancouver to Skagway and other Alaskan ports (round trip $66.00 and up). This is the famous Inside Passage trip, among the inlets, canals and fjords of southern Alaska, with a side trip into 278 SCENIC EXCURSIONS Taku Bay to view the Taku Glacier. Passengers have two days at Skagway, which is sufficient time for going up over the White Pass Road to Bennett or even as far as White Horse. From Tacoma and Seattle, on Puget Sound, a number of interesting trips may be made into the Cascade and Olympic ranges, with their great for- ests and interesting botanical and geological fea- tures; by steamer to Victoria, and to Vancouver by the Great Northern Railway along the shore of Puget Sound, or by the somewhat more inland route of the Northern Pacific Railway; to the United States Navy Yard at Bremerton on Port Orchard Bay; through Hood's Canal near the Olympic Mount- ains; to Snoqualmie and Electron falls, which are used to generate electricity for the Puget Sound cities, and to the Mt. Rainier National Park. The Rainier National Park may be reached from Tacoma by the Tacoma Eastern Railway (fifty-five miles) to Ashford, and thence by auto stage (thir- teen miles) to the National Park Inn ($3.25-$3.75 per day, American plan), at Longmire Springs. (Round trip fare from Seattle $6.50; from Tacoma $5.00.) An automobile road extends also from Ta- coma to Longmire Springs at the base of Mt. Rainier and to Paradise Park farther on, where there is a tent hotel (rates $2.00-$2.50 per day). The Park season is from June 1st to September 30th. The system of glaciers radiating from the peak of Mt. Rainier (elevation 14,408 feet) is remarkable for the great extent of ice-field. Many evidences of past volcanic activity can be seen. From the Na- tional Park Inn it is a short climb to Eagle Peak and the summit of the Ramparts, where the view is exceptionally fine. Trips may be made on horse- back to Indian Henry's Hunting Ground, Mirror Lake, Van Trump Park, etc. The round trip (twenty-eight miles) from National Park Inn to Paradise Valley and the Camp of the Clouds may be made by auto stage. The Olympic Range lying on the west side of the Sound, and reaching up to the Strait of Juan de Fuca, affords some of the most rugged mountain scenery in this country. The railroad engineering work and the reclamation work of the United States Government in the Cascade Range deserve partic- ular attention. Lakes Kachess, Keechelus and Clealum have been turned into enormous reser- voirs for irrigation for the Yakima Valley on the east side of the Cascade Range. A number of fine peaks rise in the western part of Washington, among them: Mt. Baker (elevation 10,827 feet), Gla- 279 SCENIC EXCURSIONS cier Peak (elevation 10,436 feet), Mt. Olympus (ele- vation 8250 feet), Mt. St. Helens (elevation 10,000 feet), and Mt. Adams (elevation 12,470 feet). EXCURSIONS IN VICINITY OF PORTLAND. For the student of history, a trip by street car or train to Vancouver, on the Washington side of the Co- lumbia River, will be of great interest. Fort Van- couver was a refuge for the whites during the Indian uprisings, the scene of important trade and barter between white and red men during times of peace, and the starting point for expeditions which used the Columbia River as a highway. On the Oregon side, fourteen miles from Port- land and reached either by trolley or river steamer, is Oregon City, formerly a trading post of the Hudson's Bay Company, home and now the rest- ing place of John McLoughlin, who, with Marcus Whitman, exerted a great influence on the civiliza- tion and development of the entire Columbia Valley. Astoria, founded in 1811, lies west of Portland at the mouth of the Columbia River. Near Astoria is the site of the camp of Lewis and Clark used during the winter of 1805-6 and called by them Fort Clatsop, and here are also ancient shell mounds, or "kitchen middens," in which may be found a variety of horn, bone and stone imple- ments made by a people probably contemporaneous with the mound builders of the Ohio Valley. Mt. Hood, elevation 11,225 feet, sixty miles from Portland, is reached either by electric car and stage, or by automobile direct from the city. The Columbia and Willamette rivers present many interesting features: overhanging forests, numerous waterfalls, the Tertiary lava flows seen in the form of cliffs and pinnacles, the Cascades, The Dalles, the ship canals, and the Celilo Falls, named by Lewis and Clark the "Great Falls," which are now spanned by a steel and concrete railway bridge 4000 feet long. The Oregon Trunk Line Railway, of which this bridge is a part, follows the Deschutes River through canons cut in lava into central Oregon. From White Salmon, a sta- tion on the Spokane, Portland & Seattle Railway, a good road leads through the forest up to the base of Mt. Adams. The part of the Columbia River below The Dalles may be reached in several ways: by river steamer; by train, over the Spokane, Portland & Seattle Rail- way on the north bank of the river to Fallbridge, or by the Oregon- Washington Railroad & Naviga- tion Company on the south bank to The Dalles; or by a combination of a morning railway trip 280 SCENIC EXCURSIONS going up the river and an afternoon steamer trip coming down; or by automobile over the recently completed Columbia River Highway. In western Oregon the Tillamook and Newport branches of the Southern Pacific Railway to the coast cross the Coast Range Mountains, passing through dense stands of timber, "Oregon pine" (Pseudotsuga taxi folia). From Medford in the Rogue River Valley to the Crater Lake National Park a tri-weekly motor stage is operated, con- necting with a second motor stage from Crater Lake to Chiloquin, which is near the terminus of the Klamath branch of the Southern Pacific, which in turn joins the main line at Weed. The stage fare from Medford to Chiloquin via Crater Lake is $15.00 After crossing the summit of the Siskiyou range the Shasta Route affords ever-changing views of Mt. Shasta (elevation 14,162 feet) for 150 miles, descending to the central valley of California through the picturesque canon of the Sacramento River. Lassen Peak (elevation 10,437 feet), at present the only active volcano in the United States, is in plain view from the train. CENTRAL TRANSCONTINENTAL ROUTES. The Den- ver & Rio Grande Route through Colorado affords magnificent scenery in the Grand Canon of the Arkansas River and on either the Leadville Pass (elevation 10,000 feet) or the Marshall Pass (ele- vation 10,858 feet) over the Rocky Mountains. In Salt Lake City the Mormon Temple, the ex- hibit in the Chamber of Commerce Building, the Tabernacle and Assembly Hall are well worth see- ing. A public organ recital in the tabernacle is given at noon on week days. The Great Salt Lake may be reached by steam railway at the bathing resort called Saltair, eighteen miles from Salt Lake City. At Garfield, fourteen miles west of Salt Lake City, is situated the smelting plant of the American Smelting & Refining Company, with a capacity of 10,000 tons of ore per day. The Western Pacific Railway, the "Feather River Route," forms with the Denver & Rio Grande Route the newest transcontinental line entering California. In Utah the Western Pacific line crosses the southern portion of the Great Salt Lake. From the summit of the Toano Range, a good view is obtained of Salt Lake Basin. In Nevada this route follows the famous old trail of the overland emi- grants along the Humboldt River through Nevada's mining and ranching country. Crossing the Sierra Nevada by the Beckwith Pass, elevation 5118 feet, the route into California traverses the Feather River 281 SCENIC EXCURSIONS Canon through the Sierra Nevada for ninety miles. Near Oroville, in the Sacramento Valley, one may see placer dredges at work. This is also one of the centers for orange and olive production in California. The route of the Los Angeles, San Pedro & Salt Lake Route from Salt Lake City to Los Angeles passes through the agricultural region of central Utah, the copper mining region of southwestern Utah, and the typical desert areas of the Great Basin. Bingham Canon, with wonderful copper mines, is one hour by train from Salt Lake City. En route are the great mills of the Utah Copper Company and Bingham smelters. From Las Vegas, Nevada, in the fertile, artesian- watered valley of the same name, a side trip may be made over the Las Vegas & Tonopah Railroad to the famous mining camp of Goldfield. Death Valley, the floor of which is 250 feet below sea level, may be reached on this trip from Beatty. Vast deposits of borax and many other salts and minerals are found in this desolate valley. The Union Pacific Railroad follows from Omaha to Ogden almost the identical trail of the earliest explorers — the gold seekers and Mormon disciples — and the overland stage coach, and pony express. Wyoming is known to scientific men as a rich field for fossil deposits. Laramie is the usual out- fitting point for exploring parties. An unusually fine display of fossil remains of Mesozoic animals is shown in the University Museum at Laramie. Near Rawlins, in the Wind River Mountains far- ther westward, are the Great Lye Wells of Wyoming, and the Shoshone and Arapaho Indian Reservation, comprising 1,125,000 acres in the Wind River Val- ley. The Continental Divide lies 720 miles west of Omaha and 289 miles east of Ogden. Near Rock Springs are rich coal mines, and the scenery is very fine. About three miles west of Green River is the famous Fish Cut in which Professor O. C. Marsh of Yale University in 1890 found extensive Mesozoic remains of fishes, and giant reptiles. Granger, in the heart of the sheep-raising district; is the point of junction of the Union Pacific and the Oregon Short Line which traverses Utah, Wyom- ing and Idaho. From the Oregon Short Line a branch road goes to Yellowstone on the western border of the Yellowstone National Park. Beyond Ogden the Southern Pacific trains cross the Great Salt Lake on thirty-five miles of trestle and fills. In Nevada the line follows the trail of the forty-niners along the Humboldt River, and 282 SCENIC EXCURSIONS crosses the Sierra Nevada at an elevation of 7018 feet. From Truckee, near the summit, a fifteen- mile narrow-gauge railroad leads to Lake Tahoe. The excursion from Truckee to Tahoe, including a steamer ride of seventj'-five miles around the crystal lake, can be made in a day (round trip fare $5.00). Beyond the summit the railroad descends to the central valley of California along the upper rim of the American River canon, through the Mother Lode gold mining region. TRIPS ABOUT SAN FRANCISCO. Triangle Trip through Marin and Sonoma counties. By the North- western Pacific Railway from the Ferry Building, foot of Market Street, San Francisco to Sausalito, Monte Rio and return. (Round trip, $2.80.) A full day's trip into the Russian River country in the Coast Range Mountains, interesting on account of rivers, redwood forests, mineral springs, outing re- sorts, and prosperous orchards and vineyards. Santa Rosa, the home of Luther Burbank, the plant wizard, is the principal city along this route. To the Mare Island Navy Yard and Vallejo. By Monticello Steamship Company boat from the north end of the Ferry Building, San Francisco (9:45 A. M. daily). Ferry connections from Vallejo to the United States Navy Yard, Mare Island. The return boat leaves Vallejo at 3:20 or 6:00 P. M. Cost, including ferry to Mare Island, $1.20. Per- mission is obtained at the gate of the Navy Yard to visit all portions of the Yard, including the barracks, officers' quarters, machine shops, etc. Luncheon may be obtained on the boat or at Vallejo. No cameras are allowed in the Navy Yard. This is a twenty-five-mile trip through the northern por- tion of San Francisco Bay and its arm, San Pablo Bay. To Napa Valley and the Petrified Forest. Bv Monticello Steamship Company boat from the north end of the Ferry Building, San Francisco (9:45 A. M.). At Vallejo transfer to the Napa and Calis- toga electric train. If returning on the same day, leave Calistoga at 3:40 or 6:05. Cost, $2.65 round trip. Napa Valley is a center for fruit growing. Vineyards occupy the upper end of the valley, at the head of which stands Mt. St. Helena (elevation 4343 feet). The petrified forest (admission fifty cents) lies five miles beyond Calistoga. Auto Trip along Highland Drive (Oakland, Berk- eley, Piedmont). By sightseeing automobile from San Francisco, by Southern Pacific Ferry to Oak- land. Round trip fare from San Francisco, $1.50; from Oakland, $1.25. The trip may be made in 283 SCENIC EXCURSIONS half a day. This is the Oakland-Berkeley-Piedmont sightseeing trip by automobile, along the famous Highland Drive to Berkeley and the University of California, to Piedmont Park, Lakeside Park, and Oakland. Key Route Trolley Trip in Alameda County. Leave San Francisco, foot of Market Street, Key Ferry, 10:00 A. M. and 1:00 P. M. daily. Leave Oakland, Twelfth and Broadway, 10:00 A. M., Twenty-second and Broadway, 1:35 P. M. daily. Time of complete trip about seven hours. Cost, $1.00. A comprehensive and satisfying trip through the cities of Berkeley, Piedmont, Oakland and Ala- meda, on the east shore of San Francisco Bay. Opportunity is given to visit the University of California at Berkeley, and Piedmont Art Gallery in Piedmont Park. Orchards and Gardens of Alameda County. From San Francisco take Southern Pacific or Key Route boat at Ferry Building; transfer to electric train on other side of the bay; get off at Seventh and Broadway, or Twelfth and Broadway, Oakland. Board Hayward trolley (frequent cars) at Twelfth and Broadway. Return at leisure. Cost, round trip, San Francisco to Hayward, 50 cents; Oakland to Hayward, 30 cents. An attractive rural and in- terurban trip through the towns of Oakland, Fruit- vale, Melrose, San Leandro, San Lorenzo and Hay- ward. The "Blossom Trip" in Santa Clara Valley. Leave San Francisco by Southern Pacific Railway from Third and Townsend Street Station 7:00 A. M., arrive Palo Alto 8:07. Stanford University is reached by electric car from Palo Alto. Leave Palo Alto by Peninsular Electric Railway at 10:00 A. M. for the "Blossom Trip" through the Santa Clara Valley, arriving at San Jose 11:58 A. M. Fre- quent Southern Pacific trains return to San Fran- cisco. Cost (separate tickets must be purchased for the different stages of the trip), round trip fare from San Francisco to Palo Alto and addi- tional one way fare from San Jose to Palo Alto, $1.60; "Blossom Trip," $1.00. This trip may be extended to Mt. Hamilton (elevation 4250 feet) and the Lick Observatory (round trip auto-stage fare from San Jose to Mt. Hamilton, $5.00) ; to Saratoga, where the annual "Blossom Festival" is held in March; or to the charming foothill towns of Los Gatos, Congress Springs, and Gilroy. At Santa Clara is the University of Santa Clara, and the Santa Clara Mission founded in 1777 by Father Junipero Serra. Hotels at San Jose: Vendome (American plan, 284 SCENIC EXCURSIONS $3.50) ; Montgomery (European plan, $1.50 up) ; St. James (European plan, $1.50 up). Mission San Jose, Alameda County. Leave San Francisco from Southern Pacific ferry at Ferry Building, foot of Market Street, 9:00 A. M., or board the connecting train at Oakland, First and Broad- way Station, 9:34 A. M. Buy a round trip ticket to Niles. From Niles the journey of five miles by automobile may be made to the old Spanish Mis- sion, founded in 1797 by Franciscan padres: "Palmdale" with palm gardens, one-hundred-year- old pear and fig trees, planted by the padres. Cost, round trip railroad fare, $1.10. To San Mateo, Burlingame, Hillsboro. By San Mateo electric car from Fifth and Market streets, San Francisco, service every thirty minutes. Upon return, transfer at Daly City to the Ocean View street car line, No. 26, marked "Ferries and Daly City, via Mission, Guerrero Street and San Jose Avenue." Total fare, 50 cents. An eighteen-mile trip from San Francisco into the fashionable coun- try-home communities of Burlingame, San Mateo, and Hillsboro. At San Mateo, automobiles or motor buses may be secured for a ride through the most attractive sections. (Peninsula Hotel, American plan, $3.50 up.) Santa Cruz Beach and Big Trees. By Southern Pacific from Third and Townsend Street Station, San Francisco; several trains daily. Cost, special season rate, round trip, $4.00. Saturday to Mon- day, $3.00. Those remaining over at Santa Cruz to visit the California Redwood Park may take the train next morning to Boulder Creek, and auto- mobile stage from Boulder Creek to the Park. Among the many attractions of this trip are a popular seaside resort, with good hotels, bath- ing beaches, yachting and fishing in Monterey Bay, trout fishing in the mountain streams, tramping and camping in the solitudes of the redwood forest, and driving through productive valleys; also views of a magnificent grove of Big Trees (Sequoia sempervirens) six miles from Santa Cruz. From Santa Cruz northwesterly extends a series of ele- vated old ocean terraces. Two railroads (Southern Pacific and Ocean Shore) run to Davenport, eleven miles, on the lowest of these old ocean strands, and afford an excellent view of the others. The California State Redwood Park in the "Big Basin," a public park of 8000 acres of redwood forest, is twenty-eight miles from Santa Cruz. Hotels: Casa del Rey (European plan, $2.00 up) ; St. George Hotel (American plan, $3.00 up). 285 SCENIC EXCURSIONS California State Redwood Park in Santa Cruz County. By Southern Pacific from Third and Townsend Street Station, San Francisco; connec- tion from Boulder Creek by motor stage for the "Big Basin," fourteen miles. Return to Boulder Creek and San Francisco next day. Cost, round trip, railroad and stage fare, $5.00. From Oakland take Southern Pacific train from First and Broad- way, which makes connections at San Jose. Monterey, Del Monte, Pacific Grove, and Carmel. By Southern Pacific from Third and Townsend Street Station, San Francisco; through service with observation car. All coast trains, each way, also connect at Del Monte Junction for Del Monte, Monterey and Pacific Grove. Cost, special summer stop-over ticket, $4.75 round trip from San Fran- cisco; Sunday only, no stop-over, $2.75; Saturday to Monday, no stop-over, $3.25. Monterey is the Mission County of California, and contains the missions of San Antonio, La Sole- dad, and San Carlos; nearby, in San Benito County, is Mission San Juan Bautista. Other objects of historical and dramatic inter- est in and near Monterey are the old custom house over which Commodore Sloat raised the first Ameri- can flag in California; Colton Hall, where met the State Constitutional Convention on September 1, 1849; the first theatre of the State, where Jenny Lind sang in 1847; the first sawed lumber house in California; the Sloat monument; the Sherman rose tree; the Father Serra oak, and the Presidio. On the shores of Monterey Bay are several fish canneries and one for packing the abalone. In and near Pacific Grove are the municipal museum, the marine biological station of Stanford University, the groves of Monterey cypress, and the g9vernment lighthouse at Point Pinos. Beyond Pacific Grove is Carmel, a secluded summer resort, and the Mis- sion of San Carlos Borromeo de Monterey. The cost of carriage for the Seventeen Mile Drive over the Monterey Peninsula is from $5.00 to $10.00. At Del Monte is the Hotel del Monte, a famous pleasure resort, with 125 acres of landscape gardens, polo and golf grounds, tennis courts and a natatorium. Sixteen miles southeast of Monterey is the pros- perous Pajaro Valley. Salinas, the county-seat, is reached over an excellent road through a charming pine and oak district. A few miles from Salinas, at Spreckels, is one of the largest beet sugar plants in the State. There is a beautiful drive down the coast, in a southerly direction, from Monterey to Idlewild, 286 SCENIC EXCURSIONS Arbolado, and Slate's Springs, some fifty miles. Many summer camps and hotels offer accommoda- tions along this route. Hotels: Hotel Del Monte (American plan, $5.00 up) ; Hotel Monterey (Ameri- can plan, $2.50 up) ; Pacific Grove Hotel (American plan, $2.50). Salinas: Hotel Abbott (American plan, $2.50) ; Harden Hotel (American plan, $2.50) ; Jeffry Hotel (American plan, $1.50). The Vancouver Pinnacles, San Benito County. By Southern Pacific, Third and Townsend Station, San Francisco, for Tres Pinos, via San Jose and Hollister. Half day stage ride from Tres Pinos to Cook. One day should be spent at the Pinnacles, returning to San Francisco on the third day. Cost, round trip to Tres Pinos, $5.60. Stage fare round trip, $3.00. Special arrangements may be made for lodging, meals and guide at Cook. Tnese Pinnacles are in the heart of the Coast Range Mountains, 125 miles south of San Francisco. Formed of volcanic rocks, they are grouped and isolated in fantastic shapes and with beautiful colorings, and rise to heights of many hundred feet. Among them are El Machette, or Knife Blade Rock, Pallisade Rock, and Jordan's Amphitheatre. The Yosemite National Park may be reached directly from San Francisco by either the Southern Pacific or Santa Fe lines, connecting at Merced with the Yosemite Valley Railway. The trip from El Portal, the terminus of the railway, into the valley (14 miles) is made by auto stage. Round trip from San Francisco, including auto stage fare, $22.35. The Yosemite Valley may also be reached as a side trip from the Valley lines of either the Santa Fe or the Southern Pacific, by transferring at Merced. The additional round trip fare from Merced to the Valley and return is $18.50; and to the Wawona Big Tree Grove, $33.50; if by way of Glacier Point, $37.50. All first-class tickets carry a ten-day stop- over at Merced for Yosemite National Park. The Indians called the Yosemite Valley the "Heart of the Sky Mountains," and referred to them- selves as the "Children of Light." Hence the late John Muir has renamed the Sierra Nevada, the "Range of Light." First day. Arrive Yosemite, by auto-stage at 9:30 in the morning. The round trip over the floor of the valley is quite easily made before evening. Second day. Visit the Happy Isles, thence to Vernal and Nevada falls, a half-day trip, with the afternoon for resting or for little wanderings to the foot of Yosemite Falls and about the floor of the valley. 287 SCENIC EXCURSIONS Third day. Up to the rim, above Yosemite Falls, and on to Eagle Peak and perhaps the crest of El Capitan, with a view of the southern wall of Yosemite. Fourth day. The trip of trips, past Vernal and Nevada falls to Glacier Point. A full day's journey ending at the Glacier Hotel. The next morning can be devoted to the unparalleled panorama. From Glacier Point the auto-stage for the Big Trees may be taken in the afternoon, reaching Wawona in the evening of the fifth day, staying overnight at the Wawona Hotel, going through the Big Tree Grove (Sequoia gigantea) in the morning, and reaching Yosemite again at the Sentinel Hotel, the starting- point of the auto-stage, in the early evening of the sixth day. It is advisable to remain over and take a full day for the Big Trees, which will involve no extra charge for stage service. Seventh day. Mirror Lake at sunrise and later a ride along the South Wall by the Pohono Trail past the Fissures. The itineraries may be infinitely varied includ- ing Tenaya and Indian canons, and high mountain trips to Cloud's Rest, Little Yosemite, Big Meadows, etc. Visitors to the Yosemite Valley should take few extras in clothing, etc.; but such should be for use. Overcoats and wraps will be needed according to the season. Wear rough clothing and strong shoes. In summer, the Yosemite is pleasantly warm during the day, but decidedly cool after sundown. Hotels: Hotel del Portal (American plan, $4.00); Sentinel Hotel (American plan, $3.50 to $5.00); $21.00 to $30.00 per week; Glacier Point Hotel (American plan, $4.00) ; Camp Curry, Camp Ahwahnee, Camp Lost Arrow ($2.50 per day, $15.00 per week, open during summer only). SOUTHERN TRANSCONTINENTAL ROUTES. West of El Paso the Southern Pacific line from New Orleans traverses typical stretches of the desert of the South- west. By leaving the main line at Bowie, the holder of a through ticket may travel over the Arizona & Eastern Railway without extra charge to the mining town of Globe, thence by motor stage 120 miles through the mountains of the Arizona National For- est to Roosevelt Dam, built by the U. S. Reclamation Service, and to Phanix in the semitropic Salt River Valley. The auto route (fare $20.00) passes a group of prehistoric cliff dwellings, distant 20 minutes walk by trail. From Phoenix, through sleepers are operated to Los Angeles. 288 SCENIC EXCURSIONS Tucson contains the Desert Laboratory of the Carnegie Institution for the study of plants living under arid conditions. Nine miles from Tucson, reached by frequent auto-stages, is the ancient Mis- sion San Xavier del Bac founded by Father Felipe Segesser in 1732 and still in use. From Gasa Grande, Arizona, extensive prehistoric ruins may be visited by auto-stage. In California a few miles beyond the Salton Sink, more than 200 feet below sea level, the Department of Agriculture has successfully estab- lished groves of Algerian date palms. The ancient beach lines of an extension of the Gulf of Cali- fornia are plainly visible on the naked hills. The Coast Line of the Southern Pacific through Santa Barbara, follows El Camino Real, the King's Highway, established by the Franciscan padres to connect the chain of missions along the California coast. The Franciscan Mission at Santa Barbara is one of the best preserved examples of Spanish architecture on the Coast. (Principal hotels at Santa Barbara: Potter, $5.00 and up; Arlington, $3.50 and up; American plan.) On the San Joaquin Valley line the Big Tree (Sequoia gigantea) groves of General Grant and Se- quoia National Parks are accessible, the former by stage from Sanger, the latter by trolley and con- necting stage from Visalia and Lemon Cove. Mag- nificent scenery of the Kings River and Kern River canons in the High Sierra is reached by pack train from the parks. The Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway fol- lows closely the old Santa Fe Trail through the Southwest. In Colorado from Pueblo to Denver, the trains run near the Rampart Range of the Rockies and afford a magnificent panoramic view. The many resorts of Colorado may be reached by con- nections with the Moffat Road, the Colorado & Southern Railway, and the Denver & Rio Grande Railway. A stop-over at Lamy may be secured in order to visit the school and museum of the American Insti- tute of Archaeology at Santa Fe. More than a score of pueblos are scattered over New Mexico, the most important being Isleta, Laguna, on the main line, and Acoma. Many aborig- inal inhabitants of the pueblos are housed "today in the self-same structures which their forebears used. At Albuquerque is the railway hotel, the Alvarado. Here is found a very complete collection of Indian relics and products, from the Hopi, Navajo, Zuni, Apache, and Pima handicrafts. The pueblos of the Hopi Indians may be reached by a short journey 289 SCENIC EXCURSIONS from Canon Diablo, Holbrook, or Winslow, in Arizona. The Petrified Forest of Arizona, containing re- mains of some trees 200 feet in length, comprises five separate deposits all reached by good roads from Adamana station. (Forest Hotel at Adamana, $2.50 per day, American plan.) In Arizona the chaotic gorge of the Grand Canon of the Colorado, 217 miles long, nine to thirteen miles wide, and cut in places more than 6000 feet below the level of the plateau, is reached by a branch railway from Williams. Additional round- trip fare from Williams, $7.50. Rates at "El Tovar," on the rim of the Canon ($4.00 to $8.00 per day, American plan) ; Bright Angel Hotel ($1.00 to $5.00 per day, European plan, meals a la carte in the Harvey Cafe.) TRIPS IN THE VICINITY OF Los ANGELES. From Los Angeles several hundred miles of interurban electric railwav lines extend throughout the coast plain and the JSan Gabriel Valley like the spokes of a great wheel, to the mountains, beaches, orange groves, and to thriving little cities. Attractive places in the city, reached on street cars, include the alligator farm, botanical exhibit at Eastlake Park, Cawston Ostrich Farm, aviary and aquarium, Exposition Park, art gallery, Museum of History, Science and Art, Southwest Museum, Mis- sion Los Angeles, State Exposition building, Elysian Park (548 acres in natural state), and Chinatown (in heart of city, fee for guide, etc.). Mt. Wilson, on which is the Carnegie Solar Ob- servatory containing the largest reflecting telescope in the world, may be reached from the suburban electric line at Sierra Madre. Horses or burros ($2.50-$2.00 each) may be secured for the last part of the trip. Auto stages also make the round trip in a day from Pasadena from the office of the Mt. Wilson Hotel Company, 173 East Colorado St., Pasa- dena (round trip fare $3.00). From Altadena, a suburb of Pasadena, an in- clined cable railway ascends Echo Mountain, where is situated an observatory open to visitors. An electric railway continues to Alpine Tavern, 5000 feet above sea level and close to the summit of Mt. Lowe (round trip fare $2.50.) Throughout the year 1915 the Mission Play will be given weekly at the San Gabriel Mission (admis- sion to Mission Play, 50 cents, 75 cents and $1.00.) The mission at San Fernando is on the northern line of the Southern Pacific Railway. The remarkable Pleistocene fossil deposits in 290 SCENIC EXCURSIONS the asphalt pits of Rancho La Brea are reached by a few minutes walk from Rosemary station on the Santa Monica line of the Pacific Electric Railway Company. Universal City is a large motion picture plant managed as a municipality (round trip 25 cents). SPECIAL TROLLEY AND RAILWAY TRIPS IN THE VICINITY OF Los ANGELES. Triangle Trolley Trip. From the Pacific Electric Station in Los Angeles through the southern portion of Los Angeles County and Orange County, including ten of the beaches and many of the suburban towns of the coast plain. A stop of two hours is provided at Long Beach. (Round trip fare $1.00.) Old Mission Trolley Trip. From the Pacific Elec- tric Station in Los Angeles to the San Gabriel Mis- sion, the Cawston Ostrich Farm, Pasadena, and foot- hill towns. (Round trip fare $1.00.) Balloon Route Trolley Trip. From the Pacific Electric Station in Los Angeles to the beaches west of the city, Hollywood and Cahuenga Valley, the Soldiers' Home, Santa Monica, Ocean Park and Venice. A stop of an hour and a half is provided at Redondo for lunch. (Round trip fare $1.00.) Kite-shaped Track Excursion. A one-day ex- cursion (158 miles) through the San Gabriel and Pomona valleys to San Bernardino, Redlands and Riverside, returning to Los Angeles by way of Corona and Fullerton. (Round trip fare $3.00.) Orange Belt Special. A one-day trip over the Salt Lake line to Riverside and Redlands. (Round trip fare $3.00.) Inside Track Trip. A one-day excursion over the Southern Pacific lines to Pomona, San Bernar- dino and Redlands. (Round trip fare $2.75.) Santa Catalina Trip. Connections with steamers from San Pedro to Santa Catalina Island, twenty- three miles from the coast, may be made by either Pacific Electric Railway or the Salt Lake Route. (Round trip fare $2.75.) The submarine gardens here are of special interest. This is the center of marine sports in southern California. Automobile sight-seeing trips are also provided about Los Angeles and through the suburbs. (Round trip fare $1.00.) The trip from Los Angeles to San Francisco may be taken by the coast line of the Southern Pacific or by the San Joaquin Valley lines of the Southern Pacific or Santa Fe railroad, or by several lines of steamers. EXCURSIONS IN THE VICINITY OF SAN DIEGO. Going southward to San Diego by the Santa Fe Railway 291 SCENIC EXCURSIONS one passes through regions rich in fruit and within a stone's throw of the mission-ruins of San Juan Capistrano. The Panama-California Exposition at San Diego in 1915 emphasizes the products and development of the Southwest and especially the archaeology of the region. The Exposition grounds coyer 615 acres on the west side of Balboa Park. This park con- tains, all told, 1400 acres, and lies almost in the center of the city. All transcontinental excursion tickets during 1915 will be made to include this trip from Los Angeles to San Diego if so desired. One of the most interesting trips about San Diego is that to Point Loma, made preferably by automobile or sight-seeing auto. This trip includes the Theosophical Institution with the Raja Yoga College and Aryan Memorial Temple, and the U. S. Wireless Station. From the old Spanish light-house at the end of the point a fine view is to be secured of the Quarantine Station and Fort Rosecrans below the point, and the harbor and city of San Diego. La Jolla, with sea-beach caves and rocks of much interest, is reached by an interurban steam railway. The Scripps Institution for Biological Research, at- tached to the University of California, with a museum of marine life, is situated two miles up the coast from the town of La Jolla. Typical adobe buildings of the days of the Spanish regime and other relics are preserved in Old Town, reached by street car from this city. The Mission of San Diego, founded in 1769 is located in the San Diego River Valley north of the city. Automobile tours are arranged to include Tia Juana just across the Mexican boundary line, re- turning by way of the Coronado peninsula. Hotel del Coronado and the Coronado Tent City may also be reached directly from San Diego by ferry con- necting with street cars. Fishing and excursion trips may be taken to the group of rocky Coronado Islands, sixteen miles south of Point Loma. San Diego County possesses many fine automo- bile roads. Stages lead to mountain resorts and other points of interest. Among these is the Im- perial Valley, on the Colorado Desert side of the southern Coast Range Mountains. HAWAIIAN ISLANDS. Steamers of several lines connect the Hawaiian Islands with San Francisco (sailing time in either direction about six days.) Among these lines are the American-Hawaiian Steamship Co., the Matson Navigation Co., the 292 SCENIC EXCURSIONS Oceanic Steamship Co., and the Pacific Mail Steam- ship Co. (Round trip rates from $110.00 up.) From Honolulu, inter-island excursions may be easily ar- ranged, the most interesting of which, perhaps, is that to the island of Hawaii on which is Mauna Loa, the largest volcano in the world. REFERENCES DESCRIPTIVE BOOKS ENOCK, C. R. 1909. The great Pacific Coast, twelve thousand miles in the Golden West. (Richards, London), xi+356 pp., pis., map. FOUNTAIN, P. 1906. The eleven eaglets of the west. (John Murray, Lon- don), pp. xi+362. JOHNSON, C. 1908. Highways and byways of the Pacific Coast. (Mac- Millan Co., N. Y.), pp. xiv+323, illus. STERNBERG, C. H. 1909. Life of a fossil hunter. Amer. Nature Ser., Group IV. (Henry Holt & Co., N. Y.), pp. xiii+286, pi. UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. Descriptive pamphlets upon: Geological History of Yellow- stone National Park; Geysers; Fossil Forests of the Yellowstone National Park; Geological History of Crater Lake; Origin of the Scenic Features of Glacier National Park; Glaciers of Glacier National Park; Some Lakes of Glacier National Park; Mount Rainier and its Glaciers; Sketch of Yosemite Na- tional Park; The Secret of the Big Trees. Super- intendent of Documents, Government Printing Of- fice, Washington, D. C. Alaska: HIGGINSON, ELLA. 1912. Alaska, the great country. (MacMillan Co., N. Y.), 537 pp., illu's., map. UNDERWOOD, J. J. 1913. Alaska, an empire in the making. (Dodd, Mead & Co., N. Y.), pp. xxvii+440, illus., map. Northwest : CONDON, T. 1910. Oregon geology. (J. K. Gill Co., Portland), 211 pp., 30 pis. LYMAN, W. D. 1909. Columbia River. (G. P. Putnam's Sons, N. Y.), 409 pp., 80 illus., 2 maps. SCHAFER, J. 1905. A history of the Pacific Northwest. Macmillan Co., N. Y.), pp. xvi+321, illus., map. WHEELER, O. D. 1904. The trail of Lewis and Clark. (G. P. Putnam's Sons, N. Y.), 2 vols., 200 illus., maps. California : PEIXOTTO, E, 1914. Romantic California. (Charles Scribner's Sons, N Y.), pp. xvi-f440, illus., maps. SAUNDERS, C. F. 1913. Under the sky in California. (McBride, Nast & Co., N. Y.), pp. x+299, illus. 293 SCENIC EXCURSIONS GUIDE BOOKS BAEDEKER, K. 1909. The United States with excursions to Mexico, Cuba, Porto Rico and Alaska. (Karl Baedeker, Leipzig), pp. cii+724, maps and charts. FINCK, F. C. 1907. Pacific Coast Scenic Tour. (Charles Scribner's Sons, N. Y.), illus., map. Northwest : DINSMORE, J. Mountain and shore tourist bureau and visitor's informa- tion bureau; Seattle visitor's guide. (Jay Dins- more, Seattle), 72 pp., illus., map. (Monthly.) REID, R. A. 1912. Puget Sound and western Washington; cities, towns, scenery. (Robert A. Reid, Seattle), 192 pp., illus., map. OREGON STATE IMMIGRATION COMMISSION. Oregon almanac. (Ore. State Immigration Commission, Portland), 144 pp., maps. (Yearly.) Utah: SALT LAKE CITY BUREAU OF INFORMATION. Utah. (Bur. of Information, Temple Square, Salt Lake City), 96 pp., illus. (Yearly.) SALT LAKE CITY COMMERCIAL CLUB. 1913. Salt Lake City and the State of Utah. (Sunset Mag- azine Homeseekers' Bur. of Information, San Fran- cisco), 48 pp., 107 illus. California : BOARD OF SUPERVISORS and CHAMBER OF COMMERCE OF SAN DIEGO. San Diego, California, city and county. (The Board of Supervisors and the Chamber of Commerce of San Diego Co., San Diego), 56 pp., illus. DRURY, W., and DRURY, A. 1913. California tourist guide and handbook. (Western Guide Book Co., Berkeley), 354 pp., 18 maps, illus. NORTH AMERICAN PRESS ASSOCIATION. Standard guide to San Francisco, including the Panama- Pacific Exposition. (North Amer. Press Assn., San Francisco), illus. 1914. Standard guide to Los Angeles, San Diego and the Panama-California Exposition. (North Amer. Press Assn., San Francisco), illus. TODD, F. M. 1914. The Chamber of Commerce handbook for San Fran- cisco. (San Francisco Chamber of Commerce), pp. v+335, 2 maps, illus. TOURIST ASSOCIATION OF CENTRAL CALIFORNIA. Bulletins 6, 7, 8 and 9 — Scenic features; train, trolley and boat trips; tramping trips; and automobile trips. (Tourist Association of Central California, San Francisco), illus. 294 APPENDIX INDEX AND MAPS INDEX Abalone, 130, PI. XVIII Agricultural resources: under the missions, 217; at the time of the Spanish discovery, 216; farm values, 226-227; fertility, 219 Alaska, excursions to, 276; mines and minerals of, 66 Algae, marine, 179-181 Amphibians, 96, 105, 110 Ants, white, 145 Approaches to the Pacific Coast: Alta California, 6; Cape of Good Hope route, 4; Colorado River, 7; continental route, 5, 7, 10; Manila route, 5; Northeast passage, 4; Northwest routes, 4, 7; sea routes, 2, 4, 5, 6 Areas, faunal, 108 Arizona, agricultural re- sources of, 221; deserts of, 174 Associations, animal, 108 Astronomical observatories, 197-206: Chabot, 203; of the Dominion of Canada, 205; International Latitude Observatory, Ukiah, 203; Lick, 197; Lowe, 204; Lowell, 204; Manila, 205; Mare Island Navy Yard, 204; Mills College, 204; Mount Hamilton, 197, PL XXVII; Mount Whitney, 202; Mount Wilson, 200, PL XXVI; National Ob- servatory of Mexico, 205; Pomona College, Frank P. Brackett Observatory, 203; of the University of Santa Clara, 204; Solar, 200, PI. XXVI; of Stanford Uni- versity, 204; of University of California, 203 Astronomical societies, 205 Austin, Mary, 265 Barium products, 244 Base metals, 54, 55, 57 Beach terraces, 39, 50 Big tree, 160, PL XXII Biological stations (See Marine biological stations) Birds, fossil, 97, 98; recent, 109, 112 Bohemian Club, 256, 257 Borax, 73, 242 British Columbia, excursions in, 276; mines and minerals of, 65, 67 Building materials, 53, 66, 73 Burbank's gardens, 185 Cacti, 173 Calaveras skull, 103 California, Alta, occupied, 16; Baja, 6; deserts of, 100, 110,. Ill, 172, 174; geological map of, PL XL; hydro -electric develop- ment in, 233-234; irriga- tion districts in, 228-233; Lower, 7; life map of. PL XLIII; relief map of, PL V; west central, map of PL XXXIV; zones of, PL XLIII California Current, 19, 124, 133 Cambrian, 93 Carbonic acid, 244 Carboniferous, 44 Carmel Mission, PL II, 286 Celebrations, 252, 261 Cement, 240 Chaparral, 109, 150 Chemical resources and in- dustries: barium products, 244; borax, 242; carbonic acid, 244; cement, 240 (See also Geology and Mining) ; cream of tartar, 244; ex- plosives, 239; fertilizers, 243; gas, 241; insecticides, 244; lime, 240; magnesia, 240; minerals, 244 (See also Mines and mining and Geology); paper pulp, 243; petroleum, 237; pe- troleum refining, 239; salt, 242; soda, 242; sprays, 244; sugar, 243; sulphuric acid, 237; tartaric acid, 244 Coalinga oil district, 82 Colombia, 17 Continental shelf, 124 Cretaceous, 45, 48, 56, 80, 94 Cypress, Monterey, 165, PI. XX Death Valley, 172 Desert, cacti of the, 173; Colorado Desert of south- ern California, 174; Death Valley, 172; erosion in, 34; Laboratory, 174; palms, 175, PL XXIV; regions, 168; of southwestern Ari- zona, 174; vegetation, 169; fauna of the, 111, 112; fossil-bearing beds of the, 100; Mohave, 100, 111; origin of flora of the, 169; Painted, 171; petrified for- ests of the, 171 Desert Laboratory, 174 Devonian, 44, 93 Drama (See Outdoor life and the fine arts) Dry farming, 222-224 Earthquake of 1906, 63 297 INDEX Earthquakes, displacement of, 63; weather of, 64; epicenter of, 63; faults of, 62; intensity of, 63; of San Francisco, 1906, 63 Eocene, 48, 80, 94, 96 Erosion, 34 Ethnology, of Alaska Indians, 193; of California Indians, 192; of the Northwest, 193-195, Fig. 19; of pueblo peoples, 189; of the South- west Indians, 191, Fig. 18 Excursions, via, Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway, 289; Canadian Pacific Route, 276; Chi- cago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway, 278; Den- ver and Rio Grande Rail- way, 281; Grand Trunk Route, 276; Great North- ern Railway, 277; Los An- geles, San Pedro and Salt Lake Railway, 282; Rio Grande Railway, 281; Salt Lake Railway, 282; Santa Fe Railway, 289; trans- continental routes: cen- tral, 281; northern, 276; southern, 288; Western Pacific Railway, 281; Union Pacific Railway, 282 Explorers, early, 1-6 Fauna (See Vertebrate fauna) Faunas, desert, 111-112; in- vertebrate fossil, 93-95; vertebrate fossil, 95-103 Fine arts and outdoor life (See Outdoor life) Firs, 160 Fisheries, Pacific Coast, 119, Fishes, bottom, 117-118; brackish water, 119; cold water, 115; deep sea, 115; distribution of, in rela- tion to temperature and depth, 117; food of, 117; food, 116, 118; fresh water, 116; game, 121; pelagic, 118; salmon, 119-120; trout, 120, PI. XV; warm water, 116 Flora of the Pacific states: cacti, 173; chaparral, 150; Coast Range, 151; desert, 168-176; determined by environment, 147; of the low foothills, 149; of the Northwest, 154; of the plains, 148-149; mountain, 152; mountain meadow, 153, PI. XIX; sand dune, 148; Spanish bayonet, 151, PI. XX; timber line, 1'53; 298 tree yucca, 173, PI. XXI (See also Marine flora; also Desert) Fog, 27 Forests: Big Tree, 160, PI. XXII; firs, 160; Monterey cypress, 165, PI. XXIII; of southern California, 166, PI. XIX; of Washington and Oregon, 166; height of, on mountains, 31; oaks, 160, 164; petrified, 171; pine, 159, 162, 165; Sequoia, 160, 161, 163; Sierra, 162 Fossil deposits, 100 Fossils, of human remains, 103; in caves, 98, 101; in- vertebrate, 93, 95; plant, 88; vertebrate, 95-103 Gardens, Burbank's, 185-187 Gas, 241 Gems, 53 Geography, of arid plateaus, 33, 35; of Cascade ranges, 33, 36; of Coast ranges, 33, 38; of coast valleys, 33, 37; of Sierra-Cascade ranges, 33, 36 Geologic record, 51 Geology, of beach terraces, 39, 50; of Cambrian, 93, PI. IX; of Carboniferous, 44; of Cordilleran revolu- tion, 46-47; of Cretaceous, 45, 48, 56, 80, 94; of De- vonian, 44, 93; of Eocene, 48, 80, 94, 96; of Jurassic, 44, 47, 80; of Mesozoic, 44; of mineral deposits, 52, 56, 244; of mineral prod- ucts, 57; of mineral springs, 58; of Miocene, 48, 80, 94, 99; of non- metallic deposits, 57; of Oligocene, 48, 94, 99; of Palaeozoic, 44; of Pleisto- cene, 49, 95, 97, 99, 100, 101; of Pliocene, 49, 80, 95, 99, 100; of Post-Cretaceous, 56; of Post- Jurassic, 47, 49; of Pre-Cambrian, 43, '52; of Pre-Cretaceous, 44, 52; of Pre- Jurassic, 43, 46; of Quaternary, 49; of Tertiary, 46, 47, 48, 50, 80; of Triassic, 44, 93, 96 Glacier National Park, 277 Gold, 65, 267 Grand Canon of the Colo- rado, 170 Great Basin, fossil-bearing beds of, 99 Greek Theater, 253 Hamilton, Mount, 197 Harte, Bret, 263 Hawaiian trips, 292 History of life (See Pal- aeontology) INDEX Human remains, 103 Humidity, 27 Hydro-electric developments (See Irrigation) Hydrography (See Oceanic circulation and tempera- ture) Idaho, agricultural resources of, 226-227; population of, 226 Indians, 10, 189-196 Insecticides, 244 Insects: beach, 141; citrus, 142; fig, 143; fruit, 142; gall, 145; mountain, 145; ocean, 141; pests, 142; scale, 142-143; termites, 145.; white ants, 145 Invertebrate faunas, 93, 95 Invertebrate fossils, 93, 95 Irrigation, 215, 220 Irrigation and hydro -elec- tric development: Great Western Power Co., 234; Imperial Valley Project, 228; Klamath Project, 231; Mount Whitney Power Co., 234; Okanogan Pro- ject, 232; Orland Project, 231; Portland Railway Light and Power Co., 235; Reclamation Service, U. S., 229; Roosevelt Dam, 229; Salt River Valley Project, 229; San Joaquin Light and Power Co., 234; in the San Joaquin Val- ley, 232; Spaulding Lake Dam, 233, PI. XXV; Truckee-Carson Project, 230; Washington Water Power Co., 235; Takima Project, 232; Yuma Pro- ject, 230 Jackson, Helen Hunt, 266 Japan Current, 19, 133 Jurassic, 44, 47, 80 Kelps, 179 Kern River oil district, 84 Kitchen middens, 192 Laws, agricultural, 268; criminal, 268; mining, 267 (See also Legal and po- litical development) Legal and political develop- ment: California consti- tutions, 273, 274; criminal law, 268; land titles, 271; marriage laws, 270-271; Mexican influence on, 269; mining laws, 267; New England influence on, 272; property rights, 268; re- cent political reforms, 274, 275; trespass laws, 269; water laws, 267 Literary landmarks con- cerned with: Gertrude Atherton, 264; Mary Aus- tin, 265; Ambrose Bierce, 264; Bret Harte, 263; Helen Hunt Jackson, 266; Jack London, 265; Charles F. Lummis, 266; Mark Twain, 263; Joaquin Miller, 265; John Muir, 265; Frank Norris, 264; Ed- ward Rowland Sill, 26*5; George Sterling, 265; Rob- ert Louis Stevenson, 264 Lizards, 111 Localities: of special botani- cal interest, 155; for ma- rine algae, 182; of mines, 58, Figs. 6-9. London, Jack, 265 Los Angeles, excursions in the vicinity of, 290 Los Angeles oil district, 86 Lost Hills oil district, 83 Mammals, fossil, 98-99; land, 109; marine, 131 Maps: geological, Pis. XXXIX, XL; general, Pis. XXX-XXXVIII, XLI-XLIII Marine biological stations, 124; Friday Harbor, 125, PI. XVI; Herzstein Re- search Laboratory, 125; Laguna marine labora- tory, 125; La Jolla Bio- logical Station, 126, PI. XVII; Monterey, 125; Nanaimo, 125; Pacific Grove, 125; Puget Sound, 125; Santa Catalina aquarium, 126; Scripps In- stitution for Biological Research, 126, PL XVIII; Stanford University, 125; Venice aquarium, 125 Marine biology: abalone, 130, PI. XVIII; boring mollusks, 131; mammals, 131; pelagic life, 129; red water, 130, Figs. 11 and Marine flora: algae, 178-182; corallines, 182; fungi, 178; gulf weeds, 180; kelps, 179; lichens, 178; rockweeds, 180; spermaphytes, 177 Mark Twain, 263 Mazama Club, 246 McKittrick oil district, 83 Mercury, 56, 59, 72 Mesozoic, 44 Midway-Sunset oil district, Miller, Joaquin, 265 Mills College, astronomical observatory of, 204; May day fete at, 260 Mineral deposits, 52, 56, 244 299 INDEX Mineral products, '57 Mineral resources, 244 (See also Mines and mining and Geology) Mineral springs, 58 Mines and mining: Alaskan, 66; dredging for gold, 66, 69, 70, Fig. 8; gem, 53, 73; laws concerning, 267; mercury, 56, 59, 72; of Mother Lode region, 59, 71, 72, Fig. 9; products, of Alaska, 65; of British Columbia, 65, 67, Fig. 6; of California, 65; of Ore- gon, 65; of Washington, 65; quartz, 66, 69, 71; quicksilver, 56, 59, 72; Randsburg- Johannesburg, 60; of Shasta region, 69, Fig. 7 Mining districts, directions for reaching, 58-60 Miocene, 48, 80, 94, 99 Mission plays, 256 Missions, agriculture under the, 217; Carmel, PI. II Mohave Desert, 100, 111 (See Deserts) Mother Lode, 54, 59, 71, 72 Mount Hamilton, 197, PI. XXVII; Rainier, 37, PI. XXVIII; Whitney, 36, 202; Wilson, 200, PL XXVI Mount Rainier National Park, 246, 279 Mountaineering, of the Mazama Club, 246; of the Mountaineers' Club, 246; in mountains of the Northwest, 246, 247; of northern California, 248; of the Southern Sierra, 250; of the Sierra Club, 251; in the Yosemite Val- ley and vicinity, 248-249 Mountaineers' Club, 246 Muir, John, 265 Museums — California: Berk- eley (See Oakland and Berkeley) ; Claremont, Pomona College, 212; Los Angeles, Board of Educa- tion of the City of Los Angeles, 212; Museum of History, Science and Art, 211; Southern California Academy of Sciences, 212; Southwest Museum, 211; University of Southern California, 211; Oakland and Berkeley, California Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, 209; Oakland Public Museum, 209; Piedmont Art Gallery, 210; University of Cali- fornia, departmental mu- seums, 209; Pacific Grove, Museum Association of, 300 211; Pasadena, Throop College of Technology, collections of, 212; Sacra- mento, E. B. Crocker Art Gallery, 213; San Fran- cisco, California Academy of Sciences, 208; Cali- fornia State Mining Bureau, 209; Memorial Museum, 207; Museum of Anthropology, 207; San Francisco Institute of Art, 208; Santa Catalina, Tuna Club, at Avalon, 212; Zoological station, at Avalon, 212; Stanford University, Leland Stan- ford Junior Museum, 210 Idaho: Moscow, Uni- versity of Idaho Museum, 213 Oregon: Corvallis, Ore- gon, Agricultural College, 213; Eugene, University of Oregon, 213 ; Portland, Portland City Free Mu- seum, 213; State Fish and Game Commission, 213 Utah: Salt Lake City, Deseret Museum, 213 Washington: Pullman, State College of Washing- ton, 213; Seattle, State University, 213 National Parks: Glacier, 277; Mount Rainier, 246, 279, PI. XXVIII; Yellowstone, 278; Yosemite, 287 Nevada, geological map of. PL XL; map of, PL XLIII; relief map of, PL V Northwest, agricultural oc- cupation of the, 218 Oakland and Berkeley, 284 Oaks of California, 160 Observatories (See Astron- omical observatories) Oceanic circulation and temperature: aeration of water, 138; currents, 19, 124, 133, 139; determined from biological facts, 139; direction and velocity of currents, 136; Ekman's theory, 136; hypotheses, 135; upwelling, 137; wind current, 137 Oil, gravity of, 75; history of industry, 76; origin of, 80; pipe lines for, 77, Fig. 10; storage of, 78; trans- portation of, 77; utiliza- tion of, 79; well drilling for, 81 Oil companies, 76 Oil districts: Coalinga, 82; Kern River, 84; Los An- INDEX geles, 86; Lost Hills, 83; McKittrick, 83; Midway- Sunset, 84; Puente Hills, 86; Santa Clara Valley (southern California), 86; Santa Maria, 85; Sum- merland, 85, PI. VIII Oligocene, 48. 94, 99 Oregon, agricultural re- sources of, 218; flora of, 157; forests of, 166; geo- logical map or, PI. XXXIX; hydro -electric development of, 235: irri- gation projects of, 231; mineral resources of, 65; relief map of, PL IV Outdoor life and the fine arts: Bohemian Club, 256- 257; calendar of outdoor events, 261-262; celebra- tions, 252; Family Club, 258; festivals, 252; Greek Theater, 253; Mills Col- lege fete, 260; mission plays, 256; mountain plays, 259; pageants, 261; Partheneia, 260; Pomona College pageant, 259; tournaments, 261 Physiography of Virginia and central California compared, 31 Pines, 159, 162, 165 Plateaus, 33, 35 Pleistocene, 49, 95, 97, 99. 100, 101 Pliocene, 49, 80, 95, 97, 99, 100, 101 Pleistocene caves, 98, 101 Pomona College, astronom- ical observatory of, 203; pageant of, 259 Poppies, 186, 187 Population, of Pacific states, 226; early Spanish, of California, 11 Portland, excursions in vi- cinity of, 280; map of, PI. XXX Prehistoric human remains, 103 Presidios, 11, 12 Pueblos, 12 Puente Hills oil district, 86 Puget Sound and vicinity, map of, PI. XXXII Quartz, 66, 69, 71 Quaternary, 49 Quicksilver, 56, 59, 72 Railway lines (See Excur- sions) Rainfall, 28, 29, 33, Fig. 4 Rainier, Mount, 37, 246, PL XXVIII Rancherias, 192 Ranches, 12, 13 Randsburg- Johannesburg mine, 60 Red water, 130, Figs. 11 and 12 Reptiles, fossil, 96, 97; land, no Rockweeds, 180 Pacific Ocean, currents of, 19, 124, 133, 139; depths of, 133; winds of, 138 Painted Desert, 171 Palaeontology: amphibians, 96; birds, 97-98; Calaveras skull, 103; of Cambrian beds, 93, PL IX; fishes, 96; invertebrate faunas, 93, 95; mammals, 98-99; specimens from Mohave Desert, 100; fossil plants, 88, 92; prehistoric human remains, 103; Rancho La Brea, 101, 291, PL XI; reptiles, 96, 97, PL X Palaeozoic, 44 Sage-brush plains of Great Panama Canal: Commission, Basin, 170 18; completion of by U. S., Salmon, 119-120 18; eighteenth century plans for, 16; French attempts to build, 16, 17; history of, 15; negotia- tions with Colombia for, 17; Nicaraguan route of, 17; Spanish plans for a, 15 Paper pulp, 243 Partheneia, 260 Pests, insect, 142 Petrified forests, of Arizona, 290; of Calistoga, Cali- fornia, 283 Petroleum (See Oil) Petroleum refining, 239 Physiographic provinces, 35, 42, Fig. '5 Physiography (See Geo- graphy) Salt, 242 Salt Lake City, map of, PI. XLI Salton Sink, 175 San Diego, Bay of, discov- ered, 5; excursions in vi- cinity of, 291-292: founded, 6; map of, PL XXXVII San Diego and vicinity, map of, PL XXXVIII Sand Dune flora, 148 San Francisco, excursions in the vicinity of, 283; map of, PL XXXIII; weather of, 24-29 Santa Catalina, aquarium at, 126 Santa Clara Valley oil dis- trict (southern Cali- fornia), 86 301 INDEX Santa Maria oil district, 85 Scale insects, 142-143 Scenic excursions (See Ex- cursions) Scripps Institution for Bio- logical Research, 126, PL XVI Seattle, excursions in the vi- cinity of, 279; map of, PL XXXI Sequoia, 161, 163 Settlers, agricultural, 225 Shasta daisy, 187 Shasta mining region, 69, Fig. 7 Sierra Club, 251 Snakes, 111 Snowfall, 29 Soda, 242 Spanish settlements: Mis- sions, 12, 13, 14, Fig. 1; period of, 215, 223; popu- lation of, 216; presidios, 11, 12; pueblos, 12, Fig. 1; ranchos, 12, 13; servitude of California Indians in, 12, 13, 14; land grants, 12 Spaulding Lake Dam, 233, PL XXV Spineless cactus, 187 Stanford University, astron- omical observatory of, 204; museum of, 210 Stevenson, Robert Louis, 264 Storms, 23 Structural elements of geol- ogy of Pacific Coast, 42, Fig. 5 Sugar, 243 Summerland oil district, 885 Sunshine, 25 Telescopes, reflecting and refracting, 198-200 Temperature, 24, 32 Temperature of ocean, 134 Termites, 145 Terraces, 39, 50 Tertiary, 46, 47, 48, '50, 80 Thunderstorms, 29 Tillage, 222 Tournaments, 261 Transcontinental routes (See Excursions) Triassic, 44, 93, 96 Trout, 120, PL XV Utah, agricultural occupa- tion of, 219; agricultural resources of, 22, 226 Venice aquarium, 125 Vertebrate fauna: amphib- ians, 105, 110; associa- tions, 108; birds, 109, 112, PL XII; desert fauna, 111- 112; life zones, 106, PL XLIII; mammals, 109, PL XIV; number of species, 105; reptiles, 110, PL XIII; relation of, to topography and climate, 104 Vertebrate fossils, 95-103 Washington, agricultural re- sources of, 221, 226; flora of, 157, 158; forests of, 166; geological map of, PL XXXIX; hydro-electric developments of, 235; ir- rigation development in, 232; mineral resources of, 57; relief map of, PL IV Water supply, underground, 58 Weather conditions: Cali- fornia Current, influence of, 20, 124, 133; fog, 27; humidity, 27; hyperbars, 22; infrabars, 22; iso- therms, 21, Fig. 3; Japan Current, influence of, 19; ocean currents, influence of, 20, Fig. 2; physio- graphic factors, influence of, 22; water vapor, in- fluence of, 22; pressure, 24; rainfall, 28, Fig. 4; of San Francisco, 24-29; snowfall, 29; storms, 23; sunshine, 25; thunder- storms, 29; wind, 26, 138 Well drilling, 81 Wind currents, 137 Winds, 26, 138 Yellowstone National Park, 278 Yosemite, birds of, 107; plants of, 156; Valley, 248, 287 Yucca, 151, 173, Pis. 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